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ee ee

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a

oe

' FOR

4 926.
_ (INCORPORATED 1881.)

oft nee Br ie

EDITED BY ys

THE HON NORARY SECRETARIES.

: Tae os or PAPERS ARE ALONE Bk OE sid FOR THE STATEMENTS

SHED BY ' THE SOCIBTY, ‘5 ELIZABETH STREET, syDI EY.

apie

CONTENTS.

VOLUME LX.
Art. I.—PxxsipmnTiaL ADDRESS. By Prof. R. D. Watt, ee
B.Se. (Issued June 21, 1926.) ,

Art. II—A note on the Rate of Sideaceoslte of Conineactt
Calcium Cyanide. By M.S. Bansamin, D.I.C., A.A.C.I. (com-
(municated by Dr. G. RK (ire two text Beste)
(Issued August 18, 1926.) .. tak 38

Art. III.—Reactions Depending upon the Sansa sé the Intertaad
of Two Immiscible Liquids. By G. Harker, D.Sc., F.A.C.I.,
and R. K. ene B.Sc. rm one text ae ) (Issued
August 18, 1926.) . nak 45

Art. IV.—Notes on the Raicail Oils fon some Cultivated
Eucalypts. Part I. By A. R. foes! P.A.C.L; BC:
(Issued August 18, 1926.)... an =F 55

Arr. V.—An Investigation of the Optical Piopaetias of Seloniai
in the Conducting Form. By Miss P. Nicou, M.Se., (com-
municated by Prot. O.U. Vonwitumr, B.Sc.) oe one text
figure.) (Issued September 8, 1926)... . 60

Art. VI.-—The Essential Oils of Leptospermum icine ‘Smith,
Part I. By A. R. heate F.A.C.1., ¥.C.S. (Issued Sep-
tember 29, 1926.) aie eae f

gar. VilAcaria. Séedlings, Part XTL “By
C.B.E., F.L.S. Sal Plates I- ee. ‘sued October 29,
Ve setiadey Pr 85

Art. VIII. “The Gescotial Oil of Zieria ‘ust (Bopiend),
-and the presence of a New Cyclic Ketone. By A. R. Penroup,
F.A.C.I., F.C.S. (Issued October 18, 1926.) ... Se .- 104

~ Arr. IX.—The Fixed Oil of the Kidney Fat of the Emu. By F. BR.
Moraison, A.A.C.L., F.C.S. (Issued October 29, 1926.) ... 113

- Art. X.—Mountain Lagoon and the Kurrajong Fault. By A.
Gravy, B.Sc., and H. Hoerin, B.A., (communicated by Assoc.-
Professor GrirritH Taytor). (Issued November 4, 1926) 119

Art. XI.—The Internal Structures of some of the Pentameridex of
N.S.Wales. By F. W. Booker, B.Sc. (With Plates V-VIII —
and seven text figures. ) . (Issued November 4, 1926 ) .- 130

Arr. XIJ.—The Wood Structure of certain Eucalypts belonging
chiefly to the “Ash” Group. By M. B. Wetcu, B.Sc., A.1.C.
(With Plates IX-XIL.) (Issued January 13, 1927.) . .. 147

Art, XIII.—The Germicidal Values of some Australian Bssential
- Qils and their Pure Constituents. Together with those of
some Essential Oil Components, and Synthetic Substances.
PartIV. By A. R. Penroxp, F.A.C.L., F.C.S., and R. Granr,
F.C.S. (Issued December 23, 1926.) © ... Es ia =a Us

Art. XIV. — Description of Fifteen New Acacias, ae notes on sev-
eral other species. By the late J. H. MarpeEn, I.S.0., F.R.S.,
and W. F. Buaxety. (With Plates XIII-X VIII.) ‘(Issued
February 17, 1927.)... Satake eS as ere ear ee yf

PAGE

JOURNAL

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

NEW SOUTH WALES

FOR

1926
(INCORPORATED 1881.)

AAG EPS Se ae

EDITED BY

THE HONORARY SECRETARIES.

THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS
MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN.

SYDNEY:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET, SYDNEY.

ISSUED AS A COMPLETE VOLUME, JUNE, 1927.

CONTENTS.

VOLUME LX.

ArT. I.—PresiDENTIAL ApprEss. By Prof. R. D. Wart, M.A.,
B.Sc. (Issued June 21, 1926.) :

Arr. II.—A note on the Rate of He seueatien of Geet
Calcium Cyanide. By M.S. Bensamin, D.LC., A.A.C.I. (com-
(municated by Dr. G. Heaeae) (With two text ieee,
(Issued August 18, 1926.) .. ; sr

Art. ITI.—Reactions Depending upon the Vapour ne the Nae
of Two Immiscible Liquids. By G. Harker, D.Sc., F.A.C.IL.,
and R. K. Resear 3 B.Se. Se one text Se ) (Issued
August 18, 1926.) . be

Art. IV.—Notes on the ait aritil Oils ots some Cultivated
Eucalypts. Part I. By A. R. ek ae F.A.C.1., F.C.S.
(Issued August 18, 1926.)... ca one ees

Arr. V.—An Investigation of the Optical Beatie: of seraiaes
in the Conducting Form. By Miss P. Nicot, M.Sc., (com-
municated by Prot. O. U. VonwituEr, B.Sc.) ey ta one text
figure.) (Issued September 8, 1926) :

Art, VI.-—The Essential Oils of Leptospermum tae aaa: ‘Smith,
Part I. By A. R. Penroxup, F.A.C.I., F.C.S. ea ae Sep-
tember 29, 1926.) cs

Art. VII.—Acacia Seedlings, Part XI. By R. HL Gapalen
C.B.E., F.L.S. Se Plates I- re Sidra October 29,
1926.) .. ;

Art, VIII. “The Heseritial Oil of Lievia Pecpegin (Bonplana),
and the presence of a New Cyclic Ketone. By A. R. PenFo.up,
F.A.C.I., F.C.S. (Issued October 18, 1926.) a

Art. [X.—The Fixed Oil of the Kidney Fat of the Emu. By F. R.
Morrison, A.A.C.1L., F.C.S. (Issued October 29, 1926.)

Art. X.—Mountain Lagoon and the Kurrajong Fault. By A.
Grapy, B.Sc., and H. Hoaesin, B.A., (communicated by Assoc.-
Professor GRIFFITH TayLor). (Issued November 4, 1926 )

Arr. XI.—The Internal Structures of some of the Pentameride of
N.S.Wales. By F. W. Booxsr, B.Sc. (With Plates V-VIIT
and seven text figures.) (Issued November 4, 1926 ) a

Art. XII.—The Wood Structure of certain Eucalypts belonging
chiefly to the “Ash” Group. By M. B. Wetcu, B.Se., A.I.C.
(With Plates IX-XII.) (Issued January 13, 1927.) ...

Arr. XIII.—The Germicidal Values of some Australian Essential
Oils and their Pure Constituents. Together with those cf
some Essential Oil Components, and Synthetic Substances.
Part IV. By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.L., F.C.S., and R. Grant,
F.C.S. (Issued December 238, 1926.) ... AA ate AGO

Art. XIV.— Description of Fifteen New Acacias, and notes on sev-
eral other species. By the late J. H Marpen, 1.8.0, F.RS.,
and W. F. Buaxety. (With Plates XIII-XVIII.) (issued
‘February 17, 1927.)... Bar yes sate oes

eoe oeo

ees

PaGE

38

45

59

60

73

85

104:

113

119

130

147

167

171

(iv.)
Paqs

Art. XV.—The Solution Volume of a Solute in Liquid Mixtures.
by G. J. Burrows, B.Sc. (Issued January 28, 1927. via DOL

Art. XVI.—The Preparation of certain Iodo-bismuthites. By Miss
E. M. BartrHotomew, B.Sc., and G. J. ei i B.Sc.
(Issued February 17, 1927.) ne wae 208

Art. XVII.—Notes on the Salinity of the Water of ‘i Gulf of
Carpentaria. By G. J. Burrows, B.Sc. rene aig ae
Troe yn eS. ast 108

Ant. XVIII.-—-The Geology of Ae Gostarth District N. Ss. W. Part 1,
General Geology. By Assist.-Professor W. R. Browne, D.Sc.
(With Plates XIX-XXI.) (Issued March 4, 1927.) .., rae

Art. XIX.—Note on the occurence of Triplets among Multiple
Births. By Sir Guora@r a C.M.G. Senet March 4,
1927.) .. os sap tO

Art: XX. "The Geology of ne ilindeyt ee South Auaiealen
in the neighbourhood of Wooltana Station. By W. G.
WoonnoueH, D.Sc., ¥.G.S8. One Plate Sa iia
March 18,1927.) ... ts se 283

Art. XXI,—The Microphone as a Deteace “of Lat Vibrations,
By Epve@ar H. Booru, M.C., B.Sc. (With Plates a
XXIV.) (Issued March 18, 1927.) a ee mie 305

Art. XXII.—Surface Waves due to small artificial Disturbances of
the Ground. By Evaar H. Booru, M.C., B.Sc. (With Plates
XXV, XXVI.) (Issued March 18, 1927. ) ne wag 318

Art, XXIII.—The Essential Oils of Hriostemon Cowxii, Mueller, nad
Phebalium dentatum, Smith. By A.R. Penroup, F.A.C.I. F. C.S.
(With Plate XXVII.). (Issued March 24, 1927.) ... sail ee

Art. XXIV.—An Examination of Defective New Zealand Kauri,
(Agathis australis). By M. B. Wxuucu, B.Sc., A.LC. (With
Plates XX VIII-XXX.) (Issued March 24, 1927.) ... ve B45

Art. XXV.—Notes on Wattle Barks, PartII. By F. A. Coomss,
F.C.S., W. McGuyrnn and M. B. Wetca, B.Sc., A.L.C. .
(Issued Aprild3, 1927.) ... oe 360

Art. XXVI.—On the Hypersthene-Andesite of Blair Duguid, near
Allandale, N.S.W. By Assistant-Professor W. R. Browne,
D.Se., and H. P. Wairs, F.C.S. (Issued April 18, 1927.) 372

Art, XX VII.—Cooling Curves in the Binary Systems. By Evetyn
Margery BartHotomew, B.Sc., and lan Wititiam Wark,
D.Sc., Ph.D., (communicated by Professor C. E. Fawsirt,

D.Sc.) (Issued April 13, 1927.) ... ane HA a ... 388
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS bus ee sige ae Mei 1,— XX.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION .., — woe XXL. — XX1X.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF AGRICULTURE ies XXXi,—XxXxv.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SEcTION OF INDUSTRY at ... XXXVI. ~ xii.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF PHysIcaL SCIENCE out xliii. —].
Tirne Page, Contents, Norices, PUBLICATIONS, ... da (i. — vi.)
OFFICERS FOR 1926-1927 ... ne oe sis a eh wee (Vil.)
List or Mrmpers, &c. ... ie oe ee Lib “ine see lee)

InpDEx To Vo.tume LX, aan ae se eae ea oRe li,

NOTIOE.

THE Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as
the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of
inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the
‘¢ Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known
until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘“ Philosophical
Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her
Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present
title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New
South Wales in 1881.

TO AUTHORS.

Authors should submit their papers in typescript and in
a condition ready for printing. All physico-chemical symbols
and mathematical formule should be so clearly written that the
compositor should find no difficulty in reading the manuscript.
Sectional headings and tabular matter should not be underlined.
Pen-illustrations accompanying papers should be made with
black Indian ink upon smooth white Bristol board. Lettering
and numbers should be such that, when the illustration or graph
is reduced to 34 inches in width, the lettering will be quite
legible. On graphs and text figures any lettering may be lightly
inserted in pencil. Microphotographs should be rectangular
rather than circular, to obviate too great a reduction. The size
of a full page plate in the Journal is 4 x 64 inches, and the
general reduction of illustrations to this limit should be considered
by authors. When drawings, etc., are submitted in a state
unsuitable for reproduction, the cost of the preparation of such
drawings for the process-block maker must he borne by the
author. The cost of colouring plates or maps must also be borne
by the author.

ERRATA.

k+4n

Bolo 12. for \" read
P. 320, 1. 16, for 0.09 read 0.9.

FORM OF BEQUEST.

FE bequeath the sum of £ to the RoyaL Society oF
New Souto Watss, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of
New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the
Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shal] be an
effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid
within calendar months after my decease, without
any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty
thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be
lawfully applied for that purpose.

[Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society of
_ New South Wales by Legacies, are recommended to instruct their
Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest. |

PUBLICATIONS.

O

The following publications of the Society, if in print, can be
obtained at the Society’s House in Elizabeth-street:—

Transactions of the Philosophical] Society, N.S. W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print.
Vols. I—x1 Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S. W., 1867—1877, ”

5 x1 Journal and Proceedings BS ‘5 1878, ,, 324, price 10s.6d.
” xi 29 LP) ” 3) 9 1879, 9 255, ”
” XIV ” ” 9 9 99 1880, ” 391, ”
29 XV ” ” 9 ” ” 1881, ” 440, 99
9 XVI ” 99 oy) 9 99 1882, 9 327, ””
99 XVII cB) 9 9 9 ” 1883, ,, 324, ”
” XVIII ” ” ” ” ” 1884, ” 224, ”
” XIX ” 9 ” ” oP) 1885, ” 240, ”
” XX 9 9 +) 99 ” 1886, rT} 396, ”
” XXxI ” 99 9 ” 9 1887, 9 296, 99
+) Xx 9 ” ” ” 29 1888, oP) 390. 39
” XXII ” ” ” ” ” 1889, ” 534, 99
” XXIV ” ” ” ” ” 1890, 9 290, 9
” XXV ” ” 9 ” ” 1391, ” 348, ”
99 XXVI oF) ” ” ” 9 1892, 9 426, ”
” XXVII oe) ” ” ” ” 1893, ” 530, ”
” XXVIII +) ” ” ” +) 1894, 29 368, 29
” XXIX 29 ” 9 ” ” 1895, 9 600, 9
” XXX 9 9 ” 99 99 1896, ” 568, 99
» XXXI 9 99 99 AE », 1897, ,, 626, ”
9» XXXII » 9 » 9» », 1898, ,, 476, »
9 XXXIII 9 ” 9 9 ” 1899, 9 400, 9
99 XXXIV bb) 99 29 99 99 1900, be) 484, +»
” XXXV 9 99 ) 9 93 1901, ” 581, 9
a XXXVI ” 9 09 » » 1902, ,, 531, »
5, XXXVII 9 99 99 ” », 1908, ,, 663, -
99 XXXVIII 29 99 399 99 39 1904, 9 604, 99
9 XXXIX 29 ” oe) 9 ” 1905, ” 274, 99
” XL oo) ” 9 ” 93 1906, ” 368, 9
” XLI 3) 29 oe) 29 ” 1907, ” 377, 9
” XLII ” ” 29 9 oe 1908, ” 593, 9
” XLII ” 9 ” ” oe) 1909, 9 466, ”
” XLIV oy) ” ” ” +) 1910, ye) 719, ”
3 XLV Ba se Bs - = 1911, ,, 611, i
as XLVI “5 “4 a5 AG “ 1912, ,, 275, -
399 XLVII 39 29 bP) 39 29 1913, 99 318, 99
>» XLVIII An AB 73 5 ae 1914, ,, 584, eS
be) XLIX 99 9 23 39 bP) 1915, be) 587, 99
99 L 99 99 9 9 9 1916, 99 362, 99
”9 LI ” ” ” > ” 1917, ” 786, ”
99 LIT 39 99 93 39 39 1918, 99 624, 99
” LITT 29 oo) oy) ” 9 1919, 9 414, yr)
” LIV 99 ry) ” ry) 9 1920, 29 312, price £1 1s.
99 LV 39 be) 99 99 99 1921, be) 418, 99
29 LVI 29 99 99 29 9 1922, ” 372, ”
”? LVII 99 99 99 29 9 1923, 23 421, 99
99 LVIII 29 99 9 29 29 1924, 99 366, ”
9 LIX 9 9 99 99 99 1925, ” 468, 9

” LX 99 99 ” 9 9 1926, 9 470, ”?

Royal Society of Aew South Wales

OFFICERS FOR 1926-1927.

Patron:
HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE JOHN
LAWRENCE, BARON STONEHAVEN, P.c., G.c.M.G., D.s.0.

Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia.

Vice-Patron:
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR DUDLEY RAWSON STRATFORD de
CHATR, kK.c.B., M.V.O.

Governor of the State of New South Wales.

President:
W.G. WOOLNOUGH, D.s«., F.a.s.

Vice-Presidents:
E. C. ANDREWS, B.A., F.G.S8. C. ANDERSON, M.a., D.Sc.
C. A. SUSSMILCH, rf.a.s. Prof. R. D. WATT, m A., B.Sc.

Hon. Treasurer:
Prof. H. G., CHAPMAN, mp.

Hon. Secretaries:
hk. H. CAMBAGE, c.8.2., F.L.s. ie GREIG-SMITH, D.sc., m.se.

Members of Council:
J.J. C. BRADFIELD, p.sc., eng., mz., | G. HARKER, D.se F.A.c.1.
M.Inst.C.E.
R. W. CHALLINOR, F.10., rcs. 2 ee Breet: mt
E. CHEEL. Q , O.B.E., F.R.A.S.
Rev. E. F. PIGOT, s.3., B.a., M.B.

Prof. L. A. pees
rof. L. A. COTTON, m.a., D.s Prof. J. DOUGLAS STEWART,
Prof. C. E. FAWSITT, p.sc., Pn.v. B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.

— Pe

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| Pee:

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LPS da On:

ia |

LIST OF THE MEMBERS

OF THE

Aopal Society of Mew South Hales.

P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s

Journal. The numerals indicate the number of such contributions,
{ Life Members.

Elected,

1908 Abbott, George Henry, B.A., M.B.,ChM., 185 Macquarie-street;
p.r. ‘Cooringa,’ 252 Liverpool Road, Summer Hill.

1904 Adams, William John, M.1I.Mech.E., 175 Clarence-street.

1898 Alexander, Frank Lee, William-street, Granville.

1905 | P3| Anderson, Charles, u.a., D.Sc. Edin., Director of the Australian
Museum, College-street. (President, 1924.) Vice-President.

1909 | P9| Andrews, Ernest C., B.a., F.a.s. Hon. Mem. Washington
Academy of Sciences, Government Geologist, Department
of Mines, Sydney. (President, 1921.) Vice-President.

1915 Armit, Henry William, m.p.c.s. Eng., u.n.c.p. Lond., The
Printing House, Seamer-street. Glebe.

1919 Aurousseau, Marcel, B.sc., 9 Bannerman Street, Cremorne.

1923 Baccarini, Antonio, Doctor in Chemistry (Florence), 12 Roslyn-
dale Avenue, Woollahra.

1878 Backhouse, His Honour Judge A. P., m.a., ‘ Melita,’ Elizabeth
Bay.

1924 Bailey, Victor Albert, M.A., D.Phil., F.Inst.P., Assoc.-Professor of
Physics in the University of Sydney.

1921 Baker, Rev. Harold Napier, m.a. Syd., St. Thomas’ Rectory,
North Sydney.

1919 Baker, Henry Herbert, 15 Castlereagh-street.

1894 |P 27) Baker, Richard Thomas, The Crescent, Cheltenham.

1894 ftBalsille, George, ‘ Lauderdale,’ N.E. Valley, Dunedin, N. Zz.

1926 Bannon, Joseph, Demonstrator in Physics in the University of
Sydney; p.r. ‘ Dunisla,’ The Crescent, Homebush.

1919 Bardsley, John Ralph, ‘The Pines,’ Lea Avenue, Five Dock.

1925 Barker- Woden, Lucien, F.R.a.s., 50 Muston-street, Mosman.

1908 | P 1) Barling, John, u.s., ‘St. Adrians,’ Raglan-street, Mosman.

1918 Barr, Robert Hamilton, 37 Sussex-street.

1895 | P9/ Barraclough, Sir Henry, K.B.£., B.E., M.M.E., M. Inst. C.E.,
M.I. Mech. E., Memb. Soc. Promotion Eng. Education;
Memb. Internat. Assoc. Testing Materials; Dean of the
Faculty of Engineering and Professor of Mechanical
Engineering in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘ Marmion,’
Victoria-street, Lewisham.

1909 | P 2| Benson, William Noel, p.sc. Syd., B.A. Cantab., F.a.s., Professor
of Geology in the University of Otago, Dunedin, N.Z.

1926 Bentivoglio, Sydney Ernest, Bsc.agr, 70 Young-street, Annan-
dale.

1923 |

| Berry, Frederick John, F.c.s., ‘Roseneath,’ 51 Reynolds-street,
Neutral Bay.

Elected.

1919

1923
1916

1920
1915
1913
1923
1923
1905

1888
1893

1917 |

1926
1920
1922

1910
1876
1916
1926
1917

1891

1923
1919

1922

P2

Bl
P 4

pal

Ph

P10

P10

(vi.)

Bettley-Cooke, Hubert Vernon, ‘The Hollies,’ Minter-street,
Canterbury.

Birks, George Frederick, c/o Potter & Birks, 15 Grosvenor-st.

Birrell, Septimus, c/o Margarine Co., Edinburgh Road,
Marrickville.

Bishop, Eldred George, 16 Belmont-street, Mosman.

Bishop, John, 24 Bond-street.

Bishop, Joseph Eldred, Killarney-street. Mosman.

Blair, Kenneth John, ‘ Mimpi,’ Parsley Road, Vaucluse.

Blakely, William Faris, ‘ Myola,’ Florence-street, Hornsby.

Blakemore, George Henry, Room 32, Third Floor, Commercial
Bank Chambers, 273 George-street.

{Blaxland, Walter, F.R.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., ‘ Inglewood,’
Florida Road, Palm Beach, Sydney.

Blomfield, Charles E., B.c.z. Melb., ‘ Woombi,’ Kangaroo Camp,
Guyra.

Bond, Robert Henry, ‘Eastbourne,’ 27 Cremorne-road, Cre-
morne Point.

Booker, Frederick William, B.sc,, ‘ Dunkeld,’ Nicholson-street,
Chatswood.

Booth, Edgar Harold, M.C., B.Se., F Inst.P., Lecturer and Demon-
strator in Physics in the University of Sydney.

Bradfield, John Job Crew, D.Sc. Eng., M.E., M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. E. Aust.
Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Railway Construction, Rail-
way Department, Sydney.

Bradley, Clement Henry Burton, M.B., ch.u., D.P.H., ‘Nedra,’
Little-street, Longueville; 211 Macquarie-street.

Brady, Andrew John, L.k. and q.c.p. Irel., t.R.c.s. Ivel., 175
Macquarie-street, Sydney.

Bragg, James Wood, B.a., c/o Gibson, Battle &Co. Ltd.,Kent-st.

Branch, Kenneth James F., 99 North Steyne, Manly.

Breakwell, Ernest, B.A., B.se, Headmaster Agricultural
School, Yanco.

Brennand, Henry J. W., B.A., M.D., chu. Syd., v.D., Surgeon
Commander R.A.N. Ret., 223 Macquarie-street; p.r. 73

Milsons Road, Cremorne.

Brereton, Ernest Le Gay, B.Sc, Lecturer and Demonstrator in
Chemistry in the University of Sydney.

Briggs, George Henry, B.Sc. Ph.p., Lecturer and Demonstrator
in Physics in the University of Sydney.

Brough, Patrick, M.A., B.S¢, B Se, (Agr ) (Glasgow), Lecturer
in Botany in the University of Sydney.

Brown, Herbert, ‘ Sikoti,’ Alexander-street, Collaroy Beach,
Sydney.

Brown, James B., Resident Master, Technical School, Gran-
ville; p.r. ‘Aberdour,’ Daniel-street, Granville.

Browne, William Rowan, p.sc., Assistant-Professor of Geology
in the University of Sydney.

Bull, James Towers, 48 Fort-street, Petersham.

{Burfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.A., M.B., Ch.M. B.Sc, Syd., ‘Wyom-
ing,’ 175 Macquarie-street, Sydney.

Burkitt, Arthur Neville St. George, m.B, B.sc., Professor of
Anatomy in the University of Sydney.

Burrows, George Joseph, B.se, Lecturer and Demonstrator in

Chemistry in the University of Sydney; p.r. Watson-street,
Neutral Bay. .

‘lected
1909

1904.
11923
1907
1921

‘1876
1891

11920

1903
1913
1909
‘1913

1925
1909

1876
1896

11920
1913

‘1882
1919
1909

1919
1892

1886
1921
‘1925
1912
11920
1890
1876
1886

P 26

P3
P3
P 2
P14

P 20

P 4

P3

P6

By

(vii. )

Calvert, Thomas Copley, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Department of Pub-
lic Works, Sydney.

Cambage, Richard Hind, c.8B.5., L.s.,¥.L.S.,.49 Park Road, Bur-
wood. (President 1912, 1923). Hon Secretary.

Cameron, Lindsay Duncan, Hill;-street, Mortlake.

Campbell, Alfred W., m.p., ch.m. Edin., 183 Macquarie-street.

Campbell, John Honeyford, u.s.n., The Royal Mint, Ottawa,
Canada.

Cape, Alfred J., m.a. Syd., ‘Karoola,’ Edgecliff Road, Edgecliff.

Carment, David, ¥.1.a. Grt. Brit. @ Irel. ¥.F.A., Scot., 4 Whaling
Road, North Sydney.

Carruthers, Sir Joseph Hector, K.c.M.G., M..C., M.A., Syd., LL.D.,
St. Andrews, ‘Highbury,’ Waverley.

Carslaw, Horatio S., m.A., Se. p., Professor of Mathematics
in the University of Sydney.

Challinor, Richard Westman, F.1.c., F.c.s., Lecturer in Chem-
istry, Sydney Technical College.

Chapman, Henry G., M.p., B.s., Professor of Physiology in the
University of Sydney. Hon. Treasurer.

Cheel, Edwin, Curator National Herbarium, Botanic Gardens,
Sydney.

Clark, William E., § Acacia,’ Cambridge-street, Epping.

Cleland, John Burton, m.p., ch.m., Professor of Pathology in the
University of Adelaide. (President 1917.)

Codrington, John Frederick, m.r.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond, and
Edin., ‘Roseneath,’ 8 Wallis-street, Woollahra.

Cook, W. E., m.c.u. Melb., M.Inst.,C.E., Burroway-st., Neutral
Bay.

Cooke, Frederick, c/o Meggitt’s Limited, 26 King-street.

Coombs, F. A., ¥F.c.s., Instructor of Leather Dressing and
Tanning, Sydney Technical College; p.r. Bannerman
Crescent, Rosebery.

Cornwell, Samuel, J.P., ‘Capanesk,’ Tyagarah, North Coast.

Cotton, Frank Stanley, B.sec., Chief Lecturer and Demonstrator
in Physiology in the University of Sydney.

Cotton, Leo Arthur, m.a., D.Sc, Professor of Geology in the
University of Sydney.

Cowdery, Edward Henry, t.s., 6 Castlereagh-street, Sydney.

Cowdery, George R., Assoc.M.Inst.0.E, ‘Glencoe,’ Torrington
Road, Strathfield.

Crago, W. H., u.p.c.s. Hng., u.R.c.P. Lond., 185 Macquarie-st.

tCresswick, John Arthur, 101 Villiers-street, Rockdale.

Curry, Harris Eric Marshall, 8 Lower Wycombe Road, Neut-
ral Bay.

Curtis, Louis Albert, u.s., F.t.s. (N.S.W.), v.p., No.1 Mayfair
Flats, Macleay-street, Darlinghurst.

Danés, Jiri Victor, Pr.p. Prague, The University, Prague.

Dare, Henry Harvey, M.E, M.Inst.c.E, Commissioner, Water
Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Union House,
George-street.

P 3] Darley, Cecil West, 1.9.0., MInst.c.E., ‘Longheath,’ Little

Bookham, Surrey, England; Australian Club, Sydney.

P 23) David, Sir Edgeworth, K.B.£., C.M.G., D.S.0., B.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.,

F.G.s., Wollaston Medallist, Emeritus Professor of Geo-
logy and Physical Geography in the University of Sydney;
p-r. ‘Coringah,’ Sherbroke-road, Hornsby. (President
1895, 1910.)

Elected

(viii.)

1919 | P2| de Beuzeville, Wilfrid Alex. Watt, Forestry Assessor, Forest

1921
1921
1894.
1924
1906
1913
1908
1924.

1924

1923
1919
1924

1918

1916
1908

1896
1887

~ 1921
1910

1909

1922
1920

1923

1920
1888

1922
1879

P3
EG

Pa

P2

eal

Pal

Office, Tumut.

Delprat, Guillaume Daniel, c.B.z., ‘Keynsham,’ Mandeville
Crescent, Toorak, Victoria.

Denison, Sir Hugh Robert, x.8.z., 701 Culwulla Chambers,
Castlereagh-street.

Dick, James Adam, c.m.a., B.A. Syd., M.D., Ch.M., F.B.C.S. Hdin.,
‘Catfoss,’ 59 Belmore Road, Randwick.

Dickinson, Reginald E., B.sc. Eng. Lond., a.m.1.¢c.E., Chief
Mechanical Engineer’s Office, N. 8S. Wales Railways, Wil-
son-street, Redfern.

Dixson, William, ‘ Merridong,’ Gordon Road, Killara.

Doherty, William M., F.1.c., F.c.s., Second Government
Analyst, ‘ Jesmond,’ George-street, Marrickville.

Dun, William S., Paleontologist, Department of Mines, Sydney..
(President 1918.)

Dupain, George Zephirin, A..c.1., F.c.s., Dupain Institute of
Physical Education, Daking House, Pitt-street, p.r. ‘ Sym-
ington,’ Parramatta Road, Ashfield.

Durham, Joseph, 120 Belmore Road, Randwick.

Earl, John Campbell, B.sc., Pn.p., Lecturer and Demonstrator
in Organic Chemistry in the University of Sydney.

Earp, The Hon. George Frederick, c.B.8., M.L.c., Australia
House, Carrington-street.

Eastaugh, Frederick Alldis, a.r.s.m., F.I.c., Assistant-Professor
in Chemistry, Assaying and Metallurgy in the University
of Sydney.

TElliott, Edward, c/o Reckitts’ (Oversea) Ltd., Bourke-street,

Redfern.

Enright, Walter J., B.a., High-street, West Maitland, N.S.W.

Esdaile, Edward William, 42 Hunter-street.

Fairfax, Geoffrey E., 8S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street.

Faithfull, R. L., u.p., New York, u.R.c.P., u.s.A. Lond., c/o Iceton,
Faithfull and Maddocks, 25 O’Connell-street.

Farnsworth, Henry Gordon, ‘ Rothsay,’ 90 Alt-street, Ashfield.

Farrell, John, A.t.c., Syd., Riverina Flats, 265 Palmer-street,
Sydney.

Fawsitt, Charles Edward, p.sc., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Sydney. (President 1919).

Ferguson, Andrew, 9 Martin Place, Sydney.

Ferguson, Eustace William, m.8., cnh.mu., “Timbrabongie,’ Gor-
don Road, Roseville.

Fiaschi, Piero, 0.B.8.,u.p. (Columbia Univ.), p.p.s. (New York)
M.R.O.8. (Eng.), u.R.c.P. (Lond.), 178 Phillip-street.

Fisk, Ernest Thomas, Wireless House, 97 Clarence-street.

Fitzhardinge, His Honour Judge G. H., w.a. ‘Red Hill,’
Pennant Hills.

Fleming, Edward Patrick, Member of the Development and
Migration Committee, Melbourne.

tForeman, Joseph, m.R.c.s. Eng. u.R.c.P. Edin., ‘The Astor,”
Macquarie-street.

lected
1920
1905
1904

1925

1918
1926
1921

1897
1922
1916
1922
1899
1923

1919

1880

1912
1892
1919
1916
1912
1887

1909
1916
1905
1913
1919
1923
1918
4919

1916
1914

P5

Pl
P8

P 5!

Pi

(ix.)

Fortescue, Albert John, ‘Benambra,’ Loftus-street, Arncliffe.

Foy, Mark, c/o Hydro Office, 133a Pitt-street, Sydney.

Fraser, James, ©O.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., Chief Commissioner for
Railways, Bridge-street.

Friend, Norman Bartlett, 48 Pile-street, Dulwich Hill.

Gallagher, James Laurence, m.a. Syd., ‘Akaroa,’ Ellesmere
Avenue, Hunter’s Hill.

Gibson, Alexander James, M.E., M.Inst.c.B., M.1I.E.Aust., 906
Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street, Sydney.

Godfrey, Gordon Hay, m.a., B.Sc, Lecturer in Physics in the
Technical College, Sydney; p.r. 262 Johnston-street,
Annandale.

Gould, The Hon. Sir Albert John, kK.B., v.p., ‘ Eynesbury,’
Edgecliff.

Grant, Robert, F.c.s., Department of Public Health, 93 Mac-
quarie-street.

Green, Victor Herbert, 19 Bligh-street.

Greig, William Arthur, Mines Department, Sydney.

Greig-Smith, R., p.sc. Hdin., M.sc. Dun., Macleay Bacteriologist,
Linnean Society’s House, Ithaca Road, Elizabeth Bay.
(President 1915.) Hon. Secretary.

Gurney, William Butler, Government Entomologist, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Sydney.

Grutzmacher, Frederick Lyle, F.c.s., Church of England
Grammar School, North Sydney.

Halligan, Gerald H., u.s., F.4.s.,¢c/0 Royal Society, 5 Elizabeth-
street, Sydney.

Hallmann, E. F., B.sc., 72 John-street, Petersham.

Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, t.s., 82 Pitt-street.

Hambridge, Frank, 58 Pitt-street.

Hamilton, Arthur Andrew, ‘The Ferns,’ 17 Thomas-st., Ashfield

Hamilton, Alexander G., ‘Tanandra,’ Hercules-st., Chatswood.

Hamlet, William M., F.1-c., F.c.s., Member of the Society of
Public Analysts ; ‘Glendowan,’ Glenbrook, Blue Mountains.
B.M.A. Building, 30 Elizabeth-st. (President 1899, 1908).

Hammond, Walter L., B.sc., High School, Bathurst.

Hardy, Victor Lawson, ‘Tiri Mona,’ 114 Gordon-av., Randwick

Harker, George, D.sc., F.A.c.1., Chamber of Commerce Building,
35 William-street, Melbourne.

Harper, Leslie F., r.c.s., Geological Surveyor, Department of
Mines, Sydney.

Harrison, Launcelot, B.a. Cantab., B.Sc. Syd., Professor of
Zoology in the University of Sydney.

Harrison, Travis Henry, Lecturer in Entomology and Botany
at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond.

Hassan, Alex. Richard Roby, c/o W. Angliss & Co. Ppty. Ltd.,
64 West Smithfield, London, E.C.

Hay, Alexander, Coolangatta, N.S.W.

Hay Dalrymple-, Richard T., L.s.; p.r. Goodchap-rd.,Chatswood.

Hector, Alex. Burnet, c/o Hector Bros., Claremont, Marengo,
via Young.

Elected,

1916
1319
1919
1884

1918

1921

1916

1924

1901
1905

1920
1919

1919
1919

1919
1906
1913
1920
1923

P2|

Pea

P2

PAS

P2

P15

(x.)

Henderson, James, ‘ Dunsfold,’ Clanalpine-street, Mosman.

Henriques, Frederick Lester, 208 Clarence-street.

Henry, Max, DS§.0., B.V.Sc., M.B.C.V.s., ‘Coram Cottage,’ Essex--
street, Epping.

Henson, Joshua B., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., 28 Barton-street, May-
field, Newcastle.

Hindmarsh, Percival, u.A., B.sc. (Agr.), Teachers’ College, The
University, Sydney; p.r. ‘Lurnea,’ Canberra Avenue,.
Greenwich.

Hindmarsh, William Lloyd, B.v.sc., M.R.C.V.S., D.V.H., District
Veterinary Officer, Armidale.

Hoggan, Henry James, A.M.1.M.E., A.M.1.E. (Aust.), Manchester
Unity Chambers, 160 Castlereagh-street; p.r. ‘ Lincluden,”
Frederick-street, Rockdale. ;

Holme, Ernest Rudolph, o.8.@., m.a., Professor of English:
Language in the University of Sydney.

Holt, Thomas S., ‘Amalfi,’ Appian Way, Burwood.

Hooper, George, F.T.c. Syd., Assistant Superintendent, Sydney’
‘echnical College; p.r. ‘Nvcumbene, Nielson Park,
Vaucluse.

Hordern, Anthony, c.B.s., c/o Messrs. A. Hordern & Sons Ltd.,
Brickfield Hill.

| Horsfall, William Nichols, w.B., B.s. Melb., 10 Morton-street,.

North Sydney.

| Hoskins, Arthur Sidney. Eskroy Park, Bowenfels.

Hoskins, Cecil Harold, Windarra, Bowenfels.

Houston, Ralph Liddle, No. 1 Lincluden Gardens, Fairfax-rd.,.
Double Bay.

Howle, Walter Cresswell, t.s.a. Lond., 215 Macquarie-street.

Hudson, G. Inglis, J.P., F.c.s., ‘Gudvangen,’ Arden-st., Coogee.

Hulle, Edward William, Commonwealth Bank of Australia.

Hynes, Harold John, B.sc, (Agr.), Walter and Eliza Hall Agri--
cultural Research Fellow, Biological Branch, Department
of Agriculture, Sydney.

Ingram, William Wilson, m.c., M.D., cn.B., The University,
Sydney.

Jacobs, Ernest Godfried, ‘Cambria,’ 106 Bland-street, Ashfield...

Jaquet, John Blockley, a.r.s.m., F.4.s., Chief Inspector of Mines,
Department of Mines, Sydney.

Jenkins, Charles Adrian, B.z., B.Sc, ‘Monterey,’ 9 Niblish-
street, Bondi.

Jenkins, Richard Ford, Engineer for Boring, Irrigation Com--
mission, 6 Union-street, Mosman.

John, Morgan Jones, M.1.Mech.#., A.M.1.E.E. Lond., M.1.H. Aust.,
w.1.m. Aust., Olphert Avenue, Vaucluse.

Johnston, Thomas Harvey, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., C.M.Z.8., Professor:
of Zoology in the University of Adelaide.

Jones, Leo Joseph, Geological Surveyor, Department of Mines,.
Sydney.

Julius, George A., B8c., M.E., M.I.Mech.E., Culwulla Chambers;.
Castlereagh-street, Sydney.

Elected
1876

1924.
1924

1887
1919

1896
1923
1920

1919
1881

1877 |

1911
1924.
1920
1916 |
1909
1883

1928
1906

1924

1884

1887
1878

1923
1921
1903
1919

1906
1891

1880

P 4

P 3

P 26

P3

P2
je)

(x1 )

‘Keele, Thomas William, L.S., M Inst.C.E., ‘Gladsmuir,’ Rivers-

street, Woollahra.

Kenner, James, Ph.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Organic
Chemistry in the University of Sydney.

Kenny, Edward Joseph, Field Assistant, Department of Mines,
Sydney; p.r. 45 Robert-street, Marrickville.

Kent, Harry C., u.A., F.R.1.B.4., Dibbs’ Chambers, 58 Pitt-st.

Kesteven, Hereward Leighton, M.D., Ch.M., D.Sc, Bulladelah,
New South Wales.

King, Kelso, 14 Martin Place.

Kinghorn, James Roy, Australian Museum, Sydney.

Kirchner, William John, B.sc., c/o Burroughs Wellcome & Co.,
Victoria-street, Waterloo.

Kirk, Robert Newby, 25 O’Connell-street,

Knibbs, Sir George, Kt., c.mM.@., Hon.F.S.S., F.R.A.S., L.S.,
Member Internat. Assoc. Testing Materials; Memb. Brit.
Se. Guild, ‘Cooyal,’ 27 Sunnyside Avenue, Camberwell,
Victoria. (President 1898),

Knox, Edward W., ‘ Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Double Bay.

Laseron, Charlies Francis, Technological Museum.

Leech, '’homas David James, B.se., Syd., ‘Orontes,’ Clarke-st.,
Granville. ;

Le Souef, Albert Sherbourne, Taronga Park, Mosman.

L’Estrange, Walter William, 7 Church-street, Ashfield.

Leverrier, Frank, B.A., B.Sc, K.c., Wentworth Road, Vaucluse.

Lingen, J. T., m.a. Cantab., «.c., University Chambers, 167
Phillip-street, Sydney.

Lipscomh, Alan Price, t.s., c/o Land Board Office, Goulburn.

Loney, Charles Augustus Luxton, M.Am.Soc.Refr.E., Equitable
Building, George-street.

Love, David Horace, Beauchamp Avenue, Chatswood.

MacCormick, Sir Alexander, K.c.M.G., M.D., c.M. Edin., M.R.C.S.
Eng., 185 Macquarie-street.

MacCulloch, Stanhope H., m.B., chm. Hdin., 26 College-street.

MacDonald, Ebenezer, J.p., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co., Ld.,
Hunter-street, Sydney.

Mackay, Iven Giffard, c.w.a., D.s.o., B.A., Student Adviser and
Secretary of Appointments Board, The University, Sydney.

McDonald, Alexander Hugh Harle, Superintendent of Agri-
culture, Department of Agviculture, Sydney.

McDonald, Robert, J.p., u.s., Pastoral Chambers, O’Connell-st;
p.r. ‘ Lowlands,’ Wiiliam-street, Double Bay.

McGeachie, Duncan, M.1.M.8,, M.1.8. (Aust.), w.1m.M. (Aust.),
‘Craig Royston,’ Toronto, Lake Macquarie.

McIntosh. Arthur Marshall, ‘Moy Lodge,’ Hill-st., Roseville.

McKay, R. T., L.S., M.Inst.C.E., Commissioner, Sydney Harbour
Trust, Circular Quay.

McKinney, Hugh Giffin, m.z., Roy. Univ. Ivrel., M.Inst.C.E.,
Sydney Safe Deposit, Paling’s buildings, Ash-street.

(xii.)

Elected

1922 McLuckie, John, M.A., B.sc., (Glasgow), D.Sc, (Syd.), Lecturer
in Botany in the University of Sydney.

1901 | P1| McMaster, Colin J., u.s., ‘Crona,’ Keydon Avenue, Warrawee.

1916 McQuiggin, Harold G., u.B., c.m., B.Sc, Lecturer and Demon-
strator in Physiology in the University of Sydney; p.r.
‘ Berolyn,’ Beaufort-street, Croydon.

1909 Madsen, John Percival Vissing, D.sc., B.E., Professor of Elec-
trical Engineering in the University of Sydney.

1924. Mance, Frederick Stapleton, Under Secretary for Mines, Mines
Department, Sydney; p.r. ‘ Binbah,’ Lucretia Avenue,
Longueville.

1880 | P 1| Manfred, Edmund C., Montague-street, Goulburn.

1920 | P 1| Mann, Cecil William, Kent-street, Epping.

1920 Mann, James Elliott Furneaux, Barrister at Law, c/o H.
Southerden, Esq.. Box 1646 J.J., G.P.O., Sydney.

1908 Marshall, Frank, c.M.G., B.p.s., 151 Macquarie-street.

1914 Martin, A. H., Technical College, Sydney.

1926 Mathews, Hamilton Bartlett, B.a. Syd., Surveyor General of
N.S.W., Department of Lands, Sydney.

1912 Meldrum, Henry John, B.a., B.Sc. ‘ Craig Roy,’ Sydney Road, ;

| Manly.

1922 Mills, Arthur Edward, m.s., ch.m., Dean of the Faculty of
Medicine, Professor of Medicine in the University of
Sydney, 143 Macquarie-street.

1926 Mitchell, Ernest Marklow, 106 Harrow Road, Rockdale |

1879 Moore, Frederick H., Union Club, Sydney.

1922 | P9| Morrison, Frank Richard, Assistant Chemist, Technological
Museum, Sydney; p.r. Brae-street, Waverley.

1924 Morrison, Malcolm, Department of Mines, Sydney.

1924 Mullens, Arthur Launcelot, c/o Mullens & Co., 115 Pitt-street.

1879 Mullins, John Lane, m.a. Syd., M.u.c., ‘ Killountan,’ Double
Bay.

1915 Murphy, R. K., Dr. Ing., Chem. Eng., Lecturer in Chemistry,

Technical College, Sydney.
1923 | P2 | Murray, Jack Keith, B.a., B.sc. (Agr.), Principal, Queensland
Agricultural College, Gatton, Queensland.

1893 | P 4, Nangle, James, 0.B.z., F.R.A.s., Superintendent of Technical
Education, The Technical College, Sydney; The Observ-
atory, Sydney. (President 1920.) Vice-President.

1917 Nash, Norman C., ‘Ruanora,’ Lucas Road, Burwood.
1924 Nickoll, Harvey, L.B.c.P., L.R.c.s., Barham, via Mudgee, N.S. W.
1891 tNoble, Edward George, L.s., 8 Louisa Road, Balmain.
1920 | Noble, Robert Jackson, M.sc., B.Sc. (Agr), Ph.p., Agricultural

| Museum, George-street, North; p.r. ‘Lyndon,’ Carrington-
street, Homebush.

1903 {Old, Richard, ‘ Waverton,’ Bay Road, North Sydney.
1921 Olding, George Henry, 4 Bayswater Road, Drummoyne.
1913 | Ollé, A. D., F.c.s., ‘Kareema,’ Charlotte-street, Ashfield.
1925 | Ollé, Claude Henry, 30 Martin Place, Sydney.

‘Elected
1896

1917
1891

1921

1920
1880
1921

1920
1909
1879

1881
1919

1917

1896
1921

1918
1918

“1893

1912

1922
1919

1909
1920

1921
1924
1884.
1895
1925

1897

PZ

P 39
P2
P8

P2

P2

P3

Pl

(xiii.)

Onslow, Col. James William Macarthur, B.A., L.B., ‘Gilbulla,’
Menangle.

Ormsby, Irwin, ‘Caleula,’ Allison Road, Randwick.

Osborn, A. F., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Water Supply Branch, Sydney,
‘Uplands,’ Meadow Bank, N.S.W.

Osborne, George Davenport, B.sc., Lecturer and Demonstrator
in Geology in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Belle-Vue,’
Kembla-st., Arncliffe.

Paine, William Horace, State Abattoirs, Homebush Bay,N.S.W.

Palmer, Joseph, 96 Pitt-st.; p.r. Kenneth-st., Willoughby.

Parkes, Varney, Royal Chambers, Castlereagh-street.

Penfold, Arthur Ramon, F.c.s., Economic Chemist, Techno-
logical Museum, Harris-street, Ultimo.

Pigot, Rev. Edward F., s.J., B.A., M.B. Dub., Director of the
Seismological Observatory, St. lgnatius’College, Riverview.

Pittman, Edward F., Assoc.R.S.M.. L.S., ‘The Oaks,’ Park-street,
South Yarra, Melbourne.

Poate, Frederick, F.R.A.S., L.S., ‘ Clanfield,’ 50 Penkivil-street,

_ Bondi.

Poate, Hugh Raymond Guy, m.B., cn. mM. Syd., F.B.C.S. Eng.,
L.B.c.P. Lond., 225 Macquarie-street.

Poole, William, m.., (Civil, Min. and Met.) Syd., M. Inst. C.E.,
M.I.M.M., M.1I.E., Aust., M.Am.I.M.E., M. Aust. I. M.M., L.S.,
906 Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street.

Pope, Roland James, B.a., Syd., M.D., Ch.M., F.R.CS.. Edin.,
185 Macquarie-street.

Powell, Charles Wilfrid Roberts, a.1.c., c/o Colonial Sugar
Refining Co., O’Connell-street.

Powell, John, 170-2 Palmer-street.

Priestley, Henry, M.D., ch. M., B.Sc, Associate-Professor of
Physiology in the University of Sydney.

Purser, Cecil, B.A., M.B., chm. Syd., 185 Macquarie-street.

Radcliff, Sidney, F.c.s., Department of Chemistry, The Uni-
versity of Sydney ; p.r. Leura.

Raggatt, Harold George, B.sc., Lord-street, Roseville.

Ranclaud, Archibald Boscawen Boyd, B.sc., B.E., Lecturer in
Physics, Teachers’ College, The University, Sydney.

Reid, David, ‘ Holmsdale,’ Pymble.

Richardson, John James, a.M.1I.E.E. Lond,, ‘ Kurrawyba,’
Upper Spit Road, Mosman.

Robertson, Frederick Arnold, Science Master, Sydney C. of E.
Grammar School, North Sydney.

Robertson, James R. M., m.np., o.M., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., ‘Vanduara,’
Ellamane Avenue, Kirribilli.

Ross, Chisholm, m.p. Syd., M.B., Ch.M., Hdin., 225 Macquarie-st.

Ross, Herbert E., Equitable Building, George-street.

Roughley, Theodore Cleveland, 'l'echnological Museum,
Sydney.

Russell, Harry Ambrose, B.A., c/o Sly and Russell, 369 George-
street; p.r. ‘Mahuru,’ Park Road, Bowral.

Elected
1907

1922
1926
1917

1920
1920

1913
1919
19238
1918
1924.

1917
1900

1910
1916

1922
1919

1921
1917
1916
1921
1914
1920
1913
1900
1909
1916
1919

1918

1920

Pei

Pes

Pa

Pl

(xiv. )

Ryder, Charles Dudley, Assoc.I.R.M., F.C.8., A.A.C.1., Sydney-st.,.
Chatswood.

Sandy, Harold Arthur Montague, 326 George-street.

Saunderson, William. B.Sc. Dun,, F.C.S., Licentiate, College of
Preceptors England, c/o Messrs. H. B. Se.by & Co., Bull-~
etin Place, Sydney.

Sawkins, Dansie T., m.a., ‘Brymedura,’ Kissing Point Road,.
Turramurra.

Sawyer, Basil, B £., ‘Birri Birra,’ The Crescent, Vaucluse.

Scammell, Rupert Boswood, B.se., Syd., 18 Middle Head Road,
Mosman.

Scammell, W.J., Mem. Pharm. Soc. Grt. Brit., 18 Middle Head
Road, Mosman.

Sear, Walter George Lane, c/o J. Kitchen & Sons, Ingles-st., .
Port Melbourne.

Seddon, Herbert Robert, D.v.se,, Director, Veterinary Research
Station, Glenfield.

Sevier, Harry Brown, c/o Lewis Berger and Sons (Aust.) Ltd.,
Cathcart House, Castlereagh-street.

Shelton, James Peel, msc, B.Sc, Agr., Department of Agri-.
culture, Canberra.

Sibley, Samuel Edward, Mount-street, Coogee.

Simpson, Rk. C., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering, Technical
College, Sydney.

Simpson, William Walker, ‘Strathford,’ Lord-street,Roseville.

Smith, Stephen Henry, Under Secretary and Director of Edu-.
cation, Department of Education, Sydney.

Smith, Thomas Hodge, Australian Museum, Sydney.

Southee, Ethelbert Ambrook, 0.B.t., M.A., B.Sc, Principal,
Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W.

Spencer-Watts, Arthur, ‘Araboonoo,’ Glebe-street, Randwick.

Spruson, Wilfred Joseph, Daily Telegraph Building, King-st.

Stephen, Alfred Ernest, r.c.s., 801 Culwulla Chambers, 67
Castlereagh-street, Sydney.

Stephen, Henry Montague. B.a., uu.B., c/o McCarthy & Mar-
shall, 11a Castlereagh-street.

Stephens, Frederick G. N., F.R.c.S., M.B., Ch.M., 18 Dover Road,
Rose Bay.

Stephens, John Gower, m.B., Royal Prince Alfred Hospital,
Camperdown.

Stewart, Alex. Hay, B.z., ‘ Yunah,’ 22 Murray-street, Croydon

Stewart, J. Douglas, B.v.sc, M.R.C.V.8., Professor of Veterinary
Science in the University of Sydney ; p.r. ‘ Berelle,’ Home-
bush Road, Strathfield.

Stokes, Edward Sutherland, m.x. Syd., F.x.c.p. Irel., Medical
Officer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, .
341 Pitt-street.

Stone, W.G., Assistant Analyst, Department of Mines, Sydney.

Stroud, Sydney Hartnett, F.1.c., c/o EUiott Bros., Ltd., Terry ~
Street, Rozelle; p.r. Fifth- street, South Ashfield.

Sullivan, Herbert J ay, c/o Lewis Berger and Sons (Aust.) Ltd.,
Rhodes.

Sulman, Sir John, Kt., Warrung-st., McMahon’s Point, North.
Sydney.

Elected
1918

1901
1919
1920
1919

1926
1925

1915
1893
1921
1905
1921

1899
1923

1919
1924
1913
1919
1916
1923
1923
1923

1879
1925

1916
1890

1921
1892

Pit

Pi2
P2

P 4.

(xv.)

Sundstrom, Carl Gustaf, c/o Federal Match Co., Park Road,.
Alexandria.

Sussmilch, C. A., F.a.s., Principal of the Technical College,
Newcastle, N.S.W. (President 1922.) Vice-President.
tSutherland, George Fife, A.R.c.sc, Lond., Assistant-Professor

in Mechanical Engineering, in the University of Sydney.

| Sutton, Harvey, 0.B.E.,M.D., D.P.H. Melb., B.Sc. Oxon., ‘Liynton,’

Kent Road, Rose Bay.
Swain, Herbert John, p.a. Cantab., B.sc. B.E. Syd., Lecturer in.
Mechanical Engineering, ‘Technical College, Sydney.

Tannahi.l, Robert William, B.sc. Syd., ‘ Astoria,’ Kirribilli

Taylor, George Augustine, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 20 Loftus-street,
Sydney.

Taylor, Harold B., D.sc, Kenneth-street, Longueville.

tTaylor, James, B.Sc, A.R.S.M. ‘Cartref, Brierly-st., Mosman.

Taylor, John Kingsley, Hawkesbury Agricultural College,
Richmond ;-p.r. 16 Ferrier-street, Rockdale.

Taylor, John M., m.a., uL.B. Syd., ‘ Woonona,’ 43 Hast Crescent-
street, McMahon’s Point, North Sydney.

Taylor, Thomas Griffith, B.a., D.sc, B.e., Associate- Professor of
Geography in the University of Sydney.

Teece, R., F.1.4., F.F.A., Wolseley Road, Point Piper.

Thomas, David, B.E., M.I.M.M., F.G.S.. 15 Clifton Avenue,
Burwood.

Thomas, John, t.s., Chief Mining Surveyor, Mines Department
Sydney; p.r. ‘Remeura,’ Pine and Harrow Roads, Auburn.

Thompson, Herbert William, ‘ Marathon,’ Francis-st.,Randwick

Thompson, Joseph, M.a., LL.B., Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-st.

Thorne, Harold Henry, B.A. Cantab., B.sc. Syd., Lecturer in
Mathematics in the University of Sydney; p.r. Rutledge-st.,
Hastwood.

Tillyard, Robin John, M.A., D.sc., F.8.S., F.L.S., F.E.S., Biological’
Branch, Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand.

Timcke, Edward Waldemar, Meteorologist, Weather Bureau,
Sydney.

Tindale, Harold, Works Engineer, c/o Australian Gas-Light
Co., Mortlake,

Toppin, Richmond Douglas, 4.i.c., Parke Davis & Co., Rose-
bery. ;

Trebeck, P. C., c/o Box 367 G.P.O., Sydney.

Tye, Cyrus Willmott Oberon, Under Secretary for Public
Works. Public Works Dept., Sydney; p.r. 19 Muston-st.,
Mosman.

Valder, George, 3.p., 3 Milner-street, Mosman.

Vicars, James, m.u., Memb. Intern. Assoc. Testing Materials;
Memb. B.S. Guild; Challis House, Martin Place.

Vicars, Robert, Marrickville Woollen Mills, Marrickville.

Vickery, George B., 78 Pitt-street.

‘Elected
1903 | P 5

1924
1919
1910
1910
1879
1919.) Pl
1903

1901
1918
1913 | P 4

1922

1921

1924
1919

1919 | P 2
1919
1876

1910
1911 | P1

1920 |P 17

1907 | Pl
1920; Pl

1921
1881
1922
1909 | P3
1918
1892 | Pl
1923

1921

(xvi)

Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.Sc., F.tInst.P., Professor of Physics in the
University of Sydney.

Wade, Rev. Robert Thompson, m.a., Headfort School, Killara.

Waley, Robert George Kinloch, 63 Pitt- street.

Walker, Charles, ‘Lynwood,’ Terry Road, Ryde.

Walker, Harold Hutchison, Vickery’s Chace 82 Pitt-st.

Walker, H. O., ‘ Moora,’ Crown-street, Parramatta.

Walkom, Arthur Bache, pD.se., Macleay House, 16 College-st.

Walsh, Fred,, J.p., Consul-General for Honduras in Australia
and New Zealand; For. Memb. Inst. Patent Agents, Lon-
don; Patent Attorney Regd. U.S.A.; Memb. Patent Law
Assoc., Washington; Regd. Patent Attorn. Comm. of Aust.;
Memb. Patent Attorney Exam. Board Aust.; George and
Wynyard-streets; p.r. ‘Walsholme,’ Centennial Park, Syd.

Walton, R. H., r.c.s., ‘ Flinders,’ Martin’s Avenue, Bondi.

Ward, Edward Naunton, Curator of the Botanic Gardens, Syd.

Wardlaw, Hy. Slcane Halcro, D.sv. Syd., Lecturer and Demon-
strator in Physiology in the University of Sydney.

Wark, Blair Anderson, V.c., D.S.0., M.1.Q.c., c/o Thompson and
Wark, T. & G. Building, Elizabeth-street; p.r. ‘ Braeside,’
Zeta-street, Lane Cove, Sydney.

{Waterhouse, G. Athol, D.Sc, B.z., ¥.E.8., Stanhope Road,
Killara.

Waterhouse, Leslie Vickery, B.u. Syd., 58 Pitt-street.

Waterhouse, Lionel Lawry, B.z. Syd., Lecturer and Demon-
strator in Geology in the University of Sydney.

Waterhouse, Walter L., u.c.,B.sc. (Agr.), ‘Hazelsmere,’ Chelms-
ford Avenue, Roseville.

Watkin-Brown, Willie Thomas, F.R.m.s., 33 Renwick-street,
Redfern.

Watkins, John Leo, B.a. Cantab., u.a. Syd., University Club,
Castlereagh-street.

Watson, James Frederick, u.B., ch.m., ‘Midhurst,’ Woollahra.

Watt, Robert Dickie, m.a., B.sc., Professor of Agriculture in
the University of Sydney. (President, 1925).

Welch, Marcus Baldwin, B.sc., A.1.c., Economic Botanist, Tech-
nological Museum.

Welch, William, F.R.4¢ s., ‘ Roto-iti,’ Boyle-street, Mosman.

Wellish, Edward Montague, u.a., Associate-Professor in Math-
ematics in the University of Sydney.

Wenholz, Harold, Department of Agriculture, Sydney.

{Wesley, W. H., London.

Whibley, Harry Clement, 39 Moore-street, Leichhardt.

itWhite, Charles Josiah, B.sc., Lecturer in Chemistry, Teacher’s

College.
White, Edmond Aunger, m.a.1.M.z., c/o Electrolytic Refining
and Smelting Co. of Australia Ltd., Port Kembla, N.S.W.
White, Harold Pogson, F.c.s., Assistant Assayer and Analyst,
Department of Mines; p.r. ‘Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn.
Whitehouse, Frank, B.v.se, (Syd.) ‘Dane Bank,’ Albyn Road,
Strathfield.
Willan, Thomas Lindsay, B.sc, Gopeng Road, Batu Gayah,
Perak, Federated Malay States.

Elected
1920

1924
1917
1923
1891
1906

1916
1917

1921

1918
1914
1908

1908

1915

1912

1894

1900
1915
1921

1922

E10

(xvil.)

Williams, Harry, a.1.c.,c/o Whiddon Bros.’ Rosebery Lanolines:.
Pty. Ltd., Arlington Mills, Botany.

Williams, William John, 5 Effingham-street, Mosman.

Willington, William Thos., 0.B.z., 33 Willington-st., Arncliffe.

Wilson, Stanley Hric, ‘Chatham,’ James-street, Manly.

Wood, Percy Moore, t.x.c.p. Lond., M.R.c.s. Eng., ‘ Redcliffe,’
Liverpool Road, Ashfield.

Woolnough, Walter George, D.8e., F.a.s., ‘Callabonna,’ Park
Avenue, Gordon. President.

Wright, George, c/o Farmer & Company, Pitt-street.

Wright, Gilbert, Lecturer and Demonstrator in Agricultural.
Chemistry in the University of Sydney.

Yates, Guy Carrington, 184 Sussex-street.

Honorary MzimMBeERs.
Limited to Twenty.
M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal.

Chilton, Charles, M.A., D.Sc, M.B.,c.M., etc., Professor of Biology,.
Canterbury College, Christchurch, N.Z.

Hill, James P., p.sc, ¥F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, University
College, London.

Kennedy, Sir Alex. B. W., Kt., Lu.p., D. Eng., F.R.S., Emeritus
Professor of Engineering in University College, London,
17 Victoria-street, Westminster, London S.W.

P 57|*Liversidge, Archibald, m.a., LL.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor

of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, ‘ Fieldhead,’
George Road, Coombe Warren, Kingston, Surrey, England.
(President 1889, 1900.)

Maitland, Andrew Gibb, F.a.s.. Government Geologist of
Western Australia, ‘ Bon Accord,’ 2 Charles-street, South
Perth, W.A.

Martin, C. J., c.M.G., D.Sc., F.B.8., Director of the Lister Institute
of Preventive Medicine, Chelsea Gardens, Chelsea Bridge
Road, London, 8.W. 1.

Spencer, Sir W. Baldwin, K.c.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Emeritus
Professor of Biology in the University of Melbourne,.
National Museum, Melbourne.

Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William Turner, K.c.M.G., C.I.E., M.A., LL.D.,
Sc. D., F.R.S., The Ferns, Witcombe, Gloucester, England.
Thomson, Sir J. J., 0.M., D.Sc., F.R.S., Nobel Laureate, Master:

of Trinity College, Cambridge, England.

Threlfall, Sir Richard, K.B.z., M.A., F.R.S., lately Professor of
Physics in the University of Sydney, ‘Oakhurst, Church
Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, England.

Wilson, James T., m.B., ch.M. Edin., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy-
in the University of Cambridge, England.

* Retains the rights of ordinary membership. Elected 1872.

(xviii.)

OBITUARY 1926-27.
Ordinary Members.

“Elected. ; Elected.

1913 Dodd, Sydney 1891 Hedley, Charles

1881 Fiaschi, Thomas 1901 Kidd, Hector

“1921 Fletcher, Joseph James 1626 Newbigin, William Johnstone
1907 Freeman, William 1878 Thomas, Francis John

“1891 Guthrie, Frederick B.

(xix)

AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL.

Established in memory of

“The Revd. WILLIAM BRANWHITEH CLARKE, m.a., F.R.s., F.G.8., ete.,

Vice-President from 1866 to 1878.

To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the
Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. The prefix *
‘indicates the decease of the recipient.

Awarded

1878
1879
1880
1881
‘1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892

1893
1895
1895
1896
1900
1901
1902
1903
1907
1909

1912
1914

1915
Tol,

1918

1920
1921
1922
1923

1924
1925

*Professor Sir Richard Owen. K.c.B., F.R.S.
*George Bentham, ¢.M.G., F.R.S.
*Professor Thos. Huxley, F.R.s.
*Professor F. M’Coy, F.R.s., F.G.S.
*Professor James Dwight Dana, Lu.D.
*Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
*Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.8., F.G.S.
*Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, 0.M., @.¢.S.1.,C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,F.R.S.
*Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p.
*Sir James Hector, K.c.M.G., M.D., F.B.S.
*Rev. Julian E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.8., F.L.8.
*Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.r.s., F.R.A.S.
*George Bennett, u.p., F.R.c.8. Eng., F.L.S., F.Z.8.
*Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.8.S., F.G.S.
Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, K.c.M.G.,0.I.E.,M.A., LL.D., Se, D.,
F.R.S., F.L.S., late Director, Royal Gardens, Kew.
*Professor Ralph Tate, F.L.s., F.G.S.
*Robert Logan Jack, LL.D., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
*Robert Etheridge, Jnr.
*The Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, 0.M.G., F.R.G.S.
*Sir John Murray, K.c.B., LL.D., Se. D., F.B.S.
*Edward John Hyre.
*F. Manson Bailey, c.M.a.. F.L.S.
* Alfred William Howitt, D.sc., F.G.S.
Walter Howchin, r.a.s., University of Adelaide.
Dr. Walter E. Roth, B.a., Pomeroon River, British Guiana, South
America.
*W. H. Twelvetrees, F.G.s.
A. Smith Woodward, Lu.D., F.R.S., Keeper of Geology, British
Museum (Natural History) London.
* Professor W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.0., B.A., D.Se-,
F.R.S., F.G.S.. The University, Sydney.
Leonard Rodway, ¢.u.a., Honorary Government Botanist, Hobart,
Tasmania.
*Joseph Edmund Carne, F.G.s.
* Joseph James Fletcher, M.a., B.Sc.,
Richard Thomas Baker, The Avenue, Cheltenham.
Sir W. Baldwin Spencer, K.c.M.G., M.A., D.Sc. F.R.S., National
Museum, Melbourne.
*Joseph Henry Maiden, 1.8.0., F.R.S., F.L.S., J.P.
*Hedley, Charles, F.L.S.

(xx. )

AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE.

Money Prize of £25.

Awarded,

1882

1882

1884

1886

1887

1888

1889

1889

1891

1892

1894

1894.

1895

1896

John Fraser, 8.A., West Maitland, for paper entitled ‘ The Aborigines:
of New South Wales.’

Andrew Ross, m.p., Molong. for paper entitled ‘Influence of the:
Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’

The Society’s Bronze Médal and £25.

W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper entitled ‘ Water supply in the:
Interior of New South Wales.’

S. H. Cox, F.a.s.,¥F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘ The Tin deposits:
of New South Wales.’

Jonathan Seaver, r.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘Origin and
mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated
Minerals.’

Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, F.G.8., F.L.S., Sydney, for paper entitled
‘The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to
Australia.’

Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.M.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘ List of
the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port
Jackson and Neighbourhood.’

Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper entitled
‘The Australian Aborigines.’

Rev. J. Milne Curran, ¥.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Micro-
scopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’

Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper
entitled ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has pro-
duced upon Indigenous Vegetation.’

J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper entitled the ‘ Timbers of New
South Wales.’

R. H. Mathews, tu.s., Parramatta, for paper entitled ‘The Abori-
ginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales.’

C. J. Martin, p.sc., M.B., F.R.S., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The
physiological action of the venom of the Australian black
snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).’

Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The occurrence
of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of
the Deposits in which they are found.’

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

By Proressor R. D. Watt, M.A., B.Sc.

(Delivered to the Royal Society of N.S. Wales on May 5, 1926.)

The past year has been one of satisfactory progress in
the important work of the Royal Society of New South
Wales.

At our regular monthly meetings 26 papers were read,
all of them distinct contributions to the advancement of
science.

The three sections of the Society—Agriculture, Geology,
and Industry, held regular meetings throughout the year,
and the important new section of Physics has been added
to the list.

Four popular science lectures were delivered as follows:
‘lie -Elements and Their Spectra,’’ by Professor

Vonwiller ;

‘‘Vitamins,’’ by Associate-Professor Priestley ;

‘“‘The Influence of Organic Chemistry on Economic
Conditions,’’ by Professor Kenner;

and ‘‘The Hawaiian Islands,’’ by Sir Joseph Carruthers.

The full income resulting from the recent additions to
the Society’s House came in for the first time during the
past year with satisfactory results to the financial position
of the Society. The necessity for a further change in the
housing of the Society has been obvious for some time, and
the Council has given very serious consideration to this
matter, although plans have not yet reached such a stage
of finality that an announcement can be made.

A—May 5, 1926.

2 R. D. WATT.

The best thanks of the President and members are
due to the Hon. Secretaries for the very efficient way in
which they have carried out their duties, and to the Hon.
Treasurer for the very capable manner in which he has
looked after the financial interests of the Society.

During the year ten new members have been elected,
and ten have resigned, and one honorary member and
three of our ordinary members have died. Though the
losses through death have not been so numerous as in some
previous years, it has been our misfortune to lose three of
our oldest members, including two who were for many years
intimately connected with the work and progress of the
Society—Mr. J. H. Maiden and Professor Warren.

Dr. WILLIAM BATESON, F.R.S., who has been an Honorary
Member since 1914, was born in 1866, and died in February,
1926. He was educated at Rugby and at St. John’s College,
Cambridge, where he graduated in 1882, gaining first class
honours in both parts of the Natural Sciences Tripos. His
first researches had to do with the position of Balanoglossus
in the phylogenetic scheme, and the results appeared in a
series of articles in the ‘‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
Science.’’ These papers immediately attracted attention,
and in 1885 he was elected a Fellow of his College. From
that time on, his main interests were in evolutionary prob-
lems, and he entered vigorously into the controversies
which centred round the nature of species, and the facts
connected with variation.

In search of evidence, he made collections in the field,
and visited museums at home and abroad, and even made a
journey to the western parts of Central Asia and Siberia.
The outcome was the publication of a book on ‘‘ Materials
for the Study of Variation,’’ which marked a new era in
biological thought.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3

Later on, Bateson started upon another line of research,
mamely, an elaborate series of breeding experiments to
determine how varieties behaved on crossing. He first
started with Lepidoptera, but soon coneluded that it would
be better to use material in which the problem could be
reduced to its simplest form. A series of experiments was,
therefore, started, with plants, and later with poultry. He
emphasised the necessity of examining the outcome of a
eross statistically, and of marshalling the offspring in
respect to each differentiating character separately. Now
this was exactly what led to Mendel’s success, and when
Mendel’s work was re-discovered in 1900, it found Bateson
thoroughly prepared. Indeed, some go so far as to say
that, even if Mendel’s papers had been destroyed, Bateson
‘soon would have supplied those guiding principles which
have raised the study of heredity to an exact science. He
‘did much to popularise and emphasise the results of
Mendel’s famous laws; indeed, one may say that all his
subsequent work was concentrated on the further illus-
‘tration and elaboration of Mendel’s principles and the in-
vestigation of problems which arose out of them. He was
the first to draw attention to the phenomenon of linkage of
characters, although it remained for the American school
of geneticists to supply the full explanation in terms of
chromosomes. Bateson soon gathered round him a band
of enthusiastic workers and a Chair of Biology at
Cambridge was practically created for him in 1908. In
the following year appeared his great book ‘‘Mendel’s
Principles of Heredity’’—the standard work on the subject
for many years.

He did not occupy his professorial chair for very long,
-as he was in 1910 invited to be Director of the John Innes
Horticultural Institute at Merton, which position he
-accepted, as it gave him more time and greater opportunities
for research.

4 R. D. WATT.

In 1914 Dr. Bateson was President of the British As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science in Australia,
and all who came in contact with him were impressed with
his vivid personality and the interesting and forceful
manner in which he unfolded the wonderful story he had
to tell.

He was for a time rather critical of the American gene-
ticists, and sceptical about the chromosome hypothesis, but
it is characteristic of him that, when convinced that they
were right, he was most generous in appreciation of their
work. Although his main motive in life was to get a closer
insight into nature’s secrets, he was always most anxious
and willing to help plant-breeders who consulted him about |
their problems, and many can testify to the valuable help
they received from him. By his death the science of
Genetics has lost one of its ablest exponents and workers,
and the naturalists of the Empire one of their most
inspiring leaders.

JOSEPH HENRY MAIDEN, I.S.0., F.R.S., F.LS., was born
at St. John’s Wood, London, in April, 1859, and died at
his residence at Turramurra, Sydney, on the 16th
November, 1925.

He received his education at the City of London Middle
Class School, and the University of London. As a student
he showed a taste for science, and for some time was as-
sistant to the late Professor F’. Barff. He never completed
the requirements for his science degree as, on account of his
health, he was ordered a long sea voyage. He came to
Australia in 1880. It is related that he provided himself
with a return ticket, but the climate proved so beneficial,
and the botanical problems appeared so fascinating, that
he decided to remain. Soon after his arrival, Mr. Maiden
became associated with the formation of the Technological

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5

Museum, Sydney, of which he was Curator from 1881 to
1896. He soon began to study the native plants, and some
of his early botanical instruction was received from the late
Revd. Dr. Wm. Woolls, for whom he always cherished the
most affectionate memories. He was also a colleague in
botanical work of the late Baron Von Mueller, another of
the great pioneers of Australian botany. Mr. Maiden was
Superintendent of Technical Education from 1894 to 1896,
Consulting Botanist to the Department of Agriculture and
Forestry from 1890, and Director of the Botanic Gardens,
Sydney, and Government Botanist, from 1896 until his
retirement in 1924.

The genus which he studied most extensively was that
almost exclusively Australian one—Hucalyptus—and he
added very many new species to the lst previously known,
his field of investigation extending all over Australia. His
enthusiasm and energy enabled him to form the present
Herbarium at Sydney Botanic Gardens—one of the finest
in the Southern Hemisphere—and to make numerous per-
sonal journeys in the various States in search of material
to enrich his collections. He also, at considerable trouble,
obtained type specimens which were collected in Australia
in the early days, but had been housed in herbaria in other
parts of the world, including some collected by Sir Joseph
Banks in 1770.

Perhaps his greatest work in the field of botanical
research is his ‘‘Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyp-
tus,’’ of which 64 parts had appeared at the time of his
death, and others are still going through the press. Another
valuable publication is his ‘‘Forest Flora of New South
Wales,’’ of which 77 parts have been issued. Other pub-
lications include ‘‘Illustrations of New South Wales’
Plants’’ and ‘‘Useful Native Plants of Australia.’’ He
made numerous contributions on economic plants to the

pr)

6 R. D. WATT.

‘* Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales,’’ and the
service he rendered to forestry in this state was very great
indeed.

Although wrapped up in his favourite branch of science
—systematic botany—he interested himself in many sub-
jects and in many societies connected with applied botany
and with Australian history. For a number of years he
lectured to the University agricultural students on ‘‘ Agri-
cultural Botany’’ and ‘‘Forest Botany.’’ He was also a
great admirer of the celebrated botanist, Sir Joseph Banks,
whom he styled ‘‘The Father of Australia,’’ and his bio-
graphy of Sir Joseph is considered to be a classic. Mr.
Maiden was President of the N.S.W. Horticultural Society
for 20 years, and of the Horticultural Association for 18
years. He was also President of the Linnean Society of
N.S.W. and of the Royal Australian Historical Society in
each case for two years. Mr. Maiden was one of the chief
organisers of the National Wattle Day Celebration in the
Commonwealth. This has for its main objects the adoption
of the wattle as the national floral emblem, and the eculti-
vation of an Australian national sentiment, while keeping
in view that this country is part of the British Empire.
He was hon. secretary for 14 years of the Australian As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science, and in 1921 was
offered the Presidency of that body, but declined the honour
for health reasons.

We believe, however, that the work of our own Society
was the one which was dearest to his heart, and he certainly
put into it an immense amount of self-sacrificing devotion.
He was a member of the Royal Society of New South
Wales for 42 years and attended 41 consecutive annual
meetings. He was hon. secretary for 22 years and on two
oceasions (1896 and 1911) he occupied the Presidential
Chair. In addition to that he read 45 papers before the
Society—a record of service which is surely unique.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 7

That his work was appreciated far beyond the bounds.
of Australia was shown by the award of the Imperial
Service order, his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society
of London, and of the Linnean Society of London. The
latter Society awarded him in 1915 the Linnean Medal,
this being the first time that the honour had come to an
Austrahan. In 1922 he was awarded the Mueller Medal
by the Australasian Association for the Advancement of
Science and in 1924 the Clarke Memorial Medal by our
own Society.

Mr. Maiden undoubtedly ranks amongst the leading
pioneering botanists who have contributed so much to our
knowledge of the unique Australian flora, and for many
years he was regarded as the doyen of Australian botanists.
He was a source of inspiration to very many botanical
students, and as some evidence of the affection and esteem
in which he was held by his scientific colleagues, he was in
1916 presented with his portrait in oils. Few men have
accomplished so much in a lifetime in the way of scientific
research and organisation and this is largely attributable
to his passion for system and method in all he undertook.

Failing health in his later years was a severe handicap,
but it could not dim his enthusiasm and it hardly lessened.
his output of work.

It may be truly said of him that he left the world richer
for his labours and his life was filled with greatness,
nobility and sineerity.

Mr. Maiden leaves a widow and four daughters, two
of whom are married, one to Dr. J. Paton, of Orange,
and the other to Dr. Brown Craig, of Sydney.

Dr. Eric Sincuair, Inspector-General of Mental Hos-.
pitals, who was a member of the Royal Society for 43.
years, died suddenly in the mail train between Mount

8 R. D. WATT.

‘Victoria and Lithgow in the early hours of the 19th May,
1925, in his 66th year. He was a native of Greenock,
Scotland, and received his education at Glasgow University,
where he graduated M.B. and Ch.M. in 1881 and M.D. five
years later. Before leaving Scotland he filled the posts
of house-surgeon and house-physician in the Western
Infirmary, Glasgow. Coming to Australia, he was appointed
to the New South Wales Public Service in 1882 and two
years later was promoted to the position of Medical Super-
intendent of Gladesville. In 1898 he was appointed
Inspector-General of Mental Hospitals, which position he
retained up to the time of his death. During his tenure
of this office the following mental hospitals were opened:
Morriset, Stockton, Rabbit Island, Miullson Island,
Broughton Hall, and the greater part of Kenmore. The
institution at Orange was almost complete at the time of
his death, and he was on his way to inspect this when the
sad event occurred.

Throughout his official career Dr. Sinclair insisted on a
systematic training for nurses and attendants and removed
many of the mechanical means of restraining patients, as

well as introducing the “‘

open door’’ treatment. He fur-
ther instituted the system of admitting patients voluntarily
to the mental hospitals. The first volunteer patient was
received in 1915, and before his death there were over
300 patients. in the various institutions. In 1921 Dr.
Sinclair established the Broughton Hall Psychiatrie Clinie
for voluntary patients only, and this is recognised as one
of the most modern institutions of its kind in the world.

His persistent advocacy was one of the main factors
in the establishment of the Chair of Psychiatry in the
University of Sydney.

Dr. Sinclair was keenly interested in scientific and
educational matters beyond the range of his particular

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9

subject. He was a trustee of the Australian Museum
and for many years president of its scientific publications
committee. He was also a councillor of St. Andrew’s
College, a member of the committee of the Sydney Indus-
trial Blind Institution, a councillor of the Presbyterian
Girls’ Hostel, a director of the Nurses’ Club, and a
member of the council of the Dental Hospital.

His wide interest in other bodies prevented his taking
a very active part in the affairs of the Royal Society,
although he was in entire sympathy with its aims, and
he was one of our oldest members.

He was a man of sterling worth, of great uprightness
of character, with a keen sense of duty. His work was
so greatly appreciated that he was asked to retain his
Government position for another year after the usual age
for retirement. This he consented to do, although he
knew that he might be sacrificing his health at the expense
-of duty which, unfortunately, proved to be the case.

Dr. Sinclair was a man who, by his life, by his work
-and even by his death, personified the best qualities ex-
pected of a scientific man in the service of the State.

He was a widower and is survived by two sons, who
have both followed in their father’s profession—Dr. George
Sinclair, of Eastwood, and Dr. Callander Sinclair, of
Longueville.

WituiAM HENRY WARREN, LL.D., M.Inst.C.E.,
A.Am.Soc.C.E., Professor Emeritus of the University of
Sydney, died at his residence at Elizabeth Bay, Sydney,
-on the 9th January, 1926. He was 73 years of age and
had resigned from the active duties of the Chair of
Engineering only a few days before his death. <A native
“of Somerset, England, he was educated at the Royal College
“of Science, Dublin, and at Owen’s College, Manchester.

10 R. D. WATT.

After a brillant scholastic career, he entered the service-
of the London and North-Western Railway Company and
spent five years at the workshops, Wolverton, where he-
designed many bridges and other structures. Arriving in
Australia in 1881, he entered the Public Works Depart--
ment, where he remained for two years. He was then
invited by the University of Sydney to organise a School
of Engineering, and in 1884 he was appointed as the first
Professor of Engineering in Australia. His occupation:
of the Chair for 42 years has been the longest in the-
history of the University. The growth of the School of
Engineering from a small Department with one permanent
lecturer and four students to a Faculty with three full.
professors, two assistant professors, fourteen lecturers, six.
demonstrators and three honorary lecturers, housed and.
equipped for the teaching of every branch of engineering,.
has been largely due to his capacity and industry. Many
of the graduates of the School hold important and respon-

sible positions in the service of the State, while others.

have made their mark in other parts of the Commonwealth.
and overseas.

Professor Warren was a member of the Council of the

International Society for the Testing of Materials, and was.
Australian representative of the Institute of Engineering

in Great Britain. He was also the first President of the

Institute of Engineers of Australia. As a young man he-
gained the Whitworth Scholarship, and in 1913 he was.

awarded the honorary degree of LL.D. of the University

of Glasgow in recogntion of his great work as an engineer

and edueationalist.

Amongst the works for which Professor Warren was-

responsible is the handsome suspension bridge at North-
bridge, over an arm of Middle Harbour. He was fre-

quently consulted by the State Government on engineering:

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. as

matters, and acted on many committees and commissions.
He was a world authority on the testing of the strength
of materials of construction, including steel, concrete and
timber. Indeed, we owe most of our reliable information.
about the suitability of our native Australian timbers for
constructional purposes to his elaborate investigations.
During the war he was the chief inspector of steel, and
in connection with that appointment he conducted upwards.
of 10,000 tests of munition steel intended for export. He
was the author of more than 50 papers dealing chiefly
with structures in steel, concrete, and timber, and of a
standard work in two volumes on ‘‘Engineering
Construction.’’

Professor Warren was elected a member of the Royal
Society in 1883 and was a member for 42 years. For
many years he was a member of the Council, and he was
twice (in 1892 and 1902) elected to the office of President.
He read 17 papers before the Society, and did much to
uphold its dignity and prestige.

He was passionately fond of music, and even at a fairly
advanced age frequently sang gems from grand opera with
obvious delight both to himself and his audience. He was.
also a keen golfer and took a great interest in bull-dogs,
he himself possessing several noted prize-winners.

To his friends who knew him well he had a very like-
able personality, and it was pleasing to see the affection
in which he was held by his students and graduates.

He is survived by a son—Mr. E. W. Warren, solicitor,
Sydney.

Without question each of the three ordinary members
deserves a worthy permanent memorial in Australia, and
in the case of Mr. Maiden, the initiative, in my opinion,

12 R. D. WATT.

should come from the Royal Society. I commend the idea
to the incoming Council.

The congratulations of the Society are cordially offered
to Mr. R. H. Cambage, our indispensable senior Hon.
Secretary, on the honour of Commander of the Order of
the British Empire, conferred on him by His Majesty
the King, and to our distinguished former President, Sir
Edgeworth David, on adding to his long list of well-
deserved honours the honorary degree of Doctor of Science
of the University of Cambridge, the Patron’s Medal of the
Royal Geographical Society, and his election as Fellow of
New College, Oxford.

At a very pleasant function held conjointly with the
Linnean Society of New South Wales and the Institute
of Mining and Metallurgy, an opportunity was taken of
paying a friendly tribute to Sir Edgeworth David at the
time of his departure for England to make arrangements
for the publication of his book on the Geology of Australia.

The Society also had pleasure in according a hearty
welcome to Sir Ernest Rutherford, K.C.B., O.M., D.Sc.,
ete., on the occasion of his visiting Sydney to give a course
of lectures under the auspices of the University Extension
Board. The visit of Sir Ernest Rutherford was a source
of great stimulus to all the scientific workers in Australia,
and especially to those in Physics and Chemistry.

An informal welcome was also given to several other
distinguished visitors, including Dr. Clark Wissler and
Professor Embree, who visited Australia as representatives
of the Rockefeller Foundation in connection with the
endowment of Anthropological research, and Sir Frank
Heath, who had been invited to Australia to advise the
Federal Government regarding the re-organisation of the
Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry. It is

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13

pleasing to have the opportunity to meet such distinguished
visitors from abroad from time to time, to give them the
right hand of fellowship and to assist them to obtain the
information they require.

The decision of the Federal Government to increase the
scope of work of and the annual appropriations for, the
Institute of Science and Industry, is one that has given
general satisfaction, as there are many problems of an
economic, scientific nature to which such an Institute can
give serious attention with great prospective benefit to the
Commonwealth. It has been found necessary to modify
the system of control and the policy of the Institute,
so as to ensure more harmonious co-operation with State
authorities and Institutions. The Royal Society has been
indirectly honoured by the choice of one of its members
(Mr. G. A. Julius, B.Sc, B.E., etc.) as Chairman of the
Executive Committee of the Institute. Under his energetic
and capable leadership, a great forward move is confi-
dently anticipated.

The Australian National Research Council last year
held its annual meeting in Sydney on the 25th and 26th
of August, and transacted important business. There seems
to be a feeling in some quarters that the Research Council
is a somewhat superfluous body, but it already has two
notable achievements to its credit, viz., the successful run-
ning of the Second Pan-Pacific Science Congress, and the
securing of the necessary co-operation between the States
to enable a Chair of Anthropology to be established in the
University of Sydney. There is plenty of scope for its
continued usefulness especially in connection with inter-
national co-operation in regard to scientific investigations
and maintaining the prestige of Australian Science. There
is indeed reason to hope that it will extend its functions
in the near future without any overlapping with the Insti-
tute of Science and Industry or any other organisation.

14 R. D. WATT.

Members of the Royal Society, all of whom have at heart
‘the advancement of science in every form, received a rude
shock when an announcement appeared in the daily press
that it had been decided to close the Sydney Observatory
as from June 30th next. The Council asked the Premier
to receive a deputation on the subject and, as a result,
representatives of the Royal Society and the New South
Wales branch of the British Astronomical Association inter-
viewed the Minister for Justice on the third of December,
1925, and put the case for the retention of the Observatory
so strongly that there is reason to hope that the decision
of the Cabinet may be reversed, and the calamity of the
closing of the Observatory averted.

THE INFLUENCE OF SCIENCE ON THE PROGRESS OF THE LAND
INDUSTRIES IN AUSTRALIA.

I have selected as the subject of the main part of my —
address, ‘‘The Influence of Science on the Progress of the
Land Industries in Australia.’’ |

The Royal Society’s main concern is with the ad-
vancement of science and the extension of the bounds of
‘knowledge irrespective of whether that knowledge has or
has not a practical application; but the fact that you
have been good enough to elect a representative of an
appled science as your President indicates that you are
not unmindful of what one might call the utilitarian side
of science, and consequently you may bear with me while
I relate something of the story of the effects which the
application of scientific principles and scientific knowledge
has had, and is likely to have, on the most ancient and
honourable of human occupations as practiced in this pro-
gressive young country.

We have in our midst pessimists who are continually
lamenting our slow rate of national progress. When one

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15

eonsiders the history of the land industries, one sees very
little reason for such an attitude. Impartial observers, on
‘the contrary, can hardly fail to be impressed by the very
remarkable achievements of the man on the land in the
' short space of 138 years. Australia possesses more sheep
and produces more wool and better wool than any other
country in the world; she produces enough bread and
butter to supply a population of 6,000,000 people, and at
the same time, is the third greatest exporter of these essen-
tial foodstuffs ; such facts surely afford sufficient evidence of
real progress.

This satisfactory record is largely due, of course, to the
size of our island continent, to its natural resources in soil
and climate, and to a hardy race of pioneers. All honour
to these pioneers, to the courageous men and lion-hearted
women folk who braved the dangers and difficulties, the
isolation and the loneliness, the time of drought, and the
time of flood, to lay the foundations of our land industries
which are still the main basis of our prosperity!

The progress would, however, have been nothing like so
rapid had not our farmers and graziers been aided in their
task by the advancement of science in countless ways.

If this address is to be of reasonable length, reference
ean only be made to a few of the more important.

At the time of the first occupation of our island con-
tinent by a white race, the first gliimmerings of exact know-
ledge of the composition of the material universe were just
becoming perceptible; the dawn of the new era of scientific
advancement had just commenced to break. In the early
days of the development of our land industries, therefore,
the effect of the application of science could not be very
great, and progress was largely confined to the gradual
increase in our flocks and herds, and their spread out-

16 R. D. WATT.

wards in all directions from the main settlements, with
agriculture proper practised in rather primitive fashion
in a few specially favoured localities. Indeed, one may say
that the benefits to be derived from the application of
sclence were not great in Australia, or in any other coun-
try, during the period represented by the first 50 or 60
years of our history. Amongst the white races, indeed, it |
may be said that there has been more progress in agricul-
ture and the allied industries during the past 70 or 80
years, than during all the preceding centuries. In spite of
the fact that we are even now just emerging from the
ploneering stage of the development of our land industries,
it is perhaps as true of Australia as of any other country,
and as true of agriculture as of any other realm of human
activity, that science, the wizard, has wrought incredible
transformations during the last three-quarters of a century.
There are some directions in which the application of
science may be more obvious to the man in the street in
these days when electric energy is harnessed to the service
of man for lighting and traction and other forms of power,
when men fly in the air like birds, and communicate with
one another through unseen channels, from one end of the
earth to the other; but the advantages gained by the
primary industries have been none the less real.

PASTORAL INDUSTRY.

The first century of the occupation of Australia by the
British race was largely an era of pastoral development in
which the merino sheep, introduced and fostered by Capt.
John McArthur, played the most important part. Owing
to the demand for the fine quality wool produced by this
hardy breed, so well adapted to its new home, there was
no difficulty in finding a market for all that Australia could
produce, and flocks continued to expand farther and far-
ther inland. But the inevitable time arrived when there

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 17

was a greater number of sheep and cattle than could be
accommodated and properly tended on the pastures in the
explored regions, and the problem of the disposal of the
earcases of the surplus stock, other than what was required
for local consumption, became very serious. ‘he first
expedient adopted was to boil down the carcases for their
tallow, but this brought in a comparatively low return per
head. Science came to the rescue with the application of
refrigeration to the preserving and transporting of beef
and mutton. It is a pleasure to record that an Australian
—Mr. Harrison, of Geelong—was the first to evolve suc-
cessfully a cold storage system, based on the evaporation
of a volatile liquid, and that to the late Thomas S. Mort,
of New South Wales, must be largely given the credit for
making it a commercial success.

What this one application of science alone has meant to
the pastoral industry in Australia would be difficult to
estimate accurately, but some idea may be gained from the
fact that in a single year Australia has exported over
£9,000,000 worth of frozen beef, mutton, and other pro-
ducts of her extensive pastures.

By the vigilance of our veterinary scientists Australian
flocks and herds have been kept free from many diseases
which cause great havoc in other parts of the world, and
several maladies which had gained a footing have been
eradicated. Legislators and the general public, and even
the pastoralists themselves, have been slow in showing their
appreciation of the very great services rendered to the
Commonwealth by the veterinary profession. There is still
need for them to continue, and even increase their vigil-
ance, and it is satisfactory to note that recent changes in
Commonwealth quarantine administration aim in that
direction. There is also great need for research into
methods of combating the diseases which still take a large

B—May 5, 1926.

18 R. D. WATT.

annual toll of our live stock, and for training more and
more men for this all-important work. The establishment
of the Glenfield Veterinary Research Station is an indica-
tion that this aspect is receiving attention, but further
inducements are necessary to encourage a larger percent-
age of our ablest young men to qualify for the veterinary
profession, and especially for research and investigational
work.

AGRICULTURE.

Just as in the secondary industries and in the vehicles
of commerce, one of the most obvious directions in which
science has affected the agricultural industry, is in its
application to mechanical devices, which greatly lessen
human labour and expedite the necessary operations.

It is hard to believe, for instance, that less than a cen-
tury ago the usual method of harvesting grain was with
the sickle or the scythe, and the usual implements of
threshing, the flail and the winds of heaven. Contrast that
with the scene on a modern Australian harvest field, where
a machine drawn by a horse-team or a tractor, passes
through the crop, removes the heads, threshes them as it
goes along, and collects the golden grain in a box from
which it can gravitate into bags, or even into a special
waggon ready to take to the silo at the nearest railway
station. The history of the evolution of the modern Aus-
tralian harvesting machinery

through the stripper in-
vented by that grand old pioneer, John Ridley, of Ade-
laide, the combined harvester, in the development of which
the present head of the well known McKay firm took a
leading part, to the header or reaper-thresher evolved by
two other Australians, East and Chapman—is a fascinat-
ing story into which time will not permit one to enter. In
harvesting cereals for hay the progress has been equally
striking, though the ideas in this case are borrowed from

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19

other parts of the world. The modern self-binder cuts the
crop, binds it into sheaves, and leaves the sheaves in a
handy position for stooking. In the harvesting of other
erops like maize, potatoes and lucerne, equally remarkable
labour-saving devices are now in use by _ progressive
farmers.

Expeditious methods of harvesting would be of little
use if not accompanied by corresponding arrangements for
rapidly cultivating the soil and sowing the seed. The mul-
tiple-furrow plough, wide harrows and eultivators of
various types, combined seed and manure drills, all suit-
able to large horse teams or tractor work, have solved the
problem. There are many cases in which it is impracticable
to thoroughly clear the land of roots and stumps before a
crop is sown, and the invention by another South Aus-
tralian, Mr. R. B. Smith, of the stump-jump plough, paved
the way to the utilisation of millions of acres of land
_ which otherwise could not have been brought under culti-
vation.

Many people are puzzled to know how it is possible for
Australia, with an average yield per acre of about 114
bushels, to send her wheat half way round the world, and
compete on the British market with grain grown in the
homeland, where the yield per acre is nearly three times as
great. Part of the explanation is that Australian climatic
and other conditions permit of large-scale production, and
of the use of more labour-saving devices than in England,
and, although the average yield per acre is low, the ‘‘aver-

vB)

age yield per man engaged’’ is much higher in Australia.
Incidentally, these labour-saving devices on the farm help
to account for the more rapid growth of the urban than

the rural population.

Wheat growing on an extensive scale would have been
impossible in Australia without the adaptation of scientific

20 R. D. WATT.

principles to transportation by land and sea; for as one of
our poets has said :—

“Princes, Potentates, Kings and Czars
They travel in regal state.

But old King Wheat has a thousand cars
For his trip to the water-gate;

And his thousand steamships breast the tide
And plough through the wind and sleet

To the land where the teeming millions bide
That say ‘Thank God for wheat’.”

In most progressive agricultural countries which grow
wheat on an extensive scale, King Wheat has now a new

kind of car to ride in to the water-gate, and New South

Wales has been the first State in Australia to adopt the
modern method of bulk-handling, which further expedites.
its transportation, saves labour, and does away for the

most part with the use of bags.

It is not only in connection with the growth of wheat,
our main agricultural product, that that important applied

scientist, the engineer, has helped to smooth the path of
the Australian primary producer. The pastoralist has his

power-driven shearing machinery, the dairy farmer his

cream-separator and milking-machine, often operated by

electricity, and the orchardist his labour-saving cultivation

and spraying devices and his mechanical grader; while

irrigation farming, which is playing an increasingly im-
portant part in our development, would be impossible
without the brain of the engineer behind it all.

To resume the story of the agriculturist, and particularly

of the wheat grower, South Australia was the first State to

develop the industry on an extensive scale, though she was

closely followed by Victoria. Continuous wheat growing

was at first the almost universal practice, with the inevit-
able result that yields began to decline. This was due
partly to the prevalence of weeds, partly to an insufficiency

i
A, b

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 21

of moisture, and partly to a deficiency of available plant
food material in the soil. To such a pass had matters come
that there was serious talk of abandoning wheat altogether,
and throwing the land back to pasture.

They had plenty of pluck and perseverance, however,
those South Australian agriculturists, and some of them
started to let the land lie without a crop for a year and
eultivate it at intervals, so as to get rid of weeds. This
resulted in greatly increased yields. It was not realised at
first that a large part of the benefit had come through the
conservation of the rain which fell during the months of
fallow by keeping down weed growth, and preserving a
mulch of loose dry soil on the surface. The practice of the
cultivated fallow, which has meant so much to the Aus-
tralian farmer, was thus an accidental introduction, and
the scientific explanation of its favourable results came
only after it was partially established. A fuller under-
standing of the scientific principles underlying the conser-
vation of soil moisture has, however, led to its more uni-
versal adoption as well as to improvements in the practice
based on the new knowledge.

Twenty years ago there were only a few thousands of
acres fallowed in preparation for the wheat crop in New
South Wales. To-day there are nearly 1,500,000 acres and,
although this last figure probably includes land under
“*short fallow,

29

and also much land which is not worked
as it ought to be during the resting period, it shows a

tremendous advance.

Some shght idea of what the practice of the cultivated
fallow means in the way of the conservation of the soil
moisture may be gleaned from some experimental work
‘earried out at Wagga Experiment Farm in 1924-25, by Mr.
R. D. Lees, Farrer Research Scholar.

22 R. D. WATT.

Shortly before seeding time he determined the amount of
moisture present in the top 45 inches of soil and subsoil,
in land which had been cropped the previous year, and in
an adjoining plot which had been fallowed on up-to-date
hnes. He found that the latter (the fallowed plot) con-
tained moisture equivalent of 44 inches of rain more than
the previously cropped plot. Now just think what this:
means! The crop on the fallowed land had access to the
rain which fell during its growth and, in addition, to an
amount of moisture conserved in the soil and subsoil
equivalent to an additional 44 inches of rain. It can
readily be understood that in a dry season that 44 inches
might make all the difference between success and failure,
and that even in a normal season it could be expected to
greatly increase the yield of the crop. A still more strik-
ing difference would probably have been shown if the
samples had been taken to a depth of 6 feet; and, when
one considers the great depth to which some of the wheat
roots penetrate under our conditions, and makes allowance
for the rise of water by surface tension as the soil becomes
depleted of its moisture, it must be seen that 6 feet would
be a fairer criterion.

In the early nineties of last century the yield of wheat
again seriously declined from what was found to be the
lack of a sufficient amount of available phosphoric acid in
the soil. The remedy lay in the use of superphosphate, a
fertiliser which had been patented independently by Lawes.
in England, and Liebig in Germany, some 50 years before.
The response to superphosphate in South Australia and.
Victoria was almost magical, and yields rapidly increased,
accompanied by a great stimulus to the farming industry.
This is reflected in the average yield of wheat per acre in
South Australia over four decades, which were as.
follows :—

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 23-

Average yield per acre..

"USN GISIUSHO AM 4 MAD st ee 6.45 bushels.
Meee) fer team wists ee ee | 89 .
este ee ge ec ek 106
Sn i fea 8 a 0.59

y

Over 90 per cent. of the wheat crop in South Aus-
tralia, Victoria, and Western Australia, and over 50 per
eent. in New South Wales, now receive a dressing of super-
phosphate, and the man who deserves the greatest credit
for introducing it into general farming practice is Mr.
William Lowrie, B.Sec., formerly Director of Agriculture
in South Australia.

Owing to soil and climatic differences, the response to:
superphosphate is not quite so marked in New South
Wales as in the other wheat-growing States, especially in
the northern half of our wheat-belt, but there is still room
for its use on larger areas of our own State, and for its.
application in larger quantities in many instances. The
New South Wales wheat growers are quickly realising the
position; for in the past five years there has been an
increase of 600,000 acres, or 35 per cent., in the area
manured, and 52 per cent. in the quantity of artificial
fertiliser used annually.

The beneficial effect of the superphosphate was shown
on the subsequent pasture crop, and greater and greater
attention is now being focussed on the use of this and other
phosphatic fertilisers directly to the pastures with very
promising results, especially in the cooler and moister dis--
tricts. With the exception of sulphuric acid, which can
economically be made locally, the only ingredient neces-.
sary for the manufacture of superphosphate is rock phos-
phate, a high grade of which Australia fortunately
obtains in practically unlimited quantities from Nauru and
Ocean Island in the Pacific, and Christmas Island in the

24 R. D. WATT.

Indian Ocean, so that Australian manufacturers are able
to supply an excellent article at a reasonable cost. The
use of superphosphate for wheat brought in its train the
use of the combined seed and manure drill, which has been
developed to a much greater extent in Australia than in
any other country. The response of our wheat crops to
small quantities of superphosphate is partly accounted for
by the ideal distribution of the fertiliser brought about by
this mechanical device but, as I have shown, is partly due
to the effect of the fertiliser in increasing the depth of
root-penetration, thereby making it possible for the crop
to tap the moisture in deeper layers of the subsoil, and thus
enabling it to withstand dry conditions better. The prac-
tice of the cultivated fallow and the use of superphosphate
applied by the combined seed and manure drill, have been
exceedingly potent factors in the success of wheat growing
in Austraha, and the combined practice is enabling wheat
to be grown successfully here under more arid conditions
than in any other part of the world.

These have indeed been the most important sow factors
associated with the progress of our agricultural industry,
but even these would not have had their full effect, had
they not been supplemented by important scientific work
of quite a different kind.

The tendeney amongst agricultural scientists of last cen-
tury was to concentrate on the amendment of the sovl.
Since the beginning of the 20th century greater attention
has been given to the second factor in production, viz., the
plant, as the idea gradually gained ground that it could be
modified in just as remarkable a manner as the soil, and
the plant breeder and the plant pathologist have come
into their own.

The varieties of wheat and other cereals grown in Aus-
tralia in the early days were derived from Europe, Africa

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 25

and America, where they had become adapted to climates
entirely different from those existing here, and, therefore,
did not attain the highest possible efficiency as grain pro-
ducers under Australian conditions,

There is scarcely any need to tell again the oft-told story
of the remarkable success achieved by one of the greatest
‘wheat breeders the world has ever known, the late William
Farrer. It is enough to remind you that Farrer produced
varieties which were more prolific yielders of grain, more
-‘drought-resistant, earlier in maturing, more disease-resist-
ant, of better milling and baking quality, and more suit-
able for hay than any of the older varieties, with the
result that they largely replaced all others in New South
‘Wales and the other leading wheat growing States, and
almost their own rivals to-day are varieties produced by
Farrer’s successors, who gained most of their inspiration
‘from him. The financial benefit of Farrer’s varieties to the
Australian harvest through increased yield alone can
hardly be less than £1,000,000 annually. But increased
yield is only one of the benefits Farrer conferred, and per-
haps not even the greatest. Improvement in that elusive
quality ‘‘strength’’ so much desired by the baker and con-
‘sumer, has been at least as important, with the result that
Australian wheat is now eagerly sought after by all the
leading wheat-importing countries, and frequently sells at
.a higher price than the best from Canada and the Northern
States of America, where the climatic and soil conditions
tend to produce an even stronger flour. In the improve-
ment of quality it is only fair to say that Farrer was
greatly assisted in his work by a previous honorary secre-
‘tary of this Society, Mr. F. B. Guthrie, formerly chemist to
the Department of Agriculture.

Farrer’s varieties have also been a factor in extending
the wheat belt on its western boundary in New South

26 R. D. WATT.

Wales, and for every ten miles the western limit is pushed
back about 3,000,000 acres are added to the potential wheat
belt.

The stimulus to wheat breeding and plant breeding
generally came in other countries through the re-discovery
of Mendel’s historic papers in 1900. Farrer died in 1906,.
and his life-work was practically completed before a know-
ledge of Mendel’s laws reached him. But Farrer’s genius
rose to such a height that he almost assumed as axiomatic
some of the main principles enunciated by Mendel. Wheat.
breeders who have worked here since Farrer’s time have.
had the disadvantage of having something better to make-
improvements on than Farrer had, but they have had the
advantage of the newer knowledge of Genetics, which has.
arisen out of Mendelism. Amongst the contemporaries of
Farrer, and the people who have used his methods, the:
most successful wheat breeders, judged by the farmers’
estimate of their varieties, have been Pye in Victoria,.
Marshall in South Australa, and Pridham in New South.
Wales, and the Australian farmer owes a great debt to
them as well as to many others. Some of the more recent
workers have been using Mendelian methods with very
definite objectives, but it is yet too early to say that they
have achieved, or even will achieve, results of such import-.
ance as those obtained by Farrer here or by the most pro--
minent Mendelian wheat-breeder of England—Professor-
Biffen of Cambridge.

A good example of this newer genetical work is at pre--
sent being carried out at the School of Agriculture at Syd-.
ney University, by Mr. W. L. Waterhouse, whose main.
objective is the production of a wheat or wheats resistant
to rust, and at the same time possessing the good agronomic:
character of Farrer’s best wheats. This has involved a
study of the genetics of rust resistance, and has proved to

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 27.

be complicated by the fact that there are two species of
rust, Puccinia graminis and Puccinia tritici, and that there
are at least three biologic forms or parasitic strains of the:
former, and there may be more than one of the latter’
prevalent in Australia. Now, a particular variety may
show resistance to one species and susceptibility to the
other, and may even be resistant to one biologic form of
Puccinia graminis and quite susceptible to another. An.
interesting technique, developed at the University of Muin-.
nesota, is being followed for determining susceptibility to:
the various forms of rust at an early stage in the life of
the plant, and this has greatly simplified the work, though.
it still has sufficient complications to necessitate years of
patient endeavour. But as far as it is humanly possible
to predict, ultimate success seems assured. Now the vari-
ous forms of the wheat-rust fungus take an annual toll of
the crop which the Australian farmer can ill afford to pay,.
and in particular years the havoe from rust may be
extremely serious. A reliable estimate made by the chief
field officer of the Department of Agriculture, for instance,
placed the loss through wheat-rust in New South Wales
at £2,000,000 in 1916. The importance of our little effort
atthe University will therefore be readily realised.

Considerable success has been achieved in evolving im-
proved varieties of other farm crops; Mr. Pridham’s work
with oats, and Mr. Wenholz’s work with maize, are excel-
lent examples from New South Wales. If cotton should
ever become an important crop in this State, the work of
the plant-breeder is almost certain to be an important
factor, and it is difficult to set a limit to the possibilities
in the way of evolving improved varieties or strains of all
our cultivated crops. In this regard the future is full of
hope, if sufficient encouragement is given to the training
of men for this particular work, and if adequate facilities
are afforded for them to carry their researches to fruition.

98 R. D. WATT.

The annual losses to Australian wheat and other field
crops from plant diseases must amount to several millions of
pounds annually. The rusts, the smuts, and the diseases
classed under the heading of ‘‘foot-rot’’ and ‘‘take-all,’’
are the worst in wheat crops, although there are several
others of minor importance. The only hope of overcoming
the losses through rust seems to rest, as already indicated,
with the plant breeder. What was previously our worst
smut disease (Bunt or Stinking Smut), can now be success-
fully prevented by means of various fungicides applied to
the seed wheat. Most of the methods formerly recom-
mended had unfortunately a harmful effect on the ger-
mination of the grain, and it is again to the credit of Aus-
tralia that a greatly improved method—the use of dry
copper-carbonate—which is now rapidly replacing all other
methods, both in Australia and elsewhere, was the result
of work carried out by our Government Botanist, Dr.
Darnell Smith. Flag Smut in some recent years has done
much more damage than bunt. A close study of the life-
history of the causal organism by Dr. R. J. Noble, has
shown how this disease can be partly controlled by cultural
methods, but the final solution of this problem also
probably lies with the plant breeder.

Agricultural methods have also done much to lessen the
damage done by the group of diseases included under the
general heading of ‘‘Take-all’’ and ‘‘Foot-rot.’’ There is
still a good deal of obscurity surrounding the identity and
life-history of the organisms concerned, although some im-
portant new facts concerning them have been brought to
light by the work of the late C. O. Hamblin and Mr. H. J.
Hynes. Further research however is necessary, as a full
understanding of the nature of the cause, and of the
environmental conditions under which infection can take
place, is a necessary preliminary to any certain remedy.

“healt

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 29

Science and its applications are playing an increasingly
important part in enabling the producer to cope with
fungus, bacterial, and allied diseases of the farm, orchard,
and vegetable garden, although there is room still for
plenty of investigation and research into causes and
remedies.

There is perhaps no plant malady of recent years which
has wrought such obvious havoe to a flourishing industry in
Australia as Bunchy-top of bananas. Dozens of remedies
have been suggested and tried without any success, as one
would expect since, until quite recently, we have been only
guessing at the cause. As a result of a thoroughly scientific
investigation on the spot, due to combined effort by the
Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry and the
Governments of New South Wales and Queensland, God-
dard and Magee have shown beyond all reasonable doubt
that it is a virus disease carried from affected to healthy
plants by the banana aphis (Pentalonia migronervosa).
The result is that we are now no longer groping in the
dark, and can at least suggest methods of control which
are worth trying out. This single instance is an example
of what co-operative effort and concentration can do for
the solution of the problems of the primary producer, pro-
vided the trained men are available for the work, and this
success causes one to hope that other problems of a like
nature can be solved in a similar manner.

The havoe wrought by such minute vegetable parasites
is probably not more disastrous than that brought about by
representatives of the animal kingdom, the most important
sroup being the insects, although the cattle-tick belonging
to a closely allied group, the rabbit and the dingo, do

tremendous damage.

30 R. D. WATT.

The losses brought about by the attacks of insects on
crops and animals must again run into several millions
of pounds per annum in New South Wales alone, though
the damage would have been very much greater but for
scientific investigation and research. By a close study of
life-histories, the economic entomologist has enabled the
‘primary producer to cope successfully with many of these
troubles, and to appreciably lessen the damage done by
‘others, while quarantine legislation has been the means
‘of confining some to limited districts, and of preventing
‘the entrance of others from abroad. In- connection with
‘those attacking plants, the most effective remedies have
‘been spraying, fumigating, the use of poison baits, and
‘the destruction of infected plants or parts of plants. A
promising new line of attack is the introduction of para-
sites, which either keep the harmful insect in check or des-
troy it altogether. The success achieved by Dr. Tillyard
in banishing the woolly aphis, from the apple orchards of
the Nelson Province of New Zealand by means of the para-
site Aphelinus, gives ground for hope that similar results
-will follow its introduction into Australia, and that some
‘other harmful insects may be eradicated by similar
-agencies.

With regard to insects attacking domesticated animals,
‘the most harmful group are the sheep blow-flies. A more
thorough putting into practice of all known methods of
-control would greatly lessen the ravages of this terrible
scourge, and persistent research can hardly fail to result
in greater refinements and greater effectiveness in preven-
‘tive and remedial measures.

Weeds represent another formidable group of enemies.
“with which the pastoralist and farmer have to contend.
An the case of arable land, control can usually be obtained
-by wise methods of cultivation based on a knowledge of the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 31

habits of the plants, and especially of the conditions neces-
sary for the germination of the seed. Where weeds find a
congenial environment on pastoral lands the problem is
much more difficult. A striking example is the Prickly-
pear, which in Queensland and New South Wales, has
been. spreading at the alarming rate of something like a
million acres a year. The species chiefly concerned are
nothing like such a serious pest in other parts of the world,
and a close study of the problem by biologists has resulted
in the conclusion that one of the reasons for this is that
we have introduced plants which thrive under our condi-
tions without introducing their natural enemies, which
tend to limit their spread elsewhere. The obvious remedy
is to introduce these enemies, provided that we are satis-
fied that they will not damage economic plants. As the
result again of co-operative effort between the Common-
wealth Institute of Science and Industry and the Govern-
ments of Queensland and New South Wales, some of these
insect enemies have been introduced, propagated and dis-
tributed. What the final result will be, it would be unwise
to predict, but I think it can safely be said, from results
already achieved, that this biological method of control is
going to be an extremely important factor in coping with
the worst of all weed pests in Australia.

DaIRYING.

One of the most pleasing features in the primary pro-
duction of Australia has been the rapid growth of the
dairying industry during the last few decades. It is no
exaggeration to say that, but for the advancement of
science and its application, such progress would have been
an impossibility. Where milk is supplied to towns and
cities, cleanliness in production and temperature-control,
including pasteurisation, have been important factors in
the supply of a wholesome, essential food, and the basis of

32 R. D. WATT.

the whole system of management is a knowledge of bac-
terlology.

The chief dairy product which we export is butter. Now,
the suecessful production of good quality butter in a warm
climate such as ours would have been regarded some time:
ago as an absolute impossibility. Refrigeration machinery
enabled us to cope with the initial difficulties, but the very
existence of the industry from an economic point of view
is dependent on the evolution, as a result of a study of
scientific principles, of the cream separator, the milk and
cream tester, and to a less extent, the milking machine.

The quality of the product is again dependent on a know-
ledge of. bacteriology, which has resulted in resort to neu-
tralisation and pasteurisation of the cream, the use of pure:

eulture ‘‘starters,”’

improvements in factory design, and
control of temperature during manufacture, storage, and

transportation.

The effect of these on the quality of our butter in recent

years has simply been phenomenal. In 1915, only one butter
factory in the State had a pasteurising plant. To-day, every

up-to-date factory in the land (and that includes the vast
majority), has facilities for the neutralisation and pas-

teurisation of the cream before churning. And what has.

been the result?

Up to 1916, less than half the butter produced in New
South Wales came up to ‘‘First Grade’’ standard. For

the year ended 30th June, 1920, 96.2% (including 85.9%
classed as choicest), was first grade or better, leaving only
3.87% in the second grade. The Dairy Expert of the De-
partment of Agriculture estimates the monetary value of
this improvement in quality, brought about in four or five

years at £180,000 per annum, to the dairy farmers of New

South Wales.

if
“-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 33

Mainly as a result of a study of bacteriology, again, the
principles underlying the manufacture, maturing and stor-
age of cheese have been fairly completely worked out, and
are being applied more and more in our factories with the
result that we may hope to see in the near future the
standard of quality raised to something approximately
equivalent to that of our choicest butter. The advance-
ment of science has in recent years brought about improve-
ments in the processes for the manufacture of condensed
milk, milk powders, and ice cream, and these improve-
ments have been reflected in an increased demand, so that
other avenues are opening out for the dairy farmer who
produces milk and cream under clean, wholesome condi-
tions. Scientific investigation, too, has found in recent
years increasing uses for casein, which provides another
source of demand for by-products of the dairy.

The same principle applies to many other products of
our farms and orchards. Every new idea, the result of
seientifie research, and its application, which improves
methods for the canning, dehydration or processing of our
fruits, increases the demand for the latter. The introduc-
tion of flue-curing has greatly improved the quality of
local tobacco, and consequently the price the manufacturer
is prepared to pay for the leaf. The taking out of the last
ounce of extractable sugar from our sugar-cane, and the
fuller utilisation of the by-products have enabled a higher
price to be paid for the cane, as it is delivered to the mill,
than would otherwise have been possible.

Examples of this kind could be multiphed, but why
dwell on them, as they are simply illustrations which are
common to every aspect of commercial and manufacturing
pursuits in these wonderful days in which we are pri-

vileged to live and work.
C—May 5, 1926,

34 R. D. WATT.

The Australian primary producer is fortunate in many
ways, but, compared with some of his competitors, he is at
a serious disadvantage in the all-too-frequent occurrence
of droughts and dry spells, with the general result that his
holding has a very variable carrying capacity, if he does
not prepare for the lean periods.

Taking the country as a whole, the water supply obtained
from nature is more than adequate for a very much larger
stock population if only it were conserved and distributed
as required. Matters in this respect are improving year
by year, and the rate of improvement is only limited by
the national and individual capital available for expendi-
ture on such projects. With regard to food-supply for
stock in times of scarcity, the problem is in many ways no
more difficult than in countries with a severe winter. Owing
to its succulence, safety against damage by fire and mice
and for other reasons, the best way to conserve a large
part of that reserve is in the form of silage. Now, the pro-
cess of ensilage is of very ancient origin, but it is only in
recent years again that the scientific principles underlying
the conservation of fodder in this form have been anything
like thoroughly understood. The principles are now being
put into practice by progressive men in nearly all the lead-
ing divisions of the State, and when their example is fol-
lowed by the great majority of stock owners New South
Wales and Australia generally will be in a very much
sounder position, and much freer from those fluctuations
in prosperity which are common in every new country.

This last example is an illustration of the fact that there
are many achievements of science that have not been taken
advantage of to anything approaching the greatest possible
extent by our primary producers; but, of course, the same
is true of every country, and of every occupation in the
world. Indeed, taken as a whole, our primary producers

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 35

are more resourceful and more ready to adopt new ideas
than any similar body of men in any part of the world
known to me. As they have to compete in European and
Asiatic markets with farmers and graziers from countries
which expend much larger sums in proportion to their
population on agricultural education and research, it is
due to our producers that we increase our efforts in these
directions and lag not behind in the race. Nearly all
scientific research becomes the general property of the
. whole civilised world, and often one Huropean country
will benefit immediately and directly by scientific, agricul-
tural investigations carried out by a near neighbour. Aus-
tralia, however, is so isolated, and her climatic and other
conditions are so different, that she does not benefit to the
same extent, and she must work out many of her own prob-
lems for herself, and these problems are so numerous that
there is room for an indefinite increase in the number of
her research workers.

Looking into the future, one sees no reason to believe
that the fruits of scientific research will be any less import-
ant than they have been in the past. There is every prob-
ability, indeed, that in 50 or 100 years from now our suc-
cessors will be looking back at our methods and our achieve-
ments in much the same way as we now regard those of
our ancestors who wielded the scythe and the flail. They
may, indeed, look back with pity, if not with scorn, at the
ignorant and unenlightened people of the early decades of
the 20th century, who were only able to average 114 bushels
of wheat per acre over a period of years, who could not
grow wheat west of Hillston, Condobolin and Trangie; who
depended mainly on the horse as a source of power; who
allowed millions of sheep and cattle to die during a
drought, tuberculosis to decimate their dairy herds, con-
tagious abortion to reduce the value of their returns, rab-

36 R. D. WATT.

bits to rob the live-stock of their pastures, the cattle-tick
to infest their cattle, and inoculate them with a serious:
disease; who were satisfied with cows which only averaged
300 gallons of milk in the lactation period, sheep that gave
an annual average clip of 74lb. of wool; who permitted
codlin moth, woolly aphis and fruit flies to take their toll
of the orchard crops, and who were worried by such |
trifling pests as the blow-fly and the prickly-pear, rust of
wheat, brown-rot of fruits, downy mildew of the vine, Irish
blight of potatoes, blue-mould of tobacco, tomato-wilt, and
bunchy-top of bananas.

Whatever the result may be, it is our bounden duty to
tackle these and similar problems in a true scientific spirit,
bringing to bear on them all the resources at our disposal;
for on our success the material prosperity of Australia,
and its maintenance as a bulwark of the white races largely
depend.

Advancing science is daily putting new weapons into our
hands. The application of the new knowledge of genetics.
to the breeding of animals may yet be as fruitful of results
as in the kingdom of the plants; our growing knowledge of
the countless hosts of microscopic organisms existing in the
soil may lead to helpful amendments in agricultural prac-
tice; electricity as a plant stimulant may not be out of the
question with intensively cultivated crops; a fuller under-
standing of the reaction between parasitic fungi and their
host plants may lead to methods of control of which we
have no present conception. We must push on with
research and multiply experiments, and increase the effi-
ciency of the agencies by which the lessons gained may be
brought prominently before the farming community.
Finally, the whole question of the application of science to
the land industries is not the concern of Australia alone.
It. is to my mind the problem of problems for the world

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 37

as a whole; for from the land comes all our food, except
the negligible quantity which we extract from the sea, and
the future food supply of the world is giving very serious
concern to many thoughtful men. If the world’s popula-
tion is to continue increasing at anything like the present
rate, there is not sufficient land in sight with suitable soil
and climate to grow the essential foodstuffs for more than
two or three generations if the standard of production does
not greatly improve. My personal view is that the rate of
population increase will not continue at the relatively high
figure of recent decades (about 1% or 18,000,000 per
annum); indeed, there is evidence that it has already
begun to slow down. But even if it did continue, I have
every confidence that the advancement of science and its
applications would so stimulate efficiency in production
that the dread time of a world’s food famine would
continue to vanish over the dim and distant horizon of the
future.

38 M. S. BENJAMIN.

NOTE ON THE RATE OF DECOMPOSITION OF
COMMERCIAL CALCIUM CYANIDE.

By M. 8S. Bengamin, D.I.C., A.A.C.I.

Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry, Hawkesbury Agricultural
College, N.S. Wales.

Communicated by G. Harker, D.Se.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, June 2, 1926.)

The growing use of calcium cyanide as an insecticide
makes the study of its rate of decomposition, and the
factors which influence it, of practical interest and
importance.

A short time ago an inquiry relative to this matter was
made, but, as no definite data could be obtained after
searching the literature available, the following investi-
gation, which was suggested by Principal E. A. Southee, of
Hawkesbury Agricultural College, New South Wales, was
undertaken in order to determine the actual rate at which
the decomposition of the substance occurs under controlled
conditions.

Commercial calcium cyanide ‘‘A’’ Dust, prepared by
the American Cyanamide Company, New York, was used
for the experiments. This material, which is a by-product
of the cyanamide industry, contains a number of
impurities, and is guaranteed to contain 48%-50% cyanide
of lime.

A chemical examination of the substance showed it to
contain 27.34% combined cyanogen corresponding to
28.40% hydrocyanic acid and 48.38% cyanide of lime.

DECOMPOSITION OF CALCIUM CYANIDE. 39

In a few preliminary experiments with the substance it
was found, contrary to expectation, that the theoretical
vield of hydroeyanic acid could not be obtained when it
was treated directly with sulphuric acid 1:4 at ordinary
atmospheric pressure. By generating the gas in a flask
cooled by a freezing mixture and under reduced pressure
the yield of hydrocyanic acid was however greatly in-
ereased, while on boiling the substance with water, ammonia
was evolved in considerable quantity.

The explanation of these observed facts is doubtless to
be found in the ease with which hydrocyanic acid forms
secondary and polymerisation products under certain
conditions.

The hydrolysis of hydrocyanie acid with the formation
of ammonium formate is readily effected in the presence
of alkalies and mineral acids. The subsequent dissociation
of ammonium formate would account for the liberation of
free ammonia on boiling.

The studies of Dr. G. Harker on the decomposition of
potassium cyanide (‘‘Acid and Alkaline Decomposition of
Potassium Cyanide,’’ Journ. Soe. Chem. Ind., 1921, 40,
182) are of interest in connection with this matter and
help to explain the behaviour of calcium cyanide just noted.

When the substance was treated with water alone (5 ¢.¢.)
at ordinary temperature (20°C.) the yield of hydrocyanie
acid obtained was very low. Treatment with water and
earbon dioxide was found, however, to greatly increase
the yield, although the full theoretical yield was not.
obtained by the method employed.

The percentages of hydrocyanic acid obtained ae these
respective treatments were as follows :—

With water alone (5 c.c.) at 20° and air gently
aspirated for 30 minutes he Ie ag ee Se OAT

40 M. S. BENJAMIN.

With water (5 ¢.c.) at 20° and carbon dioxide
gently aspirated for 30 minutes ...9.: 2:98,

In order to ascertain the rate of decomposition of the
material and the proportion of gas evolved under con-
ditions somewhat similar to those which obtain when it
is used for fumigation in the field, the apparatus described
below was designed and assembled :—

fig f

Two bell-jars A, as shown in Fig. 1, were cemented
together with plasticine. A single delivery tube B, bent
at a right angle, was passed through a rubber cork in the
neck of the lower jar, while the cork in the upper jar
carried a thermometer. A small expanded tube C (for
the introduction of the cyanide) and another tube D,
bent at a right angle for the aspiration of the liberated
gas, were also passed through the cork in the upper bell-jar.

DECOMPOSITION OF CALCIUM CYANIDE. 4)

The delivery tube D in the neck of the upper jar was
attached by a rubber connection to a series of bulbs E
containing a normal solution of potassium hydrate.
Aspiration of the gas contents of the jars was effected by
means of the filter pump F.

In order to introduce the calcium cyanide and to get
it distributed within the bell-jars as a fine dust, the
apparatus was partly exhausted and one gram of the
material was carefully placed in the expanded tube C.
By opening the stopcock attached to the latter, the charge
of cyanide was rapidly drawn in and uniformly distributed.
After the air within the jars had again reached atmospheric
‘pressure, the stopcocks were all closed.

At intervals the stopcocks attached to the tubes B and
D were opened and the gas contents of the jars aspirated
‘through the potash bulbs E.

After aspiration for a definite period, the contents of
the bulbs were emptied into a beaker. Distilled water
was added and the solution titrated with a decinormal
solution of silver nitrate, using 1% solution of sodium
chloride as indicator.

Cotton wool soaked in water and placed within the jars
ensured maximum saturation of the air enclosed at the
particular temperature at which the experiments were
-earried out.

A series of trials in which this method was used was
earried out as follows :—
(a) In a saturated aqueous atmosphere.

(b) In a saturated aqueous atmosphere and in the
presence of a small growing plant.

(c) In a saturated aqueous atmosphere of carbon
dioxide.

FILA GENAIAGE BOP fH. EVOLVED

42 M. S. BENJAMIN.

The general results of these trials are summarised in
graph shown in Fig. 2.

The figures in the ordinate of the graph refer to parts
by weight of hydrocyanic acid, which were obtained from

SS

Ss

‘

i)

q

S

Ro ye EN

' | |
i] In salar ated ae atmosphere | ein]
4 | i ie

7] 10 20 3O 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

SEM Ta WOME a ONES,

Fig. 2 Percentage of HCN evolved tn enclosed space
from Commercial Calcium Cyanide Jemperalure 20°C

one hundred parts by weight of commercial calcium
eyanide.

It is probable, of course, that in actual fumigation with
the material in the field, the percentage yield of free
hydrocyaniec acid would appreciably differ from that.

DECOMPOSITION OF CALCIUM CYANIDE. 43

obtained in the experiments. The reason of this will be
clear if we assume that, in the presence of water, hydrolysis
of calcium cyanide occurs according to the following
equation :—

Ca(CN). + 2H.O = Ca(OH). + 2HCN.

As this reaction is reversible, it is obvious that variations
in conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and the
amount of water ~present, will effect corresponding
variations in the yield of free hydrocyanie acid.

From the consideration of the experimental data it
appears that the amount of carbon dioxide present is an
important factor in influencing the rate at which decom-
position of the cyanide and the evolution of hydrocyanic
acid gas occurs.

Furthermore, field experiments conducted with caleium
eyanide have shown that, weight for weight, it has a
higher efficiency than potassium cyanide, when the latter
is employed in the usual way adopted in fumigation
practice, that is, by the liberation of the hydrocyanie acid
by means of sulphuric acid.

This observed difference is quite probably due to the fact
that in the case of fumigation with calcium cyanide, the
hydrocyanic acid is evolved actually on the leaves, and
vegetative structures, and there is thus a relatively greater
concentration of the gas on these parts than is the case
where either potassium or sodium cyanides are used for
the fumigation.

Moreover, the work of Harker already referred to has
shown that only a fraction, probably not more than 30%
of the hydrocyanic acid contained in potassium cyanide
is evolved when the latter is treated with sulphuric acid
at ordinary atmospheric pressure.

‘44 M. S. BENJAMIN.

The fact that commercial calcium cyanide, which
contains a lower percentage of combined cyanogen than
‘potassium eyanide, is yet in field practice more efficient
as a fumigant than the latter, is thus readily accounted for.

A simple and practical means whereby the efficiency of
a given dose of commercial calcium cyanide could be still
further increased, is suggested by the experiments so far
performed. This would consist of increasing the concen-
tration of carbon dioxide in the confined space by the
simple expedient of burning a small quantity of twigs or
pine needles under the tent immediately before treatment
with the cyanide. |

A field trial in which fumigation of the trees is effected
by this slightly modified method might be found to confirm
the above suggestion, and so point the way to the more
efficient use of the material as a fumigant in ordinary
field practice.

REACTIONS OF TWO IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS. 45

REACTIONS DEPENDING UPON THE VAPOUR AT
THE INTERFACE OF TWO IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS.

By G. Harker, D.Sc., F.A.C.1., and R. K. Newman, B.Sc.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, June 2, 1926.)

In a former communication (Harker, Jour. Chem. Soc.,
1924, 125, 500) experiments were described, dealing with
the reactions taking place at the interface of two immiscible
liquids, water and benzyl chloride. It was found that for
a given temperature the hydrolytic action between the two
liquids depended upon the area of surface between them,
and was of approximately the same value per unit area as
that obtained when the mixed saturated vapours of benzyl
chloride and water were brought into contact with a
surface of water under the same temperature conditions.
The conclusion was, therefore, drawn that at the inter-
face of the two liquids there must exist the mixed saturated
vapours of each constituent. It was recognised, however,
that further experimental work was necessary to confirm
the agreement obtained; and the present paper deals with
the reaction between acidulated water and amyl acetate.
Previously the reaction between the mixed vapours on
water was studied by a dynamic method, whilst in this
communication a simpler static method is described. The
reaction between the two liquid substances was also cap-
able of more exact measurement in the present instance,
since the contact surface between the two liquids was flat
instead of being convex. There was the further advan-
tage in using this ester, that the possibility of error in the
vapour experiments was reduced by the fact that conden-
sation of water on the sides of the reaction vessel could
be disregarded, since the ester and water alone did not

46 G. HARKER AND R. K. NEWMAN.

react. Unlike benzyl chloride, amyl acetate is not hydro-
lysed by water at 100°, but gives a definite surface reac-
tion with water acidulated with a mineral acid. Compari-
sons were made of the hydrolytic action of varying
strengths of acid solutions on the liquid ester, and on its
saturated vapour.

EXPERIMENTAL.
Selection of a suwtable Ester.

About a dozen esters were subjected to treatment with
water at 100°, the area of contact being 10-18 sq. em. Most
showed no appreciable hydrolysis at the end of one to two
hours; others were far too rapidly hydrolysed, whilst a
few were hydrolysed but failed to give surface reactions.
Amongst those in the first-mentioned class, amyl acetate
presented a very flat surface to water and seemed to be
practically immiscible, so its hydrolysis with alkaline and
acid solutions was tested. Using 10 e.c. of caustic soda
solution and 5 ec. ester, the action was so rapid with
N/10, N/25, and N/50 solutions that neutralisation was
effected in one hour, or less. With acid solutions of cor-
responding strength the hydrolysis was much less rapid,
and the reaction proved to be a surface one. Thus in a
four-hour contact with N/10-hydrochlorice acid the rates
were 0.259, 0.244, 0.246 c.c. N/10-acid per sq. cm., per
hour, when the amounts of ester and acid and the area of
contact of the two liquids were considerably varied.

In preparing the ester the once distilled commercial
article was washed with sodium carbonate solution then
with water and dried well over sodium sulphate or eal-
cium sulphate. It was then distilled under reduced pres-
‘sure, and the fraction boiling at 438°-50° at 16 mm. col-
lected. The neutral liquid so obtained is generally referred
to as amyl acetate, but, strictly speaking, is iso-amyl
-acetate.

REACTIONS OF TWO IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS. 47

Hydrolysis produced by Contact of the two Liquids
Acidulated Water and Amyl Acetate.

When water and amyl acetate are heated together at
100° considerable pressure is developed owing to the sepa-
rate effect of the vapour pressure of each constituent and
the effect of this pressure was measured. Two bottles
were taken, each with a cross-section of 12.5 sq. ems.
Through the cork of each was fitted a long glass tube pass-
ing to the bottom; the cross-section of this tube was 0.26

sq. em., leaving an effective area of 12.24 sq. em. Into
each bottle a little mercury was introduced, and then into

one bottle 10 c.c. N/10-hydrochloric acid and 16.5 «¢.c. ester
and into the other 25 ¢.c. acid and 21 ec. ester. The
bottles were heated in the steam bath at 100° for three
hours. The pressure developed in the bottles was 63 and
58 em. of mereury respectively. On titration each showed
an increased acidity of 9.9 ¢.c. N/10-acid, equivalent to a
_ rate of 0.27 ¢.c. per sq. cm. per hour. Other figures obtained
for three hours’ contact varied between 0.27 and 0.30 in
five experiments. Mean rate for three hours, 0.275 c.c¢.
N/10-acid per sq. em. per hour. Similarly for two hours,
0.29 ¢.c. per sq. cm. per hour; for one hour, 0.365, and
for half-an-hour, 0.41; whilst for four hours the rate ob-
tained was 0.25. It was more difficult to obtain reliable
figures for the shorter periods, as in plunging the bottle
into the steam chamber the temperature dropped to the
neighbourhood of 80°, and about ten minutes were taken
in reaching 100°, so that an allowance had to be made for
this period. Nevertheless, it was evident that the products
of reaction diminished the rate to a marked extent.

In all these experiments, the pressure developed varied
from 50 to 76 cm. of mercury, and, in passing, it was
thought desirable to test the effect of increased pressure
on the speed of reaction. This comparison was carried out

48 G. HARKER AND R. K. NEWMAN.

at a temperature below the boiling point of the mixed
liquids, and showed that an additional pressure of one
atmosphere had but little effect; if anything, the rate of
hydrolysis was slightly lowered.

Passage of the Mixed Vapours over Acidulated Water.

Following along the lines of the previously described
work on benzyl chloride (loc. cit.), and using the same
apparatus, the mixed vapour of water and amyl acetate was
led over both N/10- and N/20-hydroclorie acid, contained
in a vessel of known cross-section, for three hours in each
case. In the apparatus referred to a series of vessels is
kept at constant temperature by surrounding them with
steam in a steam chamber; the steam in the chamber being
maintained at any desired temperature between 100° and
103°. Steam generated in a small flask outside the main
chamber passes into this series of vessels, and is led first
into a trap vessel, to remove any contained water, and then
into one or two vessels containing the ester, from which
the mixed vapours are led over the surface of the acidu-
lated water. The vapours from the last vessel pass out of
the chamber, and are condensed. The hydrolytic effect of
the mixed vapour is shown by the increase in acidity of the
acidulated water, together with the acidity of the distil-
late. In the case of amyl acetate the hydrolytic effect
obtained was much greater than when the two liquids
were in contact for the same period. Most of the acidity
produced, however, was found in the distillate, the acetic
acid coming over in a regular manner. To prove that it
was the acetic acid which was being removed, steam was
passed over N/10-hydrochlorie acid for two hours, when
the distillate remained perfectly neutral, whilst when
N/15-acetic acid was used the acid came over freely in the
current of steam. Dunn and Rideal (Jour. Chem. Soc.,

REACTIONS OF TWO IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS. 49

1924, 125, 684) have already shown that at 100° the
vapour pressure of hydrochloric acid arising from an
N/10-acid solution is not measurable. The conclusion was
reached that when the mixed vapours of amyl acetate and
water are passed over a surface of acidulated water the
acetic acid formed (and probably the amyl! alcohol also)
is constantly distilled off, thus permitting a constant rate
of hydrolysis; but when the liquids are brought into con-

tact the products accumulate and slow down the reaction.

A comparison of the hydrolytic effect of the ester in the
liquid and vapour state upon a surface of acidulated water
could therefore not be attained by the means previously
used for benzyl chloride. A static method was devised,
however, which provided a more direct comparison than
was possible with this earlier method. Before proceeding
to describe this, it should be noted that the ratio of the
constituents in the mixed saturated vapour of water and
amyl acetate was determined with great care. This was
done by rapidly agitating equal volumes of water and
ester in a vessel provided with a stirrer and delivery tube.
The vessel was placed in the steam chamber, and the
vapours passed directly through a condenser into a gra-
duated cylinder. The distillation took place slowly and
regularly, and constant figures were obtained. At 100°
the ratio of water to ester found was 1: 2.32, equivalent to
a ratio of 3.58 molecules of water to one molecule of ester
in the vapour. It was further shown that the mixed
vapour had no action either itself or in presence of water
by passing it over distilled water in the reaction vessel
above referred to for a period of four hours; the distillate
was neutral, whilst the water in the reaction vessel showed
a’ mere trace of acidity, viz., 0.55 ¢.c. N/50-acid.

D—June 2, 1926.

50 G. HARKER AND R. K. NEWMAN.

Direct Comparison of the Hydrolytic Effect of iqud Amyl
Acetate and of the Mixed Saturated Vapour of Amyl
Acetate and Water upon a surface of Acidulated Water.

This was effected by carrying out tests on the hydrolysis
of the lquid simultaneously with tests dealing with the
vapour. Assuming that the falling off of the rate with time
when the liquids were in contact was due largely to the
accumulation of the products of the reaction at the seat of

Potty

18

reaction, it seemed advisable, in making comparisons of the
effect of vapour, to keep the products in as confined a
space as possible.

A wide-mouthed bottle, A, was accordingly taken
and connected by tubing of narrow bore with a
graduated cylinder, C, which was placed outside the
steam chamber and which could be cooled with ice. On
the bottom of A, a small flat-bottomed vessel, B, rested,

REACTIONS OF TWO IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS. 51

‘and in this was placed a measured quantity of hydro-
chloric acid solution, the remainder of the area of the
bottom of A was occupied by the ester. The apparatus
was connected up as shown in the text figure, evacuated to
remove air, and the tap E closed. A bottle of known cross-
section, provided with a pressure tube, and containing the
two liquids in contact, was then placed in the steam cham-
ber, after which steam was turned into the chamber. The
acidulated water in the vessel B was subjected to the
action of the mixed vapour, whilst at the same time the
acidulated water in the bottle F was in contact with
liquid amyl acetate, thus providing a direct comparison of
the effect of each. The composition of the vapour mixture
in the bottle A was analysed by allowing a small stream of
vapour to pass through the tap D into the cylinder C,
which was surrounded with ice, and in which it was con-
densed. The first few experiments showed that when the
surface area of the ester was considerably larger than
that of the acidulated water, the composition of the vapour
mixture in the bottle was identical, within the limits of
experimental error, with that of the saturated vapour as
previously determined; consequently it was unnecessary
to resort to a distillation test in every case. The results of
this direct comparison of the liquid ester and of the mixed
saturated vapour are given in the table. Details of one
-of the experiments follow :-—

In the vapour test 10 c.c. of ester were placed in the
- bottle, and presented a cross-section of 32 sq. cm., 10 c.e.
N/2-hydrochloric acid were placed in the inside vessel,
which had a cross section of 6.29 sq. em.; the contents were
evacuated. The steam took 20 minutes to heat the cham-
ber to 100°, and the reaction was then continued for two
and one-half hours. Shortly after the temperature rose
to 100° the tap D was opened, and so regulated as to allow

52 G. HARKER AND R. K. NEWMAN.

a small amount of vapour to continuously distil through-
out the period into the small graduated cylinder. The
composition of the distillate was 0.9 ¢.c. water, and 2.05:
c.c. ester, 1.e., a ratio of 1: 2.28, which compared very well
with the ratio of 1: 2.82 previously determined for the:
saturated mixture. On the completion of the reaction the
acid required 60.2 c.c. N/10-caustic soda solution, the dis-
tillate 0.2 ¢.c. and the ester (which always absorbed some:
of the acetic acid formed), 1.5 ¢.c.—total 61.9 @.¢., i.e., an
increase of 11.9 ¢.c. N/10-acid. In the liquid test 10 e.c.
N/2-hydrochloric acid and 9 ec. ester were taken, the
area of contact being 6.37 sq. cm. The bottle was heated in
the steam chamber as above, and the pressure reached 42’
em. of mereury. On titration, 63.1 ¢.c. N/10-caustie soda
solution were required, i.e., an increase of acidity of 13.1
c.c. N/10-acid. Neglecting the preliminary heating-up:
period, the rates per sq. em. per hour were 0.76 for the
vapour and 0.82 for the liquid. In these experiments, in
which the action was started from cold, a film of liquid
formed on the acid surface during the preliminary heating,
but always vanished at 100°. No film could have been
present during the continuous distillation.

Hydrolysis produced at the Surface of Solutions of
Hydrochloric Acid with lquid Amyl Acetate and with
the Mixed Saturated Vapour of Amyl Acetate and Water.

Condition Area of Increase Rate per

Cone. of of Amyl Reaction Time, in Acidity sq. cm. Remarks
HCl Sol. Acetate sq.cm. hrs. per hr.
N/10 Liquid 6.1 1% 8.05 c.c. N/10 0.333 N/10
oe Vapour 6.3838 1% Be4 Dee ne O63. Distillation
N/10 Liquid 6.9 21% 4.65 c.c. N/10 0.266 ,,
os Vapour 6.338 2% 4.25 ,, 50 0.269; No Distillation:
N/20: Liquid 6.9 1 a8 c.c. on 0:26°055;
A Vapour HEB) al BES hites O:30ye ee No Distillation:
ce Liquid 6.387 2% ne ; GYCe IN /10 0.822 ,,
Vapour 6.29 2% 0.758 ,, Distillation

Looking at the figures in ae table, it is seen that a
very close agreement was obtained for the hydrolytic action

REACTIONS OF TWO IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS. 53

of the liquid and vapour per unit area of surface exposed.
Assuming that the mixed vapours are present at the inter-
face of the two liquids, the object in the vapour experi-
ments was to simulate these conditions as closely as pos-
sible. The vapour space, however, in such experiments is
large compared with the space at the interface of the two
liquids and an absolute agreement in the figures is not
to be expected. With the larger space, on the one hand,
time must lapse before the mixture of vapours reaches
saturation, and equilibrium in its composition cannot be
maintained so readily at the surface of the acidulated
water during the reaction. This tends to make the vapour
figures smaller. On the other hand, the fact that the
vapour space is larger, means that the products of reaction
are not so concentrated at the surface of reaction, thus
tending to make the vapour figures larger. This effect
‘seemed more in evidence in the earlier stages of the reac-
tion. The figures given in the table for rate per hour are
not strictly comparable with those obtained previously for
hydrolysis at the lquid-liquid surface, because no allow-
ance is made for the action taking place during the
preliminary heating.

CONCLUSIONS.

A careful comparison of the hydrolytic effect of liquid
amyl acetate and of the mixed saturated vapour of steam
and amyl acetate at 100°, upon a surface of given area of
dilute hydrochloric acid of varied strengths, reveals a
close agreement in the rate of hydrolysis. Taken in con-
junction with results previously obtained for benzyl
‘chloride, it is evident that at the interface of the two
liquids the mixed saturated vapours of both liquids are
present. This is in agreement with the view of Van der
‘Waals, that there exists a continuous transition from the
liquid to the vapour state at the boundary. When pres-

54 G. HARKER AND R. K. NEWMAN.

sure was applied to the two immiscible liquids, the rate of
reaction at the interface was but little affected. Under
these conditions, the molecules of vapour must be brought
closer together than in the ordinary saturated state, but
the free molecular condition must still exist. Just as in
the case of benzyl chloride vapour and steam, it has been
shown that no appreciable hydrolysis takes place between
amyl acetate vapour and steam. An appreciable reaction
does take place, however, when the mixed vapours are in
contact with acidulated water. Norrish (J. 1923, 123,
3006) has conclusively shown in the reaction between
ethylene and bromine vapour that the rate of reaction is:
largely accelerated when the two vapours are brought into:
contact with a polarising surface. In the present instance
the polarising effect of the water surface was increased by
the addition of a mineral acid.

The authors desire to express their thanks to the
McCaughey Research Fund of the University of Sydney
for a grant in aid of the work.

Department of Organic Chemistry,
University of Sydney.

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM CULTIVATED EUCALYPTS. 55

“NOTES ON THE ESSENTIAL OILS FROM SOME
CULTIVATED EUCALYPTS.”’

Part. 4.

By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.1., F.C.S.
Economic Chemist, Technological Musewm, Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, June 2, 1926.)

Beyond the few references in ‘‘Eucalypts and their
essential Oils’’ (2nd edition) by Baker & Smith, and
Bulletin No. 5 (Technological Museum), ‘‘Some valuable
essential oil-yielding Plants of Australia worthy of
Attention’’ by the author, very little information has been
published concerning essential oils obtained from
eucalyptus trees cultivated in Australia. Various reports
have been published from time to time regarding oils
distilled from trees grown in various parts of Africa, such |
as in Algeria, Nigeria, Rhodesia, ete., but some of the
authors have erred in their summarisation of the results.

In comparing the yields and composition of the African
oils with the published figures for Australian trees they
have failed to make due allowance for the variations which
occur with differences in the composition of the soil,
altitude, climatic conditions (whether wet or dry seasons
preceded the cutting of the leaves), season of year when
leaves cut, accessibility to moisture, ete. On this account
I purpose recording from time to time the results obtained
in the examination of a number of oils distilled from trees
cultivated in New South Wales. The present investigation
treats of the oils obtained over a period from trees grown
from seed by Mr. E. Cheel at his residence at Ashfield,
near Sydney, and to whom I am indebted for the

56 A. R. PENFOLD.

opportunity thus presented of examining such material.
The trees were all grown in good garden soil having access
to a moderate quantity of moisture. :

EUCALYPTUS AUSTRALIANA.

(Seed collected at Wyndham, N.S. Wales and sown at
Ashfield in 1917.)
The leaves and terminal branchlets, cut as for commercial
purposes, on distillation with steam, yielded crude oils,
which on examination gave the following results :—

Yield i nin ; Solubility Percent- Presence
Date. of diz a n? in 70% age of of phel-
oil. D D alcohol. cineol. landrene

24/10/1922 2.6% 0.9221 +2.5° 1.4634 1.1-volumes 60% absent
16/12/1925 2.4% 0.9223 +38.0° 1.4640 1.1 do. 56% do.

The freshly cut leaves were weighed and distilled within
a few hours after removal from the tree.

The oil of Eucalyptus Australiana, probably the best
cineol oil for pharmaceutical purposes, has been distilled
for a number of years in the Nerrigundah, Yourie, Burraga,
and Wyndham districts of N.S. Wales. The bulk of the
oil came from Nerrigundah and Yourie, and possessed
chemical and physical characters identical with those given
above for cultivated material. Unfortunately, the oil
procured at Wyndham always possessed a slight laevo-
rotation, usually about —3.6°, and although it contained
from 56-60% cineol, yet phellandrene was present in
small quantity, quite sufficient to prohibit its use for
medicinal purposes. A typical analysis was, as follows :—
specific gravity, 0.9155; optical rotation, — 3.6°, refrac-
tive index, 20°, 1.4628, cineol, 60%, phellandrene present
in moderate amount. Consequently, as it failed to meet the
requirements of the various pharmacopeeias, the distillers
were compelled to give up its distillation and vacate the
district. It was considered that probably some constituent .
of the soil was responsible for the production of phellan-

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM CULTIVATED EUCALYPTS. 57

pene, and on a visit to the district in 1917, Mr.
Cheel collected seeds of the tree for testing purposes. The
results obtained from the cultivated tree appear to confirm
the above assumption as the oil yielded chemical and
physical constants identical with that of Hucalyptus
Australiana from other parts of the State, the phellandrene
having dropped out with consequent alteration in the
optical activity. The crude oil was of a pale lemon-tint,
which became water-white on rectification. The aroma was
excellent on account of the smali quantity of citral
present, a characteristic feature of the fine grades of this
oil.

EucALypTus MAcARTHURI.
(Seed collected at Wingello, N.S. Wales and sown at
Ashfield in 1920. )
The freshly-cut leaves and terminal branchlets, cut as
for commercial purposes, yielded on distillation with steam,
-erude oils, possessing the following characters :—

Yield Sollbility
15° 20 20 ; Geranyl Ger- Eudes-
Date. aie d a: a n., a acetate, aniol mol.

7/3/1928 0.74% 0.9257 +3.5° 1.4696 1.2-vol. 70.2% 6% 16.2%
19/8/1925 0.5% 0.9856 +4.8° 1.4771 1.3-vol. 61.9% 8% 25.0%
Attention was drawn to the remarkably high yield of
0.74% for this oil in Bulletin No. 5, and the results are
reproduced herewith for purposes of comparison, but the
second cutting of the leaves from the same tree yielded
0.5% of oil containing a lower percentage of geranyl
acetate and geraniol with a corresponding increase in
eudesmol. Even so, the latter yield is a very good one for
this species, as trees grown in other situations, such as
at Longueville and Croydon, from the same batch of
seedlings, the leaves from which were cut during the same
season as the first distillation mentioned above (yield
0.74%), gave 0.2% and 0.26% of oil respectively. The
ester content calculated as geranyl acetate was found to

58 A. R. PENFOLD.

be 75% and 67% respectively. The increased yield of
oil from material cultivated at Ashfield is doubtlessly due
to the richer soil and greater accessibility to moisture, and
shows in a very striking manner the influence of ecological
conditions not only in regard to yields of oil but variations
in composition. The oils from cultivated trees were all of
a pale yellow colour, very much superior, not only in this.
respect, but especially in odour, to the usual commercial
samples.

EUCALYPTUS RADIATA (NUMEROSA MAIDEN).
(Seed collected at Hill Top and sown at Ashfield in 1918.)
The leaves and terminal branchlets, cut as for com-
mercial purposes, yielded on distillation with steam a.
bright yellow oil of excellent aroma, which gave the fol-

lowing results on examination :—

Yield Solubliity Piper-
Date. of qis* a2? 1 nt? i 809% itol

oil. z D D alcohol. ester.

March, 1923 2.7% 0.8884 —55.4° 1.4771 0.6-volume 19.5% 20%:
These results are in good agreement with those recorded

Piper-
itol.

for distillations made from ordinary material collected in
various parts of the southern districts of this State, with
the exception that the piperitol content is the highest that
has yet been observed for this oil. The age of the tree:
and the favourable conditions of cultivation readily
account for the high yield of this alcohol.
HUCALYPTUS CITRIODORA.
(Seed sown in 1916.)
Leaves and terminal branchlets, cut as for commercial

purposes, yielded on distillation with steam, crude oils,
possessing the following characters :—

Yield i Solubility Citron-
Date. of qt Ons mo? . am0% ellal
oil. D D alcohol. Content.

May, 1918 0.84% 0.8607 —1° 1.4498 1.2-vols. 98%.
Oct., 1919 1.00% ~ 08657) — it h451b) aa 95%:
Now., 1921 0.5% 0.8692 +0° 1.45386 12 ,, 95%
Aug., 1925 0.61% 0.8667 —0.85° 1.4558 1.3 ,, 90%
May, 1926 0.5% 0.8705 —0.25° 1.4547 1.3 ,, 90%:

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM CULTIVATED EUCALYPTS. 59:

All the oils thus obtained were of a pale lemon tint, some
almost water-white, and of superior aroma to the ordinary
commercial oils. The first two distillations were carried
out on material from one particular tree, whilst the other
three represent the distillates obtained from leaves col-
lected from four trees. In view of the fact that the trees
were obtained from the one lot of seed which were planted
at the same time in the one allotment at Ashfield, there is
a wide variation in the yields of the two groups, and to a
lesser extent in the characters of the oils. The writer has
published figures showing the ordinary field material to
average about 0.75% in yield of oil, whilst that of culti-
vated material varies from 1% to 1.5%. In the analyses
given in the above table, a series of vields are recorded
lower than those obtained from the trees in Queensland.
The difference may, however, be due to a particular race
existing within the species, as a number of distillations
made from material collected from aged trees growing in
the western suburbs of Sydney yielded nothing under 1%
of oil, caleulated on the fresh material, the greater pro-
portion of yields being from 1.2% to 1.8%, whilst the
oils contained from 95 to 98% of citronellal.

In conclusion, my best thanks are due to Mr. E. Cheel,
who is doing so much valuable pioneering work in this
particular sphere, and to Mr. F. R. Morrison, A.A.c.1., F.C.S.,
Assistant Economie Chemist, for h’s usual assistance in
the examination of the oils.

60 PHYLLIS M. NICOL.

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE OP2ICAG
PROPERTIES OF SELENIUM IN THE
CONDUCTING FORM.

By Puyuuis M. Nicou, M-Se.
Sctence Research Scholar of the University of Sydney.

Communicated by Prorsessor O. U. VoNWwILuER, B.Sc.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, June 2, 1926.)

The resistance of selenium in the conducting form
depends on the temperature at which transformation from
the vitreous form occurred, changes with the length of
time of exposure to light and shows an age effect. Since
the optical properties of a metal are connected with the
conductivity, in the case of selenium it is not unreasonable
to look for some variations in the optical constants similar
to those that occur in the conductivity, though as the
conductivity is small the variations, if any, may also be
very small. In this connection an investigation of the
optical properties of selenium was undertaken.

For selenium the value of the coefficient of extinction is
low, and the usual katoptric methods of determining the
optical constants do not yield accurate results, since the
angles to be measured are small. The method of Drude
using a Babinet compensator had been tried previously by
Mr. R. J. Gillings in this laboratory. The quarter wave
plate method was tested and, by suitable choice of the
angle of incidence and of the azimuth, values of the optical
constants were obtained which at best had an error of 5%.

The principal azimuth method was found unsatisfactory,
because at the polarising angle the ratio of the reflection
eoefficient for the light polarised perpendicular to the

THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SELENIUM. 61

plane of incidence to that for light polarised in the plane of
incidence is very small. Also a method using multiple
reflections was inapplicable because the reflecting power
for the horizontal component is small, and on a second
reflection the light is practically plane polarised.

Employing a method due to Jamin (Annales de Chimie
et Physique Vol. 19, 3rd series 1847), it was possible to
measure the angles involved with considerable accuracy.
In spite of the fact that individual readings were de-
pendent on the position of the eye, a difficulty that could
not be overcome, it is reasonably certain that the angles
finally obtained, each the mean of eighty readings, were
correct to 15-20 minutes, but unfortunately the form of the
expression used to calculate the optical constants was such
that the method does not lend itself to accurate determina-
tions with substances for which the phase difference set up
between the horizontal and the vertical components of the
reflected light is small; this is the case for selenium, except
for angles near the polarising angle, and here the method
is unsuitable on account of the smallness of the ratio of the
horizontal to the vertical component of the reflected light.

An attempt was also made to use a Boys radiomicrometer
as detector of the hght energy; however the instrument
was not sufficiently sensitive to be used in the visual
spectrum.

The method finally adopted was a modification of the
quarter-wave plate method, a Babinet compensator, with
attached Nicol prism, being used as an analyser. If plane
polarised light falls on a Babinet compensator, so that the
plane of polarisation coincides with one of the principal
planes of the compensator, when the field is viewed through
a Nicol prism bands will not be seen no matter how the
Nicol prisn: is turned. Thus a Babinet compensator may
be used as an analyser and is capable of yielding a very

62 PHYLLIS M. NICOL.

much higher degree of accuracy than a simple Nicol prism,
because it is easier to decide when the bands disappear, or
most nearly disappear, than to fix a position of extinction,
which in practice means fixing a position of minimum
brightness.

The figure shows the arrangement of the apparatus
which consisted of a spectrometer fitted with a Nicol prism
P, the polariser, and a Babinet compensator and Nicol
prism C, the analyser, each mounted in a graduated
vertical circle with a vernier reading to one minute, and
a holder for a quarter-wave plate Q similarly mounted and
reading to a twelfth of a degree. The source was a
pointolite lamp S and combinations of Wratten filters F
were used to give suitable spectral regions. A sodium
flame was sometimes used instead and was placed close to
A. M is the selenium mirror.

The following notation will be used :—

¢, the azimuth of the plane of polarisation of the
incident light with the plane of incidence.

6, the angle of incidence.

6, the phase difference between the vertical and
horizontal components of the reflected light.

w, the ratio of the minor axis of the vibration ellipse
to the major axis.

y, the inclination of the major axis to the vertical.

v), the refractive index.

Ko, the coefficient of extinction.

x, the ratio of the reflection coefficient for light
polarised perpendicular to the plane of incidence
to that for light polarised in the plane of
incidence.

The quarter-wave plate and compensator are rotated in
turn until the bands disappear, then y is given by the
inclination of an axis of the quarter-wave plate to the

THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SELENIUM. 63

vertical and w by the angle between a principal plane of the
compensator and an axis of the quarter-wave plate. In
practice there was no difficulty in deciding whether an
angle or its complement should be taken. «, and » were
calculated by means of the equations below (see Schuster,
Theory of Optics, Chapt. XI.).

, areas sin® @

ie ( 2M a KK?)
RnR OM Fe tee 3 (1)

2 6
EN traces
ae ee
where M and K are given by
Msn 6 tan @ cos 2y cos 2¥
1 —sin 2y cos 2y

eae re (2)

K sin @ tan 6 sin 2p

1 —sin 2y cos 2y

Equations (2) above are only true if ¢ = 45°; when ¢ has
any other value they take the form :—
M= sin @ tan 6 (cos 2 cos 2y — cos 2¢)
1 — cos 2¢ cos 2Y cos 2y — sin 2¢ cos 2w sin 2y
iy: sin 6 tan 6 sin ¢ sinw
~ 1—cos 2¢ cos 2y cos 2y — sin 2¢ cos 2W sin 2y

Serious instrumental errors were found in the spectro-
Scope and in order to eliminate them it was necessary to
take readings in sixty-four different positions. For any
given azimuth there are four positions of the polariser,
for each of which there are four positions of the quarter-
wave plate and for each of these there are four positions
of the Babinet compensator, making in all sixty-four
positions. One reading was taken in each.

The necessity for finding zero readings for the quarter-
wave plate and the compensator is eliminated and the
calculation very greatly reduced by the fact that 2y and 2y
ean be found directly from the readings. For positions

64 PHYLLIS M. NICOL.

of the polariser 90° apart, the axis of the vibration ellipse :
are equally inclined to the vertical, but are on opposite
sides of it, so that the difference between corresponding
readings of the quarter-wave plate give 2y directly.
Similarly with the polariser fixed, for two positions of the
quarter-wave plate separated by 90°, the directions of
vibration for the restored plane polarised light are equally
inclined to an axis of the quarter-wave plate, but on
opposite sides, so that the difference between the
compensator readings gives 2y.

It was necessary to take the values of y in two sets as
the quarter-wave plates were not accurate and the values.
of y obtained with the quarter-wave plate in two positions.
differing by approximately a right angle were not equal.
It is easy to show that the mean of these two values gives.
the correct value of y and that the observed value of yp
must be corrected as follows :—

bannee tan vy,

144 tan® a( —tan*y,)

re)
tan” wy,
where y, is the corrected and y, the observed value of
w, and 2a is the difference between the observed values of y.

In most of the work this correction was small and could
be neglected.

Portion of a typical set of readings is given in tables I,
II and III, and the method of finding y and y is shown. The
set was obtained with red light (A = 6470 —7100) for a
pure selenium mirror transformed at 190°, the angle of
incidence was 60° and the azimuth 45°. Table I.- gives
one fourth of the readings obtained for the quarter-wave
plate, namely those for one position of the quarter-wave
plate and sixteen different positions of the polariser and
Babinet compensator. The first row in table III. (a) is
obtained by subtracting (2) from (1) in table I. and the

THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SELENIUM. 65

second, third and fourth rows from the corresponding
readings taken for positions of the quarter-wave plate 180°,
90° and 270° respectively, from the first position. The
results are arranged in two groups as shown, on account
of the inaccuracy in the quarter-wave plate mentioned
above. In table II. are found the readings for the four
positions of the Babinet compensator for two positions of
the polariser 180° apart from one another and for all
four positions of the quarter-wave plate; from this table
by subtracting (1) from (2) and (5) from (6) the first
and third rows of table III. (b) are obtained, and the
second and fourth rows are similarly obtained from the
corresponding readings for positions of the polariser 90°
from the first positions.

The errors in 2y and 2y are partly due to instrumental
faults. It was assumed that in taking a complete set of
readings they would be eliminated, and as no means of
allowing for them could be found, in estimating the prob-
able error they were treated as errors of observation, the
probable error being calculated by means of a formula:

oor
nvVn

Error =

Usually it is necessary to find the positions in which the
bands most nearly disappear, for it is exceptional for them
to vanish completely. This seems to be due partly to 1m-
perfections in the mirrors, and partly to irregularities in
the quarter-wave plate and Babinet compensator.

A circular aperture large enough for the whole field of
view to be illuminated is placed at A (see fig.), and sharp
focussing of the telescope is not necessary, a fact which
enables the method to be used for the study of very poor
mirrors, which would not give a sharp image. A slit is
placed at A when fixing the angle of incidence.

_E—June 2, 1926.

66

Dae is(\ ces as

PHYLLIS M. NICOL.

Fr

TABLE, I.
QUARTER WAVE PLATE.
Polariser. | B.C. (1). | B.G. (2). | B.C. G).2) 3B ee?
64° 81’ Ti 2b: 717° 25’ 77° AQ’ | aye BY
244° 56’ Ts 77° 30’ 17° 58’ Cea
Mean 77° 45’ 77° 28" TT AG ay ITT 12" = GL)
154° 31’ 41° 50’ Ate 5’ 41° 35° | Jager:
334° 56’ 41° 20’ 41° 5’ 41° 5’ Ai? 15°
Mean 41° 35’ 41° 5’ Al” 90" ee
TABLE J.
BABINET COMPENSATOR.
Polariser.|Q.W. P.|B.C. (1)./B.C. (2)./B.C. (3).| B.C. (4).
64°81 1) 97°. 17° 19’ | 107° 28’ | 196° 48’ |287° 44’
257° 17° 12’ | 107° 20’ | 196° 57’ |287° 32’
Mean 17°15’ | 107° 24’ | 196° 53’ |287° 38’ - (1)
169° 28° 24’ | 119° 4’ | 208° 56’ 298° 33’
249° 28° 58’ | 118° 50’ | 208° 53’ 298° 54’
Mean 28° 41’ | 118°57’| 208° 54’ 298° 44’ - (2)
244° 56’ | 77° 17° 3’ |. 107° 33"| 197° 4" jose aa:
257° 16°51’ | 107° 21’ | 196° 55’ |287° 55’
Mean 16° 57’ | 107° 27’ | 197°0’ 1288757) 245)
169° 28° 26’ | 118° 47’ | 208° 30’ |299° 8’
249° 28° 14’ | 119° 21’| 208° 26’ |299° 6’
Mean 28° 20’| 119° 4’ | 208° 28’|299° 7’ - (6)

ny

—$—$_—____——

THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SELENIUM. 67

TABLE III. (a) 2y

36° 10’ 86° 23’ 36° 29’ | 35° 57’

36° 25’ 26°67 36°29" | 35° 40’
Mean 36°12’ + 15’,

40° 31’ 39° 5d’ 40° 7’ 39°27"

40° 17’ 302.59" 40° 6’ 39° 43’

Mean 39°57’ + 19’.

Deas Ore a aaah
Ae Po 4b

TABLE III. (b) 2y.

11° 26’ | ila least 122 16 i ea oe
10° 0’ ala 10° 14’ 11° 45’
L238! 11? 37’ £17}28' 1 2’

10° 18’ de 2or 10° 47’ 10° 51’
Due ==. il iS) Oe,

Preparation of Mirrors.

As the supply of pure selenium was limited, the com-
mercial material was used during the earlier part of the
work. Molten selenium was poured on a hot glass plate and
covered with another hot glass plate, allowed to cool, and
then transformed in an electric oven at a definite tempera-
ture. A few mirrors were obtained by this method of
-easting, but it was not satisfactory. Some mirrors were
prepared by grinding and polishing, but an objection to
grinding is, that owing to the contraction on transforma-
tion, the selenium is full of cavities and the ground surface
is pitted; however, by grinding a large number of pieces
some were obtained fairly free from pits, which on
‘polishing gave moderately good mirrors, but not as good as
those that were cast. An attempt to burnish was a failure.
The best method of preparation of mirrors using the
commercial selenium was to pour molten selenium on glass
and to leave it uncovered; on transformation one or two
out of half a dozen preparations had flat dull under-

68 PHYLLIS M. NICOL.

surfaces that on polishing gave fairly good mirrors. It
was much more difficult to obtain satisfactory results with
pure selenium; the method described above did not yield
flat mirrors, and it was practically impossible to obtain
ground mirrors sufficiently free from pits, and in any case
it was desirable to avoid grinding, for if the specimen,
proved worthless the selenium was no longer pure and so.
could not be used again. None of the mirrors of pure:
selenium were really good. Different results were obtained
with pure selenium from those obtained with the com-
mercial material when the same method was employed.
Some of the mirrors prepared by pouring selenium on hot
glass and leaving it uncovered, as described above, had
bright smooth under-surfaces, somewhat curved, which
could be ground slightly to give moderately flat surfaces
without many pits forming, though care had to be takeu
that the grinding was not carried too far. Mirrors obtained
by this means are described as partly ground. They had,.
of course, to be polished.

Some pieces of selenium that had been ground and had
not given satisfactory mirrors were cleaned as well as
possible and made again into mirrors. The nature of the
surfaces of these specimens was entirely different from
those of pure selenium, and seemed to indicate that small
quantities of impurities very materially change the nature
of the surfaces.

A number of mirrors prepared at various temperatures
were finally obtained.

The Results.
~The aim of the investigation as mentioned above
was to ascertain whether there is any dependence
of the optical properties upon the temperature of
transformation. The results obtained for a number of
mirrors prepared at different temperature are given in

THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SELENIUM. 69

table IV., and it will be seen that there is no regular varia-
won Of Kk, and vy, with the temperature of preparation,
although «x, and v, vary within fairly wide limits. There
is an indication that the values of v», for mirrors prepared
by grinding are less, and the values of x, greater than for
mirrors that have only been polished.

An age effect was also looked for, by determining », and
«, for a mirror on the day on which it was prepared, and
again on the following day, but the differences between the
_ values of v, and «x, were within the experimental error; of
course a change occurring very quickly could not be
detected by this means. At one time it was thought that
in the case of some mirrors, a change of optical properties
‘with time of exposure had been detected, but further
investigation showed that this was not the case.

As Mr. Gillings, using Drude’s method, obtained results
which indicated that there was a variation in the optical
constants with the angle of incidence, this point was in-
vestigated; results were obtained for a mirror of commer-
cial selenium, using green light for angles of incidence 50°,
60° and 70°, and for a mirror of pure selenium using
green light for angles of incidence, 40°, 50°, 60°, 65° and
70°, and red light for angles of incidence of 50°, 60°,
70° ; in all cases the variations in v, and x, with the angle
of incidence lie within the experimental error. Much
greater accuracy can be obtained by this method than by
Drude’s, so that it appears that the variations noted by
Mr. Gillings must be attributed to experimental error due
to instrumental limitations.

From table IV. it will be seen that «, decreases and v,
increases as A increases. From the work done with the
Boys radiomicrometer, some indication of the values of
&, and vo in the infra-red was obtained. x, is certainly

TABLE IV.

‘ 6470 - 5890 — 4900 - 4400 —
Mirror. | @ | @ |A=m7100 |A=5806 |4=5190 | 4=ag00
ive ie MY, KS ie Ky UG | K,
Pure Se 60° | 45° | 2.94 yi 2.75 | 1.03 | 2.77 | 1.09 | 2.74 | 1.18
158-159° 2% | 4% | 27 | 23% | 27 Moon en eee
ground and | 60° | 45° | 2.94 | 0.82 Pe aly: i : i
polished | 83% | 4%
159.5-160.5° | 60° | 45° 3 02 | 1.00
Pure Se 135% |\ 4%
Partly gr. . | 60° | 45° | 3.18 | 0.74 3.00 | 1.04 | 3.04 | 1.05
and polished 2575 | 67, 3% | 5% | 2% | 2%
177-180° 60° | 45° | 2.93 | 0.79 | 2.89 | 0.90 | 2.74 | 1.02
Pure Se 13%) 3% |, 275\ Sel eBe aeeee
ground and | 68° | 70° | 3.04 | 0.75 2.8 | 1.08
polished ¥ WALA OE%.| gia
178-180° 60° | 45° | 3.06 | 0.56
Se may Wag aA
contain
polishing
material
189.5-190° 60° | 45° | 3.02 | 0.69 2,76 | 1.046
Pure Se as, |e OF Bee
partly gr. 60° | 45° | 3.05 | 0.70 2.78 | 1.048
and polished 27>, | kD, 27 ae
186-190° 60° | 45° | 3.00 | 0.66
Commercial 13% | 547
Se. ground
and polished
190-192° 40° | 45° | | 282) 2
Pure Se. 33% | 5%
ground and | 50° | 45° | 3.05 | 0.82 2.80 | 1.176
polished 3% | 8% 3% | 5% |
60° | 45° | 3.04] 0.81 | 2.91 | 1.07 | 2.78 | 1.15 | 2.75 | 1.27 |
1% | 9% | 14%| 28% | 3% | 4% | 480% | 43% |
65° | 55° | 2.78 | 1.16 !
5% | 5%
7O° | 45° | 3°02 | 0.78 2.75 | 1.14
1% | 37 8% | 4% :
190-192° G02 | 45° | 3.04 | 0.48 | 3.06 | 0.77 | 2.91 | 0.90
Pure Se 37% | 64 | 27% | 457 | 28% | 37
polished 60° | 45° 8.02 0.45
3) 6%
199-200° 60° | 45° | 2.7 | 0.93 2.59 | 1.06
Pure Se. 2% | 4% 4% | 2%
polished 60° | 45° | 2.8 | 0.87
2h | 44%
200-201° 60° | 45° 2.73 | 0.98
Pure Se. 3% | «4%
partly gr. 60° | 45° 2.80 | 1.02
and polished BY | 4%
197-201° 60° | 45° | 3.36 | 0.52 3.02 | 3.96
Commercial | 2 eri 2% | AZ
Se. cast. ;
200-202° 60° | 45° | 3.06 | 0.62 2.87 | 0.94 :
Pure Se. 47% | 8% 3% | 4%
polished

Below each reading is given the estimated possible error:
expressed as a percentage.

THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SELENIUM. rg

very small in that region, and all that could be done was
to assign an upper limit to it and to find an approximate
value for v.
The values obtained for a mirror of commercial selenium

transformed at 186 to 189° were—

Vy eee,

k, 18 less than 0.1.
These results indicate that the refractive index in the near
infra-red is not very different from that in the visible red,
and that x, decreases rapidly in that region. In the
work with the Boys radiomicrometer the source was the
pointolite lamp and a water cell of one centimeter thick-
ness was used, so that the effective radiation was a wide
band in the near infra-red, together with visible light, but
it was shown that the latter did not affect the instrument
appreciably. It is hoped to extend the work in the infra-

red.

The result found for visible light that the optical proper-
ties do not depend on the temperature of preparation was
confirmed in the infra-red, for tan yx was determined for
a number of mirrors prepared at different temperatures,
and no regular variation with temperature of preparation
was found, but the experimental error was greater in this
case. An attempt to ascertain whether the optical proper-
ties varied with time of exposure to the light yielded a
negative result. There was an indication that the re-
flective power increased with the time of exposure, but the
change was within the experimental error.

It has recently been found possible to obtain good
mirrors by casting the selenium on glass and transforming
over a Bunsen burner. Of course, if this method is used,
the temperature of transformation is not known, but it
has been shown that this is not important.. Several mirrors
prepared in this way were examined for an age effect. The

72 PHYLLIS M. NICOL.

first reading was usually taken not later than fifteen
minutes after transformation had occurred, but no definite
effect was observed.

Summary.

A katoptrie method suitable for the investigation of the
optical properties of selenium in the conducting form has
been devised. Methods of preparing mirrors are described.
The values of v, and x, depend on the method of prepara-
tion of the reflecting surface (casting on glass, polishing,
grinding, ete.), the values obtained being as follows :—

— 6470-7100 pea 18 ky = 0.45-0.93
A = 5890-5896 yy 2.75 -3.0e Pe pe)
dA = 4900-5190 Yo = 2,59-3.02 ty = O08
d’ = 4400-4800 Hp SRLS ep. Abe

The error in any determination was usually not more than
3 per cent. for vy, and 5 per cent. for x. There is an
indication that in the infra-red vy, = 2.6, and x, is less than
0.1.

It was found that the optical properties do not depend
on the temperature of transformation to the conducting
form, and that the changes, if any, in the optical constants
with length of exposure to light or with age lie within
the experimental error.

This investigation was carried out in the Physical
Laboratory of the University of Sydney under the direction
of Professor Vonwiller, whom I wish to thank heartily for
his constant advice and interest.

ose| aia

ESSENTIAL OILS OF LEPTOSPERMUM LANIGERUM. 73

THE ESSENTIAL OILS OF LEPTOSPERMUM
LANIGERUM (SMITH).

(Part 24)

By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.1L, F.C.S.
Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, July 7, 1926.)

The botany of this Myrtaceous shrub has been very fully
described in Bentham’s ‘‘Flora Australiensis,’’ Vol. IIL,
p. 106. It isa tall shrub, fairly widely distributed through-
out N.S. Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania,
and is usually found on the banks of creeks and water
courses, being extremely plentiful in the southern district
of New South Wales. It appears to possess very variable
botanical characters, and on that account, the present in-
vestigation treats of the material collected from one dis-
trict, Monga, 12 miles on the Clyde Road from Braidwood,
New South Wales. The writer seems to have been suc-
cessful in observing two very distinct and extreme forms
of this plant, as apart from the marked differences in the
chemical and physical characters of the oil, the material
is readily differentiated in the field. Two collections were
made by the Museum collector and one by a local resident,
Mr. H. McRae, and in each ease the collectors were able
to secure supplies of the two forms without apparent ad-
mixture, from hand specimens of herbarium material.

The material which is being accepted as the type has
long, somewhat narrow leaves from 1 to 14 inches in
length, well protected with long silky hairs on both sides.
From a distance the plant possesses a characteristic ‘‘sil-
~very’’ sheen which readily differentiates it from the form

74 A. R. PENFOLD.

‘‘A,’’ having shorter and more obovate leaves, about:

il
too, is much more woolly than in the type form.

Both forms have ready accessibility to water, and grow

ce

in close proximity to one another, although the “‘silvery’’

type is the only one so far observed which follows the banks:

or creeks for many miles. The leaves of the ‘‘silver’’ leaf
or type form when crushed between the fingers, do not
emit any particularly characteristic odour, whereas the

‘‘oreen’’ leaf (form ‘‘A’’) yields a pleasant ester-like-

odour, typical of darwinol and its acetic acid ester, and
pinene. Botanists do not appear to be able to separate

these two forms on morphological grounds, preferring to:

view them as extreme forms of one another, an opinion
with which I am in agreement for the present, until such
time as further careful botanical investigation proves the

‘‘oreen’’ leaf form to be worthy of specific, or at least,.

varietal rank. The general chemical and physical charac-

ters readily differentiate them from one another, the:

chemical composition being of exceptional interest.

The Essential Oils.

The essential oils obtained from the three consignments.
of leaves and terminal branchlets from Monga, New South
Wales, varied from a bright yellow to a deep brownish.
yellow in colour, the silver leaf type possessing a cinnamon--
like odour, whilst the green leaf form was more mobile and

possessed an extremely pleasant odour of pinene mingled

with that of darwinol and its acetic acid ester. The:

principal constituents which have so far been identified
are as follows :—

Silver leaf.—Sesquiterpenes (aromadendrene and eudes-
mene), 60-75%, d-a-pinene, 16-20%, with small quantities

of sesquiterpene alcohol and isovalerianic acid ester,.

$ inch in length, of a bright green colour. “The: ealyz.

—

ESSENTIAL OILS OF LEPTOSPERMUM LANIGERUM. 15

geraniol, geraniol formate and cinnamate, citral, cineol,
and unidentified phenolic bodies.

Green leaf.—d-a-pinene, 40-60%, darwinol and its acetic
acid ester 40-45%, with small quantities of sesquiterpene,
sesquiterpene alcohol and esters, and unidentified phenolic
bodies.

Experimental.

A total collection of 578 lbs. and 626 lbs. respectively of
both kinds of leaves and terminal branchlets collected from
Monga, New South Wales, yielded on distillation with
steam, crude oils possessing the chemical and physical
characters, as shown in table :—

| SILVER LEAF.

: Solubility Ester No.
Weight Vs 2° m2 i ‘80%. Ester No after
Date. of Yield diz D D in °/o | 42 hours | acetyl-

leaves | of oil alcohol | “hot sap ation
| (by wt.) Sveeand 1thrs. hot.

10.4.1922) 135tbs} 0°28 |0°91'78) +0° 1°4928) insol. in} 12°81 62°59
10 vols. | (acid

No. ¢)
23.4.1924| 215ibs} 0°33 | 0°9152) +10°5°|1°4890| partly 16°29 83°17
sol, do.
28.8.1925| 228ibs} 0°33 | 0°9231} +6°5°2 | 1°4904) sol. in | 29°63 | 100°08
7 vols.

GREEN LEAF (Form “A”)

| | | |
6.41922] 172tbs, 0°46 |0°9047) +380°5°! 1°4756 6:5 vol 42°67 | 92°15
| (acid
No. 2) |
23 4.1924] 2311bs| 0°47 0°9242) +82°2°) 1:4'783) 1:0 vol. | 56°89 150°32

28.8.1925) 223Ibs) 0°67 0°9148 +30°1°| 1°4770| 1:0 vol. | 49°18 | 140°22

Each consignment of oil was examined in detail, the
oils being first treated with 8% sodium hydroxide solution
to remove free acid and phenolic constituents, and then
with alcoholic potash solution to decompose the esters
present. On distillation, these treated oils behaved as
follows :—

76 A. R. PENFOLD.

Boiling point. Volume dis a ne
230 c.c. (1924 lot).
56-60° at 20 mm. 40 c.c. | 0.8643 | +28° 1.4661
60-65° do. 15 ¢.c. | 0.8682 | +21.6° | 1.4667
up to 120° 10 mm. 27 e.e) |. -0:9005 sees 1.4846
120-150° at 10 mm. 110 c.c. 0.9274 | + 1.75°| 1.4986
190 c.c. (1925 lot).
Below 60° at 10 mm. 28 ¢.c..| 0.8653. p24 1.4660
60-120° do. PATIO On 0.9005 | + 0° 1.4841
120-135° do. 63 c.c. 0.9187 | — 2.6° 1.4949
13> (10 mim?) “to
143° at 5 mm. 50 c.c: | 0.9516 | + 527° aF abeae

Determination of Terpenes.—The fractions boiling below
65° at 20 mm. were repeatedly distilled over metallic
sodium at 769 mm., when the following fractions were
obtained :-—

Boiling point. dis Wee ne
154-156° 0.8641 +29.65° 1.4660
157-159° 0.8656 20-0 1.4662
159-168° 0.8678 sei 1.4672

The fraction distilling at 154-156° was used in the fol-
lowing experiments for the determination of d-a-pinene :—

32 ¢.e. were shaken with 67 g. powdered potassium
permanganate, 800 ¢c.c. water and 450 g. ice, until the
reaction was completed. On subsequent treatment (See
this Journal, 1923, p. 52, 242), about 15 g. pinonic acid were
obtained distilling at 176-182° at 5 mm. On prolonged
cooling in the ice-chest crystals of the solid acid separated,
which on purification from petroleum ether (B. pt., 50-
60°), melted at 70°. The semicarbazone prepared there-
from melted at 207°; 0.7244 2. of the acid in 10 ee.
chloroform gave [a]# + 90°.

ESSENTIAL OILS OF LEPTOSPERMUM LANIGERUM. 7

Examination for B-pimene.—Oxidation of fraction 159-
168° with alkaline potassium permanganate yielded a small
quantity of a sparingly soluble sodium salt, from which an
acid resembling nopinic acid was separated. The melting:
point, however, could not be raised above 112°.

Determination of Cineol—The above mentioned fraction.
was found to contain a small quantity of a constituent
which was not oxidised under the conditions of the experi-
ment. It was available in too small a quantity for the
determination of its constants, but it possessed an odour
much like cineol, confirmation of which was obtained by
the preparation of the iodol compound melting at 112°.

Determination of Geranol.—Fraction No. 3 (1925 Lot)
63 ¢.¢., on treatment with phthalic anhydride in benzene
solution was found to contain about 10% geraniol. It was
confirmed by oxidation to citral, and the preparation of
the silver salt of the phthalic acid ester which on purifi-
cation from methyl alcohol melted at 133°.

In order to determine if this alcohol were present in the
free condition as well as in the form of an ester, a separate
portion of the crude oil was fractionated at 5 mm., and the
portion boiling between 85-128° (40 ¢.c ), was reserved
for examination. On treatment in the usual way with
phthalic anhydride in benzene solution, about 1 ee. of
alcohol resembling geraniol was obtained. It was inactive,
and possessed a refractive index of 1.4760 at 20°. It
yielded citral on oxidation, and the silver salt of the
phthalic acid ester melted at 183°. The crude oil was.
then treated with alcoholic potash solution to decompose
any ester present, and on further treatment with the
phthalic anhydride in benzene a further } c.c. of geraniol
was obtained, which was similarly identified as mentioned.
The geraniol is thus present in the uncombined condition-
as well as in the form of ester.

78 A. R. PENFOLD.

Determination of acids (cinnamic and formic) in com-
bination with the geraniol.—The alkaline liquor resulting
from the saponification of the special lot of oil used for the
determination of geraniol was evaporated to small bulk

and acidified with dilute sulphuric acid. The small quan- °

tity of solid acid which separated was filtered, dried, and
recrystallised from ethyl alcohol. It melted at 133°, and
gave all the general reactions for cinnamie acid. Its iden-
tity was confirmed by the method of mixed melting
point, using a specimen of Kahlbaum’s, there being no
depression, the melting point remaining at 133°. The
filtrate was subjected to steam distillation, and the water
soluble acid neutralised with ammonia solution. The
preparation of the silver salt, its colour reaction with
ferric chloride, and its reducing action upon mercury and
silver salts left no doubt as to its being formic acid.

Determination of citral—On account of the cinnamon-
like odour of the crude oil, a portion, 118 ¢.c., was shaken
with 35% neutral sulphite solution, but only 4 ec. of
citral was removed. Its identity was confirmed by the
preparation of citryl-8-napthocinchonie acid melting at
197°. Cinnamic aldehyde was not detected.

Determination of Sesquiterpenes—The high boiling
fractions of the 1924 and 1925 consignments were
repeatedly distilled over metallic sodium until the fol-
lowing final fractions were obtained :—

Boiling Point, 10 mm. dis vay atte

1924 Consignment:—

121-129° 0.9126 — 8.75° 1.4981

130-185° 0.9281 0; 1.5000
1925 Consignment:—

126-129° 0.9180 —-5° 1.4975

130-135 ° 0.9255 —3.1° 1.5002

150-160° 0.9685 +. .0" 1.5052

(Ester No. af-
| ter acetylation
142.)

—

ESSENTIAL OILS OF LEPTOSPERMUM LANIGERUM. 79

‘The first four fractions failed to yield any of the solid
derivatives characteristic of sesquiterpenes, but gave the
well-known colour reactions with bromine in acetic acid,
and sulphuric acid in acetic anhydride solutions.

Judging from previous experience with the sesquiter-
penes from Australian Myrtaceous plants, and the fact
that under the conditions of the experiments no solid
hydrochlorides were obtained, the writer feels justified
in concluding that they represent a mixture of aroma-
dendrene and eudesmene.

Determination of Sesquiterpene alcohol.—The fraction
distilling at 150-160° at 10 mm., measuring only about 23
¢.c. and apparently consisting of a mixture of sesquiter-
penes with sesquiterpene alcohol, was treated on the water
bath with twice its volume of 100% formic acid. The
sesquiterpene thus prepared on purification and repeated
distillation over metallic sodium yielded the following
chemical and physical characters :—

Boiling point, 130-132" at 10 mm., di? 0.9251, a, —1.4°
ny, 1.5066. It gave indigo-blue colorations with bromine
in acetic acid and sulphuric acid in acetic anhydride so-
lutions. The quantity available was too small for attempt-
ing the preparation of derivatives.

Determination of acids present as Esters.——The crude
potassium salts resulting from the decomposition of the
esters were acidified with dilute sulphuric acid, when on
standing a small quantity of a solid acid separated. This
was filtered off, dried, and recrystallised from ethyl alcohol
when it melted at 133°. It was confirmed as cinnamic
acid by the method of mixed melting point. The filtrate
was subjected to steam distillation and the volatile acids
fractionally separated. On neutralisation with ammonia
solution, the silver salts were prepared in the usual way.

80 A. R. PENFOLD.

On ignition of the various fractions the following results
were obtained.
Water-soluble acids.
1st fraction. 0.6024 g. silver salt gave 0.3588 g. silver
= 59.06% Ag.
2nd fraction. 0.8886 do. gave 0.2248 g. silver = 57.72% Ag.
drd fraction. 0.0810 do. gave 0.0412 g. silver = 50.86% Ag.
Oily acid.
0.1560 g. silver salt gave 0.05384 g. silver = 34.28% Ag.
Judging from the above results, the general chemical
deportment of the acids, and the difficulty of exact iden-
tification, the writer has deduced that they probably
represent a mixture of isovaleric acid and formic acids.
That formic acid is present has been definitely proved
and the silver salt of the volatile acid separated in the
course of one of the examinations was found to yield 68%
silver. The silver salt of formic acid contains 70.60% Ag.
The oily acid gave results closely approximating to lauric
acid (silver salt of laurie acid contains 35.1% Ag.), al-
though it might possibly be due to impure ecaprie acid.

Unidentified Phenolic bodies.—The crude oils on washing
with 8% sodium hydroxide solution yielded the following
quantities of unidentified liquid phenolic bodies :—

1924 lot. 200 e.c. gave 0.59 g.

1925 lot. 200 c.c. gave 2.73 g.
The colour reactions with ferric chloride in alcoholic go-
lution were very indefinite, although they appeared to
belong to the tasmanol-leptospermol group.

GREEN LEAF (Form “A’”).

Each consignment of oil was examined in detail, some
of the distillations being conducted upon the crude oil,
whilst others were first treated with 8% sodium hydroxide
solution and alcoholic potash solution for the removal of
phenolic constituents and esters.

ESSENTIAL OILS OF LEPTOSPERMUM LANIGERUM. 81

On distillation the following results were obtained, viz. :

Boiling point.

| |
5 a2 O 20
Volume | di2 | D eal
|

1922 lot (crude oil)—100 c.c. at 10 mm.—

45-49° 57 ¢.c. 0.8643 | +389.5° 1.4657
49-99° 5 ¢.c. es. |) A686
99-110° © 14 c.c. | 0.9550 +28.0° 1.4823
110-120° eceow] | ;
MaGhiER: opce.s 0:9575 | +15.4°| 1.4915

1924 lot (oil after treatment). 280 c.c. distilled.
Below 60° at 20 m.m.| 93 c.c. 0.8653 | +39.1°| 1.4654
60° at 20 mm. to

90 “at. 10 mm. |.15 c.c. 0.8852 | +388.2°| 1.4705
90-100° at 10 mm. | 98.c.c. 0.9487 | +81.8°| 1.4894
110-120° do. 15 c.e. 0.96138 | +28.5° | 1.4944
120-130° do. 40 c.e. 0.9684 | +17.0°| 1.5016

Determination of Terpenes——The fractions boiling be-
low 60° at 20 mm. were repeatedly distilled over me-
tallic sodium at atmospheric pressure when the greater
portion was obtained distilling at 155-157° at 770 mm.
The d-a-pinene thus obtained in each of the three dis-
tillations possessed the following average characters :—

d+3 0.8635 to 8644, a5° +389.8° to +40.5°
n’° 1.4652 to 1.4656.

On oxidation of 32 ¢.c. with potassium permanganate
under the conditions described under ‘‘silver’’ leaf in
the early part of this paper, pinonic acid was obtained
distilling at 176-182° at 5 mm. It readily solidified upon
cooling in the ice-chest and an excellent yield of crystals
was separated. On purification by means of petroleum
ether (B.pt. 50-60°) they melted at 70°; 0.1076 g. of the
acid in 10 ec. chloroform gave [a] Rea The
semicarbazone melted at 207°.

The hydrochloride of the terpene was also prepared,
and this on recrystallisation from ethyl alcohol melted at
131-132°. 0.8470 g. in 10 ¢.c. ethyl alcohol gave a reading
of +-2.8° —[a] 2° +33.06°

F—July 7, 1926,

82 A. R. PENFOLD.

Determination of Darwinol and its Ester.—It was found
that an acetic acid ester was concentrated in the fraction
distilling between 100-110° at 10 mm) @ie pM oGs.
a,+28.5°, m-° 1.4819, and that it was saponifiable with
alcoholic potash solution at room temperatures. The al-
cohol was, therefore, found to be concentrated in the
saponified oil (1924 lot) in the fraction boiling at 90-110°
at 10 mm. 93 ¢e.c., as shown in table above. This fraction on
heating with an equal weight of phthalic anhydride in
an oil bath at temperatures between 110-120°, or prefer-
ably in benzene solution on the water bath for a prolonged
period, and working up in the usual way, yielded a solid
phthalate of melting point 112°. On decomposition with
sodium hydroxide solution and subsequent steam distilla-
tion, a water-white, viscous oily alcohol was obtained
possessing the following characters (the mean of three
determinations ) :—

Boiling poimt-at 10 mm... JO07-110"

Specific gravity... .. .. .. 0:9802 46 02:9e0s
Optical rotation .. .. .. .. —+43.7° to +45.5°
Refractive index 20° .. .... 1.4924 to 1.4943

In general chemical and physical characters it very closely
resembled darwinol, an alcohol, C,)His0, separated from
the oil of Darwimia grandtflora (See This Journal, 1923,
52, 244) and the preparation of its characteristic deriva-
tive, the napthylisocyanate, confirmed its identity. This
napthylisocyanate prepared (as described on p. 245, l.c.),
melted at 87-88° when recrystallised from ethy] alcohol.
Although this particular derivative of the alcohol has been
prepared from three different sources, its melting point has
always been found to be either 86-87° or 87-88°. It was
found, in this instance, however, that if the derivative be
more rigorously purified tne melting point could be raised
to 90-91°. The variation between the constants of the

ESSENTIAL OILS OF LEPTOSPERMUM LANIGERUM. 83

-aleohol from the respective oils is doubtlessly due to the
preparation from the Darwinia oil being contaminated
with geraniol, a circumstance which was thought probable
(see p. 238, lLe.), but. which could not be proved
experimentally.

Determination of Combined Acids——The potash salts
resulting from the saponification of the esters were
separated, decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid and
steam distilled. The volatile acids thus obtained were
collected in fractions and neutralised with ammonia
solution and the silver salts prepared therefrom. The
following results were obtained on ignition :—

Water soluble acid:—

Ist fraction. 0.6883 g. silver salt gave 0.8954 g. silver
= 56.30% Ag.

2nd fraction. 0.4983 g. silver salt gave 0.38068 g. silver
= 62.19% Ag.

3rd fraction. 0.4719 g. silver salt gave 0.8002 g. silver
; = 63.62% Ag.

Ath fraction. 0.1687 g. silver salt gave 0.1086 g. silver
64,0000 Ag.

5th fraction. 0.4768 g. silver salt gave 0.8066 g. silver
= 64.30% Ag.

6th fraction. 0.2986 g. silver salt gave 0.1934 g. silver
= 64.76% Ag.

The potash and ammonium salts, on examination, gave
all the ordinary qualitative reactions for acetic acid. The
anhydrous sodium salt on distillation with phosphorie acid
yielded only acetic acid of boiling point 116° (u.c.) at 760
mm. The principal acid of the ester is, therefore, acetic
acid, contaminated with a small quantity of another acid
unidentified. |

Oily Acid.—A very small quantity of oily (water in-
soluble) acid was obtained, and converted into the
silver salt: 0.0976 g. yielded on ignition 0.0372 gram
silver—38.1% Ag. (The silver salt of capric acid requires
38.7% Ag.)

84 A. R. PENFOLD.

Determination of Sesquiterpene and Sesquiterpene

alcohol.—The fraction 120-130° at 10 mm., 40 «ec. (1924

consignment), was further distilled, but on account of the

difficulty of completely removing the darwinol from it
(even with phthalic anhydride), it was impossible to obtain
sufficient of the sesquiterpene in a pure enough condition
for examination. Its presence could only be demonstrated

by means of the well-known colour reactions referred to

under ‘‘silver leaf.’’ A fraction boiling at 130-150° at

10 mm. was, however, separated. It possessed the following

characters :— |
15 0.9612, a, +9.25°, ne° 1.5000,

and it was found to contain about 50% of sesquiterpene

aleohol.

Unidentified phenolic constituents——The crude oils on
washing with 8% sodium hydroxide solution yielded the
following quantities of unidentified phenolic constituents :

1924 lot. 300 e.c. yielded 1.2 g.
1925 lot. 300 c.c. yielded 1.84 g.

The colour reactions with ferric chloride in alcoholic

solution were very indefinite, although they bore a very

close resemblance in general characters to the tasmanol-
leptospermol series.

In conclusion, I have to express my thanks to Mr. F. R.

Morrison, .A.C.1., F.c.s., Assistant Economic Chemist, for

his usual helpful assistance in these investigations.

jal

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 85

ACACIA SEEDLINGS, Part XII.
By R. H. CaMBaGE, C.B.E., F-LS.
(With Plates I.-IV.).

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales,
August 4, 1926.)

SYNOPSIS:
NocturNAL MoveMENT or Harty LEAVES.
VITALITY OF LEAF SEVERED FROM PLANT.
VITALITY OF SEEDS IN THE SOIL.
SEQUENCE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF LEAVES.
DESCRIPTION OF SEEDLINGS.

Nocturnal Movement of Early Leaves.

In Part XI. of this series reference is made to the fact
that many of the very early leaves of some Acacia seedlings
rest on the ground at night, and each morning raise them-
selves and resume their normal daily position.* Darwin
made many observations regarding general plant move-
ments which he terms circumnutation, and refers to the
movement of the leaves of A. Farnesiana and of a phyllode
of A. retinodes.t

Recently observations were made of the movement of the
early leaves of a seedling of Acacia ericifolia from Western
Australia, and it was found that some of the leaves sank
down at night until they became almost vertical, while the
following morning they returned to their daily position
and pointed considerably above the horizontal. The

pamis Journ, 1925, 59, 230.

( + “The Power of Movement in Plants” by Charles Darwin
£1882). .

86 R. H. CAMBAGE.

amplitude of this movement was such that a No. 7 leaf,
1.5 cm. long, passed through an are of about 120 degrees,
while a No. 6 leaf, 1.1 em. long, of a second plant, described’
an are of about 130 degrees.

Nos. 10 to 20 on one of these plants were phyllodes, and
closed upwards towards the stem at night, but curiously
Nos. 8 and 9, which were the first two phyllodes, went
neither up nor down, but remained in a horizontal position,
while Nos. 1 to 6 closed downwards.

Vitality of Leaf Severed from Plant.

From a plant of Acacia polybotrya about one foot high,.
one pinna of a leaf was broken off at 9 p.m. on the 27th
June, 1926, when all the leaves were asleep and the leaflets:
closed up. It was placed on the ground in a shady spot, |
and some rain fell nearly every day for the next ten days.
The pinna was 6 em. long, with 25 pairs of leaflets ranging
from about 5 to 7 mm. long. On the following morning all
the leaflets expanded as if still attached to the plant, and
closed up again in the evening. This action, with slightly
diminishing vigour, was repeated daily until the 7th July,
when, at 8 a.m., the pinna was placed in a small box for
about one hour. When taken from the box at 9 a.m., and
left in a room, the leaflets were expanded in accordance:
with their daily custom, and their terminals were 1 cm.
apart, but at 10.30 a.m. they were only 5 mm. apart, while
by 11 a.m. they had closed up to such an extent that the
terminals were only 3 mm. apart, nor did they open any
more on succeeding days. It seems likely that, had the
pinna been left on the ground, and the damp weather had
continued, the leaflets would have functioned for several
days more.”

*The question of the movements of plants is discussed by
Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose in his new book, “The Nervous
Mechanism of Plants”. See abstract in “The Pharmaceutical
Journal and Pharmacist” (No. 3265, Vol. 116, May 29th, 1926).

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 87

Vitality of Seeds in the Soil.

That Acacia seeds may retain their vitality after having
been in the soil for many years is well known to settlers
in various parts of Austraha, but the following examples
are of considerable interest.

Quite recently four seedlings of A. falcata appeared in
my own garden, and it is now.35 years since two trees of
this species grew near the spot. Ever since the trees were
eut down, one or two seedlings have appeared every year.

In 1924, at Milton, New South Wales, two hundred
seedlings of Acacia mollissima were counted in an enclosure
of four acres which had been recently ploughed, but which
previously had not been cultivated for 60 years. Although
there are trees of the same species growing a few hundred
yards away, and one tree just on the edge of the enclosure,
there is no reason to suppose that birds had recently carried
the seeds to this particular area, but the general conclusion
is that the seeds had been lying in the ground for 60
years, and having been disturbed and brought to the
surface by the plough, they had responded to the rain,
and heat of the sun, and germinated.

A more remarkable instance occurred a short distance
away in 1925, where six acres of grass land had been
enclosed and ploughed. No wattle trees (Acacia) had
grown on the area since it was cultivated 68 years before,
but after this recent ploughing, much more than one
thousand Acacia seedlings sprang up on one particular
acre of the enclosed area, evidently at a spot where many
trees of this species (A. mollissima) formerly grew. There
seems no doubt that the seeds had retained their vitality
for a period of at least 68 years, while lying in the soil.

Seeds of this species ripen in midsummer, and during
very dry years the ground cracks considerably at this
period, and many seeds would be likely to fall into the

88 R. H. CAMBAGE.

crevices, and so get beyond the influence of the necessary
combined heat and moisture required to cause their
germination, which, however, takes place when the seeds
are brought near the surface by the upturning of the soil.
It is known, however, that Acacia seeds may retain their
vitality in the soil for at least five years without
germinating, even though they are close to the surface and
regularly watered.

Sequence in the Development of Leaves.

In Part IX. (p. 283), it was mentioned that 112 species
had been found to commence with one simply pinnate leaf.
The following ten may now be added to the former list,
which brings the total to 122:—A. Burkittu F.v.M., A.
Cuthbertsont Luehmann, A. ericifolia Benth., A. gladw-
formis A. Cunn., A. latipes Benth., A. merinthophora
Pritzel, A. ee A. Cunn., A. retunodes Schlecht, A.
rupricola F.v.M.

To the 21 commonly having an opposite pair of simply
pinnate leaves the following five may be added:—A.
bidentata Benth., A. bivenosa DC., A. Cambager R. T.
Baker, A. georgine, Bailey, A. restiacea Benth., making
the total 26.

Description of Seedlings.

PuNGENTES— (Plurinerves).
ACACIA LATIPES Benth. Seeds from Wongan Hills, Western
Australia (C. A. Gardner, per W. M. Carne). (Plate
I., Numbers 1-3.) |

Seeds black, almost cylindrical but flattened towards the
edge, about 3 mm. long, 2.5 to 3 mm. broad, 2 mm. thick.

Hypocotyl terete, green, 1 to 2 cm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm.
thick at base, 1 mm. at apex.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 89

Cotyledons sessile, obovate to almost oval, auricled, 4 to
4.5 mm. long, 3 to 3.5 mm. broad, upperside green, under-
side reddish-brown, with raised line along centre.

Stem terete, brownish-green, hirsute. First internode
0.5 mm.; second 0.5 to 1 mm.; third and fourth 0.5 to 2
mm.; fifth to seventh 1 to 3 mm.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to 4 mm.,
glabrous; leaflets two pairs, oblong-acuminate, the apical
pair sometimes obovate, 2.5 to 3.5 mm. long, 1 to 1.5 mm.
broad, upperside green, underside pale green; rachis 2 mm.,
with terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 4 to 7 mm., glabrous
‘to pilose, with terminal seta,; leaflets two pairs, the basal
pair oblong-acuminate, the apical pair obovate, margins
-ciliate, up to 2 to 3 mm. long, 1 to 1.5 mm. broad, upperside
green, underside pale green; rachis 3 mm., with terminal
seta; stipules 0.5 mm.

Nos. 3 to 5. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 6 mm. to 1 em.,
pilose; leaflets two to three pairs, slightly mucronate,
margins often ciliate; rachis 3 to 6 mm.; stipules acuminate,
1 mm.

Nos. 6 to 8. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly
bipinnate, petiole 7 mm. to 1.5 em. long, up to 0.5 mm.
broad, pilose; leaflets two to three pairs; rachis 3 to 7 mm.

Nos. 9 to 20. Rigid, linear-lanceolate phyllodes, broad at
‘the base, tapering into a pungent point, about 7 mm. to
1 em. long, 1 to 1.5 mm. broad, with three fairly prominent
nerves; stipules developed into spines 1 mm. long. A plant
two feet high may have faleate phyllodes up to about 8 mm.
long and 3 mm. broad.

A seedling raised in a seven-inch pot flowered when 18
“months old.

90 R. H. CAMBAGE.

PUNGENTES—(Uninerves).

ACACIA RUPICOLA F.v.M. Seeds from Morialta, Adelaide:
(J. A. Hogan, per E. H. Ising).. (Plate 1, Numbers
4-6.)

Seeds shiny black, oblong, about 5 mm. long, 2.5 to 3 mm.
broad, 1.6 mm. thick,

Hypocotyl terete, brownish-red above soil, 1.5 to 2 em.
long, about 2 mm. thick at base, 1 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, apex rounded, 6 to:
7 mm. long, 3 to 3.5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside
pale green to brownish-red, often with raised centre line,.
becoming revolute but not cylindrical, remaining until
phyllodes appear.

Stem at first angular, becoming terete, green, glabrous..
First internode 0.5 to 2 mm; second 1 to 38 mm.; third and
fourth 1 to 4 mm.; fifth to ninth 1 to 5 mm.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to 6 mm.,.
glabrous; leaflets three to five pairs,. oblong-acuminate, 3:
to 5 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green under--
side pale green, with distinct venation; rachis 3 mm. to:
1.1 cm., with terminal seta; stipules small.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 6 mm. to 1.5 em., with.
terminal seta; leaflets three to five pairs, oblong-acuminate,
the apical pair sometimes obovate, 3 to 4 mm. long, 1 to.
1.5 mm. broad; raehis 7 mm. to 1.1-em., with terminal seta.

Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1 to 1.7 em.
long, sometimes up to 0.7 mm. broad, glabrous; leaflets.
three to five pairs, often mucronate, 3 to 6 mm. long, 1 to:
2.5 and rarely 4 mm. broad; rachis 7 mm. to 1.3 em.;.
stipules acuminate, 1 mm. long.

No. 5. Usually a phyllode but may be abruptly bipinnate, .
petiole about 1.3 em.; leaflets 4 to 5 pairs; one pinna
developed as a leaflet 6 mm. long, 2 mm. broad, with two:
small leaflets on one side.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 91

Nos. 6 to 20. Fairly rigid, linear-lanceolate, prominently
1-nerved phyllodes, tapering into a pungent point, about
1 em. long and 1.5 mm. broad.

CALAMIFORMES—(Subaphylle).
ACACIA RESTIACEA Benth. Seeds from Wongan Hills,
Western Australia (C. A. Gardner, per W. M. Carne).
(Plate II., Numbers 1-3.)

Seeds black, oval to obovate, about 3 mm. long, 2 to 2.5
mm. broad, about 1.5 mm. thick.

Hypocotyl terete, brownish-red above soil, 1.5 to 2 em.
long, about 1.5 mm. thick at base, 0.7 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, 3 to 4 mm. long,
15 mm. broad, upperside reddish-green, underside
brownish-grey, remaining erect and very soon falling.

Stem terete, striated, green, glabrous. First to fifth
mternodes 0.5 mm.; sixth to ninth 0.5 to 2 mm.; tenth to
twelfth Imm. to 2 em.; thirteenth to fifteenth 5 mm. to 2.7
em.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite
pair, petiole 4 to 6 mm., glabrous; leaflets two pairs, oblong-
acuminate, 3 to 5 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside
green, underside pale green; rachis 1 to 2 mm., with
terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 5 mm. to 1 em., green,
glabrous, with terminal seta; leaflets three pairs, obovate,
2 to 8 mm. long, 1 to 1.5 mm. broad; rachis 4 to 6 mm.,
with terminal seta.

Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 7 mm. to 2 em.;
leaflets three to four pairs; rachis 4 mm. to 1.2 em.

Nos. 5 to 9. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1.3 to 4.3 em.,
slender; leaflets four to six pairs, oblong-acuminate to
obovate, 3 to 6 mm. long, 1 to 2.6 mm. broad; rachis 6
mm. to 2.4 cm.

92 R. H. CAMBAGE.

Nos. 10 to 16. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1.8 to 5.3 em.,
slender, pilose; leaflets four to six pairs; rachis 1 to 2 em.;
stipules reduced to acuminate scales 1 mm. long.

Nos. 17 to 20. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly
bipinnate, petiole 1.7 to 4 em., pilose; leaflets four to five
pairs; rachis 5 mm. to 1.4 em.; stipules reduced to
acuminate scales 2 mm. long.

On a few plants Nos. 17 to 22 are in some cases terete,
slender phyllodes, 7 mm. to 2 em. long, with what appears
to be the terminal seta on the lower portion of the truncated
apex. Above No. 22 the rush-like stems are leafless, but
often with scales at the base of the branches.

A seedling raised in a seven-inch pot flowered when 19
months old, and had retained many bipinnate leaves.

UNINERVES— (Racemose).

ACACIA SALICINA Lindl. Seeds from Garah (A. W.
Bucknell), Boggabri (R.H.C.) both in New South
Wales, and Geera, near Central Queensland (H. C.
Cullen). (Plate III., Numbers 1-3.)

Seeds shiny dark brown to black, oval to oblong-oval,
4.5 to 6 mm. long, 3.5 to 4 mm. broad, 2 mm. thick.

Hypocotyl terete, at first pale green, becoming brownish-
red, 2 to 3 em. long, about 2.5 mm. thick at base, 1 to 1.5
mm. at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, slightly auricled, oval to oblong-
obovate, 6 to 9 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm. broad, upperside
yellowish-green, underside pale green, with one or two
raised central lines, remaining erect, becoming revolute and
soon falling.

Stem at first slightly angular, becoming terete, brown,
glabrous. First internode 0.5 to 1 mm.; second 1 to 2 mm.;
third to sixth 1 to 7 mm.; seventh to tenth 1 mm. to 1 em.;
eleventh to fourteenth 3 mm. to 1.2 em.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 93.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite
pair, petiole 4 to 9 mm., green, glabrous; leaflets four to
five pairs, oblong-acuminate, 6 mm. to 1 em. long, 1.5 to
3 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green; rachis
7 mm. io 1.2 em., with terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1 to 3.8 em., often
vertically dilated to 1 mm. broad, green, glabrous, with
terminal seta; leaflets four to five pairs, oblong-acuminate,
2 to 7 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, in one ease all the
leaflets of a pinna had fused into one leaflet 6 mm. long,
3.9 mm. broad; rachis 9 mm. to 1.6 em., with terminal seta;
stipules minute or none.

Nos. 3 to 5. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1.2 to 4.5 em.
long, 1.5 to 3 mm. broad; leaflets three to five pairs; rachis
6 mm. to 1.6 em.

Nos. 6 to 10. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 2 to 7.3 em.
long, 2 to 4 mm. broad, with the midrib very slightly below
the centre of the lamina; leaflets three to five pairs; rachis
5 mm. to 2 cm.

Nos. 11 to 20. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly
bipinnate, petiole 4.2 to 11.6 cm. long, 3 to 6 mm. broad,
with the midrib at or near the centre of the lamina;

leaflets four and five to rarely six pairs; rachis 7 mm. to
2.0 cm.

Nos. 21 to 50. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly
bipinnate, petiole 7.2 to 11 em. long, 4 to 8 mm. broad in
the Boggabri and Garah specimens, and up to 1.4 em. in
the Geera (near central Queensland*) specimens; rachis
8 mm. to 2.4 em.

*This is possibly the form found by Sir Thomas Mitchell in
1846 in Southern Queensland, and referred to by Bentham as
variety varians, with the lower phyllodes broader than in the
type. Flora Australiensis p. 367.

‘94 R. H. CAMBAGE.

Nos. 51 to 70. Usually oblong-linear phyllodes, narrowed
at the base, particularly in the Geera seedlings, about 7 to
10 cm. long.

The Geera specimens with wider phyllodes evidently
represent the variety varians, described as a species by
Bentham, and was discovered in Queensland in 1846 by
Sir Thomas Mitchell.

PLURINERVES— (Oligoneure ).
ACACIA BIVENOSA DC. Seeds from Claremont, Swan River,
Western Australia (W. M. Carne). (Plate IIL,
Numbers 4-6.) rift

Seeds black, oblong to oblong-oval, 5 to 6 mm. long,
3 mm. broad, 2 mm. thick.

Hypocotyl terete, reddish-brown above the soil, 1 to 2 em.
long, 2 mm. thick at base, 1 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, apex rounded, 7 to
8 mm. long, 3 mm. broad, reddish-brown on both sides,
underside somewhat striated.

Stem at first angular, becoming terete, green, glabrous.
First internode 0.5 mm.; second 0.5 to 1 mm.; third and
fourth 0.5 to 2-mm.; fifth to seventh, 1 mm, \fo, 2 aem-
eighth to twelfth 4 mm. to 2.4 em.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite
pair, petiole 3 to 5 mm., glabrous; leaflets three to five
pairs, oblong-acuminate, apical pair often obovate, 4 to 5
mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside
pale green; rachis 6 to 8 mm., with terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 6 mm. to 1 em., green,
glabrous, with terminal seta; leaflets four to six pairs,
oblong acuminate, 2 to 5 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad; rachis
7 mm. to 1.3 em., with terminal seta.

Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 8 mm. to 2.7
.em. ; leaflets six to seven pairs; rachis 1 to 2.1 em.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 95

Nos. 5 to 9. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1.8 to 4.2 em.,
‘sometimes dilated in the case of Nos. 8 and 9 to 1.5 mm.
broad, with a strong nerve along or near the lower margin;
leaflets six to ten pairs, oblong-acuminate to slightly
obovate, often mucronate, 5 to 8 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm.
broad; rachis 1.6 to 3.6 em.; stipules reduced to scales
about 1 mm. long.

Nos. 10 to 12. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly
bipinnate, 2.4 to 3.5 em. long, 1 to 8 mm. broad in the case
of No. 10, with the midrib usually close to the lower margin,
to 1 cm. in some instances in the case of No. 12, with the
midrib slightly below the centre of the lamina, with some-
times a fairly definite nerve above for nearly the full
length of the flattened petiole; leaflets seven to ten pairs;
rachis 2.2 to 3.6 cm.

Nos. 13 to 20. Obovate to oblong-lanceolate phyllodes,
penniveined, with a strong midrib about the centre of the
blade, and a fainter one above, mucronate, the point
slightly recurved, but not so much so as in later phyllodes,
and pointing downwards.

PLURINERVES— (Microneure).
Acacia CAMBAGEI R. T. Baker,* ‘‘Gidgea or Gidgee’’. Seeds
from Cunnamulla, Queensland (Mr. Gwydir, per Dr.
T. L. Baneroft). (Plate I., Numbers 7-9.)

Seeds brown, oblong to almost irregularly orbicular, fiat,
5 to 8 mm. long, 4 to 6 mm. broad, 1 to 1.5 mm. thick.

Hypocotyl terete, green to brownish-green above soil,
2 to 3 em. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. thick at base, 1 mm at apex.
Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong-oval to ovate, 7 to 9

mm. long, 6 to 6.5 mm. broad, upperside at first yellowish-
green, becoming green, underside, yellowish-green.

* Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1900, 25, 661.

96 R. H. CAMBAGE.

Stem terete, green, glabrous, or with scattered hairs.
First internode 0.5 to 1 mm.; second 1 to 4 mm.; third to:
fifth 2 mm. to 1.3 em.; sixth and seventh 5 to 8 mm.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite
pair, petiole 4 to 7 mm., green, glabrous; leaflets two to
four pairs, oblong-acuminate, 4 to 9 mm. long, 1 to 2.5 mm.
broad, upperside green, underside pale green; rachis 5 mm.
to 1 em., with terminal seta.

No. 2. Linear-lanceolate phyllode, 1 to 5.2 em. long, 1.5:
to 2.5 mm. broad, with a definite central nerve, and some-
times a faint one on each side of it but not reaching the
apex. |

Nos. 8 to 10. Lanceolate phyllodes, 1.5 to 6 em. long, up
to 1 em. broad, usually with three fairly definite veins and
many much finer ones between them. Later phyllodes are
often faleate.

This is the second seedling described in this series where
the No. 2 leaf may be reduced to a phyllode, the previous
ease being A. alata.* It seems remarkable that these two
species, also A. georgine Bailey, the seedling of which has
not yet been described, should, so far as examined, show
no bipinnate leaves whatever. The same applies also to
A. Oswaldi in some eases. tT

J ULIFLORZ—(Rigidule).

ACACIA CUTHBERTSONI Luehmann.t Seeds from Carnarvon,
Gascoyne River, Western Australia (EK. C. Andrews).
(Plate I., Numbers 10-12.)

Seeds brown, oblong-oval to ovate, depressed, with small

fairly distinct horse-shoe areole, 7 to 8 mm. long, 6 to 7 mm.
broad, 2 to 2.5 mm. thick.

*This Journ., 1918, 52, 413.
+ This Journ., 1921, 55, 115.
~The Victorian Naturalist, 13, 117.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. oF

Hypocotyl terete, pale green, spreading into flange at
root, up to 3.7 em. long, 3 to 4 mm. thick at base, 2 mm.
at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong to oblong-oval, 1 to
1.3 em. long, 6 to 8 mm. broad, upperside green, underside
pale green.

Stem terete, greenish-grey, pilose to pubescent. First
internode 0.5 mm.; second 1 to 2 mm.; third to seventh 1
to 4 mm.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 4 to 9 mm.,
ereen, glabrous; leaflets four to six pairs, oblong-acumi-
nate, the apical pair sometimes obovate, 4 to 9 mm. long, 2
to 3 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green;
rachis 1 to 2 mm., with terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1.3 to 1.6 cm. long,
vertically dilated to sometimes 1 mm. broad, pilose,
with terminal seta; leaflets three to seven pairs, oblong-
acuminate to obovate, 3 to 5 mm. long, 1 to 2.5 mm. broad,
upperside green; rachis 6 mm. to 1.6 em.; with terminal
seta.

No. 3. lLanceolate phyllode, 2 to 3.5 em. long, about
2.0 to 4 mm. broad, with a definite midrib, a faint vein
close to both margins and almost confluent with the midrib
at the apex, a few fine veins diverting from the mibrib,
pilose.

Nos. 4 to 10. Lanceolate phyllodes, narrowed at both
ends, small oblique points, 4 to 8 em. long, up to 5 mm.
broad, with a definite midrib and intramarginal veins as
in No. 3, but with a few finer longitudinal veins on both

sides of the central nerve, ash-grey, silky pubescent.
G—August 4, 1926.

98 R. H. CAMBAGE.

J ULIFLORA— (Stenophylle).

Acacia Burxirrir F.v.M. Seeds from Broken Hill, New
South Wales (A. Morris, per Sydney Botanic Gardens)
and Iron Knob, South Australia (Sydney Botanic
Gardens). (Plate II., Numbers 4-6.)

Seeds dark brown, obovate to oval, 4 to 6 mm. long, 3 to

4 mm. broad, 1 to 1.5 mm. thick.

Hypocotyl terete, green to brownish, 1.5 to 2.2 em. long,
1 to 1.7 mm. thick at base, 0.7 to 1 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, shghtly auricled, lobes about 0.5 mm.
oblong to ovate or sometimes slightly obovate, about 6
mm. long, 3 to 4 mm. broad, upperside green, underside
pale green, with one or two raised lines, gradually becoming
revolute.

Stem terete, greyish-brown to greenish-brown, glabrous,
or with a few scattered hairs. First internode 0.5 mm.;
second 1 mm.; third and fourth 1 to 3 mm.; fifth to seventh
2 to 6 mm.; eighth to tenth 4 mm. to 1.5 em.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 4 mm. to 1
em., green, glabrous; leaflets two to three pairs, oblong-
acuminate, the apical pair often obovate, 5 to 7 mm. long,
1.5 to 8 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green,
margins slightly ciliate; rachis 2 to 9 mm., with terminal
seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 4 mm. to 2 em., with
terminal seta; leaflets two to three pairs, oblong-acuminate
to obovate, 3 to 5 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside
green; rachis 2 to 6 mm., with terminal seta.

Nos. 3 to 5. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1 to 3.4 em.;
leaflets one to five pairs; rachis 1 to 8 mm.; stipules 1 mm.
long.

Nos. 6 to 18. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bi-
pinnate, petiole 2.4 to 11.3 cm.; leaflets three to four pairs,
1 to 3 mm. long, about 1 mm. broad; rachis 2 to 4 mm.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. be 99

oe
Nos. 14 to 18. lLinear-subulate phyllodes, slightly flat-

tened or compressed, scarcely terete, 7 to 11 cm. long, some-
times up to 1.7 mm. broad, the point sometimes much
recurved but not pungent.

Lubbock described a seedling supposéd to be of this
species and recorded the first leaf as bipinnate, but from
his description and figure it seems to be a different plant
from that described in the present paper, and is suggestive
of belonging to some other genus. The cotyledons of Lub-
bock’s plant are very much larger than those of the
Broken Hill and South Australian examples, and of quite
a different shape, while the leaflets shown by Lubbock are
about double in number on each leaf.*

BirPiInNAata2—(Botryocephale).
Acacia PRUINOsSA A. Cunn. Seeds from Gosford (J. H.
Maiden) and Kurnell (cultivated). (Plate IV.,
Numbers 1-3.)

Seeds black, obovate to almost orbicular, 4 to 5 mm.
long, 3 to 4 mm. broad, 1.5 to 2 mm. thick.

Hypocotyl terete, at first pale green, becoming reddish-
brown, 1 to 2.5 em. long, about 2 mm. thick at base, 0.7 to
1 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, auricled, obovate to oblong-oval,
about 5 mm. long, 3.5 to 4 mm. broad, upperside reddish-
green to brownish-red, underside reddish to red, becoming
revolute and cylindrical in a few days.

Stem at first slightly angular, becoming terete, green
to greenish-brown, glabrous. First internode 0.5 mm.;
second and third 2 to 5 mm.; fourth to sixth 4 mm. to 2.4
em.; seventh and eighth 8 mm. to 2 em.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 2 to 7 mm.,
sometimes with a small gland, green, glabrous to pilose,

* “Seedlings” by Sir John Lubbock, 1892, 1, 471.

100 R. H. CAMBAGE.

leaflets four to five pairs, oblong-acuminate, the apical
pair often obovate, 4 to 8 mm. long, 1 to 2.5 mm. broad,.
upperside at first reddish-green, becoming green, under-
side deep red, often becoming green; rachis 6 mm. to 1
em. long, with terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 7 mm. to 1 cm.,
sometimes with a gland on the upper margin, glabrous, or
with a few hairs, with terminal seta; leaflets four to six
pairs, oblong-acuminate, the apical pair sometimes obovate,.
4 to 8 mm. long, 1 to 3 mm. broad, upperside green, under-
side reddish-green to red; rachis 9 mm. to 1.5 em., with
terminal seta.

Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1.1 to 2 em.,
glabrous to pilose, often with a gland on the upper margin;.
leaflets six to fourteen pairs; rachis 1.5 to 3.8 em.

Nos. 5 and 6. Abruptly bipinnate, often with two pairs
of pinne, common petiole up to 3.5 em., usually with gland
below basal pair of pinne; leaflets thirteen to fifteen pairs ;
rachis 1.8 to 4.2 em.

Nos. 7 to 9. Abruptly bipinnate, with from three to
seven pairs of pinne, common petiole up to 6.5 cm., glab-
rous to pilose, with a gland below the basal pair and also
at the base of the apical pair of pinne; leaflets nineteen to
twenty-three pairs; rachis 2.7 to 4.4 cm.

Leaflets on a mature tree may measure up to 1.7 cm.
long, and 5 mm. broad, with the midrib and secondary vein
showing very distinctly.

BIPINNAT&— (Botryocephale).

ACACIA LEPTOCLADA A. Cunn. Seeds from Howell, New
South Wales (T. S. McCrae) and Kurnell (cultivated).
(Plate IV., Numbers 4-6.)

Seeds shiny black, oblong-oval to oblong, rim thin, about
© mm. long, 3 to 3.5 mm. broad, 2 mm. thick.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 101

Hypocotyl terete, pale green to reddish-pink, 1.2 to 4.5
em. long, 1 to 1.5 mm. thick at base, 0.6 to 1 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong to oblong-oval, 5 to
6.5 mm. long, 3 to 3.5 mm. broad, upperside brownish-
green, underside brown to reddish-brown.

Stem terete, at first green, becoming brown to reddish-
brown, hirsute to hoary. First internode 0.5 mm.; second
1 mm.; third to fifth 2 mm. to 1.3 ¢.m.; sixth to seventh 7

mm. to 2 em.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to 6 mm.,
brownish-green, glabrous; leaflets four to seven pairs,
oblong-acuminate, 5 to 8 mm. long, 1 to 2.5 mm. broad,
upperside green, underside reddish-green; rachis 8 mm.
to 1.4 em., with terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 8 mm. to 1.3 em.,
pilose, with terminal seta; leaflets four to six pairs, oblong-
acuminate, the apical pair obovate, 3 to 6 mm. long, 1 to
2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside green to reddish-
green; rachis 7 mm. to 1 cm., with terminal seta.

Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, sometimes with two
pairs of pinne, common petiole 1 to 2.8 em., pilose to
seven pairs; rachis up to 1.4 em.; stipules acuminate, 1 to

2 mm.

Nos. 5 and 6. Abruptly bipinnate, with two to three
pairs of pinne, common petiole 1 to 2.8 em., pilose to
hirsute ; leaflets six to nine pairs, 3 to 4 mm. long, 0.5 to

about 1 mm. broad; rachis 1 to 1.7 em.

Nos. 7 to 10. Abruptly bipinnate, with from two to five
pairs of pinne, common petiole 1.5 to 2.7 cm., sometimes
with a few glands, hirsute; leaflets eight to eleven pairs;
rachis up to 1.6 em.

102 R. H. CAMBAGE.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
PLATE I,

Acacia latipes Benth.
1. Cotyledons, Wongan Hills, Western Australia (W. M.
Carne).
2. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes.
3. Seeds.

Acacia rupicola F.v.M.
4. Cotyledons, Morialta, Adelaide (KE. H. Ising).
d. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes.
6. Seeds.

Acacia Cambagei R. T. Baker.
7. Cotyledons, Cunnamulla, Queensland (Dr. T. L.
Bancroft).

8. Opposite pair of pinnate leaves and phyllodes.
¥. Lod and seeds.

Acacia Cuthbertson. Luehmann. .
10. Cotyledons and pinnate leaf, Gascoyne River, Western
Australia (E. C. Andrews).
11. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaf and phyllodes.
12. Pod and seeds.

Puiate IT,
Acacia restiacea Benth.
1. Cotyledons and opposite pair of pinnate leaves, Wongan
Hills, Western Australia (W. M. Carne).
2. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and two phyllodes.
3. Seeds.

Acacia Burkittu F.v.M.
4. Cotyledons and pinnate leaf, Iron Knob, South Australia
(J. M. Black).
5. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes.
6. Pod and seeds.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926. Plate I,

Acacia latipes (1-3); Acacia rupicola (4-6) ; Acacia Cambagei (7-9) ;
Acacia Cuthbertson (10-12).
Three-fifths Natural Size.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926. Plate LI.

Acacta restiacea (1-3); Acacia Burkitti (4-6).
Three-fifths Natural Size.

Journal Royal Society of N.S, W., Vol. LX., 1926. Plate IIL,

Acacia salicina (1-3) ; Acacia bivenosa (4-6).

Two-fifths Natural Size,

Journal Koyal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926. Plate IV.

Bog a
i Seer otf
y %e }
2 §. ®
# z
id #a, gh
he BAY
—— Uy, ile
< Ny, 2
&
ae ee i
ay

Acacia pruinosa (1-3) ; Acacia leptoclada (4-6).

Nearly Half Natural Size.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 103

Puate ITI.
Acacia salicina Lindl.
. Cotyledons, Geera, Queensland (H. C. Cullen).
. Opposite pair of pinnate leaves, bipinnate leaves and
phyllodes (Boggabri).
. Pod and seeds (Boggabri).
Acacia bwenosa DC.
. Cotyledons, Swan River, Western Australia (W. M.
Carne).
. Opposite pair of pinnate leaves, bipinnate leaves and
phyllodes.
. Pod and seeds.

Phare LV:

Acacia pruinosa A. Cunn.
. Cotyledons, Gosford (J. H. Maiden).

2. Pinnate leaf and bipinnate leaves.

. Pod and seeds, Kurnell (Cultivated).

Acacia leptoclada A. Cunn.
. Cotyledons, Howell, New South Wales (T. S. McCrae).

5. Pinnate leaf and bipinnate leaves.

. Pod and seeds, Kurnell (Cultivated).

104 A. R. PENFOLD.

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF ZIERIA MACROPHYLLA
(BONPLAND) AND THE PRESENCE OF A NEW
CYCLIC KETONE.

By A. R. PENFOLD, F.AJ6K, | FC.S;,

Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales,
August 4, 1926.)

The author has been engaged upon an investigation of
the essential oils from Zieria Smithi for a number of years
past, and when supplies of leaves and terminal branchlets
were secured from Tasmania for comparison with the
New South Wales and Queensland material, it was readily
observed that the former presented marked differences,
the leaves especially being much larger. The investigation
of the essential oil offered ready confirmation, the differ-
ences in the chemical composition being quite remarkable.
The Forestry Department, Hobart, Tasmania, which so
kindly furnished the excellent supplhes of material for the
investigation, whilst referring to the plant as Zeria
Snuthii, gave the following information :—

“The leaves referred to were obtained from Herrick,
North-East Tasmania, and were gathered from the sides of
a valley near the Pioneer Mill. Although it grows in the
valleys, yet it seems to be more prolific on the slopes above
the valleys. It usually attains an average height of about
3-feet, and is of fairly dense growth. It is very noticeable
that where the plant is growing on any kind of a rich flat, .
the crop is extremely dense, although perhaps not nearly
so tall as that growing on the slopes of the gullies.”

Although the writer so readily observed the marked

distinction between the Tasmanian and New South Wales
Zieria (N.O. Rutacez) he considered it advisable to obtain

ESSENTIAL OIL OF ZIERIA MACROPHYLLA. 105

the opinion of Mr. E. Cheel, Curator of the National
Herbarium, Sydney, who has probably devoted more time
and research to the various species of Zieria than any
other botanist. He has kindly conveyed his opinion in a
private communication, as follows :—

“With reference to the Zicria from Tasmania, I have
arrived at the conclusion that it is Zieria macrophylla
of Bonpland. It was described as a distinct species
in 1813, and is well figured under this name in
“Botanical Magazine”, tab. 4451. Bentham (Flora Austra-
liensis, Vol. 1, page 807 (1863) includes it as a variety
macrophylla under Zicria Smithii, but I am of the opinion
that it is sufficiently distinct and had best be regarded as a
species. I propose to deal with this and other species of
the genus at an early date.”

The result of the examination of the essential oil
confirms beyond any doubt the opinion herein expressed
that the plant is worthy of specifie rank.

THE ESSENTIAL OIL.

The leaves on crushing between the fingers emitted a
rather unpleasant odour, hence the vernacular name of
“*“Stinkwood’’. The essential oils obtained from the various
consignments were of a deep reddish-brown colour, and
possessed the unpleasant odour referred to in connection
with the leaves, which appeared to be mainly due to the
presence of a low boiling ester of <dsovalerianiec acid
together with amyl alcohol, although the odour of the crude
oil bore no particular resemblance to its other more
important constituents.

Altogether, 1,310 lbs. weight of leaves and terminal
branchlets were distilled, the average yield of oil being
0.45%, varying from 0.28% to 0.66%, according either to
the condition of the leaves upon arrival or to the time of
year when collected.*

* See reference on page 36, this Journal, Vol. LIX (1925)
re oils from Tasmanian plants.

106 A. R. PENFOLD.

The principal constituents which have so far been
identified were found to be, d-lhmonene (10-20%), a new
eyche ketone, Ci3H2.O0, about 50-60%, called Zierone,
together with sesquiterpene, sesquiterpene alcohol, amyl
alcohol ? and a low boiling zsovalerianic acid ester, uniden-
tified phenolic bodies, a paraffin melting at 56°, and formic
acid. |

EXPERIMENTAL.

From Herrick, North-East Tasmania, 1,310 lbs. weight
of leaves and terminal branchlets, cut as for commercial
purposes, yielded on distillation with steam, crude oils
possessing the chemical and physical characters as shown

in table :—

' Solubil-| pope, | Hater
Weight Yield 4 | ttn dt ae No.
Date. of Locality of ane" |. ane n?° 80% | 4 hi _ | after
Leaves oi D b alcohol a i Acety--
my by weht. OF Nation
14/2/1924) 250 lbs.|Herrick,| 0.4% | 0.9613 | — 54.5°| 1.5083 | 0.8 voi) 29.4 | 68.0
N.E.Tas
mania
27/8/1924) 536 lbs.| do. 0.42% | 0.9465 | -39.0°| 1.5015 | 1.1 ,, | 52.8 | 71.6.
26/2/1925] 422 lbs | do. 0.28% | 0.9693 | — 64.8° | 1.5148 | 0.8 ,, | 50.9 | 70.4
14/10/1925] 102 lbs.| do. 0.66% | 0.9704 | -66.4°| 1.5106 | 0.8 ,, | 31.0 | 50.8

On distillation of the crude oils, at 10 mm., the following

average results were obtained, according to the respective
quantities of terpene and ketone present in the particular
lot of oil examined, as indicated by the optical activity :—

Fraction.

Quantity. di an ny
60 - 68° at 10mm | 10 to 20% | 0.851 +86° to +90° | 1.4670 to 1.4680"
63 — 185° 4 to 16%
135 - 145° 50 to 70% |.0.956 to 0.975 | — 94° to — 97° 1.5150

20

———

20

ESSENTIAL OIL OF ZIERIA MACROPHYLLA. 107

Determination of low boiling Ester—Four hundred and
fifty e.c. of crude oil (27/8/24) were distilled at 10 mm.
and the portion (146 ¢.c.) boiling below 100° was collected.
On further distillation this was resolved into the following

fractions :—
Fraction, Quantity. Ester No.
60 — 70° (10 mm.) 101 c.c. 33.7
70-105° do. 17 c.c. | 40.9
Residue 27 ¢.¢. 11.3

The first and second fractions were mixed together and
treated with 50% resorcin solution in order to remove:
the ester present. The resorcin solution on steam distillation
returned only 5 c.c. of liquid. On examination this gave
the following results :—
B.pt. (768 mm.) 165 — 175°, d33 0.8538, Te 10.1%, tas 4252

This liquid was saponified by means of aqueous potassium
hydroxide solution and when the reaction was completed
it was subjected to distillation. The aqueous liquid was.
acidified with dilute sulphuric acid and the volatile acid
removed by steam distillation. The acid liquor was
neutralised with ammonia solution and the silver salt
prepared therefrom ; 0.0370 g. silver salt on ignition yielded
0.0194 g. silver = 52.4%.

The silver salt of valerianic acid requires 51.68% Ag.

The liquid obtained from the distillate was contaminated
with small quantities of terpenes and consequently could
not be definitely identified. The alcohol in combination
with the tsovalerianiec acid appeared to be of the amyl
series. Many attempts were made to prepare derivatives,
even fresh consignments of oil being obtained specially for
the purpose, but they gave negative results.

108 A. R. PENFOLD.

Determination of Inmonene.—The first fractions of the
erude oil distilling below 63° at 10 mm. after washing with
50% resorein solution as indicated above, were repeatedly
fractionated over metallic sodium, when over 90%, boiling
at 60-63° at 10 mm., was obtained. Even after this treat-
ment the pronounced amylic odour was still present.

On further distillation at 763 to 768 mm. over metallic
sodium the first portion distilling below 175° still retained
the amylic odour and induced coughing. The main distil-
lates of boiling point 175-177° (763 mm.) possessed the
following constants :—
diz 0.8464 - 0 8475, a 02 tO a. nes 1.4716 ‘to: 1.4722,

The terpene when dissolved in four times its volume of
glacial acetic acid in the presence of moisture and treated
with bromine at 20° yielded a copious precipitate of
lmonene tetrabromide. On recrystallisation from ethyl
acetate, the crystals melted at 104-105°.

Determination of Ketone.—The fractions of the various
consignments distilling at 135-145° at 10 mm. and which
constituted the greater portion of the crude oils (about
50-70% ) were subjected to repeated fractional distillation,
but on account of the sesquiterpene and sesquiterpene
alcohol present, it was impossible to separate the principal
constituents in anything like a condition of purity. Even
when concentrated to a small fraction of boiling point
140-143° at 10 mm., the optical rotation did not exceed
— 102.8°. It was found best, therefore, to treat the high
boiling fractions with semicarbazide hydrochloride and
sodium acetate in ethyl alcohol solution and allow the
mixture to stand at room temperature for about a week.
After that period, the semicarbazone of the ketone had
separated out to the bottom of the vessel as a white ecrystal-
line solid. It was separated by filtration on a Buchner
funnel, washed with a small quantity of ethyl alcohol and

=

ESSENTIAL OIL OF ZIERIA MACROPHYLLA. 109

dried on a porous plate. The semicarbazone was readily
purified by solution in boiling methyl alcohol from which
solvent it separated very completely on cooling. The
ketone was regenerated from it by treatment with dilute
sulphuric acid in the presence of steam. On distillation at
10 m., the ketone was obtained as a pale yellow, somewhat
viscous liquid, with a pleasant odour of fresh cedarwood,
inclined to be camphoraceous.

As the mean of six different preparations, it was found
to possess the following chemical and physical characters :—

olmespomt 2... .. .: 142.5—144° at 10 mm.
Specific gravity, i? , .. 0.9752

Opimeal rotation .... .. —141,2°

Refractive index, 20° .. 1.5140-— 1.5144
Molecular refraction .. .. 09.03 (Cale... 59.24)

The formula appears to be C,;H.)O, as indicated by the

following combustion and molecular weight results :—
(1) 0.1161 g. gave 0.3468 g. CO, and 0.1024 g..H,O;

C — Si1:46%; H = 9.8%
0.1046 ¢. gave 0.3096 g. CO, and 0.0970 ¢g. H,O;
Ce S029, Ee = 10.28%
(3) 0.0966 g. gave 0.2883 g. CO, and 0.0894 g. H,O;
Ce 6115990,’ H = 10.28%
01047. gs. gave 0.3112 ¢g. CO, and 0.0974 ¢. H,O;
Ce 61.06%, Th = 110,057
C,,H,,O requires C = 81.25%, H = 10.04%

(2

—

(4

—

Molecular Weight Determinations——A molecular weight
determination by the Landsberger boiling point method,
using acetone as solvent, gave the following result :—1.1474
g. in 21 cc. acetone elevated the boiling point 0.6°; M.
Wt. = 200.

A determination by the cryoscopic method, using ben-
zene, resulted as follows:—0.3320 g. in 10 g. benzene

110 A. R. PENFOLD.

lowered the freezing point of the solvent 0.81°; M. Wt.
= 204. C,,;H..O0 requires 192.

The ketone appears to be of a cyclic character and to
belong to the Irone-Ionone series. It could not be induced
to enter into combination with sodium bisulphite or neutral
sodium sulphite solutions, neither did it yield a solid oxime
‘when treated with hydroxylamine or form a solid bromide
when treated with bromine in various organic solvents at
from — 10° to — 20°.

The following two erystalline derivatives have been
prepared :—

Semicarbazone C,,4H,;N,0.—As stated above, the ketone
readily combines with semicarbazide to form a semicarbo-
zone, very sparingly soluble in methyl alcohol. On repeated
recrystallisation it was found to melt at 180-181° ; 0.5250 g.
in 10 ¢.c. CHCl, gave areading of —7.2°, [a]i°* = — 187°.

The following results were obtained on combustion :—
(1) 0.1034 g. gave 0.2544 g. CO, and 0.0854 g. H,O;
C = 67.10%, H = 9.1% )
(2) 0.1002 g. gave 0.2467 g. CO, and 0.0822 g. H,O;
C= 467.15%, Hi 91%
C,,H,,N,0 requires C= 67.47%, Hye uoZea7%

Phenylhydrazone.—This crystalline derivative was pre-
pared by mixing together 10 cc. ketone, 20 cc. glacial
acetic acid and 6 e«.c. phenylhydrazine, warming for 10
minutes on water bath and when cold allowing to stand
over night in the ice chest. The mixture was found next
day to have solidified to a mass of radiating crystals. On.
‘repeated recrystallisation from ethyl alcohol the derivative
was obtained in the form of plates, varying from a cream
to a primrose yellow colour, melting with decomposition
sat 107-108° ; 0.5652 g. in 10 e.c. CHCl; gave a reading of
+ 15.8°, [a]?°° = =279:5°.

ESSENTIAL OIL OF ZIERIA MACROPHYLLA. 111

The name of Zierone is suggested for this interesting
ketone. Further work treating of its oxidation and reduc-
tion products will be carried out as the opportunity
presents itself.

Determination of Sesquterpene, etc.—The filtrate and
aleoholie washings from the ketone semicarbazone were
poured into water and the resinous gummy mass thus
obtained subjected to steam distillation. Working in this
manner with the specimen of oil (26/2/25) 27 ¢.c. of crude
oil free from ketone were obtained. It was treated with
alcoholic potash solution to remove the ester present and
then distilled over metallic sodium at 10 mm. Finally
16 ¢.c. of pale yellow coloured oil were obtained possessing
the following characters :—

B pt. (10mm.) 128 - 132°, d#4 09308, 42° +20.2°, n2° 1.5055.
It failed to yield a solid hydrochloride or any other
erystalline derivative characteristic of sesquiterpenes. It
gave the usual striking colour reactions with bromine in
acetic acid and sulphuric acid in acetic anhydride solutions.

Examinations of various lots of the crude oils pointed
to the presence of a high boiling alcohol accompanying the
sesquiterpene, which was related to the latter or to the
ketone. It could not, however, be isolated.

Determination of Combined Acids.—The saponification
liquor resulting from the treatment of the sesquiterpene
fraction, as described above, was acidulated with dilute
sulphurie acid and steam distilled. The volatile acid was
neutralised with ammonia solution and the silver salt pre-
pared ; 0.1568 g. gave on ignition 0.0810 g. silver = 51.66%.
The silver salt of isovalerianic acid requires 51.68% Ag.

Three hundred e.c. of crude oil (26/2/25) were saponi-
fied with alcoholic potash solution and the acids separated
therefrom by acidulation with dilute sulphuric acid and
subsequent steam distillation. The total volatile acids thus

112 A. R. PENFOLD.

obtained were neutralised with ammonia solution and the
silver salts prepared. They gave the following results on
ignition :—

Acids soluble in water.—Ilst fraction: 0.1876 ge. silver salt
yielded 0.0702 2. Ag. = 51.01% Ag. 2nd fraction: 0.1629
g. silver salt yielded 0.0832 g. Ag. = 51.07%, Ag,

The silver salt of tsovalerianic acid requires 51.68% silver.

Oily Acid.—O0.1095 g. silver salt yielded 0.0429 ¢. Ag =

39.18% Ag.
The silver salt of capric acid requires 38.71% Ag.

Determination of free Acid and Phenolic Bodies.—100
e.c. erude oil (27/8/24) on treatment with 8% sodium
hydroxide solution gave 0.48 g. crude phenolic body of
refractive index, 20°, 1.5201. It gave a greenish-brown
eolouration with ferric chloride in alcoholic solution, but
eould not be identified. Similarly, 300 ¢@.c. crude oil
(26/2/25) yielded 0.29 g. crude phenol. In the course of
its isolation a small quantity of free acid was separated,
which from its colour reactions and general chemical
deportment towards silver and mercury salts pointed
strongly to its identity with formic acid.

Determination of Paraffin—From the high boiling
residues a very small quantity of a paraffin was isolated,
which on recrystallisation from ethyl alcohol melted at 56°.

In conclusion, my best thanks are due to the Conservator
of Forests, Hobart, and the members of his staff, for the
very great interest evinced in the investigation, and for
the invaluable assistance in arranging for the excellent
supplies of material furnished; to Mr. F. R. Morrison,
A.A.C.L, F.c.S., Assistant Economie Chemist, for his usual
valuable assistance in these investigations.

KIDNEY FAT OF THE EMU. 113

THE FIXED OIL OF THE KIDNEY FAT OF THE
EMU (Dromaius nove-hollandie ).

By F. R. MorRIson, A.A.C.1., F.C.S.,
Assistant Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales,
August 4, 1926.)

The oil which forms the subject of this investigation was
obtained from the fatty tissue surrounding the kidneys of
the Emu (Dromaius nove-hollandie), the large, flightless,
herbivorous bird peculiar to the Australian continent. The
oil was kindly supplied, free of cost, by Mr. G. Warby, of
Mungindi, New South Wales, who prepared the oil by
heating the fatty tissue in a vessel before the fire, whereby
the oil was separated from the membrane substance.”

As received, the oil was yellow in colour, and had an
odour somewhat resembling that of mutton fat. It had
the consistency of soft butter during the cold weather
owing to the presence of a stearoptene; during the summer
months, however, most of the stearoptene was dissolved and
the oil became clear and limpid. The oil was found to
consist of the glycerides of oleic, linolenic, palmitic and

* Subsequent to the writing of this paper, Mr. G. A. Warby
kindly furnished the following information:—

“IT should think a full-grown Emu would be about 200 Ibs.
and the weight of the kidney fat I would estimate at about 8 to
10 lbs. The amount of oil I sent you was not the total yield but
only a small portion. I should think the yield from the kidney
would be about 2 quarts, and from a whole Emu about 3 to 4
gallons.

These numbers are only approximate, as I have never weighed
them, but if at any time I can get a good Emu I will try and
get all the particulars for you.”

H—August 4, 1926.

114 F. R. MORRISON.

stearic acids. The occurrence of linolenic acid is of
interest, this acid being rarely found in animal oils and
fats.

The oil possessed the following physical and chemical
characteristics :—

M. pt. ae be ise sca 30- 31°
Cha AA Ae bias oe 0.915
Toy oee ue nse ss 1.4700
Acid value os a ue ee
Saponification value = as, eee
Iodine value (Wijs. 2 hours) ... 95.5
Unsaponifiable ... ee a 0.2%

Mixed fatty acids—The mixed fatty acids were prepared
from the crude oil in the usual manner by saponification
with alcoholic potassium hydroxide, and liberation of the
fatty acid by means of sulphuric acid, 95% of mixed acids
being obtained, which when cooled consisted of an almost
white, crystalline mass, having the following charac-
teristics :—

M.pt. Sa si ae ait 41°
die nee a oe iis 0.885
nee ah a a uN 1.4530
Iodine value (Wijs. 2 hours) .... 97.0
Neutralisation value My sas « DOD ez
Mean molecular weight ... ee oa

*“Solid’’ and “‘Inquid’’ Acids——A quantitive determina-
tion of the ‘‘solid’’ and ‘‘liquid’’ acids using the modified
method of Gusserow and Varrentrapp (Lewkowitsch 1921,
1, 556) gave the following result :—‘‘solid’’ acid, 40%,
and ‘‘liquid’’ acid 60%. |

Larger quantities of the respective acids were obtained
by the lead salt-ether method of Tortelli and Ruggeri
(L’Orosi, April 1900) described by Lewkowitsch (1921, 1,

KIDNEY FAT OF THE EMU. 115

560), 27 g. of ‘‘liquid’’ acid and 22 g. ‘‘solid’’ acid being
obtained from 50 g. of mixed fatty acids.

Liquid acid.—The liquid acid consisted of a light brown
oil possessing the following characteristics :—

dis 0.914
n° 1.4663
3 ee ia ass fey heaeOn
Iodine value (Wijs. 2 hours) ... 124.5
Neutralisation number ... Fe lone
Mean molecular weight ... magi haeo

Insoluble Bromides of Liquid Acids——A quantity (5 g.)
of the liquid acids was dissolved in 50 ¢e.c. of pure dry ether
cooled to — 20° and the solution saturated with bromine;
the insoluble bromide thus produced, after standing at the
above temperature for twelve hours, was filtered off, washed
with cooled ether and dried, 1.5 g. being obtained equal to
11% of linolenic acid. The bromide, after crystallising
from acetic acid, melted at 181°, which melting point did
not alter when the sample was mixed with an authentic
sample of linolenic hexabromide; 0.6290 ¢. gave 0.2941 g.

Ag Br., Br. = 61.2%. lLinolenic hexabromide requires
Br. = 63.3%.

The ethereal filtrate from the ether insoluble bromide
was washed free from excess of bromine by means of sodium
thiosulphate solution, and the ether removed. The viscous
residue was triturated with petroleum ether (B.pt. below
50°) at — 20°, but no insoluble bromide was obtained, indi-
eating the absence of linolic acid. The solvent was removed
and the bromine content of the liquid bromide determined ;
0.2818 g. gave 0.2684 g. Ag Br., Br. = 40.5%. The liquid
bromide apparently consists of oleic dibromide (requires
Br. = 86.18%) in admixture with a small quantity of
linolenic hexabromide.

116 F. R. MORRISON.

Oxidation of Inquid Acids—A quantity (10 g.) of the
liquid acids was oxidised in alkaline solution by means of
potassium permanganate (Lewkowitsch 1921, 1, 575). The
precipitated manganese dioxide was removed by means of
sulphurous acid, and the white precipitate filtered off and
dried; 7.3 grams were thus obtained, which on ecrystallisa-
tion from ether, and finally from alcohol as glistening
lamine, melted at 133°. The substance gave the following re-
sults on analysis: 0.1124 g. gave 0.2816 g. CO., and 0.1158 g.
H.O. C = 68.2%, H = 11.4% ; 0.3537 g. required 0.0620 g.
KOH for neutralisation, equal to a molecular weight for
a mono-basic acid of 319. CisH3.O4 requires C = 68.3%,
H = 11.4% and has a molecular weight of 316. The acid
is, therefore, dihydroxystearic acid resulting from the
oxidation of oleic acid.

The aqueous filtrate from the insoluble acid was made
shghtly alkaline with KOH, the solution concentrated to:
small bulk, and acidified with dilute sulphuric acid. A
small quantity of brown flocculent precipitate was pro-
duced, which, after drying and washing with ether, was
recrystallised from alcohol, and finally from water. A |
very small quantity of crystals was thus obtained melting
at 203°. Hexahydroxystearic acid, resulting from the
oxidation of linolenic acid, melts at this temperature. The
liquid acids, therefore, consist of oleic and linolenic acids,
the proportion of each, calculated from the iodine value
(124.5), being oleic acid 81.3% and linolenic acid 18.7%.

‘‘Solid acids’’—The solid acids after recrystallisation
from alcohol had a melting point of 57°, and a mean mole-
cular weight of 268. Further recrystallisation failed to
alter the characteristics. A quantity (12 grams) of the
acids was converted into the methyl esters, and the latter
fractionally distilled under reduced pressure, but no
definite separation was effected by this means.

KIDNEY FAT OF THE EMU. 117

Separation of the Acids by means of the Magnesium
Salts—A quantity (12 g.) of the acid was dissolved in
500 ¢.c. of 95% alcohol, and fractionally precipitated by
means of alcoholic magnesium acetate solution. Seven
fractions of magnesium salts were thus obtained, which,
on decomposition with hydrochloric acid, gave fractions
of fatty acids as follow :—

Weight M.pt. (after Mean molecular
Fraction (grams) recrystallisation) Weight
1 2.0 66° 280
2 alae 59° 275
3 1.3 57° 270
4 1.0 60° 268
5 1.5 56° 265
6 15 61° 260
7 0.5 G2" 258

The first fraction evidently consisted of slightly impure
stearic acid, and the last fraction consisted of pure palmitic
acid, the intermediate fractions apparently consisting of
mixture of these two acids. The tendency of mixtures of
these acids to form eutectics is well known, and separation
of the individual acids is difficult where large quantities
are not available.

Unsaponifiable matter—The unsaponifiable material
extracted from aqueous solution of the saponified oil by
means of ether gave the usual colour reactions for
cholesterol. The quantity available was not sufficient for
further examination.

Stearoptene-—A quantity of the solid stearoptene was
separated from the oil by filtration, and the crude substance
purified by crystallisation from ether, and finally from
acetone. Snow white, microscopic crystals were obtained,
possessing the following characteristics :—

118 F. R. MORRISON.

IDES ppokee Ape She oa ty Oleom
Cine ee i. ee ae 0.9912
ne* ve Res a ir 1.4990
Acid value ae na aa nil
Saponification value i + 200
Iodine value ne as ee nil

On saponification with KOH and decomposition of the
resulting soap with mineral acid, a solid acid of melting
point 57°, and mean molecular weight 263, was obtained.
The quantity available was insufficient for a separation of
the individual acids, but a consideration of the charac-
teristics, as well as those of the stearoptene itself, indicated
the stearoptene to be a mixed glyceride of palmitic and
stearic acids. According to Lewkowitsch (1921, 1, 30):
8-stearo-a-y-dipalmitin melts at 60°, and has a saponifica-
tion value of 201.8.

In conclusion, I have to express my best thanks to Mr.
A. R. Penfold, F.4.c.1., F.c.s., Economic Chemist, for his.
usual valuable advice and assistance in this investigation.

MOUNTAIN LAGOON AND THE KURRAJONG FAULT. 119

MOUNTAIN LAGOON AND THE KURRAJONG
PAUL.

By ALEXA GrapDy, B.Sc., and H. Hoasin, B.a.
(Communicated by Associate-Professor Griffith Taylor, D.Sc.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales,
August 4, 1926.)

The area we discuss in this paper is the region to the
north of Kurrajong Heights, between Mountain Lagoon
and Wheeny Creek, a belt of country in the County of
Cook some three and a half miles long by about one mile
broad.

The only approach to this area is by way of Bilpin, a
settlement eight miles from Kurrajong Heights on the Bell
road. From Bilpin a track leads through to Mountain
Lagoon, following the top of the ridge which is the main
divide between Wheeny and Tootie Creeks. By this, the
only practicable route, the Lagoon is fifteen miles from
Kurrajong Heights, although in a direct line it is only five
or six miles. (See Fig. 1.)

The only previous literature we have come across that
deals in any way with this district is Professor David’s.
‘‘An Important Geological Fault at Kurrajong, N.S.
Wales,’’ read before the Royal Society of New South Wales
on December 38rd, 1902. Of this we have made use in so far
as it applies to this region.

We also acknowledge the use of Willan’s map of the
Sydney District. This we found useful and suggestive,
but unreliable both as regards contours and creeks,
especially in the immediate neighbourhood of the Lagoon.

120

ALEXA GRADY AND H. HOGBIN.

Unfortunately we have been able so far only to make a
contour map of the northern part of our area.

This we
hope is more in accord with the facts than any hitherto
published.

D
Qo

if
Upper Colo
\%
» {2 K.
€
gy
Bilpip aie Y
eD! / Sem | ene +)
hurrevonge :
geen,
v ‘ +4
x} w
x 5
a “| ~SPound Trg we
Mt Tomah \ a
= roy Ri ; Syane
g Ne Chyond acy
\ No
LO e : “o'
A\ S
\
es)
\ '
\ ®
\ ‘
\ ‘
\ 7
i 3
\
gtk
as
iM
! \
eas
: , ; Penrit *
~ ns or Western Far wag LA 9 og
Glenbrook : G
'
Inset Area
examined
San Letlers rep-
resent lines
THe Kurragone fautt AREA of Sectioz
Fig. 1.

Plan of the Kurrajong-Fault Area

Where the creeks in the area did not already have names,

and most of them had not, we have named them ourselves
for convenience of reference.

The Lands Department has
now adopted these names.

The Monocline and the Kurrajong Fault—Extending in
a north-south direction from Glenbrook to Kurrajong there
hes the great monocline fold. At Kurrajong this folding
has caused an uplift of over 850 feet, although it is only

MOUNTAIN LAGOON AND THE KURRAJONG FAULT. 121

half that amount at Glenbrook. To the west of the mono-
eline at Glenbrook is a slight downwarp or fold of about
100 feet. Behind Kurrajong there is a well defined fault,
with a throw of 450 feet. The fault here and the fold
at Glenbrook probably belong to the same movement
although their connection has not yet been definitely
established. They were probably caused by readjustment
after the monoclinal fold, according to Professor David.
(See Fig. 1.)

The Colo, the Grose, and the smaller Wheeny Creek were
all alike confronted with the fault and were all able to
cut their way through it and continue very largely in their
old courses, though they were probably all diverted slightly

: Ck
Wipd Gap above Lagqoop Water Gap -Wheeny

CE WEEE ZZ
Ze Lg Yo WM, Lda gti -P”"Z ~ =

Vi
MIM Hy
MMMM tht Le A ze

— 2 ZZ

MWA
emt Way MIN YM ZA)

Uj HIN.
My “yy NY

SS _ PI COTM
—=

SS
—

Fig. 2. Panoramic Sketch of Kurrajong Fault.

to the south. (See Fig. 2.) Apparently the faulting took
place so slowly that these streams were able to cut a channel
right through the upthrust side while the action was going
on, for in our cursory examination of Wheeny Creek we
could find no evidence of lacustrine deposits indicating a
temporary dam, and where the smaller stream was able to
continue its flow uninterruptedly, it is unlikely that the
larger streams were even dammed up for a time, unless
they have changed in volume, which is also unlikely.

It is clear, however, that Mountain Lagoon was caused
by the damming up of a small stream, which, before the
faulting, flowed straight across into the Colo. This course
is occupied now probably by Taylor Creek. For a time, no

122 ALEXA GRADY AND H. HOGBIN.

doubt this old stream was able to keep pace with the
faulting for a wind gap has been cut in the fault behind
the Lagoon. This wind gap at its lowest point 400 yards
from the Lagoon shore is now only eleven feet above the
surface of the Lagoon, but this is owing to deepening by

a: =. Track

’ : ~~
Mountain Lagoon Drain

MOUNTAIN LAGOON
RECION

Fig. 3. Contour Map of Area

headward erosion of Taylor Creek. It is improbable that -
the original wind gap came down as low as this (See Fig.
3.)

The Lagoon Topography.—Mountain Lagoon may be
roughly compared with an overturned saucer. The lagoon
itself occupies the shallow depression within the rim of the
bottom of the saucer. (See Fig. 4.) Its watershed con-

MOUNTAIN LAGOON AND THE KURRAJONG FAULT. 123

sists of only the narrow rim itself, outside which are
streams which besiege it on all sides. Each of these has a
very steep grade.

The lagoon is fed by no stream of appreciable size. The
longest is a mere soak some 600 yards long, flowing in from
the west. We use the term ‘‘soak’’, here and elsewhere,
for a short creek-bed normally dry but which carries water

- after rain.
Basale M//

Taylor Creek | DorothyCk Lagoon Creek Wheeny Creek
_| Russe// Ghia

S

, j
il

A —
.—
.
> -=q!
we t

SF

motes! fee

tS Ch
Tae pack Ch

Fig. 4. Block Diagram of Area

Stewa 5

In the north one proceeds over a narrow strip of country
some 150 yards wide to the top of a divide only 50 feet
above the Lagoon. On the far side of this divide are the
headwaters of Cora Creek, draining into Tootie Creek and
hence into the Colo.

On the south the rim of the bottom of the overturned
saucer is even lower. Here the divide is between the
Lagoon watershed and Lagoon Creek. Normally the latter
does not drain the lagoon, but a few years ago a ditch was
cut through the divide to connect the two in order to empty

124 ALEXA GRADY AND H. HOGBIN.

the Lagoon for cultivation purposes. However, nothing
was done in that direction and the drain has now become
almost filled with silt. Apparently the flow of water from
the Lagoon was not sufficient to keep a clear channel, but
in course of time the headward erosion of Lagoon Creek
must eat back along the ditch and so open the outlet again
—this time permanently. As matters are now Lagoon
Creek, flowing southward, commences its course some 60
yards to the south of the Lagoon.

The longest slope to the depression is on the west, and
down this slope is the soak before mentioned. On this side
the divide is over half a mile from the Lagoon. This divide
separates the soak waters from those of Stewart’s Creek,
a tributary of Lagoon Creek.

On the east the saucer analogy is weakest. Here there
is a most interesting example of capture. About 150 yards
from the Lagoon, running north-south, is the great fault
scarp. This scarp is breached by a wind gap right opposite
the Lagoon. The divide between it and the headwaters of
Taylor Creek lies in the wind gap—400 yards from the
Lagoon shore and only 11 feet above it.

Taylor Creek has just captured Russell Creek, which but
yesterday, geologically speaking, flowed into the Lagoon.
Taylor Creek has eaten back the divide and by doing so has
captured Russell Creek, which now, making an angle of
about 40°, turns and flows in the opposite direction.

How precarious the position of the Lagoon is ean readily
be seen. As soon as one of the besieging streams reaches it -
all traces will be removed in a very short time.

Topography of Surroundings in Detail—lLagoon Creek
for some 500 yards of its course occupies merely a little V-
shaped silty trench, five feet deep. This quickly deepens
after that and in quite a short distance the creek occupies
the bottom of a juvenile gorge some hundreds of feet deep.

MOUNTAIN LAGOON AND THE KURRAJONG FAULT. 125

Lagoon Creek follows the edge of the fault scarp closely,
no doubt because that is a line of weakness, making erosion
easier. (See Fig. 5, Section A.)

Fig. 5. Cross-Sections (A-E) of Valleys in Area

Just before the junction with Wheeny Creek it takes a
turn into the downthrust side of the fault, leaving the
scarp. There is here a well-marked shelf on the eastern side
of the valley. This shelf is level with the top of the gorge
on the western side. Section B (in Fig. 5) shows this.
shelf,

126 ALEXA GRADY AND H. HOGBIN.

The reason for this is that the creek is probably following
up another line of weakness—a cross fault. The result is
that it joins Wheeny Creek with a boat-hook bend.

Dorothy Creek is the only appreciable tributary of
Lagoon Creek on the left-hand side. The rest are mere
soaks. The reason of this lies in the smallness of the
watershed, being confined wholly to the scarp face. Dorothy
Creek is the biggest, probably because it has cut its way
into the basalt rock of Basalt Hill (see below) and that
is easier to erode than the sandstone.

On the right-hand side there are three creeks. Of these
the most northerly is Stewart’s. The source of this creek
is due west of the Lagoon about half to three-quarters of a
mile. At its source the level of the creek is much the same
_as that of the Lagoon, but in its length of only 1500 yards
it has a fall of 400 feet.

The two other creeks joining the main creek on this side
are Grahame and Flat Rock. Of the three, the last is the
longest and has the greatest volume. Both of these creeks
flow from the main ridge running from Bilpin to the
Lagoon, the main divide between Tootie and Wheeny
Creeks. Both Grahame and Flat Rock Creeks are typical
juvenile streams with steep grades, falls and gorges.

Wheeny Creek has cut a magnificent gap through the
upthrust side of the fault. Just before it reaches the fault
it flows through a canyon with walls 500-700 feet high,
but where it cuts through the upthrust these are increased
by an extra 500 feet. The sections C and D in Fig. 5 give
some idea of the difference.

Cora Creek, to the north of the Lagoon, flows into Tootie
Creek. It descends even more rapidly than Lagoon Creek,
and soon becomes intrenched in a great gorge.

ssh} —

MOUNTAIN LAGOON AND THE KURRAJONG FAULT. 127

Taylor Creek, on the east, drains stiaight through to
the Colo. As explained above, it probably represents the
beheaded stream which formed Mountain Lagoon, when
unable to keep pace with the faulting. It, too, flows
through a gorge and descends at a steep grade.

When we stand on the divide in the wind gap and look
down Taylor Creek we notice that the valley is very wide
for such a small stream, even allowing for the captured
Russell Creek which flows towards us obliquely and then
turns into the main creek. The floor of the valley is here
200 feet wide, but ahead, that is to say downstream, we can
see that it narrows. Section (E) is at the wind gap, and
section (EF) 500 yards below. (See Fig. 5.)

This is very obviously abnormal, and how are we to
account for it? Our first theory was that the wide valley
represented ordinary erosion by Taylor Creek in the
shatter belt caused by the fault. This was strengthened
by our noticing that where the valley is wide there is no
stratification of the sandstone visible, only huge loosely-
sorted boulders forming gigantic talus slopes. Erosion
would be, of course, more rapid in a shatter belt.

However, although we do not reject this theory, a second
has suggested itself, that the wide valley represents the
wind gap cut by the old stream, deepened, as we have said,
by the headward erosion of Taylor Creek. The narrow
valley below would then represent the normal juvenile
valley of Taylor Creek. This does not altogether explain
why the outcropping strata are covered in the wide valley
while they remain visible in the narrow, so perhaps there
is a little of the truth in both theories.

Summary.—The topography of the downthrust side of
the fault is a dissected peneplain with a slope towards the
east to the great fault scarp. Although the Lagoon occu-

128 ALEXA GRADY AND H. HOGBIN.

pies a small local depression, it is actually higher than

most of the downthrust side of the fault, being one of the

few remaining parts of the peneplain as yet undissected.
Geology.

The main geological feature of the area is the Hawkes-
bury sandstones, the middle series of the local Trias system.
In places these are covered by Wianamatta shale beds, but
nowhere did we find Narrabeen shales exposed. At Moun-
tain Lagoon there is an outlier of Wianamatta shales. (See
Fig. 4.) This is just what we would expect to find at the
core of the old peneplain. The shales cease abruptly at the
fault scarp on the east. On the north and west we find the
shales for a short distance but as the country becomes more
dissected they have been worn away. In the south the
shales cease abruptly at a small local upwarping of some
fifteen feet. This warp is a distinct feature at right angles
to the main fault and it is where it crosses them that both
Stewart’s and Lagoon Creeks enter into their gorges.

On the side of the fault scarp south of the Lagoon there
is an exposure of basalt. (See Fig. 4.) We were not able
to discover if this was post-faulting or not. However, we
noted—

1. that no basalt is exposed at all on the downthrow
side ;

2. the basalt does not reach the level of the downthrow
side ;

3. it is not found even as talus in Lagoon Creek;

4. it reaches to within 50 feet of the present top of the
fault scarp ;

5. it has been weathered into a rich chocolate soil, and
there are few exposures of the actual rock.

The boundaries of the basalt and Wianamatta shale are

indicated approximately on the block diagram submitted.
(Fig. 4.)

MOUNTAIN LAGOON AND THE KURRAJONG FAULT. 129

Settlement and Economic Effects of the Fault.

At present there are five farms in the district, but only
two are being worked. Citrus fruits are grown chiefly.
The orchards are located on the Wianamatta shale in the
Lagoon area and on the main divide at the Lagoon end.
There does not seem much prospect of any greater density
in the population, for the best areas have already been
taken up, and there only remains a small portion of Wiana-
matta shale soil. We understand Basalt Hill has been
selected, but it is as yet uncleared. The total number of
farms in the whole area can never exceed a dozen, so that
the construction of a good road is unwarranted unless a
tourist route be made, following the present track from
Bilpin to Upper Colo. This would make Mountain Lagoon,
a place of great geographic and also of scenic interest,
much easier of access, but since it is not a place of economic
interest it hardly seems likely that such a road will be
constructed at present.

I—August 4, 1926.

130 F. W. BOOKER.

THE INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF SOME OF THE
PENTAMERIDAE OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

By F. W. Booker, B.Sc.
Geological Survey of New South Wales, Department of Mines,
Sydney.
(With Plates V-VIII and seven text figures.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales,
September 1, 1926.)

The research, the results of which are embodied in this
paper, was instituted primarily to confirm Etheridge’s'
determination of Pentamerus (Barrandella) lungutfera var.
wilkinson, from the Barrandella Shales of MHatton’s
Corner, Yass.

Through the courtesy of Mr. J. Mitchell, I was able to
examine specimens of Barrandella (Pentamerella) molon-
gems Mitchell (sp.), and of Sveberella glabra Mitchell.
A specimen of Sieberella galeata Dalman was obtained from
the Dudley Collection in possession of the Department of
Mines for comparison with Mr. Mitchell’s specimens.

My thanks are due to Mr. W. S. Dun for his kindly
supervision and direction of my work, and to Mr. J.
Mitchell and Mr. A. J. Shearsby for their help in obtaining
material. Miss H. R. Drummond, B.Sc.,and Messrs. H. W
Hamilton, B.Sc., and C. Barnard, B.Sc., have also allowed
me to use material from their collections. An extensive

collection of more than 1000 specimens was made in the
Yass district.

1Ktheridge R., Pentameridae of N.S.W., Records of the
Geological Survey of N.S.W., 1892-3, 3, 49.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PENTAMERIDAE. 131

The Preparation and Examination of Brachiopod
Material—The internal structures of the brachiopods
described in this paper were examined by means of thin
sections cut serially from the umbo to the anterior margin
of the shell. The serial sections were usually 1 mm. or
less apart and from them the internal structures of the
shell could be reconstructed with great accuracy.

These sections were supplemented by internal casts,
natural sections, and sections made by splitting specimens
along the median septum in a rock breaker.

A complete photographic record of every specimen was
kept.

Genus BARRANDELLA Hall 1893. 2 3
Synonym, Clorinda Barrande, 1879.4
Sub-genus BARRANDINA, n. sub-gen.
Plates V. VI. and VIII.
Synonym, Pentamerus linguifera var. wilkinsont Eth. Fil.
1892.5

Shells sub-globose, usually inflated, and generally wider
than long. Their size is variable, but usually small. The
umbo of the pedicle valve is large and ineurved and much
thickened. The umbo of the brachial valve is only slightly
thickened. A median sinus is developed on the pedicle
valve and a corresponding fold on the brachial valve. The
sinus is shallow and bounded by two slightly raised folds,
while the fold is impressed by a faint median groove;
i.e., the shell is dorsally uniplicate with a tendency to
become dorsally biplicate. The sides of the plication are
squarish. An area is absent in all cases. The surface of

2Report of the New York State Geologist, 1893, 844.
3Palaeontology of New York, 1894, 8, 241.

4Systéme Silurien, 1879, 5, pls. XXII, XXIV, CXIX, CXXXVIII.
5Etheridge, loc. cit.

132 F. W. BOOKER.

the valves is ornamented with a few laminae of growth;
otherwise the shells are smooth.

The hinge line of the pedicle valve is short and curved
with two small, poorly developed, but distinct, teeth.
The delthyrium is bounded by a pair of narrow incipient
pseudo-deltidial plates. The teeth are supported by a
pair of strong dental lamellae, which unite to form a
short spondylium, the free extension of which is produced
into the cavity of the brachial valve and terminates
anteriorly about the centre of the valve. The spondylium
is supported at its posterior surface only, by a short but
wide septum.

The hinge line of the brachial valve is short and curved,
and has two distinct sockets for the reception of the hinge
teeth. The sockets are bounded by very short crural plates,
supported by slightly longer septa. The septa are diver-
gent and make two distinct lines of union on the surface
of the valve.

At the junction of the crural plates and septa a pair
of curved, outwardly convex plates are developed. These
are attached throughout their entire length to the
eruralium, at the junction of the crural plates and septa,
either along the median line of the convex side of the
plate, or at the edges, being then intercalated between the
septa and crural plates. These plates extend beyond the
anterior termination of the crural plates and septa for
fully one-third of their length and terminate at a point
slightly anterior to the end of the spondylium.

A definite series of branching vascular sinuses radiates
from the umbonal region.

Type: Barrandina wilkinsoni, n. sp.

Locality: Hatton’s Corner, Yass.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PENTAMERIDAE. 133

The sub-genus Barrandina has been erected for the
reception of certain Australian Pentameridae, with the
fold on the brachial valve and sinus on the pedicle valve,
in which the eruralium is modified by the development
of an extra plate at the junction of the septa and crural
plates. The two species comprising the sub-genus were
first described by Etheridge® as Pentamerus lingwifera var.
wilkinsoni. Subsequent work on the pentameroids of the
Yass district has revealed a series of forms paralleling in
their structures the Barrandella and Sieberella series of
Europe and America, but all characterised by the develop-
‘ment of an extra plate in the cruralium.

In view of Hall’s comment on the variability of the
eruralium in certain of the galeatiform pentameroids, it
was deemed inadvisable, at this stage, to give this structure
more than sub-generic importance, although it has been
found to be very constant throughout a very large series
of specimens.

BARRANDINA WILKINSONI, 0. Sp.
Plates V., VIII. (No. 1). Numbers 1-5.
| Synonym, Pentamerus linguifera var. wilkinsoni Eth.
ail, 1892.7

Shell sub-globose, usually inflated and, as a rule, wider
than long. The shells are much larger than those of
Barrandina minor. The measurements of the largest and
smallest specimens examined, and the mean measurements
of twelve specimens are :— |

Length Breadth Depth
permtesh se 20 mm. 21 mm. 16 mm.
Mrreest 6... 26 mm. 27 mm. 18 mm.
mean ‘ot 12... =... 22 mm. 23 mm. 15 mm.

6,7 Etheridge, loc. cit.

134 F. W. BOOKER.

The pedicle valve is much thickened and curved in the
umbonal region. The umbo is very large and incurved,.
and often depressed, concealing entirely the delthyrium.
A broad shallow sinus with a narrow groove in the median
line, and bounded by two low folds, is developed opposite
a corresponding fold in the brachial valve. The sinus is.
concealed by subsequent shell growth until it can only
be seen at the anterior margin of the shell, where the
front is deflected and produced dorsally, sometimes
becoming almost perpendicular to the longer axis of the
shell and forming the characteristic ‘‘tongue.’’

‘‘Vascular system possessing two main trunks, arising
in the umbonal cavity and shortly bifurcating with a
lateral branch proceeding down each flank and central.
branches on each side of the shallow sinus, each pertion
again dividing near the front.’’

The brachial valve is transversely ovate and thin in
comparison with the pedicle valve. The beak is highly
incurved, but does not enter the opening of the pedicle
valve. It is outwardly convex from the umbo until the
fold commences to rise, whence it is concave to the anterior
margin. The fold is strongly developed and is impressed
with a faint median groove, which may be accepted as a
tendency to dorsal bipleation and which gives the fold a
squarish appearance.

The surface of the valves is smooth except for, a few
concentric laminae of growth.

The hinge line of the pedicle valve is short and curved
and provided with two distinct, though not well developed
teeth. The delthyrium is large and triangular and modified
by a pair of narrow, pseudo-deltidial plates. The teeth
are supported by strong, well-developed dental lamellae

8Etheridge, loc. cit.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PENTAMERIDAE. 135

h

Fig. 1.—a-i, nine transverse serial sections of Barrandina wilkinsoni,
showing septa, spondylium, crural and extra plates. x 1.

136 F. W. BOOKER.

which unite to form a short spondylium, the free extension
of which is directed forward into the cavity of the brachial
valve and terminates anteriorly about the centre of the

f

L
Fig. 2.—a-i, nine transverse serial sections of Barrandina wilkinsoni,
showing septa, spondylium, crural and extra plates. x 13.

valve. The spondylium is supported by a very short
septum which extends anteriorly to the point of greatest
curvature of the umbo, and which is very wide in com-

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PENTAMERIDAE. 137

parison with its length, by reason of the great size and
depth of the umbo. The spondylium bears a series of
muscular markings similar to those seen on the spondylium
of Conchidium knighti Sow. (sp.) ;:a series of longitudinal
striae at the bottom of the spondylium representing the
adductor scars and a series of transverse markings on
the sides being the diductor scars. The septum bears a
series of growth striae.

The hinge line of the brachial valve is short and curved
with two distinct sockets for the reception of the hinge
teeth. The sockets are bounded by very short crural
plates, which are outwardly concave. Two convergent
septa, slightly longer than the crural plates, are developed.
These make two distinct lines of union with the bottom
of the valve. The crural plates are not joined directly
to the septa, but are separated from them by a pair of
additional plates, intercalated between the crural plates
and septa. The additional plates are long, curved, and
outwardly convex, and are joined to the entire length of
the crural plates along the ventral edges, and to the septa,
along the dorsal edges. The anterior ends of the additional
plates extend beyond the termination of the crural plates
and septa for fully one-third of their length and terminate
slightly anterior to the end of the spondylium. The
septum bears ‘a series of transverse growth striae. The
crural plates bear a series of transverse striae, probably
of muscular origin, and the additional plates bear a series
of similar striae. |

Locality and horizon: Barrandella Shales, Hatton’s
‘Corner, Yass.

Etheridge’s type specimens are, with one exception,
referable to this species, which therefore becomes the type
of the new sub-genus. The exception is a small specimen
from Bowning? which I have not been able to examine.

138 F. W. BOOKER.

BARRANDINA MINOR, ND. Sp.
Plate VI., Numbers 1-4, 6, 7. Plate VIII., Number 2.
Synonym, Pentamerus lingutfera var. wilkinson Eth.
Pal, 189228
Shell sub-globose, usually inflated, and, as a rule, wider
than long. The shells are typically small. The measure-
ments of the smallest and largest examined and the mean.
measurements of 124 specimens were :—

Length Breadth Depth
Smallest... .... «. 11 mm. 12.0 mm. 7.5 mm.
Ihareest® 3 vy. ok 15 mm. 16.5 mm. 11.0 mm..
Mean of 124 .. .. 13 mm. 13.5 mm. 9.5 mm..
b eal d G
: d
e ee er
f §

Fig. 3.—a-g, seven transverse serial sections of Barrandina minor,.
showing septa, spondylium, crural and extra plates. x 14.

The internal structures of the pedicle valve are identical.
with those of Barrandina wilkinson, but they are devel-.
oped on a smaller scale, consistent with the smaller size
of the shell.

The hinge line of the brachial valve is short, curved
and provided with distinct sockets for the reception of
the hinge teeth. The sockets are bounded by very short

9, 0K theridge, loc. cit. Plate XI., Fig. 8.

INTERNAL SH{RUCTURE OF PENTAMERIDAE. 139

OO

ee

Fig. 4.—a-f, six transverse serial sections of Barrandina minor, show-
ing septa, spondylium, crural and extra plates. X13. g, section show-
ing thickening of margins of the delthyrium, being equivalent to pseudo-
deltidial plates. x 11. h, section showing the mode of occurrence of
the extra plates in this species. x 1}.

140 F. W. BOOKER.

crural plates, which are outwardly concave. The crural
plates are supported by septa slightly longer than them-
selves. The septa are divergent and make two distinct
lines of junction with the valve. At the junction of the
septa and crural plates, and on the inner side, a pair of
long, curved, outwardly convex plates is developed.
These are attached to the whole length of the crural plates
and septa, along the median line of the convex side of
the plates which are prolonged anteriorly beyond the
anterior termination of the septa and crural plates for
fully one-third of their length.

Locality and horizon: Barrandella Shales, Hatton’s
Corner, Yass.

Barrandina wilkinsoni and B. minor occur together in
the Barrandella Shales of Hatton’s Corner, Yass. The
adult specimens are readily distinguished specifically by
the difference in size, Barrandina wilkinson: being con-
siderably larger than B. minor. I have not been able to
identify young specimens of either species. It is certain,
however, that, of the fifty specimens of Barrandina minor
which were examined internally, none could possibly have
represented the immature stages of B. wilkinsoni.

Genus PENTAMERELLA Hall, 1867."

Plate VI., Number 5. Plate VII., Numbers 5 and 6.
Pentamerella molongensts Mitchell (sp.) 1920.?
Synonym, Barrandella molongensis. Mitchell, 1920.%

Since Mitchell’s description of these specimens, several
have been sectioned serially and the internal structures
reconstructed.

mReport New York State Geologist, 1893.
12, 13Mitchell, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1920, 45, 548.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PENTAMERIDAE. 14]

In the pedicle valve the dental lamellae unite to form
a short, curved spondylium which extends only one or two
millimetres below the hinge line. It is supported at the
extreme posterior end by a rudimentary septum, which
does not extend past the highest point of the umbo.

In the brachial valve are two short divergent septa
which make two distinct lines of union with the bottom
of the valve. These support a pair of short crural plates
which unite with the septa on the outer side and slightly
below the free edges of the septa.

EN aR

OL

b

Fig. 5.—a-c, Pentamerella molongensis Mitchell (sp.) Three transverse
sections showing the form and extent of the internal structures. > 14.

Locality and horizon: The locality given is 8 miles west
of Molong, but Mr. Mitchell is very doubtful of the exact
locality and it is therefore impossible to refer the specimens.
to any definite locality or horizon.

The extremely short, rudimentary septum and _ short
spondylium at once remove this species from the genus
Barrandella to Pentamerella. In both internal and
external characters it agrees most nearly with Pentamerella
fultonensis Branson (see Plate VII., Number 6) from the
Callaway Limestone of Callaway County, Missouri, U.S.A.™

Externally Pentamerella fultonensis and P. molongensis
are practically indistinguishable, except perhaps P. ful-
tonensis is slightly higher in the umbo and slightly more

14Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines, 1922, 13, 2nd Series,.
Se, El. XVE.

142 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PENTAMERIDAE.

convex in the brachial valve than P. molongensis.
Internally they agree in the size and degree of development
of septum and spondylium. In the brachial valve there are
slight differences. In P. fultonensis the septa unite as
they reach the bottom of the valve, forming only one line
of union with the valve. The crural plates unite with
the septa along their free margin, while in P. molongensis
the septa do not unite before reaching the bottom of the
valve, and leave two distinct lines of union on the surface
of the valve, while the crural plates are joined to the
septa on the outer sides and slightly below the free edges.

Genus SIEBERELLA CMhlert, 1887.%5

A specimen of Sieberella galeata Dalman, from Wren’s
Neck, near Dudley, England, was obtained from the
Dudley Collection in the possession of the Mines Depart-
ment, for sectioning. See Plate VII., Number 4, Plate VIIL.,
Number 4.) The internal characters of this specimen do
not agree at all closely with the published figures and
descriptions of Sveberella galeata. In the pedicle valve of
this specimen the septum is short and supports the spon-
dylium at the posterior surface only. The spondylium
is about two-thirds the length of the pedicle valve. In
the brachial valve are two long, divergent septa. These
do not support the crural plates directly, but are separated
from them by a pair of long, curved extra plates which are
outwardly convex and project for about a quarter of their
length beyond the anterior termination of the crural plates
and septa.

The specimen had the following external dimensions :—
Length Breadth Depth
16 mm. 17 mm. 15 mm.

isFischer’s Manuel de Conchyliologie, 1887, p. 1311.

aoe

F. W. BOOKER. 143

200

aie,
EO
p>

Fig. 6.—a-i, nine transverse serial sections of Sieberella glabra Mitchell,
showing the arrangement of the internal structures and the extra plates.
x 1.

144 F. W. BOOKER.

Neither Hall and Clarke nor Davidson” mention the
occurrence of the extra plate or realise its significance.
Davidson’s figure of Sieberella galeata® shows a structure
which may represent this extra plate, but if so it does
not extend beyond the anterior end of the septum. David-
son also shows a much shorter spondylium and a longer
septum than occur in the specimen examined.

Fig. 7.—a-g, seven sections of Sieberella galeata Dalman, from Wren’s
Neck, Dudley, showing extra plates in the cruralium. x 14.

SIEBERELLA GLABRA Mitchell (sp.).%9
Plate VII., Number 1-3. Plate VIII., Number 3.

A single specimen of this species was sectioned serially.
The dental plates unite to form a deep spondylium which
extends forward more than half the length of the shell.
It is supported for about one-third of its length by a well-
developed septum. In the brachial valve two strong but
low septa are developed and make two distinct lines of

16Hall and Clarke, Palaeontology of New York, 1894, 8, 246.
17Davidson, Mon. Brit. Fossil Brachiopoda, 1867, 3, 145.
Loc. cit., Plate XV, fig. 23.

19Mitchell, loc. cit. Pl. XXXI., figs. 13-15.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 19

Plate V.

Barrandina wilkinsoni (sub-gen. et sp. nov.)

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926, Plate VI.

SC ‘Ss

Barrandina minor (sp. nov.)

Pentamerella molongensis Mitchell (sp.)

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926. Plate VII.

4b
S. glabra Mitchell. Sieberella galeata Dalman
Reconstruction of Pentamerella fultonensis.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926. Plate VIII.

Reconstruction of Barrandina wilkinsoni, B. minor

and Sieberella glabra.

+

b

ay 3

W

Je aa ¥

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PENTAMERIDAE. 145

junction with the shell. The crural plates are shorter
than the septa and do not rest directly on them but are
separated from them by a curved, outwardly convex plate
which extends forward for about 2 mm. beyond the
anterior termination of the septa.

Mr. Mitchell’s species agrees with the published descrip-
tions and figures of Sveberella galeata Dalman, in the
character of the spondylium and septum, but the septum
of 8. glabra is considerably longer than that of the speci-
men of S. galeata examined. The cruralium of S. glabra
is identical with that of the specimen of S. galeata
examined.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
PLATE V.

Numbers 1-4. Barrandina wilkinsoni (sub-gen. et sp. nov.).
aia
Number 5. B. wilkinsont Longitudinal section showing
septum of pedicle valve, spondylium, one crural
plate and the extra plate. xX 1.
Puate VI.
Numbers 1-4. Barrandina minor (sp. nov.). X 1.
Number 5. Pentamerella Molongensis Mitchell (sp.). X 1.
Number 6. Barrandina minor. Interior of a pedicle valve,

showing vascular sinuses and portion of septum.
Soinls

Number 7. An etched specimen of B. minor showing septa.
Gol,

Puate VII.
Numbers 1-3. Steberella glabra Mitchell. Mr. Mitchell’s
type specimens. X 1.
Number 4. Sveberella galeata Dalman. A specimen from
Wren’s Neck, Dudley, England. xX 1.

J—September 1, 1926.

146 F. W. BOOKER.

Number 5. Pentamerella molongensis Mitchell (sp.). A
reconstruction of P. molongensis showing the in-
ternal structures. X 4.

Number 6. A reconstruction of P. fultonensts Branson,

showing the internal structures. X 4.
S. = septum of pedicle valve. Sp. = spondylium.

SI. -= septum of brachial valve. Cr. = crural plate.

Puatr VIII.
Number 1. Barrandina wilkinson.

A reconstruction
showing the internal structures. X 2.

Number 2. Barrandina minor. A reconstruction showing
the internal structures. X 2. |

Number 3. Sieberella glabra. A reconstruction showing
the internal structures. X 2.

Number 4. A reconstruction of Sieberella galeata. X 2.
S. = septum of pedicle valve. Sp. = spondylium.

SI. = septum of brachial valve. Cr. = crural plate.
xX = extra plate.

WOOD STRUCTURE OF CERTAIN EUCALYPTS. 147

‘THE WOOD STRUCTURE OF CERTAIN EUCALYPTS
BELONGING CHIEFLY TO THE ‘‘ASH’’ GROUP.
By M. B. WeucuH, B.Sc., A.I.C.

(With Plates IX.-XII.)

‘(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Sept. 1, 1926.)

The term ‘‘ash’’ is used in Australia to denote trees
belonging to widely different Natural Orders, which have
no connection botanically with the European Ash
(Fraxmus). The chief resemblance is usually one of
‘colour, the majority of the Australian woods being pale
‘coloured, but exceptions such as the Red Ash, Alphitonia
excelsa, and Tarrietia argyrodendron, var., occur. In this
paper the wood structure of certain HEucalypts, namely,
Eucalyptus Dalrympleana J.H.M.; E. Delegatensis R.T.B.,
LE, fastigata Deane and Maiden; EF. fraxinoides Deane and
Maiden; EF. obliqua L’Her; EF. oreades R.T.B. and E.
regnans I’.v.M., some of which possess the vernacular name
‘of ‘‘Ash,’’ is described. The reason for the inclusion of
‘several other species, not strictly classed in this group,
is that they possess timber closely resembling the ‘‘ Ashes’’
and occur in the same districts, so that confusion is likely
to arise. The woods are pale coloured, normally of
moderate weight and hardness and possess, in general,
remarkable strength; they are therefore an important com-
mercial group which must eventually play an important
part as a substitute for Oregon as a scantling timber.
‘The species generally occur in large quantities, especially
in southern New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania;
moreover, they regenerate readily and there is no reason

148 M. B. WELCH.

why supplies of the timber should not be assured for all
time. The trees grow in regions of comparatively high
rainfall and often attain an enormous size; in fact, pro-
bably the largest trees in Australia belong to this group,,.
forest giants exceeding 300 feet having been measured in
the Gippsland district of Victoria.

On account of their increasing commercial importance,
it was thought desirable to examine the woods microscopi-
cally to see whether any reliable method could be found
whereby they could be identified with accuracy.

The group is an exceedingly difficult one, and although
those accustomed to handling the timbers might be able
to separate the species growing in their districts, it is
sometimes doubtful whether their confidence is always
justified. When, however, even the locality is doubtful,
the problem becomes still more difficult. Botanically,
considerable confusion has existed in the past in reference
to the systematic position of certain species, and even
to-day opinions differ as to whether one species at least
is entitled to specific rank. The synonymy and confusion
in connection with E. obliqua, E. regnans, E. Delegatensis
and EH. fastigata are dealt with rather fully in a paper
on the Eucalypts of Tasmania, by Baker and Smith ;* other
references can be found in the exhaustive work of the
late J. H. Maiden.**

As perhaps might have been anticipated, the results.
have proved rather disappointing from the point of view
of identification, on account of the variation found to
occur in the wood of the same species, but it was thought
advisable to place them on record.

—

* R. T. Baker and H. G. Smith. A research on the Eucalypts
of Tasmania and their Essential Oils. Proc. Roy. Seg. Tasmania,
1912.

** J. H. Maiden. A Critical Revision of the Genus me
Govt. Printer, Sydney.

WOOD STRUCTURE OF CERTAIN EUCALYPTS. 149

The following notes apply principally to the microscopic
wood structure of the individual species, but a_ short
description is given of the tree and the uses to which
the wood is put. Systematic descriptions can be found in
Maiden (loc. cit.) or in the Eucalypts and their Essential
Oils.t A short account of the anatomy of the woods
of H. Delegatensis, E. oreades and E. regnans is given in
the ‘‘Hardwoods of Australa’’;* EH. Dalrympleanat was
-deseribed after the publication of that work. The strue-
tures of the various species are illustrated by means of
photo-micrographs of transverse sections taken with a
‘comparatively low magnification, in order to include as
large a field as possible without losing too many details.
‘There is frequently, of course, considerable variation in the
-appearance of different parts of a transverse section, and
it is impossible to do more than show a very small area.

Evucatyptus DALRYMPLEANA J. H. Maiden.
Mountain or White Gum.

A large forest tree attaining a height of several hundred
feet and 30 feet in girth, found at moderately high eleva-
tions in central and southern portions of the dividing
range and spurs in New South Wales. The wood is white
te pinkish in colour, of moderately open texture, straight-
grained and fissile. It is largely used for building con-
struction, e.g., flooring, lining, weatherboards; hoe and
light hammer handles, ete. It seasons well when cut from
matured trees, but is sometimes inclined to warp and show

+R. T. Baker and H. G. Smith. A Research on the Eucalypts
and their Essential Oils. 2nd Edition, Govt. Printer, Sydney,
1920.

*R. T. Baker. Hardwoods of Australia and their Economics.
Govt. Printer, Sydney, 1919.

7 J. H. Maiden. Forest Flora of New South Wales, vol. 7,
-p. 1387. Govt. Printer, Sydney, 1920.

150 M. B. WELCH.

collapse. Weight, 40-48 lbs. per cubic foot. Hardness ==
Moderately hard.

Macroscopical characters.—Pores medium-sized to small,.
easily visible on end section with the naked eye; usually in.
short oblique rows; distribution irregular, more crowded
in early wood, often absent in late wood. Vessels prac-
tically without contents. Soft tisswe not apparent. Rays:
scarcely visible on end or tangential sections without lens;
easily visible radially, being slightly darker in colour than
the surrounding tissue. Growth rings fairly prominent,
due to darker colour of late wood, and more or _ less
complete absence of pores; more pronounced in specimens.
from Laurel Hill, New South Wales, at an elevation of
4,000 feet, than in specimens from the Blue Mountains.

Microscopical characters—Pores almost always single,.
very variable in size, being very small in late wood; single
pores usually elliptical; radial diameter, 45-300n, mean
240u; tangential diameter, 30-2254, mean 165; vessel
segments 200-5004; walls 4-64 in thickness; lateral pits.
narrow, slit-like, border circular or almost so; ray pits.
irregularly elliptical, simple; end walls transverse or
inclined up to 20°; end perforation always simple; end
projection up to 90u in length; tyloses occasionally present
but rarely filling whole of cell cavity; number per sq. mm.
1-9. Wood fibres (fibre-tracheids) in radial rows; 790-
1350u in length; average diameter 134; lumen often
reduced to 1.54, walls very variable in thickness 3-dy;
pits narrow, bordered; transitions to narrow irregularly
shaped tracheids occur, the latter with numerous bordered ©
or simple pits and measure up to 600» in length and 20p
in diameter. Wood parenchyma largely developed, chiefly
vasicentric, also diffuse, even approaching short irregular
metatracheal bands; cells usually devoid of contents, pits.
elliptical crowded; at times conjugate; cells up to 270 in
length and 854 in width. Rays uniseriate, 2-18 cells in

WOOD STRUCTURE OF CERTAIN EUCALYPTS. 15}

height; biseriate, or even triseriate, particularly in wood
from Laurel Hill district; larger rays up to 450u in height
and 40u in width; ray cells usually with dark contents
more or less filling inner cells; rays becoming hetero-
geneous, due to increase in size and depth of outer cells;
10-15 per mm. of transverse section.

Burns with a fair percentage of unburnt carbon and a
small greyish ash. Alcoholic extract yellow; no evidence
of flavone; slight turbidity on adding water; pale blue to
blue colouration with ferrous sulphate; medium precipitate
with lead acetate.

EucALYPTUS DELEGATENSIS R. T. Baker.

Alpine Ash, Mountain Ash, Red Mountain Ash, Victorian
Woollybutt, Gum-topped Stringybark, Tasmanian Oak.*

A large forest tree found at high elevations (over 4000
feet) on the southern tablelands of New South Wales, anc
also in parts of Victoria and Tasmania. This tree yields
one of the most valuable light-weight hardwoods in Aus-
tralia, the wood being remarkably strong and tough for
its weight, and it possesses also a high modulus of elas-
ticity. Provided it is cut from mature trees the wood
usually seasons well, without evidence of collapse or wash-
boarding, whilst the shrinkage is not excessive. Too rapid
seasoning is liable to cause honeycombing, however, and
should be avoided. It is usually pale coloured but at times
pinkish, moderately open textured, usually straight-grained
and fissile, and is used for general building purposes,
e.g., flooring, etc., motor body and carriage building, furni-
ture and cabinet work, interior panelling, boat oars, hght
hammer and hoe handles, spokes, billiard cues, bentwork,

* Of these the name ‘Alpine Ash” is usually adopted for the
timber grown in New South Wales.

152 M. B. WELCH.

casks, etc. Weight, 41-55 lbs. per cubie foot.t Hardness
== Moderately hard.

Macroscopical characters..—Pores easily visible with the
naked eye on end section, crowded in early wood, oceasion-
ally absent in late wood, often in short oblique rows. Soft
tissue not apparent. Rays visible on end section, par-
ticularly in darker wood, also on radial and tangential
faces. Growth rings very pronounced; late wood much
darker and denser than early wood.

Microscopical characters.—Pores usually single, rarely
in obliquely joined pairs; single pores elliptical in section;
very irregularly distributed, due to their complete absence
in some specimens in the late wood, this being possibly
the nearest approach to a ring-porous timber in the
Eucalypts; uneven in size, late wood pores much smaller ;
radial diameter 105-3504, mean 250; tangential diamete™
60-2254, mean 150; vessel segments 300-500 in length ;
walls 3-6 in thickness; lateral pits narrow, slit-like,
borders circular to elliptical; ray pits irregularly oval,
simple; end perforation always simple; end wall trans-
verse or oblique, up to 45°; end projection up to 200u
in length; tyloses often present in varying amount, at
times filling whole of vessel cavity; number per sq. mm.
0-1 in late wood, 7-11 in early wood. Wood fibres variable
in size and thickness ; 450-1500, in length; average diameter
15; walls 3-44 in thickness; lumen often reduced to 3p;
pits slit-like bordered; transitions occur to elongated
tracheids measuring up to 800u in length and 30 in
diameter. Wood parenchyma not abundant, principally
vasicentric or a little diffuse; cells measuring up to 185.
in length and 26 in diameter. Rays chiefly uniseriate,
2-16 cells in height; varying in width from a mean of Tp

+ The higher figure was obtained from a Tasmanian specimen.
It is exceptionally high; the weight does not usually exceed
48 lbs. per cubic foot.

WOOD STRUCTURE OF CERTAIN EUCALYPTS. 153

in late wood to 11» in early wood; a few rays show the
division of a few cells, about the middle, to form narrow
biseriate rays; almost homogeneous, but frequently the
outer cells become enlarged; the cells usually with small
hight brownish coloured granular or amorphous bodies;
10-12 per mm. of transverse section.

Burns with a comparatively small percentage of un-
burnt carbon, smouldering to a small brownish-grey ash.
Aleoholie extract yellow in colour; slight trace of flavone
in one sample; no turbidity on adding water; blue colour-
ation with ferrous sulphate; slight to medium precipitate
with lead acetate; no marked fluorescence.

EUCALYPTUS FASTIGATA Deane and Maiden.
Brown Barrel, Cut-tail, Blackbutt, Stringbark.

A large forest tree found in central and southern parts
of the main Dividing Range, extending into Victoria. The
wood is pale coloured, moderately open textured, and
usually straight-grained. It is a tough, strong wood,
possessing a high modulus of rupture and elasticity, usually
rather denser than the other members of the group, and
is said to be durable in the ground. The principal uses
at present appear to be for general building purposes.
Weight 41-56 lbs. per cubic foot. Hardness = Moderately
hard to hard.

Macroscopical characters——Pores moderately large to
small, easily seen on end section, often with dark contents,
usually arranged in short oblique rows, rather more
crowded in early wood. Soft tissue not apparent. Rays
searcely visible on end or tangential sections, more pro-
nounced radially but not much darker than the surround-
ing tissue. Growth rings usually not very prominent.
The sapwood is not clearly differentiated, there being little
alteration in colour in the heartwood.

154 M. B. WELCH.

Microscopical characters.—Pores usually rather evenly
distributed except in late wood, single, rarely in pairs;
single pores usually elliptical, variable in size; radial.
diameter 50-300, mean 210”; tangential diameter 50-210y,
mean 165. Vessel segments 200-500u in length, walls.
4-64 in thickness; lateral pits slit-like, rather crowded,
borders circular or almost so; ray pits irregularly oval,
simple, end walls transverse or oblique, the angle being as.
much as 50° in some cases; end perforation always simple,
end projection up to 140 in length; tyloses only present in
comparatively few vessels, and not filling whole cavity;
number per sq. mm. 1-12. Wood fibres in radial rows;:
600-1500u in length; average diameter 15; walls 2-4 in
thickness; lumen often reduced to 3; pits narrow, slit--
like, bordered; transitions occur from these fibre-tracheids
to copiously pitted tracheids which are in close proximity
to the vessels, and measure up to 6754 in length and
30u in diameter. Wood parenchyma fairly abundant,
chiefly vasicentric, or diffuse; cells with large simple pits;
up to 185 in length, and 37» in width. Rays uniseriate
or often biseriate; uniseriate rays 2-30 cells in height;
biseriate rays up to 4004 in height and 38 in width;
almost homogeneous, though at times the outer cells are
enlarged; cells frequently with amorphous or granular’
brownish contents; 13-15 per mm. of transverse section.

Burns without smouldering, leaving a large amount of
unburnt carbon. Alcoholic extract yellow to yellow-brown
in colour; no evidence of flavone; clear or a very slight
turbidity on adding water; blue to deep blue colouration
with ferrous sulphate; heavy precipitate with lead acetate ;-
no marked fiuorescence.

A specimen from Rydal, New South Wales, showed very”
numerous biseriate rays.

WOOD STRUCTURE OF CERTAIN EUCALYPTS. 155:

EUCALYPTUS FRAXINOIDES Deane and Maiden.
White Ash, White Mountain Ash.

A tall forest tree found in southern New South Wales
at moderately high elevations, valuable forests occurring
on the Main Dividing Range east of Cooma. The wood
is very pale coloured, moderately open in texture, usually
straight-grained and fissile, and is used for general build-
ing purposes, cabinet work, staves, ete., whilst its high
strength-weight-factor makes it a suitable timber for
certain aeroplane parts. Weight, 41-45 lbs. per cubic foot.
Hardness = Moderately hard.

Macroscopical characters.—Pores medium-sized to small,.
easily visible on end section with naked eve, usually in
oblique or even radial rows, especially in late wood;
erowded in early wood; often with brownish contents.
Soft tissue not apparent. Rays not or scarcely visible on
end section without lens, easily visible on a radial section,
being rather darker than the surrounding tissue. Growth
rings fairly prominent on end section, the late wood being
denser and darker in colour.

Microscopical characters—Pores usually single, rarely
in pairs, fairly evenly distributed, usually elliptical; radial
diameter 45-300u; mean 240» tangential diameter 30-210p,
mean 165; vessel segments 180-525 in length; walls 4-6py
in thickness; lateral pits narrow, slit-like in irregular longi-
tudinal rows, borders usually elliptical; ray pits irregu-
larly elliptical or almost circular; end perforation always
simple; end wall transverse or almost so; end projection
up to 120n in length; tyloses often present but usually
only partially filling cavity; number per sq. mm., 6-12.
Wood fibres moderately thick-walled, in radial rows, rather
irregular in size and shape; length 750-1400y, the average
length being greater than in most species; average diameter
15u; lumen often reduced to 2y; pits slit-like, bordered;

156 M. B. WELCH.

gradations occur to narrow tracheids measuring up to 700.
in length and 35 in diameter, with numerous elliptical
bordered pits in contact with vessels; fibres often with
dark contents extending for a short distance in the lumen.
Wood parenchyma not abundant, vasicentric or very little
diffuse ; cells up to 185 in length and 30» in width, with
numerous crowded elliptical simple pits approaching a
conjugate nature; usually without contents. Rays almost
exclusively uniseriate, rarely biseriate, and even then the
biseriate portion is not more than one eell in height;
uniseriate rays almost homogeneous, narrow, not exceed-
ing 1lp in width, average 6; 2-22 cells in height; walls
moderately thick; cells usually with rounded irregular
brownish contents; 7-12 per mm. of transverse section.

Burns with a small percentage of unburnt carbon,
smouldering to a small ash. Alcoholic extract pale to.
yellow in colour; no evidence of flavone; very slight tur-
bidity on adding water; pale blue to blue colouration with
ferrous sulphate; slight to medium precipitate with lead
acetate; no marked fluorescence.

EUCALYPTUS OBLIQUA L’Heritier.
Stringybark, Messmate, Tasmanian Oak.

A large forest tree reaching a height of 250 feet and
a girth of 35 feet, found principally in Victoria and Tas-
mania, in New South Wales along parts of the Dividing
Range, and extending into South Australia. The wood is
pale coloured, almost white to ight brown, moderately open
textured, usually straight-grained and fissile. It is used
for general building purposes, furniture and cabinet work,
piles, railway sleepers, poles, ete. The wood is tough and

strong and tests showed great stiffness, the modulus of

WOOD STRUCTURE OF ‘CERTAIN EUCALYPTS. 157

elasticity exceeding 3,000,000 lbs. per sq in. Weight, 46-56
Ibs. per cubic foot.* Hardness == Moderately hard to hard.

Macroscopical characters——Pores medium-sized to large,
easily visible on end section; often arranged in oblique or
even tangential rows, especially in late wood; crowded in
early wood. Soft tissue not apparent. Rays not or scarcely
visible on end or tangential section, readily seen on radial
face. Growth rings fairly well defined, due to uneven
pore development.

Microscopical characters——Pores usually single, but
occasionally in pairs, very variable in size and shape, ellip-
tical to almost circular; radial diameter 60-390», mean
270u; tangential diameter 45-3004, mean 225; vessel
segments 180-5254 in length; walls 3-44 in thickness;
lateral pits slit-like, borders usually circular or elliptical;
ray pits irregularly elliptical; end perforation always
simple; end walls usually oblique, up to 30°, but occasion-
ally transverse; end projection measuring up to 150» in
length. A few vessel segments often with dark granular
contents which usually only fringe the cavity ; tyloses often
present, but rarely filling whole of cell; number per sq.
mm. 4-10. Wood fibres in radial rows, irregular in shape,
particularly in early wood; 675-1500u in length, average
diameter 19u; walls 3-44; lumen reduced to 3y in late
wood; pits slit-like, border usually circular. Gradations
occur to irregularly shaped tracheids with numerous bor-
dered pits; up to 800» in length and 40 in diameter.
Wood parenchyma abundant, principally vasicentric, a
little diffuse; a few cells with dark granular contents, but
usually empty; up to 200u in length and 22y in diameter.
Rays numerous, uniseriate or frequently biseriate; uni-
seriate rays 2-17 cells in height; ray cells wide, up to

*A range of 48-66 lbs per cubic foot is given in the 2nd
Edition of Tasmanian Forests, Timber Products and Sawmilling
Industry. Govt. Printer, Tasmania, 1910.

158 M. B. WELCH.

AOp, average 22u; biseriate rays up to 40u in width; 9-13
per mm. of transverse section.

Burns without smouldering, with a very large amount
of unburnt carbon, but pale-coloured specimens from Mt.
Wellington, Tasmania, and from the Victorian Forestry
Commission, smouldered to a greyish-brown ash. Alcoholic
extract pale to deep yellow-brown; no definite evidence
of flavones; no turbidity on adding water; blue to deep
blue with ferrous sulphate; slight to heavy precipitate
with lead acetate; no marked fluorescence.

EUCALYPTUS OREADES R. T. Baker.*
Smooth-barked Mountain Ash.

A tall tree found at moderately high elevations on the
Main Dividing Range and spurs, from central New South
Wales to southern Queensland. The wood is pale coloured,
moderately open in texture, straight-grained and fissile.
It is occasionally marred by the development of ‘‘gum-
veins,’’ but this fault occurs in practically every Eucalypt
to a greater or lesser extent. The wood is used for general
building purposes, joinery and cabinet work, casks, carriage
work, billiard cues, etc. Weight, 41-46 lbs. per cubic foot.
Hardness —= Moderately hard.

Macroscopical characters.—Pores medium-sized to small,
easily visible on end section, usually in short oblique rows,
especially in late wood, scarcely crowded in early wood.
Soft tissue not apparent. Rays scarcely visible on end or
tangential sections without lens; easily visible on radial
‘surface, being slightly darker than the surrounding tissue.
Growth rings fairly well-defined, due to darker colour of
late wood, and reduction in number of pores. There is no
‘sharp differentiation between sapwood and heartwood, but
the latter is somewhat darker in colour.

*This is E. altior, (Deane and Maiden) Maiden. Critical
Revision of Genus Eucalyptus, 1922, 6, 272.

WOOD STRUCTURE OF CERTAIN EUCALYPTS. 159

Microscopical characters——Pores comparatively evenly
distributed, almost always single, rarely in pairs; single
‘pores usually elliptical, variable in size; radial diameter
.55-300un, mean 2104; tangential diameter 40-225», mean
165; vessel segments 120-525 in length; walls 4-64 in
‘thickness; lateral pits narrow, slit-like, borders circular or
almost so, distribution in irregular rows corresponding
‘with the position of adjoining tracheids; ray pits irregu-
larly elliptical; end perforation always simple; end walls
transverse or nearly so; end projection up to 150» in
length; tyloses not common, and where present, only
partially filling cavity; number per sq. mm., 5-12. Wood
fibres in radial rows, fairly regular in size, exceptionally
long, measuring up to 1650» in length; average diameter
16u; walls 2-44 in thickness; lumen often reduced to 4y;
pits slit-lke, bordered. Gradations occur to narrow, elon-
gated tracheids with numerous pits, measuring up to
1000z in length and 30 in width. Wood parenchyma not
abundant, chiefly vasicentric or a little diffuse; pitting
crowded; elliptical; cells measure up to 185» in length
and 20u in diameter. Rays almost entirely uniseriate,
2-20 cells in height, narrow, average width 15y; almost
homogeneous, the outer cells being usually without con-
tents; a few rays showing division of one or two cells.

Burns with a little grey ash, and small percentage of
unburnt carbon. Alcoholic extract pale coloured; no
evidence of flavones; pale blue to blue colouration with
ferrous sulphate; slight precipitate with lead acetate; no
turbidity on adding water; no marked fluorescence.

EUCALYPTUS REGNANS F.v.Mueller.
Mountain Ash, Tasmanian Oak, Swamp Gum, Giant Gum,
White Gum, Blackbutt.

A large forest tree often attaining an enormous size,
found in south-eastern Victoria and Tasmania. The wood

160 M. B. WELCH.

is pale-coloured, moderately open textured, usually straight-
grained and fissile, and is used for general building pur-
poses, interior joinery and cabinet work, coach and carriage
building, ete. It often possesses remarkable stiffness,
specimens tested giving a mean modulus of elasticity of
over 3,000,000 lbs. per sq. in. Weight, 37-46 lbs. per
cubic foot.t Hardness == Moderately hard to hard.

Macroscopical characters—Pores medium-sized, easily
seen with the naked eye on end section, usually single but
often distributed in oblique rows, especially in late wood.
Soft tissue not apparent. Rays faint on end and tangential
sections without lens, easily visible on radial surface.
Growth rings fairly well-defined by the crowding of pores
in early wood, and their more or less complete absence in
late wood.

Microscopical characters.—Pores almost entirely single,
though sometimes approaching each other closely; single
pores more or less elliptical ; radial diameter 75-3304, mean
240u; tangential diameter 45-260, mean 180y.* Vessel
segments 300-600, in length; walls 3 in thickness; lateral
pits small, slit-like, arranged in irregular longitudinal
rows, borders circular; ray pits larger, more or less oval;
end perforation simple; end wall transverse or obliquely
inclined up to 20°; end projection up to 150,» in length;
tyloses rare but occasionally present in a few cells; vessels
usually without contents ; number per sq. mm., 4-10. Wood
fibres arranged in radial rows, often compressed radially ;

+ 48-54 lbs. per cubic ft., according to Tasmanian Forestry,
2nd Edition.

* Sections of a small tree of E. regnans from Mt. Wellington,
Tasmania (fig. 7) gave an average radial diameter of 150, anda
tangential diameter of 120,. This reduction in size of the pores
is usual in the wood of small trees, and care should be taken
therefore that the specimens for microscopical examination are
not taken from near the heart or from immature timber, e.g.,
brar<hes, saplings, etc. :

WOOD STRUCTURE OF CERTAIN EUCALYPTS. 161

500-1200 in length;* average diameter 15; walls 3-4u
in thickness; lumen often reduced to 3; pits small, slit-
like, borders circular. Gradations occur to copiously pitted
tracheids, irregular in shape and measuring up to 600u
in length and 50y in diameter. Fibres occasionally contain
dark contents which only extend for a short distance in
the lumen. Wood parenchyma not abundant, principally
vasicentric, a few cells diffuse; cells measure up to 110
in length and 22» in diameter, usually without contents.
Rays almost entirely uniseriate, 2-19 cells in height; end
walls usually oblique; almost homogeneous, though outer
cells deeper; dark granular contents often present; 9-11
per mm. of transverse section.

Burns with small ash and medium amount of unburnt
carbon. Alcoholic extract pale to yellow; no evidence
of flavone; very slight turbidity on adding water; blue
colouration with ferrous sulphate; moderate precipitate
with lead acetate; no marked fluorescence.

Summary.

The pores are typically arranged in short, more or less
oblique, rows, more crowded and larger in the early wood.
They are particularly variable in size in E. obliqua and
to a lesser extent in H. Dalrympleana. The irregular or
zonal distribution reaches a maximum in FE. Delegatensis,
whilst in H. oreades and EH. fraxinoides they are compara-
tively evenly distributed. The maximum radial diameter
ef the pores in the specimens examined was found in E.
obliqua, the measurement being 390; this species has also
the greatest average pore size. The minimum mean radial
diameter of 210u was observed in EF. oreades and LE. fasti-
gata. The vessel segments are fairly uniform, the limits
being 120u (minimum) in £. oreades and 600» (maximum)
in E. regnans. Any measurements must be regarded with

* Mt. Wellington specimen up to 1400,.
K—September 1, 1926.

162 M. B. WELCH.

caution, since, as pointed out under FE. regnans, consider-
able variation can occur in the one species, and even in
the one tree; they should only be regarded as an indication
of the size. The vessel pitting is usually not crowded, the
bordered vessel-tracheid pits being arranged in undulating
longitudinal rows, corresponding to the position of the
tracheids. The end projection is always simple, whilst
the end walls vary from transverse to oblique, a maximum
inclination of 50° to the horizontal being observed in EF.
fastigata; the inclination is too variable to be of much
value for diagnosis. Tyloses were found to be more or
less common in #. fraxinoides, E. Delegatensis, E. obliqua,
and EH. Dalrympleana, and comparatively rare in EF. fasti-
gata, EH. oreades and E. regnans. The pore distribution
reached a maximum of 12 per sq. mm. in FE. fastigata,
E. fraxinoides, and E. oreades, in the early wood.

As in other Eucalyptus woods so far examined,* the
wood fibres possess definitely bordered pits and therefore
approach the condition of fibre-tracheids. Irregularly-
shaped tracheids, often blunt-ended, and not necessarily
fusiform, occur in close proximity to the vessels, and
between this type and the wood fibres are connecting links
in the shape of prosenchymatous cells, thinner walled than
the latter but with more numerous bordered pits which
are simovle in contact with the ray cells.

Wood parenchyma is principally vasicentric, although
in F. obliqua and E. Dalrympleana, where it is particularly
abundant, it approaches a metatracheal condition. Paren-
chyma is fairly abundant in £. fastigata, and is developed
to a lesser extent in EH. Delegatensis, E. fraxinoides, E.
oreades and E. regnans. This feature might prove of some

* Welch M.B. Notes on the Structure of some Eucalyptus
Woods. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1924, 58, 169.
Welch M.B. The Identification of the principal Ironbarks
and allied Woods. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1925, 59, 329.

WOOD STRUCTURE OF CERTAIN EUCALYPTS. 163

diagnostic value, as it appeared to be fairly constant in
the material examined. The cells are often much elon-
gated, especially at the end of a row, and at times become
conjugate; pits are numerous.

The rays are typically uniseriate but biseriate rays occur
frequently in LE. Dalrympleana and E. obliqua, E. fastigata,
and to a lesser extent in LH. Delegatensis and E. fraxinoides ;
triseriate rays were observed in £. Dalrympleana, to a
small extent; uniseriate rays, with very few exceptions,
were found in FE. oreades and EL. regnans. The usual range
of vertical depth of the uniseriate rays is from 2-20 cells,
but in H. fastigata rays were measured up to 30 cells in
height. Particularly narrow rays were found in EL. oreades
and E. fraxinoides, the average width being only 8p; a
specimen of HL. regnans from Mt. Wellington (young tree)
showed an average width of 124, whilst mature wood from
Victoria of the same species gave a mean of 8. The
variation in width of one ray in the early and late wood
has been indicated under E. Delegatensis. The relative
development of uniseriate and biseriate rays was found
to vary considerably in E. fastigata, from different locali-
ties, but was otherwise fairly constant. Similarly, in E£.
Dalrympleana triseriate rays were more numerous and
biseriate rays much more strongly developed in wood from
the Laurel Hill district, than from the Blue Mountains.
The simple ray pits are occasionally in a single row, but
more frequently appear to be biseriate.

The colour of the alcoholic extract and its behaviour
with various reagents is largely due to what are apparently
tannins or their products. The variation in the depth of
eolour of the extract is chiefly governed by the original
colour of the wood. Burning the shavings, though of
undoubted value in the separation of some woods, did not
give very conclusive results, considerable variation being
observed in FE. obliqua, in which darker coloured wood

164 M. B. WELCH.

burnt ‘‘black,’’ whilst pale-coloured wood smouldered to.
an ash. |

Growth rings are usually very prominent in EH. Delega-
tensis and are least pronounced in EH. fastigata; the
definition seems to vary to some extent in the majority
of the specimens examined.

The colour of the woods of EF. obliqua and FE. fastigata
varies from very pale to hight brown; H. Dalrympleana is.
often quite pink, at times almost white, a similar variation
occurring also in EH. Delegatensis, though the latter does
not reach the same depth of colour as EH: Dalrympleana.
E. fraxinoides, in the material so far examined, was almost
white; #. regnans and EH. oreades are also usually pale-
coloured. ;

The heartwood is seldom elearly defined, although in
those specimens in which this part becomes brownish or
pink, the sapwood can be more easily differentiated. In
the more rapidly grown trees the sapwood is often over
an inch in width, and sinee it is always liable to destruction
by the Powder Post beetle (Lyctus brunneus), it should
be rejected, unless specially treated with some preventive.

The weight of the woods varies considerably, and there-
fore a range is given, but it is not claimed that these are
the outside limits; they only represent the maximum and
minimum figures obtained from specimens in the Techno-
logical Museum. ‘The results sometimes given, in which
lbs. per cubie foot are expressed to several places of
decimals, can only apply to the particular sample meas-
ured, and may be nowhere near the average weight. The
figures are for air-seasoned wood, with about 12% moisture
on the dry weight.

The. descriptions under ‘‘hardness’’ are roughly com-
parative, and are obtained by measuring the indentation
made by a falling weight; the method is described in the
‘‘Hardwoods of Australia’’ (loe. -cit.).

Plate LX.

CRESS Sek as 3 S 3 : ‘ 3 =

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926.

pees

o

ON OI tan A Me Oe
ARG ae ey

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Plate X,

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Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926.

Fig, 4,

Plate X 1.

Pee ornare
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SS

Fig. 5.

S.W., Vol. LX., 1926.
Fig, 6,

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Journal Royal Society of N

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Plate XII.

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Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926.

WOOD STRUCTURE OF CERTAIN EUCALYPTS. 165

One of the principal faults in the woods of this group,
apart from ‘‘gum-veins,”’ which seem to occur chiefly as
the result of injury to the cambium, is the presence of
eoncealed checks or cracks, especially in EL. Delegatensis,
E. obliqua and E. regnans. Although these are frequently
caused by case-hardening, due to faulty seasoning bringing
about a condition of great internal stress, with the result
that ‘‘honeycombing’’ occurs; yet it seems doubtful
whether seasoning is always responsible. It might perhaps
‘be possible that collapse occurs during the life of the tree.

In conclusion I wish to express my thanks to Messrs.
D. Cannon and F. Shambler, of the Museum Staff, for
their assistanee in many ways.

The Technological Museum,
Sydney.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate IX.

E. Dalrympleana J.H.M., transverse section of wood
showing considerable variation in size of the pores, which
are usually single. The comparatively large amount of
‘wood parenchyma, principally vasicentric, is characteristic.
‘The broad biseriate or even triseriate rays are prominent.
Pie, 1 < 730. |

E. Delegatensis R.T.B., transverse section of wood at
junction of early and late wood. The absence of pores in
the denser late wood is usually characteristic of this
‘species. Tyloses are present in many of the vessels of the
early wood, which are seen to be clearly separated, though
appearing as oblique rows when viewed macroscopically.
The reduction in width of the rays in the late wood is
clearly shown. There is no great development of wood
parenchyma. Fig. 2 X 30.

Plate X.

E. fastigata H.D. and J.H.M., transverse section of

wood showing comparatively even distribution of pores,

166 M. B. WELCH.

in many of which can be seen tyloses. The wood paren-
chyma is abundant and chiefly vasicentric. The rather
regular alternating dark and light patches in the rays.
are due to the crowding of the contents towards the ends.
of the cells. Fig. 3 X 30.

E. fraxinoides H.D. and J.H.M., transverse section of
wood at junction of early and late wood, the difference in
thickness of the fibres being very marked. The pores are
crowded and fairly evenly distributed, though smaller in
the late wood; tyloses is present in several of the cells. There.
is comparatively little wood parenchyma. Fig. 4 X 30.

Plate XI.

EL. obliqua L’Her., transverse section of wood showing
extremely variable size and shape of pores, several of
which contain tyloses, and also dark phlobaphene-like
masses. The most striking feature is the very great
development of the wood parenchyma, especially in the
vicinity of the vessels. Fig. 5. X 30.

E. oreades R.T.B., transverse section of wood showing
comparatively even distribution of porés, and the compara--.
tively indefinite demarcation of the growth rings, which
however are actually rather more pronounced than is indi-.
cated by the figure. Tyloses occur in several of the
vessels. The wood parenchyma is almost entirely vasi-
centric, whilst the rays are narrow. Fig. 6 X 30.

Plate XII.

i. regnans F.v.M., transverse section of wood from a
young tree from Mt. Wellington, Tasmania, showing even.
arrangement of comparatively small pores. There is a
slight reduction in pore size in the late wood. Fig. 7 X 30.

FE. regnans F.v.M., transverse section of wood of mature
tree with same magnification as Fig. 7, showing the
considerable variation in pore size. The arrangement of
the pores in more or less oblique rows is typical of most
Euecalypts. Wood parenchyma is not abundant, being
confined practically to the vasicentric condition. Fig. 8 X 30.

GERMICIDAL VALUES OF AUSTRALIAN ESSENTIAL ots. 167

THE GERMICIDAL VALUES OF SOME AUSTRALIAN
ESSENTIAL OILS AND THEIR PURE
CONSTITUENTS,

TOGETHER WITH THOSE FOR SOME ESSENTIAL OIL
COMPONENTS, AND SYNTHETIC SUBSTANCES.
Parr IV.

By A.-R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.1., F.C.S.
Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

and R. GRANT, F.C.S.
Assistant Microbiologist, Department of Public Health, Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Oct. 6, 1926.)

The following tables represent a further series of results
obtained in the determination of the Rideal-Walker
coefficients of essential oil constituents, isolates and syn-
thetics. For previous investigations see this Journal:
1923, 57, 211; 1924, 58, 117; and 1925, 59,- 346.

The present paper treats mainly of a series of aliphatic
aldehydes and alcohols, Cs—C,. series, which have become
of much importance in perfumery in recent years.

We are indebted to Messrs. Polak and Schwarz, Ltd.,
Zaandam, Holland, who kindly donated an exhibit of these
interesting substances to the Sydney Technological
Museum. In view of the great difficulty of preparing and
purifying these bodies on the laboratory scale, small
quantities were taken from this exhibit and further
purified for the express purpose of determining the Rideal-
Walker coefficients.

The results are of interest in view of the influence this
particular group of substances may have upon theoretical

168 A. R. PENFOLD AND R. GRANT.

eonsiderations which no doubt will receive attention when
large numbers of such determinations are available for
review.

The high coefficients obtained with the Cs—C, aldehydes
and alcohols respectively are noteworthy.

It will be observed that the dispersion of the various
substances examined, varies according to the medium used,
some being more highly dispersed in alcohol than in rosin-
soap solution, and vice versa, the difference in the case of
C, aldehyde being in the neighbourhood of 142% greater
in the alcoholic solution. We would direct attention to
the fact that with substances dispersed in ethyl alcohol,
the germicidal effect of the dispersion medium itself must
be taken into account with substances yielding a low
coefficient. With those bodies giving coefficients over 4,
the alcohol value is negligible. This increase with aleohol
dispersed substances has been noticed since the commence-
ment of our investigations, and we avail ourselves of the
present opportunity to bring it under notice.

A glance at the tables will show that the aleohols appear
to be more evenly dispersed than the aldehydes, irrespec-
tive of the nature of the dispersion medium.

One of us (A.R.P.) is engaged in an investigation of
the alcohols present in the West Australian Sandalwood
Oil, and it was thought advisable to determine its Rideal-
Walker coefficient as well as that of the East Indian Oil
for purposes of comparison. The results, however, confirm
our previous experience that sesquiterpene alcohols in
general possess comparatively poor germicidal properties. °

Expervmental.
The Rideal-Walker tests were carried out as described
in previous papers (this Journal 1922, 56, 219), standard
suspension of 1% of the oils and various bodies examined

GERMICIDAL VALUES OF AUSTRALIAN ESSENTIAL oILs. 169

being prepared in 7$% rosin-soap solution. The great
majority of the synthetics examined were also prepared in
ethyl alcohol solution in order to determine any variation
in the degree of relative dispersion.

Table ‘‘A.’’—Crude Hssential Oils.

Constants. _R.W. Principal active
Crude oil. ats cx ; n° See constituents.
Fusanus spicatus d 0.9693 15 Sesquiterpene
(W.A. Sandalwood a —8.35° alcohols
oil.) n 1.5055

Ester No. 138.36
Ester No. after
acetylation 207.0

Santalum album d 0.9786 1.5 Sesquiterpene
(East Indian a —17.5° alcohols
Sandalwood oil.) n 1.5063

Ester No. 19.21
Ester No. after
acetylation 208.5

Zieria macrophylla d 0.9704 Zee Zierone
a, — 66.4°
n 1.5106
Table ‘‘B.’’—Essential Oil Constituents and Synthetic
Substances.
Constants. Coefficient.
Constituent. | Nature. Source. diz ; Ces 1. Oe eene
tion.)
Zierone ketone (Zierta B.pt. 1423-144°
macrophylla (10mm.)
d 0.9752 2
a —141.2°
nm 1.5142 3.5%
Isomenthol alcohol | Reduction M.pt. 81-82° 20
| of piper- a 23,50 24
itone (acetone)
Phloraceto- phenol Geiera sp. M.pt. 82-83° 10
phenone-di- ether ° (in both
‘methyl-ether | (ketone) (at present cha eae
unpub- alcohol)
lished).
Hydrocinnamic |aldehyde|Museum B.pt. 105-108°
-aldehyde stock. (10mm. )
(Polak & d 1.0255 fi
Schwarz raise Uy |
Ltd.) nm 1.5280 5a"
Hydroxy- do. do. Bipt. W25-127°
-citronellal (5mm.)
d 0.93800 6
iicie cia
nm 1.4499 4*

A. R. PENFOLD AND R. GRANT.

EEE eee

Constituent.

C, aldehyde

C, aldehyde

C,, aldehyde

C,, aldehyde

C,, (methyl

nonyl acetic)
aldehyde

C,, (laurinic)
aldehyde

C, alcohol

C . alcohol

C,, alcohol

C,, alcohol

C,, alcohol

Nature.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

- Source.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

alcohol |Museum

alcohol

alcohol

alcohol

alcohol

stock

(Polak &

Schwarz).
do.

do.

do.

do.

Constants.
fo}

dis’ ; an %

B.pt. 73-74°

(10mm. )
d 0.83897
a ==0
n 1.4256
B.pt. 86-88°
(10mm.)
d 0.8884
a +0
n 1.4298
B.pt. 95-103°
(10mm.)
d 0.8588
a +0
n 1.4355
B.pt. 109-115°
(5mm.)
d 0.8624
a =0
n 1.4520
B.pt. 108-111°
(5mm. )
d 0.83845
+0
n 1.4382
M.pt. 24-25°
B.pt. 110-114°
(4mm.)
d 0.83817
a 2202
n 1.4412

B.pt. 85° (5mm)

d 0.8294
a. 0

nm 1.4289

B.pt. 108-110

(5mm.)

d 0.8337

a +0

n 1.4365
B.pt. 1243-126

(5mm.)

d 0.8453

a +0

nm 1.4500
Mopt. 22-282
B.pt. 131-1332

(5mm. )

d 0.8300

a +0

n 1.4420

Coetticient
(* = ethyl

alcohol

solution)

16

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS. wal

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS
AND NOTES ON SEVERAL OTHER SPECIES.
By the late J. H. Mammen, LS.0., F.R.S., F.L.S.
and

W. F. BuAKELy,
Assistant Botanist, National Herbarium, Sydney,

With Plates XJIT.-X VIII.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Nov. 3, 1926.)

PUNGENTES (Plurinerves).
ACACIA CARNEI Maiden.*
Plate XITT.

Pods not previously described. They are sessile, oblong,.
or tapering somewhat abruptly at both ends, coriaceous,
valves rather thick, pubescent, and more or less corky, 4-5
em. long, up to 1 em. broad. Seeds ovate, longitudinal or
slightly oblique. Funicle yellow, carnose, rather thick,
much dilated at the point of attachment, and slightly so
over the seed. Silverton, Broken Hill, A. Morris, No. 406.

The following are some additional notes relative to size,
habit and range :—

‘‘A shrub about 10 feet high growing near water-courses
(dry except when rain falls),’’ Broken Hill, A. Morris, No..
80; ‘‘Small tree, phyllodes round but when dry 4-angled,’’
A. Morris, No. 188; ‘‘6-12 or 15 feet high, branches at
right angles to the trunk. A. Carnet is a very deceptive
type. It is very similar in general appearance to a stiff
Hakea, say, H. leucoptera. At times considered to be the

“This Journal, 1915, 49, 470.

v2 J. H. MAIDEN AND W. F. BLAKELY.

Hakea. It is common in gregarious groupings on sand hills
and ridges scattered sporadically over the district. JI have
watched it for two years and have only seen flowers during
the last three months.’’ Pinnacles-Balaclava Road, Broken
Hill, E. C. Andrews, April 21, 1920.

UNINERVES (Brevifoliae).

ACACIA ANCEPS DC. var ANGUSTIFOLIA Benth. in B.FI.
1864, 2, 355.

‘‘Branches rather less angular. Phyllodia from narrow-
obovate to linear-oblong, 1 to 2 in. long, occasionally with
a prominent gland above the middle. Peduncles under din.
long. 8S. Coast, R. Brown; towards Spencer’s Gulf, War-
burton. This variety has sometimes almost the phyllodia
of A. notabilis, but the peduncles are always simple.’’

The prominent gland referred to by Bentham is also a
conspicuous character in A. Bancrofti; sometimes it occurs
in, A. pycnantha and A. amoena.

Brown’s specimen is in the National Herbarium, Sydney,
and is labelled as follows, in Brown’s handwriting :—
“*Mimosa. Near the Shores of Bay No. III, South Coast,
1802, R. Brown, No. 4352.’’ Other specimens are :—Fow-
ler’s Bay (Dr. R. 8. Rogers, September, 1907); Near El-
liston (Walter Gill, April, 1921). Some of the phyllodia
are small and linear and very dissimilar from those of A.
anceps. We invite the attention of local botanists to this
variety, as we are of the opinion that it is specifically dis-
tinet from A. anceps.

ACACIA CENTRINERVIA, Nn. Sp.
Plate XIII.

Frutex pyramidalis, 1-3 ft. altus; ramis verticalibus, teretibus,
resinosis, dense pilosis; stipulis obscuris; phyllodiis resinosis,
linearibus, lanceolatis, uninerviis, marginibus nervis similibus,
1.5-2.5 cm. longis, 2.5 mm. latis; glandula parva basi; pedunculis

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS. 173

filiformibus, pilosis, phyllodiis brevioribus; capitulis globosis
15-20 floris; floribus 5-meris; sepalis spathulatis; petalis liberis,,
magnis, glabris, sepalis duplo longioribus; ovario glabro; legu-
mine non viso.

Briefly described in this Journal, 1915, 44, 497, under
A. lineata A. Cunn., Group I.

A pyramidal-shaped shrub, 1-3 feet high, with terete,
vertical, resinous, closely pilose branches. Stipules obscure.
Phyllodia resinous, linear-lanceolate, with a straight or
slightly curved point, and a more or less prominent central
nerve, and nerve-like margins, 1.5-2.5 em. long, 2.5 mm.
broad, gland small, marginal, inserted a little above the
petiole. Peduneles filiform, pilose, shorter thaw the phyl-
lodia, usually subtended by a small, navicular bract, bear-
ing globular heads of about twenty 5-merous flowers.
Sepals shortly united at the base, spathulate, concave, hairy.
Petals free, rather large, glabrous, keeled, more than twice
the length of the sepals. Ovary glabrous. Pod not seen.

Branches perpendicular, giving one the impression of a
young White Pine (Callitris), Parkes, N.S.W. (J. LL.
Boorman, October, 1906). The type. Inglewood, Queens-
land (C. J. Smith, per C. T. White, October, 1922);
EKummundi (Bailey) (which we have not seen). Then we
have a cultivated specimen with the following note attached
‘Grown in New York under the name of A. heterophylla.
It is not a strong grower and must be trimmed to keep it
in shape. I have never seen it over four feet (in green-
house culture), but it is a good pot plant and blooms very
freely during February and March at 40 to 50 deg. F.’’
(H. J. Rumsey).

Very close to A. lineata, from which it is readily dis-
tinguished by the linear-lanceolate straight phyllodes with
the mid-vein central, and the gland some distance from the
base, also in the larger flowers and different shaped calyx.

174 J. H. MAIDEN AND W. F. BLAKELY.

UNINERVES (Angustifoliae).
Acacia Victoriae Benth.

Mitch. Trop. Aust. 1848, 333; A. sentis F. Muell. Journ.
Innn. Soc. 1854, 3, 128. J. M. Black in FI. S.A. 1924 Pt 2,
277 shows that Bentham’s name has priority over A. sentis
F. Muell.

It is found in all the States of the mainland and has an
extensive range in New South Wales, extending from Hay
to Broken Hill in the south, to the Paroo River in the west,
and then northward to Collarenebri.

UNINERVES (Racemosae).
Acacta Betchei, n.sp.
Plate XIII.

Frutex gracilis glaber, 10-12 ft. altus; ramulis paulo angu-
latis; phyllodiis tenuibus, linearibus, rectis vel paulo falcatis,
uninerviis, 8-9 cm. longis, 2mm. latis; racemis simplicibus,
glabris, gracilibus, phyllodiis brevioribus; capitulis globosis,
20-25 floris; floribus plerumque 5-meris; sepalis spathulatis,
crassis, ciliatis; petalis liberis, laevibus, lato-lanceolatis, ovario
laevi; legumine plano, lente dehiscente, stipitato 9-11 cm. longo,
7 mm. lato; seminibus nigris, ovoideo-oblongis; funiculo clavato,
semine breviore.

A slender, glabrous shrub, 10 or 12 feet high, with a
stem diameter of 1-3 inches. Branchlets glaucous, slightly
angular when young. Phyllodia rather thin, linear, some-
what glaucous, more or less falcate, straight or slightly
faleate, with a short weak point, tapering gradually towards
the base, mostly about 8 em. long and about 2mm. wide in
the upper or wider half, with some secondary inconspicu-
ous spreading veins, dotted all over with fine dots, with a
rather obscure marginal gland about a quarter of the way
up. Racemes simple, rather slender, not exceeding the
phyllodia, the rachis and peduncles glabrous. Flower-
heads, globular, small, pale yellow, about 22 in the head,

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS. iis

usually 5-merous. Bracts capitate. Sepals broadly spathu-
late, though sometimes with a truncate appearance owing
to their being more or less adnate, about half as long as
the corolla, hairy at the tips. Petals smooth, broadly lance-
late, uninerved. Ovary smooth. Pod tough, almost woody,
tardily dehiscent along the suture, nearly flat, straight or
nearly so, stipitate, with a long, filiform stipes, about 10
em. long and 7 mm. broad. Seeds black, shining, elongated
-ovoid-oblong, longitudinal; funicle short and filiform, with
the last fold appressed and thickened from the middle up-
wards into a club-shaped aril obliquely embracing the
seed.

Type, Wallangarra, N.S.W., (HE. Betche, December, 1891,
in flower) ; pod and seed described from same locality, (J.
L. Boorman, January, 1918). Torrington, on acid granite,
10-12 feet high (R. H. Cambage, No. 1622, flowers and
empty pods, July, 1907); Reddish brown stems (R. H.
Cambage, No. 1622A, unripe pods, September 29, 1907),
Torrington, on stony ridges (J. L. Boorman, flowers and
pods, January, 1911; seedlings and unripe pods, October,
1911) ; Bismuth, near Deepwater, Torrington. In January,
1916, J. L. Boorman collected seedling plants, flowers and
pods. ‘‘A rather tall, weak-growing plant, with long, nar-
row, grass-like leaves, glandular at the edges. It flowers
and seeds at the same time.’’ Flowers and pods with ripe
seeds (J. L. Boorman, January, 1918).

Named in honour of the late Ernst Betche, Chief Botani-
eal Assistant, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Affinities:—With A. neriifolia. A. Betchei is a smaller
and glabrous shrub, with reddish stems and narrower phyl-
lodes, also smaller and paler racemes.

With A. adunca. Both species have narrow phyllodes
and moderately large, smooth pods; the flowers of A.

i ;
176 J. H. MAIDEN AND W. F. BLAKELY.

Betchei are smaller and paler than those of A. adunca,
and the pod is also smaller.

With A. linifolia. The general appearance of both
shrubs is somewhat similar, but A. Betchei is more
glaucous, has longer phyllodes, brighter flowers, and.
broader pods.

Acacia McNuttiana, n. sp.
Plate XVI.

Frutex glaber, pumilus; ramulis valde angulatis; phyllodiis
rectis vel curvatis, tenuibus cum mucrone parvo innocuo, basin
versus angustatis, 10-14 cm. longis, 3 mm. latis, uninerviis;
racemis simplicibus, phyllodiis brevioribus; rachisibus et pe-
dunculis paulo tomentosis; capitulis globosis, ca. 11-floris;
calyce turbinato, truncato, crasso, breviter lobato, piloso; petalis
pilosis, 5-6 meris, liberis, incurvatis, duplo calycis longitudinem
aequantibus; ovario glabro, leguminibus non visis.

A dwarf, glabrous, densely foliaged shrub, with very
angular branchlets. Phyllodia straight, or curved by
means of one or more glandular angles, thin, with a small
innocuous point, narrowed slightly towards the base, 10-14
em. long, about 3 mm. broad, uninerved, with a few sec-
ondary inconspicuous spreading veins; dotted all over with
microscopic dots, with one to three distant marginal glands.
Racemes simple, shorter than the phyllodia, the rachis and
peduncles slightly tomentose. Flower-heads globular, of
moderate size, about 11 in the head. Bracts capitate, cili-
ate. Calyx turbinate, sinuolate, and more or less ribbed,
densely hairy. Petals besprinkled with short hairs chiefly
along the keels, 5-6-merous, thick, free, incurved, more than
twice the length of the calyx. Ovary smooth. Ped not
seen.

Range :—Bismuth, near Deepwater (A. McNutt, in
flower, small phyllodes, D9; large phyllodes, D8, August,
1913). The type. A shrub 3-4 feet high on acid granite,
Torrington (R. H. Cambage, No. 1638, July 10, 1904, in
flower ).

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS. 177

Alhed to A. Betcher and A. adwnca, but differing from
both in shape of the phyllodes and in the flowers. It is
also a much smaller shrub than its congeners.

ACACIA LINEARIFOLIA A. Cunn. (Herb).
(A. apuNcA Maiden—but not of Cunningham. )

eHorest Mora of N.S.W.’~ Part XLVI., p. 116, Plate
173, figs. B, C, H, J, are all from Mt. Danger, J. L. Boor-
man.

We have not seen Cunningham’s description of A. lineari-
folia, but we believe it is in his MSS. As already stated,
Le., p. 115, portion of the type of A. linearifolia was re-
ceived from Kew, labelled ‘£115 A. crassiuscula Wendl. (A.
linearifolia A. Cunn.), Blue Mountains, December 84/1825,
New South Wales, A. Cunningham.’’ The locality is evi-
dently a mistake, as we know of no such Acacia occurring
on the Blue Mountains.

Specimens from Gungal, Mt. Dangar, J. L. Boorman,
match Cunningham’s type, and are fully described and
figured as stated above, and therefore no further descrip-
tion is necessary except that under Range, attention may
be drawn to the size and habit of the plant, and also to
the petals being slightly hairy.

Range:—The Rock, Corowa (G. Wiburd); The Rock,
near Wagga, ‘‘The trunk resembles A. doratoxylon. The
tree is about 20 feet high and about 6-9 inches in diameter.
It is very much given to reversion shoots’’ (Bishop J. W.
Dwyer, September, 1922) ; Mudgee-Cassilis Road, 35 miles
from Mudgee (Sabina Helms No. 646); ‘‘A tree 50 feet
high, 18 inches in diameter; grows on low-lying ground on
ridges adjacent to mountains, Springfield, near Gulgong
(A. Isbister March, 1920); near Dunedoo *‘Known as
Stringybark Wattle; grows to a good height, and over 2
feet in diameter’? (Andrew Murphy, September, 1916) ;

L—November 38, 1926.

178 J. H. MAIDEN AND W. F. BLAKELY.

Mount Dangar, Gungal, ‘‘A tall shrub 8-20 feet high’’ (J.
LL. Boorman, December, 1904).

ACACIA ADUNCA A. Cunn.

In Part XLVI, after some preliminary remarks concern-
ing plants referred to A. crassiusula, at pp. 115-117 of my
““Forest Flora of New South Wales’’ I have set out what
I consider this species is, and at Plate 173 have figured
the type.

The type came from ‘‘the broken country investing
Mount Dangar on the west branch of the Hunter River,
Aug. 1827.’’ I have not certainly obtained it from the
Mount, but see p. 117. |

I have only obtained it from no great distance from the
New South Wales-Queensland border, viz., New South
Wales-Wallangarra (formerly Jennings), in fruit (J.H.M.
and J. L. Boorman, December, 1903); in flower (J.L.B.,
July, 1904); in fruit (J.L.B., November, 1904). Qweens-
land—Stanthorpe; in flower (J.L.B., July, 1904) ; in fruit
(J.L.B., November, 1904). All the above were referred
‘to A. accola Maiden and Betche.

The following figures on Plate 173 are referable to A.
adunca-A, B, D, EK, F, G, K, L, M, all from Stanthorpe;
Queensland, J. L. Boorman, July, November, 1904, except
A, which is portion of the type.

ACACIA ACCOLA Maiden and Betche.

In Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1906, 31, 734 the late Mr.
Betche and I described the above species, and it is figured
on the A. adwnca plate already referred to. It seems to me
that it is not sufficiently different from A. adunca.

The Wallangarra and Stanthorpe specimens have been
already referred to; those from Mt. Dangar, J. L. Boorman,

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS. 179

are referable to A. linearifolia A. Cunn. See notes under
A. adunca.

Acacia Forsythi, n.sp.
Plate XIV.

Frutex parvus glaber, ramis acute angulatis, rubidis; phyl-
‘lodiis lineari-oblongis vel lineari-falcatis, uninerviis, 6-9 cm.
latis, marginibus nervis similibus; racemis glabris, 5-10 floris,
phylodiis brevioribus; pedunculis elongatis, capitula globosa
25-30 flora gerentibus; calyce angusto-turbinato profunde 5-
-lobato, apice hirsuto, petala glabra, partim conjuncta, uninervia
ca. dimidio aequante; ovario glabro; legumine non viso.

A small, glabrous shrub with acutely angular, reddish
branches. Phyllodia linear-oblong to linear-faleate, nar-
rowed towards the base, and usually tapering, though
somewhat abruptly, into a short curved point, uninerved,
with moderately distinct lateral veins, and reddish, nerve-
like margins, 6-9 em. long, 3-5 mm. broad. Gland small,
prominent, close to the base. Racemes glabrous, 5-10 flow-
ered, shorter than the phyllodia. Peduncles elongated,
bearing globular heads of 25-30 flowers. Calyx attenuate,
turbinate, deeply 5-lobed, hirsute at the top, about half
the length of the glabrous, partly united uninerved petals.
Bracts truneate, clavate. Ovary glabrous. Pod not seen.

Warrumbungle Ranges, between Coolah and Blackville,
New South Wales (W. Forsyth, October, 1901). The type.

Named in honour of the late William Forsyth, for many
years the respected Superintendent of the Centennial Park,
Sydney. |

Near A. Murrumboensis, A. neriifolia and A. adunca in
‘general appearance, but differing in botanical characters.
The inflorescence is somewhat similar to that of the above
species as regards size and richness of colour, but the
peduncles are quite smooth, and the phyllodia and gland
sare also distinct.

180 J. H. MAIDEN AND W. F. BLAKELY.

AcAciA MURRUMBOENSIS, 0. sp.
Plate XV.

Frutex parvus glaber; ramis paulo angulatis, pruinoso-
purpurascentibus; phyllodiis lineari-oblongis abrupte uncinatis,,
uninerviis, 6-10 cm. longis, 2-3 mm. latis; racemis glabris,
phyllodiis brevioribus; floribus 8-10 in capitulo, paulo hirsutis;
calyce turbinato, crasso; petalis 5, liberis, concavis, minute
ciliatis, calycis tubum duplo excedentibus; ovario glabro; le-
guminibus non visis.

A small, glabrous shrub with slightly angular sub-
glaucous reddish branches. Phyllodia linear-oblong,
abruptly uncinate, narrowed into a very short wrinkled
petiole, prominently uninerved and with faint marginal
nerves, lateral veins obscure, or only present in the vicinity
of the prominent marginal gland which usually occupies.
the lower half of the phyllodia, 6-10 em. long, 2-3 mm.
broad. Racemes glabrous, shorter than the phyllodia, of
5-10 heads. Flowers 8-10 in the head, besprinkled with
short weak hairs. Buds somewhat globular-turbinate.
Calyx turbinate, with short, thick, hairy lobes. Petals 5,
free, hairy, concave, minutely ciliate, more than twice
the leneth of the calyx. Bracts capitate, ciliate. Ovary
glabrous. Pods not seen.

Murrumbo, Goulburn River, New South Wales (R. T.
Baker, September, 1895). The type.

Closely allied to A. Forsythi in appearance and in the
phyllodes, but the latter character is more penninerved in
A. Forsythi, while the gland of A. Murrumboensis is nearly
central, that of A. Forsythi close to the base. This species
has the hairy flowers of A. neritfolia, but is very dissimilar
in the phyllodes.

ACACIA CAESIELLA, Nn. sp.
Plate XIV.
Frutex patens paulo glaucus 6-20 ft. altus; ramulis angulatis

sericeis, pubescentibus; phyllodiis angusto-linearibus, paulo
falcatis, uncinatis, 7-9 cm. longis, 5-6 mm. latis; racemis ali-

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS. 181

quando phyllodiis longioribus; capitulis globosis 12-16 floris;
ealyce turbinato, sinuolato, minute piloso; petalis 5 liberis,
firmis, in alabastro paulo striatis, glabris, calycem vix duplo
superantibus; ovario pruinoso, legumine plano vel fere, recto,
6-8 cm. longo, 9-10 mm. lato; seminibus longitudinalibus;
funiculo primum filiformi deinde in arillum pileiformem super
seminis apicem incrassato.

A small, spreading, slightly glaucous shrub or small
tree, 6-20 feet high, attractively floriferous; branchlets
angular, silky-hoary, but eventually glabrous with age.
Phyllodia minutely silky-pubescent, rather thin, glaucous,
narrow linear to linear-faleate, with a slightly hooked
point, 7-9 em. long, 5-6 mm. broad, uninerved, with a few
lateral veins scarcely visible, except with the aid of a lens.
Gland minute, on the margin a short distance from the
base. Racemes sometimes exceeding the phyllodia. Buds
nearly spherical, 12-16 in the head; rachis sprinkled with
‘short silky hairs. Bracts capitate to spathulate, silky-
hairy. Calyx turbinate, slightly more than half as long
as the petals, readily splitting to the base, besprinkled all
over with short hairs. Petals 5, free firm, slightly striate
in bud, faintly keeled, glabrous. Ovary hairy. Pods of a
waxy lustre, straight or nearly so, 6-8 em. long, 9-10 mm.
broad, the valves prominently and longitudinally embossed
with the seeds, shghtly reticulate and with thick-
ened margins. Seeds longitudinally arranged in the centre
of the pod. Funicle filiform for about half its length,
then thickened into a fleshy pileiform aril over the top of
the seed.

Range :—Confined to New South Wales so far as we know
at present. ‘‘A spreading shrub or small tree, 15-20
feet high, very attractive flowers,’’ Burrinjuck (E. C.
Andrews, per R. H. Cambage, August, 1922; pods were
‘collected in the following December by J. W. Campbell for
Mr. Andrews); Cox Creek, Rylstone (W. Dunn, No. 11,
December, 1922, in pod) ; Camboon, 7 miles N. of Rylstone

182 J. H. MAIDEN AND W. F. BLAKELY.

(R. T. Baker, October, 1893) ; ‘‘Small shrubs attaining a
height of 4-5 feet, stems thin, unbranched at the base, but
forming umbrella-like heads. The plants throw up numer-
ous thin growths from a Mallee-like rootstock. Fairly com-
mon in one place only in the district, covering an area of
an acre or more. Leaves and young shoots silvery-hairy.
The whole plant has a soft texture and is conspicuous from
all the other plants in the neighbourhood by reason of its:
soft and silvery appearance,’’ Capertee, (J. U. Boorman,
September and December, 1915). The type. ‘‘Small glau-.
cous shrubs 3-9 feet high, usually growing in dense masses’
on light granite soil,’’ about one mile north of Marrangaroo.
Railway Station (W. F. Blakely and Dr. E. C. Chisholm,
May, 1922, in bud; later on in September flowers were
collected by Dr. Chisholm).

Affinities :—(1) With A. Clunies-Rossiae Maiden, but
differing in the longer vestiture, which is more or less hir-
sute, in the longer and narrower phyllodes, different shaped
eland, turbinate calyx and in the tomentose ovary. A
comparison of the gland of these two species is interesting.
In A. Clunies-Rossiae the gland is pouch-like, extending
well below the marginal nerve, and sometimes touching the
midrib, causing a lunate-like break in the marginal nerve.
The gland of A. caesiella is very small, like a raised speck
on the marginal nerve and not, or rarely, extending below
the nerve. It is also closer to the base of the phyllode than
the gland of A. ‘Clunies-Rossiae.

(2) With A. Hamiltoniana Maiden, which it approaches.
very closely. The chief points of difference lie in the glau-
cousness, vestiture, less rigid phyllodia, venation, and slight-.
ly narrower pods, with the seeds placed longitudinally,
and not more or less oblique as in A. Hamiltomana. The
phyllodia of the latter is usually very hard, thick and rigid,.
and when dry is brownish in color.

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS. 183

ACACIA CONFLUENS, N. Sp.
Plate XVI.

Frutex magnus glaber; phyllodiis petiolatis, angusto-lanceo-
latis, acuminatis uninerviis 10-14 cm. longis, 5-10 mm. latis;
racemis solitariis vel germinis, capitulis 6-12, magnis, globosis,
ca. 40-floris; calyce turbinato, breviter 5-lobato, ciliato; petalis
5, liberis, glabris, angusto-lanceolatis, calycis longitudinem fere
duplo excedentibus; ovario glabro; legumine recto vel curvato,
marginibus incrassatis, 10-24 cm. longis, 1 cm. latis; funiculo
gracili semen plica duplo fere incingente.

A medium-sized, glabrous shrub; branchlets more or
less angular. Phyllodia petiolate, narrow to falcate lance-

olate, or gradually tapering into a long, acuminate curved

8,
point, smooth, slightly seurfy when old, uninerved, which
is usually closer to the lower margin and sometimes con-
fluent with it for a short distance at the base, lateral veins
more or less penninerved, 10-14 em. long, 5-10 mm. broad.
Gland small, depressed, inserted close to the wrinkled
petiole. Racemes axillary, spreading, 1 to 2 springing from
the same axis, glabrous, with long spreading peduncles, the
lower ones developing much earlier than the upper ones,
bearing large globular heads of about 40 flowers. Calyx
turbinate, 5-ribbed, the short thick lobes ciliate. Petals 5-6,
glabrous, partly united at the base, faintly l-nerved, nearly
twice the length of the long calyx. Bracts short, peltate,
ciliate. Pods glabrous, coriaceous, straight or curved, with
shehtly thickened margins, more or less constricted between
the seeds, 10-25 em. long, 1 em. broad. Seeds dark brown
to black, compressed, broadly ovate to somewhat orbicular,
a few more or less flask-shaped, longitudinally arranged.
Funicle slender, slightly dilated into a double fold and
completely encircling the seed, the basal portion thickened
into a white, pyriform aril.

‘“Wyrilda’’ of the Mount Lyndhurst blacks, by whom the
seeds are eaten.’’ Mount Lyndhurst, South Australia (Max
Koch, No. 48). The type.

184 J. H. MAIDEN AND W. F. BLAKELY.

Near A. rhetinodes in the phyllodia and pods. The for-
mer appears to be more acuminate than those of A. rhetin-
odes, and the pods are considerably longer and broader,
while the seeds and funicle are also different. There is a
shght difference in the calyx; that of A. confluens is more
prominently ribbed and more deeply lobed. A. microbotrya
has a somewhat similar pod, but there are marked differ-
ences in the seed and funicle, also in the phyllodia and.
flowers.

ACACIA GILLI, n. sp.

(A. pycnantha Benth. var. (?) angustifolia Benth. B.Fl.
2, 365; A. retinodes Schl. var. Gilli Maiden, Trans. Roy.
Soc. 8.A., 1908, 32, 275; A. rhetinodes Schl. var. angusti-
folia (Benth.) J. M. Black, Fl. 8.A., 1924, Pt. 2, 277.

I had looked upon A. Gill as an environmental form of
A. rhetinodes, but after careful examination of the speci-
mens, and consultation with other botanists, I have come
to the conclusion that they are distinct species.

A. Gilli is readily distinguished from A. rhetinodes by
its dwarf. zig-zag habit, in the more rigid phyllodia, and
in the flower-heads being usually solitary, and larger calyx
and more woody pods.

It is common throughout the Port Lincoln and Marble
Range districts, South Australia.

AcaciA WALTERI, n. Sp.
Plate XV.

Frutex glaber, ramulis acute angulatis; phyllodiis oblongo-
spathulatis, obtusis vel obliquo-mucronatis, tenuibus, penni-
nerviis, uno nervo valido longitudinali, 5-7 cm. longis, 5-10 mm.
latis; racemis glabris, phyllodiis brevioribus; capitulis 16-20
floris; calyce turbinato, paulo angulato, crasso, hirsuto, breviter
et acute lobato; petalis ca. duplo aequilongo; ovario dense
hirsuto; legumine non viso.

Journal Royal Socrety of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926. Plate XIII.

Acacia Carnet Maiden (1-3); A. Betchei n. sp. (4-11) ;
A. centrinervia n. sp. (12-17).

NY

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol LX., 1926. Plate XIV.

MA

Acacia Forsythi nv, sp. (1-5); A. caesiella n. sp. (6-13).

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS. 185

A glabrous shrub several feet high, with acutely angular,
‘reddish-brown branchlets, but soon becoming terete, and
usually marked with the decurrent lines of the angles.
‘Phyllodia oblong-spathulate, obtuse, or obliquely mucro-
‘nate, thin, uninerved, which is nearest the upper margin,
and with a prominent reddish lateral nerve at the base
-of the conspicuous lower gland, penninerved on both sides,
5-7 em. long, 5-10 mm. broad; glands 1-3, marginal, the
lowest the largest and the most constant, with a wide
orifice, inserted about 1.5 em. from the base, causing a
“marginal break in the phyllode, and usually terminating
-one or two distinct short lateral nerves. Racemes glabrous,
shorter than the phyllodia, the rachis angular, bracteole
at the base of each peduncle; heads globular, of about 20
flowers. Calyx turbinate, sinuolate, the lobes acute, slightly
-angular and more or less hirsute. Petals 5, free, glabrous,
rather firm, acute, incurved, with a faint keel, barely twice
the length of the calyx. Bracts stipitate-triangular, ciliate,
“Ovary densely hairy. Pod not seen.

Buffalo Mountains, Victoria (Chas. Walter, October,
1902). The type.

In general appearance this species resembles A. prominens,
-but differs in the longer and flatter phyllodes, different
‘Shaped calyx, bracts, and densely pubescent ovary. It is
also very close to A. oreophila, but differs in the broader
phyllodes, more numerous glands, and in the shape of the
‘floral bracts.

ACACIA OREOPHILA, Nn. sp.
Plate XV.

Frutex glaber ramulis acute angulatis; phyllodiis lineari-
-oblongis vel lineari-lanceolatis, crassis, aliquando oblique
mucronatis, obscuris, uninervils, marginibus nervis similibus,
3-5 cm. longis, 3-7 mm. latis; racemis glabris, rache paulo
‘flexuosa phyllodiis longiore; floribus 10-15 in capitulo, sul-

186 J. H. MAIDEN AND W. F. BLAKELY.

phureis; calyce hirsuto, turbinato, paulo angulato, lobis brevibus,.
crassis, obtusis; petalis 5, liberis, glabris, carinatis, calycis.
longitudinem ca. duplo aequantibus; ovario hirsuto; legumine
non viso. pee ues

A glabrous shrub with acutely angular branchlets.
Phyllodia linear-oblong to linear-lanceolate, often obliquely
mucronate, thick, dull, uninerved, with nerve-like margins,
faintly penninerved and more or less rugose, 3-5 em. long,,
3-7 mm. broad. Gland marginal, prominent, a _ short
distance from the base. Racemes glabrous, the rachis:
somewhat flexuose; peduncles bract opposed, bearing small
globular heads of 10-14 bright yellow flowers. Calyx
turbinate, more or less angular, hirsute, with short, thick,
obtuse broadish lobes. Petals 5, free, glabrous, keeled,.
about twice the length of the calyx. Bracts stipitate,
spathulate, ciate. Ovary densely hirsute. Pod not seen.

Buffalo Mountains, Victoria (Charles Walter, October,
1902). The type.

Near A. prominens A. Cunn. in the phyllodes, shape
of the gland, and in the racemes. The gland of A.
prominens is nearly in the centre of the phyllode, while
in A. oreophila it is close to the base. The flowers of the
former are also more glabrous, while the ovary is quite
smooth. A. prominens is a large glaucous shrub confined
to a limited area on the coast between Camden and New-
eastle. From herbarium specimens A. oreophila does not.
appear to be glaucous.

The dry phyllodes of A. oreophila are not unlike some
of the small forms of A. suaveolens, but the inflorescence:
is quite distinct from that species.

ACACIA OREADES, 0. Sp.
Plate XVIT.
Frutex parvus 18-24 in. altus; ramis teretibus, pruinosis,.
pubescentibus; phyllodiis rigidis subverticalibus, angusto-
lanceolatis, breviter petiolatis, crassis, uninerviis, in mucronem:

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS. 187

brevem et rigidum angustatis, 10-17 mm. longis, 3-5 mm. latis;
racemis pruinosis, phyllodiis longioribus; floribus ca. 8 in
capitulo; calyce cupulari, minimo, paulo angulato ciliato;
petalis 5, liberis, paulo obtusis, leniter striatis, calycem longi-
tudine plus duplo excedentibus; ovario glabro; legumine
stipitato, oblongo, 2.5-8 cm, longo, 8-9 mm. lato; seminibus.
longitudinaliter despositis vel leniter oblique orbicularibus;
funiculo filiformi in arillum brevem super seminis apicem
dilatatum.

A dwarf shrub, 18-24 inches high. Branches terete,
hoary-pubescent. Phyllodia almost vertical, narrow-lance-
olate, shortly petiolate, thick, uninerved, with strong,
nerve-like margins, the nerve usually closer to the upper
margin, lateral veins obscure, usually terminating in a
short stiff mucro, 10-17 mm. long, 3-5 mm. broad; gland
small, marginal, inserted a short distance from the base.
Racemes minutely hoary, of 5-10 shortly pedunculate
globose heads, of about 8 flowers. Calyx cupular, sinuolate,.
very small, thick, somewhat angular, ciliate along the
angles and margin. Petals 5, free, somewhat obtuse,.
narrowed into the base, more or less striate when dry, and
with a strong central nerve on both sides, more than twice
the length of the calyx. Ovary glabrous. Pod stipitate,
oblong, constricted between the seeds, 2.5-3 em. long, 8-9:
mm. broad; valves thinly coriaceous; seeds placed longi-
tudinally or shghtly obliquely, black, broadly ovate to:
almost orbicular, about 4 mm. long and nearly as broad.
Funicle filiform for about half its length, then forming a
clavate aril over the end of the seed.

Clarence to Wolgan, New South Wales (R. H. Cambage,
No. 1559, August, 1906; H. Deane, same locality, in pod,
December, 1906); recorded in the ‘‘Forest Flora of
N.S.W.,’’ Part XLIV, p. 84 as A. buxifolia. |

Near A. buxifolia, from which it differs in the minutely
hoary branches, slightly different phyllodia, more hairy
calyx and much smaller pods, with the seeds arranged
more or less obliquely. The seeds are also more orbicular.

188 J. H. MAIDEN AND W. F. BLAKELY.

Acacia KYBEANENSIS, n. Sp.
Plate XVII.

Frutex densus 6-8 ft. altus; ramulis teretibus, pruinosis;
stipulis parvis, persistentibus; phyllodiis paulo hirsutis vel
glabris, angusto-lanceolatis, curvatis, in mucrone longo ter-
minantibus, uninerviis, 2-2.5 cm. longis, 4-6 mm. latis; racemis
minute pruinosis, phyllodia excedentibus; floribus 7-10 in ca-
pitulo; calyce cupulari, sinuolato, ciliato; petalis 5, liberis,
paulo striatis carinatis calycem longitudine plus duplo exce-
dentibus; ovario glabro; lemumine non viso.

A dense shrub 6-8 feet high. Branches terete, hoary
tomentose. Stipules small, somewhat secarious, hairy per-
‘sistent. Phyllodia slightly hairy when young, glabrous
when old, narrow-lanceolate, flat, thin, slightly undulate,
terminating in a short, straight or curved point, penni-
nerved, with one prominent longitudinal nerve which is
nearly central, 2-2.5 em. long, 4-6 mm. broad, bearing on
the upper margin and a little below the centre a small,
prominent gland which causes a slight depression or bend
in the margin. Racemes minutely hoary-tomentose, longer
than the phyllodia; peduncles rather stout, bearing globu-
lar heads of 7-10 flowers. Buds globular or nearly so.
Calyx cupular, slightly angular, thick, sinuolate, ciliate.
Petals 5, free, somewhat obtuse, narrowed into the base,
more or less striate when dry, and with a strong central
nerve or keel, more than twice the length of the calyx.
Bracts capitate, ciliate. Ovary glabrous. Pod not seen.

‘‘Dense bushes 6-8 feet high,’’ in valley, head of Tuross
River, Kybean (R. H. Cambage, No. 2000, November 4,
1908). The type.

Near A. oreades, with which it has been confused, and
from which it is readily distinguished by the thin lance-
olate, almost acuminate phyllodia, with the gland more
distant from the base, in the small, somewhat scarious,
hairy stipules, smaller and thicker calyx with its oblique
rows of fine hairs and slightly larger petals. It also
appears to be a much larger shrub than A. oreades.

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS. 189°

ACACIA SEMIBINERVIA, 0. Sp.

Plate XVII.

Frutex glaber, ramis acute angulatis; phyllodiis pallidis vel
paulo glaucis, lanceolatis, acuminatis, semi-binerviis, plus minus:
penninerviis, 1.5-2 cm. longis, 5-7 mm. latis; racemis glabris.
phyllodiis longioribus 4-7 flores gerentibus, capitulis parvis:
globosis 7-10 floris; calyce cupulari, sinuolato, glabro; petalis.
lanceolatis, acutissimis, plus duplo calycem _ longitudine:
aequantibus; ovario glabro; legumine non viso.

A glabrous shrub: branchlets acutely angular. Phyllodia:
pale or slightly glaucous, lanceolate, acuminate, semi-
binerved, strongly penninerved, the second nerve on the
gland side of the phyllodia joins the margin about three-
quarters of the way up, and in no ease does it extend to
the apex, 1.5-2 em. long, 5-7 mm. broad in the middle,
marginal nerve conspicuous, gland a short distance from
the base, large and swollen with a prominent orifice.
Racemes glabrous, longer than the phyllodia, bearing 4-7
flowers; heads globular, 7-10 flowered. Calyx broadly
cupular, sinuolate, glabrous. Petals lanceolate, very acute,
slightly keeled, more than twice the length of the calyx.
Bracts shortly clavate, truncate, ciliate. Ovary glabrous.
Pod not seen.

This species was raised from seed by a Mr. F. Drissel,
Barling Cottage, Trant Road, Tunbridge Wells, England,
and flowered 20th March (year not stated), and was sent
to J. Smith, Esq., Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England,
for identification. Its source of origin is unknown to us,
but it seems to be closely allied to A. pravissima and A.
cultriformis, and differs from both in the somewhat bi-
nerved phyllodia, and in the structure of the flowers. It
is probably a Victorian or New South Wales species.

196 J. H. MAIDEN AND W. F. BLAKELY.

PLURINERVES (Oligoneura).

ACACIA PTYCHOCLADA, n. Sp.
Plate XVIII.

(A. elongata Sieb. var. angustifolia Maiden and Betche;
“Wattles and Wattle Barks,’’ 1906, p. 73.)

Frutex parvus paludosus, 2-5 ft. altus; ramulis hirsutis acute
-angulatis; ramis teretibus, striatis, hirsutis; phyllodiis lineari-
bus, elongatis, planatis vel semi-teretibus, leviter hispidis et
pungentibus, distincte 3-nerviis, marginibus nervis similibus,
7-11 cm. longis 1 mm. diametro; pedunculis dense _ hispidis;
capitulis magnis, globosis vel ovoideis; floribus numerosis,
sulphureis; sepalis linearibus, spathulatis, hirsutis; petalis 5,
liberis, glabris, crassis, leviter carinatis, sepalis duplo
longioribus; ovario hirsuto; legumine lineari-oblongo, stipitato,
4-5 cm. longo, 5 mm. lato; seminibus longitudinalibus, late
ovatis; funiculo filiformi, flexuoso vel prope seminis basin bis
vel ter irregulariter plicato.

A small, slender, swamp-loving shrub, 2-5 feet high,
with acutely angular, hirsute branchlets. Branches terete,
somewhat ribbed or prominently and coarsely striate,
hirsute. Phyllodia linear, subulate, elongated, flat to semi-
terete, shghtly hispid, and more or less hirsute when young,
terminating in a straight or slightly uncinate, almost
pungent point, prominently trinerved, with strong, nerve-
like margins, 7-11 cm. long, about 1 mm. broad. Peduneles
densely hispid, with short brownish hairs, bearing large
elobular or ovoid heads of about 380-35 5-merous, pale-
yellow flowers. Sepals shortly united at the base, linear-
‘spathulate, hirsute. Petals 5, free, glabrous, rather thick,
with a faint central nerve, fully twice the leneth of the
calyx. Bracts spoon-shaped, densely ciliate. Ovary
‘hirsute. Pods linear-oblong, stipitate, slightly constricted
between the seeds, 4-5 ecm. long, 5 mm. broad; seeds longi-
tudinal, broadly ovate, with a conspicuous areola on both
‘sides. Funicle filiform, flexuose, or forming two or three
irregular folds a short distance from the base of the seed.

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS. Tot

Range :—Confined to the Blue Mountains, New South
Wales, from the following localities:—Woodford (J. H.
Maiden, January, 1899). The type. (R. H. Cambage,
No. 4009, December 6, 1913); Lawson (W. M. Carne);
Leura (W. M. Carne, F. R. Smith, A. A. Hamilton);
Blackheath (J. H. Maiden, April, 1899).

Differing from A. elongata mainly in the narrower and
‘more pungent phyllodes, paler flowers, and in the shorter
and narrower pods.

ACACIA ELONGATA Sieb. var. DILATATA, n. var,

Plate XVIII.

Phyllodia glabrous, linear, flat, thin, gradually expanded
upwards, and dilated at the apex and mucronate, with 4
conspicuous longitudinal nerves 10-12 em. long, 4-7 mm.
broad at the top. See Plate XVIII, fig. 8a.

National Park, N.S.W., M. Bell, August, 1896.

JULIFLORAE (Stenophyllae).

ACACIA GRACILIFOLIA, n. sp.
Plate XVIII.

Frutex gracilis, glaber; ramulis acute angulatis, resinosis;
phyllodiis filiformibus; teretibus, flexuosis, alte sulcatis, 5-7 cm.
longis, 1 mm. diametro; spicis pedunculatis, ovoideis; calyce
turbinato, leviter lobato, dense tomentoso; petalis 4, liberis,
glabris, calyce vix duplo longioribus; legumine lineari, stipitato,
undulato, inter semina incincto, 5-7 cm. longo, 2 mm. lato;
funiculo filiformi, super semen semel vel duplo irregulariter
plicato.

A slender, glabrous, somewhat resinous shrub ; branchlets
flexuose, acutely angular, striate with resinous lines.
Phyllodia filiform, terete, straight or flexuose, with an
oblique apex, deeply canaliculate, 5-7 em. long, about 1
mm. in diameter; glands usually two, slightly raised.
Spikes pedunculate, ovoid to nearly globular. Flowers
small, calyx turbinate, shortly and obtusely lobed, covered

192 J. H. MAIDEN AND W. F. BLAKELY.

in a woolly tomentum. Petals 4, free, glabrous, slightly
keeled, scarcely twice the length of the calyx. Bracts.
spoon-shaped, ciliate, resinous. Ovary hoary. Pod linear,
stipitate, undulate, contracted between the seeds, 5-7 em.
long, 2 mm. broad, valves coriaceous, more or less resinous,
somewhat carnose over the brown, oblong, longitudinally
placed seeds. Funicle fihform, forming one or two short,.
irregular folds a short distance from the end of the seed.

Flinders Range, South Australia (W. Gill, 1900). The
type.

A. gracilifolia seems to be more closely alhed to A.
Hynesiana than to any other species known to us, particu-
larly in the flexuose, resinous branchlets and in the terete
phyllodes. The latter character, however, is straighter
than that of A. Hynesiana, and the pod is quite different.
At one time A. gractlifolia was referred to A. juncifolia,.
which it resembles in the phyllodes, but the inflorescence:
and pods are very dissimilar.

BIPINNATAE (Botryocephalae).

ACACIA MOLLIFOLIA, Nn. sp.

(A. decurrens Willd. var. lanigera Maiden in ‘‘ Wattles:
and Wattle Barks,’’ 1906, p. 41; ‘‘Forest Flora of N.S. W..,’”
Part XXIII, p. 60, Plate 88, figs. O-R.)

Frutex parvus vel arbor parva dense pilosa; ramulis fere:
tertibus, pinnis 4-10 paribus; foliolis 20-86 paribus, linearibus,
acutis, molliter pilosis, 5-7 mm. longis, 1-1.5 mm. latis; racemis.
pinnis longioribus; 4-6 cm. longis, pedunculis longiusculis,.
robustis, velutinis; capitulis globosis 20-30 floris; calyce tur-
binato, lobis brevibus, dense pilosis, petalis 5 liberis, hirsutis,
crassis, marginibus hyalinis, calyce duplo longioribus; ovario
tomentoso; legumine stipitato, lineari, dense inter semina.
incincto, 9-13 cm. longo, 4-6 mm. lato; seminibus longi-
tudinalibus.

A small tree or tall shrub characterised by every part of
it—old and young leaflets, rachises and twigs and pods

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS. 193

being densely covered with white or brown indument.
Branchlets almost terete, velvety. Pinnae usually in 4-10
pairs, with a pair of deciduous, lanceolate stipules at the
base of each pinnae in the early stages, and with an almost
obscure gland at the base of each pair of pinnae; rachis
velvety, 4-8 cm. long, terminating in a long, soft point.
Leaflets in 20-36 pairs, linear, acute, softly hairy, up to
7 mm. long, about 14 mm. broad. Racemes velvety, ex-
ceeding the pinnae, 4-6 cm. long; peduncles rather long,
stout, velvety, bearing globular heads of 20-30 flowers.
subtended by a small, acute, almost glabrous, concave
bract. Calyx turbinate, with short, thick, densely pilose
lobes, otherwise glabrous. Petals 5, free, hirsute, narrow,
rather thick, with hyaline margins fully twice the length
of the calyx; ovary densely tomentose. Pods stipitate
linear, densely velvety, nearly straight, constricted be-
tween the seeds, but not seen in a fully developed state,
9-13 em. long, 4-6 mm. broad. Seeds longitudinal.

The variety name is already occupied, and therefore
cannot be used. 3

This species appears to be confined to New South Wales,
and has been collected from the following localities :—‘‘A
very common Acacia, about 12 feet high, growing all over
the hills at high elevations; stems branched, 3-6 inches
in diameter,’’ Harvey Ranges, near Peak Hill (J. L.
Boorman, November, 1905). The type. Parkes Water
Supply (J. H. Maiden, August, 1897) ; Gloucester Buckets
(EK. Betche, January, 1882; J. H. Maiden, September,
1892).

It is a very handsome species, and worthy of cultivation
for ornamental purposes.

Near A. dealbata Link, but readily distinguished from
it by its coarser leaflets, and in being densely velvety in
M—November 1, 1926.

194 J. H. MAIDEN AND W. F. BLAKELY.

all its parts, including the pods, which are considerably
longer and narrower than those of A. dealbata.

We wish to express our indebtedness to Dr. Darnell-
Smith, Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney, for
many courtesies in connection with the preparation of
this paper, and to Miss Margaret Flockton and Miss Ethel
King for the illustrations.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
PLATE XIII.

Acacia Carnet Maiden.
1, twig with pods, natural size; 2, lower portion of
phyllode to show basal gland and attachment to branch;
3, seed and funicle.

Acacia Betchei, n. sp.
4, flowering twig, natural size; 5, base of phyllode; 6,
head of: flowers; 7, flower; 8, bract; 9, ovary; 10, pod,
natural size; 11, seed and funicle.

Acacia centrinervia, n. sp.
_ 12, flowering twig, natural size; 13, phyllode showing
venation and gland; 14, head of flower and basal bract; 19,
floral bract; 16, flower; 17, ovary.

PLATE: Saty.

Acacia Forsythi, n. sp.
1, flowering twig, natural size; 2, base of phyllode to
show the attachment; 3, flower; 4, bract; 5, ovary.

Acacia caesiella, n. sp. ,

6, flowering twig, natural size; 7, flowering twig with
longer raceme and phyllode than 6, natural size; 8, base
of phyllode showing vestiture and attachment; 9, flower;
10, bract; 11, ovary; 12, pod, natural size; 18, seed and
funicle.

Plate XV.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926.

. sp (7-11);

16)

A, Walteri n

d

Acacia oreophila n, sp. (1-6)

(12-

a

A. Murrumboensis n.

os

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926. Plate XVI.

Acacia confluens n. s.p. (1-7); A. McNuttiana n. sp. (8-14)

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,

Plate XVII.

Vol. LX., 1926.

: Soon eonnoines en

a

espe (71h)

wnervia Nn

b

» SEM

Acacia Kydeanensis n. sp. (1-6); A

A. oreades n. sp. (12-18).

Plate XVIII.

Journal Royal Society of NSW... Vol, DX .» 1926.

Acacia ptychoclada n, sp. (1-8); A. elongata Sieb. var. dilatata n. var.

(8a); A. gracilifolia n. sp, (9-14),

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN NEW ACACIAS. 195

PUATE Xv.
Acacia oreophila, n. sp.

1, flowering twig, natural size; 2, phyllode to show basal
gland; 3, base of phyllode; 4, flower; 5, bract, 6; ovary.

Acacia Waltert, n. sp.

7, flowering twig, natural size; 8, base of phyllode to
show the large gland above and below the marginal nerve;
9, flower; 10, bract; 11, ovary.

Acacia Murrumboensis, n. sp.
12, flowering twig, natural size; 13, head of flowers;
14, flower; 15, bract; 16, ovary.

PLATE XVI.
Acacia conflwens, n. sp.
1, flowering twig, natural size; 2, phyllode to show basal
gland; 3, flower; 4, bract; 5, ovary; 6, pod, natural size;
7, seed and funicle.

Acacia McNuttiana, n. sp.

8, phyllode, natural size; 8a, base of phyllode to show
the attachment and venation; 9, head of flowers; 10, flower
with glabrous petals; 11, bract; 12, flower with hirsute
‘petals; 13, bract; 14, ovary.

PLATE XVII.
Acacia Kybeanensis, n. sp.
1, flowering twig, natural size; 2, phyllode to show the
‘gland; 3, flower; 4, calyx; 5, bract; 6, ovary.

Acacia semibinervia, n. sp.
7, flowering twig, natural size; 8, phyllode to show the
‘gland and the venation; 9, flower; 10, bract; 11, ovary.

Acacia oreades, n. sp.
12, flowering twig, natural size; 13, head of flowers; 14,
flower; 15, bract; 16, ovary; 17, pod, natural size; 18,
‘seed and funicle.

196 J. H. MAIDEN AND W. F. BLAKELY.

PLATE XVII.
Acacia ptychoclada, n. sp.

1, flowering branch, natural size; 2, phyllode, natural
size; 3, pinnae, natural size; 4, flower; 5, bract; 6, ovary;
7, pods, natural size; 8, seed and funicle.

Acacwa elongata Sieb. var. dilatata, n. var.

8a, top of phyllode, natural size, to show venation and.
expanded upper portion.

Acacia gracilifolia, n. sp.

9, base of phyllode to show venation and attachment ;
10, flower ; 11, bract; 12, ovary ; 13, twig with pods, natural
size; 14, seed and funicle.

SOLUTION VOLUME OF A SOLUTE. 197

THE SOLUTION VOLUME OF A SOLUTE IN
LIQUID MIXTURES.

By G. J. Burrows, B.Sc.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Nov. 3, 1926.)

The volume of a solute in liquids other than water has
been investigated by various authors and the results indi-

c6

cate that in general the ‘‘solution volume of a solute’’ is
a function of the compressibility of the solvent (Tyrer,
J.C.S. 1910, 97, 2620). In a previous paper (This Journ.
1919, 53, 74) the author published figures for the solution
volumes of certain amides in water, alcohol, and water-
alcohol mixtures. It was shown that the volume in alcohol
was less than in water, whereas the volume in water-
alcohol mixtures was greater than in either of the separate
liquids. It was found that, in a series of such mixtures,
the values of the ‘‘specific solution volume’’ passed through
a@ maximum for a particular mixture, not actually the
mixture that had suffered the maximum contraction in
its preparation. Thus it was found that the specific
‘solution volume of acetamide in dilute solution at 30°
was 0.945 in water, 0.932 in alcohol, but 0.954 in a mixture
containing 36.62 per cent. of alcohol by volume, a value
agreeing very closely with that of the pure liquid acetamide
at this temperature, 0.956. This result indicates that the
addition of acetamide causes no further decrease in volume
in the case of this mixture, and, in the case of formamide
in such solvents an increase in volume was actually
observed.

Such a result seemed to indicate that the ‘‘specifiec
solution volume of the solute’’ actually depended on the
contraction that had already taken place in the preparation

198 G. J. BURROWS.

of the solvent mixture, or more generally on the com-
pressibility of the solvent. It was considered that in such
mixtures there was a maximum contraction that could be
suffered by the hquid components, i.e., aleohol-water, and
the apparent solution volume of a third component (i.e.,
the solute) would depend on the amount of contraction
that had already taken place.

In the case of mixtures such as benzene-acetone or
benzene-alcohol which are formed with only a small change
in volume, a solute has a specific solution volume inter-
mediate between those in the separate liquids.

This work has since been extended, and the following
results have been obtained for the solution volumes of
urea and acetamide in water-methyl alcohol and water-
acetone mixtures respectively. The densities were deter-
mined at 25° in the usual way with a pyknometer of about.
20 c.c. eapacity. In the following tables, do is the density
of the solvent, A is the number of grams of solute
dissolved in 100 grams of solvent, d; the density of the
solution, and v_ the specific solution volume of the solute

calculated from the equation:
;, ere ee
s ai

On

Table 1.
rN di v

Urea in methyl alcohol (dy) = 0.78702),

4.4444 0.80407 0.637

8.6286 0.81938 0.639:
Urea im: water (a, — 0.99707).

5.0484 1.00980 0.738.

7.3010 1.01520 0.740:
Urea in water-methyl alcohol (do = 0.89752),

6.5366 0.91628 0.7438

9.6849 0.92460 0.745

SOLUTION VOLUME OF A SOLUTE. 199

The solvent in this case was prepared by mixing 57.90 g.
of methyl alcohol with 44.11 g. of water, the total volume
corresponding to these masses being 117.81 ¢.c. The volume
after mixing, calculated from the density, was found to
be 113.66 e.¢c., which corresponds to a specific contraction
of 0.0352 ¢.c. per ¢.c. of the original mixture.

Table 2.
A di Vv,

Acetamide in acetone (dy) = 0.78559),

Sanat 0.79868 0.890

8.38455 0.80403 0.893

16.7101 0.81974 0.902
Acetamide in water (dy) —= 0.99707),

7.0164 1.00134 0.938

8.55973 1.00225 0.9387
Acetamide in water-acetone (d,) == 0.88641),

8.6620 0.89884 0.940

10.9589 0.90166 0.941

18.8201 0.91048 0.943

The water-acetone mixture was prepared from 313.75 g.
of acetone and 183.83 g. of water, corresponding to a total
volume of 583.77 «ce. As the volume after mixing was
561.34 ¢.¢., the specific contraction was 0.0384 ¢.c. per c¢.c.
of the original.

It will be seen that in these mixtures the specific
solution volume of the solute is greater than in either of
the separate liquids. A marked contraction in volume
accompanies the formation of each of these mixtures and
it is considered that the results indicate that the con-
traction which takes place on the addition of the solute
depends on the amount of condensation in volume that
the particular solvent has previously undergone. ‘The
apparent solution volume of a solute therefore depends
on the extent to which the solvent can be further com-

200 G. J. BURROWS.

pressed, ie., the compressibility of the solvent medium.
It thus appears that there is a limit to the amount of
contraction that any such solvent can undergo, and in
cases where such a limit has already been reached by the
admixture of two liquids, the addition of a third substance,
as solute, should have no further effect on the volume.
In- such a mixture a solute should dissolve without any
apparent change in volume, 1.e., the value for v, for a
normal solute in such a mixture should be the same as
for the solute in the liquid state.

The investigation was further extended to include
solutions of one liquid in mixtures of two others. In
these cases the actual specific contractions in volume were
also calculated. It will be noticed that whereas the values
of v, for any particular solvent vary regularly with the

concentration of the solute, the actual specific contractions
pass through a maximum value for solutions -in the
separate solvents. This apparently contradictory result
has already been shown by the author to be due to the
equation used for calculating the specific solution volumes
(loe. eit.).

As regards the solution of a third liquid in a mixture
of two others, it will be seen that in these cases also, the
specific contractions A, (for solute in solvent) pass through
a maximum value, whereas the total specific contractions
A, (i.e., the total contraction divided by the total volume
of the three components) decrease regularly with the
amount of solute added. This is no doubt due to the
fact that in both the cases considered, the contraction
observed during the formation of the mixed solvent is
much greater than the further contraction resulting from
the addition of a small amount of the third component
(1.e., the solute).

SOLUTION VOLUME OF A SOLUTE. 201

Migbler3:
A d, v. A,
Methyl alcohol in acetone (d, = 0.78555).
18.1448 0.78855 1.24144 0.00352
114.361 0.79095 1.25670 0.00582
323.466 0.78977 1.26409 0.00393

Methyl! alcohol in water (d, == 0.99707).
17.2200 0.97258 1.17486 0.00874
46.6290 0.94571 1.17420 0.02459
701.994 0.82220 1.24663 0.01639

A d, v. A A,
Methyl alcohol in water-acetone (d, = 0.88641).
11.5127 0.87825 1.2297 0.00372 0.0378
31.2140 0.86648 1Z3i3 0.00689 0.0354
95.9851 0.84256 1.2481 0.00923 0.0277
229.165 0.82117 1.2569 0.00779 0.0187

396.997 0.80999 1.2614 0.00590 0.0130

The solvent used in this case was the same as that
described under Table 2.

Table 4.
A d, Vv, A,
Pyridine in water: The density of the pyridine was 0.97705,
13.3148 0.99987 0.97902 0.0000456
60.8770 1.00274 0.98795 0.009725
181.734 1.00232 0.99480 0.01620
405.488 0.99674 1.00336 0.01471
‘Pyridine in acetone.
15.0860 0.80747 1.0094 0.00146
116.450 0.88106 1.0165 0.00331
A d, Vv A, A

Pyridine in water-acetone (d, = 0.88641).
23.6881 0.90352 1.0166 0.00119 0.0284
75.2675 0.92509 1.0183 0.00205 0.0218
103.613 0.93241 1.0194 0.00194 0.0192
433.811 0.95935 1.0226 0.000683 0.0075

202 G. J. BURROWS.

It will be noticed that in the case of methyl alcohol-
acetone and pyridine-water the values of d, pass through.
a maximum value for a particular solution. This result is:
due to the fact that in each case the two components have
very similar densities. In cases where there is a marked
difference between the densities of the two components, no-
maximum is observable in the density of a solution formed.
by dissolving a third substance in a mixture of these two,
although a maximum is found if one calculates the specific
contractions. In such eases departure of the density curve:
from a straight line has the same significance as a variation
in change of volume passing through a maximum value.

Many properties of alcohol-water or acetone-water
mixtures pass through a maximum (or minimum) value
corresponding to a certain (variable) composition. This.
result, or rather, this distinction from results observed in
the case of other properties or other binary mixtures is.
mainly one of degree. If there is any variation of a.
property with composition in any system of two components,.
a maximum or minimum value of that property will always.
be manifested in a property composition diagram, provided.
that the actual difference between the components( with.
respect to the particular property) is sufficiently small
(1.e., provided the observed deviation of the curve from.
a straight line is greater than the difference between the:
components). In other words all such property-com--
position curves are of the same type provided they show
any variation from a straight line—a minimum or
maximum point may have a mathematical significance but
such a curve differs only in degree from one not passing’
through a maximum provided the latter is not a straight.
line.

Such variations in property with composition may be
considered by distributing the observed variation between:

SOLUTION VOLUME OF A SOLUTE. 203°

the two components. If on a property-composition diagram,
the tangent at any point be drawn, then the intercepts on
the ordinate axis will give the partial magnitudes of the
property with reference to each of the components. For
instance, if we take the densities of mixtures of methyl
aleohol and acetone given in Table 8, and caleulate from
A and d, the percentage composition and specific volume:
of the mixture respectively, we obtain the following
results :—

Composition, Specific volume
% methyl aleohol by weight. of mixture.
0 121098
15.36 1.26815
53.00. 1.26430
76.40 1.26619
100.0. 1.27062

The values of the specifie volume pass through a
maximum value at a point corresponding to 44% methyl
aleohol by weight, at which composition the partial volumes
of the two components are equal. Such a curve is in reality
the resultant of two curves (a) that of the partial volume:
of methy! alcohol increasing from 0 to 1.27062 and (b)
that of acetone decreasing from 1.27598 to 0.

In the same way for the pyridine-water mixtures one:
obtains the following results :—

Composition, Specific volume
% pyridine. of mixture.
tae 1.0029
Laler es 1.000138
31.89 Oo T2t
64.5 099769
80.2 HOU 32M

100.0 1.02349

‘204 G. J BURROWS.

In this case the partial volume of pyridine increases
from 0 to 1.02349, the partial volume of water decreasing
at the same time from 1.0029 to 0. The partial molar
volumes are equal in the case of a mixture containing about
50% pyridine.

In the case of methyl aleohol-water mixtures the —
following results are obtained :—

Composition, Specific volume.
% methyl alcohol.
0 1.00294
14.7 1.0284
31.8 1.05741
87.5 1.21625
100.0 1.27062

This curve differs only in degree from the preceding
examples. Here the partial volume of methyl alcohol
increases from 0 to 1.27062 at the same time as the partial
volume of water decreases from 1.00294 to 0. In this case
no minimum is apparent owing to the fact that the
maximum divergence from a straight line curve is less than
the difference between the specific volumes of water and
methyl alcohol.

The above results are not capable of interpretation on
the assumption that volume change is merely the outcome
of closer packing, resulting from the admixture of mole-
ecules of different sizes (ef. Holmes, J.C.S., 1913, 108,
2147). Thus if we consider the three liquids, water, methyl
alcohol and acetone, the molecular radii of which (accord-
ing to Holmes) are in ratio, 1, 1.31, 1.6 respectively, the
contraction resulting from the admixture of methyl! alcohol
and water should be approximately the same as that
resulting from the admixture of acetone and methyl
alcohol, whereas in reality the former is 6 or 7 times as
great as the latter. Furthermore, if we consider the effect

SOLUTION VOLUME OF A SOLUTE. 205:

of the addition of a third substance to a binary mixture of
two liquids, we are faced with an equally anomalous result.
Thus the particular water-acetone mixture used in Tables.
3 and 4, contains the liquids in the ratio of one molecule
of the latter to slightly less than two of the former. This
mixture contains less acetone than the mixture of maximum.
contraction (according to Holmes), although more than
the mixture of maximum specific contraction as calculated
in terms of both components. Of the liquids chosen as
solutes, methyl alcohol has a smaller molecular volume than
acetone, whilst pyridine has a slightly greater volume. Yet
in both cases the addition of the solute causes further
contraction. Assuming that the solution of one liquid in
another is simply a process of admixture of molecules of
two different sizes, one would expect the addition of methyl
alcohol to the particular water-acetone mixture used above,
to cause a change in volume in the opposite direction to
that caused by the addition of pyridine. Such, however,.
is not the case.

Nor can these results be explained in terms of com-
pressibility of the solvent. Ags already stated, the figures.
obtained indicate that in a binary mixture A-B, there is
apparently some relationship between the total contraction
that that mixture can undergo as the result of varying the
relative amounts of A and B on the one hand, and the
sum of the contractions resulting from mixing a certain.
amount of A with a certain amount of B, together with
the contraction that results from the addition of a third
substance C to this particular mixture. If, however, we
regard the relative solution volumes of the same solute in a
series of mixtures, as an indication of the order and sense
of volume change, we are faced with results incompatible
with the view that such changes are determined entirely
by compressibility. For instance, the solution volume of

206 G. J. BURROWS.

a solute in water is generally greater than in methyl
alcohol or acetone, a result which suggests that these two
liquids are more compressibie than water. It is found,
however, that the contraction resulting from mixing
acetone (or methyl aleohol) with water is much greater
than that resulting from the mixing of methyl alcohol
with acetone.

It is thus evident, that in binary or ternary mixtures in
which one component is water, volume change cannot be
regarded as a purely physical (or mechanical) result. Nor
can the results obtained in this work be attributed to a
general change in molecular complexity resulting from the
mixing of different species. It has already been shown
(This Journ., 1925, 59, 225) that the volume changes
resulting from the solution of any associated solute in any
associated solvent is very different from that resulting
from the solution of a non-associated solute in either a
non-associated or associated solvent. As far as we know,
water resembles the alcohols and acetone as. regards its
molecular complexity, all of these liquids being associated
to about the same extent. So that if we regard the process
of solution of one in the other as tending to decrease the
degree of complexity in conformity with the equations:

(HEO)) dr (CHUGH): = n(H,0) 7 n(CH,OH)
EO). “1 (CH,COCH,) == n( EEO) tr n(CH,COCH,)
We should also expect
(CH OH) ar (CH,COCH,) | = }
n(CH,OH) 16 n(CH,COCH,),
i.e., we would expect each of the above to be accompanied
by the same specific volume change, which is not the case.
A consideration of the reverse process, i.e., the building

up of complex from simple molecules leads to the same
‘conclusion, since in all cases this process will merely be

SOLUTION VOLUME OF A SOLUTE. 207

the result of the tendency of oxygen to pass into the tetra-
valent condition, or rather to exert a co-ordination valency
of three, a property which appears to be equally well
developed by the ox~gen atoms in water, the lower alcohols
and acetone. Hence the author considers that the abnor-
mality of water in such mixtures is related to some other
property, and at the present time dielectric constant and
molecular refractivity are being considered in this
connection.

The University,
Sydney.

208 E. M. BARTHOLOMEW and G. J. BURROWS.

THE PREPARATION OF CERTAIN
IODO-BISMUTHITES.

By E. M. BArTHOLOMEW, B.Sc.,and G. J. BURROWS, B.Sc.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Nov. 3, 1926.)

Many complex chloro-bismuth salts have been described,.

a complete bibliography being given by Gtitbier and
Miller (Zeit. Anorg. Chem. 1928, 128, 137). These authors.
described the preparation of various chloro-bismuthites.
of organic bases such as aniline, dimethyl] aniline, pyridine,
ete. In all of these cases the compounds described may
be regarded as various types of derivatives of bismuth
trichloride such as:

R,[BiCl,|2 eg. [PhNMe.H], [BiCL ts

R;[Bi,Cl,] e.g. [MeNHs;]; [Bi.Cl, |

R;[BiCl,| eg. [Me.NH.]; [BiCl,]

All of the above are derivatives of trivalent bismuth in
which the co-ordination valency of the metal is six. In
addition to these, compounds of the type R/Bil,] or
R[BiCl,| are well known, in which the co-ordination
valency of bismuth is four.

Gtutbier and Haussmann (Zeit. Anorg. Chem. 1923, 128,
153) have described antimony compounds of the type
R[SbCl,] which are derived from antimony pentachloride.
Bismuth differs from its congeners in the fifth group of
the periodic table in that its pentoxide is unstable and that
its acidic properties are extremely feeble; hence its
inability to form a pentachloride. Nevertheless it seemed
feasible to expect that the complex derivatives of the
hypothetical BiCl, or Bil; could be obtained, just as ferro-
and ferri-cyanides are obtainable although the simple

PREPARATION OF IODO-BISMUTHITES. 209

eyanides of iron are unknown. Experiments were there-
fore carried out in which bismuth chloride and the ecalcu-
lated quantity of the hydrochloride of a base were treated
with chlorine, both in aqueous and hydrochloric acid
solution, in the hope that the compound R[BiCl,| at first
formed would be oxidised to R[ BiCl,], but without suceess..
In this way various derivatives of bismuth chloride were
isolated, but these all conformed to the previously described
types of chloro-bismuthites of Gutbier and Miller, e.g.,
Py;|BiCl,|, [PhNMe.H].[BiCl;]., ete.

In view of this failure to prepare chlorobismuthates.
(corresponding to H[BiCl,|), attempts were then made
to prepare iodobismuthates by treating bismuth iodide and
an organic base with iodine in hydriodie acid solution.
In every case, however, the compound isolated was found
to be a derivative of the trilodide. These compounds are
readily obtained from bismuth iodide and the base in
hydriodiec acid solution and may be recrystallised from
hot concentrated hydrochloric acid.

EXPERIMENTAL.

Amlumum hexa-todobismuthite [PhNH;], [Bilg].

Calculated amounts of aniline and bismuth iodide were
mixed in a beaker with a slight excess of hydriodie acid.
An orange-coloured paste was thus obtained and _ this
gradually dried to a powder, readily soluble in hot con-
centrated hydrochloric acid, from which it crystallised in
yellow needles. These were dried over sodium hydroxide
in a desiccator in the dark.

Found :—Bi, 16.96; I, 60.75 per cent.

[C.H;NH;].[Bil,] requires Bi, 16.61; I, 60.80 per cent.

Pyridinium hexa-iodobismuthite [C;H;NH];[Bilg].

This compound was prepared in a similar manner to
the preceding; it crystallised from concentrated hydro-
chlorie acid in scarlet needles.

N—November 3, 1926.

210 E. M. BARTHOLOMEW and G. J. BURROWS.

Found :—Bi, 17.5; I, 62.4 per cent.

[C;H;NH |;[Bil.] requires Bi, 17.2; I, 62.9 per cent.
Dimethyl anilinium hexa-rtodobismuthite
[PhNMe.H |;[Brlg].

Prepared in an analogous manner to the above, this
compound crystallised from hydrochloric acid in dark red
plates.

Found :—Bi, 16.04; I, 57.07 per cent.

[CsH;N(CH;).H]| [Bil,] requires Bi, 15.8; I, 57.0 per
cent.

Phenyl dimethyl arsonum tetra-codobismuthite
[PhAsMe.H] [Bil,].

In this case the arsine and bismuth iodide were taken
in the proportions to give the hexa-iodo compound and
treated with excess of hydriodie acid. The reaction was
slow and the mixture was heated for some time; it gave
a_scarlet-coloured compound which was soluble with
difficulty in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid. It erystal-
lised in fine scarlet plates which on analysis proved to
be the tetra-iodobismuthite.

Found: Bi, 23.2; I, 56.7 per cent.

[CsH;(CH;).AsH] [Bil,] requires Bi, 23.1; I, 56.4 per
cent.
p-Toluidimum hexa-rodobismuthite |[CsH,CH;NH3];|Bil,].
This compound, obtained from the base and bismuth

iodide in hydriodie acid solution, readily crystallised from
hydrochloric acid in yellow plates.

Found :—Bi, 16.1; I, 58.8 per cent.
[C.H,CH;NH3]3[Bil,] requires Bi, 16.1; I, 58.2 per
cent.
The University,
Sydney.

SALINITY OF GULF WATER. 211

NOTE TON THE SALINITY OF THE WATER OF
THE GULF OF CARPENTARIA.

By GJ BuRROwS, B.Sc.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Nov. 3, 1926.)

This short investigation was carried out in 1911 at the
‘suggestion of Dr. W. G. Woolnough, to whom the author
is indebted for the samples of water. The latter were
‘collected at various positions by Professor Gilruth whilst
crossing the Gulf in August, 1911, with a view to ascer-
taining what evidence there was of dilution of the water
of the Gulf by water from the artesian basin. For this
purpose the chlorine content of each of the samples was
‘determined and the results are given in the accompanying
table and are also shown in the chart.

Position. Chlorine content

Longitude. Latitude. (grams per litre.)
136.4 Ps 14.8 he 19.10
136.8 ie 14.8 Ee 19.34
137.3 a3 14.65 me 19.34
137.65 kd, 14.30 ee 19.55
188.05 =< 13.97 *. 19.70
138.55 a 13.54 a3 19.54
138.80 a 18.25 oe 19.60
139.20 Me 12.90 ae 19.60
139.60 cys 12.60 ee 19.58
140.00 ae 12.28 ae 19.34
140.33 ig 12.00 ie 19.14
140.65 a 11.75 re 19.05
141.10 re 11.40 a 20.00
141.48 oH 11.00 he 19.382

The salt content of sea water varies slightly, but ag a
rule it is greater near the equator than in localities more
remate, and of course it is influenced by the discharge of

212 G. J. BURROWS.

fresh water rivers. A sample of sea water, collected off
the coast of Sydney at the time these Gulf samples were
examined, was found to contain 20.22 parts of chlorine
per litre. A specimen from a latitude of 18 would there-
fore have as its normal content a value not less than 20.22.
The results given in the table therefore indicate a definite
dilution of sea water by water containing little or no salt.
No doubt this effect is partly attributable to the discharge:
into the Gulf of certain small rivers such as the Roper,
Flinders and Mitchell.

At the same time it does not seem possible to explain
the dilution entirely in this way, and it is considered that
these low chlorine values of the water of the Gulf are due
to the discharge into it of water from the artesian basin.

The University,
Sydney.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 213

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT,
NSS. W.

PART I—GENERAL GEOLOGY.

By W. R. Browne, D.Sc.,
Assistant Professor of Geology, University of Sydney.
(With Plates XIX,-XXI.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Nov. 3, 1926.)

Introduction.
‘Stratigraphical and Regional Geology.
Carboniferous.
The Drinan’s Mount Division.
The Winder’s Hill Division.
The Jacob’s Hills Division.
The Hillsborough Division.
Summary.
Permo-Carboniferous.
Pleistocene and Recent.
‘Structural Geology.
Folding.
Faulting.
Age of the Faulting.
Palaeogeography and Geological History.
Physiography.

INTRODUCTION.
After the important discovery in 1914 by Professor
~ Sir Edgeworth David of glacial beds of Carboniferous
age near the village of Seaham, in the Maitland district,
the Carboniferous system in this State acquired a new
interest, and field-work was undertaken in various places,
particularly in the Seaham-Paterson-Clarencetown district,
‘where the sequence was studied chiefly by Mr. C. A. Siiss-
milch, the results being published in 1919.1 At the sug-
gestion of Prof. David, work was commenced by me in

214 W. R. BROWNE.

the neighbourhood of the village of Gosforth, about eight
miles from West Maitland, early in 1915, but for various:
reasons it could not be continued, except spasmodically,
until comparatively recently.

Sufficient data have now been accumulated to make
possible a fairly detailed account of the geology of a mode-
rately large area, although there are quite a number of
matters still obscure.

The broad features of the stratigraphy are largely a
repetition of those described by Stissmilch, and later by
Osborne,? for the so-called type-area, but the departures.
from the type-sequence are, it 1s considered, of sufficient
interest to merit description, while the tectonic and physio-
graphic features call for some notice. Furthermore, a
great part of the area dealt with is within easy reach of
West Maitland, and affords the geological visitor a good
opportunity for a rapid inspection of some of the main
features of the Kuttung division of the Carboniferous:
system, so that the publication of a map and sections, with
descriptive details, seems desirable, the petrography be-
ing reserved for a later publication. |

The delay in the completion of the survey has really
facilitated the work by enabling me to take advantage
of the work of Stissmilch and Osborne, which has, of
course, been of considerable service in the elucidation of
the stratigraphical sequence, complicated as it is by major
and minor faulting.

To Professor Sir Edgeworth David I am much indebted
for my first introduction to a very fascinating district and’
for much first-hand acquaintance with the details of the
geology of other Carboniferous areas, as well as for con-
tinued interest in the work. During the field-investiga-
tions I was laid under many obligations for assistance of

EGEND

a steer Sediments ZB

CARBONIFEROUS
2
Basalt Lp:

CAINOZOIC = Alluvium ~

ull
HH
a

NM,

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol, LX., 1926. Plate XIX.

ae x 7 Fe
PRE-KUTTUNG Granodiorite Ke x an [Sediments gg

seul Rhyolite CARBONIFEROUS| Zs
J Y lL] = Folsite ll | iil Basalt LZ
c )s : i z Toscanite an) f. ——=
xf a delenite CAINOZOIC Alluvium | ~~
TS KUTTUNG ee
ay ; 4f IGNEOUS
» _{Lovas mainly) parable —=! FAULTS a
Puroxene |oach do. concealed | “Sy.
Andesite |" "4" by alluvium SS

KUTTUNG Conglomerate f=
EDIMENTARY varve-shale &
tuff mainly

SCALE

Chains 0. 10 20 30 40 ©6608.

DISTRICT.NSW “SO

>

OF THE

COSFORTH

ise:

fy else

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 215

various kinds, which is here gratefully acknowledged.
Much help in surveying and examining the geology was
given by senior University students at different times,
and I was fortunate on more than one occasion in having
the invaluable help of my colleague, Mr. G. D. Osborne,
B.Sc., whose wide knowledge of the Kuttung rocks was
particularly useful. Mr. W. 8S. Dun has kindly supplied
palaeontological information, and it is on his determina-
tions that the junction-line between Carboniferous and
Permo-Carboniferous rocks has been drawn.

The actual field-operations were to a large extent made
possible by the warm-hearted and generous hospitality of
Mr. and Mrs. E. Cant and family, of Hillsborough, and
of Mr. and Mrs. A. McDonald, ‘‘Craignair,’’ Gosforth,
while other residents of the area showed a kindly interest
in the work, and were ever ready to help in any way
possible.

An endeavour has been made to see that the details
of the map are as accurate as possible, but the discon-
tinuity of outcrops has made the boundaries difficult to
draw in places. The available topographical maps of the
three parishes concerned were found to be unreliable in
matters of detail, but it is hoped that the map here pre-
sented is reasonably accurate, alike in the main topo-
eraphical and geological features.

The area examined, about seven miles by six, com-
prises portions of the parishes of Wolfingham, Gosforth,
and Middlehope. The limits have been determined on
the west, south, and east by the upper boundary of the
Kuttung rocks, but elsewhere a more or less arbitrary
intra-Kuttung limit has had to be set. The work, indeed,
centres mainly round the Carboniferous core of what is
known as the Lochinvar anticline or dome, an important
tectonic feature, which was early known to New South

216 W. R. BROWNE.

Wales geologists. It was first mapped, and its economic
significance demonstrated by Professor David,3 and the
present study has been built on the foundation of his
work, and represents to a great extent the result of a some-
what more detailed examination of the central portions
of the structure.

STRATIGRAPHICAL AND REGIONAL GEOLOGY.
CARBONIFPERO GS.

Two main divisions of the Carboniferous rocks of this
State have been recognised—the lower or Burindi series,
of marine origin, and the upper or Kuttung series, entirely
terrestrial in character. No representatives of the Burindi
series have been found in the Gosforth district.

For the type-area the rocks of the Kuttung series have
been divided by Osborne? as follows, in ascending order :—
(1) The basal stage, comprising the Wallarobba conglomer-
ates and tuffs of Stissmilch, (2) the volcanic stage, equiva-
lent to Stissmilch’s Martin’s Creek beds, and (3) the glacial
stage, comprising all the strata above the volcanic stage.
These subdivisions, although, as it happens, not altogether
happily named, correspond to real changes in the sequence
of deposition. While volcanic activity is indicated right
through the series, the lava-flows are almost entirely con-
fined to the volcanic stage, and the lithology of the inter-
bedded conglomerates is different from that of the beds
of the basal stage. Further, the glacial stage contains all
the glacial and aqueo-glacial deposits found in the type-
area, and its massive basal conglomerate marks a distinct
change from the conditions obtaining in the volcanic
stage.

This grouping of the strata does not hold in its en-
tirety in the area now being described, but for purposes
of comparison it will be applied as far as possible. It

'

|

Journal Royal So

| Isite-Tuft with Toscanite

Y Conglomerate,
Felsi pebble-bands Varve- shales \.

Basalt and

a “ Pebbly basic Tuff co
Permo Varve - iste & breccia Yarye-

Carbs. S hales
Basalt Tos¢anit
5a nds tone

Permo- Varve- | Hillsborough
Carbs, Ye nales. Rha acon Fault
Felsite-tuff with horiz

: Pur.
\ .
Felstte ‘Andesite

G

Aqueo+

conglc Permo-
Narye Cares:
with Lochinvar

Tuffaceous | Shales
Gra nodomerate

—

Journal Koyal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926. Plate XX. x

HUDSON'S
Pr.
N.JACOBS
. Puroxene~ Felsite-Tutt wath
Bosoitana Febite-taf with WIC Hillsborough jt ba ppebtle-banas Conglomerate
Permo- Vane- Pebbly banc tut conslte bands SFr ny _—-beuaranite: pe Lochnagar geri Cleat Toscanite
elsite-& PKS Varye- fornessaie <P GtGm roc Faull A ES yrecck Rhyolie Greygronite be
Tult shols On ape ‘ sian, VE ~ Holde-Andesite, Apsite RRURITE “congloreerate Varne-
% Aquea-glanabtanalti ~ f r
ht he Pyne fi Fane quai fH a eX
ua faa
STR erase HES

Datum-line —Sea-level Horizontal Scale

Vertical Scale 0 330 _—bb0 Feet

Fig. 1.

Grey-granite-
conglomerate Varies

ef: pra Conglomerate

arbs, Rhacopteris

Felsife-tuff with horizon SET eae Basalt
Onglte- bands. pebbles

Tpscanite Felsite-tutf

Hillsborough
Fault

Felsjte-tutf %
Aqueo-glacial conglte

. Pur.
Felsite ‘Andesite

Eve

a Datum-line — Sea-level F E Horizontal & Vertical S-ale ae Pans G
Fig. 2
WINDER'S
i HAWES
Aqueo-glacial HILL Pebbly
Plaalemcrate Varve= elsite -tuff > FARM Warverracrtaith Permo-
Varve-shales \ shales Aqueo-glacial (2) Peobly Aqueo-glacial CK. Rhacopteris Carbs.
with Rhacopteris jconasmetate felsite- Green conglomerate AP Felsite- Vari (Lochinvar
iftacesusisanas ion 2 ei a nefUiren mareleiLen niaecareem |pretsifestuthwvnt «\ breccia rock Shales)
Tillite_& Varve-shales felsite-tuft S elsite Fe icite-tutfe plant-remains — Rhyolite
ranodiorite Vary tuffs 4

Felsite / Conalomerate|
Horizontal ae chains K
Vertical o 330 6bo feet

SU]

Alluvium

Se Ky Xe Sos
Datum-line — Sea-level

Scale:
Fig. 3,

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 217

‘will be more convenient, however, to consider the Car-
boniferous geology by regional units; these may be ar-
ranged as follows :—

the Drinan’s Mount Division,

the Winder’s Hill Division,

the Jacob’s Hills Division, and

the Hillsborough Division.

The Drinan’s Mount Division.

This is a great unit, extending in a gentle curve convex
‘to the north-east, between Eelah and Lamb’s Valley, but
the series is prolonged for another seven or eight miles
to the west, being terminated abruptly by the meridional
Elderslee Fault. This unit is bounded on the south and
west by a heavy fault, which has been styled the Lach-
nagar Fault by Prof. David, and as the average dip of
the strata is north-easterly the lower portion, stratigraphi-
cally speaking, is truncated by this fault.

(1) Voleaniec Stage.

The principal feature of this division is the great series
-of lavas, extending in an unbroken curve from Eelah to
Lamb’s Valley, wonderfully uniform in total thickness
-and in the sequence of flows. An exceedingly fine section
through this voleanic series is got by ascending Hudson’s
Peak from the south or south-west, and then descending
to a saddle or col and ascending the spur leading to the
top of Drinan’s Mount. Other sections, showing substan-
tially the same sequence, but not so striking, may be ob-
tained by ascending anywhere the ridge extending from
-Drinan’s Mount to Eelah, while, for those who dislike
climbing, excellent road-sections are found at what is
known as ‘‘The Gap,’’ near Helah, and along Lamb’s
Valley, which cuts almost directly across the strike, expos-
‘Ing the entire sequence from the Lachnagar fault north-
~wards for about a couple of miles to the bridge over

218 W. R. BROWNE.

Lamb’s Creek. The general succession is ineluded in

Plate XX, Fig. 1.

This region is a particularly good one in which to
study the volcanic flows, since for the most part the suce-
cession of lavas is uninterrupted by interbedded tufts
and conglomerates, as is the case elsewhere. A section has

been measured between Hudson’s Peak and Drinan’s.
Mount, the details of which are approximately as follow,.

in descending order :—

F
Rhyolite (including about 10 feet of dacitic =
pitehstone) | {0.0 fo cea Pe ee 230
Tosceanite: and dellenite. .s.. ..-.\.if%.cc ae ee 560
Pyroxene-andesite and conglomerate .......... 360
Toscanite, and dellenite* 22. ..:%. ea eee 175
Hornblende-andesite and glass ............... 360
Pyroxene-andesite brecéla. . w.c.s - skp e tee ieee 215
Pyroxene-andesite: <... die)! ora... sale eae eee 1110
Pyroxene-andesite ass.” oi. 0)... .6.6 «le ey eee 90
Hornblende-andesite (2 .....0< 2's. hele ee 60
Hornblende-andesite lass 4.1724. )0.0 2. eee 40
3200

This section probably gives the maximum aggregate:

thickness.

Individual flows vary in thickness when traced along
the strike, and in places may vanish altogether. The

lower hornblende-andesite, for example, disappears north.

of Hudson’s Peak and at Eelah, and the top toscanite,

which is so prominent at Eelah and at Drinan’s Mount,.

thins out and disappears between these two points for a
short distance, and also to the north of Drinan’s Mount,

* These two types are often closely associated on the same

horizon, and cannot be differentiated in hand-specimen, while
even in thin section, owing to albitization of the original plagio-
clase, distinction is difficult and sometimes impossible. Else--
where in this paper the rock-name “toscanite” is used to indicate-

flows some phases of which may be dellenitic.

——

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 219°

making again north of Kilfoyle’s Creek, and forming quite
a wide outcrop in Lamb’s Valley.

While the general succession of flows is constant, occa-
sional small flows are found out of place, as it were;
examples are the lens of hornblende-andesite near the Helah
Gap, the abruptly lenticular mass of pyroxene-andesite
pitchstone at the entrance to Lamb’s Valley, and the small
mass of hornblende-andesite and pitchstone forming a
little knoll in among the topmost rhyohte flow north of
Kilfoyle’s Creek. The small outerop of biotite-dacite
pitchstone in the topmost rhyolite near the summit of
Drinan’s Mount, appears to be the only one of its kind
im the area.

Of all these units the most impressive is the lower
pyroxene-andesite, because of its thickness and its physio-
graphic prominence, which is all the more marked because:
the lava is underlain by easily eroded tuff and conglom-
erate, making for the formation of a dip-scarp. The line
of the pyroxene-andesite ridge can be traced with some
interruptions from the parish of Stanhope, south-easterly
as far as Hudson’s Peak, where the lava attains a thick-.
ness of 1200 feet, and where it shows a rude prismatic
jointing. About Rosebrook the relief is very much less.
marked, possibly through the flow, or succession of flows,
being thinner, but the andesite rises again to form the
more westerly of the twin low bare hills just south of the:
road through the EKelah Gap, only, however, to sink once
more and disappear beneath the river-alluvium. The rock
is markedly porphyritic, and occurs in both lithoidal and
glassy phases, which are apparently quite distinct, though
frequently found together, as at Hudson’s Peak, the glassy
phase being generally the subordinate type.

Through the low col or saddle east of Hudson’s Peak:
there runs an outcrop of andesitic breccia, and somewhat.

220 W. R. BROWNE.

similar outcrops are seen at the forking of the roads at
Rosebrook and in the col between the two low bare hills
at HKelah. The breccia always occurs at or near the top
of the pyroxene-andesite, and this fact, along with the
thickness (over 200 feet in the first outcrop), suggests
that it is a voleanic rather than a fault-breccia.

A band of hard fine-grained -tuff is seen on the EHelah
road, about a mile §8.E. of Hudson’s Peak, near Mr.
Dooley’s house, evidently interbedded with the pyroxene-
andesite.

The upper flow of pyroxene-andesite is not usually so
thick as the lower. On the Hudson’s Peak-Drinan’s Mount
section it 1s much finer-grained than the other, and is
intimately associated with a bed of conglomerate. About
a mile north of the Peak an exposure in a ecreek-bed shows
the andesite and conglomerate to have been apparently
contemporaneous; the pebbles, though mostly of pink
granite, are in places composed of the andesite, which
elsewhere forms a matrix to the granite pebbles, though
this matrix is usually a biotite-bearing felspathic tuff.
North of Kilfoyle’s Creek the flow gradually thins, so that
on the Lamb’s Valley road-section it has no great thick-
ness at all. South-east from Drinan’s Mount the andesite,
with its attendant conglomerate, persists for some distance,
then the latter dies out, and the andesite is at first under-
lain, and eventually almost superseded by an andesitic
pitchstone, which carries on right to EHelah, forming a
prominent ridge there. Siliceous thermal waters have con-
verted the pitchstone in places on this ridge into green
and white chalcedony, and veins of the same material
ramify through the rock.

Of the toscanites the lower horizon, though comparatively
thin, is wonderfully persistent, and has never been found
missing from any section examined. This rock, when

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 221

unweathered, has a characteristic blue-grey colour, with
abundant phenocrysts of quartz, felspar, and biotite. The
upper horizon is by no means so persistent, and in some
places disappears completely. The greatest thickness of
this upper horizon is perhaps at Drinan’s Mount, and
here it is evidently composed of a number of flows of aspect
and composition slightly different among themselves. The
lowest flow when fresh has a grey colour weathering to:
khaki-brown, the upper ones being brownish-red, buff, or
lavender, while the proportion and nature of the pheno-
erysts vary, the grey and brown phases being very rich
in biotite, and showing very little felspar and quartz, while
the other phases are rich in both.

The hornblende-andesite is found on two main horizons,
the lower of which is not very thick nor very persistent,
while the higher is quite important and continuous right
through; a thin flow of pitchstone in very many places un-
derlies the stony phase. This rock is identical with that
called the Martin’s Creek type by Stissmilch and Osborne,
and in this area it has almost invariably been found to:
contain a small proportion of quartz among the pheno-
erysts. The rock has a very characteristic appearance; it
is usually quite a bright blue colour when fresh, changing
on decomposition to a brownish-grey, and is often recog-
nisable by its tendency to platy parting, which causes it
to break into slabs or flags from two to five inches thick.
In places, as at Eelah, owing to hydrothermal changes, the
aspect of the rock changes somewhat, and its recognition
is less easy. The pitchstone, though often closely associated
with the stony phase, differs from it mineralogically in
containing notable proportions of biotite and hypersthene,
in addition to hornblende, among the phenocrysts.

Along the EHelah road, just after it passes from the
parish of Wolfingham to Middlehope, there is what ap-

"222 W. R. BROWNE.

pears to be an irregular dyke-intrusion through the horn-
blende-andesite, the only one of its kind yet encountered.
Thin sections show it to belong to the hornblende-andesite
group.

The rhyolite or porphyritic felsite at the top of the
voleanic series clearly represents more than one flow,
as it changes character a good deal from place to place.
On Drinan’s Mount the only conspicuous phenocrysts are
-of biotite set in a buff or pink groundmass, containing
numerous inclusions and occasional patches of chalcedony.
At Eelah one phase contains small phenocrysts of quartz,
but there is another on top of it from which megascopie
‘quartz is absent. North of Drinan’s Mount the rock is
often found to have conspicuous phenocrysts of white fel-
spar in a pink or reddish groundmass, but elsewhere little
biotite crystals are the most important porphyritic con-
stituents.

In a few places there appear to be traces of a thin flow
of toscanite on top of this felsite.

On the whole, the series just described is wonderfully
compact, with a remarkable uniformity of type-variation
from top to bottom. It evidently corresponds with the
Martin’s Creek beds of Stissmilch and the Volcanic Stage
of Osborne. But whereas these observers find no lava-
flow stratigraphically below the hornblende-andesite, which
rests directly on the Wallarobba tuffs and conglomerates,
.at Hudson’s Peak the hornblende-andesite, as may be seen
in the section, 1s underlain by 1250 feet of biotite-rich tuff
and tuffaceous conglomerate containing abundant pebbles
‘of pink granite, felsite, and other hard rocks, on a few
of which glacial striae have been observed. Small flows
of felsite and of pyroxene-andesite are interbedded with
‘the underlying conglomerates, and the lowest exposed
member of the sequence is a porphyritic felsite underlain

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 223

in places by thin flows of pyroxene-andesite and _ pitch-
stone. Immediately to the west of this runs the Lachnagar
fault, which causes the rest of the series to be concealed
from view.

This lowest flow of felsite, which varies in facies from
place to place, and shows well-marked flow-planes dipping
steeply in an easterly direction, can be traced from the
parish of Stanhope, where it forms an east-and-west ridge;
about #-mile east of the Maryvale turn-off it makes a
rather sharp turn to the south, crossing the road and con-
tinuing a little east of south for about a mile, when its
outcrop stops suddenly, the ridge being carried on to the
south by a toscanite dipping to the west. This sudden
break is evidently due to the Lachnagar fault, which has
been running more or less parallel to the felsite, but
here makes a sharp turn to the east, cutting off the felsite,
which is never with certainty picked up again.

The conglomerate and tuff immediately underlying the
Hudson’s Peak hornblende-andesite can be picked up at
intervals along the strike towards Kelah, as at the village
of Gosforth, where they are represented by abundant
pebbles, mostly of pink granite with some grey granite.
Conglomerates are likewise seen at Rosebrook, near Mr.
Campbell’s house, and along the road as far as Mr. Magnus
Campbell’s, beyond which they die out, but farther south
fine felspathic grey tuffs appear under the pyroxene-
andesite. At Mr. Magnus Campbell’s a traverse from the
road westwards towards the river shows a small thickness,
possibly about 100 feet, of conglomerate, underlain by a
rather decomposed porphyritic felsite, under which is
hornblende-andesite pitchstone. The felsite may possibly
be on the same horizon as that outcropping at the mouth
of Lamb’s Valley, and if this be so the overlying con-
glomerate and tuff have thinned out very considerably.

224 W. R. BROWNE.

The lithology of all the conglomerates mentioned above:
is exactly similar to that of those occuring at higher levels,
showing that we are here not dealing with the basal stage
of the Kuttung series. The whole thickness of strata,
therefore, in the Hudson’s Peak section from the base of
the hornblende-andesite westwards to the Lachnagar Fault,
probably of the order of 2300 feet, is to be added to the
voleanic stage, the total exposed thickness of which here
is of the order of 5500 feet.

(2) Glacial Stage.

Turning again to the topmost flow of the voleanie stage
at Drinan’s Mount, we find it overlain by a series of sedi-
ments belonging to Osborne’s Glacial Stage. The very
flat dip of these in places strongly suggests an angular
unconformity with the underlying voleanic rocks, this
feature being very marked at the back of Drinan’s Mount,
as viewed from the north.

A very interesting series of variations is seen in the
_ strata when traced north from Eelah. At the back of Helah
House, where the whole series emerges from the alluvium
covering it to the south, the rhyolite is overlain by a band
of conglomerate not more than 100 feet thick, containing
rounded pebbles of granite, gneissic granite, aplite, and
quartzite up to nine inches in diameter; in the blue-grey
matrix are embedded numbers of small angular and sub-
angular rock-fragments, giving the rock in part the aspect
of pa anivte:

Following up the valley of the creek (which I have
called Eelah Creek) draining the country east of the
Rosebrook ridge, we find the conglomerate thickening
considerably. The basal parts consist of very large tos-
canite boulders, some upwards of six feet in diameter,
and well-rounded for the most part, embedded in a matrix
which is similar in appearance to the enclosed boulders,

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 225:

and which is, in fact, a toscanite; overlying this volcanic
conglomerate is another conglomerate characterised by
abundance of smaller pebbles, averaging about ten inches
across, mostly of the hard pink granite or aplite which is
such a constant constituent of most of the Kuttung con-
olomerates.

These conglomerates, which may be regarded as the basal
beds of the glacial stage, can be followed, resting directly
on top of the voleanic rocks, from Helah House for about
24 miles in a north-westerly direction at the back of the
Rosebrook ridge; then they give place apparently to tuff
and varve-rock, which continue in contact with the vol-
canic rocks as far as the culminating point of the ridge—
Drinan’s Mount. In the creek just north of this point
the rhyolite underlies a very hard tillitic rock, containing
small pebbles and angular fragments of felsite and grey
granite, or more precisely granodiorite, and containing a few
grey granite boulders, one of which, an exceptionally fresh
granodiorite, would appear to have been upwards of ten
feet across originally. The granite boulders quickly become
very numerous, and the horizon, which is about 150 feet
thick a little north of Drinan’s Mount, continues to the
north-west as a conglomerate composed essentially or dom-
inantly of uniformly well-rounded boulders of grey granite,
averaging perhaps 15 inches in diameter, often rather
gneissic and generally very decomposed. So abundant and
close-packed are these boulders that the disintegration of
the rock gives rise in places to a coarse sandy soil, closely
resembling that formed by granite.

This horizon (which also contains a goodly proportion
of pink aplite and quartzite pebbles) can be found out-
cropping at intervals in the creek-beds following a general
north-westerly direction from Drinan’s Mount, and thick-
ens to possibly as much as 300 feet where the track ascends

O—November 3, 1926.

226 W. R. BROWNE.

Wildman’s Gap. On the road along Lamb’s Valley it
appears just a little south of the bridge over Lamb’s
Creek. At this bridge, and for about a mile upstream, a
magnificent outcrop of the conglomerate, characterised by
unstratified and unsorted boulders up to four feet across,
may be studied, both in plan and in section. Here it has a
flat dip, and probably has quite a considerable width of
outcrop, but the bridge forms the northern limit to the
present survey. About a mile east of the bridge the june-
tion between conglomerate and felsite swings away to the
south-east, and in a tributary to Lamb’s Creek boulders
of felsite up to ten feet in diameter appear in the con-
glomerate near its base, evidently rifted off from the under-
lying lava-flow.

This conglomerate is one of the most striking
formations in the area examined; it is practically
unique as regards its lithology, and the great abun-
dance and the size of the granite boulders enable it to
be identified without difficulty. The absence of definite
stratification, the presence of occasional abnormally large
boulders, the subangular shape of some of the harder
pebbles, and the merging of the conglomerate into a tillite,
suggest ice-action, and this view is strengthened by the
occurrence of varve-shales immediately on top of the con-
glomerate. The associated strata are of freshwater origin,
and the conglomerate may have been laid down on the
floor and round the margin of a very large freshwater lake
filing a depression excavated in part in rhyolite, with
ice-capped granite highlands some distance away.

At all events this horizon marks a definite change in
conditions, and in this division at least ushers in what
must be regarded as a new phase in the sedimentation. It
is evidently the equivalent of the coarse conglomerate de-
scribed by Osborne as occurring at the base of the glacial
stage in the Paterson-Clarencetown area.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 227

The details of the sequence in the glacial stage vary
from place to place. At Helah House the conglomerate is
overlain by a variable thickness of varve-rock which marks
the top of the stage. Further north, between this varve-
rock and the conglomerate there are local occurrences of
tillite, pebbly mudstone and tuff. About half-a-mile south
‘of the northern boundary of portion 26, parish of Middle-
hope, the series, which is here about 400 feet thick, and
has never exceeded 500 feet, begins to increase rapidly
in thickness as the result of the incoming of fine and coarse
acid tuffs, pebbly in places, which more than compensates
for the thinning and local extinction of the conglomerates.
At the same time a series of varve-shales makes its appear-
ance resting directly on the volcanic series, and between
the top varve-shales and the Permo-Carboniferous Lochin-
var Shales are bouldery mudstones, weathering easily
to a very dark brown clayey soil.

The upper part of the glacial stage swings off in a north-
easterly direction sympathetically with the Permo-Car-
boniferous basin in the parish of Houghton, and has not
been further studied.

At the back of Drinan’s Mount the following section

through the lower portion of the glacial stage has been
‘measured :—

Feet
ComAOMmerale Vises ie tus tea Flee ee oleate she 2
RAIMA Oy hia fa ccna 5 Nyame alates usd dane das alee dale Se Mas sosia 220
ot with a little conglomerate ......i6.....6.. 220
Warve-shales with Aneimites o.. 0... c. ccc ccc es 70
Tillite, passing northwards into grey granite
COMPNOMETALE Os ..44 os Boe 6s o8's abe ei ele see Bee es 150
662

The divide to the north of Drinan’s Mount is composed
mostly of the tuff and overlying varve-shales, on top of
which are in places a few feet of conglomerate capped oc-
easionally by small patches of toscanite.

228 W. R. BROWNE.

On ascending the plateau at Wildman’s Gap by the
bridle track from the valley we pass over conglomerate
and then tuff for the first 450 feet; at the top of the first
ascent is a small and thin outcrop of toscanite. A
fairly level walk of about 400 yards over tuff, followed by
another abrupt rise of 80 or 100 feet over coarse conglom-
erate, brings us to the top of the plateau, the varve-shales.
that separate the tuff and conglomerate further south
having disappeared. About 150 yards along the track from.
the edge of the plateau we reach the overlying toscanite,
which is thin here, but thickens considerably to the north-
east and north-west, disappearing rapidly to the south. It
is on this toscanite about a mile to the north-east that the
striated pavement occurs, discovered by G. D. Osborne in
1921.4 The outcrop forms the edge of the plateau from
the head of Parson’s Brush, at least as far as Mr. Bell’s
house, where the mass is over 100 feet thick, and the tos-
canite is constantly underlain by the coarse conglomerate,
but details of the strata between this horizon and the base
of the stage are difficult to obtain owing to cliff-talus.
and alluvium. Along the Wildman’s Gap section, the
thickness of the glacial stage up to the base of the tos-
canite (corresponding with the Mt. Johnstone beds of
Stissmilch) is not less than 1700 feet, an increase of over
1000 feet compared with that of the same beds a mile to the
south-east, at Drinan’s Mount.

The toscanite, which has been shown by Osborne
to be identical with the Paterson toscanite, is overlain vari-
ously by varve-shales, tillite, mudstones, and conglomerate,
towards some of which its relations are doubtful. In the
bed of Webber’s Creek, for example, the overlying mud-
stone is hardened, and appears as though intimately pene-
trated by stringers of toscanite. Just over the brow of
the plateau at Bell’s house there are hardened varve-shales

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 229

apparently underlain and overlain by the igneous rock,
and on the valley slope just to the east, conglomerates are
interbedded with the toscanite. These features suggest
the possibility that the toscanite is a sill-intrusion, but
if so the overlying sediments must have been eroded off
before the advent of the ice which produced the striated
pavement, and deposited the tillite on top of it. It may be
that the toscanite represents a series of subaqueous flows,
which assumed in part an intrusive relationship towards
the varve-clays and the pebble-and-mud deposits accumu-
lating on the floor of a Kuttung lake or inland sea.

The geology of the plateau is at present being investi-
gated by Mr. G. D. Osborne.

The Winder’s Hill Division.
Under this heading is included an area bounded on the
north by the winding Hunter River, and extending south-
ward to within a mile of the village of Lochinvar.

The Kuttung rocks of this division consist entirely of
‘beds which are the faulted equivalents of the tuffs and
-aqueo-glacial rocks resting upon the volcanic series of the
Drinan’s Mount Division.

From the village of Gosforth the beds swing round in a
‘wide sweep to the south and south-west, towards Lochin-
var, and then to the north-west and north, dipping out-
‘wards all the way and forming the southern portion of the
lower or Carboniferous part of the Lochinvar dome, the
lowest outcropping beds in the division being found on
‘the northern scarp of Winder’s Hill.

A section showing the sequence from Winder’s Hill to-
~wards Lochinvar was published in the paper by Stissmilch
and David, which requires some modification in the light
of a fuller examination of the rocks. The revised section
along the line HK (Plate XX, Fig. 3), which was measured

230 W. R. BROWNE.

in a direction of 8. 7° W. from Winder’s Hill, probably

gives the most complete sequence and the maximum

thickness of the beds, for some of the horizons become:

much thinner and others die out completely or are cut
off by faults when traced along the strike; the direction

of section is also approximately that of the longer axis of’

the dome.

The series rests on an old surface of granodiorite, and
there is reason to believe, as will be shown hereafter, that

the lowest horizons correspond in stratigraphical position.
approximately with the tillite at the back of Drinan’s.
Mount, which merges into the grey-granite conglomerate,.
so that the section as shown gives the complete sequence
from top to bottom of the glacial stage for this particular’

division.

The granodiorite outcrops are of very limited extent,,.

being confined mainly to the lower part of the northern

face of Winder’s Hill; a few very decomposed remnants.

also occur on the opposite side of the river and along the

eastern boundary of portion 72, parish of Wolfingham.

This granodiorite evidently represents part of an old

land-surface over which the Kuttung glaciers moved, for
at Winder’s Hill it is immediately overlain by tillite con--.
taining angular fragments, large and small, of the grano-.
diorite. The tillite passes upwards into dark-red varve-

shales, which exhibit contemporaneous contortions and, in

places, the worm-tracks that are a characteristic feature of
the similar rocks at Seaham. ‘Traced upwards the shales.
become coarser in texture, and pass into flaggy, tuffaceous.
sandstones, on which in turn rest fine varve-like shales.

containing Anewmites.

Altogether seven horizons of varve-rock have been noted

in this section, but the lateral extent of some of them has.
not been determined. The topmost horizon, however, is.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 231

quite persistent, and can be traced round most of the area,
forming the stratum next below the Lochinvar shales; a
lower horizon, that which outcrops on the face of what
may be called Hut Hill, south of the dam on Hawes Farm,
is associated with very plentiful and well-preserved impres-
sions of Aneimites ovata, and the varve-rock proper
grades down into what appears to be a very fine-grained,
white, cherty tuff.

Of the various conglomerate horizons shown on the sec-
tion, at least two have been proved of aqueo-glacial origin
by the occurrence in them of ice-scratched pebbles, and it
is probable that all have had the same origin. The pebbles
are, aS a rule, well-rounded, and are composed largely of
hard, red aplitic granite, quartzite, etc., and also in the
higher horizons of quartz-porphyry or rhyolite, and occa-
sionally of pink felsite. The matrix appears to be tuffa-
ceous in most eases, and, indeed, the conglomerates in many
instances, by diminution in the size and number of pebbles,
pass into pebbly tuffs. Underlying the topmost varve-
rocks at the village of Gosforth, and outcropping half-way
up the hill on the road to the Hillsborough Bridge, is a
very hard and tough dark bluish-grey rock, occasionally
pebbly, which has all the appearance of a tillite. Traces
of this same horizon may be seen as the strike of the
beds is followed round to the south, but it does not persist
for any great distance.

About three-quarters of a mile south of the Windermere
crossing, on the road to Lochinvar, there is a good section
of the topmost varve-shales overlain by a tuffaceous con-
glomerate, which continues to the east and south-east,
thinning out and apparently disappearing on the south-
eastern face of Hut Hill; this then locally replaces the
varve-shales as the topmost Kuttung horizon.

232 W. R. BROWNE.

Volcanic ejecta, mostly fragmental, make up about 1300
feet, of the total thickness of 4000 feet of strata measured
along the line of section, and tuffaceous rocks form a very
important part of the glacial stage in this division. Start-
ing in the bend of the river north-west of Winder’s Hill
the main belt of tuff sweeps round to the south-east in a
great crescent, attaining its greatest thickness where the
section-line intersects it, and thinning as it swings round
again to the east, where it is cut off by the Hillsborough
fault. Further north it 1s well seen on the northern face
of Bald Hill, whence it continues northwards along the
steep river-bank almost as far as the Hillsborough Bridge.

The tuffs are always rhyolitic in character, and are
composed for the most part of angular fragments of white
or green felsite and quartz, the grainsize varying con-
siderably. The finer tuffs may be thinly bedded, but the
coarser ones are generally massive, as between Hills-
borough Bridge and Bald Hill. These coarser types have
the bedding indicated by occasional pebbly bands, and
pass locally into breccias. A very beautiful felsite-breccia
with fragments up to half-an-inch in diameter is exposed
near the top of Hut Hill, while on the eastern slope of
the same hill along a north-and-south fence, there is to
be seen another dark red tuff-breccia or conglomerate, con-
taining rounded and angular fragments of felsite up to an
inch in diameter, with chips of glassy quartz in the matrix.

Much of the tuff in the erescentic outcrop south of
Winder’s Hill has a characteristic light blue-green colour,
and some of it is quite aphanitic in hand-specimens, the
microscope revealing it as a very acid, devitrified
pumiceous tuff.

There are a few massive igneous rocks among the strata
in this division, apparently not wholly effusive; the sec-
tion southwards from Winder’s Hill includes three occur-

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 233

ences. The lowest is a dark, brownish-green aphanitic
rock, slightly amygdaloidal, which may be observed in a
couple of places on the northern face of Hut Hill and else-
‘where, the outcrops being as a rule of but slight extent.
‘This appears to be an albitized basalt, and though it may
be of the nature of a contemporaneous flow, a rude pris-
matic structure in the overlying tuff at the dam north of
Hut Hill suggests the contact-effect of a sill.

A small outcrop of rhyolite, very rich in inclusions,
-appears on the northern face of Hut Hill, and at a higher
horizon, immediately under the topmost varve-shales, 1s
-a pink felsite which is of much greater extent, being trace-
able at intervals from a little west of the Windermere-
Lochinvar road (where it emerges from a cover of high-
level alluvium) across the southern face of Hut Hill to
‘the southern branch of Hawes Farm Creek. The effusive
character of this felsite is proved by the association with
it, west of the Windermere-Lochinvar road, of a pyroclas-
‘tic phase.

Along the river between Bald Hull and Hillsborough
Bridge, a‘number of felsites are encountered; one, a dyke
prismatically jointed in places, cuts southward diagonally
along the river-bank, emerging on to the top of it, and
‘continuing as far as Fault Creek, where it is cut off by a
fault. The appearance of this dyke suggests that it has
been injected in a vertical position while the strata were
still horizontal, and has been tilted during the subsequent
folding. Further north is what appears to be a sill or thin
laccolite of white fluidal felsite a little over half-a-mile
long. Among the tuffs near the river-leve! between Hills-
borough Bridge and the Bald Hill is a flow or intrusion of
highly jointed felsite. Another small felsitic intrusion is
found east of the Hillsborough-West Maitland Road, a little

234 W. R. BROWNE.

way north of the Gosforth turn-off, the invaded sediments.
including the bluish-green tillitic rock immediately under:

the topmost varve-shales. There is nothing to indicate
whether these intrusions are of Kuttung or Permo-Carbon-
iferous age.

Rhacopteris (Aneimites) has been found in this division in
quite a number of places, either in a kind of light-coloured
shale, or in a fine tuff. In the former case the pinnules and

fronds, together with what appear to be stems of the-
plant, and sometimes calamite-lke stems as well, often.

form close-packed masses in the shale, which is easily and

thinly cleavable, each new fracture exposing more of the:
fossils. In other cases where the plant occurs in tuff, fine:

but coarser than the shale, well-preserved individual pin-
nules or isolated fronds may be found. Two horizons have
been noted on the road just south of Hillsborough Bridge;
these same horizons have been found east of the road in

Mr. Robert Vile’s paddock (portion 44), and may be:
traced among the coarser tuff along the river bank up--
stream, one horizon on the very crest of the bank, the

other about 40 feet down. These are possibly to be cor-

related with the occurrence on Hut Hill, and another a.
little north of Hawes Farm Creek, the former outcrop,

which is associated with varve-shales, yielding particularly
fine specimens. A third horizon is just under the con-

glomerates on the northern face of Winder’s Hill, the-

matrix being again a varve-like or cherty shale.

It will be seen from an examination of the section that
this plant ranges practically from the bottom to very

near the top of the series in this division, and that it is.

found in close association with the aqueo-glacial sediments.
The Jacob’s Hills Division.

The strata comprised in this division form the northerly
continuation of those just described, but show such distinc--

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 235:

tive characters that they are best treated separately. The
division extends from the Hunter at Winder’s Hill in a
N.N.W. direction as far as the Lachnagar Fault, at the
Lamb’s Valley-Hillsborough road. The western boundary
lies just eastward of the Dalwood Bridge road, and is de-
termined by the base of the Permo-Carboniferous system,
while the eastern limit is in part the Lachnagar fault,
in part the Hillsborough fault.

A fairly good, though interrupted, section through the
sequence at the southern end of the division can be ob-
tained by going along the river-bank upstream from the
eastern boundary-fence of portion 72, parish of Wolfing-
ham, for about three-quarters of a mile, and then con-
tinuing in a direction a bit north of west up a little tribu-
tary creek. Rotten granodiorite may be detected a little
way east of the fence, succeeded by mudstone or tillite and
then by dark red varve-shales which outcrop at the fence,
dipping about W.S8.W. These are overlain by about 300
feet of felsite-tuff, and these in turn by conglomerates,
of which a splendid section may be seen forming in places
a low cliff rising abruptly from the river. These are not
less than 400 feet in thickness, and are probably best re-
garded as the equivalents of the upper conglomerates out-
cropping on the southern face of Winder’s Hill. The
pebbles, which are very badly sorted, and range up to
and over 18 inches in diameter, include pink and grey
granites, quartz-porphyries, felsite, quartzite, and a hard
acid tuff. The matrix is composed of red tuff or arkose,
notably rich in biotite, and occasional thin layers of the
Same material serve to indicate the direction of dip.

The conglomerates are succeeded upwards by about 100
feet of tuffs with a few thin layers of dark-red varve-shale
showing contemporaneous contortions; the outcrops, prob-
ably of felsite-tuff, are here obscured by alluvium, and

236 W. R. BROWNE.

save for a little bedded tuff nothing more is to be seen
for about 500 yards until an outcrop of conglomerate is
encountered in the bed of the tributary creek. The pebbles
of the lower part are badly sorted, but the small uniform
size and marked rounding of the pebbles in the horizon as
a whole place it in marked contrast with the conglomerate
on the river-bank. Above this fine-grained conglomerate is
another somewhat coarser one, characterised by abundance
of well-rounded red-brown quartz-porphyry or rhyolite
pebbles, on top of which occur more felsite-tuff and tuff-
breccia, sometimes pebbly, sometimes fine-grained, and con-
taining impressions of Aneimites and indeterminate plant-
remains. The topmost recognisable horizon, of varve-
shales, completes a thickness of something like 1800 feet
of sediment measured from the top of the granodiorite,
as compared with the maximum of 4000 feet in the Win-
der’s Hill division.

The impersistence, both in thickness and in lithological
facies, of the different members of this series when followed
along the strike is very characteristic of the rock-units in
the Jacob’s Hills division, as is probably to be expected
in deposits largely of aqueo-glacial origin, but in a general
way it appears that conglomerate increases to the north,
as compared with tuff and varve-shale.

The coarse conglomerate outcropping on the river-bank
appears again at the top of South Jacob’s Hill, containing
occasional large boulders of grey granite, thence on ac-
count of the land-contours, the outcrop trends N.W., and
then back to N.E., passing east of the summit of North
Jacob’s Hill, and swinging round to the north. The grey
granite boulders are much more prominent here, and are
very noticeable in the outcrops along the course of Thermos
Creek. In places well-rounded toscanite boulders become
prominent, and the conglomerate gets mixed up in rather

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 237

perplexing fashion with some flows of toscanite, recalling
the somewhat similar occurrence in Kelah Creek at the
back of the Rosebrook ridge. Further north the outcrops
are obscured, but what is: probably the same conglomerate
outcrops in Thermos Creek, near its mouth, not far south
of where the whole series is cut off by the Lachnagar fault.

The distinctive lithology of this conglomerate suggests
very strongly its correlation with the grey-granite conglom-
erate resting on the top of the volcanic series in the
Drinan’s Mount division, although here it does not appear
to have any marked stratigraphical significance.

If now we return to the original starting-point, and
follow the eastern fence of por. 72 northwards from the
river for about three-quarters of a mile, the granodiorite
will again be observed, but with a dark porphyritic felsite
resting on it and separating it from the overlying varve-
shales.

An instructive section is that along the line DEFG (Plate
XX, Fig. 2). Here the felsite (which is cut off to the east
by the Hillsborough fault) is overlain by pyroxene-andesite,
which has a glassy phase at the top. Between the andesite
and the lowest varve-shales a wedge of aqueo-glacial con-
glomerate has come in, and there is a thickness of about
400 feet of tuff, conglomerate and varve-shales between the
base of the grey-granite conglomerate and the top of the
andesite. Here, as elsewhere, there is not an abrupt
change but a gradual passage from tuff to conglomerate.

In this section, involving about 1500 feet of strata, no
less than five horizons of varve-rock are seen, and
it is possible that others are obscured by soil and talus.
That immediately overlying the grey-granite conglomerate
is about 110 feet thick, but thins out to the north, west,
and south. The most imposing individual horizon shown is

WPye) W. R. BROWNE.

that of the conglomerate rich in quartz-porphyry pebbles,
which is here upwards of 300 feet thick. Two thin layers
of toscanite, of slight extent, are met with on this section,
one in among the quartz-porphyry conglomerate, and an-
other near the top of the series. The latter is probably a
flow, but the former may be a sill, as there is not far away
a small circular outcrop of similar toscanite in among the
conglomerate and obviously intrusive.

Further north than the section-line FG there are, in
addition to the pyroxene-andesite, flows of hornblende-an-
desite and pitchstone and of pink porphyritic felsite, on the
last of which the grey-granite conglomerate rests (see
Fig. 1). So far as can be observed these flows are separated
by bands of conglomerate, but the relatively feeble drainage
at the eastern foot of the Jacob’s Hill ridge has resulted
in the formation of long, gentle, soil-covered slopes, so that
horizons of tuff and of varve-shale, if present, would
be difficult of detection.

On the ridge and dip-slope about half-a-mile north of
North Jacob’s Hill, and on a higher horizon on North
Jacob’s Hill itself, are flows of toscanite. The former are
those noted above as being intimately associated with the
grey-granite conglomerate, and indeed the conglomerate
can in one place be traced into the toscanite, as if sand-
wiched in between flows. Elsewhere on the dip-slope con-
glomerate and lava are intimately associated, and there
are places in which boulders of toscanite and granite ap-
pear to be embedded, close-packed, in a matrix of toscanite.
What is the precise significance of this state of affairs
it is hard to say, but it would appear that sedimentation
and voleaniec activity were proceeding synchronously, flows
of toscanite being poured out at intervals and engulfing
or covering the boulders in course of deposition round the
‘margin of a large lake. The toscanite is similar to those

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 239

occurring in the volcanic stage, and to the Paterson tos-
eanite, but cannot be definitely correlated with any one
of them so far as stratigraphical position is concerned.

An interesting feature brought out in the section ABC
is the existence of a layer of basalt and basic breecia and
tuff not far below the top of the Kuttung series. This
appears as a lenticular mass with a north-south extension
of half-a-mile about 25 chains to the west of North Jacob’s
Hill. It is evidently conformable with the Kuttung sedi-
ments, and has the appearance of being contemporaneous
‘with them. On a ridge about half-a-mile west of South
Jacob’s Hill a small outerop of basalt has been observed
not very far above the horizon of the grey-granite conglom-
erate, but whether this is an intrusion or a econtempor-
aneous flow I cannot tell.

The felsite-tuffs which are so prominent in the Winder’s
Hill division continue north across the river, and form
an important part of the rocks of the Jacob’s Hills divi-
sion. One horizon immediately overlies the lowest varve-
shales and outcrops strongly for some distance north of
the river, but gradually thins, and is replaced by conglom-
erate to the north. There is also a good thickness of
felsite-tuff, both fine and coarse, above the grey-granite con-
glomerate horizon interbedded with conglomerate and
varve-shale, and extending right to the top of the series.

From about three-quarters of a mile north of North
Jacob’s Hill most of the lower part of the series is cut
off by the Lachnagar Fault to the east, and the upper part,
that above the grey-granite conglomerate, thins consider-
ably, being not more than 300 feet thick, whereas along
the Hunter it exceeds 1000 feet. In this northern part
also tuff and varve-shales are very subordinate, and the
series is made up largely of conglomerate, with a couple of

240 W. R. BROWNE.

lava-flows, the lower being a dark chocolate-red felsite,.
containing many inclusions, and the other a thin northerly
extension of the toscanite in Thermos Creek.

Above this flow the conglomerate is very rich in quartz-

porphyry pebbles, some up to three feet in diameter, as.

in the quarry across the road from ‘‘Maryvale’’ homestead.
This appears to be a continuation of the quartz-porphyry
conglomerate noted on the section along the river-bank,
which attains a considerable thickness along the line of
section DE, thins out under the basic lava and tuff, and
makes again, extending at ‘‘Maryvale”’
of the topmost varve-shales.

Reasons have been given for correlating the grey-granite
conglomerate of this division with the similar horizon
marking the base of the glacial stage in the Drinan’s Mount
division, and from certain indications it would appear
most reasonable likewise to correlate it with the thick con-
glomerate on the southern face of Winder’s Hill. If this
is so, there are some 400 feet of strata exposed in the
Jacob’s Hills division, and about 600 feet in the Winder’s
Hill division, which are below the base of the so-called
glacial stage. These strata are to a very large extent aqueo-
glacial and glacial in character, and they emphasise, in
conjunction with the scratched pebbles in the Hudson’s
Peak conglomerate, the fact that glacial action commenced
much earlier in the Kuttung period that has hitherto been
supposed, and that for this area, at least, the distinction
between glacial and voleanic stages has no real meaning.

The Hillsborough Dwision.

This is of very small extent, but is described separately
on account of the difficulty of assigning its strata to their
proper stratigraphical position. It is a roughly triangular
area, bounded on the south and east by the Hunter River,

almost to the base

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 241

on the west by the Hillsborough Fault, and on the north
and north-east by the road from Hillsborough Bridge to-
wards Lamb’s Valley. There would appear to be three
principal units in this division:—(1) A low ridge of fel-
site-tuff and conglomerate lying south and south-west of
Mr. Robert Vile’s house, with a general north-easterly
dip, and underlain by a thin flow or sill of pyroxene-an-
desite; (2) a rather more conspicuous ridge of varve-shale
running almost east and west at the back of Mr. B. Cant’s
residence towards Mr. R. Vile’s; and (3) between this
ridge and the road an area of pyroxene-andesite with a
little felsite.

The dips of tuff and varve-shale are so conflicting, owing
to minor faults, and the outcrops of the different units.
so obscured in places by soil and creek-alluvium, that it
has been found impossible satisfactorily to interpret their
relations to each other and to the rocks of the other divi-
sions. The felsite-tuff is exactly similar to that on the
opposite bank of the Hunter, and may be a continuation
of it, though the dip-directions are slightly out of har-
mony. Most of the dips on the varve-shale ridge are to
the south and south-east, but in many places the rocks are
on edge, and elsewhere they are inclined in directions be-
tween north and east. On the northern side of the ridge
they pass in places into tuff and conglomerate, which, in
turn, give place to pyroxene-andesite.

For the most part no dips are obtainable on the pyrox-
ene-andesite, but the general slope of the country formed
by it is between north and east, and in a creek along the
eastern boundary-fence of portion 71, about 120 yards
south from the road, there is rotten andesite exposed,
which gives the impression of a north-easterly dip.

While the varve-shales and tuff most probably belong
to the top part of the Kuttung sequence, it is difficult to

P—November 3, 1926

242 W. R. BROWNE.

place the andesite; possibly it has been brought against the
varve-shales by faulting, and it may be the equivalent of
the andesite and felsite of the Jacob’s Hills division, but
on the eastern side of the dome, for the Hillsborough Fault
just here must cut through pretty close to the axis of
the dome.

About a quarter of a mile west of Mr. B. Cant’s house
is a road-metal quarry in the varve-shales, giving a good
exposure. The characteristic paired laminae are very well
exhibited, the colours alternating between chocolate-red
and light grey-pink, and there is much contemporaneous
contortion, the disturbance being confined to certain well-
marked horizons. <A few isolated pebbles have been noted,
evidently having been dumped in the glacial clays, and
traces of plant-fossils, including species of Aneimites and
Cardiopteris, have been found in the quarry and on the
ridge above it. <A thickness of about 10 feet of sedi-
ment is exposed in this quarry, and in another one a short
distance away.

Nowhere else in the district is there such an excellent
spot for studying the varve-shales, and it is, therefore,
the more to be regretted that the precise horizon of their
occurrence here cannot be stated with any pretence of cer-
tainty.

Summary of Carboniferous Geology.

Of the Carboniferous succession only the Kuttung por-
tion is developed, and of this the basal stage is missing.
The strata are much faulted, the chief dislocation being
the Lachnagar Fault. On the northern side of this there
are exposed strata belonging to Osborne’s glacial and
volcanic stages; the base of the latter is not seen, but a
thickness of over 5000 feet is exposed, consisting mainly
of acid and intermediate lavas, with a preponderance

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 243

of tuff and conglomerate, in part aqueo-glacial, in the lower
portions. The so-called glacial stage is very thin near
Eelah, but thickens considerably to the north; it consists
mostly of tuff and aqueo-glacial deposits, with a little
tillite, and has a well-marked basal conglomerate, which
‘appears to rest unconformably on the rocks of the volcanic
stage. A mass of toscanite, the equivalent of Osborne’s
Paterson toscanite, appears in part of the area, and in one
place bears on its surface glacial striations.

In the Winder’s Hill division, resting on a floor of grano-
diorite, there are 4000 feet of strata, including much fel-
site-tuff, two horizons of tillite, and several of varve-rock
and aqueo-glacial conglomerate.

The strata continue across the river into the Jacob’s
Hills division with decreasing thickness, and are cut off
to the north by the Lachnagar Fault. Sections across this
division disclose the existence of several varve-shale and
aqueo-glacial conglomerate horizons, as well as much fel-
site-tuff, and a number of lava-flows.

The Hillsborough division contains outcrops of felsite-
tuffs, varve-shale, and pyroxene-andesite; but, owing to
faulting and other causes, the relations of the various
units are indeterminate.

The succession of the strata differs in many respects
from that recognised by Osborne in the Paterson-Clarence-

town area, and the divisions proposed by him are not
entirely applicable here.

PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS.

No detailed examination of the Permo-Carboniferous
rocks was made beyond what was incidental to the deter-
mination of the upper limit of the Kuttung succession, but
as some new facts came to light during the progress of the
survey a short description will not be out of place.

244 W. R. BROWNE.

In a paper by W.S. Dun and myself,5 reasons were givem
for considering the Lochinvar shales as the basal horizon of
the Permo-Carboniferous system for the area now being
described. This formation has been described by Prof.
Sir Edgeworth David’, and some additional notes have
been given in the paper mentioned above, so that little
need be added here.

These dark-red shales form a remarkably persistent
horizon, and have proved extremely useful as a datum-bed
for mapping purposes, inasmuch as owing to their easily-
eroded character they occur in depressions between the:
underlying hard Kuttung rocks and the overlying plant-
bearing sandstones. Only in a few places do the shales.
fail entirely; one of these is along the road south from
Windermere crossing, where the topmost Kuttung horizon,.
a fairly heavy conglomerate, is overlain directly by the:
Permo-Carboniferous plant-bearing sandstone. The boun-
dary is here on top of a hill, in itself a sufficient indication
of the absence of the Lochinvar shales.

Along the western margin of the Jacob’s Hills division
the Lochinvar shales are apparently thinning, for they
do not make recognisable outcrops, though the characteris-
tic soil produced by their weathering is present; indeed,.
this western boundary had to be mapped to a large ex-
tent on the fragmentary evidence of the presence of the
topmost Kuttung varve-shales and the Lochinvar shale soil.
In the creek north of ‘‘ Maryvale,’’ the plant-bearing sand-
stone appears to be resting directly on top of the Kuttung
tuffs, owing either to strike-faulting or, more probably,
to overlapping of the sandstone over the Lochinvar shales.
and the topmost Kuttung beds.

The Lochinvar shales make good outcrops along Helah.
Creek, and have been traced as far as the northern boun-

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 245

dary of portion 26, parish of Middlehope, at which point
they are still outcropping strongly.

The included pebbles, often striated, which are such a
characteristic feature of this formation, particularly in
the Winder’s Hill division, are usually small, but occa-
sionally boulders of diorite, gabbro, ete., up to a couple
of feet in diameter, are seen. An interesting find, made
by Dr. A. A. Pain, was that of a boulder of Devonian
quartzite, containing impressions of Rhynchonella pleuro-
don in the shales near Gosforth village.

The so-called plant-bearing sandstone, which is really,
in part at least, an acid tuff, and in places pebbly, les
immediately on top of the Lochinvar shales. Professor
David noted the occurrence in it of impressions of in-
‘determinable plant-stems, and it has been shown to contain
marine fossils in its upper portions. The sandstone oc¢a-
sionally takes on a peculiar mottled appearance, which
serves to distinguish it when the characteristic plant-stems
are missing.

A small flow or sill of buff-coloured felsite occurs in
the sandstone in portion 538, Parish of Gosforth.

Next above the sandstone comes a flow of basalt, some-
times solid, but frequently amygdaloidal, the vesicles being
filled with analcite, natrolite, calcite, and chalcedony. This
outerops strongly at the village of Gosforth, sweeps round
to the south, forming a belt of rich dark soil, crosses
the river, end continues north as far as the Lachnagar
Fault. Mr. K. J. F. Branch, B.Sc, has drawn my atten-
tion to the fact that just north of ‘‘Maryvale’’ Home-
‘stead, there are two flows, separated by a small thickness
of fossiliferous conglomerate. For the most part this
basalt occurs immediately on top of the plant-bearing gand-
‘stone, but on the western margin of Jacob’s Hills division

246 W. R. BROWNE.

it appears, in places, to overlap both the sandstone and
the Lochinvar shales, and even the topmost of the Kuttung
strata. In addition, a little south of the northern boun-
dary of portion 72, Par. Wolfingham, there is some evidence
that basalt has broken through the topmost varve-rock,
which is hardened and brecciated and underlain by basalt.

Not far beneath this is the lens of basalt and breccia:
referred to above as being probably contemporaneous in.
the Kuttung strata.

Reference has been mace to other basalts both in the
Jacob’s Hills and in the Winder’s Hill divisions, among
the Kuttung strata, and it would appear that the great
outpourings of basic lava of Permo-Carboniferous times
were heralded by outflows on a small scale in late Kut-
tung times, and that during the extrusion of the Permo-
Carboniferous submarine fiows, sills were injected among
the Carboniferous rocks through which the volcanic pipes.
or feeders were being drilled.

Near Gosforth village, and further south, the basalt is
overlain by calcareous shales and a little fossiliferous lime-
stone, the resulting dark clayey soil containing abundance
of caleareous nodules. The basalt is missing from the
Permo-Carboniferous section east of Rosebrook ridge. In-.
deed, the sequence here differs in certain respects from that
found elsewhere; it would appear that the plant-bearing:
sandstone is very thin, and that associated with it is a
hard, cherty rock, weathering to a buff-coloured crust,
above which are greenish, ripple-marked shales. There
is no sign of basalt here until a much higher stratigraphical
level is reached, although a small neck of basalt on top:
of the Rosebrook ridge may have been a feeder for a
Permo-Carboniferous flow.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 247

A eursory inspection of the strata to the east of Helah
makes it pretty certain that the Permo-Carboniferous
sequence there, right up to the Upper Marine series, would
repay investigation, which it is hoped to carry out at some
future date.

Relations of Permo-Carboniferous and Carboniferous
Strata. |

These are to some extent discussed in the paper by
W.S. Dun and myself already referred to, and the con-
clusion is reached that no local discrepancies in the dips
of Permc-Carboniferous and Kuttung strata exist more
than can be found within the Kuttung succession itself.
It is pointed out, however, that the transition from terres-
trial to marine sedimentation, and the violent life-break,
indicate marked changes in the relations of sea and land
at the close of the Carboniferous period.

These conelusions were based principally on observa-
tions made from the village of Gosforth south towards
Lochinvar, but, as mentioned above, to the west of
Jacob’s Hills it would appear that there is overlapping
of the lowest Permo-Carboniferous strata on each other,
and both the plant-bearing sandstones and the basalt prob-
ably transgress in places the topmost of the Kuttung
strata.

PELEESTOCENE ANDI RECEN ff,

There is a big break in the sequence of the strata repre-
sented in the Gosforth area. Following the depression of
the region at the close of Kuttung times, it is practically
certain that Permo-Carboniferous sediments were deposited,
if not during the whole period, at all events till Upper
Marine times, but these rocks have all been eroded.

Whether or not the Triassic sandstones which form the
southern wall of the Hunter Valley ever extended as far

248 W. R. BROWNE.

north as Gosforth it is not possible to say. It is curious
that, with the single exceptiton of the small outlier re-
ported by J. EH. Carne® from Mount Temi, near Ard-
glen, no outcrops of Triassic rocks are known to exist to
the north of the lower Hunter Valley or the east of the
Wingen-Elderslee Fault; if any were ever deposited on
what are now the highlands north and east of Gosforth
they were probably wiped out during the Tertiary pene-
planation following on the elevation produced by the fault-
ing.

Tertiary sedimentation is likewise unrepresented, as
far as is known, and the only Cainozoiec deposits belong to
Pleistocene and Recent times. Apart from sedentary soils
and present-day flood plain deposits, these may be divi-
ded into :—

(a) high-level river-gravels and other alluvium, and
(b) cemented rubble.

(a) The high-level alluvium is well exhibited as terraces
along the Hunter River and its tributaries, particularly
fine developments being observable in the bends of the
river both upstream and downstream from the Hills-
borough Bridge. On the left bank of the river, about three-
quarters of a mile upstream from the bridge, four of these
terraces are well shown at approximate heights: of 120,
75, 55, and 385 feet, respectively, above the river,
which is here about 50 feet above sea-level. On either side
of the bridge there are three very distinct terraces at 90,
35, and 20 feet above the river, the lowest one being sub-
ject to occasional flooding. A series of terraces is also
well seen immediately north of the village of Gosforth.
The highest deposit, about 120 feet above the river, occurs
50 chains along the road north of Mr. A. McDonald’s
house; it is here, as elsewhere in the area, of fine gravel
mainly, but contains abundant larger pebbles of red

SS

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 249

jasper and silicified wood, as well as of black chert, quartz-
ite, ‘‘grey-billy,’’ ete. The red jasperoid rocks have numer-
-ous peculiar circular or sub-circular cuts or grooves on the
‘surface. It is notable that most of the pebbles are of
rock-types quite foreign to the locality, a fact which serves
‘to distinguish them from the pebbles of the Kuttung con-
glomerate close by.

This gravel-deposit rests on Kuttung strata, which sur-
‘round it on all sides, so that it is isolated from the lower
‘terraces of fine alluvium at heights of about 80 and 40
feet, respectively, above the river.

The alluvium as exposed in road-cuttings is not notice-
-ably stratified, and chemical alteration has produced a
‘kind of nodular structure in places, the soil being thickly
‘studded with little ferruginous pellets.

These alluvial terraces, with the present-day flood-plains,
-constitute most of the cultivated land in the district, vines,
-eitrus, and other types of fruit, lucerne, and maize being
grown. Narrow belts of gravel are found amid the finer
‘sandy and loamy soils, indicating the positions of former
river-channels. The terraces are regarded as having
-been formed during the Pleistocene period, from the oc-
eurrence of Notothertum remains in similar deposits fur-
ther up the river at Elderslee, as recorded by Prof.
David.

(b) A curious deposit of post-Tertiary age is found
sporadically distributed throughout the area. This con-
‘sists of pebbles or angular rock-fragments, creek-gravel,
and surface-rubble generally, the whole cemented into a
“more or less compact mass, usually of a dirty-grey colour.
Occasionally the matrix may be quite free from large
‘fragments. The cementation of lava-fragments into a
-breecia, or of pebbles weathered out of the Kuttung con-

250 W. R. BROWNE.

elomerate into a more or less level-bedded formation, rest-
ing unconformably on the underlying rocks, is apt to cause
perplexity, but the matrix does not ring under the ham-
mer, a blow from which generally serves to disclose the true
nature of the rock. In hand-specimen the matrix is rather
heht and somewhat porous, with a tendeney to crumble
when pressed between the fingers, and appears to be a mix-
ture of gritty and clayey material.

No definite law controlling the occurrence of this de-
posit has been discovered; it has been found on slopes and
in valleys, between the soil and the solid rock, or out-
cropping at the surface where the soil has been removed,
and it has generally been observed in the neighbourhood
of felsites, felsitic tuffs, toscanites, and varve-shales.

This formation would seem to have much in common with
the ‘‘hardened grey mudstone’’ described by Prof. David
as overlying the Permo-Carboniferous strata in the
Hunter Valley3®. G. D. Osborne has given a clear and
concise account of its occurrence in the Paterson-Clarence-
town area, and I have observed it in other areas of Kut-
tung rocks, as in the neighbourhood of Cranky Corner,
and on the north-eastern flank of Mt. Bright, near Pokolbin.

It appears possible from the mode of occurrence that the
cementing material of the rock is of the nature of a chemi-
eal deposit, due in the first instance to the leaching of
siliceous rocks, like the felsites, ete., by ground-water, and
subsequent deposition, either through chemical reactions
or by evaporation of the solvent. A chemical examination,
kindly undertaken by Mr. H. P. White, of the Geological
Survey Laboratory, revealed the absence of any alumina
soluble in caustic soda solution, but it was noticeable that
a quantity of silica was dissolved by the alkali. The-
cementing material is, therefore, not bauxitic, but there
seems the possibility that it may be partly of silica in a

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 251

soluble, perhaps colloidal, form. It likewise seems probable
that the deposit was formed under the soil-layer during the
present cycle of erosion, as it is found on the present-day
valley-floors and valley-slopes, sometimes on quite steep
slopes. True, it is being in places eroded by the present-
day small streams, but these are cutting into their own
alluvium, here as elsewhere in the State, as a result of de-
forestation and cultivation, and are most likely now erod-
ing where they were aggrading their channels before the
advent of the white settler.

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY.
Folding.

The geological structure, of which the region under
discussion contains the central part, is variously known as
the Lochinvar anticline and the Lochinvar dome, and it
will be well to try and settle the question as to which is
the correct designation, especially since the use of the
term ‘“‘dome’’ appears to have caused the structure to be
regarded by some folks as a possible reservoir for rock-
oil. |

A consideration of the known facts leads to the conelu-
sion that the present structure was originally a dome of
somewhat irregular shape and of considerable size, but
that as a result of very heavy faulting and subsequent
erosion the domal character has been obscured, and may
even be considered to have disappeared altogether.

The predominant factor in the modification of the origi-
nal structure has been the Lachnagar overthrust or reversed
fault described below, some impression of the magnitude of
which can be gained from a comparison of the curvature
shown by the strata in the Drinan’s Mount division with
that of the corresponding strata in the Winder’s Hill divi-
sion. Relatively to the latter area the former has been

(252 W. R. BROWNE.

raised considerably by the fault, and erosion has laid
bare in it the lower strata, wiping out thousands of feet
of Kuttung, and probably of Permo-Carboniferous sedi-
ments, of which latter indeed only a few outliers remain.

It is difficult to visualise the exact state of affairs exist-
ing before the dome was faulted, but a study of the small-
scale map (Plate X XI) throws some light on the matter.
If we consider the northern area, it will be noticed that
the Kuttung rocks close to the fault-plane dip radially
‘outwards, from EKelah round almost as far as Elderslee.
A basin of Permo-Carboniferous rocks, the Cranky Corner
basin, les in a tectonic depression of the Kuttung
rocks west of Lamb’s Valley. The work of G. D.
Osborne has revealed the existence of another basin or
dimple, in the plateau east of Lamb’s Valley, in which
occur small outhers of Permo-Carboniferous rocks, and
Lamb’s Creek has eroded its valley along the axis of a
subsidiary anticlinal structure pitching to the north,
‘which has resulted, in part at least, from the existence of
the two basins. Running northwards to the west of Pater-
son is a gulf, as it were, of Permo-Carboniferous rocks,
and it is beyond reasonable doubt that the Upper and
Lower Marine Permo-Carboniferous series were originally
continuous, though much thinned, from the Paterson
“‘oylf’’? across to Cranky Corner and beyond; the Greta
-ecoal-measures were probably not continuous, as they are
overlapped by the Upper Marine series south-west of
Paterson.

If now we try to restore the strata on the northern
side of the Lachnagar Fault as they would have appeared
after faulting, but without erosion, we shall get a portion
of a dome, the cover consisting of Permo-Carboniferous
rocks, and the borders of the structure rudely goffered or
wrinkled. If we go still further, and in imagination push

Plate XX.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926.

ONO NUNSS > fa
Sa EES OTN ’ N
A LY - ° WEAN
. 3 "+O P iY ¢ >
Bart CG pceOnncy me e\ Aas cf a SOS 2
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a oy Day SO ACIS rebar a | Ve an 5 \
Ue EO Saar P aae yy AWYd
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oe S = Peed x S
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seit . 5

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: ¢ 5 Ceres | 2 5
, e -

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v

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fae M \ Ss S

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aN N \\

~_~ ee v N
\

RBONIFEROUS & PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS

STRUCTURAL RELATIONS of the

v al

A = : “= 3
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2 2 a

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= peas

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(SS) (ee

FORMATIONS inthe LOWER HUNTER VALLEY,

og :
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aS

AY SAL
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Kalina

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 253:

this northern area down into the position it occupied before
the faulting, and restore the eroded Permo-Carboniferous.
cover over the area south of the fault, the result will
be a dome, very unsymmetrical it is true, rather elongated,
and bulging considerably at the northern end, but a dome
neverthelesss.

As things are at present the continuity of the Permo-.
Carboniferous sediments is completely broken by erosion
to the north, and for the main portion of them, those lying
south of the Lachnagar Fault, the structure is probably best
described as a pitching anticline, but for the Carboniferous.
rocks, seeing that outward dips are found to nearly every
point of the compass, it is perhaps permissible to refer
to the structure as a faulted dome.

The apex or apical line of the dome is probably some-
where about Hillsborough, but the Hillsborough Fault has.
apparently cut through the centre, and has made exact
determinations impossible.

Owing to ignorance of the tectonic structure of the Car-
boniferous strata north of Lamb’s Valley, I cannot say
whether this dome was an isolated structure or whether it
represented the southern end of an anticline with un-
dulating ridge.

No evidence as to the geological age of the folding is.
available in the Gosforth area, but Professor David con-
siders it to have been initiated at the close of Upper
Marine times, and to have been consummated before the
deposition of the Triassic sediments.3® 34

Faulting.

Ag seems to be the usual rule wherever the Kuttung
series has been studied, the strata in the Gosforth district
have been much dislocated by faulting, of which there are
numerous evidences, although, owing to the presence of

254 W. R. BROWNE.

much alluvium and soil, and the difficulty of detecting
dislocations where stratigraphically different but litho-
logically similar horizons are concerned, the details of the
faulting are in many cases obscure. |

The most important fault is that which has been termed
the Lachnagar Fault by Professor David; this cuts oblique-
ly across the area surveyed, striking east-west at Lamb’s
Valley, but curving to the south-east sympathetically with
a marked outcrop of felsite, which appears to be practi-
cally at the base, so far as it is revealed, of the Hudson’s
Peak volcanic succession.

It would be natural to expect the fault to continue its
easterly direction rather than make this abrupt bend, but
the strike of the felsite outcrop, the continuity of which is
beyond doubt, swings round sharply from east to south-
east, and there is no possibility of the fault cutting across
it at the bend. For about a mile the fault follows the
western side of the felsite, then it suddenly changes its
direction again to a more easterly one, probably passing
along the creek near the junction of the Hillsborough and
Kelah roads, and crossing the river a bit downstream from
the Hillsborough Bridge. Its exact position just here is
largely conjectural, but it can be placed within compara-
tively narrow limits in the Parish of Gosforth, where the
topmost beds of the Kuttung are brought against
what is pretty evidently the continuation of the con-
glomerates outcropping along the base of Hudson’s Peak.
Across the river again, in the parish of Middlehope, be-
tween Rosebrook and the Melville Bridge, Lower Marine
strata are found on one side of the road, and pyroxene-
andesite on the other side, only a few yards away.

The course of the fault beyond this point is some-
what of a mystery; it probably crosses the river again
somewhere about the Melville Bridge, for just up from

Se

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 255

this on the south side of the river there is a small out-
erop of voleanic rock in a quarry, discovered by Professor
David, and shown on the map accompanying his memoir,
which is a continuation of that which disappears under
alluvium on the opposite side of the river at Eelah. This
small outcrop appears to be surrounded by Permo-Car-
boniferous strata on all sides, and the fault evidently
passes close to the western side of the quarry: thereafter
it gets into Permo-Carboniferous country and is lost. Prof.
David’s map indicates beyond this point considerable
minor faulting, but no considerable dislocations along the
line of the Lachnagar fault. A “‘hairpin’’ syncline is
shown near the fault at Eelah, and a bit further to the
south-east, indicated by the outcrops of the Greta coal-
measures and the Muree rock; it is perhaps not altogether
‘unreasonable to regard the northern limb of this syneline,
which is on the downthrow side, as having been due to
local updragging, by the overthrust fault, of strata dipping
towards the fault-plane. If this interpretation is correct
then the fault can be continued past the Melville bridge,
and may die out and be buried under an extensive sheet
of alluvium which lies in its course, since there is no
appearance of it in the Tomago coal-measures lying be-
yond.

This is the master-fault of the area, and it must have a
very considerable throw; an estimate based on a section
through Gosforth village and the Rosebrook ridge, the
Lochinvar shales being used as a datum-horizon, puts the
throw here at about 5000 feet, but such an estimate is really
little more than a guess owing to the irregularities in thick-
ness of the strata, and the very great amount of hypo-
thetical restoration of the series necessitated by the exten-
sive erosion. As pointed out above, this fault makes the
determination of the original geological structure very

256 W. R. BROWNE.

difficult, but it is only fair to add that by way of compen--
sation it has revealed excellent sections through the vol--
canic series which would otherwise have been hidden.

Of the minor faults the most important, the Hillsborough.

fault, runs along the valley to the east of South Jacob’s.

Hill, its presence being indicated by a fault-breccia, and
by the fact that west-dipping volcanic rocks of the Jacob’s
Hill section are in close proximity to discordantly dipping
varve-shales and felsite-tuffs. This fault, which, if normal,
throws to the E.N.E., is probably the same which on the
south bank of the river causes the evident dislocation.
between Winder’s Hill and the Bald Hill (the beds of the
latter having a dip which would carry them into the
Winder’s Hill granodiorite), and which further to the
south-east brings the east-dipping topmost beds of the
glacial stage against the Winder’s Hill strata, lower in the
same stage, and with a strong southerly component of dip.

The northern end of this fault is buried under alluvium,
but the mapping suggests that it continues at least as
far as the Lachnagar fault, by which it may be cut off.

Another important minor fault is that shown alone
Kilfoyle’s Creek, north of Hudson’s Peak. This is admir-
ably revealed in the course of a traverse up the creek,
the displacement of the lava-flows on either side being very
striking. Unfortunately the extensions of this fault have
hitherto baffled investigation; to the north-east the out-
crops are buried under alluvium and wash from the hills,
and to the south-west, although it is evident that the
fault has an appreciable throw, it has been impossible
to trace it farther than the road. Indeed, the whole posi-
tion about this spot is very obscure; the marked diver-
gence in strike between the basal felsite and the Hudson’s
Peak lavas and the sudden disappearance of the Kilfoyle’s
Creek fault, both call for some explanation, which it is
not possible at present to give.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 257

It is pretty certain that a fault cuts obliquely across
the Rosebrook ridge in the parish of Middlehope. Along
Eelah Creek, a little east and north of the north-east cor-
ner of portion 27, there is a marked off-setting of the
Lochinvar shales, the conglomerates and varve-shales com-
prising the glacial stage, and the topmost flow of the vol-
canie stage. Dislocation can also be observed on top of
the ridge, and although the fault has not been traced down
the western slope, near Mr. Campbell’s house, on the road
and between it and the river are conglomerates which
when traced northwards disappear abruptly against the
pyroxene-andesite. This is explicable on the view that
the fault cuts through here, but the rest of its course is
lost in alluvium. The throw of this fault is possibly not
very great.

Very clear evidence of dislocation is seen in a creek
flowing through portion 56, parish of Gosforth, about
half a mile east of Winder’s Hill, where the Permo-Car-
boniferous beds have been displaced some 700 yards by a
fault striking E.S.E. The fault has provided a direction
of easy erosion, but has not been traced with certainty
beyond the head of the creek. The throw, if we assume
the fault to be normal, is to the south, but marked joint-
ing in the strata near the fault-plane shows a dip of about
70° in a direction N. 33° E., suggesting steep overthrusting
from the north.

About a mile to the south of this the strata are again
dislocated by a fault, likewise apparently throwing to the
south, which has caused a marked relative displacement
of the southern end of the dome towards the west. This
fault has not been traced westward for any distance.

On the north-eastern side of the Bald Hill, which lies
to the N.E. of Winder’s Hill, is a deep gully along which
the strata are notably disturbed, and in places are almost

Q-—November 3, 1926.

258 W. R. BROWNE.

on end; the discordance of dips in the neighbourhood and
the discontinuity of outcrops, indicate a fault, which
may be a branch of the Hillsborough fault.

It is not certain whether Lamb’s Valley owes its exist-
ence to a fault; certainly there is some suggestion of dis-
placement of outcrops on either side of the valley along
the Stanhope road, and Mr. K. J. F. Branch has drawn
my attention to very heavy sub-vertical jointing in the an-
desite outcropping in the creek about a mile up from this
road, but no definite evidence of faulting has been found.

As remarked above the varve-shales in and about the
quarry on Mr. Cant’s property exhibit minor dislocations,
which may be subsidiary to more important faulting, but
as to the existence of this no definite evidence is forth-
coming.

In regard to the nature of much of the faulting, whether
it is of normal or overthrust type, there are no positive
indications, but the Lachnagar fault is probably best
regarded as an overthrust, chiefly because of the difficulty
of explaining otherwise the close juxtaposition of strata on
opposite sides of the fault which are dipping in very
different directions, and are at very different horizons
in the Kuttung sequence. About a mile north of North
Jacob’s Hill, for example, there are immediately to the
west of the fault strata about the horizon of the grey
granite conglomerate dipping to the west. Just across the
fault-plane is the felsite dipping steeply to the east, which
is the lowest exposed member of the Hudson’s Peak vol-
canic sequence, and probably over 5000 feet stratigraphi-
cally below the conglomerate. If an attempt is made to
draw a section in a direction at right angles to the fault-
plane here, restoration of the dome is impossible except
on the assumption that the fault has been an overthrust
from the east towards the west. The increasing steepness

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 259

of dip close to the fault-plane on its northern and eastern
sides also suggests overthrusting; the hornblende-andesite
on the western side of Hudson’s Peak has a dip of
30°, but the felsite near the junction of the Eelah
and Hillsborough roads dips at angles up to about 60°,
and the inclination of the felsite north of North Jacob’s
Hill is equally steep.

Now, if the fault was a normal one the south-west would
be the downthrow side, and owing to down-dragging the
north-easterly dip on the other side of the fault near the
fault-plane so far from steepening should actually flatten ;
"in overthrusting, on the contrary, steepening might be ex-
pected to occur.

It should be mentioned that this conclusion as to the
nature of the Lachnagar fault, is in harmony with the
views of Sir Edgeworth David, the officers of the Geological
Survey, and G. D. Osborne, in regard to what is probably
part of the same fault-system near Singleton and Muswell-
brook. For reasons stated below, I had been disposed to
regard the fault as probably normal, but a study of the
geological map, followed by an attempt to draw structural
sections, convinced me that normal faulting would not
account for the facts in this particular locality.

It would appear at first sight, from the nature of the
resulting displacements, that the Kilfoyle’s Creek fault
is normal, throwing to the north-west, but at one place
along the creek close to where the fault-plane must be,
jointing was observed dipping EH. 30° 8. at about 30°:
further, there is evidence of a dragging movement in the
curvature of the outcrops on either side of the fault-plane:
it is probable then that there is an important horizontal
component in the faulting, which may in that case have
been the result either of upthrust from the south-east or

260 W. R. BROWNE.

of downthrow towards the south-east, combined with a
horizontal south-westerly movement (relatively speaking)
on the north-western side. Similar evidence of horizontal
dragging is seen along the Rosebrook fault near the top:
of the Rosebrook ridge, where the sense of the movement
has been westerly for the rocks to the north as compared
with those to the south of the fault. Indeed if, as seems
possible, these two faults were developed as subsidiary
to the major Lachnagar overthrust, the principal move-
ment along both of them may well have been horizontal.

That the Hillsborough fault is of the normal type is
indicated by the fact that on its eastern or downthrow.
side to the east of Winder’s Hill the strata abutting on
the fault-plane dip in their original direction but at a
much increased angle: this is what would be expected
from the dragging of the strata down along the fault-
plane on the downthrow side of a normal fault.

The throw of this fault is probably considerable, possibly
of the order of 1000 feet.

Age of the Faulting.

All the faults have affected both Kuttung and Lower
Marine Permo-Carboniferous rocks, and have dislocated
strata already folded: if the folding commenced during
late Permo-Carboniferous times then an upper limit is
put to the age of the faulting. Physiographic considera-
tions suggest strongly that the faulting took place before
the Kosciusko uphft® of late Tertiary times, inasmuch as
there would seem to have been already in existence, at
the time of that great epeirogenetic movement, a peneplain
carved indifferently out of the Carboniferous rocks and
the Triassic rocks lying to the south of them: in other
words there had been time, between the faulting and the
‘uplift, for the production of a uniform level on both sides
of the fault-planes.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 261

These are wide time-limits, but they are the best that
an be got from a consideration of the local geology: it
is impossible even to tell whether all the faulting belongs
to the same diastrophic period. Quite possibly the normal
faults, like the Hillsborough and the cross-faults developed
during and in connection with the folding. Professor
David was of the opinion that most of the faults affecting
the Permo-Carboniferous strata of the Lower Hunter
‘Valley were pre-Triassic,34 a view which received support
from Osborne’s examination of the crustal shortening in
the region.? As mentioned above, the mapping of the
Hillsborough fault suggests that it is eut off to the north
‘by the Lachnagar overthrust, which, as will be shown, is
possibly of much later date.

The indications of horizontal movement of strata along
‘the Kilfoyle’s Creek and Rosebrook faults suggest that
they may have been produced as the result of the differ-
‘ential movement westward of adjacent blocks during the
Lachnagar faulting. In order to get evidence as to the
geological age of the latter fault it is necessary to travel
far beyond the confines of the Gosforth district.

In the small-scale map (Plate XXI) the fault is shown
sweeping round in a wide curve from Eelah beyond
Lamb’s Valley to near KHiderslee and ending against
‘the Elderslee fault. This represents Sir Edgeworth
David’s original view, but he has since, in conversation,
put forward the suggestion that the Lachnagar fault
Swings round, near the Elderslee Bridge, from a westerly
to a northerly direction, so that the Elderslee fault north
-of the river is really a continuation of the Lachnagar fault.

The presence of a great fault bringing Carboniferous
and Permo-Carboniferous strata into contact near Muswell-
brook was noted by Carne and Morrison, of the Geological

262 W. R. BROWNE.

Survey, in 1914, and in the same year Professor David
suggested, with hesitation, its continuity with the Elderslee:
fault.82 In a paper by myself? this fault was shown to:
extend northward beyond Wingen, and reasons were given
for believing it to be of Tertiary age. Since that paper
was written I have had the opportunity, under the guidance
of Messrs. Morrison and Kenny, of the Geological Survey,
of making a hurried examination of the section at
Murrurundi, about 13 miles north of Wingen, which shows
that the Wingen fault extends as far north as this point,.
where it passes along the valley of the Page River.
Further, the position of the basal conglomerates of the-
Triassic Hawkesbury series at Murrurundi suggests very”
strongly that the faulting post-dated their deposition, and.
if Carne’s record of Triassic rocks on the slopes of Mt.
Temi,’ well to the east of the Wingen fault, is correct,.
then there is no doubt whatever of its post-Triassic age.

The tentative correlation of the Wingen and Elderslee:
fault-systems would appear to be confirmed by the work |
of the Geological Survey and of Mr. G. D. Osborne now
In progress, so that one may with a certain degree of
confidence assign the Lachnagar fault to post-Triassic and
probably to Tertiary times. Except in so far as it may
be a much later expression of the same thrust from the
east, the fault is thus quite unconnected with the folding
of the strata, which, as Professor David has shown,3¢ was.
complete before the deposition of the Hawkesbury Series.

At Parkville, Wingen and Murrurundi my isolated ob--
servations led me to the belief that the fault was probably
a normal one, and hence I was rather disposed to regard
the Lachnagar fault as being of the same type. However,
for reasons already given, it seems evident that such is not:
the case.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 263

PALAEOGEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGICAL HISTORY.

Owing to the absence of any considerable exposure of
basement rocks it is impossible entirely to reconstruct the
physical geography of this region as it appeared in Kuttung
times. The only pre-Kuttung formation revealed in the
district, and indeed for a great many miles around, is
the granodiorite outcropping at the base of Winder’s Hill
and at a few spots across the river. Of its exact geological
age we know nothing, but it formed part of the land-mass
over which the Kuttung lavas were outpoured and on
which were laid down the glacial and aqueo-glacial deposits
from the Kuttung ice-sheets. ?

Part, at least, of this region was dry land at the time
when the Burindi sea covered much of the country beyond
Seaham and Clarencetown, and it is indeed possible that
the granodiorite was laid bare by subaérial erosion during
Burindi times. In this connection it is interesting to recall
that similar remnants of an old granodiorite floor underlie
the Kuttung lavas of Mount Bright, near Pokolbin, 16
miles away to the south-west. ™

For some reason the part of the old land-surface near
Winder’s Hill remained uncovered by lavas and other
deposits, and it was not until near the time of commence-
ment of the so-called glacial stage that the granodiorite
began to disappear under volcanic, glacial, and aqueo-
glacial deposits. It may have been that this particular
part was of too high relief to be buried earlier, or that
what had been highlands at the beginning had been gradu-
ally depressed or eroded, or again that the Winder’s Hill
area was beyond the geographical limits of the voleanic
activity during the extrusion of the lavas and tuffs of the
voleanic stage.

No actual foci of eruption have been discovered, but
the absence of lava at Winder’s Hill and the relative

264 W. R. BROWNE.

insignificance of the flows in the Jacobs’ Hills division
make it probable that the centres of most prolifie and
sustained volcanic activity were away to the east and
north, possibly outside the confines of the area being con-
sidered. Of course there is abundance of pyroclastic
material, and some of this is so coarse as to indicate the
proximity of voleanoes; still, much of the tuff bears
evidence of sub-aqueous deposition, and may have come
originally from a distance.

It is evident that glacial action and voleanie activity
were synchronous, and much of the volcanic ash was
certainly borne along by the glacial streams and deposited
with true aqueo-glacial material, while occasionally lava-
flows were poured out over the aqueo-glacial accumulations:
doubtless, too, showers of voleanic ash and dust fell into
the lakes in which the varve-clays were being deposited,
for we find tuff and varve-rock closely associated.

The region was the scene of the advance and retreat of
ice-sheets, and evidences of the passage of land-ice occur
in a number of places. In the vicinity of the village of
Gosforth there are the tillite resting on the granodiorite
at Winder’s Hull and the bluish tillite outcropping on the
Maitland road less than a mile south-east from the Hills-
borough Bridge: this latter is close to the top of the glacial
stage and immediately under the topmost varve-shales.

On the other side of the Lochnagar fault is the tillite at
the back of Drinan’s Mount, probably slightly higher than
the Winder’s Hill horizon; then, much further up in the
sequence, is the striated pavement on the plateau, with its
thin veneer of tillite, and lastly down along Helah Creek
and near Kelah House just under the topmost varve-shales
are deposits of tilliite which are possibly to be correlated
with the similarly placed occurrences at Gosforth and with
that of the plateau.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 265

Thus there are evidences of at least two transgressions
-of land-ice during the currency of the glacial conditions.

Retreat of glaciers is indicated by the aqueo-glacial
conglomerates, representing probably outwash-gravels, and
by the varve-shales resulting from deposition in lakes at
-a distance from the ice-front. Where, therefore, varve-rock
is superimposed on conglomerate, we have two successive
‘phases in the retreat; where varve-rock or conglomerate
occurs without underlying tillite, the indications are of a
re-advance of the ice-sheet, but not quite to the spot
marked by the outcrops, and its subsequent retreat. Events
of this kind are denoted by the numerous separate
horizons of varve-shale shown in the Winder’s Hill-
Lochinvar section and in sections across the Jacob’s Hills
division.

An interesting but difficult problem is that of the
direction from which the ice came. Evidence in regard
to such matters is usually derived: (a) from the grooving
in the ice-striated pavements, and (b) from the boulders
contained in the glacial and aqueo-glacial deposits. The
only striated pavement available in the present instance
is the small patch on the plateau, the scratches on which
indicate that the land-ice was moving in a direction N.
15° W., but the value of this observation is limited, since
it is not confirmed by other similar observations elsewhere ;
it implies merely that the ice-sheet which moved over the
toscanite was going in the direction stated at this one
particular spot.

The evidence of the boulders in the tillites and conglom-
erates is equally inconclusive. The granite of the pebbles
is similar to that composing the base of Winder’s Hill and
‘to that at Mt. Bright, and the pink aplite is doubtless co-
magmatic with it, but this only indicates a former wide
-extension of the granodiorite highlands in some direction

266 W. R. BROWNE.

unknown. No rock-mass closely resembling the quartz-
porphyry of the pebbles is known: it is an orthoclase--
beating rock, and different in appearance and constitution
from any of the known Kuttung lavas. The felsites, and.
the few andesites that have been found among the pebbles,.
may well have been of local derivation, and the quartzites.
may have come from anywhere. The only significant
feature, apparently, about the conglomerates is the per-
sistence of granitic pebbles in them through a very big
vertical range, indicating that the ice was coming from
the same gathering-ground most of the time. The high-
lands which formed this gathering-ground were most pro-.
bably situated to the south or south-east or south-west; at
all events they are not likely to have been to the north
or north-east, since in those directions for a long distance.
there must have extended the sediments originally
deposited in the Burindi sea, at this time, it is true, con-
verted into dry land, but of low relief and itself in process
of being buried beneath Kuttung deposits. The highlands.
must have had considerable elevation in the first instance,
or else must have been stable or rising whilst the Gosforth of
Kuttung times was slowly sinking: their superior elevation
was maintained during the deposition of more than 7000.
feet of strata, or, to put it another way, they stood, at the
end of Kuttung times, at a height of more than 7000 feet
above what had been the early Kuttung land-surface.

_ During the piling up of the thousands of feet of volcanic-
and glacial material slow subsidence was taking place, and
some of the lakes formed were of considerable extent and
permanence, as may be inferred from the thickness of
some of the lake-deposits and the continuity of outcrop
of others, as well as from the presence of considerable.
plant-material. The sinking was greatest along a north-
and-south axis, and accordingly for the glacial stage we.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 26%

find the greatest thickness of water-laid sediment, including
tuff, from Winder’s Hill southward, and in the Drinan’s
Mount division a thickening of the strata of the glacial
stage from Eelah northward. The sagging at the close of
the voleanic stage was so pronounced as to produce an
unconformity in places between the rocks of the glacial
stage and the lavas on which they were laid.

After the close of the Kuttung period the sinking con-
tinued, but with the abatement of volcanic activity and the
retreat of the glaciers causing a diminution in the rate
of sedimentation, the terrestrial eventually gave place to
marine conditions.* The principal sagging was still along
a sub-meridional axis, as indicated by the fact that the
Lochinvar shales, when traced from their most southerly
exposure to the north-east and north-west, are found to
be overlapped by later sediments. As was to be expected,
this axis of greatest depression became later on
the axis of greatest elevation when the folding of the
region began in late Permo-Carboniferous times, and what
had been the Lochinvar basin became the Lochinvar dome.

Voleanic action continued right up to the end of the
Kuttung period; during the later stages the ejected
material was mostly fragmental, the only important flow
being that of the toscanite on the plateau, although to the
west and south a number of minor flows occurred. Even
after the Kuttung strata were buried beneath the sea,
voleanic activity was maintained, for acid tuffs and basalt
flows are found among the earliest of the marine deposits.

During the Permo-Carboniferous period the slow and
gradual sinking of the area was interrupted for a time
by elevation during the deposition of the Greta coal-

*TIt may be also that the transgression of the sea was due
in part to melting of the ice-sheets and the consequent rise in
sea-level following on a general amelioration of climate.

268 W. R. BROWNE.

measures, which, as mentioned above, are overlapped near
Paterson, but with this exception there was a general
movement of subsidence until the close of Upper Marine
sedimentation. Then a marked change in the local tectonic
conditions took place, the gradual subsidence being suc-
ceeded by the folding of the strata into a great irregular
dome. It seems probable that there was no deposition of
Upper coal-measures here and that the area existed as high-
land country suffering erosion and supplying material for
the sediments of the Newcastle coal-measures and later on
possibly for the Triassic sandstones of the Narrabeen and
Hawkesbury stages.

In Tertiary times came the great overthrusting move-
ment of the Lachnagar fault and the erosion of the up-
thrust side, the faulting movement being so gradual and
erosion so effective that the close of the Tertiary period
saw the whole surface reduced to a peneplain level.

The subsequent geological history is really that of the
present physiography, and is dealt with below.

PHYSIOGRAPHY.

In order to get this region in its proper physiographic
‘setting one must go a long way off. From the top of a
hill about three miles along the road from Branxton to
the Elderslee Bridge, one can see in the distance, over
to the east, the Jacob’s Hills, Hudson’s Peak, and the long
scarp that extends north from Eelah to Drinan’s Mount
and thence in a general N.N.W. direction to Lamb’s Valley.
The eye then travels along the rampart of hills rising
abruptly almost from the water’s edge to the north of the
Hunter, forming Durham Peak and other eminences which
really constitute the dissected southern edge of an elevated
area extending westward from Lamb’s Valley, and
bounded to the west by the low ridges of which Brooks’

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 269°

Mount forms the highest point. A further examination
reveals that all this country is a great plateau, rising to:
1530 feet above sea-level at Mount Tangorin, and to a
maximum of about 1100 feet on the bare hill north of
Bell’s farm, in which Lamb’s Valley and the broad Hunter
Valley, here some 15 miles wide, have been cut, and that
the elevations of Hudson’s Peak, Winder’s Hill and the
Jacob’s, Hills are remnants which, while composed of more
resistant rocks than the softer Permo-Carboniferous sedi-
ments of the lowlands, have, through faulting or the
presence of weaker strata, yielded to the forces of erosion.
and been partially or wholly isolated from the highlands.
The original peneplain, before elevation into a plateau
and dissection, was probably continuous with the Hawkes-
bury sandstone country of the Broken Back Range and
other highlands to the south and south-west, but since its
elevation with a tilt to the east and south, presumably
during the Kosciusko uplift at the close of Tertiary
time, erosion has been extremely active. As pointed out
by Taylor,” the rapid excavation of the broad Hunter
Valley, which here might almost be considered a peneplain,
has been favoured by the weak and unresistant nature
of the Permo-Carboniferous sediments of which the valley
is composed, while even among the harder Carboniferous.
rocks, weaker strata have been discovered and old fault-
planes sought out, so that the dissection for the most part
is quite advanced. Where, however, the tributary creeks
head up among the harder rocks, they show the character-
istics of youth, with steep gradients and even hanging
valleys and intermittent waterfalls.

The edge of the plateau, from the eastern side of Lamb’s
Valley to some distance south of Drinan’s Mount, forms
the watershed between the basins of the Hunter and
Paterson Rivers, and the tributaries of the latter have eut

270 W. R. BROWNE.

almost right back to the edge of the scarp, erosion being
aided by the general easterly dip of the strata, so that
here the divide is very sharply marked indeed.

The general course of the Lower Hunter River is charac-
terised by much meandering, such as one would expect in
a mature or old stream, but the details of its windings are
not always amenable to interpretation. ‘T'o the north of
Branxton it is flowing east, its course evidently determined
by the hard Kuttung lavas and conglomerates on its left
bank, which have been brought against the soft Permo-
Carboniferous strata by the Lachnagar fault. From the
point of entry of Lamb’s Creek the river turns south,
almost along the junction between the Permo-Carboniferous
and Kuttung strata, both dipping west. Doubtless the
meridional strike of the Ravensfield sandstone further
south has helped to confine the river to a more or less
‘southerly course. Further downstream the river curves to
the south-east, but instead of continuing across the low
country in a general easterly direction, it suddenly, about
14 miles west of Lochinvar, swings round to the north-east,
leaves the soft Permo-Carboniferous rocks and takes a
tortuous course across the hard Kuttung tuffs and con-
glomerates (see Plate X XI). This transgression is particu-
larly noticeable where the river passes between Winder’s
Hill and South Jacob’s Hill, which rise about 530 feet and
630 feet respectively above it. Sweeping round to the north
in sympathy with the curving strike of the rocks, the river is
brought up against the hard Kuttung lavas forming Hud-
son’s Peak and the Rosebrook ridge and is diverted south-
wards, its course here being related once again to some ex-
tent to the Lachnagar fault and possibly to the Rosebrook
fault as well. Except for a short distance near Kelah House,
where it has cut across the strike, the river does not again
eome into contact with Carboniferous rocks during its
course to the sea.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 271

This peculiar behaviour of the Hunter is obviously in
‘part related to differences in the erosional resistance of
the strata through which its present course les, which
did not operate during some previous stage of the river’s
history. Having regard to the late mature or senile nature
of the valley both upstream and downstream, that part of
the river between the Windermere Crossing and Hills-
borough Bridge must be looked upon as a rather mature
entrenched meander, and this suggests the course of evolu-
tion possibly followed by the river as a whole. At or near
the close of the Tertiary Era the old Tertiary peneplain
was uplifted with a tilt towards the south and east, and to
a height, in the region under consideration, of about 300
feet. Prolonged crustal stability enabled a consequent or
rejuvenated Hunter River to erode rapidly through the
soft Permo-Carboniferous strata a broad valley, which may
have been comparable in width with that of the present
day. At this time the present Jacob’s Hills and Winder’s
Hill were beneath the floor of that valley, being covered
by the softer top layers of Kuttung rocks, and even
possibly by the basal Permo-Carboniferous strata. At all
events the river in its meanderings over its valley-floor
followed substantially its present serpentine course, but
among stratigraphically higher rocks. Although at this
time the differences in hardness of the rocks had not
revealed themselves, the level valley-floor was really under-
lain by a very heterogeneous series of strata, partly of
soft Permo-Carboniferous shales, sandstones, etec., partly
of hard Kuttung conglomerates, tuffs and lavas, and the
present river may therefore in some degree be regarded
as a superimposed stream.

A further uplift of over 500 feet caused the meandering
stream to become entrenched, but whereas elsewhere it was
soon able to bring its new valley to a state of maturity, in

272 W. R. BROWNE.

the Gosforth region its downward cutting exposed the
hard Kuttung rocks below, the erosion of which could not
keep pace with that of the softer rocks elsewhere.

Nevertheless, mature dissection of the Kuttung rocks
was accomplished, and fairly extensive flood-plains were
accumulated during Pleistocene times.

A series of subsequent small uplifts again entrenched
the river, as indicated by the alluvial terraces, relics of
the former flood-plains, which are found up to a maximum
elevation of 120 feet above the present stream-level. The
first of these minor uplifts was probably the greatest,
causing the river to cut down through its gravelly alluvium
and into bed-rock once more: much silt was thereafter
accumulated, which during subsequent small uplifts was
cut into successive terraces by the river, and these are
now being very slowly dissected by gullies.

Consideration of the fact that at Gosforth the Hunter
has become entrenched against the northern wall of its
valley, and has been a fixture in its present course while
cutting through a vertical distance of over 600 feet,
prompts the reflection that the great expanse of what is
known as the Hunter valley—some 16 or 18 miles wide—
between Hudson’s Peak and the Broken Back Range, has
been cut down to its present level, not by the Hunter itself
but by its minor tributaries, such as Black Creek, Swamp
Creek and others. However much the main stream may
have wandered elsewhere over its broad valley-floor before
the uplift which entrenched it, once it started to cut down
into the harder Carboniferous rocks about Gosforth and
Hillsborough, its wanderings were over so far as that
part of its course was concerned, and the flat country to
the south, which is now 400 or 500 feet below Winder’s
Hill and Jacob’s Hills, must owe its inferior elevation to

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 273

the activity of the smaller tributary-streams which inter-.
sect it.

Of the local tributaries to the Hunter a number have
their courses across the strike of the hard voleanic rocks.
The most important of these is Lamb’s Creek, flowing
south in a valley which is broad and typically mature
where it is carved out of the tuffs and conglomerates of
the glacial stage, but contracts very considerably
downstream where the creek encounters the harder lavas
of the voleanic stage. Indeed from a distance the outlet
of the valley to the south appears to be blocked by hills
and the open valley seems to swing round to the south-
east, but this is really the valley of a subsequent tributary
which has sought out the junction between volcanic and
glacial stages and as a result joins the parent stream with
a marked boat-hook bend.

Lamb’s Creek is a very obvious misfit, and must formerly
have been quite an imposing stream before a dwindling
rainfall caused it to shrink to its present insignificant
proportions. The cross-section of the valley above the
bridge is very strikingly U-shaped, this being due to the
presence of the layer of hard toscanite and conglomerate
capping the plateau, underlain by the softer strata of the
lower part of the glacial stage.

Another locally-important tributary of the Hunter is
Kilfoyle’s Creek, which, draining the country west and
north of Drinan’s Mount, cuts obliquely across the volcanic
rocks and, emerging from them to the north of Hudson’s
Peak, flows westward parallel to the road, being joined
on the way by a number of small subsequent tributaries
from the south, and finally enters Lamb’s Creek near its
Junction with the Hunter. eal
. The course of Kilfoyle’s Creek is very evidently deter-
,mined partly by the Kilfoyle’s Creek fault, and partly

R—November 38, 1926

274 W. R. BROWNE.

too, near its mouth, by the Lachnagar fault, which is res-
ponsible for the curious boat-hook bend or barbed junction
which the creek makes with the Hunter: the courses of
the creek and the Hunter River are practically collinear,
the one flowing from the east, the other from the west.

Whether Lamb’s Creek flows along a line of weakness I
cannot say with certainty ; if its course has not been deter-
mined by a fault, then it probably illustrates the tendency
for maximum river-erosion to take place along the crest
of an anticline.

The two creeks just mentioned have in places ceased from
vertical cutting and have aggraded their valley-floors with
fine-textured, fertile alluvium.

Among the smaller streams there are numerous examples
of adjustment to geologica] structures. Genvrally the
course of the stream hes along a relatively soft horizon:
Eelah Creek is a case in point, marking as it does the
junction between Kuttung beds and Lochinvar shale. But
fault-planes have likewise been eroded into creek-beds, and
it is quite possible that some of the little steeply-graded
gullies which cut through the lavas may mark the courses
of small faults or joint-planes.

The dissection of the succession of dipping beds of
varying hardness by an abundance of small subsequent
streams has resulted in the formation of many dip-ridges
or cuestas and valley-divides. Hudson’s Peak and the
Jacob’s Hills ridge are typical of the former, while of
the latter the low saddle between Hudson’s Peak and
Drinan’s Mount and the depression behind Drinan’s
Mount are only two out of very many examples.

Very fine views displaying the broad features of the
physiography are to be seen from the various eminences
in the district. From Hudson’s Peak and South Jacob’s

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 275

Hill, for example, to the north-west one may note the
high Kuttung hills of the Stanhope area, truncated by
the Lachnagar fault, and giving abruptly on to the plain
eroded by the Hunter right up to the fault-plane. In
contrast to this, from an eminence behind Drinan’s Mount
one may look over to the east towards Seaham and observe
that the Kuttung highlands are lower than at Drinan’s,
emphasising the eastward tilt of the land, and that the
slope by which they merge into the broad valley is a
gentle one, being due not to any dislocation, but to the
southerly pitch of the folded Kuttung strata carrying
them under the Permo-Carboniferous sediments in which
the river-valley has been cut.

The most casual inspection and the most detailed exami-
nation of the physiography of this region alike impress
one with the very close dependence of surface-features
on geological structures, and it would be difficult indeed
to find an area where this great truth is more strikingly
and convincingly demonstrated.

One minor but interesting physiographic feature calls
for mention. At Gosforth itself and along the Maitland
road may be seen a number of elongated lagoons, more or
less permanent, some 20 or 25 feet above the river-level:
these sheets of water occur in the fiat alluviated lower
portions of creek-valleys, and are separated effectually from
the river by alluvial barriers breached in places by outlet
gullies. It is considered that these lagoons have been
formed by the creeks gradually damming themselves in
the course of time. These have their greatest flow, indeed
practically their only flow, during flood-rains, which is
just the time when the river is highest, and so the current
of the tributary creek is slackened and deposition of the
transported silt occurs, well back from the normal river-
channel. Thus a silt-bank is gradually built up, which

_ 276 _ W. RB. BROWNE.

forms a dam to the creek, the base-level of erosion of which
is to all intents the flood-level of the river. The silt-bank
deposited during a high flood would be breached by the
ereek during a subsequent flood of smaller dimensions.

Another minor phenomenon of frequent occurrence is
that of a type of sub-surface drainage. On the gentle
slopes near creeks there are to be seen holes, up to about
a foot in diameter, opening into underground tunnels
which lead down towards the creek-beds. In times of
heavy rain these tunnels are water-channels and at the
lower end of them sometimes the water may be seen spout-
ing through a small vertical aperture owing to the
hydraulic pressure behind it.

These tunnels are excavated in the subsoil, between the
solid rock underneath and the soil on top, and when
erosion has enlarged them sufficiently the roof collapses
and an ordinary open gully ensues.

Aurousseau'3 has described a’ very similar phenomenon
occurring along the Darling Range in Western Australia,
and he attributes it to cracks forming during the hot, dry
summer in the subsoil but not in the soil. During the wet
season these cracks form channels for the water and are
gradually enlarged into tunnels.

The same explanation very possibly applies in the
present case, but it seems not unlikely that the tunnels.
may also commence in rabbit-burrows and in the holes
left by rotting tree-roots. The whole phenomenon is.
ultimately related to the existence of a stiff fine-grained
compact soil overlying a much less compacted subsoil, with
the solid rock, the downward limit of percolation, not
more than a couple of feet or so beneath.

i 3

9

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOSFORTH DISTRICT. 277

REFERENCES.

1Sussmitcu AND Davin: This Journal, 1919, 53, 246.

2QszorNE: Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1922, 47, 161.

3 Davin: Geology of the Hunter River Coal Measures, Mem.
Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 1907, No. 4.

3a Idem: p. 288: 3b pp. 282 and 334; 3c pp. 207, 2382, 281, etc:
3d pp. 838 and 339.

4 OsBoRNE AND BROWNE: Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1921, 46, 259.

5 BROWNE AND Dun: This Journal, 1924, 58, 198.

6 AnprEws: This Journal, 1910, 44, 420.

7 OsBoRNE: This Journal, 1921, 45, 124.

8CaRNE AND Morrison: Ann. Rept. Dept. of Mines, N.S.W.,
1914, 194.

8a Davip: B.A.A.S., N.S.W. Handbook, 1914, Chap. VI, 570.

9 Browne: This Journal, 1924, 58, 128.

Io CarNE: Western Coalfield, Mem. Geol. Surv., N.S.W., No. 6,
55.

11 BROWNE AND WALKoM: This Journal, 1911, 44, 379.

12 Taytor: Correlation of Contour, Climate and Coal. Proc.
Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1906, 31.

13 AUROUSSEAU: Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1919, 44, 826.

Ze G. H. KNIBBS.

NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF TRIPLETS
AMONG MULTIPLE BIRTHS.

By Sir GrorcEe H. Knipps, C.M.G., M.LI. de Stat., Hon.
F.R.S.S., Hon. M.A.S.A., Hon. M.S.S. Hung., ete.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Nov. 3, 1926.)

In the Journal of this Society I gave an analysis of
Multiple Births (this Journ. 1925, 59, 128) and in this
the solution for triplets was founded on the assumption,
therein indicated, that triplets were never produced from
a single ovum. Professor Corrado Gini, of the University
of Rome, writing to me 20th August, 1926, says :—

“A mon avis lanalyse que vous faites a pages 183 et
136 n’est pas exacte. Le défaut provient du fait que vous.
admettre que les accouchements triples peuvent provenir
seulement de deux ou de trois cufs. Au contraire il est
bien certain qu’il y a aussi des accouchements triples qui.
proviennent d’un ceuf seulement. Cela, malheureusement,.
empéche de suivre la methode, d’ailleurs extrémement.
ingénieuse, que vous avez adopté.”

The question being of interest and importance, I
submitted my reasons for the assumption to Professor
W. E. Agar, F.p.s., of the University of Melbourne.
From him I learn that the division into multiple embryos
is now known to take place at a comparatively late stage
of development, and is not a case of the separating of
the 2, 4, 8, ete., cells of the first few divisions as was.
once believed and as I had assumed. When a single ovum
has developed as far as the blastocyst stage, the flat plate
of cells, normally giving rise to a single embryo, produces
a number radiating from the centre. Thus there appears
to be no valid reason for assuming that a like process

- OCCURRENCE OF TRIPLETS AMONG MULTIPLE BIRTHS. 279

does not occur in the human being, i.e., one similar to
the case with the armadillo, one species of which regularly
gives birth at one time to 6-9 young, all of the same sex
and all enclosed in one chorion. The finding of several
foetuses in one chorion, however, is not in itself decisive,
Prof. Agar points out, since it is sometimes found, for
example as in the ease of cattle, that two chorions may
fuse. With cattle, twins are usually enclosed in a common
chorion, for though the chorions start separately, they
fuse later.

Taking the same data for triplets as given on page 132
of the paper quoted, we have the following cases :—

MMM MMF MEF FFF Total
343 390 399 361 1489

We have immediately masculinity over all :—
— 0.0132 or 1 in 75.7
MMM-and FFE .... —0.0256 or 1. in 39.1
MMF and MFF .... —0.0021 or 1 in 471.0

Treating the masculinities as possibly differing in the
several cases, and adopting the principles of solution
indicated in my former paper, we have, by simple
enumeration, for the several cases the following results,
assuming only that the masculinity is symmetrically
distributed :—

Ova Cases MMM MMF MEF | Slee lie!)

I Die rele E ip) —— ee z(1— ,)
2 ogy clory) yl re) yin) yoy)
3 Beaemon (lta A) ox( das) 3x Cl = 6) (1 =)

Thus the unknowns are x, y, and z, and x, A, p, v, and €;
the totals being from one ovum, 2z cases; from two ova,
4y cases; and from three ova, 8x cases. Distributed
according to the sex-numbers these are :—

280 G. H. KNIBBS.

(1) 202 MEME, |= oxatay ha sh yy a
(2) 000) MMRY = oxy SP oxerye. = B
(3)..... MEF = 3xty (—38xé—yxr = C
(4) .... PRE = xtytz —x\A-yy- gm =D

the values of the data in the case under review being
A = 343; B = 390; C = 395; D = 361. The symmetry
of the expressions is consistent with their legitimacy.
From these, taking (1) and (4), and then (2) and (3),
one sees that
(5) Triovular cases = 8x = 42 + 2( B+ C) — 20 DD
(6) Diovular cases = 4y =—6z273(A TD) — (BTC)
(7) Uniovular cases = 2z = —8x—4y tAT+BtC+D;
from which, however, no solutions are possible for the
values of x, y and z, since the equations are not
independent.

If we assume that A = » = v, which the table for 1, 2 and
3 ova indicates as extremely probable, then from (1) and
(4) we have
(BF). ie sore oppo A x ae acai)
Again, if we assume that x = &€ we have similarly from (2)
and (3),
(9). 22)... k= CB = ©) / Cx Ty),
Further, if it could properly be assumed that « = p», then
it would follow from (8) and (9) that
(GOD ES RAR Osi’ DV Carat alae 74) == (Ba C)/ (ex tay
It has to be noted, however, that these assumptions are
invalidated by the figures themselves. Thus, assuming
that 1 = =v and also that « = & we have from (1) and
(4) by division, and from (2) and (38) by division,
respectively,
C11). Lp = AD) 7) Ae

in the example —18 — 704 = — 0.0256

OCCURRENCE OF TRIPLETS AMONG MULTIPLE BIRTHS. 281

Mijn. x = (B-O)V(BrC);
in the example —5 — 785 = —0.0064

If these values for » and « be adopted as probable, we
still cannot find the values of x, y, and z, though their
sum is 352.0, and that of 3x and y is 392.5, which gives

(13) .... 2x—z = 40.5, and 2y + 3z = 663.5.

This is, of course, the same as (9). If we assign an
arbitrary value to z, then the values of x and y are deter-
minable, but not otherwise.

It would appear therefore that practically an analysis
of the case of triplets into uniovular, diovular and triovular
cases is impossible: if must be a matter of observation.

It is not without interest to assign values to z, and then
to note the consequence. The following table illustrates it.
“Value of z 0 z Liveeke OR Sie teOees LOO SLs 0UK.s

38 ova 8x 162 1649 W166. oe 2U2e ese sae Ole 1 eOOls
2 ova DVM Oes, loZl aw cOlaetOUa odnte bakes. o le torn
1 ovum 22 0 . Di tne Ze aA! ace cOUw ae. 200.

The case for z= 0 was that given in the former paper,
see p. 1386. The masculinities » and « will both be minus,
viz., A, wp, or v = —0.0256 and « or € = — 0.0127, and this
would apply whatever value was assigned to z.

To return to (10) based upon the assumption that
k = ww: we should then have from (8) and (9),

(14) .... 2 = 98x + 2.6y.

By substituting this value in the sum of (1) and (4), and
also in the sum of (2) and (8) the two equations give
-y = 200.25 or 4y = 801. This would fit in the preceding
table with z = 87.5, that is with the assumption that, in
say 175 cases in 1489, triplets were formed from a single
ovum. There is, I submit, however, no sufficient reason
to regard it as probable.

282 G. H. KNIBBS.

If we find the mean value of (17 ,)/(1—,») from (1)
and (2) taken with (3) and (4), it is 0.9696; that is to
say » = —0.0154. Eliminating the masculinity term from
(1) and (4), we get

A’ = 348.36; B= 396.10: C = 389.003.) aaraue
the accented letters denoting the values of A to D so
corrected. A’ should then be equal to D’, and B’ equal
to C’. The above figures give a numerical idea of how
far the assumption is from being a satisfactory one. If
it be admissible at all, A’ and D’ may be taken as 351.94
and B’ and C’ as 392.56, the total being 1489 as before.
Then we have

x+y +z = 351.94 and 3x Ty = 392:06

2y + 3z = 663.26 and 2x —z = 40.62.
The preceding table, based upon assumed values of gz,
would then become as follows :—

Value of z 0 0.5 a 10 87.9
S ova 162.48: 16448" (166457 202.48... .512.48
2 ova 1326.52 1323.52 1320.52 ~...1266,52 Sei ae
1 ovum 0 iI 2 20 175

These results, if expressed to the nearest whole number,
are the same as before, and the values for z= 87.5 (to
the nearest unit) are the same. Nevertheless they do not,
I think, afford any sufficient warrant for believing that
as many as 175 cases of triplets are produced from a single
ovum in a total of 1489.

It is worthy of remark that the femininity is véry high
in these cases of triplets.

GEOLOGY OF THE FLINDERS RANGE. 283:

THE GEOLOGY OF THE FLINDERS ‘RANGE,
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF WOOLTANA STATION.

By W. G. WOOLNOUGH, D.Sc., F.G.S.,

Honorary Lecturer in Geology, University of Sydney.
(With Plate XXL.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 1, 1926.)

Wocltana Station is situated at the foot of the imposing
eastern escarpment of the Flinders Range, in Latitude
304 degrees South, Longtitude 1394 degrees East. For
some distance to the south, and for over forty miles to the
north, the range has an almost precipitous face, strikingly
linear in direction, and running about N.N.E. and 8.8.W.
Along the foot of the range there runs a narrow shelf of.
foothills, composed, in part at least, of a high level terrace
formed during a former high-water period in the history
of the ancestral lake dwarfed, descendants of which are
now represented by the shallow salt “‘lakes’’, of which
Lakes Frome and Callabonna are the nearest. The origin:
and structure of this terrace feature will be considered in
detail in a later communication.

Wooltana Homestead is situated on this shelf, and looks:
out eastwards over extensive salt-bush plains falling very

gradually and uniformly to the shores of Lake Frome, 20)
miles distant.

The continuity of the escarpment is unbroken for a dis-
tanee of 40 miles to the north, where, at Moolawatana
Station, it suddenly breaks off as the result of profound
disturbance of the geological structure. Twelve miles south

284 W. G. WOOLNOUGH.

of Wooltana, in the neighbourhood of Baleanoona Station,
the continuity of the scarp is interrupted by a deep
embayment, which, for convenience, may be referred to as
the Baleanoona Embayment. This stretches westwards for
about six miles to the mouth of Italowie Gorge, a most
imposing scenic feature, whence the drainage of a large
mountainous area to the west issues through a narrow defile.

In the immediate neighbourhood of Wooltana the range,
for a distance of several miles is actually a steep, narrow
rampart of hills, rising to heights of upwards of 1000 feet
above the plains to the east. This rampart may be termed
the Nepouie Rampart, from the name of the extremely
sharp peak which is its most conspicuous feature. Behind
this rampart, and extending for at least 15 miles from
north to south, and for at least three or four miles from
east to west, is a low, comparatively smooth valley which
may be referred to as the Mulyallina Valley. As will be
seen later, the Nepouie Rampart is due to the very strong
development of the Sturtian Glacial Beds, while the Mul-
yallina Valley has been caused by a wide extension of very
weak, friable argillaceous rocks belonging to the Tapley’s
Hill Slates, and to the overlying Brighton Beds. Such
a combination of land forms is not at all common in the
Flinders Range, which is essentially a well-dissected up-
lifted peneplain.

The linear escarpment of the eastern side of the Flinders
Range is undoubtedly due to a very heavy fault throwing
in the direction of the lacustrine trough to the east. The
almost equally striking feature caused by the western
escarpment of the Nepouie Rampart is entirely due to
differential weathering.

The chief elements in the geological structure of the area
may be summarised as follows :—

GEOLOGY OF THE FLINDERS RANGE. 285»

Lacustrine saliferous loams Recent.

Older lacustrine, fluviatile and Probably Pleistocene.

aeolian deposits .
Silicified Hill—eappings (very Winton Beds (Miocene?);
limited in distribution)

Moolawatana Glacials (?) Upper Cretaceous.

Scale =
GEQLOGICAL SKET
MAP OF WOOLTANA

L~= ICainozoic and Mesozoic.
[-=]Supra-Brighton Beds
Brighton Limestones
E—_JBrighton Shales, etc.
E=Tapleys Hill Slates,
L& JSturtian Glacials.
[<= ]Woolfana Volcanics. 2
PS2"]Sub-glacial Sediments. dNepoue Peak

Figure 1.—General geological sketch map of part of the
Flinders Ranges, South Australia, in the neighbourhood
of Wooltana Station.

286 W. G. WOOLNOUGH.

Brighton Beds (shales, dolo-

mites and (?) desert beds) |
Tapley’s Hill Slates | Proterozoic.
Sturtian Glacial Beds f

Voleanic Series |

Sub-elacial Sediments

The Archaeozoic gneisses and schists with their copper
-and radium deposits, which are very strongly developed
a very short distance to the north, and which constitute
almost the whole of the north-eastern portion of the range,
are not met with in the actual area considered. Mount
Painter, the chief centre _of the.radium mining, isonly

some 16 miles north of Wooltana.

Sub-Glacial Sediments.

The oldest rocks seen are not at the actual base of the
Proterozoic Group, but disappear beneath the lacustrine
beds of the foothills and plains. No doubt the basal beds,
resting upon the erystalline schists of the Archaeozoic
formation will be found later between Wooltana and Mount
Painter.

The lowest rocks in the sequence, within the limits in-
vestigated, are those occurring near the mouth of a deep
gully about 600 yards north of the Homestead. At this
point there is a steep bank showing a regular succession
of sediments, dipping in a westerly direction at about
20 degrees. They consist of sandy calcareous beds with
thin purplish sandstones and shales. The sandstones are
beautifully ripple-marked.

Following the section up the gully the higher beds are
found to be gently folded. Whilst most of the dips are in
a general westerly direction, inclinations to the east of as
much as 15 degrees are encountered.

Interbedded amongst the clastic sediments, and becoming
progressively more and more abundant in the upper parts

GEOLOGY OF THE FLINDERS RANGE, 287

of the section, are bands of cream-coloured to white, dense
to crystalline dolomite. These dolomites attain their max-
imum development in the gully to the north of that referred
to above, at a point about 1300 yards N.W. by W. of the
Homestead. It is probable that they become even more
strongly marked still further to the north.

Moolawatana
‘Glacial Beds ?

Homestead
(0)

Shearing
Shed

OO
4-00
500

Scale. Yards eee as

Figure 2.—Detailed map showing the distribution of
geological features in the immediate neighbourhood of
Wooltana Homestead, Flinders Ranges, South Australia.

Numbers in brackets, thus (750), indicate heights, in feet,
-above the homestead.

288 W. G. WOOLNOUGH.

Another very solid outcrop of similar dolomite occurs.

immediately to the south of the Homestead. Between
these two points the continuity of the sub-glacial sediments.
is interrupted by the intercalation of the volcanic series
(described below). While this vuleanicity may account
for the great irregularity in the development of the dolo-
mites, there is a very strong suggestion that, independent

of such interference, the latter formed small isolated reef

patches upon a shallow sandy bottom.

At a point 900 yards N.W. of the Homestead there is a
spur capped by intensely hard conglomerate a few feet
thick, overlain conformably by thin argillaceous limestones
which are separated by thin bands of ripple-marked sandy
shales. Both conglomerate and limestone are strongly
silicified. In the limestone the action is not uniform; but
spreads irregularly from numerous centres. In compari-
son with the glacial conglomerate (see below) this con-
glomerate possesses very highly distinctive characters. It
is very strongly indurated, and, in fracturing, it breaks
indifferently across matrix and pebbles. The latter include
a large number of red jasper fragments, but there is a very
conspicuous absence of quartz porphyries of the Gawler
Range type.

At the locality under consideration, this conglomerate,
with its associated limestones and shales, immediately un-
derlies the Sturtian Glacial Beds. Further to the north
similar conglomerates are much more strongly developed,
and are separated from the glacial beds by a thickness of
not less than 200 to 300 feet of dolomite (see above). This
rapid variation in the thickness and disposition of in-
dividual beds produces a complicated lenticular structure,
demanding far more detailed field investigation for its
complete elucidation than I was in a position to carry out.
It is obvious that conditions of deposition were in a ‘state

=

GEOLOGY OF THE FLINDERS RANGE. 289:

of rapid flux, and that the geographical environment was
markedly unstable.

Just below the conglomerate there is a very curious
quartz intrusion. This is not a regular reef, but is in the
form of an isolated knot of reef-quartz associated with car-
bonates. Its ground plan is like a figure 8, the long axis,
about 60 feet lying north and south. The shorter diameter
is about 18 feet. Around the main mass are several small

Geological Section from Ammonia Mine to Wooltana, S.A
W.N.W. 2 ESE

[~= Lainozoie and Mesozoic Brichton 5 Shales, efc. Sua Volcanics
[-Supra-Brighton Beds E=Tapleys Hill Slates [22 fSubglacial Sediments

E54 Brighton Limestones| & [Sturtian Glacials [EF larcheozoic
Scale vertical and horizontal. 2... 29° Feet.

Figure 3.—Geological section across the escarpment of
the Flinders Ranges, at Wooltana, South Australia.

satellites of similar material. From the marked similarity

in mineral composition between this and the central portion
of the dyke described below it is almost certain that this

knot of quartz was produced during a late stage of the
volcanic activity.

Immediately to the west of the Homestead, the lower
beds of the sub-glacial series are replaced by lavas and
tuffs; but, as the eruption waned in intensity, normal sedi-

mentation was resumed, and the tuffaceous strata, im-
S—December 1, 1926.

2990 W. G. WOOLNOUGH.

mediately underlying the Sturtian Glacials, exhibit local
development of dolomites.

Volcanic Series.

Voleanic rocks so old as Proterozoic are not very common
in Australia, and when the structure is clearly that of a
small local centre of eruption the feature possesses particu-
lar interest.

The voleanic rocks occupy an elliptical area, ap-
proximately 1200 yards long by 400 yards wide, im-
mediately behind (west of) the Homestead. The lateral
measurement given is somewhat arbitrary, since the grada-
tion from volcanic deposits to normal marine sediments is
very gradual. The long axis of the exposure trends about
E.N.E. and W.S.W. It is completely surrounded by sedi-
ments of the sub-glacial stage except on the east, where the
latter are thinly covered by the lake-terrace material. In
the gullies bounding the spur upon which the Homestead
stands the sub-glacial sediments are clearly visible.

Three hundred and fifty yards W.N.W. of the house
there is a conspicuous rocky knoll composed of lavas and
tuffs, intersected by a complex of dykes. The general
aspect of the lavas under the microscope is spilitic; but
they are considerably altered. One, casually examined in
hand-specimen, appears to be an amygdaloidal rock, with
steam holes filled with stilbite. (Plate XXII, Fig.1.) Under
the microscope, however, the ‘‘amygdules’’ are found to be
actually xenoliths of orthoclase and quartz, fragments of
a fairly coarse-textured orthoclase pegmatite. These
xenoliths are very strongly corroded by the magma, deeply
embayed, and surrounded by dense and dark-coloured
reaction rims.

The declivity to the west of the knoll is formed of
purplish tuffaceous beds, with occasional bombs (?).

GEOLOGY OF THE FLINDERS RANGE. 291

‘Similar purple tuffs are met with to the south-west of the
knoll. They are mostly fine in texture, dip gently and
uniformly in a westerly direction, and contain scattered
boulders of rock, similar in general characteristics to the
lavas of the voleano occurring im situ. The fine textured
rocks are certainly tuffs; and some, at least, of the boulders
are strongly suggestive of voleanic bombs. The possibility
of some of them being glacially rafted errati¢s must be
borne in mind.

Interstratified with the fine tuffs are bands of coarser
lapilli. Towards the south, lapilli and ash become more
and more interstratified with thin dolomite bands, until,
at a point some 450 yards south-west of the Homestead,
we meet with massive reefs of this material, building up
the bulk of the hill at this point.

Seven hundred and fifty yards W.S.W. of the Home-
stead the tuffaceous shales, with scattered rounded boulders
up to eight inches in diameter, rest upon a very coarse con-
glomerate, which, in turn, is underlain by the dolomitic
marine sediments. Here, the voleanic rocks dip in a north-
westerly direction at low angles, and contain bands of
heavy, fine-grained material, strongly epidotised.

Eight hundred yards from the house, on a bearing of
245° (magnetic), there is a very interesting section. At
this point is seen the sudden termination of an amygda-
loidal lava flow. It seems certain that this was a submarine
flow, on account of its very confused interbedding with
the associated tuffs, and the very strong suggestion of pillow
structure which it exhibits. The spilitic aspect of the rock
under the microscope bears this out. The ‘‘pillows’’ are
finer in texture towards their peripheries and coarser
towards their centres, and are internally fractured in
radial directions.

292 W. G. WOOLNOUGH.

Still further to the south-west, about 1000 yards from:
the Homestead, and 200 yards east of the Trigonometrical
Survey Point, beds of vesicular melaphyre, associated.
with incoherent greyish tuffs containing vesicular bombs,.
dip at moderate angles towards the north-west. This series
is traversed by a nearly vertical dyke, some ten feet wide,
of dark amygdaloidal melaphyre, with chloritic amygdules.
The central core of this dyke is occupied by a sheeted vein
of calcite and quartz, containing abundant copper carbon-
ate and micaceous haematite (compare the quartz knot
described above, page 289).

Passing upwards, the character of the rock alters some-
what rapidly. While still notably tuffaceous, the propor-
tion of material of volcanic origin decreases, and that of
ordinary sediment increases, until, at the Trig. Station, the
formation consists of very massive flesh-coloured to choco-
late-brown tuffaceous cherts. These are superficially
stained, sometimes very strongly, with black manganese
oxide, and contain sporadic, well-rounded pebbles of pinkish
quartzite up to six inches diameter.

In the neighbourhood of the Trig. Station there is no
recurrence of dolomite formation between the top of the
volcanic phase and the base of the glacial beds, such as
occurs a little further towards the north. The investiga-
tion could not be carried further south than the Trig.
Station on this side of the range, so that the southern
limits of the voleano cannot be drawn with certainty.

From the above description it will appear that the vol-
canic action was merely an episode in the deposition of the
sub-glacial sediments. Downwards, upwards and laterally
the fragmental voleanic material grades into the normal
sediment; the gradation, as we might expect, being much
more insensible upwards than downwards. None of the

GEOLOGY OF THE FLINDERS RANGE. 293

facts recorded are incompatible with the supposition that
the eruption was mainly submarine, or at all events, sub-
aqueous. Locally it interrupted the growth of the dolomite
reefs; but these probably continued to form freely away
from the actual centre of eruption. Reef building con-
ditions continued to exist throughout the whole of the vol-
caniec period, and re-asserted themselves whenever and
wherever the opportunity presented itself. Taken in con-
junction with the evidences of shallow water conditions
amongst the sediments, the occurrence of strong conglomer-
_ates associated with the tuffs to the south-west of the Home-
stead suggests occasional and local emergence of the sea
bottom and parts of the volcanic cone above sea level.

Sturtian Glacial Beds.

Much of the most conspicuous and outstanding geological
feature of the area is the enormous development of the
Sturtian Glacial Beds. These rocks form the main back-
‘bone of the Nepouie Rampart, and of the main portion
‘of the range for some distance to the north.

Within the area affected by the volcano it is very diffi-
cult to ascertain at exactly what horizon the glaciation
‘commenced. Scattered boulders of large size are quite
frequent throughout a considerable thickness of beds; but
it would take much more prolonged and exhaustive ex-
amination than I was in a position to give before it would
be possible to distinguish with certainty which of these
are glacial erratics, and which are voleanic bombs.

Throughout the whole of what have been called above
the ‘‘sub-glacial sediments,’’ occasional intensely rounded
pebbles hke cricket balls, about 3 inches in diameter, scat-
tered through the finer sediment, indicate some rather
-abnormal means of transportation. The pebbles must have
been ‘“‘rafted’’ in, and not simply brought by ordinary

294 W. G. WOOLNOUGH.

water currents. Owing to the great age of the formation,
floating timber is excluded as a possible means of trans-
port. Since ice was undoubtedly active at a somewhat
later stage, it seems not unreasonable to invoke its aid in
explaining the presence of such erratic boulders.

Immediately above the conglomerate 900 yards north-
west of the Homestead (see above, page 288), the results of
ice-rafting on a considerable scale are clearly discernible.
A little to the north, embedded in a dense grey quartzite,
there are the remains of an enormous erratic of white vit-
reous quartzite. While it is now much shattered by insola-
tion, it must originally have measured not less than
9 feet in diameter. The grey quartzite, which is extremely
local in development, rests upon a thin breccia composed
of siliceous limestone. On the hill immediately to the south
(where the silicified conglomerate and limestone are:
typically developed), this breccia bed is strongly in
evidence, and is followed by a sandstone in which quartzite
erratics up to 3 feet 6 inches long are abundant. With
these quartzite fragments a piece of porphyry 8 inches in
diameter of the Gawler Range type was found. As has
been pointed out above, this highly characteristic rock type
is conspicuous by its absence from the subjacent siliceous.
conglomerate.

Whatever may be the origin of the sporadic ‘‘cricket
ball’’ boulders in the lower sediments, this brecciated bed
may be taken to mark the onset of the intense phase of the
Sturtian glaciation at this point. In this earliest stage the:
deposits seem to have been produced by floating ice; but:
the main body of the Sturtian Glacials were certainly due:
to land ice. Apparently the water remained somewhat
deeper in the neighbourhood of the Trig. Station, further
to the south, for the passage from the tuffaceous sediments,
with occasional boulders, to the normal boulder clay is.

GEOLOGY OF THE FLINDERS RANGE. 295

much more gradual at that point; and there does not seem
to be any development of the siliceous conglomerate and
limestone, nor of the breccia.

Once fairly inaugurated, the giaciation became very in-
tense, and thoroughly typical boulder clay was built up
to a thickness of not less than 600 feet. The main range
exhibits a precipitous face of this height, in which the
enormous erraties, embedded in the familiar type of matrix
can readily be seen with the naked eye, even from
considerable distances.

No systematic census of rock types represented amongst
the erratics could be attempted. Much the most abundant
material is quartzite, followed by granites, gneisses and
schists, and by very frequent examples of the handsome
quartz porphyries of the Gawler Range type. The largest
erratic actually measured was the white quartzite boulder
(9 feet diameter) referred to above; but others of still
larger dimensions ean be seen in the cliff face.

The great majority of the erraties are well rounded and
waterworn. Even many of these, however, show very
distinct faceting. Such individuals were probably origin-
ally well striated, but have had all traces of the scratching
worn off by subsequent fluviatile action. There are very
numerous exceptions to the rule of perfect rounding, and
perfectly angular boulders are met with frequently. So
very decidedly glacial is the general aspect of the formation
that quite a considerable time was spent in searching for
definitely striated stones. This search was amply rewarded,
and many beautiful examples were picked up, notably on a
steep spur about 900 yards W.N.W. of the Homestead.
(Biate X XT], Fig. 2.)

The groundmass (Plate XXII, Fig. 3).is a highly typical
glacial tillite of reddish-chocolate colour, in which fine-

296 W. G. WOOLNOUGH.

grained rock-flour is intimately mingled with angular chips
of the most diverse rock types.

No competent geologist could feel a moment’s hesitation
in insisting most emphatically upon the glacial origin of
the formation.

No very accurate estimate of the thickness of the Sturtian
Glacials at Wooltana is yet possible. The detailed mapping
was limited to the immediate vicinity of the Homestead,
and to that of the ‘‘Ammonia Mine”’ to the west of the
Mulyallina Valley. The intervening areas were traversed
several times rather rapidly, and fully detailed measure-
ments were not taken. The vertical thickness of the beds,
as seen in the precipitous faces of the range just behind
the Homestead, is about 600 feet, and the formation cer-,
tainly continues some distance towards the valley to the
west.

The track to the ‘‘Ammonia Mine’’ traverses the
Nepouie Rampart along the actual bed of Mulyallina Creek,
which emerges from the Valley through a deep, narrow
gorge. At the mouth of the gorge the Sturtian Glacials
are covered by creek deposits and lacustrine beds, so that
there is a hiatus, of unknown dimensions, in the section
at this point. The beds dip upstream at angles of 20
degrees, or a little more, and are seen for a third of a
mile (cyclometer reading), so that their vertical thickness
is not less than 500 feet. It therefore appears that the
total thickness of the glacial beds may approximate to 1000
Heel )

Tapley’s Hull Slates.

As in the type section near Adelaide, the beds of the
next succeeding stage are finely laminated, cleaved ‘‘varve’”’
rocks, the Tapley’s Hill Slates. In their lowest portion
they are rather calcareous and cherty. Being nifich cleaved

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926. Plate XXII.

. Hig.

GEOLOGY OF THE FLINDERS RANGE. 297

in directions transverse to the planes of bedding, which,
however, still constitute lines of weakness, these rocks dis-
integrate readily. This is responsible for the rapid widen-
ing of the valley up-stream. On the whole, the rocks of
this stage dip in a general westerly direction at moderate
angles. An estimate, only roughly approximate, of their
thickness, shows it to be about 1000 feet.

The passage of the Tapley’s Hill Slates to the overlying
-caleareous series is extremely gradual, and no sharp line
of demarcation can be drawn. In the upper part of the
‘Tapley’s Hill Stage, very thin, but remarkably persistent,
bands of fine textured dolomite put in an appearance. On
the treeless, and almost bare, plains of the Mulyallina
Valley these calcareous bands, even when less than an inch
wide, can be traced for long distances. They become in-
-ereasingly numerous and individually thicker until they
‘become the dominant lithological element.

Brighton Shales and Limestones.

The line between the Tapley’s Hill and the Brighton
Stages can be drawn, tentatively, at the point where the
limestones alter from thin bands to thick beds, with a
corresponding increase in the relief of the land surface.
Many of the thicker bands are very argillaceous; in fact,
there are all possible gradations between dolomitic lime-
stones and shales. The argillaceous bands are flaggy, and
yield excellent slabs for building purposes. The more
purely argillaceous rocks have a strong. tendency towards
redness, many of them being brilliantly coloured.

On the whole, the rocks of this stage are very little dis-
turbed. Minor faults and folds occur, and are seen in
plan, with diagrammatic clearness, on the bare surfaces
-of the valley floor. The average dip is towards the west at
low angles.

298 W. G. WOOLNOUGH.

The Mulyallina Valley igs some 3 to 4 miles wide from.
east to west by 12 to 15 miles long from north to south.

On the western side it is enclosed by high rugged hills of

dolomite occurring in thick beds.- Immediately below

these in the geological sequence are extremely friable

shales, the weathering of which has produced a very mature
valley feature along the western side of the main depression.
So completely have these shales been removed as a rule,
that heavy alluviation of the valley has occurred along this
line.

From stratigraphical and lithological considerations there:

is no doubt that the massive dolomites are the equivalents

of the Brighton Limestones of the Adelaide area. Their

total thickness is about 1500 feet. Within recent and sub-
recent times large solution caverns have been opened in

them, and have been tenanted by bats, marsupials and

other animals.

Purple Slate Series (?)
The reef-building conditions suggested by the develop-

ment of the massive dolomites, gave place somewhat sud-.

denly to the renewed deposition of mechanically formed
sediments. There is, however, no suggestion of unconform-

ity. The sediments consist largely of arenaceous material,
and show abundant evidence of deposition in extremely

shallow water; if, indeed, they are not of sub-aerial origin.

All the thicker bands of quartzite and sandstone are:
current-bedded, and ripple-marks and sun-cracks are
beautifully preserved. Variations in the texture of the
materials are extremely rapid, and large numbers of dis-.

rupted shale particles are embedded in the sandstones.
With some hesitation the author suggests that these

features, taken in conjunction with the prevalent red colour
of the rocks, indicate deposition in an arid basin. Much.
study of desert conditions may, however, have made him

GEOLOGY OF THE FLINDERS RANGE. 299:

too prone to assign formations to such action. It is per-
tinent, however, to call attention to the very striking simil-
arity exhibited by these rocks to those of the Keuper and
Bunter of England, to the Upper Devonian Red Beds of
New South Wales and Victoria, and the Hawkesbury Sys-
tem of New South Wales. Another formation comparable,
in many respects, is that which builds up the Stirling
Range in Western Australia.

The author was unable to extend his investigations into:
the very rugged country to the west of the ‘‘ Ammonia
Mine.’’ Cliff faces in this direction can be seen to be built
up of very uniformly bedded, and rather thinly laminated
argillaceous and arenacous material, the predominating
colour of which is grey. Some miles further to the west les.
Illinawortina ‘‘Pound,’’ one of those curious, completely
enclosed depressions of which there are several in the
Flinders Range.

Nothing is known to the author of the geological struc-
ture of the northern part of the Mulyallina Valley. The
conspicuous peak of Mount Painter can be seen at no great
distance in this direction; so that the Archaeozoic forma-
tions, with their radium and copper minerals, must ap-
proach the northern end of the valley fairly closely.

In the south, the valley is cut off from the Balecanoona
Embayment by a belt of rugged hills which preclude all
hope of finding an easy exit for the products of the valley
in this direction. These hills are composed very largely
of dolomite in thick beds, which, while somewhat folded
on a small seale, are approximately horizontal as a whole.
These can be seen very plainly from the Copley-Balcanoona
Road, and are exposed in high chff faces in the gorge of
the creek just above Baleanoona Homestead. These dolo-
mites are obviously directly continuous with those of the
‘““Ammonia Mine,’’ and are therefore referable to the
Brighton Stage.

300 W. G. WOOLNOUGH.

Cretaceous Glacial Beds.

The eastern foothills of the Flinders Range, where, if
anywhere, one would expect to find evidence of Cretaceous
Glaciation, could not be extensively examined on this ocea-
sion. At a point about half a mile north of Wooltana
Homestead there is, somewhat about the level of the house,
a boulder strewn terrace upon which the abundance,
the size, the distribution and the constitution of the rock
fragments are strongly reminiscent of those at Moolawatana,
where the glacial origin of the formation is clear. Boulders
up to 3 feet in diameter occur in profusion, and include
rock types in great variety. Many of these are distinctly
of local origin, including large fragments of the highly
characteristic siliceous conglomerate of the sub-glacial
beds. Most of the types represented are those which
contribute most liberally towards the formation of the
Sturtian Glacials immediately to the west. In absence of
evidence as to the occurrence of definite tillite, or of
associated silicified tree trunks (as at Moolawatana), and
in view of the situation of the terrace with respect to the
drainage lines of the locality, and most particularly in
view of the close proximity of the Sturtian Glacials (want-
ing at Moolawatana), correlation with the Moolawatana
Glacial bed cannot be insisted upon. Further search may
reveal the missing evidences, particularly the tillte.

The possibility must be borne in mind that the gravel
terrace may represent a beach deposit formed at the period
of highest level of the lakes. This last suggestion is not
incompatible with the somewhat meagre aneroid levelling
which has been carried out to connect the relative heights
of Moolawatana and Wooltana.

Winton Beds.
The thin siliceous capping of Winton Beds, so widely
distributed throughout Australia, which constituted the

GEOLOGY OF THE FLINDERS RANGE. o01

original ‘‘ Desert Sandstone’’ of Daintree, and which is very
conspicuous over the Mesozoic rocks 40 miles to the north-
north-east, has not been extensively noted in the area under
consideration. As pointed out above, the foothill zone, in
which they should occur, has received very little attention.
Some of the flat-topped hills about three miles north of
Wooltana, appear from the road to possess such cappings..

One very remarkable isolated outcrop was encountered
almost at the centre of the Mulyallina Valley. It occurs:
in the form of a small knoll capped by vitreous quartzite,
heavily stained and impregnated with manganese for the
most part. From its mode of occurrence it is evident that
this small outcrop is an outlier, the remnant of a once
continuous bed which originally covered at least the
southern half of the valley.

Beyond the hill barrier to the south, throughout the
whole of the Baleanoona Embayment, and thence to Wert-
aloona, the Winton Beds are strongly developed. They
will be considered at a later date, when the author hopes.
to issue a comprehensive description of the geology of the
whole area.

Late Cainozoic Deposits.

These include lacustrine beach gravels, saliferous lacus-
trine loams, river terraces and cave deposits. Those of the
first three types are negligible within the area considered ;
but some account of the cave deposits may be given.

Quite numerous caves are known in the area, but most
of them are of small dimensions. The only one examined
on this occasion was that being opened up as a source of
manurial material, and locally known as the ‘‘ Ammonia
Mine.’’ This occurs near the head of a small gully in the
massive dolomites of the Brighton Stage. It consists of
two main chambers united by a narrow opening. ‘The

302 W. G. WOOLNOUGH.

upper chamber, estimated as 60 feet long, by 40 feet wide,
and 60 feet deep, is open to the daylight. It contains a
few coarse stalactite and stalagmite formations. Quite
considerable quantities of liquefied wallaby dung are pres-
ent. This material is widespread in the caves of Australia,
and is constantly being mistaken by prospectors for bitu-
men.

At the south-eastern corner of the upper cave, a joint
rack has been somewhat enlarged by solution, and leads
downwards into a second chamber, the dimensions of which
are 80 feet by 105 feet, and some 30 feet high. This cave
is completely dark, and contains much more abundant
““formations,’’ though none of them are of striking beauty.
Close to the entrance there is a very considerable heap
of bat guano, in a dry condition, containing numerous mum-
mified remains of a large bat. Such bats are totally un-
known in the district now. The floor of the cave is covered
by a considerable thickness of pulverulent material with
admixed dolomite boulders of large size. The underlying
parts of this dusty material contain very few soluble con-
stituents; but are covered by a crust of fibrous ammonium
chloride some 6 inches in maximum thickness. In this
erust the ammonium salt is fairly pure. Its nitrogenous
portion has certainly been derived from the organic de-
posits, while the chlorine probably comes from the saline
ground waters of the arid region. The relative inacces-
sibility of the cave militates against the successful com-
mercial exploitation of these otherwise useful nitrogenous
deposits.

Summary of Conclusions.

The rocks of the Flinders Range in the immediate
vicinity of Wooltana Homestead are referable, almost ex-
clusively, to the Adelaide Series. The base of the series
is not seen within the area examined. Its lowest members

GEOLOGY OF THE FLINDERS RANGE. 303

are argillaceous and arenaceous sediments deposited in
shallow water, and passing upwards into pure dolomites
of considerable thickness.

A fact of extreme interest is the intercalation of a
‘‘nocket edition’’ of a voleano during the stage. The erup-
tion was almost certainly a submarine one, and is one of
the earliest of which we have definite information in Aus-
tralia.

Local emergence of the sea bottom above sea level oc-
curred towards the end of this stage.

A very intense phase of Sturtian glaciation followed,
the deposits of very typical boulder clay and tillite being
not less than 600 feet thick, and more probably, about
1000 feet thick. Striated erratics are comparatively abun-
dant, though the boulders suffered considerably from
fluviatile action before final deposition.

Tapley’s Hill Slates of the well-known ‘‘varve’’ aspect
succeed the boulder clays, and pass upwards, by insensible
gradations, into the equivalents of the Brighton Slates and
Limestones of the Adelaide area. Very thick and massive
dolomite reefs close this stage.

The dolomite-forming period was followed by a recur-
rence of shallow water, or, more probably, subaerial accu-
mulation. The existence of an arid climate during the
period is suggested.

It is not certain that either the Upper Cretaceous
Glacials of Moolawatana, or the Lower Tertiary Winton
Beds are represented; but possible occurrences of both are
noted.

Very interesting caves in the Brighton Limestones con-
tain relatively extensive guano deposits of animal origin,
and crusts of quite pure ammonium chloride have been
developed in association with the organic matter.

304 W. G. WOOLNOUGH.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XXII.
Rock Specimens from Wooltana, South Australia.

Fig. 1.—Pseudo-amygdaloidal spilitic lava. The
hght-coloured patches are corroded xenoliths of ortho-
clase pegmatite.

Fig, 2.—Glaciated boulder from the Sturtian Tillite
of Wooltana.

Fig. 3.—Groundmass of the Sturtian Tillite of Wool-
tana.

THE MICROPHONE AS A DETECTOR. 305

THE MICROPHONE AS A DETECTOR OF SMALL
VIBRATIONS.

By Epaar H. Booru, M.C,, B.Sc..
Lecturer in Physics, University of Sydney.
(With Plates XXIII.-XXIV.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 1, 1926.)

During the war a large number of ‘‘detectors’’ were
employed, to investigate the nature and extent of enemy
activity. These may be divided into two groups: (a)
Stethoscopes, (b) Microphones, so far as the appreciation
of mechanical earth disturbances is concerned. Besides
these were electrical ‘‘detectors’’ for earth currents, and
hot wire microphones for the detection and location of
hostile artillery.

A brief investigation of the stethoscope has been given
by the late Professor Pollock.t

This present investigation deals with the detection of
vibrations by means of microphones, so that the micro-
phone may be used to examine the nature of earth dis-
turbances either existing naturally, or artificially produced.

The microphones employed, being military instruments,
may not be described in detail. But the principles in-
volved being identical, namely a variation in pressure
between a carbon plate and carbon granules or balls due
to the movement of the system whilst an inertia mass
remains at rest relative to it, they may be compared by
means of the diagrams herewith.

J. A. Pollock, Journ. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., 1920, 54, 187.
T—December 1, 1926.

306 E. H. BOOTH.

Diagram I shows the Télégéphone, a French instrument.
It would appear to be aperiodic, the soft felt washer rest-
ing against the carbon plate assisting this. The inertia
mass is the mercury behind the mica plate; the carbon
granules lie loosely in their carbon container, which is.
mounted on a light brass strip, permitting small movements
of the inertia system. This was found to be the most
consistent and satisfactory type of instrument.

4 Se een
Re
om z/t_ Washer

a Y NV ‘Cg
/ fp , vd f/f — arbon Bloc

LAN 9
Lint PA iy Carbon Plate

is “yj Carb. Granules

Wood Pedestal

Diagram I,

Diagram II is the Siemens Capsule microphone; it is
not aperiodic, the period being that of the brass inertia
mass (carrying the carbon plate) attached to its four spring
clips.

THE MICROPHONE AS A DETECTOR. 307

Carbon Bock

curbon plole fow.
Insulated Drsc,

SIEMENS CAPSULE MICROPHONE

Diagram II.

Diagram III is the Western-Electric Detector, a torpedo
in brass and aluminium casting carrying a self-adjusting
microphone system inside. It is not aperiodic, the period
being that of the mass attached to the long brass strip.
A very sensitive type, but is not consistent, and given to
variable current transmission through the microphone, even
without intentional variation in pressure.

Diagram III.

308 E. H. BOOTH.

Diagram IV is the seismomicrophone (French Military
Type). This would not appear to be aperiodic, as the:
rubber rings supporting the brass inertia mass will have a
high period, and this will not be highly damped. Experi-
mentally, this is found to be a good instrument, at any
rate for the detection of oscillations of low frequency (less.
than 40 per second). :

U4.

g
BAY
Mar
UR
Th Z ae
ay
,
wi
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SEISMOM!ICROPHONE

Diagram IV.

The variations in current through the microphone circuit
when a potential was applied across it, were recorded by
an Hinthoven string galvanometer, and cinematograph with
the interrupter removed. The microphones were disturbed
by (a) jarring the material on which they stood (e.g.,
dropping weights on the ground, tapping the table); (b)
impressing on the tables on which they stood simple har-
monic motions of different frequencies; (c) tapping the
microphones lightly to represent a horizontal or a vertical
component.

THE MICROPHONE AS A DETECTOR. 309

Two methods of coupling the Einthoven and the micro-
phone circuit were employed—a Wheatstone network, and
a transformer. The Wheatstone network was not found
to be convenient, as with some microphones (such as the
Western-Electric) the zero position of the galvanometer
thread had to be re-established for each reading. Conse-
quently the work was all carried out with transformers,
occasional check readings being taken by the other method
to see that the type of curve, and the amplitude relation-
ship, was being correctly interpreted.

Both air and iron core transformers were used for com-
parison. To study the effect of the natural period of the
Einthoven string, or to use it as an aperiodic recorder,
observations were made both with the primary and with
the secondary of the transformers in the microphone cir-
cuit, so that the thread might be in series with a big
resistance (the secondary), or practically short circuited
through the primary. The thread originally employed was
a silvered glass. This was discarded in favour of silver,
of resistance approximately 60 ohms, and length 7 inches.

When either the primary or the secondary were in the
microphone circuit, the same potential drop across the
microphone and variable resistance was established by
‘varying the number of cells in the cireuit. The potential
was always well below that to produce ‘‘singing’’ or ‘‘fry-
ing’’ in the microphone.

If the string of the galvanometer be disturbed by a
‘single impulse, such as produced by (a) touching the strinz
carrier, (b) making or breaking an electric circuit including
the string, and the system is aperiodic, the thread should
record precisely this effect. If there is too great a resist-
ance in its circuit, it will oscillate; if it is too highly
damped, it is insensitive. Errors were made in the earlier
work of making the resistance in the Einthoven circuit so

310 E. H. BOOTH.

small that although the natural fundamental period of the
string was not apparent, the record was confused by its.
overtones.

A phonic wheel shows on the film bars corresponding
to 1-40th second interval.

The system then involves (a) the disturbance, (b) the
microphone, (c) the transformer (if employed), (d) the
Einthoven galvanometer.

Examination of Einthoven with Transformer.

This was examined with (i) loose thread, (i1) tight
thread, associated with both air and iron core transformers,
and in all cases with firstly the secondary and then the
primary in series with the Einthoven.

The first tests were of simple make and break in a
circuit in the secondary of the transformer by means of
a tapping key. It was found necessary to add up to 500)
ohms to the Einthoven circuit, otherwise it was over
damped, and overtone oscillations were set up in it.

Film I. shows a typical make, break, followed by rapid
make and break, by tapping key. (Air core.)

di :
The transformer equation here is La + Ri = 0;

R
ASS meats
The solution beingi=Ce tl

The constant C is found from the condition that when

t—(); a

Hence aed ve

This gives us the value of the current in the secondary
at any instant after the ‘‘break’’ in the primary.

This would be represented by the curve in diagram V,,
theoretically.

311

THE MICROPHONE AS A DETECTOR.

With film I. and diagram V. we may compare film ILI.,
the difference here being that the iron core transformer

Here the time length OQ is greater, M not

being so nearly equal to L.

is employed.

(The small fluctuations are undesired local effects, which

with big magnifications it was difficult to

shield. )

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It was now desired to check whether the microphones

Natur-

would record variations in energy, or amplitude.

ally, as we are dealing with an inertia mass we will record

acceleration, so, dimensionally, the apparatus should give

deflections proportional to amplitudes impressed.

This was examined both for impressed simple harmonic

motions and for impressed impulses.

SH) E. H. BOOTH.

In the former case, tuning forks of various frequencies
were attached to the microphones, or to tables on which the
microphones rested, the shadow of a bristle on the prong
of the fork being cast on to the moving film alongside
the shadow of the string, so that the fork amplitude and
string amplitude might be compared. A portion of a
typical film is illustrated. (Film III.)

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Diagram V1.

Diagram VI shows the relationship between the amphi
tude of the fork movement and the amplitude of the string
movement, for the gradually diminishing values. To save
film, in some cases the beginning of the movement was
recorded, in others the end, and in others the film was
stopped and started at intervals so as to get a reading
throughout. Once the microphone has been set in forced
vibration the amplitude of the string movement is pro-

——

Film I?

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Filn VI

Film VU?

nln 1X

Plate XXIV,

Silla
A study

of the commencement of the movements (the forks were

THE MICROPHONE AS A DETECTOR.
set in motion by burning through thread holding the prongs

displaced) shows that the instrument record agrees well
atory table being set in oscillation by a light tuning fork.

On the table rests a seismomicrophone, which is in series

with a cell, and the secondary of the air core transformer.
The primary winding was in series with the Hinthover

with the theoretical forced vibration effect, a heavy labor-

portional to the amplitude of the fork movement.

and 20 ohms extra resistance.

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BEOSGOS Ed PSOE RBEES BROS RSRNs Bes See se eee aseees

Diagram VII.
Film IV is a corresponding curve for the Télégéphone,

and diagram VII. shows the relationship between fork and
The other types of microphones were not satisfactory,

there being obvious alterations in the conditions of contact
curves are uniform in portions, then jagged as though some

between the carbon plate and granules during a run. Their

thread amplitudes in that case.

314 E. H. BOOTH.

high frequency tremor—possibly a spark?—occurred be-
tween the surfaces, and then the conditions changed. But
the Western Electric instrument is very much more sensi--
tive to movement of extremely small amplitude than any
other examined.

In the second case, a long cast iron pipe 2 inches in
diameter was employed, a microphone being clamped ‘to it
near its pivots, the pipe being suspended so as to be able
to be moved at one end through a small (4 inch) range,
horizontally. The swinging beam was damped by vanes:
dipping into treacle, and its movement was recorded by a
spot of hght reflected on to the shaded half of the
cinematograph film from a mirror at its free end. The
motion given to the beam was caused by a touch on the:
free end, causing an abrupt displacement and slower return.
of the beam (under spring control) to its position of rest,
the light curve (maximum displacement 1.5em.) approxim-
ating to that of a Rayleigh wave. This represented a:
maximum displacement of a beam tip of 2mm. and a maxi-
mum microphone displacement of 0.0lmm. Any bigger
movement resulted in a minute oscillation of the beam as an.
elastic body, so that the movement was not correctly trans-
lated, the simple movement of the beam, as impressed upon
it, and rendered through the microphone and Einthoven,
being drowned by a damped harmonic motion of up to six--
teen wave lengths. But for small amplitudes, the string
movement and beam movement agreed, and the amplitudes.
were proportional. This pipe was later replaced by a
# inch pipe, the system being made as rigid as practicable,
the beam as before being pivoted horizontally and kept
to its rest position by springs, the movement being damped
by vanes in treacle. Instead of the spot of light, a pointer’
cast a shadow on the film, so that the curves of beam move-.
ment and thread movement were recorded as two lines.

THE MICROPHONE AS A DETECTOR. 315°

of different thickness. This was to enable the whole film
to be employed for both movements. This, though satis-
factory in so far as the microphone movement recorded
faithfully the beam movement for small amplitudes was.
not otherwise so, as the beam oscillated several times be-
fore coming to rest, though well damped. On this difficulty”
being overcome by stronger control springs and damping,
the rod as a whole vibrated and the microphone rendition:
was not at all in accord with the movement recorded by
the end of the beam. But the beam could even be felt.
vibrating after its free end was stationary.

The next portion of the work was an examination of the:
different types of microphones, by touching or tapping”
them, or the table on which they stood.

The télégéphone was found to be most consistent, the
seismomicrophone almost equally satisfactory, but the Wes-
tern-Electric instrument, whilst giving a much bigger
string movement for a small lead shot dropped on the:
table than did any of the others, had varying irregularities.
in the wave form produced. For listening purposes, and
where quality was not of such great importance, this would
be the best instrument. As an example of a test, take film.
V. (a and b) :—

Télégéphone. (Resistance of order 10 ohms.)
Air core transformer. (Secondary 5,000 ohms, prim-.
ary 0.290 ohms. )
Einthoven thread, resistance 60 ohms.
Current through Télégéphone of order 0.06 amps.
000 ohms additional in Einthoven-primary circuit.
Einthoven field 0.50 amps.
Taps (very light) on heavy table.
The small oscillations superimposed are not ‘‘acciden--

tal,’’ as they are present every time; compare Va and Vb.
They may be table, Einthoven, or microphone effects. A.

316 E. H. BOOTH.

Wheatstone network film (film VI.) of a similar effect
(télégéphone, tap on table) is given for comparison, the
thread being highly damped (thread resistance only) so
as to prolong the return movement for examination. It is
very probable that it is a microphone oscillation.

(4

The curve (v) is practically identical with the ‘‘make’’
or ‘‘break,’’ of film I., so far as the first portion -is con-
cerned, but drops to zero more rapidly (Hinthoven circuit
was identical). Film VII. (a) and (b) shows the effect of
touching the telégéphone very lightly in front, once slowly,
and once sharply. It will be seen that the curves are quite
different. The time to maximum is approximately the same
in each case—evidently the contact pressure is effective in
the same time, ‘‘slowness’’ merely being in time of with-
drawal,

Film VIII. and film [X. (continuing after the iron core
transformer make and break, which has already been ex-
amined) show the télégéphone with the iron core trans-
former, and tapped very softly in front (film VIII.) and
underneath (film IX.) to simulate horizontal and vertical
components. The curves are identical. (The minor vibra-
tions here throughout are due to imperfect shielding from
local induction effects. )

Experiments were carried out to see if it would be prac-
ticable to employ a number of microphones in parallel, to
increase the sensitiveness of the system. This was attempt-
ed first with a telephone receiver as detector, the increase
in intensity being very marked when even only two similar
instruments were employed. It was next performed with
the full Einthoven system, and the two microphones in
parallel gave a curve of much greater amplitude, but other-
wise identical with that of either individual instrument.
This work is not yet complete; it is not possible at this stage

THE MICROPHONE AS A DETECTOR. 317

to say to what extent the amplitude is increased, as the
wave in each case (produced by light tap on table) would
not be identical as to energy.

Summary. The most satisfactory system for the exam-
ination of the nature and amplitude of small vibrations of
a solid was found to be that of télégéphone, cell, resistance,
secondary of transformer (either air or iron core) ; coupled
with primary of transformer, resistance, Einthoven gal-
vanometer.

It is essential that the galvanometer be aperiodic, which.
is best effected by variations in its field and resistance. It
must not be overlooked that the thread may be too highly
damped.

This system produces deflections of the Einthoven string
which reproduce the form of the impressed vibration, the
amplitude of the string movement being proportional to the
amplitude of the microphone movement, for microseismic
movements.

The sensitiveness of the system may be increased by
using a number of microphones in parallel.

The Physical Laboratory,

University of Sydney.

‘318 E. H. BOOTH.

‘SURFACE WAVES DUE TO SMALL ARTIFICIAL
DISTURBANCES OF THE GROUND.

By Epear H. Booru, M.C., B.Sc.,
Lecturer in Physics, Umversity of Sydney.
(With Plates XXV.-XXVL.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 1, 1926.)

This investigation deals with the detection and examin-
-ation of minute earth vibrations of microseismic nature
by means of microphones, the behaviour of which when
‘subjected to such movements has already been dealt with
by the author in a previous paper.t

The greater part of our knowledge of earth vibrations
-comes from investigations of seismic disturbances in connec-
tion with earthquake movements, where the recording in-
-strument is usually some considerable distance from the
source of energy. During the war, microphones were used
to detect, with the aid of a telephone head piece and the
-ear, minute earth disturbances, distant anything from 100
feet to a few inches; the nature—composition, hardness,
‘moisture content—of the soil was of great variety; and
‘there were so many other disturbances of greater energy
available that it was necessary to distinguish the quality
-of the microseism. Also in some cases, microphones would
be on the ground; in other cases they would be in deep
tunnels, and even solidly buried in explosives, with which
they were ultimately blown up.

An examination of possible waves is necessary.

+ The Microphone as a Detector of small Vibrations. This
-Journal, 1926, 60, 305.

SURFACE WAVES DUE TO ARTIFICIAL DISTURBANCES. 319

Poisson proved in 1830 that a homogeneous isotropic
elastic solid body of unlimited extent can transmit two
kinds of waves of different velocities, and that, at a great
distanee from the source of disturbance, the motion trans-
mitted by the quicker wave is longitudinal (1.e., parallel to
the direction of propagation) and the motion transmitted
by the slower wave is transverse.

It was later proved by Stokes that the quicker wave is
one of irrotational dilatation, and the slower one of equi-
voluminal distortion, characterised by differential rotation
of the elements of the body, the velocities of the waves

being ve and, Vo. k being incompressibility and n
rigidity.

Later, when self registering instruments were sys-
tematically employed to record disturbances transmitted
to distant stations, the record showed two distinct stages,
the first characterised by very feeble movement, the second
by a much larger movement, referred to generally as the

?

“*preliminary tremor,’’ and the ‘‘main shock,’’ or ‘‘prin-

cipal portion.’’

In 1885 Lord Rayleigh showed that an irrotational dis-
placement involving dilatation, and an equivoluminal dis-
placement involving rotation can be such that (i) neither
of them penetrates far beneath the surface, (ii.) when they
are combined the earth is free from traction. Such dis-
placements might take the form of standing simple har-
monic waves of definite wave length and period, or they
might take the form of a definite wave length and velocity.
The surface is the theatre of transmission, the waves may
be of any wave length, and gravity is neglected. It is
found that wave velocity is independent of the wave length.
It is these surface waves that are referred to as ‘‘ Rayleigh

320 E. H. BOOTH.

]

waves.’’ If the plane boundary is horizontal, the compon-
ents of displacement are a vertical component, and a hori-
zontal component, parallel to the direction of propagation ;.
the displacement involved is two dimensional or cylindrical.
The ratio of the vertical component to the horizontal com-
ponent is 2:1 if the material be incompressible ; it is nearly
3:2 if the Poisson’s ratio is 4.

Rayleigh shows that the disturbance is confined to a
‘superficial region of thickness comparable to their wave
length.’’ He concludes by saying ‘“‘It is not improbable:
that the surface waves here investigated play an important
Part in-carthquakes, ...% 2. Diverging in two dimensions’
only, they must acquire at a great distance from the source
a continually increasing preponderance.’’

The velocity of a simple Rayleigh wave is given by

v=0.094/ _ The rigidity of many kinds of granite and:

marble has been found to be of the order 2.5 X 10" dynes/
sq. cm. and the mean surface density may be taken as 2.8
orms./e.c. Sov is of the order 3 X 105 ems./see. The wave
lengths obtained then, from the period, which varies from
1-50th to 10 seconds, is of the order 6 X 103 ems. to 30 X 105
ems. This also gives an indication of the maximum depth
affected.

R. D. Oldham, in 1900, suggested that the first and
second stages of the preliminary tremors should be re-
garded as dilatational and distortional waves, transmitted
through the body of the earth, travelling by nearly straight
paths, and emerging at the surface; but that the ‘‘main
shock’’ would be Rayleigh waves, travelling over the sur-
face of the earth with a nearly constant velocity.

It is now recognised that the large waves of the main
shock, like the preliminary tremor, show more than one
phase. Love deals with this from the point of view of

SURFACE WAVES DUE TO ARTIFICIAL DISTURBANCES. 221

dispersion (‘‘Some problems of Geodynamies,’’ to which
I am indebted in the main for the discussion), and of an-
other set of surface waves, with horizontal movement at
right angles to the direction of propagation, but no vertical
movement. These last are generally referred to as ‘‘Love
waves.”’

The surface phenomenon is dealt with by Jeffreys,*
who examines the nature of the group velocities, and
endeavours to reconcile the discordance between observed
seismic effects and the theory of dispersion of surface
waves. 3

To ensure as simple a practical case as possible, this
series of experiments carried out on unmade ground at the
Sydney University (clay on shale) was restricted to an ex-
amination by means of a télégéphone of the surface dis-
turbance produced when a light ‘‘toy’’ pile driver was
dropped on to a wooden peg in the ground. A line of
pegs of hardwood, 3in. X 3in. by 2ft. long, were driven into
the ground, and were left for three months. Another peg
acted as a terminal post, protruding above ground level;
in front of this was placed the télégéphone, connected by
light leads to the post, from which leads passed off to the

laboratory.

This microphone would measure a vertical component,
or a horizontal component, but was so placed in this re-
search as to eliminate the record of horizontal movements
such as Love waves. As a simple impulse was given to the
sround by dropping a light weight (250 grms. for the
lighter pile drive) through a small height (not exceeding
30 ems.) on to a peg, it would seem that the only wave
to be sent out should be the Rayleigh wave. But if the

* Jeffreys. Roy. Astr. Soc. Geophysical Supp., 1925, 1, No. 6.
U~December 1, 1926.

322 E. H. BOOTH.

dilatational wave also were received, the time would be
too short for the separation of effects.

As the disturbanee, then, should be only two dimensional,
the amplitude y at any distance r from the origin would
be given by the equation.

y= tom
A being a constant, and K a damping factor.

The microphone (télégéphone) was 3 feet from the first
peg, and was connected, as had been found most satisfac-
tory, with the secondary of a transformer (either air core
or iron core) through a battery and a variable resistance.
The current through the microphone was of the order 0.05
amps. The primary of the transformer was in series
with a variable resistance, and the string of an Hinthoven
galvanometer, which was aperiodic. The movement of the
string was recorded on cinematograph film, being barred
every 1-40th second by an interrupter driven by a phonis
wheel.

Under these conditions it has been found (see previous
paper) that the amplitude of the string deflection is pro-
portional to the amplitude of the microphone deflection,
and that the nature of the impressed movement—either
simple harmonic motion or impulse—is faithfully recorded.
Hilm I. shows the wave recorded.

As a comparison film II. shows the wave recorded when
the blow (same energy) was given at a distance of 15 feet
from the télégéphone. Attention is drawn here to the form
of the waves, and not to their amplitudes—in the ease of
film I. the microphone besides being in series with the
transformer secondary (7,100 ohms) had a further 32,000
ohms in series with it. In film II. this variable resistance
was cut down to 5,000 ohms. The Hinthoven circuit was
left unchanged so as not to interfere with the damping. In

SURFACE WAVES DUE TO ARTIFICIAL DISTURBANCES. 323

all cases, as readings were taken at gradually increasing
distances, the resistance in the microphone circuit was
diminished, lock readings being taken at greater and less
values so as to measure corresponding amplitudes. This
variation of resistance of the microphone circuit did not
produce the change in the wave form, as may be seen
from film III. and IV. (5 feet from microphone), where
the added microphone resistances (variable) were 32,000
and 22,000 respectively for two different blows.

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itt BSS oee: QOE SCO C OSU DOOONEC ROO OOOO Soon eee ones osace jects) YI

Diagram I.

To see if (energy)? o¢ (amplitude of string deflection),
the pile driver was dropped through varying heights on to
a fixed peg. At was found that this relationship held pro-
‘vided the energy was below a certain small value at a given
‘distance. For instance, with the heavier pile driver (mass
1500 grms.) the maximum fall permissible for this relation-
‘ship to hold was 10 ems. at the 10 foot peg.

A graph (diagram I.) gives the relationship between
‘the height of the driver and log.) string deflection for this

324 E. H. BOOTH.

peg. It was thought very probably that as the driver
falls from greater and greater heights a smaller amount of
energy, proportionately, is given to the ground. Conse-
quently, for all runs at varying distance, the driver was:
allowed to fall through the same adjusted height, not ex-
ceeding 10 cms. This is a matter which is at present being’
investigated. It is obvious that the effect is due to the
variation in wave form—that is, that it is incorrect to
expect energy to be proportional to (amplitude)? when
the other factors are varying. This is apparent from the
consideration of the remainder of the results in this paper,.
in view of the fact that the further away the disturbance:
be from the microphone, the greater the energy per-
missible in the disturbance without departing from the
energy given to the ground proportional to (string
deflection)? relationship.

To investigate the variation in wave form with distance
from the centre of disturbance, and if possible the decrease
in amplitude, and consequently damping factor K, a series
of runs was taken from 3 feet to 50 feet, the same energy
been given to the peg at each blow (1e., the pile driver
dropped through the same height on each occasion) of
which a typical run and accompanying films are given :—

Iron core transformer. Secondary, in series with micro-
phone and 244 volt battery supply, 7,000 turns. Primary,
in series with Einthoven thread plus 150 ohms, 150 turns.
Peg IJ. (38 feet from microphone) to peg 7 (50 feet from
microphone). Resistances added to microphone circuit
varied from 32,000 ohms to nothing. The sensitiveness was
such that the 7th peg reading on this occasion (windy
weather) was not translatable, as local disturbances were
of equal magnitude to those artificially produced. The
records were as follows :—

SURFACE WAVES DUE TO ARTIFICIAL DISTURBANCES. 3295

lm Vv. Ist peg (3 feet). Compare a previous curve
for another blow on this peg (same energy )
film I.

Mim VI. 2nd peg (5 feet). Compare film IIT. and
IV. for this peg; same energy, film IV.
same resistance in microphone circuit.
This is similar to the three feet curve, but
there are not so many subsequent oscilla-
tions.

Film VII. 3rd peg (10 feet). Shorter wave length,
oscillations more damped.

Film VIII. 4th peg (15 feet). Tending much more
to the typical Rayleigh Wave. Compare
film II., same peg, same energy, same re-
sistance in microphone circuit.

Resistance here cut down
to 2,000 ohms additional to
Film IX. 5th peg (20 ft.) |magnify the oscillations
after the first impulse,
Film X. oth peg (20 ft.) |which otherwise are con-
cealed in the thickness of
(the string.

Film XI. 6th Peg (80 feet).

To revert to the theory of the subject and quoting from
‘Lamb (Phil. Trans. A., 203, 41.)—

‘‘ Again, instead of a disturbance originating at an in-
‘ternal point, we study chiefly the case of an impulse applied
vertically to the surface. Under these conditions, the dis-
‘turbance spreads over the surface in the form of a sym-
metrical annular wave system. The initial form of this
system will depend on the history of the primitive impulse,
but if this be of limited duration, the system gradually
develops a characteristic form, marked by three salient
features, travelling with the velocities proper to irrcta-
‘tional, equivoluminal, and Rayleigh waves respectively.’’

326 E. H. BOOTH.

He further mathematically deduces that the motion re-
ceived at a distant point begins suddenly at a time corres-
ponding to the arrival of the 1st (dilatational wave). The
surface rises rather sharply, and then subsides very grad-
ually without oscillation. At a time corresponding to the:
arrival of the voluminal waves, a slight jerk occurs; and
this is followed, at a time corresponding to the advent of
the Rayleigh waves, by a much larger jerk after which the
movement gradually subsides without oscillation. The
subsidence is indefinitely prolonged.

This peculiarity of an indefinitely prolonged ‘‘tail’’ to
the waves has been shown by Lamb (Proc. Math. Soc.,
1903, 35) to be a characteristic feature of waves which
diverge in two dimensions.

Examining the series of films from the first to the sixth
pegs, it is clear that we are dealing here with the miniature
earthquake—but the distance from the centre of the dis-
turbance is so small that the motion of the microphone, and

consequently of the Einthoven thread, is compounded of

the three.

As we move out, the Rayleigh waves, being two dimen-
sional, predominate, the other disturbances dying out to a:
very marked extent at 15 feet, and being practically non-
existant at 30 feet. The ‘‘period’’ of the first impulse has
apparently increased from less than 3-80th of a second
on the first peg to 9-80th of a second on the 15 feet to 30
feet pegs. The amplitudes, of course, are not to be read
directly from the curves, as corrections have to be made
for the changes in the resistance. This was done, as before
mentioned, by taking a reading with higher and lower
resistances at the same peg. If it be disregarded that the
waves represent a compound movement, and amplitudes.
be measured throughout as the maximum displacement, a

SURFACE WAVES DUE TO ARTIFICIAL DISTURBANCES. 327

typical run gives the following values for K for a dry day,
no rain within the previous week—

yaFje-*

From. UG Mean Distance.
Pegs 6 to 5 0.080 25 feet
Pegs 5 to 4 0.087 173 feet
Pegs 4 to 3 0.092 124 feet
Pegs 3 to 2 0.106 74 feet
Pegs 2 to l 0.140 4 feet

a
sisfentas Sones cggusnececeguacuccceceeceeuascecces sieetteteaticite one
a 0.62 0.04 0.06 0.08 cto 0.12 0.14 0.16
Diagram ITI.

Hither the equation does not hold, or K is not a constant,
or both. If distance from centre of disturbance be graphed
against K, it is seen that the curve (diagram II.) 1s asymp-
totic to a value for K of 0.078, for this particular run,
at a distance greater than 80 feet.

It would seem to be apparent then, that the Rayleigh
wave alone exists at 30 feet and greater distances, the
spherical waves having disappeared. That a probable

328 E. H. BOOTH.

value for K on this occasion was 0.079. And that, close
to the disturbance, is a wave or waves compounded with
the Rayleigh wave.

This is borne out by a number of similar runs—the wave
forms undergoing precisely similar modifications, the Ray-
leigh wave eventually existing alone, and giving values
for K dependent on soil conditions. After wet weather K
is very large; on occasion, readings could not be obtained
for any waves beyond the 10 feet peg.

Calculating on a value for K for the Rayleigh wave as
determined beyond 20 feet, it is possible to find what is
compounded with it at each other peg back to 3 feet, and
consequently to recognise the other disturbances, and eal-
culate their damping factors as spherical waves. A large
number of films are being examined, and it is hoped that
the results will shortly be available. The difficulty is as to
how soon the Rayleigh wave develops—and what is its
depth.

The energy appears to be in the surface layer, as the -
energy was not. measurable at a depth of 1 foot, at 15 feet.
This requires further examination, owing to variation of
moisture with depth.

Attempts to get satisfactory readings beyond 50 feet
have not been successful—it is quite simple to record the
disturbances; but the earth movement at the University,
due to road traffic a few hundred yards away, and general
movement of students and buildings, is so continuous, and
of such amplitude, that the artificially produced waves
are drowned. A microphone record taken with a four
stage valve amplification, shows the ground oscillating in
a manner beyond all possible analysis.

It does, however, give a practical use to the system as
here devised—a record of the ground or building move-

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. DX., 1926. Plate XXV.

Film I

Film []

Film II]

Film JV

Film V

Bilin Nhl

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. DX,, 1926. Plage XX VI.

Film VII

Film VII

Film IX

Film X

Film) XI

SURFACE WAVES DUE TO ARTIFICIAL DISTURBANCES. 929

ment at any point, due to passing trams or ‘busses, 1s
readily obtained. From this the maximum relative ampl-
+ude of the movement is read, and its period, if such is
determinable, is obtained. Such amplitudes are probably
of the order of 10-3 em.—and those with which this work
has dealt must be of the order of 10~° cm. only.

Summary.

An examination of the surface waves set up by a vertical
‘blow shows that the initial disturbance is oscillatory in
character. That the oscillations are soon damped out, or
dissipated more rapidly as spherical waves, than are the
cylindrical or Rayleigh waves that exist alone at a greater
distance.

This preponderance of the Rayleigh wave at a certain
distance is in accordance with theory.

It is recognised that this paper opens up a number of
points which require further investigation; in several
cases these investigations have been made and results are
being analysed and compiled.

It is also postulated as the result of examination of a
number of records, that the final wave form would be
propagated with a damping factor which may be found
from the equation

Cee areata
yr j

A value has been found for K ranging from 0.06
upwards, for clay on shale at the Sydney University.

It is suggested that this system is of use to record the

oscillation set up in tr ffie ways and adjacent buildings,
sewers, etc., by various vehicles.

I have to thank the late Professor Pollock for in-
-dieating this line of research; he himself was engaged in

330 E. H. BOOTH.

an endeavour to discover the damping factor for an earth.
wave—of any nature—by an audition method, graphing
distance from disturbance against such resistance in a.
microphone circuit as just to render the blow audible or
inaudible. Unfortunately his results were contradictory,
though the papers he has left will be valuable for any
other student taking up that work and undoubtedly he
would have met with success if he had had time to complete
his research. The error was that we were counting on K
being constant from the origin, considering that only a
Rayleigh wave would be developed by this method. I hope
to continue his work, going to greater distances, as the
microphone-ear system is extremely sensitive.

The Physical Laboratory,
The University.

OILS OF ERIOSTEMON AND PHEBALIUM. 33F

THE ESSENTIAL OILS OF ERIOSTEMON COXII
(MUELLER) AND PHEBALIUM DENTATUM
(SMITH).

By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.1L, F.C.S.,
Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.
(With Plate XXVII.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 1, 1926.)

ErIostEMON Cox (Mueller).

The botany of this extremely interesting Rutaceous
shrub was described by Mueller in the ‘‘ Melbourne
Chemist’? of December, 1884, and in the Botanisches.
Central-blatt, 1885, 21, 210. (The author has been unable
to secure access to these Volumes. )

It is a tall shrub growing to a height of about 10 feet,
with dark green shining serrulated leaves about 14 to 24in.
long and 4 to #in. broad, of a pale green colour under-
neath, with pretty white flowers. It is remarkable as
having been recorded from one locality only, the sources
of the Clyde River, southern district of New South Wales,.
about 3,500 feet above sea level (W. Bauerlen).

The writer, in company with Mr. F. R. Morrison, exam-
ined this shrub growing at the extreme summit of Sugar
Loaf Mountain, a spur of the Clyde Mountain, Monga,
near Braidwood, where the plant grows in a fairly
luxuriant condition amidst a rugged quartzite outcrop.

In view of the rarity of the shrub, it was thought
advisable to reproduce a photograph taken in January,
1922, which not only illustrates the plant, but also the
rugged nature of its habitat.

332 A. R. PENFOLD.

The leaves, on crushing between the fingers, readily
emit a delightful fruity odour, which very closely resembles
that of the luscious passion fruit (Passiflora edulis).

Although the comparative rarity of the shrub precluded
its economic exploitation, it was considered advisable to
elucidate its composition, as the nature of its aroma would
render its synthesis one of considerable value. An exam-
ination of passion fruit will shortly be undertaken by the
author, who is satisfied that the composition of the essential
oil of Hriostemon Cozi, as revealed herein, is sufficiently
complete to enable anyone interested to prepare a Ssatis-
factory synthetic passion fruit flavouring essence.

Accordingly a number of ceollections of leaves and
terminal branchlets were procured from the summit of
Sugar Loaf Mountain during the period 1922-1925.

It is worth recording that leaves and terminal branchlets
of this shrub were personally collected by the discoverer,
Mr. W. Bauerlen, in 1898, the essential oil being first
obtained therefrom on Aug. 30, 1898, by the Economic
Chemist of this Institution.

The sample, when examined on Sept. 28, 1920, was found
to have undergone very little change, the chemical and
physical characters being practically identical with those
recorded in the Table.

THE ESSENTIAL OILS.

The Essential Oils were of a pale yellow colour, some-
times almost water white, quite mobile, and possessed the
pleasant passion fruit odour previously mentioned.

Altogether, 483 lbs. weight of leaves and terminal
branchlets, cut as for commercial purposes, were subjected
to steam distillation, the average yield of oil being 0.55%.

The principal constituents, which have so far been
identified, were found to be d-a-pinene, an olefenic terpene

OILS OF ERIOSTEMON AND PHEBALIUM. 33d

(ocimene), butyl isovalerianate, amyl <sovalerianate,
linalool,? geraniol, citronellol and darwinol, both free and
combined as isovalerianates and caproates, sesquiterpene
(cadinene), with small quantities of sesquiterpene alcohol,
phenolic bodies and a paraffin of m.pt. 64-66°.

EXPERIMENTAL.

Four hundred and thirty-three lbs. of leaves and
terminal branchlets collected from Sugar Loaf Mountain,
Monga, New South Wales, yielded, on distillation with
steam, crude oils, possessing the chemical and physical
characters as shown in the table:

Solubil- Histon Ester

Weight | Yield ity in No.
Date. of of diz ac ° Wo? 80% se after
leaves. oil. D D alcohol | "} ie acety-
by wght e. lation.

3/2/1922 | 7 tbs. 0.64% | 0.8810 | +20.75° | 1.4610 | 42 vols. | 113.9] —
4/4/1922 | 147 ths. 0.58% | 0.8794 | +20.75° | 1.4600 | 34 vols. | 116.6 | 133.5
28/4/1924 | 132 Ths. | 0.54% | 0.8808 | +22.10° | 1.4637] 8 vols. | 94.1 | 120.0
28/8/1925 | 147 Ibs. 0.58% | 0.8798 | +-22.6° | 1.4618 | 83 vols. | 107.3 | 126.6

A portion of the 1922 consignment was separated into
two fractions during the distillation of the oil from the
plant material, and on account of its interest the physical
characters of each fraction are recorded :—

Solubility in:
d a n 80% alcohol
by weight
Distillate in first 40 minutes} 80% of | 0.8785 | +22.5° | 1.4585 | 3.8 vols.
total.
Do. in final 2 hrs. 20 mins. | 20% of | 0.9077 | +20.6° | 1.4842 | insoluble:
total.

The crude oils were subjected to fractional distillation
under reduced pressure and in order to follow the progress
of the separation and identification of the various con-
stituents, it is necessary to furnish details of the frac-
tionation of both the 1922 and 1924 consignments :—

O04 A. R. PENFOLD.

April 15, 1922 (1st 40 minutes’ fraction).
150 c.c. distilled at 20-10 mm.

15 20 20 Ester No.

EP hey | oe *D | ik ee
5b-b7° at 20mm. |) 20C-c. 0.8593.) 59-32 1.4603 | —
5700 ee se 21,, (0.8579 | +-37.8° | 1:46047) —
60-68° ,, 4, 17,, |0.8563 | +385.5° | 1.4596 | —
63-1007 5.) os 10,, |0.8549 | —-31.95° | 1.45817
‘60-65° - at 10mm. | 11,, 10.8545 | +23:45° | 1.4548 |% dep
65-02 > =, Ss 15,, |0.8625 | -+-11.40° | 1.4472.) ea oes
TOe822, hie Gs 29, |0.8752 | = 4:2° | 1 4aiOn| Sila
90-114° ,, 4, |.10,,. 10.8958 | =-1%.5°° | Seabee dies
t4-131°° 7; | 2 09a Lous leleo 1.4840 | 95.2

April, 22, 1924.
345 c.c. distilled at 20-10 mm.

Po 20 Ester No.

Bp. fie | Et es | my | lebre.

Below 60° at 20mm. | 72c.c. | 0.8591 |+87.5° |[1.4590| 46.2

61-65° 53 x | 56c.c. | 0.8587 | +34.0° | 1.4564 64.6

65-70° ;, - | 38c.c. | 0.8587 | +28.0° |1.4520)\- 104.0

60-70° » 1lOmm. | 11c.c. | 0.8661 | +17,.75° | 1445 Oule ey aiodem

70-78° ae 46c.c. | 0.8715 | + 8.35°|1.4395| 213.0

78-89° + > | 14c.c. | 0.8862 | + 3.45° |1.4422| 222.0

90-100° iY f | 22c.c. | 0.8977 | -}+- 4.2° - | 1 Abie zen

Above 100°C. __,, | 60c.c. | 0.9493 | +11.2° | 1.4950 70.7

Polymerised residue | 26c.c. | |

Determination of terpenes.—AIl the lower boiling frac-
tions were either washed with 50% resorein solution or
treated with boiling aqueous normal potassium hydroxide
solution until free from alcoholic and ester constituents.
They were then subjected to steam distillation and finally
repeated fractionation over metallic sodium.

d-a-pinene.—The 1st and 2nd fractions of the 1922
‘eonsignment yielded the following fraction distilling at
155-157° at 764 mm:
1 0.8600, ase + 42.25°, ak 1.4654.

Similar fractions of the 1924 consignment yielded a
distillate of 155-158° at 769 mm:
4% 0.8584, al° + 43.25 ny 1.4660.

OILS OF ERIOSTEMON AND PHEBALIUM. 339

No matter to what treatment these pinene fractions
were submitted, the specific gravity could not be raised
zabove 0.8600. It was found, however that the fractions
readily resinified and yielded gummy residues upon
evaporation, and, judging from the characteristic odour
and previous experience of similar mixtures, the olefenic
terpene ocimene is undoubtedly present. Its identity
could not be confirmed by chemical means on account of
‘the small quantity present. The pinene fractions referred
to above were oxidised with potassium permanganate (see
this Journal, 1922, 56, 195), and the pinonic acid
‘separated as described therein. The acid distilled at
178-180° at 5 mm. and solidified immediately when placed
in the ice chest. The crystals were separated, and on puri-
fication from petroleum ether (b.p. 50-60°) melted at 70°:
1.3112 g. in 10 cc. chloroform gave a reading of + 12°
[a]5*°= + 91.5° The semicarbazone melted at 207°.

The hydrochloride was prepared in the usual way, and
on recrystallisation from absolute ethyl alcohol melted at
130-131° ; 1.0372 g. in 10 ¢.c. ethyl alcohol gave a reading
of +3.5°; [a]P°’.= + 33.74".

Presence of Ocimene.—The terpene fractions boiling
higher than pinene, after removal of alcohols and esters,
were found to possess a low specific gravity and to consist
of mixtures of d-a-pinene with small quantities of an
olefenic terpene resembling ocimene.

Determination of Butyl and Amyl isovalerianates—The
alkaline liquors resulting from the saponification of
fractions 1 to 7 (1922) and 1 to 6 (1924) with aqueous
potash solution were subjected to distillation from a sand
tray using a 12 bulb fractionating column. The distillate
was saturated with dry potassium carbonate and again
subjected to distillation, the procedure being repeated

336 A. R. PENFOLD.

until sufficient of the water-soluble aleohols were obtained.
for examination.

These were distilled at 769 mm., when the following
fractions were obtained :—

diz an nee
Ist fraction, b.p. 100-180° 0.8608 —1.4° 1.4140
2nd fraction, b.p. 130-185° 0.8481 —2.4° 1.4250

Although not very pure, these fractions were distinctive
enough for their definite characterisation by means of
napthylisocyanate. The first fraction yielded a napthyl-
urethane melting at 62-63°, whilst the second gave a
similar derivative melting at 49-51°. (See Schimmel &
Co., Annual Report, 1922, 67.)

A careful comparison of these derivatives with those
obtained with the alcohols from other sources, including
the determination of mixed melting point, confirmed their
identity as butyl and amyl alcohol.

Determination of Acids combined with above Alcohols.—
The aqueous alkaline liquors after removal of water soluble
alcohols by distillation, were acidified with dilute sulphuric
acid, and the liberated acids removed by steam distillation.

The free acid was neutralised with dilute ammonia
solution, the solution evaporated to a small bulk and the
silver salt prepared: 0.4770 g. of the silver salt on ignition
yielded 0.2466 g. silver == 51.69% silver. The silver
salt of vsovaleric acid requires 51.68% silver. The saponi-
fication liquor resulting from the separate treatment of
fraction No. 5 yielded quite a large quantity of an oily
acid possessing the following characters:

b.p. 174-178° (763mm.), d+, 0.9402, a% + 0.35°, and n® 1.4077:
0.7814 g. of the silver salt prepared therefrom gave on
ignition 0.4028 g. silver = 51.55% silver.

OILS OF ERIOSTEMON AND PHEBALIUM. 337

There seems to be no doubt about the acid being
asovaleric.

Presence of Iinalool?—In the course of the examination
of the various fractions boiling above the terpenes, after
saponification to decompose the esters and subsequent
fractional distillation, the following distillates were

separated :—

Ex 1925 Lot. diz an n®
so-00° at 10 mm. .. 0.8809 = 8:6 1.4640
90-100° at 10 mm. .. 0.8780 +8.6° 1.4562

These alcoholic fractions, although impure, did not react
with phthalic anhydride, but yielded citral on oxidation
with chromic acid. They possessed the characteristic
odour of linalool, and despite repeated efforts with four
distinct consignments of oil, I was unable to prepare con-
firmatory derivatives such as the phenylurethane and
napthylurethane.

Determination of Geramol, Citronellol and Darwinol
(free and as esters).—The portion of 1924 oil distilling
above 100° at 10 mm., 60 c.c., ester No. 70.7, was treated
with alcoholic potash solution and the ester-free oil mixed
with equal weights of phthalic anhydride and benzene,
and heated on a boiling water bath.

The alcoholic phthalates were separated in the usual
way and on decomposition with sodium hydroxide solution
in a current of steam yielded 4 ¢@c. of an alcohol of
pronounced geraniol odour. It possessed the following
chemical and physical characters:

b.p. 110-113° at l0mm., dt2 0.8984, o + 3°, and n® 1.4692
The silver salt of the phthalic acid ester, on purification
from methyl alcohol, melted at 181-132°.

Another preparation of 38 ¢.c. from the 1925 consignment
possessing a decided citronellol-darwinol odour had the

V—December 1, 1926

338 A. R. PENFOLD.

following constants:
dt$ 0.8901, of + 14°, nf 1.4655. The silver salt of the

D

phthalic acid ester melted at 135-136°.

Another series of experiments showed these alcoholic
constituents to exist in the free condition as well as in
combination as esters.

The presence of citronellol was proved by the prepara-
tion of the pyruvic acid ester, the semicarbazone of which
melted at 108°. (See Schimmel & Co., Semi-Annual
Report, Oct. and Nov., 1904, 119.)

The small quantity of alcohols available militated against
any successful separation of the components. The fact
that the 1922 crude oil (fraction No. 2) yielded an
alcoholic mixture of a} + 18° and. #2 1.4700) pomuted
strongly to the presence of darwinol, an alcohol which
has been shown to resemble geraniol closely and also to
occur in admixture with it. (See this Journal, 1928, 57,
237 and 1926, 60, 83.)

It was not found possible to secure a derivative in
confirmation, but the high specific gravity, optical rotation
and refractive index provided strong evidence in support
of its presence.

Acids in combination with higher boiling Alcohols.—
The alkaline liquors resulting from the saponification of
the various fractions (1924 lot) were treated individually.
They were acidified with dilute sulphuric acid and the
liberated acids separated by steam distillation, the oily
acids being collected separately from the water soluble
ones.

They were neutralised with dilute ammonia solution,
evaporated to a small bulk and the silver salts prepared.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926. Plate XX VII.

Shrubs of Eriostemon Coxii at Sugar Loaf Mountain,
Monga, Braidwood, New South Wales.

ay

seeing jr apathy

, 7 i i Fy ote sae bee dees r
‘ Pa f 5 OR Sat ee . Raed \ = :
: x be G ri eee : =. Nah A
a . ' ' As i > ‘ 5 5 “bias
4 sl " x .
a { , ¥ b
. + 1 4 oo ee . 5 ‘
C ¥ ‘ ne v 7 v > = .
i ' ee ;
NF “| ™ Bo ‘ : . . ms i
X oe - gs i \ ; i rr a
‘ { ~ i = : ‘ ‘ i
’ os i - ~ ; i “ a i
‘ : i 4 " h 7 - eat i a iS . f
Ye the r ’ : a a t } Fy yo 4 a
‘ S ys o ! Hi r i

OILS OF ERIOSTEMON AND PHEBALIUM. 339

Fraction No. 6.—0.5617 g. of silver salt yielded on
ignition 0.2882 g. silver == 51.30%. (The silver salt of
asovaleric acid requires 51.68% Ag.)

Fraction No .7.—Oily acid. 0.6716 g. of silver salt gave
on ignition 0.3108 g. silver = 46.28%. (The silver salt of
an hexylic acid would require 45.57% Ag.)

Aqueous acid.—0.5367 g. of silver salt gave on ignition
O27 eo) silver = 51.68% Ag. (The silver salt of
dsovaleric acid requires 51.68%.)

Fraction No. 8 (60 ¢.c.).—Oily acid. 0.6228 g. of silver
salt gave on ignition 0.3010 g. silver == 48.29% Ag. (The
silver salt of caproic acid requires 48.43% Ag.)

Aqueous acid.—0.7020 g. of silver salt gave on ignition
0.3658 g. silver —= 52.10%. (The silver salt of isovaleric
acid requires 51.68% Ag.)

The alcoholic constituents appear to be present as esters
of isovaleric, caproic, and an unknown hexylic, acids.

Determination of Sesquiterpenes.—The fractions of the
various consignments distilling above 120° at 10 mm. were
treated with 8% sodium hydroxide solution and alcoholic
potash solution for the removal of phenolic and ester
constituents.

The quantities available were too small to endeavour to
determine the sesquiterpene alcohol separately, so the
various fractions were distilled over metallic sodium. The
1925 consignment was found to give the best distillate:
17 ¢.c. were obtained of b.pt. 130-138° at 10mm. d?3 0.9404,
ap + 14.5° and n®, 15070 A good yield of hydrochloride
was obtained of melting point 1184-119° : 0.43890 g. in 10 «.e.
chloroform gave a reading of + 1.5° = [a]? 4 34.17°.

The principal sesquiterpene therefore is cadinene, or
one yielding cadinene dihydrochloride.

340 A. R. PENFOLD.

Determination of minor constituents—The quantity of
free acid present in the oil was very minute, not more than
a trace of formic acid being detectable: 188 ¢.c. of crude
oil yielded but 0.3 g. of a liquid phenol which, beyond
giving an indefinite greenish black colouration with ferri¢
chloride in alcoholic solution could not be identified.

A small quantity of a paraffin of m.p. 65-66° was separated.
from the residues left after removal of sesquiterpenes.

PHEBALIUM DENTATUM (Smith).

The botany of this tall Rutaceous shrub is described in
Bentham’s ‘‘Flora Australiensis,’’ Vol. 1, 339. It is a
very attractive shrub growing to a height of 15 to 20 feet
with long narrow green leaves and yellowish white flowers.
It is plentiful in the Port Jackson district, being especially
abundant at Narrabeen and Middle Harbour.

The leaves, on crushing between the fingers, emit an
odour closely resembling that from Hriostemon Cornu. On
this account its essential oil was subjected to examination
and the results recorded together.

THE ESSENTIAL OIL.
The essential oils were of a pale lemon yellow colour,
quite mobile and possessed a pleasant passion-fruit odour.
Altogether, 589 lbs. weight of leaves and terminal
branchlets, cut as for commercial purposes, were subjected
to distillation, the average yield of oil being 0.21%.

The principal constituents, which have so far been
identified, were found to be d-a-pinene, an unidentified
terpene, butyl and amyl butyrates and isovalerianates,
geraniol and citronellol free and as butyrate, caproate, and
formate, with small quantities of citral, sesquiterpene,
sesquiterpene alcohol, phenolic bodies and a paraffin of
m.p. 65-66°.

OILS OF ERIOSTEMON AND PHEBALIUM.

EXPERIMENTAL.

Five hundred and eighty-nine lbs.

341

of leaves and

terminal branchlets collected around Port Jackson, yielded

on distillation with

steam,

erude: oils,

possessing the

chemical and physical characters, as shown in table :—

Ester ; Ester

Weight | Yield 20 99 | Solubility | No. No.

Date. Locality. | of of qi 0. D ny in 80% 1% after
leaves | oil. alcohol | hours, | acety-
- hot sap.| lation
23/ 2/1923|Mid. Harbour | 82ibs.|0.25%)0.8706|4-20.25° 1.4646] 6.0 vols.| 69.8 |114.5
18/ 6/1923|Narrabeen 64ibs.|0-17%'0.8770|/4-19.4° |1.4660)6.5 ,, | 82.4 |116.3
13/12/1923|Mid. Harbour) 75ibs./0.197%|0.8704|+-20.8° |1.4666| 7.0 ,, | 64.4 |120.3
18/ 8/1924|Narrabeen 101 lbs. |0.28%10.8713)+-20.0° |1.4640) 7.0 ,, | 80.8 114.1
23/ 7/1926|Narrabeen —_167Ibs.|0.21°//0.8717|--18.5° |1.4626] 6.0 .. | 90.3 |129.2

Two hundred c.ec. of crude oil, 23/2/1923 lot, yielded on
distillation at 10 mm. the following results :—

B.p Volume, an a me Ester No.
50-60°. | 105c.c. | 0.8533 | +30.65° | 1.4615 | 36.1
60-95° | 26c.c. | 0.8481 | +15.65° 1.4558 40.1
95-115" | 26c.c. | 0.8889 | + 3.80° | 1.4615 | 129.6

eue-i87" | 30c.c. -| 09111 | + 65° 1.4755 | 82.6

Determination of d-a-pinene.—The fraction distilling at
50-60° was treated with both aqueous and alcoholic potash
solution and then distilled over metallic sodium. Although
numerous repeated distillations were made with the terpene
fractions of the various consignments, the pinene could
not be obtained in a condition of purity. Treatment with
50% resorein solution appeared to remove small quantities
of low boiling alcoholic bodies ike amyl and butyl, but the
specific gravity of the pinene could not be raised above
‘0.8583. The chemical and physical characters of the best
sample were :— .

b.p. 764 mm. 154-156", d+} 0.8583, a? + 39.80°, n® 1.4656.

Oxidation of the pinene gave a good yield of pinonic
acid of mp. 70°: 1.08386 g. in 10 e¢.c. chloroform gave
@ reading of + 9.75°, [a]? = + 90°. The semicarbazone
melted at 207°.

342 A. R. PENFOLD.

Undoubtedly another terpene is present, but the author
was unable to separate it probably on account of the
nearness of its boiling point to pinene. At the same time
alcoholic bodies were also detected which were not removed
by distillation over metallic sodium or by shaking with
50% resorein solution, probably due to a protective action
of the pinene.

Determination of Butyl and Amyl Esters.—The aqueous
alkaline saponification liquors from the treatment of
fractions 1 and 2 were distilled on a sand tray, the vapours
being conducted through a 12-pear column. Only very
small quantities, about 24 to 4 @e. of colourless water-
soluble alcohols being obtained. They were identified as
butyl and amyl alcohols by means of napthylisocyanate,
the respective melting points of their napthylurethanes
being 61-62° and 50-52°.

Determination of Geraniol and Citronellol (free and
combined ).—Fraction No. 3 was treated with phthalic
anhydride in benzene solution, both before and after
saponification. A phthalate was isolated in each instance
and on decomposition with sodium hydroxide solution, in
the presence of steam, 7 cc. of colourless oil with
pronounced geraniol-citronellol odour were obtained. It
possessed the following characters:

42 0.8813, ae — 0.4" ny 1.4675.

Another preparation of 7 ¢.c. of alcohol from another
sample of oil had d}3 0.8798, as 2 09, ne 1.4657.

The silver salt of the phthalic acid ester in both cases.
melted at 128-129°.

Eleven c.c. of a similar alcohol fraction separated from
the 1926 consignment oil had b.p. 110-1138° at 10 mm.,
dis 0.8740, o® +0°, n® 1.4660 It possessed an excellent rose
odour.

OILS OF ERIOSTEMON AND PHEBALIUM. | 343

The silver salt of the phthalic acid ester melted at
125-126".

The presence of citronellol was confirmed by the
preparation of the semicarbazone of the pyruvic acid ester
which melted at 108° (see under E. Coxii). Geraniol was
determined by oxidation of the mixed alcohols with chromic
acid mixture and after steam distillation, the resulting
eitral was removed by means of neutral sulphite solution.

The small quantity of citral regenerated from the
sulphite solution by means of sodium hydroxide solution
was converted into the 8-naphthocinchonic acid melting
at 204°.

Determination of tre free and combined acids.—A small
quantity of formic acid was detected in the crude ous. —
It was recognised by the colour reaction with ferric chloride
and reducing action on silver and mercury salts.

The alkaline saponification lquors from the various
fractions were acidulated with dilute sulphuric acid and
steam distilled, the distillate being collected in fractions.
These were neutralised with dilute ammonia solution,
evaporated to a small bulk and the silver salts prepared.

Oily Acid, b.p. 176-180° at 774 mm.: 0.5212 g. of silver
salt gave 0.2609 g. of silver on ignition = 50.15% Ag.

Oily Acid No. 2, b.p. over 180°: 0.4008 g. of silver salt
gave 0.1980 g. silver on ignition = 49.40% Ag.

Aqueous Acid, No. 1 fraction: 0.3903 g. silver salt gave

0.2129 g. silver on ignition = 54.54% Ag.

Aqueous Acid, No. 2 fraction: 0.4160 g. silver salt gave
0.2251 g. silver on ignition = 54.11% Ag.

Aqueous Acid, No. 3 fraction: 0.5436 g. silver salt gave
0.3018 g. silver on ignition = 55.52% Ag.

Aqueous Acid, No. 4 fraction: 0.8538 g. silver salt gave
0.5290 g. silver on ignition = 61.95% Ag.

As qualitative reactions were obtained for butyrie,
isovaleric and formic acids, the author deduces from the

344 A. R. PENFOLD.

experimental data, that the acids present represent a
complex mixture of isovaleric and caproic (oily acids)
and butyrie and formic acids (aqueous)..

Presence of Innalool?—After the removal of the
geraniol-citronellol aleohols by means of phthalic anhydride
a small quantity of an alcohol of b.p. 85-90° at 10 mm.:
dts 089713, a. 4 4, ns 1.4619, with a pronounced odour
resembling linalool, remained. As stated under Hriostemon
Coxu, its identity could not be confirmed.

Determination of Minor Constituents.

Citral—About 4% of citral was detected in the various
crude oils. It was removed by shaking with 35% eryst.
sodium sulphite solution at room temperature, and on
regeneration by means of sodium hydroxide solution, was
identified by its refractive index, 1.4875 at 20°, and
B-naphthocinchonie acid, melting at 202°.

The 1926 sample showed the presence also of citronellal
in traces.

Sesquiterpene and Sesquiterpene Alcohol.—Both sesqui-
terpene and sesquiterpene alcohol were found to be present
but the small quantities available did not permit of their
separation and identification.

Phenolic Bodies —0.25% of unidentified phenolic con-
stituents yielding an indifferent colour reaction with ferric
chloride in alcohole solution, were found to be present.

Paraffin—From the high boiling residues a_ small
quantity of a paraffin was isolated of m.p. 65-66°.

In conclusion, I have to express thanks to Mr. F. R.
Morrison, F.c.s., A.A.c.L, Assistant Economic Chemist, for
much valuable assistance in the chemical examination of
these oils; also to the Curator for the opportunity afforded
to visit Sugar Loaf Mountain for the purpose of making
field observations.

DEFECTIVE NEW ZEALAND KAURI. 345

AN EXAMINATION OF DEFECTIVE NEW ZEALAND
KAURI (Agathis australis).

M. B. WELCH, B.Sc., A.L.C.
(With Plates XXVIII.-XXX.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 1, 1926.)

During 1925 a large consignment of New Zealand kauri
(Agathis australis) was received in Sydney, intended for
‘vat building. After making up several large vats and
filling them with water, it was found that some of the
‘staves were broken across, as though they had been hit
from inside. The wood had ruptured with a brash-like
fracture across the direction of the grain, thus showing
that it was devoid of strength. The sizes used were three
inches or over in thickness, so that the failure was not due
to local ‘‘cross grain’’ effects. In the floor of one vat a
piece of wood fourteen feet in length and three inches
thick, arched up to the extent of ten inches, and showed
-eracks, not on the convex side which would be expected if
the wood were in tension, but on the coneave side, showing
‘that the shrinkage there was abnormal.

On examining a stripped stack of the wood it was also
found that a number of flitches showed transverse or
oblique ruptures, proving apparently that the tensile
strength of the wood was less than the internal stresses
due to seasoning. Longitudinal cracks or checks parallel
to the grain are common in woods which are dried too
quickly, due to the well-known property of wood of shrink-
ing unequally in different planes, but in this case the
failures were across the tracheids.

346 M. B. WELCH.

In appearance the wood was quite normal, varying
somewhat in colour from pale straw to ight brown. There
was no external evidence of sap-stain or other fungal
attack. The density was normal, but the lustre on a planed
surface was rather less than usual, and according to the
coopers the wood was ‘‘dead’’ and in nature resembled
Powellised kauri. The whole consignment, amounting to:
about 100,000 super feet was condemned as useless for the
purpose for which it was intended.

A rather similar experience, as the result of the use of
defective New Zealand kauri, has recently been ventilated
before the High Court in England.* The failure of the
timber, which was proved to be swamp kauri, was also:
due to cracks appearing transversely in the wood, although
prior to this there was nothing to indicate that the wood
was not normal. It was stated in evidence that there was.
a diminution in cellulose and an increase in the resinous.
content of the swamp kauri, and further that since the
New Zealand Government’s restriction on the export of
kauri this buried material was being used.

Apparently the Forestry Department practically pro-
hibits the export of first-class kauri, but there is no diffi-
culty in obtaining a permit to ship third-class or swamp:
kauri, although the latter wood has at present acquired
such a reputation that milling it has practically ceased.

According to those engaged in the handling of New
Zealand kauri, it is not necessary for the immersion in salt
or brackish water to be longer than a few years before the
defects noted, i.e., the appearance of ‘‘lightning-like’’
cracks, and the shelling and warping of the wood, occur
on seasoning. It is stated also that Rimu, Dacrydium cup-
ressinum, and White Pine, Podocarpus dacrydioides, behave:

* Timber Trades Journal, London, 1926, 99, 1768.

DEFECTIVE NEW ZEALAND KAURI. 347

in a similar manner when the logs are left in the water
more than a few years. Much of the swamp kauri is of
course buried in silt.

Tiemann* refers to experiments carried out by Janka on
the effect of salt and fresh water on wood. The conclusion
was that fresh water reduced the hygroscopicity and
shrinkage of the wood, but weakened it shghtly, whereas
salt water probably reduced shrinkage. The time allowed
was from one and a half to three and a half years. Tiemann
also suggests that internal stresses gradually disappear by
soaking the wood and mentions that in Japan, wood is
commonly soaked for from two to five years in a mixture
of six parts of sea-water and one part of fresh water. In
the kauri in question, internal stresses were certainly not
eliminated; thus one inch squares, cut for test purposes,
curled so rapidly after sawing that it was practically im-
possible to dress them, and, in a length of a few feet,
warped more than six inches from straight. Similarly
quarter cut flitches over three inches thick and twelve
Inches wide, warped sideways, undoubtedly due to severe
internal stresses; the maximum shrinkage was towards the
heart.

The fact that so-called swamp kauri has beex: milled for
many years is borne out by the following statement made
by Kirkt in his description of Agathis australis: ‘‘In many
localities as at Papakura and in the Waikato, kauri forests
have been buried from unknown causes and the kauri is
continually dug up, and used for railway sleepers, house
framing, weather boarding, shingles, fencing, ete., with the

2)

most satisfactory results.’’ The occurrence of these buried

forests is also referred to in the report of the Kauri Gum

* Tiemann, Kiln Drying of Lumber, 1917.
+ Kirk, I. The Forest Flora of New Zealand, Wellington, 1889.

348 M. B. WELCH.

Commission,t as follows:—‘‘Evidence of ti forests of
bygone ages are however afforded by the huge trunks of
trees, In many cases as sound as the day they had fallen,
and their branches and limbs scattered over and under the
ground in the utmost confusion.”’

Brittleness in timber is usually due either to too
rapid growth, producing a large percentage of thin
walled wood-fibres or tracheids, to exposure, to too
high temperatures during seasoning, or to incipient
decay. That prolonged burying may cause loss cf
strength is shown by the brittle nature, when dry, of
the blackened discolored wood occasionally unearthed
at considerable depths in New South Wales. Burial
for moderate periods may not apparently effect the wood,
for example, apart from the kauri quoted above, Wilsont
in reference to Cunninghamia sinensis var. glauca states
that trees buried for many years in land slides yield wood
often much darker than normal, but which is considered
superior to newly felled timber and is largely used for
coffins.

Boulger§ in reference to water seasoning, i.e., the immer-
sion of logs in water for long periods, states that it reduces
warping but renders the wood brittle and less elastic.

Two samples were originally obtained from one firm and
transverse tests made on 3in. X 3in, X 36in. span, centre
load, with the following results; the material was clear and
free from defects :-—

+ Report of the Royal Commission on Kauri Gum Reserves,
Wellington, 1914. .

t Wilson, E. H. A Naturalist in Western China, 1913.

§ Boulger, Wood, London, 1902.

DEFECTIVE NEW ZEALAND KAURI. 349s

Test I:—Defective Kauri.
Modulus of rupture Modulus of elasticity Weight Moisture %

in lbs. per sq. in. inlbs.persq.in. percubic
foot.
ie sie = W-
(1) 5,060 892,000 32 boat
(2) 4,480 690,000 30 15.3
Mean 95,020 791,000 34 15.2

At about the same time transverse tests were also made:
on eight similar sized pieces from a different firm, six
being from defective material and two from kauri pre-.
viously held in stock and known to be sound.

The following results were obtained :—
Test II:—Defective Kauri.

f, E. W. Moisture %:
(1) 8,310 837,000 30 14.6
(2) 8,790 921,000 Of oem
(3) 9.140 970,000 38 12.8
(4) 0,180 099,000 38 16.6
(dD) 4,180 739,000 44 16.4
(6) 5,600 1,231,000 42 16.2
Mean 6,693 882,000 39 13.3
Sound Kauri.
Ci) TE. 500 1,624,000 Oo” 10.8
(2) 9,740 1,419,000 ol 10.8
Mean 10,620 1,521,500 34 10.8

Early this year six flitches which appeared to be quite
sound, were selected from a large stack, and two test
pieces of the same size as those above were cut from each.
Transverse tests with centre load gave the following re-
sults :—

Test III:—Defective Kauri.
if E. W. Moisture %
1A : 5,660 656,200 40.0 14.0
IB 5,120 656,200 41.2 18.4

350 M. B. WELCH.

x -
=

fig E. W. Moisture %
2A 98,130 709,300 40.6 LB ie.
2B 5,420 576,000 40.6 due yp
3A 10,770 921,300 38.0 13.5
3B 8,620 953,200 39.6 13.5
4A 4,720 800,600 31.0 OR,
4B 6,300 576,000 34.4 L258
DA 9,820 1,256,600 39.3 19
5B 5,680 1,228,700 31.0 12.8
6A. 7,980 864,000 33.1 15.2
6B 4,990 1,024,700 36.5 14.7
Mean 6,684 768,600 Oleg 14.6

Compression tests were made on sound and defective
kauri according to the method laid down in the British
Standard Specifications for Aircraft Material; duplicate
tests being made. The sound kauri was from the same
pieces used in Test 2 and the defective kauri was from
Test 3.

Test IV:—Defective Kauri.
Breaking load in

lbs. per sq. in. Moisture %.
a 6,010 6,979 11.8
2 6,010 6,110 10.7
3 6,650 6,945 12.1
4 9,380 5,310 10.6
5) 1,390 7,370 10.0
6 6,120 5,949 od. 3
Mean 6,325 a.
Sound Kauri.
1 8,320 7,030 9.1
2 7,320 6,760 9.8
Mean 7,480 9.5

Brittleness tests were also made in an Izod impact test-
ing machine, according to aircraft specifications, the test
‘pieces being from the same material as used in Test 4.

DEFECTIVE NEW ZEALAND KAURI. 351

‘Test. V:—Defective Kauri.

Breaking load in foot-lbs. Moisture %.
el fey 1.6 11.8
2 3.3 4.3 10%
3 2.6 4.3 12.1
4 om: 6.1 10.6
5) 5.3 5.3 10.0
6 1-9 ys | 11.3
Mean 3.8 Tete 1)
Sound Kauri.
1 2.8 eo 4.8 Jel
2 4.6 2.9 4.0 OFS
Mean 3.1 9.5

For comparison the following transverse tests of New
Zealand kauri are given on 3in. X 3in. X 386in. test
pieces :—*

Mean £.=18,660. H.=2,159,900. W.=40. air seasoned.

The tests carried out on behalf of the Air Ministry of
Great Britain gave the following mean figures.+ The sizes
of the test pieces are not mentioned, but if, according to
the B.E.SA. specification for Aircraft Materials, the trans-
verse tests would be on 2in. X lin. X 30in. span with four
point loading.

fe Orazo. 0 H).—1,622,000.* W.=31. 7 Moisture.=15.1%:

Mean compression tests from the same source are:—
f.=6,190. W.=31. Moisture.=15.1%.

The very serious decrease in strength of the defective
kauri is clearly shown by the transverse tests, thus the
mean modulus of rupture is, in the three series of tests,
5,020, 6,693, and 6,684 lbs. per sq. in. against 10,620 and
13,660 lbs. per sq. in. for similar sized, sound test pieces.

* Welch: Notes on Strength of Timbers, Technological Museum
Bulletin No. 6, 1923.

+ Empire Timber Exhibition Catalogue, London, 1920.

302 M. B. WELCH.

The moisture contents of the sound test pieces in Test 2
are certainly lower than those of the defective material,
but the variation in strength is too great to be accounted
for by the increased moisture in the latter.

In general the strength of a wood, other factors being
equal, varies directly as the density. Reducing the mean
weights per cubic foot to a 10.8% moisture content basis,.
we have 32.7, 37.5 and 36.6 lbs. per cubic foot for the:
defective kauri in Tests 1, 2 and 3 respectively; whereas:
the sound kauri for the same moisture figure is 34 lbs. per
cubie foot. The Technological Museum figure is 40 lbs., and
the Air Ministry 29.8 lbs. per cubie foot, the latter at
10.8% moisture. It is apparent that the densities of the
defective material are quite normal.

There is considerable variation in the strength of the
various pieces, varying from a minimum modulus of rup-
ture of 4,480 lbs. per sq. in. to 10,770 lbs. per. sq. in., and.
as seen in specimens 5A, 5B, 6A, and 6B of Test 3 there
may be a considerable variation in strength of test pieces.
eut from the same flitch.

The modulus of elasticity or stiffness of the defective
kauri is also extremely low in the majority of the tests,.
the mean figures being 791,000, 882,000, 768,600 lbs. per sq.
in., against 1,521,500, 2,159,900 and 1,622,000 lbs. per sq.
in. for the sound material.

The compression figures do not show such a discrepancy
as the transverse tests, but this is probably partially ac-
counted for by the smaller sized test pieces, and also by the
condition of the cell walls, as will be shown later. Ji
appears therefore that the greatest loss in strength is in
tension and that the compressive strength is not greatly
affected. This would be expected from the behaviour of
the timber whilst seasoning and also from the method of
failure without warning of the transverse test pieces. The

DEFECTIVE NEW ZEALAND KAURI. 303

‘‘breaks’’ were all carrot-like; in the majority of cases the
beams were completely broken across, pieces of wood flying
out of the testing machine. It is evident that the tensile
strength is very little greater than the compressive strength.

Kauri is naturally a comparatively brittle wood, but it
was thought that the especially brittle nature of the defec-
tive timber would be clearly brought out by the impact
tests. The mean figures were practically identical and,
although test pieces 1 and 6 were extremely low, 4 and 5
gave higher results than those obtained for the sound wood.
It is impossible to find any consistent agreement between
the transverse and the impact test figures. Here again the
considerable variation in the figures is possibly due to the
small size of the test pieces.

The species belonging to the genera Agathis and Arau-
caria are characterised by multiseriate bordered pits on
the radial walls of the tracheids, and by numerous semi-
bordered pits between the ray parenchyma and the tra-
cheids. The appearance of these multiseriate bordered pits
is clearly shown in Plate XXVIII, fig. 1, representing a
radial longitudinal section of sound kauri. The bordered
pits are more or less circular or polygonal in outline, with
an elliptical to circular opening. The longer axes of these
openings do not coincide in either half of the pit, but are
usually placed at right angles to each other. The openings
do not extend beyond the outer limits of the border.

If we examine a similar section of the defective material,
Plate XXVIII, fig. 2 it is seen that a considerable altera-
tion in their appearance has occurred. The ends of the pit
openings are now extended for a considerable distance and
appear as definite short spiral cracks in the cell wall; the
other half of the pit opening has also cracked in a similar

manner, but at right angles to it. Cracks may also appear in
W—December 1, 1926.

304 M. B. WELCH.

the wall without any connection with the pit. The semi-
bordered ray pits are also found to be similarly elongated
by the extension of the openings into definite cracks. Plate
XXX, figs a:

An examination of a number of pieces of defective kauri
showed a good deal of variation in the degree of splitting ~
by the elongation of the pit openings, but in every case
more or less of the cells were effected. In specimens 1 and
6 (Test 3), practically every pit opening was extended;
in 3 and 4 the ray pits were affected more than the inter-

tracheid pits; in 2 and 5 the intertracheid pits were almost
normal.

From the examination made there does not seem to be
any definite relationship between the strength of the wood
and the degree of splitting of the cell walls; this is evi-
dently due to the variation occurring in different parts of
the same piece of wood.

In specimen 2A (sound kauri) a small extension was
observed in some of the pits, but this was exceptional,
otherwise the sound kauri did not show this defect. It
appears therefore that longitudinal shrinkage of the trach-
eid has brought about the splitting of the cell walls to a
greater or less extent, and that although such checking
can occur in the sound wood, it is unusual. Apparently
due to the exposure to abnormal conditions in the swamps
the plasticity of the cell wall is reduced, and being unable
to withstand the enormous tensile stresses brought about
by shrinkage, it cracks, usually along the pit opening, which
represents a line of weakness and which corresponds in
direction to the longitudinal axes of the fibrils of the cell
wall.

It is easy to understand, therefore, that the tensile
strength of the wood is reduced to such an extent that it
approximates to or is even less than the compressive

DEFECTIVE NEW ZEALAND KAURI. 300

strength, causing the wood to be extremely brittle. Fur-
thermore the cumulative effect of the weakening of the
individual tracheids due to internal stresses is such that
they are often completely ruptured and_ transverse
“*shakes’’ appear in the wood.

WATER ABSORPTION TESTS.
Defective Kauri.

(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 13.44 8.27 23.89 33.24
3 16.62 318 27.80 36.26
9) USE 8.90 2995 39.93
5) 18.64 8.23 29.45 38.64
Sound Kauri.
1A O09 9.83 16.92 24.41
1A 9.48 Sieh) 16.25 23.43
2A 28.64 8.08 39.02 49.75
2A 33.36 8.13 40.99 49.87

(a) Moisture content % after soaking in water for 3
hours.

(b) Moisture content % after drying for 41 hours at
atmospheric temperature; the low moisture content is
evidently due to the lack of penetration of the water
during soaking (a).

(c) Moisture content % after placing in water for a
further seven hours.

(d) Moisture content % after soaking for a further 20
hours.

Small duplicate pieces of kauri one inch square and two
inches long were selected from the weakest and strongest
of the defective material and also from the sound wood,
the faces being radial and tangential. These were dried
at 100° C. till the weight was constant and then, after
‘weighing, placed in water. The object was to see whether

356 M. B. WELCH.

the swamp kauri snowed any marked variation from normal
in the absorption or loss of water. The results from 3 and 5:
are fairly consistent, but those from the sound wood 1A
and 2A are considerably lower and higher respectively than
the figures for the defective wood. It seems therefore that
the swamp kauri shows no definite variation in the absorp-
tion or loss of moisture above or below normal wood, but
that considerable variation can occur in the latter.

Bailey* in an examination of a number of North Ameri-
can woods found that spiral cracks in the walls of conifer-
ous tracheids occurred in a small percentage of the dry
timber, and that air passed as readily through the un-
ruptured as through the ruptured wood. The latter
result is similar to that which was found to occur in the
absorption of water by sound and defective kauri. The
explanation, as suggested by Bailey, is probably that the
cracks are confined to the secondary thickening of the cell
wall, the middle lamella remaining uninjured. Bailev
found that, where present, the slits were confined to the
thick walled tracheids of the late wood, whereas in the
kauri now examined they may be distributed throughout
the annual ring, the late wood being often only represented
by a zone of a few cells in thickness.

Two g. of the shavings were boiled for one minute in
00 ¢.c. of water and the extracts filtered. In the specimens
examined the sound kauri—even material which had been
in stock in the Museum for more than ten years—gave very
turbid solutions, apparently due to the presence of oily
or resinous bodies. The turbidity cleared with the addition
of caustic potash or alcohol. The defective material gave
solutions which were almost clear or at most slightly turbid.

* Bailey, I. W.:—The Preservative Treatment of Wood,
Forestry Quarterly, 1918, 11.

DEFECTIVE NEW ZEALAND KAURI. 357

‘Caustic potash gave a bright yellow coloration with the
‘sound material, and pale yellow to yellow with the swamp
kauri. The acidity of the extracts from the sound kauri
ranged from pH 4 to pH 9, whereas those from the defec-
tive material were from pH 4.5 to pH 6.5. It seems there-
fore that there is a slight decrease in the acidity of the
swamp kauri.

No definite result was obtained from burning the shav-
ings. In general the shavings smoulder for a long period
and leave a moderately large amount of white or grey ash
and a small amount of unburnt carbon, but exceptions oc-
eurred both in the sound and defective wood, the ash being
extremely small with a relatively large amount of unburnt
‘carbon.

The ash was determined in the swamp and sound kauri
with the following results:
Sound kauri =0.17%.
Defective kauri=0.16%.

These figures suggest that there is no appreciable differ-
ence in the ash content.

On staining sections with alkannin a considerable amount
of resinous or oily material was observed as globules or
irregular masses, principally in the rays, although a few
small globules were sometimes present in the tracheids
adjoining the rays. This applied equally to the sound and
defective woods. The so-called ‘‘resin bars’’ gave no in-
dication of resin. On adding 95% alcohol, partial solution
was obtained, a pale yellowish, more or less clear, amor-
phous residue being left which was darkened considerably
by ferric chloride, the ‘‘resin bars’’ becoming especially
prominent. There is thus apparently little change in the
resinous contents of the ray cells, except possibly in the
loss or alteration of the more volatile constituents, giving
a clearer extract on boiling the shavings.

- 358 M. B. WELCH.

Summary :—New Zealand kauri milled from logs ob-
tained from the swamps is liable to become worthless due
to seasoning defects which not only cause the wood to check:
across the grain, and warp, but also produce excessive
brittleness.

The weakness is evidently caused by a lowering of the
strength of the cell walls with the result that they become
eracked spirally when internal stresses are produced by
shrinkage.

There is apparently no definite increase or decrease in
the rate of absorption or loss of moisture.

In conclusion, I am indebted to Messrs. A. and C. H.
Guthrie, of the Union Box Co., Ltd., of Sydney and Hoki-
anga, New Zealand; to Mr. C. New, of Messrs. Tooth & Co.,.
Ltd., Sydney; and to Mr. W. L. Wearne, of Empire Tim-
bers Ltd., Sydney, for a great deal of valuable information
with respect to the occurrence and usage of swamp kauri;
to Squadron Leader L. J. Wackett, of the Royal Australian
Air Foree Experimental Station, Randwick, and to the
Engineering Department, Sydney Technical College, for
their assistance with the mechanical tests, and to Mr. F. B,
Shambler, of the Technological Museum staff, for preparing
the test specimens, and for his assistance in many other
ways.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate XXVIII, Fig. 1—Radial longitudinal section of
normal. seasoned wood of New Zealand kauri. Agathis
australis, showing typical multiseriate bordered pitting on. -
the radial walls of the tracheids. Towards the right hand
side can be seen the crossed openings. of the pits which
are.typical of this wood. There is no évidence of cracking:
of the cell walls. . x 190.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926. Plate XXVIII.

“

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Plate XXIX.

Vol. LX., 1926

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Plate XXX.

1 Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX., 1926,

JOUrnNa

DEFECTIVE NEW ZEALAND KAURI. 359

Plate XXVIII, Fig. 2.—Radial longitudinal section of
defective New Zealand kauri, at junction of early and late |
wood, showing spiral cracks in the tracheid walls; in the
majority of cases these are due to the elongation of the
pit openings. X 190. :

Plate XXIX, Fig. 3.—Radial longitudinal section of
defective New Zealand kauri at junction of early and late
wood. At the top and bottom are portions of two medul-
lary rays in which are seen the splitting of the walls due
to the elongation of the semi-bordered ray parenchyma-
tracheid pits. The dark masses in the ray cells are
largely oily or:resinous bodies. X 190.

Plate XXIX, Fig. 4.—Tangential longitudinal section
of defective New Zealand kauri showing spiral slits in
several of the tracheids. X 190.

Plate XXX, Fig. 5.—Defective New Zealand kauri
showing appearance of the surface after seasoning. The
largest crack extended right through a flitch 34 inches in
thickness. Numerous small hair like cracks (seen as white
lines) are present which will eventually open up.

(Natural size.)

Plate XXX, Fig. 6.—Two fiitches, 14ft. 3in. in leneth,
12in. wide and 34in. thick of defective New Zealand
kauri, showing the lateral warping, especially of the right
hand piece. Both have numerous transverse cracks, but
with a few exceptions, these are not visible in the
photograph.

360. F. A. COOMBS, W. McGLYNN AND M. B. WELCH.

NOTES ON WATTLE BARKS. Part ii.
By F. A. Coomps, A.A.C.1., W. McGuynn,
Tanning School, Sydney Technical College.
and M. B. WE.LcH, B.Sc., A.I.C.,

Technological Museum.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 1, 1926.)

This paper deals with two important problems connected
with the stability of wattle bark tannins. The first is the
question of the tannin content of stored bark, and the
second refers to the estimation of tannin at high
temperatures.

The subject of tannin depreciation or otherwise in
stored wattle bark is an important one, and as far as
Wwe are aware nothing has been done in the investigation
of this matter.

The view held by many tanners and those practically
interested in tanning material is that the tanning value
is increased with storage, but they are unable to advance
any reasons for this belief. The theory has been advanced
that, due to ageing, the bark is easier to extract on
account of contraction causing small ruptures, and _ so
allowing a readier penetration of the water. The con-
sequent increase in the amount obtained by diffusion was
therefore considered to explain the apparent increase in
tannin; in other words, although the yield of extract was
greater, there had actually been no increase in the tannin
content of the bark. The modern idea is, in fact, that
instead of any increase in tannin, the change is rather
in the reverse direction, the tannins being gradually

NOTES ON WATTLE BARKS. 361

altered by prolonged storage to insoluble phlobaphenes.
Such an alteration can be noted by the change of a light
eoloured bark or leather to a deep reddish colour on
keeping. Although phlobaphenes are said to occur side
by side with the tannins from which they are produced,
this statement seems to require modification. Whilst
phlobaphenes undoubtedly occur in the outer corky layers
of the bark, we have rarely found them in the living
cells in which tannin is present. The bark when freshly
cut, immediately after stripping, is white or at the most
a light pink, and practically devoid of any pronounced
colouring matter, and in the Callitris barks a very sharp
line of demarcation separates the hving light-coloured bark
from the brown outer non-living portion. In wattle the
secondary phloem is often slightly darker than the fan-
‘shaped medullary rays. The action of water on the dark-
coloured contents of the cells of the dry bark shows that
these pass readily into solution.

Wattle bark, after storing for some time, gradually
‘changes in colour from a lght yellow or pink to a very
dark reddish brown; the change being apparently depen-
-dent on temperature, light and time of exposure. Although
‘the change proceeds slowly when stored away from lheght,
it becomes rapid in sunlight and it also increases with
‘temperature. Similarly if pelt be tanned with pale-coloured
wattle tannins, the resulting leather is usually also pale,
but on keeping, it gradually but surely changes to a red
colour. These changes are common to all catechol tannins,
and at times are a considerable disadvantage; thus leather
book-bindings obtained by such tannages change, after
a few years, from a soft and light-coloured condition to
a hard, brittle and dark-coloured state. This brittleness,
apparently due to the instability of these tannins or of
‘the products of their combination with hide-substance, is

362 F. A. COOMBS, W. McGLYNN AND M. B. WELCH.

so pronounced that all catechol tannins are considered
unsuitable for book-binding leathers.

The chemical structure of these tannins is practically
unknown, and no chemical formulae can be supplied to
show the reactions which take place when the catechol
tannins change to the dark red colour. The _ physical
properties of a leather, tanned with these materials, also
undoubtedly change with the colour.

A wet pelt before tanning may be described as an elastic,
fibrous structure, possessing considerable tensile strength.
Such a structure would possess its maximum strength in
tension when the load is evenly distributed over all the
fibres, and conversely its minimum strength when the load
is unevenly divided, so that a few fibres are stressed
beyond their ultimate strength, thus causing their failure ;
this is followed by the breaking of other small sections
of the structure until the whole is broken. When a strip
of wet pelt is subjected to tensile forces the fibre groups
which bear the maximum loads are stretched on account
of their elasticity, and so the load is more or less uniformly
distributed over the section before any failure of individual
fibres occurs.

When a pelt is placed in a tannin solution one of the
physical changes is in the gradual partial loss of this
elasticity, and the decrease in this property in the fibres
and grain surface of a vegetable tanned leather varies.
inversely as the amount of fixed tannin. It is possible
to understand, therefore, that in the book-binding leathers,
where the amount of tannin, fatty matters and mechanical
work are so regulated to give a soft, pliable, tough product,
if the fibres lose their elasticity and become brittle, the
leather cracks and crumbles away when subjected to any
severe handling which is sufficient to cause even moderate:
internal stresses.

NOTES ON WATTLE BARKS. 363:

Of the catechol tannins, wattle is the most important
commercially, and this change to the ‘‘reds’’ or phloba-
phenes evidently still takes place even after the tannins
have been fixed in the leather. It is possible that the
brittleness noted above may be due to combination of
the tannin particles to form more solid masses,

Over thirty years ago a very complete investigation
was made into the tannin content of the Acacia barks
by the late J. H. Maiden. Numerous samples from
different localities were stored in a dry place at the
Technological Museum, and it was thought of interest
to repeat the analyses to determine whether any appreci-
able alteration in the tannin content had occurred.
Unfortunately the only figures available on the specimens
were the tannin contents. It should be understood that
the figures given for the original analyses refer to the
Lowenthal method, since at that time the modern hide-
powder method adopted by the Society of Leather Trade
Chemists had not been introdueed.

wn
a
—
c n
rite E .
eh re : 2
i eae aes 2) faa
Qo on S =e A oO £
3 oe = S) Z ss
alts eS H Zi ne iS
A. mollisstina 8/11/92 30 Ate, 10.39 35.39 11.50:
A. pycnantha 1899 40; 51.96) “10.22 “26:33 11950

A. decurrens var

Leichhardtti 17/10/92 26 40.24 9.55 38.71 11.50:
A. decurrens var.

Leichhardti 8/10/9217 26> 32.32 7.86 48.32 11.50
A. mollissima Lf LOT92: xe BO A0LIG. 10513 “-38.66) = a5

A. decurrens var.
pauciglandulosa 8/11/92 24s 22529 8.23 54.86 11.50:

. decurrens 12/8/92 38.09 9:32 41509) ~ 1i1e50
. decurrens 8/7/92 39.38 8.82 40.80 11.50
dealbata 1893 — 24.60 G50) ) Dd. 7) Oo PIED 0
. mollissima 1893 — 46.47 SiS2> oot pas 0)

iw)
te)

DOME Ss
co
fom)

364 F. A. COOMBS, W. McGLYNN AND M. B. WELCH.

The last two specimens were sent from Nilgiris, India,
to the late Mr. Maiden, but no record could be found
of any analyses.

The tannin content of sample, A. pycnantha, is remark-
ably high and as far as we are aware is the highest yet
recorded for any sample of wattle bark. From the fact
that only four samples show under 40% tannin it is
obvious that there can have been ttle if any depreciation,
‘especially in view of the exceptionally high figure obtained
for A. pycnantha. At the same time it is impossible to
‘say definitely whether any increase has occurred.

The mean figures for the analyses of a number of barks
of A. mollissima, A. decurrens var. normalis and A.
decurrens var. pauciglandulosa, recently collected were
found to be tannin, 33.86%; non-tannins, 8.62%; the
maximum percentage of tannin being 50.72 and the mini-
mum 23.28. If we assume an increase in the tannin
content has taken place, it must have come either from
the soluble non-tannins or from the insolubles.

: tannins
In the old barks the ratio of OR 4.30
In the new barks the ratio of en = Sai

non-tannins

These figures are not close enough to suggest that there
has been no alteration in the amount of soluble non-
tannins present.

It seems, therefore, that prolonged storage of wattle bark
for periods up to about thirty years has not resulted in
any loss of tannin; on the other hand there is possibly
a slight increase at the expense of the non-tannins.

* Proctor (Leather Trade Chemists’ Pocketbook) gives the
ratio for Mimosa as 2—3.

NOTES ON WATTLE BARKS. 365>

A microscopic examination was also made of portions
of the old barks. Without some preliminary treatment it
is impossible to obtain satisfactory sections, on account
of the hardness of the tissue. After soaking the bark in
a saturated aqueous solution of potassium bichromate and
then transferring to a glycerine-alcohol mixture, sections
were obtained which showed, as was to be expected, that
there was no alteration in the distribution of the tannin,
from what was found to occur in the fresh bark (ef. Part 1
this Journ. 1923, 57, 313). Portion of the bark was also
softened in glycerine-alcohol without any preliminary treat-
ment with potassium bichromate. <A certain amount of
tannin was evidently removed from the eells, judging by
the colour of the solution. Transferring the sections direct
to potassium bichromate or ferric chloride, showed tannin
to be distributed throughout the tissues with the exception
of the bast-fibre zones and the collapsed sieve-tube areas.
As was found in the fresh bark the precipitate was much
more marked in the outer portion of the secondary phloem
and in the cortex than near the cambium. After allowing
the sections to remain in water for one minute, however,
there was practically no reaction for tannin in any of
the cells, nor was there any insoluble matter which might
be taken as an alteration product of the tannin to phloba-.
phenes. Collapsed sieve tube zones showed a light brownish
colouration, but this is found also in untreated sections.
Sections after boiling in water and treated with bichromate.
were even more clear, with the exception of the collapsed
sieve tube areas. No oily bodies were shown to be present
by the aid of alkannin. Starch grains are, however,
numerous throughout the parenchymatous cells of the
secondary phloem, medullary rays and in the cortical
tissue. It has been suggested that the occurrence of starch.

in the cells in which tannin is normally found, might

366 F. A. COOMBS, W. McGLYNN AND M. B. WELCH.

be connected with the formation of certain glucosides
which are linked up in the formation of the tannins.
Surrounding each group of bast-fibres are parenchyma
cells containing erystals of what is evidently calcium
oxalate.

An examination of the barks failed to reveal any small
eracks or checks which might allow the readier penetration
-of water during extraction. Portion of the bark was also
macerated by Schulze’s method and no evidence was found
of any rupture of the cell-walls due to stresses brought
about through uneven shrinkage.

These old barks were very dark reddish brown in colour
and it is reasonable to suppose that the tannins had
changed to the red condition already described. The high
percentage of soluble tannin obtained by analysis seems
to show that for tanning purposes this long storage and
change to the red condition does not affect the solubility
of the tannins, thus confirming the results obtained by
a microscopic examination of the bark structure.

The effect of high temperatures on tannin solutions.

The view usually accepted is that catechol tannins, on
boiling with acids, generally yield “‘reds’’ insoluble in
water but soluble in alkaline liquors and in alcohol, and
are closely allied to resins. These tannin reds or phloba-
phenes are regarded as anhydrides of tannin, i.e., tannin
from which water has been removed, and consequently are
formed by any agency which tends to split off or abstract
‘water, such as high temperatures or prolonged boiling.
The reds are much more soluble in hot than cold water,
this being one of the reasons why a liquor made by the
aid of heat is generally darker in colour than when
extracted cold. The reds occur in large quantities in hem-
lock and in quebrachs, and are said to occur also in
wattle.*

* Proctor, Principles of Leather Manufacture.

9ah
NOTES ON WATTLE BARKS. 567

Although it is usually considered that high temperatures
are necessary to extract these difficultly-soluble red tannins
from wattle barks, as far as this work has gone the exist-
ence of such tannins has not been proved. It seems rather
that the high temperature, necessary to counteract adsorp-
tion effects during extraction, causes the formation of
these red substances. At temperatures above 40°, wattle
liquors begin to change to a deep red colour, and since
temperatures above this are necessary for extracting the
so-called difficultly-soluble tannins, we have no evidence
that these existed originally in the bark before extraction:
moreover, the light colour of freshly-stored bark does not
suggest that they do occur to any appreciable amount,
it at-all.

As pointed out above, it is generally accepted that
prolonged boiling or extraction at high temperatures
causes the formation of these insoluble phlobaphenes,
and in order to test this conclusion wattle tannins were
boiled for long periods. The experiment was carried out
as follows: sufficient bark was added to a Proctor’s
extractor to give a litre of tan liquor at approximately
20° barkometer (sp. g. 1.02). After extraction the
concentration was adjusted, and 100 ec.c. of the filtered
solution at 18° was placed in each of four one-litre flasks.
Two of these flasks, B, and B,, were then fitted with
reflux condensers and the contents boiled for 20 hours,
then made up to 1 litre with hot water and analysed.
The two check flasks, A, and Az, were not boiled, but
received sufficient hot water to make one litre of tannin
solution and were then analysed. The results thus
obtained might be expected to show whether the boiling
had caused any loss of tannin.

368 F. A. COOMBS, W. McGLYNN AND M. B. WELCH.

Analyses of tannin solutions.

Not boiled. Boiled 20 hours.

Al A2 Bl B2
Tannin 4.405 4.423 4.427 4.402 g. per litre
Non-tannin 1.109 1.097 1.075 1.090
Insolubles 0.026 0.0382 0.000 0.024
Total solids 5.540 SAYA 5.4961 5.516

99 9? 99

It would be possible for the loss of tannin, assuming
that such did occur, to be made up by the alteration of
non-tannins to tannins by the prolonged heating, but
experiments previously made and referred to in Part i of
this series? did not show any evidence of such a change.

The results do not prove that any loss of tannin has
occurred, the variation of the figures given in the above
analyses being within the limits of experimental error.
The pH value of the tan liquors A, and A, was 4.8, and
at this degree of acidity, the tannins appear to be stable,
but further work is contemplated at different hydrogen-ion
concentrations within the limits of acidity obtaining in an
extraction battery.

During an investigation of the tannins of the Black
Cypress Pine Callitris calcarata,4 it was shown that the
presence of starch could be considered as an important
factor in the destruction of tannin at high temperatures,
and an experiment was conducted on somewhat similar
lines with the wattle tannins. One hundred c.c. of a wattle
bark liquor (approx. 20° barkometer) were measured into
each of four one-litre flasks. Two of these received 0.5 g.

1In this case total solubles were slightly in excess of total
solids.

2Welch, McGlynn and Coombs; Notes on Wattle Barks,
Part 1; This Journ., 19238, 57, 3138.

3 Williams (Composition of Natal Wattle Bark, Dept. of
Agric., South Africa, Bull No. 1, 1920) shows a slight loss,
scarcely beyond the limit of experimental error, on boiling a
tannin solution for one hour.

4Coombs, McGlynn and Welch. The Tannins of the Black
Cypress Pine (Callitris calcarata R. Br.), This Journ., 1925,
59, 356. L

NOTES ON WATTLE BARKS. 369)

of starch dissolved in 200 c¢.c. of water, and were then
made up to the mark with boiling water; the other two
were similarly treated but without the addition of starch.
After shaking and allowing to cool, they were analysed
with the following results:

Without Starch. With Starch.

1 2 1 2,
Tannin 3.775 3.789 3.508 3.481
Non-tannin - 2.203 ropa BEA 2.2080 2.261

The total tannin without starch was 7.564 as against
6.989 with starch—a difference of 0.575 or 7.6% decrease
in the tannin content. The amount of’ starch added was
apparently all used up to form the starch-tannin com-
bination and the filtrate gave no reaction for starch. It
is probable therefore that if more starch had been added
an even greater loss of tannin would have resulted.

In the experiments carried out with the Callitris calcarata
tannins the loss by the addition of starch was 11.7% of
the tannins. It is evident that in the case of the wattle
also, starch can play an important part in the destruction
of tannin, and the presence of starch granules in these
barks has already been noted.

The formation of this tannin-starch compound, insoluble
at ordinary temperatures, was clearly proved during the
operation of a battery of 8 vats working on the Press
Leach system with wattle bark. In this case the three
tail-end vats containing almost spent bark were main-
tained at a temperature of about 98°. One liquor was
drawn off each day, the battery being in operation for
eight hours between each charge. As the liquor flowed
beyond the three tail-end vats, the temperature decreased
and a heavy jelly-like precipitate of this tannin-starch
compound gradually accumulated, which was evidently
soluble at higher temperatures. This compound was too

X—December 1, 1926.

370 F. A. COOMBS, W. McGLYNN AND M. B. WELCH.

insoluble at atmospheric temperatures to reach the leading
vat into which the fresh bark was placed, the system being
a progressive one. On treating this tannin-starch com-
bination with iodine a definite starch reaction was obtained.

Reference is made to the precipitation of tannin by the
carbohydrate, tragasol, in a paper by Stocks and
Greenwood.!

Hough? has stated that rice starch is used to thicken
gambier extract and noted also that when no rice starch
is used the insolubles are considerably reduced. Gambier
tannins are mellow and are used with more astringent
tannins to prevent ‘‘drawn grain.”’

The presence of starch has been detected in block
gambier extract; a sample with a high percentage of
insolubles and a correspondingly low tannin content, gave
a positive reaction.

The fact that starch is present in large quantities in
gambier extract and that this extract is used to mellow
more astringent liquors, suggests that the addition of starch
might have a similar effect when added to a wattle tannage
which is itself astringent.

Proctor and Parker3 found that.by extracting wattle
bark at 100° for 24-3 hours there was a loss of tannin
amounting to 8.1% ; it is important to note that the liquor
was in contact with the bark at this temperature. Since
it has been shown that boiling a tannin solution for 20
hours. has resulted in practically no loss of tannin, and
that wattle bark has been proved to contain starch, it is
suggested that the loss shown by Proctor and Parker was

1 Stocks and Greenwood, Journ. Soc. Leather Trades Chemists,
1925, 310.
2 Hough, Collegium, London, 1915, 348.

3Proctor and Parker: Effect of different Temperatures on the
Extraction of tanning Materials. Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.,
1895, 685.

NOTES ON WATTLE BARKS. 371

‘due, not to the destruction of the tannin at high tempera-
tures, but to the combination of tannin and starch, the
latter having been removed from the parenchymatous cells
by boiling.

Summary.

Analyses of a number of wattle barks stored for over
30 years in a dry place seem to indicate that no loss of
tannin has occurred. The ratio of tannins to non-tannins
is much higher than that obtained in freshly stripped bark
and suggests the possibility of an actual increase in tannin
at the expense of the non-tannins. The high tannin
contents also show that, although the barks have changed
in colour from pale yellow, or at most a light pink, to a
deep red, there has been no apparent decrease in the
solubility of the tannins; this is confirmed by a micro-
‘scopic examination.

The suggestion that high temperatures are necessary for
the extraction of the difficultly-soluble red tannins in
wattle bark can be discarded; it seems rather that the
high temperature necessary to overcome adsorption forces
actually turns the tannins red. There is no proof that
difficultly-soluble red tannins occur in fresh wattle bark,
and at temperatures above 40° a colour change to red
occurs. Below 40°, however, a complete extraction of
these tannins is impossible, so that any process giving
approximately a complete extraction must use a higher
temperature, and must therefore bring about this change
to the reds.

The loss shown by various writers when solutions of
‘wattle tannins in contact with partially spent bark are
exposed to high temperatures is probably due to an in-
soluble starch-tannin combination, and not to a want of
stability of the tannins under these conditions. This
starch-tannin compound is partially soluble at temperatures
approaching boiling point, but separates out on cooling.

372 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

THE HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE OF
BLAIR DUGUID, NEAR ALLANDALE, N.S.WALES.

By W. R. Browne, D.Sc.
Assistant-Professor of Geology, University of Sydney.
and

H. P. Wars, F.C.S.
Chief Chemist, N.S.W. Geological Survey Laboratory.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 1, 1926.)

In his monumental work on the Hunter River Coal-
Measures! Professor Sir Edgeworth David makes refer-
ence to a mass of hypersthene-andesite constituting a group:
of low hills lying a little over a mile south of Allandale
Railway Station, 8 miles beyond West Maitland on the
Great Northern Line. The outcrop is depicted on the map:
accompanying the memoir, the boundaries being sketched
in: on this map the group of hills is named Blair Duguid,
though locally no definite name seems to be attached to
them.

Some years ago, in the course of a trip across the out-
crop made by one of us (W.R.B.) in the company of
Prof. David, certain resemblances were noted between the
hypersthene-andesite and the rock composing the pebbles
of the massive conglomerate outcropping in the railway-
eutting about half-a-mile east of Allandale Station, and
further investigation revealed certain features of petro-
logical and stratigraphical interest which were considered
worthy of record.

HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE OF BLAIR DUGUID. 373

Field-Notes.

The hills are of low relief, rising by gentle soil-covered
slopes to a height of 200 feet above the level of the creek
that flows to the north of the mass, the highest point of
which is about 370 feet above sea-level, and the total area
eovered by the outcrop is about 1} square miles.

A field-examination reveals that there are a number of
variations of the rock-type, some phases being almost black
‘and basaltic-looking, others bluish or brown, and others
‘again various shades of grey. These variations, it will
‘be shown, represent alterations of the very dark phase,
‘which is the fresh, unaltered rock.

Most of the andesite is massive, but a good deal of it
is amygdaloidal, this feature being more conspicuous to
the north and west of the mass than to the south and east.
The texture is surprisingly uniform, the rock through all
its phases exhibiting very abundant tiny phenocrysts,
mostly of felspar, in a stony groundmass.

Throughout the mass there is an absence of natural
‘sections, and, save for some shallow excavations, of artificial
‘sections too, so that the mutual relations of the different
phases cannot be properly made out, but from a study of
the surface-outcrops it would appear that the light-grey
phase in particular is quite irregularly distributed through
‘the mass, and that in general there exists no regularity in
the distribution of the different phases.

The vesicular portions of the mass are blue-grey or
pale grey, sometimes light brown, in colour, and _ the
vesicles are as a rule small and very elongated and flat-
tened. The principal visible lining is translucent and
opaque chalcedony, and the cavities are not always com-
pletely filled. In many eases a vesicular rock when split
‘open is found to have in the cavities calcite and a rusty

374 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

- brown, earthy substance, probably representing a former:
lining of chlorite. It should be noted that the very dark--
coloured phases have never been found to be amygdaloidal
or vesicular, and that on the other hand the lighter--
coloured phases are often perfectly massive.

More particularly in connection with the hght grey
phase there appears to be a very considerable local develop-
ment of chalcedony. Much of this mineral is strewn over
the surface in a fragmental condition, and some of it seems.
to have occurred in cracks, while some, showing beautiful
banding, evidently formed the lining of large cavities.
with quartz-filled centres. In one case a mass of this.
chalcedony was found to have a cellular structure, due to:
the dissolving out of calcite crystals, round which it had
been moulded, and indeed it is possible that the empty
centres of some of the vesicles may once have been filled.
with calcite, now weathered away.

Petrography.
Measurements on a thin section of the fresh andesite:
show the following approximate volume-percentages of.
phenoerysts and groundmass :—

Placioelase ioe angie eho 27
PYTOMONEs, cc G ie Svan Ae ee D
Croundmase: eye 68

A slight fluxional arrangement of the phenocrysts causes:
variation in the measurement results for different diree-
tions, but the figures given represent the mean of sets in.
two principal directions, and are probably not very far
from the truth.

The plagioclase (Ab,z,An;)) is columnar and well--
formed, showing both Carlsbad and albite twin-lamellae,.
as well as occasional cruciform interpenetration-twinning,,
and there is slight zoning. The majority of the crystals.

HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE OF BLAIR DUGUID. 315

range between 2 and 0.5 mm. in length, but there are others
down to 0.1 mm., which may be regarded as phenocrysts,
and these appear to be as basic in composition as the
larger ones.

The hypersthene prisms rarely exceed 2 mm. and the
majority are smaller; a very little monoclinic pyroxene
seems to be present.

The groundmass, which is very fine-grained, is composed
largely of laths of plagioclase with prisms of pyroxene,
both rhombic and monoclinic, and abundant cubelets of
magnetite, which according to the chemical analysis is
probably titaniferous. The felspar has a refractive index
above that of Canada balsam, but other measurements are
not possible; a calculation from the analysis, however,
indicates oligoclase about Ab;;An,;. A felspathic mineral
with refractive index lower than that of oligoclase, and
forming irregular micro-poikilitic patches, may be ortho-
clase, and a very little quartz and some apatite in tiny
meedles are to be seen.

It is not certain whether any glassy base is present, but
in places there is what looks rather like interstitial devitri-
fied glass: if this is so the fabric, although now best
deseribed as pilotaxitic, was originally hyalopilitie.

A little alteration of the rock is evident, resulting in
the production of chlorite and carbonates.

Slides cut from a number of the different phases illus-
trate the processes of alteration of the rock. Albitisation
of the phenocrysts has proceeded in the usual way, along
eracks and cleavage-planes: in no case examined is the
transformation to albite complete. So far as can be made
out, the phenocrysts have suffered much more than the
more acid felspars of the groundmass, which is in accord
with the observations of Bailey and Grabham.?2 In the
most altered rocks felspar is thinly spangled with sericite.

376 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

Concomitantly with the alteration of the felspars there
have been progressive changes in the pyroxene. The first
alteration apparently is into a bright green to brownish-
green platey mineral with one perfect cleavage, straight
extinction, strong pleochroism, very small optic axial angle
and fairly high negative birefringence. These characters
correspond closely with those of iddingsite as given by
Johannsen.

This mineral is usually regarded as secondary after
olivine, but in the present instance it has very clearly
been derived from hypersthene. One of us (W.R.B.) has
observed the same mineral taking the place of olivine in
rocks which had suffered deuteric alteration, and the ques-
tion suggests itself whether iddingsite rather than ordinary
serpentine is the usual alteration-product of these silicates
under such circumstances.

In some other slides of the Blair Duguid rock the
iddingsite becomes bleached and pale, and loses strength
of double refraction, showing at the same time a tendency
to pass over into sheaves of what look like ordinary serpen-
tine, which is constantly accompanied by granules of
secondary sphene, a rather surprising alteration-product
of a mineral which is supposed to be fairly free from lime.

In other slides the iddingsite has partly changed into
an aggregate of what appear to be exceedingly minute
scales of pale chlorite, and yet another change is that to
a carbonate—evidently calcite, since it effervesces freely
in cold acid. The substitution of calcite for iddingsite
is very well shown indeed.

The iron ore as a rule remains well disseminated through
the groundmass during the earlier stages of alteration: in
the most altered phases of the rock it has disappeared as
such, but little granules may represent secondary sphene

HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE OF BLAIR DUGUID. ona

after titaniferous magnetite. In one of the slides of altered
rock the magnetite is much more abundant than usual,
and is bunched or clotted in a fashion which suggests
hydrothermal introduction.

In the brown-coloured phases of the rock the colour is
-due to extensive staining with haematite and limonite.

In the thin sections of the amygdaloidal phases of the
-andesite the vesicles are seen to be lined with chalcedony,
while their centres are filled with granular quartz or
-with chalcedony in beautifully radiating aggregates.

But for the fact that specimens are available showing all
stages of alteration from the fresh rock, the most altered
phase might well be called a keratophyre, and it was in
‘fact so called before its antecedents were known.

Chenucal Composition.
Two specimens of the rock have been analysed by one
of us (H.P.W.) with the results given in columns I and II.

i. I: III. IV. Ne VI.
SiO, .. 59.20 -.61.12 60.26 58.79 59.48 57.75
Pomeeree 16.98 18.71 16.46 (17.51. 17:38 17.68
MeO. ~ 3.30 1.65 1.15 2a 2.96 1.55
He) .. «23.69 1.08 4.87 3.87 3.67 1.01
MeO)" .) - 3.10 ea 3.09 2.23 3.28 1.67
20) (3. 7.02 3.84 5.25 6.18 6.61 3.63
MeO... ~ 3.31 6.13 4,23 4.84 3.41 5.79
Ore, 1.26 Zeal 0.98 0.68 1.64 1.98
FeO+ ;. - 1.13 1.23 2120 26k 04 1.16
Hea 0.73 1.39 0.22 nals 1.31
co, nts 0.48 abs. abs. tr, — abs,
Smeets... 2) © 0:55 0.65 0.84 Lon 0.48 0.62
(0 0.17 0.23 0.29 = 0.20 0.22
MnO 0.30 0.21 0.08 == 0.15 0.20
S = ee 0.03 = = =

=O

LOO:22 -— 100.12 99.97 100.74 100.00 94.57
aoe. .. 2.74 2.59 — = a 235

378 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

I. Fresh hypersthene-andesite, Blair Duguid.

It. Albitised hypersthene-andesite, pebble from conglom-
erate in railway cutting, 4-mile east of Allandale.

ITI. Andesitic pitchstone, Currabubula. Analyst, W. N.
Benson. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1920, 45, 417.

IV. Andesitic pitchstone, Pokolbin. Analyst, W. R. Browne.
This Journal, 1911; 45; 404:

V. Osann’s Average of hypersthene-andesite. Quoted by
Daly—Igneous Rocks and Their Origin.

VI. Analysis II recalculated as explained in the text.

The second analysis is that of a very much albitised
Specimen, a conglomerate-pebble identical with the albit-
ised phases of the rock outcropping at Blair Duguid: this
was collected in the railway-cutting west of Allandale and
analysed before the presence of the albitised rock in situ
had been observed.

For comparison are cited analyses of Carboniferous
pyroxene-andesites from other parts of the Hunter Valley
and from Currabubula, about 100 miles to the north, as
well as Osann’s average analysis for hypersthene-andesite.
The similarity of the fresh rock from Blair Duguid with.
this last is very striking and indicates its typical character.

With the Carboniferous pyroxene-andesites the fresh.
Blair Duguid rock shows many points of resemblance,
but there are also some differences. In many of the
essential oxides it is very close indeed to the Currabubula
rock, but the lime is higher and the soda lower. Though
not suspected when the analyses were first published, there
can be little doubt that the high figures for soda and the
low figures for lime in the Currabubula and the Pokolbin
rock are due to slight albitisation, and if allowance is made
for this the correspondence between these and the Blair
Duguid rock is all the closer.

HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE OF BLAIR DUGUID. 379

The norms of the rocks I and II are as follows :—

I. II.

@uartz .. w+.» 16.74% a 7.26%
Orthoclase nee, Pa ae Hates’ as i223
Albite Leb abe heats eae Mat are Se Salou)
Anorthite 7 en aT PEPE Ure = L724
Diopside mech <8 4,73 ve 0.86
Hypersthene .. .. 9.07 a 4.00
Magnetite ees ta 4.87 ae 2.32
Wmenites sc fe 1.06 a 22
Byatwe .. «. «+. 0.84 ee 0.34

CACHES i ew 10 ie —

98.48 ys 97.34
Classification .. .. II. 4.3.4 5.24

Tonalose. Larvikose.

On the whole the fresh rock has a fairly normative mode..
As observed above, the quartz and orthoclase probably
occur in the groundmass, though it must be confessed an
inspection of a thin slice does not suggest the presence of
so much quartz as is revealed by the norm. It is evident
that at least half of the pyroxene is in the groundmass, and.
probably the bulk of the diopside occurs in this way.

From the norm of II it is evident that the rock has
not been completely albitised, as there is still much of
the anorthite molecule present. The mode is not normative
in respect of the dark constituents, the normative hyper-
sthene and diopside combining with water and appearing
as serpentinous material.

It is interesting to note that this albitised rock finds.
without difficulty a place in the C.I.P.W. Classification,
which is intended for fresh rocks only.

A comparison of the analyses I and II reveals some
interesting features. Taking the figures as they stand, it
is sufficiently evident that there has been in the partially
albitised phase a loss of lime, iron and magnesia, and a gain.
of soda, but a more accurate comparison is desirable.

380 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

Merrill3 has pointed out that a reasonably reliable com-
parison of analyses in the case of a fresh rock and the
same rock decomposed is possible only if we standardise
the analysis of the altered rock by means of some of the
constituents which can be assumed to have remained
approximately constant through being insoluble in the
weathering solutions; this principle he has used with much
‘success.

In the present instance this method cannot be used, for
we cannot be sure that any constituent has not suffered
‘either increase or diminution, since the solutions affecting
the rock have evidently been constructive as well as
‘destructive. However, an approximate comparison may
perhaps be made if we take specific gravity into account.
This has decreased by about 54% in the altered as
compared with the fresh rock, and though this change
is no doubt partly in consequence of recombination of
the oxides to form minerals of greater specific volume, it
will probably not be very incorrect if we assume that it
is mainly due to the actual increase of some oxides and
diminution of others.

If then we recalculate analysis IT so that its sum is about
‘94.5, we can compare the result directly with analysis I,
since the figures now represent the weights of the various
‘oxides present in the same volume of both rocks. When
this is done there is seen to have been in the altered rock
a loss of 810., Fe.O;, FeO, MgO, CaO and CO,, and a gain
of Al,O;, Na,O, K,O and H.O as well as of the minor oxides
P.O; and TiQs.

Even if the assumption on which these calculations have
been based is not quite correct, there is indicated for the
altered rock, in addition to the gain in soda, a gain of
potash of at least 25% of the amount present in the fresh
rock.

HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE OF BLAIR DUGUID. 381

This may be demonstrated in another way, for if we
assume that the potash has remained constant, and recal-
culate the analysis II accordingly, an altogether improbable
total removal of most of the other oxides is seen to have
oceurred.

The ultimate fate of the removed material we can:
determine only in part. Doubtless some or all of the
silica was deposited in vesicles and cracks as chalcedony
and quartz, though the quantities of these minerals present
seem greater than can be accounted for by the removal of
Silica; and some of the magnesia and iron probably
reappeared as the vesicle-filling chlorite which has since
been removed from the outcropping rocks by weathering.

The absence of notable quantities of carbonates from
the altered rocks is somewhat surprising. True it is that
in some of the altered phases calcite replaces the pyroxene,
that calcite occurs in some of the cavities, and that there
is evidence of the former presence of this mineral with
chalcedony in other cavities, but on the whole the ecar-
bonates are not prominent. It may be, of course, that the:
parts of the mass extensively carbonated have been removed
by erosion or are not yet revealed, or else that most of the
carbonates have been dissolved out by weathering solutions.

Origin of the Albitising Solutions.

It is abundantly clear from the field-evidence that the
albitisation is not due to mere surface-weathering, because
the unalbitised andesite weathers in very distinctive
fashion, the alteration being limited to a superficial layer
about 4 of an inch thick which is rusty and slightly pitted
on the outside, and dotted with kaolinised and decomposed
phenocrysts underneath. Below this thin outer layer the
rock is perfectly fresh, with a dark, almost basaltic look
and glassy felspars. The grey albitised rock, on the other

30D W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

hand, is grey right through, and the felspar phenocrysts are
always greyish white and opaque. Further, there are never
gradations to be seen in any specimen from the surface
inward through blue, brown or grey phases to the fresh
rock. The various phases are, as emphasised above, dis-
tributed irreguiarly through the mass, and in some of the
shallow excavations it appears, though it cannot be
definitely proved, that the grey rock has a vertical dis-
position. The occurrence of chalcedony, it would seem, is
confined largely to the altered phases of the rock, both as
vesicle-filliing and as fissure-filling. In aspecimen which was
secured showing both the grey and a less altered phase,
there is a continuity of texture from one phase to the other,
but a rather abrupt change of colour along an irregular
boundary, showing that the grey phase is not a subsequent
intrusion but the result of the action of very potent
solutions acting on the dark rock.

The question next arises as to whether these phenomena
are the work of groundwater or of magmatic solutions. It
has for a long time been recognised that the formation of
albite and zeolites, chlorite, serpentine, calcite and other
alteration-products in igneous rocks, is often due to the
activity of magmatic solutions operating during or im-
mediately after the consolidation of the rock, and indeed
it seems doubtful whether the temperatures requisite for
albitisation are normally attained by ordinary groundwater
solutions. It is noteworthy that the alterations of igneous ;
rocks by hydrothermal action discussed by Lindgren‘, Leith
and Meads, and others usually involve the loss of soda. In
the present instance the outstanding feature of the altera-
tion is the gain of soda, and this in itself would point to
the action of solutions of a particular nature and origin.

The phenomena observed at Blair Duguid then are such |
as may best be explained as being deuteric in character,

9
HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE OF BLAIR DUGUID. 383

the result of the activity of the residual waters of the
andesitic magma; these may have worked upwards, as
appears to have been the case in the Permo-Carboniferous
latite at Port Kembla (to be described in a later com-
munication), perhaps along joint-planes, altering the
rock only locally where it was solid, but effecting
more extensive alteration where the rock was vesicular
and percolation more easy. Unfortunately for this
view the Permo-Carboniferous tuffs lying some dis-
tance above the andesite are likewise albitic and have quite
possibly been albitised; still this is not improbably a coin-
cidence, since there is no reason why the same magmatic
processes should not have been repeated.

Age and Relations of the Mass.

In his Hunter River Memoir Professor David interprets
the Blair Duguid mass as representing the site of a sub-
marine volcano in the Lower Marine Permo-Carboniferous
sea, which emitted both andesitic lava and volcanic ash
The discovery that the rock constituting the pebbles of
the Allandale conglomerate is identical with certain phases
of the Blair Duguid andesite makes it pertinent to inquire
into the geological age of the latter. In a later paper®
Professor David looks upon the mass as an inlier of Car-
boniferous rock, and this is the view which commends itself
to us.

Mantling the flanks of the hills and in the creeks cutting
through or flowing round the mass one may see tuff or
tuffaceous sandstone, usually weathered to a warm brown or
sandy colour, but probably light bluish-grey when fresh,
hike that at Harper’s Hill, and in places quite richly fos-
siliferous in Hurydesma cordatum, Aviculopecten, ete.;
here and there this tuff may be observed to pass down
into a heavy conglomerate. In one creek on the western
side of the mass and flowing parallel to it there appears

384 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

such a conglomerate with angular and rounded boulders:
up to three feet in length, packed closely together with very
little matrix and that tuffaceous. This conglomerate rests:
directly on the solid andesite, and a little distance away
it has passed into a facies with smaller pebbles and con-
taining Lower Marine fossils. At the house of Mr. Barnard,
vigneron, at the extreme southern end of the mass, there
is an excavation which shows a section of boulders of
andesite or albitised andesite, some amygdaloidal, up to:
24 ft. in diameter, well-rounded and set in a very sub-
ordinate tuffaceous matrix, the whole evidently resting
directly on the solid andesite. This conglomerate
would appear to be overlain by a coarse tuff and fine con-
glomerate, some phases of which are very highly
fossiliferous.

Other patches of tuffaceous conglomerate containing
highly rounded andesite pebbles have been observed in
creeks round the andesite, and it is very probable that the
conglomerate is continuous round the mass, but that the
presence of so much soil prevents one from distinguishing
between weathered blocks of solid andesite and andesitic¢
boulders weathered out from the conglomerate.

The various bands of conglomerate exposed in the
cuttings east of Allandale and separated by beds of tuff
have very similar characters to those just described. In
some places the boulders are big and angular, elsewhere
they are well-rounded, and on a number of horizons in
tuff and conglomerate there are bands of fossils, par-
ticularly Hurydesma cordatum. Professor David’s map
shows that this conglomerate and tuff can be traced in
a north-west direction as far as Harper’s Hill, where there
is a good exposure in a cutting on the Great Northern Road.
Thence it goes obliquely across the road, forming a high
bank overlooking the flood-plain of the Hunter, and appears

HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE OF BLAIR DUGUID. 385

eventually to be cut off by the river. South or south-east
from the railway-cutting the conglomerate can be traced
with difficulty for some distance, forming a low ridge
more or less parallel with the railway-lne, but it cannot be
definitely identified as far round as Lochinvar railway
station. The heavy conglomerate, which gives rise to a
prominent ridge where best developed, would thus appear
to thin out and die away when followed along its strike in
either direction from Allandale; in other words, it is purely
local in its occurrence, and such as might be developed
round the shore-line of an island in a shallow sea.

There is thus a strong probability that the Allandale
conglomerate is to be linked with that surrounding Blair
Duguid, though the details of the connection are obscure.
In Professor David’s map the Greta fault is shown cutting
through between Blair Duguid and the railway-line, with
a throw to the north, and near the crest of the hill on the
road connecting Allandale Station to the Great Northern
Road a fault is to be seen with a throw of unknown amount
to the south. These faults probably explain why the con-
glomerate is found about 13 miles north of Blair Duguid
and about the same level as the highest point of the
andesite.

The fact that the andesite formed an island in the
Lower Marine sea does not settle the question of its age.
The island may have been a remnant of the submerged
Carboniferous land or it may have arisen like some of the
present-day volcanic islands, from the sea, and suffered
wave-erosion during the geological period in which it
originated.

At Drake’s Hill, Pokolbin, some 8 miles south-west from
Blair Duguid, there is a mass of rhyolite and rhyolite-

breccia, trachyte (or keratophyre) and andesite, obviously
Y—December 1, 1926.

386 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

of Carboniferous age, since the same types not far away
are overlain by Rhacopteris-bearing tuff.' The hill is
mantled in places by a heavy conglomerate, composed of
rounded and angular boulders of keratophyre, ete., and
containing Hurydesma cordatum, Aviculopecten and other
Lower Marine fossils. It is clear that this Drake’s Hill
mass was an island of Carboniferous rocks which suffered
erosion in a Lower Marine sea, and as this provides a
close parallel to Blair Duguid in the matter of occurrence,
even to the probable stratigraphical horizon of the fossils
occurring in the conglomerate, it may perhaps be taken to
present a complete parallel and to furnish evidence of the
Carboniferous age of the Blair Duguid andesite.

In Professor David’s memoir the andesite and the
Harper’s Hill tuff are evidently considered to have been
derived from the same voleanic centre, but this contiguity
of tuff and lava may well be accidental, for tuff is found
on other horizons in the Lower Marine Series. In addition,
the tuff itself is different petrologically from the andesite,
being composed largely of chips of albite and fragments of
a trachytic rock, with a fair proportion of angular quartz
grains and no definitely recognisable dark minerals except
magnetite. While, therefore, the fossiliferous tuff is
indubitably Permo-Carboniferous, it does not follow that
the andesite belongs to the same period.

What may be called the internal evidence may now be
considered. Chemically, as shown above, the andesite is
comparable with Carboniferous andesites from elsewhere
in the Hunter River valley, if one allows for changes due to
partial albitisation; petrologically it bears very close re-
semblance to the pilotaxitic pyroxene-andesites of Pokolbin
and Currabubula. Further, there are no similar rocks of
known Permo-Carboniferous age with which the Blair

HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE OF BLAIR DUGUID. 387

Duguid rock can be compared, and this is in itself

‘significant.

Reviewing all the available evidence, then, we are
strongly disposed to regard the Blair Duguid andesite as
an inlier of Kuttung rock rather than as a flow contem-

poraneous in the Lower Marine Series.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Summary.
It is shown that the hypersthene-andesite composing
the Blair Duguid hills is locally altered to a rock of
keratophyric affinities.

The alteration is believed to have involved inter alia
the addition of potash as well as soda to the rock, and
the change of the hypersthene in some places to idding-
site and in others to carbonates.

The solutions effecting the change are considered to
have been probably of magmatic origin.

The available evidence is considered to point to a
Carboniferous rather than a Permo-Carboniferous age
for the andesite.

REFERENCES.

I David—Mem. No. 4, Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 1907, 1238.

2 Bailey and Grabham—Geol. Mag., N.S., Dec. V., 1909, 6, 251.

3 Merrill—Rocks, Rock-Weathering and Soils, p. 187.

4Lindgren—Mineral Deposits, Chap. XXII.

5 Leith and Mead—Metamorphic Geology, p. 46.

6 David—Pan-Pacific Science Congress, Australia, 1923: Guide-
Book to Hunter River Excursion, p. 29.

=

388 E. M. BARTHOLOMEW AND I. W. WARK.

COOLING CURVES IN THE BINARY SYSTEMS,

(a) p-TOLUIDINE—SALICYLIC ACID, (b) p-TOLUIDINE—
BENZOIC ACID.*
By Eveutyn Marcrery BArRTHOLOMEW, B.Sc.
and JAN WiLuIAM WaRK, D.Sc., Ph.D.
(Communicated by Professor C. HE. Fawsitt, D.Sc.)

Accepted for Publication, November 24, 1926.

In the course of some work on metallic hydroxy-acid
complexes (J.C.S., 1923-1925), which one of us has carried
out during the past few years, the function of the hydroxyl
group in hydroxy-acids has come under consideration..
It was thought that a study of the binary compounds
formed by such acids and certain organic bases might
throw some light on the matter. It would obviously be an
advantage to compare the results so obtained with those
from some acid which does not contain the additional
alcoholic hydroxyl group and also with those from some
alcohol or phenol, which does not contain the carboxyl
eroup. As a suitable hydroxy-acid, salicylic acid was.
selected, and the results which it gave were compared
with those from benzoic acid and with Philip’s results from
a-naphthol. As a matter of fact, all three behave in a
similar manner towards p-toluidine, and consequently the
method is not suitable for bringing out the differences
sought between these three types of compound.

The procedure adopted was that described by Philip
(J.C.S., 1908, 83, 814). Various mixtures of the two
components containing different molecular proportions
were weighed out, and after fusion in an oil or water

COOLING CURVES IN BINARY SYSTEMS. 389

bath, the mixture was lagged with cotton wool and the rate
of cooling carefully observed. The first “‘arrest’’ in the
rate of cooling corresponds to the melting point of the
mixture, the second to the eutectic point.

The results for each system are tabulated below. The
temperatures given are probably correct to within one
or two degrees. Owing to the fact that super-cooling
readily occurs, they are more likely to be low than high.
To avoid excessive supercooling it is advisable to cool
slowly and, if necessary, to ‘‘seed’’ with the appropriate
solid. All compositions have been reported as molecular

percentages.

System. System.
p-toluidine—salicylic acid. p-toluidine—benzoic acid.
Percentage. Melting point. Percentage. Melting point.

of p-toluidine. of p-toluidine.

0 158 0 122
20 135 20 101
20 127 24 ot
30 119 30 88
33.33 109
38.4 84
40 70 40 67

42.8 58
46.6 78 46 48
50 80 50 50
55.5 81 55 AT
60 77.5 60 43
62.0 38
66.66 64 66.66 33
68 63
70 60 70.5 28
Hoe) 54 ce 23
75 46 eo 26.5
78 41
80 36 80 29
82 29
85.7 33
90 35 88.8 35
95 38

100 43 100 43.

aU

’ og ;
< Pegrees Centigrade

390 E. M. BARTHOLOMEW AND I. W. WARK.

System, p-toluidine—salicylic acid: The results of the
above table are plotted in figure I. It will be seen that
one compound only is formed between these two com-.
ponents, corresponding to the maximum in the curve at
00 per cent. It contains the two components in equi-
molecular proportions and its melting point is about 81°.
The eutectic points are 70° and 28°, the percentages of
-toluidine being 40 and 82 respectively.

Flgure if

Sy bain { Potoluidine

salicylic acid.

~~ — — =

20 oA) 60 &0

Percentage of p-toluidine.

System, p-toluidine—benzoic acid: The results are
plotted in figure IJ. As in the preceding system, one
compound only is formed, containing the two components.
in equi-molecular proportions. Its melting point is 50°;
the eutectic points are 48° and 23°, containing 46 and 72°
per cent. of p-toluidine respectively.

COOLING CURVES IN BINARY SYSTEMS. 391

System, p-toluidine—a-naphthol: This system has already
been investigated by Philip (l.c.). Our results are in close
agreement with his, and show that again one compound only
is formed, in which the components occur in equi-molecular
proportions. Its melting point is 50° according to our
work, and 53° according to that of Philip, who claims
greater accuracy than was attained in our measurements.

S; gure li

4140

a
{<> | SAS eed | as |

System Pa cena te
L benesie aud

Percentage of p-teluidine.

Conclusions.—Salicylie acid, benzoie acid and a-napthol
all give similar melting point curves with »-toluidine,
indicating in each case, the formation of a compound con-
taining the two components in equi-molecular proportions.

ABSTRACT oF PROCEEDINGS

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMopal Society of slew Sonth Wales.

MAY 5, 1926.

The Annual Meeting, being the four hundred and
sixtieth General Monthly Meeting of the Society, was held
at the Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth Street, Sydney, at
‘op jomuaae

Professor R. D. Watt, President, in the Chair.
Fifty-four members and two visitors were present.

The Minutes of the General Monthly Meeting of the
2nd December, 1925, were read and confirmed.

The certificates of five candidates for admission as
ordinary members were read for the first time.

It was announced that the following members had died
during the recess:—Professor W. H. Warren and Dr.
William Bateson, an Honorary Member.

The Annual Financial Statement for the year ended 31st
March, 1926, was submitted to members and on the motion
of Professor H. G. Chapman, seconded by Mr. R. W.
Challinor, was adopted.

GENERAL ACCOUNT.

RECEIPES,
Loo Staidin Yh 35. 0s 4 Sele

To Revenue -

Subscriptions... ott Sas 647 15 0
»» Rents—

Offices ve wae ee ae, OOL Ore O

Hall and Library a ae ADR ees

— 808 9 7

‘iv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

»» Sundry Receipts i
»» Government Subsidy for 1925

,, Clarke Memorial Fund—
Loan to General Fund (interest)
», Building Loan Fund
», Building Investment Fund—
Loan to General Fund ...
», H. G. Smith Memorial Fund
», Balance--3lst March, 1926.
Union Bank of Australia Ltd.
Overdrawn Account, Head Office
Less Petty Cash on Hand

PAYMENTS.
LL Side
By Balance—3lst March, 1925

,, Administrative Expenditare—
», salaries and Wages—
Office Salary and Accountancy

Fees ae ose me Fee LUE Sao
Assistant Librarian aie eas ishy Ua)
Caretaker ... ee wee vue 24 13° 8

,, Printing, Stationery, Advertising
and Stamps—

Stamps and Telegrams... PA shee)
Office Sundries, Stationery, &c. 210 8
Advertising nee sae “124 1S L1h6e a6
Printings ... an ais fear (OL 1403
», Rates, Taxes and Services—
Electric Light ... coe aeeu 00” Sues
Gas... ce ves aes soe, eae, elie)
Insurance ... oes ea ee sy 20)
Rates 660 va as Soe 0) Iho)
Telephone 50 aa on, Whom ee

22 1740
400 0 0
== 18702 as
6315 4
53019 1
300 0 0
118 °9)
12606 12
ido ais
ae 1259 oho
£4151 15 11

Gan sinh Lf oA Aad.
2003 2 4

113s 4 a2

328 21s

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. V..

» Printing and Publishing Society‘s

Volume—
Printing, &c.
Bookbinding

», Library —
Books and Periodicals ...
Bookbinding

», Sundry Expenses—
Repairs fs
Lantern Operator
Bank Charges
Sundries

,, Interest—

ean 140

41 10

0

——— 313 4 0

57 0

8

, 108 117 6
————-— 205 12 2

Union Bank of Australia Ltd.

Clarke Memorial Fund...
Building Loan Fund

,, Building and Investment Fund...

s 9
8 10
4 7
41 14

Oo nr OA

60 a 35
——-— 1597 13 4

74:18 O

63 15 4

126 a1

———— 251 0 3
300 0 0

#4isl 15 1h

CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND,
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 3lst MARCH, 1926.
LIABILITIES.

Accumulation Fund—-

Balance as at 3lst March, 1925

Additions during the year—

Interest and General Fund

ASSETS.

Loan to General Fund

Se sO, Weise es

HeeJ0D OF Go

63 15 4
————1029 3 7

£1029 3 7

Ly Sade
S029) eSs iif

Z1029 sng

vi, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS FOR THE
YEAR ENDED 3lst MARCH, 1926.

RECEIPTS,
oe Syd.
To Interest—-Loan to General Fund ... a ane in (OS es:
PGS 19 4

PAYMENTS.
PS Aa 5k
By Loan to General Fund... a sai sine Bh ven. Go LR:
460/10) 4:

BUILDING AND INVESTMENT FUND,
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 3lst MARCH, 1926.

LIABILITIES.
ZL Ba Ger fos. We:
Accumulation Account—

Balance as at 3lst March, 1925 hea «ee 400-00

Additions during the year— ee von COU SOTO)
—— 700 0 0
TOO: VOD

ASSETS.

££ sid
Loan to General Fund aN ae ba LA ye veg LOOP IO LIG
Zi00 0.9

Compiled from the Books and Accounts of the Royal Society
of New South Wales, and certified to be in accordance therewith.

(Sgd.) HENRY G. CHAPMAN, o.p.,

Honorary Treasurer.
(Sgd.) W. PERCIVAL MINELL, F.C.P.A.,
Auditor.
On the motion of Mr. E. Cheel, Mr. W. P. Minell was
duly elected Auditor for the current year.

The Annual Report of the Council was read, and on the
motion of Dr. G. A. Waterhouse, seconded by Professor
Douglas Stewart, was adopted.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Vik

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1925-1926.
(Ist May to 28th April. )

The Council regrets to report the loss by death of three
ordinary members and one honorary member, Ten mem-
bers have resigned and five names were removed from the
list of members through non-payment of subscriptions. On
the other hand, ten ordinary members have been elected
during the year. To-day (28th April, 1926) the roll of
members stands at 370.

During the Society’s year there have been eight general
monthly meetings and ten Council meetings.

The Building Committee has held several meetings
‘during the year with representatives of the Linnean Society
of New South Wales and the Institution of Engineers,
Australia, to discuss the question of building a Science
House in which all the various scientific institutions can
be accommodated, but no complete scheme has yet been
formulated.

Four Popular Science Lectures were given, namely :—

July 16—‘‘The Elements and their Spectra,’’ by Prof.
O. U. Vonwiller, B.Sc.

August 20—‘‘Vitamines,’’ by Assoc.-Prof. H. Priestley,
M.D., Ch.M.

September 17—‘‘The Influence of Organic Chemistry on
EKeonomie Conditions,’’ by Prof. J. Kenner, Ph.D.,
Desc. L.R.S.

‘October 22—‘‘The Hawaiian Islands,’’ by Sir Joseph
Carruthers, K.C.M.G., M.L.C., LL.D.

Meetings were held throughout the Session by the
Sections of Geology, Agriculture, Industry and Physical
Science.

Vill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Twenty-six papers were read at the Monthly Meetings:
and covered a wide range of subjects. In most cases they
were illustrated by exhibits of interest.

The following members have been honoured during the
year :—R. H. Cambage, C.B.E., Commander of the Most.
Excellent Order of the British Empire (Civil Division) ; —
Sir Edgeworth David, Honorary Degree of Doctor of
Science by the Senate of the Cambridge University and the
Patron’s Medal by the Royal Geographical Society.

On Friday, 14th August, 1925, an informal meeting
of members was held to wish bon voyage to Sir Edgeworth.
David, who was leaving for England to publish his book
on the Geology of Australia.

On Monday, 14th September, 1925, an informal meeting
of members was held for the purpose of extending a welcome:
to Sir Ernest Rutherford, O.M., M.A., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S.,.
of England, who was visiting Australia and New Zealand.

The President and members welcomed Professor EH. R.
Embree, of the Rockefeller Foundation, and Dr. Clark
Wissler, head of the Department of Anthropology in the
American Museum of Natural Science, on Monday, 2nd
November, 1925, who were visiting Australia to investigate
the question of Anthropological Research in relation to the
native races of the Pacific.

Owing to the State Government coming to a decision to
close the Sydney Observatory, a deputation from the
Council headed by the President waited on the Hon. Mr.
W. J. McKell, Minister of Justice, representing the
Premier, on 3rd December, 1925, and urged that the
Sydney Observatory be not closed. Representatives of the
New South Wales Branch of the British Astronomical
Association joined the deputation, which received a very
sympathetic hearing, Mr. McKell undertaking to place the

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ix;

representations before the Premier. Finality in the matter
has not yet been reached.

The New South Wales Chamber of Agriculture having
terminated its tenancy in the Society’s House, the room
formerly occupied by that body has been let to the Aus-
tralian Chemical Institute, and the New South Wales Rod
Fishers’ Society have become co-tenants with the Dental
Association of New South Wales.

The donations to the Library have been as follows :—
41 volumes, 1578 parts, 38 reports, 4 maps and 4 calendars.

The President announced that the following Popular
Science Lectures would be delivered this Session :—

June 17—‘‘Sound Waves,’’ by Mr. E. T. Fisk.

July 15—‘‘Drifting Continents,’’ by Prof. L. A. Cotton,
M.A., D.Sc.

August 19—‘‘The Sydney Harbour Bridge,’’ by Dr. J. J.
C. Bradfield, M.E., M.Inst.C.E.

September 16—‘‘Some Chemical Wonders of Australian
Native Plant Life,’’ by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.1., F.C.S.

The following donations were laid upon the table :—
390 parts, 16 volumes, 11 reports, 1 map and 2 calendars.

The President, Professor R. D. Watt, then delivered his
address.

There being no other nominations, the President declared
the following gentlemen to be officers and council for

the coming year :—
President :
W. G. WOOLNOUGH, D.Sc., F.G,S.

Vice-Presidents:
E. C. ANDREWS, B.a., F.G.S. C. ANDERSON, M.a., D.Sc,
Cc. A. SUSSMILCH, F.«a.s. i Prof. BR. D. WATT, m.a., B.Sc.

Hon. Treasurer:

Prof, H. G. CHAPMAN, m.p.

Hon, Secretaries:

R. H. CAMBAGE, c.B.£., F.L.S. | R. GREIG-SMITH. D.sc., M.Sc.

Z—December 1, 1926.

x. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS,

Members of Council:
J. J. C. BRADFIELD, D.Sc.Eng., M.E., G. HARKER, D.sc., F.A.C.1.
ie ualeter | Prof. J. KENNER, Ph:D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

R. W. CHALLINOR, F.1.c., F.c.s. | J. NANGLE, 0.3.5., F.RALS.

kK. CHEEL. | Rev. E. F. PIGOT, s.J., B.A., M.B.
Prof. L. A. COTTON, M.A., D.Se, | Prof. Ay. DOUGLAS STEWART, B.V.Se,
Prof. C. E. FAWSITT, D.sSc., Ph.D. MaR.Cuvass

Professor R. D. Watt, the out-going President, then
installed Dr. W. G. Woolnough as President for the
ensuing year, and the latter briefly returned thanks.

On the motion of Dr. G. Harker a hearty vote of thanks
was accorded to the retiring President for his valuable
address.

JUNE 2, 1926.
The four hundred and sixty-first General Monthly

Meeting was held at the Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth
Street, at 8 p.m.

Dr. W. G. Woolnough, President, in the Chair.

Twenty-seven members and one visitor were present.

The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and
confirmed.

The certificates of five candidates for admission as
ordinary members were read for the second time.

The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary
members of the Society :—Kenneth James Fergus Branch,
Frederick William Booker, Arthur Neville St. George
Burkitt, Alexander James Gibson, and William Johnstone
Newbiggin.

It was announced that since the last meeting the follow-
ing members had died:—Joseph James Fletcher, elected
in 1921, and Hector Kidd, elected in 1901.

A letter was read from Mrs. Wilham Bateson expressing

thanks for the Society’s sympathy in her recent
bereavement.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XI.

The President announced that Mr. E. T. Fisk would
-deliver a Popular Science Lecture upon ‘‘Sound Waves”’
in the Society’s Hall on June 17th.

The following donations were laid upon the table :—
217 parts and 8 volumes.

The President called the attention of members to the
fact that the Council was considering the advisability of
obtaining more suitable premises, and invited members to
‘draw the attention of any persons who might purchase the
property, to the desirable qualities of the situation and of
‘the building.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ:
1. ‘“‘A note on the Rate of Decomposition of Commercial
Calcium Cyanide,’’ by M. S. Benjamin, D.I.C., A.A.C.I.

2. “Reactions depending upon the Vapour at the Interface
of Two Immiscible Liquids,’’ by G. Harker, D.Sc.,
F.A.C.I., and R. K. Newman, B.Sc.

Remarks were made by the President and Mr. A. R.
Penfold.

‘3. ‘‘Notes on the Essential Oils from some Cultivated
Eucalypts,’’ by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.L, F.C.S.
Remarks were made by Messrs. E. Cheel, A. E. Stephen,
R. H. Cambage and Dr. R. Greig-Smith.
4, ‘‘An Investigation on the Optical Properties of Selenium
in the Conducting Form,’’ by Miss P. Nicol, M.Se.

The paper was communicated by Professor O. U.
Vonwiller, B.Sc. Remarks were made by Mr. J. Nangle
and Rev. E. F. Pigot.

EXHIBIT:

On behalf of Mr. J. Barling, Mr. R. H. Cambage
exhibited a chart showing the Sydney Rainfall over a
number of years from 1858 to the present time, and
referred to Russell’s 19-year cycle.

Xil. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Remarks were made by Professor Vonwiller.

7, 926;

The four hundred and sixty-second General Monthly
Meeting was held at the Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth
Street, at 8 p.m.

Dr. W. G. Woolnough, President, in the Chair.

Twenty-seven members were present.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and:
confirmed.

The certificate of one candidate for admission as an
ordinary member was read for the first time.

Letters were read from Mrs. J. J. Fletcher and Mrs..
Hector Kidd expressing thanks for the Society’s sympathy
in their recent bereavements.

The President announced that Professor L. A. Cotton,.
M.A., D.Sc., would deliver a Popular Science Lecture upon:
‘*Drifting Continents,’’ in the Society’s Hall on Thursday,.
July 15.

The following donations were laid upon the table:—
208 parts, 6 volumes and 5 reports.

THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ:
‘The Essential Oils of Leptospermum lanigerum’’ Smith,
Part: I, by A. KR. Penfold, FAC ECs:

Remarks were made by Messrs. R. H. Cambage, R. Grant,
R. W. Challinor, M. B. Welch and the President.

EXHIBITS:
1. Action of Wood on a Photographic Plate, by M. B.
Welch, B.Sc.

2. Abscesses and Ulcerations in Oysters from Beds where
a heavy Mortality occurred, by Mr. T. C. Roughley.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlll.

3. Mr. A. R. Penfold exhibited large crystals of Synthetic
Thymol manufactured by Messrs. D. Thomas and L. D.
Cameron from Piperitone ex Oil of Hucalyptus dives,
at Mortlake. The crystals were obtained from the
erystallising vat and weighed from 14 to 19 grams,
and measured 14 X 14 X # inches. Unfortunately,
erystals of these dimensions are rarely obtained in
commerce as they are broken up by the manufacturers
to meet the demand for small crystals.

4. Portion of an Acacia leaf, the movements of whose
leaflets continued for ten days after being severed from
the plant to give considerable response to the changes
of day and night, by R. H. Cambage, C.B.E., F.L.S.

AUGUST 4, 1926.

The four hundred and sixty-third General Monthly
Meeting was held at the Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth
Street, at 8 p.m.

Dr. W. G. Woolnough, President, in the Chair.

Twenty-nine members and three visitors were present.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and
confirmed.

The President announced the death of Mr. William
Freeman, who was elected a member in 1907.

“The certificates of three candidates for admission as
ordinary members were read: one for the second and two
for the first time.

The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary

member of the Society:—Sydney Ernest Bentivoglio,
B.Sc.Aegr.

The President announced that a public meeting would
be held at the Royal Society’s House on Thursday, 12th
August, at 4 p.m., to consider the question of providing

XIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

some suitable memorial for the late J. H. Maiden, and’
members were invited to be present.

The President announced that Dr. J. J. C. Bradfield,.
M.E., M.Inst.C.E., would deliver a Popular Science Lecture:
upon ‘‘The Sydney Harbour Bridge’’ in the Society’s Hall.
on Thursday, 19th August.

The following donations were laid upon the table :—
8 volumes, 170 parts, 12 reports and 1 map.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ:
1. ““Acacia Seedlings,’’ Part XII, by RK. H. Cambage,.
C.B.E., F.L.S.

Remarks were made by Mr. G. H. Halligan, Prof. J. D..
Stewart, Dr. R. K. Murphy and the President.

2. ‘‘The Hssential Oil of Zieria macrophylla and the:

presence of a New Cyclic Ketone,’’ by A. R. Penfold,.
F.A.C.I1., F.C.S.

Remarks were made by Dr. R. K. Murphy, Mr. R. Grant.
and Dr. G. Harker.

3. ‘‘The Fixed Oil of the Kidney Fat of the Emu,’’ by
Bok. Morrison, AvA-C.L, F.C.S;

Remarks were made by Mr. R. H. Cambage and Mr..

A. R. Penfold.

4. ‘‘Mountain Lagoon and the Kurrajong Fault,’’ by Miss.
Alexa Grady, B.Sc., and H. Hogbin, B.A. (communi-.
cated by Professor Griffith Taylor).

Remarks were made by the President and Mr. A. D. Ollé..

SEPTEMBER 1, 1926.

The four hundred and sixty-fourth General Monthly
Meeting was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth.
Street, at 8 p.m.

Mr. E. C. Andrews, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Twenty-one members were present.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and
confirmed.

The certificates of two candidates for admission as
ordinary members were read for the second time.

The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary
members of the Society :—Hamilton Bartlett Mathews and
Robert William Tannahill.

A letter was read from Mrs. Barker-Woden expressing
thanks for the sympathy extended to her family in the
death of her father, Mr. William Freeman.

A letter was read from Professor Liversidge thanking
the Society for greetings sent from members at the Annual
Dinner. |

It was announced that a Popular Science Lecture
entitled ‘‘Some Chemical Wonders of Australian Native
Plant Life’’ would be delivered by Mr. A. R. Penfold,
eA CL., FCS: in the Society's Hall on Thursday,
September 16.

The following donations were laid upon the table:—
6 volumes, 147 parts, 1 report and 1 map.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ:
1. “‘The Internal Structures of some of the Pentameridae
of New South Wales,’’ by F. W. Booker, B.Sc.

Remarks were made by Mr. W. S. Dun.

2. “‘The Wood Structure of certain Eucalypts belonging
tothe Ash Group’,’’ by M. B. Welch,B.Se., A.LC.

Remarks were made by Messrs. A. D. Ollé and E. Cheel.

OCTOBER 6, 1926.
The four hundred and sixty-fifth General Monthly
Meeting was held at the Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth
Street, at 8 p.m.

XVi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Dr. W. G. Woolnough, President, in the Chair.
Twenty members and one visitor were present.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and
confirmed.

The President announced the death of Mr. Charles
Hedley, who had been a member of this Society since
1891, who was President in 1914 and who was the Clarke
Medallist of 1925.

The President announced that the following resolution
had been passed by the Couneil :-—

“The Council desires to place on record its appreciation of
the valuable services of the late Mr. Charles Hedley, F.L.S.,
as a member for thirty-five years, as a Councillor from 1908
until 1923, and as President in 1914. The members are greatly
indebted to Mr. Hedley, for his untiring efforts in promoting
the welfare and forwarding the interests of the Society, for
his inspiration in the augmentation of the biological sciences
and especially for the “Check List of the Marine Fauna of
New South Wales,” of which Part I, Mollusca, was published
as a supplement to the Journal in 1917.”

A letter was received from Mrs. Hedley thanking the
Society for its letter of sympathy.

The certificates of three candidates for admission as
ordinary members were read for the first time.

The President announced that a Donovan lecture would
be given by Mr. G. F. Dodwell, B.a., on a date to be
announced later.

The following donations were laid upon the table :—
88 parts, 1 volume, 1 report and 1 map.

THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ:

“<The Germicidal Values of some Australian Essential Oils
and their Pure Constituents, together with those of
some Essential Oil Isolates and Syntheties,’’ Part IV,
by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.1, F.C.S., and R. Grant,Wiets:

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xvi.

Remarks were made by Messrs. R. W. Challinor, A. D.
‘Ollé and M. B. Welch.

EXHIBITS :

1. Professor J. Kenner exhibited some models illus-
‘trating the crystalline structure of sodium chloride, ice,
‘the diamond and graphite, and explained the recent ideas
regarding the structure of these substances.

Remarks were made by Professor Douglas Stewart,
Messrs. R. W. Challinor, A. R. Penfold and the President.

2. Professor Stewart introduced Mr. I. Clunies Ross,
B.V.Se., and emphasised the importance of a study of
animal parasites. Mr. Clunies Ross described the life cycle
‘of the Liver Fluke and of the common hydatid.

Remarks were made by Messrs. R. Grant and A. D. Ollé.

3. Mr. J. G. Burrows exhibited an apparatus for com-
‘paring the densities of Hquids and also a series of cobalt-
:ammines.

Remarks were made by Professor Kenner,

NOVEMBER 8, 1926.
The four hundred and_ sixty-sixth General Monthly
Meeting was held at the Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth
‘Street, at 8 p.m.

Dr. W. G. Woolnough, President, in the Chair.
Twenty-four members and one visitor were present.
The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and

‘confirmed.

The President announced the deaths of Mr. Francis
-John Thomas, who had been a member since 1878, and
Dr. Sydney Dodd, who had been elected in 1913.

A letter was received from Mrs. F. J. Thomas thanking

‘the Society for its letter of sympathy.

XVill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

The certificates of three candidates for admission as.
ordinary members were read for the second time.

The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary
members of the Society :—Joseph Bannon, Ernest Marklow
Mitchell and William Saunderson.

The following donations were laid upon the table :—
©) volumes, 136 parts and 1 calendar.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ:

1. ‘‘Deseriptions of Fifteen New Acacias, and notes on
several other species,’’ by the late J. H. Maiden,.
1.8.0.,F.R.S., and W. F. Blakely.

In the unavoidable absence of Mr. Blakely through
illness, the paper was taken as read.

2. ‘‘The Solution Volume of a Solute in Liquid Mixtures,’’
by G. J. Burrows, B.Sc.

Remarks were made by Prof. C. E. Fawsitt.

3. ‘The Preparation of certain Iodo-bismuthites,’’ by Miss.

EK. M. Bartholomew, B.Sc., and G. J. Burrows, B.Se.
The paper was read by Mr. Burrows and remarks were
made by Prof. Fawsitt.

4. “‘Notes on the Salinity of the Water of the Gulf of
Carpentaria,’’ by G. J. Burrows, B.Sc.

Remarks were made by Dr. Harker, Prof. Browne, Prof.

Fawsitt and the President.

dD. ‘The Geology of the Gosforth District, N.S.W.,’’ Part I,
General Geology, by Assist.-Prof. W. R. Browne, D.Se..

Remarks were made by Messrs. C. A. Stissmileh, G. D.

Osborne and the President.

6. ‘‘Note on the occurrence of Triplets among Multiple
Births,’’ by Sir George Knibbs, C.M.G.

In the absence of the Author the paper was taken.
as read.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. X1X.-

The President called the attention of the meeting to a
series of post cards with coloured illustrations of Australian
birds issued by the Australian Museum.

DECEMBER 1, 1926.

The four hundred and sixty-seventh General Monthly
Meeting was held at the Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth
ereeteal © jem.

Dr. W. G. Woolnough, President, in the Chair.

Twenty-one members were present.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and
confirmed.

A letter was received from Mrs. Sydney Dodd thanking
the Society for its letter of sympathy.

The following donations were laid upon the table:—

2 volumes, 161 parts, 4 reports, 2 calendars and 1 map.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ:

1. ‘‘The Geology of the Flinders Ranges, South Australia,
in the neighbourhood of Wooltana Station,’’ by W. G.
Woolnough, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Remarks were made by Assist.-Prof. Browne.
2. ‘‘The Microphone as a Detector of small Vibrations,’’
and
3. “‘Surface Waves due to small artificial Disturbances of

the Ground,’’ by Edgar H. Booth, M.C., B.Sc.

4. “‘The Essential Oils of Eriostemon Coxw Mueller, and
Phebalum dentatum Smith,’’ by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.1.,
F.C.S.

Remarks were made by Dr. G. Harker, Messrs. E. Cheel
and A. D. Ollé.

5. ‘An Examination of Defective New Zealand Kauri
(Agathis australis),’’ by M. B. Welch, B.Se.

Soe ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
Remarks were made by Messrs. A. D. Ollé, J. HE. Bishop
and J. Nangle.

6. ‘‘Notes on Wattle Barks,’’ Part 2, by F. A. Coombs,
F.c.S., W. McGlynn and M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C.
Remarks were made by Messrs. R. W. Challinor and
A. D. Olle.
7. ‘‘On the Hypersthene-Andesite of Blair Duguid, near
Allandale, N.S.W.,’’ by Assistant-Professor W. R.
Browne, D.Sc., and H. P. White.

Remarks were made by G. D. Osborne and the President.

GEOLOGICAL SECTION.

———

ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

GEOLOGICAL SECTION.

oA Se ee

Annual Meeting, May 21, 1926.
Dr. C. Anderson in the Chair.
Eleven members and one visitor were present.

Mr. E. C. Andrews was elected Chairman for the year,
and Mr. G. D. Osborne, Hon. Secretary.

EXHIBITS :
1. By Mr. W. Poole—(a) Sample of rock from a bore
160 miles west of Winton; (b) Lava from Vesuvius.

2. By Mr. W. 8S. Dun—Map of the Sydney District based
on field-work by T. L. Willan.

3. By Mr. T. Hodge-Smith — Wiikite from Finland,
Striverite from Madagascar and Griphtite from S.
Dakota.

4. By Dr. C. Anderson—Skulls of Thylacoleo and of an
extinct kangaroo from Wellington Caves.

5. From the Mining Museum—Specimens of the country
rock from the Passagem Gold Mine, Brazil.

Dr. Woolnough gave an address on ‘‘The Three Glacial
- Stages of South Australia,’’ in which he traced the growth
of knowledge upon the glacial rocks of S.A. since the
important discovery of Permo-Carboniferous glaciation by
Selwyn. Evidence supporting the existence of a Creta-
ceous glaciation was presented in detail. The paper was
discussed by Prof. Cotton, Dr. Anderson, Rev. Wade, and
Messrs. Stissmilech and Osborne.

XXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

June 18, 1926.
Mr. E. C. Andrews in the Chair.

Congratulations were offered to the Chairman on his:
having been chosen to deliver the Silliman Memorial.
Lectures, in America in 1927.

EXHIBITS :

1. From the Mining Museum—(a) Cassiterite and (b)
Green and yellow uranium ores from Katanga, Belgian.
Congo.

2. By Assist.-Prof. Browne—Tillite and glacially-striated
pebbles from the Kuttung Series at Pokolbin.

Rev. R. T. Wade exhibited a fine series of Triassic fossils:
collected from the Brookvale quarry. These comprised
remains of insects, fish and plants. Mr. Wade described.
the fish fossils and Dr. A. B. Walkom spoke upon the plants,
The insects were discussed by Dr. G. A. Waterhouse and.
Mr. A. J. Nicholson. Others who spoke upon the impor-
tance of the collection, included Prof. Cotton and Mr. Dun.

July 16, 1926.
Mr. E. C. Andrews in the Chair, and fourteen members
and twenty-two visitors were present:
EXHIBITS :
1. By Dr. Walkom—lIronstone concretions having an
ellipsoidal shape and peculiar internal structure.
2. By H. F. Whitworth—Series of ultrabasic and altered
ultrabasic rocks from the Lucknow Goldfield.

3. By G. D. Osborne—Iron sands from the beach at New
Plymouth, New Zealand.

4. By Prof. Cotton—Tertiary fossil leaves and insect-
wings in ironstone from Penrose, N.S.W. Also marine
fossils from the Permo-Carboniferous beds _ at
Bundanoon.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXV..

5. By Assist.-Prof. Browne—Radiating wollastonite from
the contact metamorphosed limestone at the Old Lime-
kilns, Marulan.

6. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse—(a) Two photographs of
silicified limestone occurring at Marulan, showing the
preservation of original rhythmical banding. (b)
Cherts from Tallong showing miniature faulting, and
chiastolite slate from Tallong.

DISCUSSION :

Two important problems in the Geology of the Tallong-
Bundanoon District were discussed. (i) The relationship
of the Permo-Carboniferous rocks. This was opened by
Mr. Morrison and discussed by Messrs. Cotton, Browne,
Woolnough, Andrews, Dun and Osborne. (11) The occur-
rence and origin of the bauxite deposits. In opening this
Mr. Waterhouse reviewed some of the theories that have
been put forward to account for the occurrence of this
material, and was inclined to the view that the Tallong-
Wingello deposits were formed under lake conditions. Dr,
Woolnough spoke on the origin of the laterites of Western
Australia and considered that there was a_ general
uniformity about the origin of all the lateritic and bauxitie
cappings which occur in West and East Australia. Other
speakers included Assist.-Prof. Browne and Messrs.
Andrews, Dun, Morrison, and Raggatt.

September 17, 1926,
Mr. W. S. Dun in the Chair.

Eleven members were present.

Dr. Walkom referred to the death, since the last meeting,
of Mr. Charles Hedley, and on his motion a vote of
sympathy to Mrs. Hedley was carried in silence.

Aa—December 1, 1926

XXVi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

EXHIBITS :

1. By Dr. Walkom—Verticil of Glossopterts leaves from
Boolaroo, N.S.W.

2. By Assist.-Prof. Browne — Briquette of coal from
Morwell, Victoria, as used for domestic purposes in
Victoria.

3. By Rev. R. T. Wade—Two fossil insects and a number
of fossil fish from Brookvale quarry. /

4. By Mr. H. G. Raggatt—Breccia and altered country
rock from voleanic neck, north of Cowan.

5. By Mr. H. F. Whitworth—(a) Pebble of. chiastolite
slate from Penrose, probably originally Ordovician in
age, and incorporated in later sediments. (b) Pyritous
shale nodule from the State Brick Quarry. (c) Por-
phyritic basalt from Mullumbimby and olivine basalt
from Bexley. (d) Scale leaves of Glossopteris from
Gloucester.

6. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse—(a) Desert sands from

' Ooldea and Barton, S.A., from along the Trans-
Australian Railway. (b) Coneretionary travertine
and Tertiary fossiliferous limestone from Ooldea. (c)
Gypsum crystals encrusting a piece of synthetic roofing
material from the desert country of S.A. (d) Cubical
block (with one face polished) of red granite from
Vinkkila, Finland. Also photographs showing quarry
where the granite is obtained. This rock is being used
in the construction of the Head Office of the Govern-
ment Savings Bank.

Mr. G. D. Osborne spoke to the section on the structure
of the Carboniferous rocks near Singleton and discussed
the evidence concerning the faults of the Lower Hunter
district. He pointed out the probability of there having
been two main periods of faulting, the former being char-

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. -XXViL.

‘acterised by normal faulting, which was of late Palaeozoic
age, and the latter being characterised by overthrusting
of a distinctly later date.

Subsequent discussion was contributed by Messrs.
Browne, Morrison and Raggatt.

October 15, 1926.
Mr. W. S. Dun in the Chair, and ten members and four
visitors were present.

The chairman offered congratulations to Dr. A. B.
Walkom on his appointment to a research fellowship in
Palaeo-Botany at Cambridge.

EXHIBITS:

1. By Mr. G. D. Osborne—(a) Specimen of Phyllotheca
showing nodes and ringlets proceeding therefrom.
(b) Two specimens of Glossopteris ampla and two of
Glossopteris mdica. All specimens from the cliffs,
Neweastle.

2. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse—(a) Coneretionary iron-
stone from the rock platform, Maroubra, showing a
shell of haematite on the outer surface of which were
cemented a number of pebbles. (b) Chert from
Nobby’s, Neweastle, showing minute contemporaneous
eontortions. Also tuffaceous sandstone from the same
locality showing the presence of much carbonaceous
material.

Assistant-Professor Browne addressed the section on the
following: ‘‘Tectonic geology and igneous action of the
Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous of N.S.W.’? The
geological history of eastern N.S.W. in general, and the
Hunter District in particular, throughout the Upper
Palaeozoic, was summarised, and the salient features of the
igneous rocks, which were produced from time to time,
were commented upon.

XXVIIL. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

The paper was discussed by Messrs. Dun and Osborne.

November 19, 1926.

Mr. C. A. Stissmilch in the Chair, and fifteen members:

and thirteen visitors were present.

EXHIBITS:

1. By the Geology Department, University—An extensive:

collection of rocks, minerals and fossils from South

Australia and West Australia. These were used to:
illustrate the remarks made later on during the

evening.

2. By the Mining Museum—Staurolte schist, garnet schist
and cyanite schist from Cullalla, W.A.

3. By Mr. L. F. Harper—lLarge quartz crystal showing

_ pronounced distortion, from decomposed rhyolite,

Pambula.

Mr. L. L. Waterhouse gave a lantern address upon the

salient geological features of the Kalgoorlie and Southern

Cross districts, Western Australia, and described the

physiography and geography along the Trans-continental
Railway.

Mr. G. D. Osborne gave an account, illustrated by lantern
views, of the geology of the Coastal Plain near Perth,
and also of the Irwin River District, W.A.

Remarks concerning the recent Science Congress at
Perth were then made by Mr. Sitissmilch, Dr. Browne and
Mr. Stephen.

December 10th, 1926.

Assistant-Professor Browne in the Chair, and twelve

members and five visitors were present.

———

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, XxX1X.

EXHIBITS:

1. By Rev. R. T. Wade—Triassic shale from Queenscliff,
Manly, showing plant fossil, probably one of the
Taenopteridae.

2. By Mr. H. G. Raggatt—Breccia and basalt from a
voleanic neck south of Woy Woy.

3. By Mr. G. D. Osborne—Pebbles from Permo-Carboni-
ferous conglomerate at Fassifern, showing presence

of numerous indentations, the origin of which is a
matter of doubt.

4, By Assist.-Prof. Browne—(a) Specimens of granite,
pegmatite and metamorphosed sedimentary rocks from
Albury. (b) Permo-Carboniferous specimens from
Ulan, and Burragorang.

5. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse—Specimens of Permo-
Carboniferous rocks from the Capertee Valley.

DISCUSSION.

The main business of the evening was a discussion on
“<The western margin of the great Permo-Carboniferous
basin of central eastern N.S.W.’’ Mr. L. J. Jones intro-
duced the subject and summarised the general features of
the stratigraphy and structure along the greater part of
the western side of the basin. Other speakers were Messrs.
Harper, Kenny, Morrison, Osborne, Waterhouse, Whit-
worth, Dr. Woolnough and Professor Browne.

Among the chief points discussed during the evening
were the stratigraphical succession, the relationships
between the coal seams and the glacial beds, the range of
Glossopterts, and the structure of the strata, particularly
an the north-west of the basin.

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SECTION OF AGRICULTURE,

ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

SECTION or AGRICULTURE.

Annual Meeting, June 14, 1926.
Mr. E. A. Southee presided.

The election of officers resulted as follows :—Chawrman—
A. D. Olé, F.C.S.; Vice-Chairman—Professor R. D. Watt,
M.A., B.Sc.; Honorary Secretaries—P. Hindmarsh, M.A.,
B.Se.Agr., R. J. Noble, Ph.D., B.Sc.Agr.; Committee—
Brotessor J. D. Stewart, B.V.Se., M.R.C.V.S.; HA.
‘Southee, O.B.E., M.A., B.Sc.Agr.; A. E. Stephen, F.C.S.
W. L. Waterhouse, M.C., B.Sc.Agr., D.I.C.

Mr. Southee addressed the meeting on the subject of
the ‘‘Organisation of research in relation to Agriculture.”’
Agricultural research still suffers from a lack of appre-
ciation by the general public. The recent visits of Sir
‘Ernest Rutherford and Sir Frank Heath had drawn
attention to the necessity in many different directions.
Too much was accepted from research abroad; more should
be accomplished in Australia. Financial aid was lacking
-and there was a great opportunity for private individuals
and organisations to provide money for research work.
The speaker referred to the Federal Government’s pro-
posals in connection with the reconstructed Council of
‘Scientific and Industrial Research, and suggested that their
activities might be well directed toward the selection of
problems, selection of individuals and institutions for
‘special research activities, concentration of research
workers where necessary, the avoidance of duplication and
‘the arrangement by co-operation. Some of the problems
‘in relation to agriculture were outlined.

KOREKALIV ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Dr. Fiaschi moved a vote of thanks to the Chairman for
his year of office.

June 29, 1926.
Mr, A. De Ollepresided:

Dr. H. L. Russell, Dean and Director of the Agricultural.
Hxperiment Station, University of Wisconsin, addressed
the meeting on the subject of ‘‘ Agricultural Organisation
and Education in America.’’ The American system of
agricultural education, research, and extension differs fun-.
damentally from that of New South Wales inasmuch as in
the United States, these three functions come under the:
provinee of the Agricultural Colleges, whereas research and.
extension in New South Wales, was the function of the
State Department. The American Agricultural Colleges,.
from their inception in 1862, had been faced with two.
prejudices—the mistrust of the farmer for anything
beyond his educational scope, and the unwillingness of the
typical university man to be associated with agricultural.
work. The work of the colleges, originally of a low stan--
dard, eventually made rapid development. The efficiency
of these colleges rests on a threefold basis: (1) resident
instruction, (2) research work, (3) the agricultural exten-
sion service. From field excursions, problems come in.
firsthand, and results of investigations were immediately
made available to the farmer. In two decades, the operation.
of the system had entirely transformed the agriculture of
the more progressive States.

August 23, 1926.
Mr. A. D. Ollé presided.

Professor R. G. Stapleton addressed the meeting upon:
‘Grassland Research.’’

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXV.-

The problem could be considered from three aspects—

(1) Chemical—including problems of soil fertility, and
the inherent chemical properties of soil fertility.

(2) Heological—the problems of plant succession and the
biotic factors—effects produced by grazing animals, ete.

(3) Genetical—the questions of strains and varieties in
plants.

Taking examples from common clover, cocksfoot and.
rye grasses, the speaker dealt with the development of
eco-types which are now recognisable in various localities.
throughout the world. Generally speaking, locally grown.
seed was preferable to imported seed for local require-
ments. Top-dressing of pastures, particularly with phos-
phatic manures, had given excellent results in New Zealand
and also in Australia. It was important that grazing areas.
should be of such size that the pastures be fed off at.
the most nutritious periods.

December 4, 1926.

An interesting excursion, under the leadership of Mr..
Ollé, was made to Glenfield, where the Veterinary Research:
Station and the Agricultural High School were visited.

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SECTION OF INDUSTRY.

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ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Section OF INDUSTRY.

It was decided that the Section should, during the year,
devote its attention to visiting several of the many indus-
trial establishments. Manufacturers welcome these visits
and are most cordial in greeting the members and showing
them all there is to see: in many eases going to special
pains to prepare exhibits exemplifying a particular branch
of the firm’s activity, although that special process may
not have been in commission at the time of the visit.

May 11, 1926.

The Raritan Hosiery Mills (George A. Bond & Co. Ltd.).

The members saw the various steps in the production
of natural silk and natural and artificial silk hosiery, and
also cotton underwear. The spinning and knitting machines
‘were shown and their working explained by Messrs. A.
McIntyre, Taylor and Williams. An interesting machine
formed the stocking leg, then the foot, and automatically
returned to reinforce the heel and wearing parts.

June 15, 1926.

Lever Bros. Sunlight Works, Balmain.

The party was first shown the oil being pressed from
disintegrated copra, then the boiling of the oil with soda-
lye and subsequent salting out and drying of the soap in
frames. From this raw material the members saw the
making of the firm’s numerous products, such as Monkey
Soap, Hudson’s Extract, Lux and Sunlight soap. The

xls ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

automatic machines for making the containers, filling them
with a definite weight of soap powder, closing and pushing’
them on to a conveyor, were seen in action.

July 13, 1926.
Wunderlich Ltd. |
The Section visited the factory in Baptist-street, Redfern,
and saw the manufacture of art metal ceilings, fittings.
for shop fronts and numerous ornamental metal products.
The process of the production of the metal ceilings was
followed from the drawing to the cast, then to the heavy
iron mould and finally to the pressed metal sheet.

August 10, 1926.

Metter’s Ltd.

A visit was made to this firm’s factory in Alexandria,
where the manufacture of the various household appliances.
and fittings was seen. The production of an enamelled
bath was followed from the foundry, where the moulds
were fashioned by means of a slinger which, under eighty
pounds air pressure, blew the moulding sand into place.
The manufacture of gas stoves, washing coppers, bath
heaters, enamelled saucepans and aluminium ware of
various kinds, was seen in operation.

September 14, 1926.

The Australian Rope Works.

Mr. F. D. Thorpe, of A. Forsyth and Co., invited the
members to see the manufacture of rope and cordage.
From the raw material such as Java and Manila hemp,
New Zealand flax, cocoa nut fibre and cotton, Mr. Marshall
showed the party the combing, oiling and spinning of the
fibres into threads, yarns and strands which were finally
twisted into rope. The production of twine for agricul-
tural reapers and binders was in evidence.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xi.

October 14, 1926.

Newspaper Printing Establishment.

Following the invitation of Mr. EK. G. Knox, of S. Bennett
‘Ltd., and under the guidance of Mr. Goddard, the members
-of the Section saw the production of the 3 p.m. edition
of the Evening News of Thursday, October 14. The
visitors were interested in the working of the linotype
machines, the production of the matrix, the casting of
‘the rolls and the printing, folding, cutting and final count-
ing of the folder papers.

November 9, 1926.

Peter’s American Delicacy Co.

Through the courtesy of Mr. F. A. Peters, the Section
‘visited the works in George-street, Redfern, and under the
guidance of Mr. Kinross, saw the production of ice cream
on the large scale. Milk is pasteurised at 140°F. for 30

6é

minutes in ‘‘glass’’-lined vessels, then mixed with cream,
obtained by passing fresh butter through viscolysers, and
with gelatine to stabilise the solids. After maturing for
48 hours it is again mixed, pressed into tins and frozen in
-cold chambers. The cutting of the frozen cream, the
covering with a coating of chocolate and the packing of

~**ehocolate ice blocks’’ in cardboard boxes were seen.

,Ba—December 1, 1926

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ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

OF THE SECTION OF

See y SICAL SCIENCE.

May 19, 1926.

During the year six meetings of the Section were held,
the average attendance being thirteen members and
visitors.

At the Annual Meeting, held prior to the May monthly
meeting, the following office-bearers were elected for
1926-27 :—

Charman, Rev. EH. F. Pigot, SJ., B.A.. M.B.; Hon.
Secretary, Major Edgar H. Booth, M.C., B.Sc.; Committee,
J. J. Richardson, A.M.I.E.E., Assoc.-Professor V. A. Bailey,
M.A., D.Phil., Assoec.-Professor E. M. Wellish, M.A.,
Professor O. U. Vonwiller, B.Sc.

It was resolved that meetings of the Section should be
held at 4.30 o’clock on the third Wednesday in each month.

The first paper, entitled ‘‘ An Investigation of the Optical
Properties of Selenium in the Conducting Form,’’ was
presented by Miss Phyllis Nicol, B.Se.

A method suitable for the determination of the optical
constants of selenium in the conducting form was devised,
which gave results in which the error did not usually
exceed 3% for v» and 5% for xo. The values of
vo and xo depend on the method of preparation of the
reflecting surface (casting on glass, polishing, grinding,
ete.), and have since been communicated in a paper
presented at a general meeting of the Society.

xl vi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Some preliminary work in the infra-red indicated that
Vo = 2.6 and x < 0.1. There was no definite indication
that the optical properties depend on the temperature of
transformation to the conducting form, and the changes,
if any, in the optical constants with length of exposure to
light, and age, lie within the experimental error.

The second paper, entitled ‘‘Recent Work in Spectro-
photometry,’’ was presented by H. L. Brose, M.A., D.Phil.

Recent measurements of the relative intensities of spec-
troscopic doublets, triplets, etc., have shown that these
intensities bear simple ratios to each other. Accurate
determinations of the relative intensities have rendered it
necessary to devise improved types of micro-photometers.
The most successful are those of Moll, in which a special
form of galvanometer is used in conjunction with a ther-
mopile, and those of Koch, which consist of a photo-electric
cell combined with an electrometer, one of the latter
instruments was described in detail, and its application
to the measurement of the darkening of photographie
plates was considered.

June 16, 1926.
Rev. E. F. Pigot in the Chair.

A paper, entitled ‘‘EKarth Ripples,’’ was presented by
Major Edgar H. Booth, M.C., B.Sc.

The paper was in two portions—(1) An examination of
the relationship between the motion impressed on the
recording apparatus, and the record; (2) preliminary
results in connection with an examination of the surface
waves produced by a blow normal to the earth’s surface,
from the origin to a distance of fifty feet. The apparatus
employed was exhibited and discussed. Completed papers
have since been published in this Journal (pp. 305-330).

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlvii

July 21, 1926.
Professor O. U. Vonwiller in the Chair.

A paper, entitled ‘‘Some Recent Developments in
Physies,’’ was presented by H. L. Brose, M.A., D.Phil.

The origin of the various quantum numbers, n!, k, n, j,
m, was discussed. The methods of designating spectro-
scopic terms were described, and simplifications were
suggested. The arbitrary introduction of the inner
quantum number j in order to account for the existence
of multiplets was shown to be justified by interpreting j
in terms of the moments of momentum of the electrons
moving in orbits around the nucleus. The relation of the
magnetic quantum numbers to the spacial quantising was
explained and the possibility of introducing fresh quantum
numbers to account for finer details of spectroscopy was
referred to. The quantum weight was defined as 2 j + 1,
‘when j, the inner atomic number, has the values assigned
to it by Sommerfeld, which differ from those of Lande.
The intensity laws of Burgers and Dorgelo for doublets
and triplets were enunciated, and their extension to
multiplets was indicated by an arithmetical proposed by
Sommerfeld, which was subsequently confirmed experi-
mentally.

August 18, 1926.
Professor P. J. V. Madsen, D.Sc., B.E., in the Chair.

A paper, entitled ‘‘On the Attachment of Electrons to
Molecules,’? was presented by Assoc.-Professor V. A.
Bailey, M.A., D.Phil.

In a previous paper read before the Section, an apparatus
‘was described in which the behaviour of electrons moving
under an electric force z and in a gas at pressure p could
be studied by measuring the fractions s, and s, of the

xl viii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

narrow streams of them which passed through equal slits.
in successive chambers of equal dimensions.

If rk is the fraction for a stream of ions, then in general
S, < S.< R if the electrons progressively attach them-
selves to molecules to form permanent negative ions, and
conversely. If s; = ss<c R, then only electrons are present,.
1.€., 00 attachments occur.

Experiments in HCI gas dried over H.SO, showed that
attachments occurred over the whole range z/p — 10 to
40 and also gave values of the energy factor k from 3.2
to 25, and of the attachment coefficient «/p from 0.1383:
to 0.54 in the same range.

Experiments in NH; gas dried over metallic sodium (or
over caustic potash) indicated the following :—

(a) between z/p = 6 and 10 only free electrons exist,
while for z/p < 6 or > 10, ions are formed by attachments..

(b) for z/p = 8 and 9 , k mcreases with p.

(c) for z/p = 8 s, is in general greater than sb.

(b) and (¢) are anomalous results, and require the
introduction of new considerations in order to be
interpreted.

Among various hypotheses to account for (b) a probable
one is suggested by the fact that NH; has an exceptionally
high value for the quality k—I where k is the dielectric
constant. The hypothesis suggested is that the molecular
distortion by the force z is sufficient to affect the behaviour
of a molecule towards a colliding electron and this effect
must increase with p when z/p is constant.

To account for (c) we are left with the following
hypotheses :—

(1) Some of the electrons attach themselves immedi-.
ately after the emission from the copper. surface, and
subsequently free themselves progressively.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlix..

(2) In some way collisions with NH; molecules progres-.
sively alter an electron or its state so that its behaviour
at subsequent collisions is also altered.

The consensus of evidence obtained to date appears to:
favour (2), especially as it simultaneously accounts for
(bo). Further experiments are in progress to elucidate the
situation.

September 15, 1926.
Rev. E. F. Pigot in the Chair.

A paper, entitled ‘‘Some Notes on Interference of Light
in Mica,’’ was presented by Professor O. U. Vonwiller,.
B.Sc., and Mr. F. L. Arnot.

Professor Vonwiller dealt with the theory of a new
method for determining the optical constants of mica,
showing how from elementary considerations of the wave:
theory of interference, expressions for the three principal
indices could be obtained.

A description of the technique of the experiment was.
given by Mr. Arnot. The chief difficulty encountered was.
the precise determination of p in the fundamental formula
A pi COS y == pa.

This was finally solved by a photographic method. The
accuracy of the results was of the order 1 : 10,000; but
the chief advantage of the method lay in the accuracy
with which the dispersion curves for each index could be
drawn, since values were obtained for each interference:
band in the spectrum.

October 29, 1926.
This meeting was held at the University of Sydney.
Miss Phyllis Nicol, M.Sc., in the Chair.

1: ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Dr. Brose continued his discussion of present research
and theory in connection with spectroscopy and atomic
structure, clearing up points of interest to members, and
explaining the work in hand.

The Chairman and several other members being absent
in Japan, it was decided not to hold meetings in November
or December.

INDEX.

A Page

-Abscesses and Ulcerations in

Oysters, by Mr. T. C.
Roughley ae eee 66
Abstract of Proceedings 1ekX,
Agriculture ... XXX1.-XXXV.
Geology XXi-XXix.
Industry XXXVIi.-xli.
Physical Science xliii.-l.
Acacia accola 178
adunca ‘175, 177, 1

alata..

amoena oe A os ee :
anceps var. angustifolia eZ
Bancrofti EZ
Betchet 174, 175
bidentata 7 TSS
bivenosa 88, 94
Burkittit si tse)
buxifolia 187
caesiella, n. sp. = 130
Cambager 88, 95
Carnet , Po fall
centrinervia ... 172
Clunies- Rossiae 182
confluens, n. sp. 183
crassiuscula ... WG
cultriformis ... 189
Cuthbertsoni .. 86, 96
dealbata 363
decurrens : ee 363
var. Reronnardta 363
var. normalis 364

var. pauciglandulosa ... 363 —
Description of Fifteen New 171.
doratoxylon ... i eee es Or Aa
elongata, var. dilatata, n. var. 191 |
ericifolia 85 |
falcata 87 |
Farnesiana ... Far OO
Forsythi, n. sp. peeliie |
georgine obs 88, 96
Gilli, n. sp. ... . 184
gladiiformis ... Jape tele
gracilifolia, n. sp. 191, 192
Hamiltoniana . 182
heterophylla ... S38
Hynesiana . 192
juneifolia nae Loe
Kybeanensis, n. sp. . 188
latipes o aoe. SS
leaf responding to the

changes of day and night...

xill.

Page

Acacia leptoclada ..« 100
linearifolia he Weare
lineata aan iG}
linifolia a 2a ae LUG
McNuttiana, n. sp. ... .. 176
merinthophora 2 88
microbotrya ... . 184
mollifolia, n. sp. 192
mollissima eee 363, 364
Murrumboensis, a. sp. ra £80
neriifolia 175, 179
notabilis ew aleics
obliqua et Oo
oreades, n. sp. S86
oreophila, n. sp. . 185
Oswaldi 96
polybotrya . 86
pravissima 189
prominens 185, 186
pruinosa . 99
ptychoclada, n. sp. us ... 190
pycnantha 172, 363, 364
restiacea 88, 91
retinodes 85, 88
rhetinodes ... 184
rupicola 88, 90
salicona ; 92
Seedlings, Part X11. 85
semibinervia, 1. sp. . 189
sentis ... . 174
suaveolens re LOo
Victoriae .. 174
Walter, n. sp. . 184

Acidulated Water and. Amyl
Acetate. Hydrolysis pro-
duced by contact of the two
liquids :

Action of wood on a a photographic

plate, by M. B. Welch
Agathis Ristiane ie 345,
Agriculture

Alphitonia excelsa
Ammonia Mine .. i io
Amyl Acetate. Hydrolysis pro-

duced by contact of the two

47

. Xa.

347
18

ae
' 301

liquids Acidulated Waterand 47

Andrews, E. C., Honour to

XXIV,
Aneimites ovata a ... Zol
Ash” Group of Eucalypts . 147
Araucaria .. ... 803
Aviculopecten . 386

lii. INDEX.
B Page | Burrows, G. J.— Page
Barks, Wattle. Part IT. ». 360 Exhibit of Apparatus for com-
Barling, J., Exhibit of Chart paring Densities of Liquids xvii.
showing Sydney Annual Exhibit of Series of Cobaltam-
Rainfall since 1858... xi. mines. py . Xvi.
Barrandella .. 131
molongensis Mitchell . 140 | Callitris calcarata 173, 368, 369
Barrandina minor, n. sp.3 . 138 | Cambage, R. H., Acacia Seed-
n. sub-gen. 131 lings, Part XII. Shs 85.
Wilkinsoni, n. sp. ... 131 Exhibit of Acacia Leaf re-
Bartholomew, Miss E, M. and sponding to the changes of
Ian Wark. Cooling Curves day and a iy ‘ «) Xili,
in the Binary Systems . 388 Honour to . Viil.
and G. J. Burrows. The Prep- Cardiopteris weet 242
paration of Certain Iodo- Clunies, Ross, Description of life
Bismuthites . .. 208 cycle of Liver Fluke | Xvi.
Beetle Powder Post vy 164 | Cobaltammines, Exhibit of
Benjamin, M. S., Note on the series of eas ..XV1L.
Rate of Decomposition of Cooling Curves in the Binary
Commercial Calcium Cyan- Systems i .. 388.
ide. . 38 | Commercial Calcium Cyanide,
Binary Systems, Cooling ‘Curves Note on the Rate of Decom-
in the.. vs 388 position of eee . 38.
Births, Note on the Occurrence Conchidium knights ane 137
of Triplets among Multiple 278 | Coombs, F. A., W. McGlynn and
Blair Duguid, The Hypersthene- M. B. Welch, Notes on
Andesite of ... seaOle Wattle Barks. Part IT. . 860°
Blakely, W. F., and the late J. Council Report “ ves WEL.
H. Maiden, Descriptions of Cretaceous Glacial Beds .. 800
Fifteen New Acacias, and Crystalline Structure of Sodium
notes on several other spec- Chloride, Ice, The Diamond
TOS" h oo65 Lal and Graphite ok wile
Booker, F. W., “The Internal Cunninghamia sinensis,var.glauca 348 -
Structures ‘of some of the
Pentameridae of New South D
Wales 130 | Dacrydium cupressinum ... . 346.
Booth, E. H., Sarrare “Waves Dairying ... 31
Due to Small Artificial Dis- Darwinia grandiflora " gen (ie
turbances of the Ground ... 318 | David, Sir abe bon ae
The Microphone as a Detector age to.. . Vill.
of Small Vibrations ... 805 Honour to 1 Vill,
Brighton Shalesand Limestones 297 | Defective New Zealand ‘Kauri. . 845
Brittleness in Timber vi 348 | Densities of Liquids, Exhibit of
Browne, W. R., The Geology of Apparatus for comparing ...xvii.
the Gosforth District, Deputation re Closure of eae
NSW Partie ok: 213 Observatory, Council , Vill.
and H. P. White, The Hyper- Detector, Western Electric . 807
sthene-Andesite of Blair Disturbances of the Ground,
Duguid, near AlUandale, Surface Waves due to . 318
N.S.W. dee bak ... 872 | Donations to Library Sy diee
Burrows, G. J., Note on the Dromaius nove-hollandic . Lise
Salinity of the Water of the '
Gulf of Carpentaria ae) eal E
The Preparation of Certain Embree, Prof. E. R., Welcome to viii.
Iodo-Bismuthites ... 208 | Emu, Kidney Fat of we 11S
The Solution Volume of a Sol- Eriostemon Cowii Mueller, and
ute in Liquid Mixtures . On Phebalium dentatum Smith 331

INDEX.

Page

Essential Oils from some Culti-
vated Eucalypts ...

of Eriostemon Cozwiit Mueller

and Phebalium dentatum

55

Smith... ; me oo» Bol
of Leptospermum le
Smith.. 73

of Zieria ‘macrophylla " Bonp-
land and the presence of a

New Cyclic Ketone.. 104
Oils and their Pure Constitu-
ents, The Germicidal Values
of Some Australian., Gy
Eucalypts, Cultivated, Notes on
the Essential Oils from some 55
Eucalypts, The Wood Structures
of certain . 147
Eucalyptus altior... . 158
Australiana ... 56
citriodora AAS wy Ole)
Dalrympleana . 149
Delegatensis ... Ol
fastigata . 153
fraxinoides . 155
Macarthuri ... te ood
obliqua . 156
oreades as . 158
radiata (numerosa Maiden) 58
regnans ‘ae sco ass)
Eurydesma cordatum 384, 386
Financial Statement ehh
Fasanus spicatus ... . 169
Fraxinus . 147
G
Geology of the Flinders Ranges,
South Australia, in the
Neighbourhood of Wooltana
Station, The.. 283
Geology of the Gosforth District,
N.S. W. . 213

Geology of Kurraj. ong Faultarea 128
Geological Section, Abstract of
Proceedings .. Xxiii.
Geological Sectional Map, Am-
monia Mine to Wooltana ...
Grady, Alexa., and H. Hogbin,
Mountain Lagoon and the
Kurrajong Fault ... xe ED
Grant, R., The Germicidal Val-
ues of some Australian Es-
sential Oils and their Pure
Constituents, together with
those for some Essential

289

lili.

Page
Oil Components, and Syn-
thetic Substances. Part IV. 167
Gulf of Carpentaria, Note on the
Salinity of the Water of the 211

Hakea, leucoptera .. 171
Harker, G., Reactions Depend-
ing upon the Vapour at the
Interface of Two Immiscible
Liquids 45

Hedley, Charles, Council’s ap-
preciation of the work of ... xvi.

Hogbin, H., and Alexa Grady,
Mountain Lagoon and the

Kurrajong Fault . 129
Honours to Members ... viii, xxiv.
Hydatid, Life Cycle of ... +) XV.
Hydrocinnamic aidehyde . 169

Hydrolysis produced by Contact
of the two Liquids Acidulat-

ed Water and Amyl Acetate 47
Hydroxycitronellal ah 169
Hypersthene-Andesite, Analysis

of 377
Hypersthene-Andesite of Blair
Duguid, near Allandale, N.
S. Wales no “ts 878
I
Influence of Science on the Pro-
gress of the Land Industries

in Australia .. . 14
Institute of Science and Industry 13
Interface of Two Immiscible Li-

quids, Reactions depending

upon the Vapour at the 45
Isomenthol ee ao GY)
Julius, G. A. 13
Kauri, An Examination of De-

fective New Zealand . 345

Microscopic Structure of

Sound and Detective . 353
Kidney Fat of the Emu . 118
Knibbs, Sir George, Note on the

Occurrence of Triplets a-

mong Multiple Births . 278
Late Cainozoic Deposits vo» 301
Leaves, Sequence in the Devel-

opment of ... eas idguetsts:

liv.

Page | Penfold, A. R.—

INDEX,

Lectures, Popular Science ix,
Liquids, Reactions Depending
upon the Vapour at the In-
terface of Immiscible 45
List of Members ... v.
Liver Fluke, Life Cycle of xvii
Lyctus brunneus ... és 164
Mi
Maiden, J. H., Description of
Fifteen New Acacias, and
notes on several other spec-
ies 171
Master-fault of Gosforth District 255
McGlynn, W., Notes on Wattle
Barks. Part II. 360
Microphone as a_ Detector of
Small Vibrations, The 305
Microphone, Siemen’s Capsule 207
Mixtures, The Solution Volume
of a Solute in Liquid 197
Morrison F. R., The Fixed Oil of
the Kidney Fat of the Emu 113
Mountain Lagoon and the Kur-
rajong Fault 119
Newman, R. K., Reactions De-
pending upon the Vapour
at the Interface of Two Im-
miscible Liquids 45
Nicol, Phyllis M., An Investig-
ation of the Optical Proper-
ties of Selenium in the con-
ducting Form 2 60
Nocturnal Movement of early
leaves.. 85
Notes on Wattle Barks. ‘Part II 360
Nototherium ; . 249
Oo
Obituary—
Bateson, Dr. William 2
Maiden, Joseph Henry 4
Sinclair, Dr. Eric Seas
Warren, Henry William ... 9
Oysters, Exhibit of Abscesses
and Ulceration in xii.
P
Passiflora edulis ... we. B02
Pastoral Industry 16
Penfold, A. R., Notes” on the
Essential Oils from some
Cultivated Eucalypts. PartI 55
Essential Oil of Zieria macro-
phylla Bonpland and the
presence of a New Cyclic
Ketone 3 7 .. 104

Page:
The Essential Oils of Eriost-
emon Coaii Mueller and
Phebalium dentatum Smith
The Essential Oils of Lepto-
spermum lanigerum Smith ..
The Germicidal Values of
some Australian Essential
Oils and their Pure Constit-
vents. Part IV. . 167
Pentamerella fultonensis, Branson 141

331
73-

molongensis, Mitchell . 140°
Pentameridae of New South
Wales, The Internal Struc-
tures of some of the... . 130°
Pentamerus (Barrandella) lingwi-
tera var. Wilkinsonia 130
Phebalium dentatum Smith, The
Essential Oils of . 331
Phloracetophenone - dimethyl -
ether ... 169°
Phyllotheca showing nodes and
ringlets re XXVii.
Podocarpus dacrydioides .. . 346:
Popular Science Lectures Pai
Post-Tertiary age, A curious de-
posit of tes ae . 249°
Powder Post Beetle 164

Presidential Address by Profes-
sor R. D. Watt aia an 1
Proceedings of the Society

Purple Slate Series . 298
BR
Rate of Decomposition of Com-
mercial Calcium Cyanide ... 38:
Reactions Depending upon the
Vapour at the Interface of
Two Immiscible Liquids ... 45
Report of Council ‘ jas. WA.
Rhacopteris aie woe 284
Rhacopteris- bearing tuff. ... 386.
Rhynchonella pleurodon .. 245, 246.
Rideal-Walker coefficients ... 167
Roughley, T. C., Exhibit of Ab-
Scesses and Ulcerations in
Oysters me Po
Butea Sir Ernest, Welcome
to . Vill,
Ss
Sandalwood Oil ... .. 169
Santalum album ... . 169
Section of Agriculture ... (xxi,
Geology $, KR.
Industry XXXVil.
Physical Science x]

INDEX. lv.

Page Page

Selenium in the Conducting Vitality of Seeds in the Soil 87
Form, An Investigation of Volcanic Series . 290:

the Optical Properties of ... 60
Sieberella galeata Dalman . 142

glabra Mitchell .. 144
Siemens Microphone ..- 308
Sturtian Glacia] Beds . 293
Sub-Glacial Sediments . 286
Surface Waves Due to Small

Artificial Disturbances of

the Ground ... . 318
Sydney Observatory a. Wilde
Sydney Rainfall ... aes ine ll

T

Tannin Content of Stored Wat-

tle Barks... 363
Tannin Solutions, Effect of High

Temperatures on ... 366
Tannin-starch Compound . 869
Tapley’s Hill Slates . 296
Tarrietia argyrodendron... . 147
Télégéphone SCE 306
The Preparation of Certain Iodo-

Bismuthites .. 208
The Wood Structure of Certain

Eucalypts belonging chiefly

to the “ Ash”? Group 147
Thymol, Synthetic, Exhibit of

Large Crystals of Xl.

Triplets among Multiple Births,
Note on the Occurrence of... 278

V
Vibrations, The Microphone asa
Detector of Small ... .. 305
Vitality of Leaf Severed from
Plant 006 000 e000 000 86

WwW

Wark, Ian, and Miss E. M. Bar-
tholomew, Cooling Curves in
the Binary Systems

Watt, R. D., Presidential Ad-
dress ... 1

Wattle Barks, Part ERs Notes on

Waves, Surface, Due. ‘to Small
Artificial Disturbances of
the Ground .

Welch, M. B., An Examination
of erecta New Zealand
Kauri Agathis Australis . 345

The Wood Structure of Certain
Kucalypts belonging chiefly
to the ‘‘ Ash”? Group . 147
Exhibit of Action of Wood on

318

a Photographic Plate . xii.
F. A, Coombs and W. Mce-

Glynn, Notes on Wattle

Barks. Part II. . 360:

White, H. P., and W. R. Browne,
On the Hypersthene- Andes-
ite of Blair Duguid, near
Allandale, N.S. Wales . a2
Winton Beds : . 300
Wissler, Dr. Clarke, Welcome to viii.
Woolnough, W. G., The Geology
of the Flinders Range, South
Australia, in the Neighbour-

hood of Wooltana Station... 283
Zieria Smithia Bele woe LO
macrophylla ... 2. 169
Zierone ... aA das .. LEQ

Sydney :
Frep. W. Wuitt, Printer, 344 Kent Street,

-_-——

1927

CONTENTS.

@ "Apr. XV. _The Solution Volume of a Solute in Liquid Mixtures.

by G. J. Burrows, B.Sc. (Issued January 28, 1927.

7 Arr. XVI, —The Preparation of certain Iodo-bismuthites. By Miss

M. BartuoLtomew, B.Sec., and G. J. Burrows, B.Sc.
(isned February 17, 1927.)

# Ant. XVIL—Notes on the Salinity of the Water of the Gulf of

Jee SUF

Carpentaria. By G. J. oe goes B.Sc. es sites
17, 1927.) ie

_ Art. XVIII.--The Bealory of the Gosforth District N. Ss. W. Part L

General Geology. By Assist.-Professor W. R. Browns, D.Sc.
(With Plates XIX-XXI.) (Issued March 4, 1927.)

Art, XIX.—Note on the occurence of Triplets among Multiple
Births, By Sir Gnrorcre Kyisss, C.M.G. ee March 4,
1927.) ..

Art XX. _The Geology of tha Flinders Rane, South Seu

in the neighbourhood of Wooltana Station. By W. G.
Wootnovuen, D.Sc., F.G.S. ee Plate XXIT.) Ss
March 18, 1927.) 2

: Art. XXI.—The Microphone as a Deteetor “of ee Vibeatioad

By Epgar H. Boorn, M.C., B.Sc. (With Plates XXIII,
XXIV.) (Issued March 18, 1927.)

ArT. XXI1.—Surface Waves due to small artificial Dea hcccck é
the Ground. By Epear H. Booru, M.C., B.Sc. Ae Plates
XXV, XXVI.) (Issued March 18, 1927. ) os

Arr. XXIII.—The Essential Oils of Eriostemon Cozii, Mueller, aaa

Phebalium dentatum, Smith. By A.R. Penroup, F.A.C.I. F, C.S,
(With Plate XXVII.). (Issued March 24, 1927.)

ArT. XXIV.—An Examination of Defective New Zealand Kauri,
(Agathis australis). By M. B. Weucu, B.Se., A.LC. (With
Plates XXVIII-XXX.) (Issued March 24, 1927.) i

_ Art, XXV.—Notes on Wattle Barks, Part II. By F. A. Coomss,

F.C.S., W. McGuiynn and M. B. Wetca, B.Sc., A. LC.
(Issued April 13, 1927.) ;
Art, XX VI.—On the Hypersthene-Andesite of Blair Daguid, near

Allandale, NS.W. By Assistant-Professor W. R. Browne,
D.Sc., and H. P. Warrs, F.C.S. (Issued April 138, 1927.)

_ ART, XXVII.—Cooling Curves in the Binary Systems. By Evetyn

Marorry Barruotomew, B.Sc., and Ian WiuLLiam Wark,
D.Se., Ph.D., (communicated by Professor C. E. Fawsrrt,
D.Se.) (Issued April 13, 1927.)... .... er ee ae

PAGE

197

208

211

213

278

318

331

345

360

372

388

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS oe a Sts a re i, — Xx,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION ... ae vee XX1, — XXIX.
_ PROCHEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF AGRICULTURE .., XXX1,—Xxxv.

“PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF INDUSTRY woe oe XXXVil. — XH.

_ PRocEEDINGS oF THE SuCTION OF PHysiIcaL SCIENCE Sie xliii. — 1],
Titts Paces, Contents, Notices, PUBLICATIONS, ... ie (i. - vi.)

_ Orricers For 1926-1927 ...
- List or Memesrs, &c.

_ Inprx to Votums LX.

.« (vii.)
. (ix.)

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