(ISSN 0092-1016)

The

Journal

of

Raptor Research

Volume 23

Spring 1989

Number 1

Contents

Commentary: Year-End Message from the President, January 1989.

Gary E. Duke 1

Avulsion of the Brachial Plexus in a Great Horned Owl (. Bubo

mrginianus) . Michael P. Moore, Erik Stauber and Nancy Thomas 3

A Floating Fish Snare for Capturing Bald Eagles. Steven l. Cain and John

I. Hodges 10

Short Communications

Unusual Leg Injury in a Nestling Bald Eagle. Richard E. Yates and B. Riley McClelland 14
Predation of Bald Eagles ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus) on American Coots ( Fulica americana ).

Bayard H. Brattstrom 16

Commentary: Effects of Strychnine on Raptors. Stanley n. wiemeyer 18

News and Reviews (Resolutions) 20

News and Reviews 22

********************

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The Journal of Raptor Research (ISSN 0892-1016) is published quarterly for $15.00 per year by The
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Copyright 1989 by The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc. Printed in U.S.A.

THIS PUBLICATION IS PRINTED ON ACID-FREE PAPER.

THE JOURNAL OF RAPTOR RESEARCH

A QUARTERLY PUBLICATION OF THE RAPTOR RESEARCH FOUNDATION, INC.
Vol. 23 Spring 1989 No. 1

J. Raptor Res. 23(1 ); 1 —2

© 1989 The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc.

Commentary

Year-End Message from the President, January 1989

First, let me say “ greetings ” to everyone, especially to all of you with whom I didn’t have a chance to speak personally
at the 1988 Annual Conference here in Minneapolis. We were delighted with the enthusiasm of all participants and
I want to say thank you again for participating. There were 462 registrants, 117 papers presented orally and 12
presented as posters; an excellent meeting! I’m always delighted to see so much interest in raptors . . . that is indeed
our reason for getting together.

My objective for the rest of this letter is to report to you on our accomplishments during 1988 and to describe our
goals for 1989. Our efforts this past year were aimed at 1) providing more direction to our organization and 2) setting
up more structure for getting things done a little more easily — mostly spreading the work around a little more. Our
accomplishments were:

1. updating the long-range plan

2. updating the bylaws

3. preparing an annual calendar (to assist in scheduling events, publications, etc.)

4. establishing lists of duties for all Officers, Directors and Committees (to help each of us do our jobs and to avoid
overlap)

5. appointing new committees and trying to “activate” some existing committees with new leadership and new
members

New committees were Rehabilitation, Bylaws, International Activities, and Membership

Also at the conference, we approved initiation of two more new committees: Conservation, and Development

6. handling more RRF business by mail and less at the annual conference

This a) permits getting more done each year and b) gives Board members more time to interact with RRF
members at the annual conference and less time in board meetings

7. we increased our international activities and the number of international members

8. we increased RRF membership

9. we tried to “pull off” Earth Day II.

I believe we did pretty well with most of these accomplishments, i.e., we succeeded in setting up a better structure
for getting more done more easily . Some of our new committees are just getting started but they appear to be on the
right track. Dick Clark, our Vice President and President Elect, has done a lot with international activities. This is
an area of great potential growth for RRF. We now have approximately 20 percent of our members from outside the
U S. and Canada. Dick has set up a program which will allow each of us to sponsor an international member who,
or library which may either be under-funded or simply has trouble getting U.S. currency or its equivalent. I encourage
you to participate in this program.

We didn’t do as much toward increasing membership as I’d have liked . . . there didn’t seem to be enough time.
However, I’ve only set two goals for myself for next year:

1. increase membership

2. work with committees to help them get more active and to meet their goals. The activities of education and awards
committees are ones I’m especially anxious to increase.

Our Membership Committee, of which I am a member, has a lot of ideas for increasing membership . . . you’ll be
hearing more. If we get more members and thus more income, we’ll be able to offer more and/or larger awards,
perhaps produce educational materials for distribution in third world countries, and be certain of being able to pay
our bills.

1

2

Gary E. Duke

Vol. 23, No. 1

I haven’t mentioned Earth Day II. Deciding to take on a single conservation effort was a new direction for RRF.
We’ve been involved in Peregrine, Bald Eagle and Osprey restorations, Condor management, etc., but to consider a
broad, more inclusive effort was something different; something the Board agreed we might be ready to try. My idea
was to try to stimulate the large and more influential conservation organizations to want an Earth Day II, then provide
some organizational structure and workers from RRF. It was a long shot, but worth a try. I contacted the ten largest
conservation organizations. Their responses were mixed; although generally all felt it was a good idea, they indicated
that they were already overcommitted and unable to manage any more projects. Two organizations were willing to
help if someone else would take the lead. This response was, of course, discouraging, so I made further contacts only
to get less response or no response.

Until recently I felt that the effort had failed. However, Rich Howard (from Idaho) sent me an article from “Outside”
magazine (May, 1988) which indicated that major conservation organizations have begun planning something called
“Celebration of the Outdoors” or “Earth Day II.” This may be a coincidence, but in any case I’m glad it will happen.
We don’t need to get credit . . . we need to get action. Also, the Minnesota Audubon Council President wrote me to
say that the national office shared my letter with regional offices and that the letter stimulated a new column in their
quarterly newsletter, entitled “Saving the World — Beginning at Home.” (RRF was given credit for this idea in the
first column.) The column will offer ideas for ways individuals can conserve, recycle, etc. This was the point of the
original Earth Day. So, the notion has not died and maybe it will spread more widely with time.

All in all, I’m pretty pleased with our accomplishments this year and I look forward to even more next year and in
future years. With regard to the future, the next conference will be in Vera Cruz, Mexico from 10-13 October 1989.
Preliminary cost estimates indicate that this will be quite affordable. I’m excited about it. Dick Clark also has a lot
of ideas for RRF and will have a chance to put them into action beginning in 1990.

While it is our pleasure to serve you, I’m sure Dick would agree if I say that we both need your help and support
Please let us, or any of the Board members, know how you feel about RRF activities. Also, let us know how you’d
like to help . Thank you. — Gary E. Duke, President.

J Raptor Res. 23(l):3-9

© 1989 The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc.

AVULSION OF THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS IN A
GREAT HORNED OWL {Bubo virgimanus)

Michael P. Moore, Erik Stauber and Nancy Thomas

Abstract. — Avulsion of the brachial plexus was documented in a Great Horned Owl {Bubo virginianus).
A fractured scapula was also present. Cause of these injuries was not known but was thought to be due
to trauma. Differentiation of musculoskeletal injury from peripheral nerve damage can be difficult in
raptors. Use of electromyography and motor nerve conduction velocity was helpful in demonstrating
peripheral nerve involvement. A brachial plexus avulsion was suspected on the bases of clinical signs,
presence of electromyographic abnormalities in all muscles supplied by the nerves of the brachial plexus
and absence of median-ulnar motor nerve conduction velocities.

An adult male Great Horned Owl {Bubo virgi-
nianus) was found with a drooping wing in a wil-
derness area of northern Idaho and presented to the
Washington State University Veterinary Clinic for
rehabilitation (Fig. 1). Physical examination re-
vealed emaciation (772 g) and drooping of the left
wing originating at the scapulohumeral joint. No
other physical abnormalities were noted. The fol-
lowing laboratory results were considered normal by
our laboratory: WBC = 11 000, heterophils = 78%,
lymphocytes = 21%, basophils = 1%, PCV = 36%,
total protein (refractometer) = 3.1 g/dL. Four leu-
cocytozoan parasites/100 WBCs were observed; a
common finding in wild raptors of this region (E.
Stauber, pers. comm.). Whole body radiographs of
the owl showed a remodeling fracture of the left
scapula near its articulation; bone alignment at the
fracture site was considered satisfactory. The wing
was immobilized by a bandage to facilitate healing.

The bandage was removed 11 d later with no
improvement in the drooped wing. A response to
pain could not be elicited and peripheral nerve dam-
age was suspected.

Materials and Methods for Electromyography
and Nerve Conduction Velocity

A commercially available electromyograph 1 equipped
with a constant voltage nerve stimulator 2 was used to per-
form the EMG and motor nerve conduction velocities ac-
cording to previously described techniques (Steinberg
1979a). A concentric needle electrode 3 was used to record

1 Teca TE4 electromyogram; Teca Corp., White Plains,
NY.

2 NS6 Nerve Stimulator; Teca Corp., White Plains, NY.

3 CT37 Concentric needle electrode; 37 mm, Teca Corp.,
White Plains, NY.

electromyograms of wing and pectoral muscles to serve as
a reference and an active electrode. A monopolar ground
electrode 4 5 was placed subcutaneously over radius and ulna
The concentric electrode was inserted percutaneously into
muscles while observing the response on the oscilloscope
of the electromyograph. The concentric needle electrode
was withdrawn from the muscle only, and redirected in
several planes within the muscle.

Chemical restraint with ketamine hydrochloride/ 20
mg/kg given intramuscularly, and xylazine, 6 4 mg/kg giv-
en intramuscularly was necessary before stimulation of the
median-ulnar nerve. Monopolar teflon coated needle
electrodes 7 were used for median-ulnar nerve stimulation.
The cathode was placed approximately 2 cm distal to the
anode. The distal 5 mm of the teflon coat was removed
from the cathode. The nerve was supramaximally stim-
ulated at a proximal and distal site with a rectangular
electrical pulse lasting 0.1 ms. Proximal stimulating elec-
trodes were inserted near the nerve caudal to the biceps
brachii muscle. Distal stimulating electrodes were inserted
near the nerve caudal to distal insertion of the biceps
brachii muscle. Recording electrodes 7 were placed over the
flexor carpi ulnaris muscle belly with the reference elec-
trode approximately 1 cm distal to the exploring electrode.
The ground electrode was placed between the recording
and stimulating electrodes. Placement of stimulating and
recording electrodes is depicted in Figure 2.

Median-ulnar motor nerve conduction velocity was cal-
culated by dividing distance between proximal and distal
stimulating cathode electrodes by difference in latencies of
the evoked compound muscle action potentials (the time
between the onset of the stimulation artifact and the onset
of the evoked compound muscle action potential). Evoked
compound muscle action potentials as the result of stim-

4 RE12 needle electrode; 12 mm, Teca Corp., White Plains,
NY.

5 Ketamine hydrochloride; 100 mg/ml, Bristol Veterinary
Products, Syracuse, NY.

6 Xylazine, Haver, Division of Mobay Corp., Shawnee,
KS.

7 MG37 Monopolar needle electrode; 37 mm, Teca Corp ,
White Plains, NY.

3

4

Moore et al.

Vol. 23, No. 1

Figure 1. Great Horned Owl ( Bubo virginianus) . Note drooping of the left wing.

ulation from proximal and distal sites are shown in Figure
3. A 2 site stimulation method of determining motor nerve
conduction velocities is essential to avoid errors due to
delayed nerve conduction in terminal nerves, neuromus-
cular junctions and muscle tissues (Walker et al. 1979;
Steinberg 1979a).

Results

After removing the bandage lid after admission,
needle electromyography (EMG) revealed fibrilla-
tion potentials in the left brachial, antebrachial and

Spring 1989

Avulsion of the Brachial Plexus

5

Figure 2. Medial view of the wing depicting placement of electrodes for recording the motor nerve conduction velocity.

There was approximately 2 cm between the anode (a) and the cathode (c) of the stimulating electrode and
1 cm between the reference (r) and exploring (e) electrodes. The ground electrode was placed between
stimulating and recording electrodes. The top diagram shows distribution of the radial nerve (rn) and the
median-ulnar nerve (mn). The flexor carpi ulnaris (feu) muscle was used to record evoked compound
muscle action potential.

Figure 3. Evoked compound muscle action potentials as
the result of proximal and distal median-ulnar
nerve stimulations are shown. Motor nerve
conduction velocity was calculated by dividing
the distance between stimulating cathodes (see
Fig. 2) by difference between the distal latency
(L d ) and the proximal latency (L P ). The hor-
izontal bar = 1 ms and the vertical bar = 4
mV.

L_

Figure 4. Fibrillation potentials recorded from the left
pectoral muscle. The horizontal bar = 5 ms
and the vertical bar = 0.1 mV.

~V' _

■NT

rf

Figure 5. Positive sharp waves recorded from the left
pectoral muscle. The horizontal bar = 5 ms
and the vertical bar = 0.1 mV.

6

Moore et al.

Vol. 23, No. 1

Figure 6. Note the pale streaks in the left pectoral muscle (arrow).

pectoral muscles. Conduction velocity of the median-
ulnar nerve was not performed at this time because
anesthesia would have been required, and the bird
still appeared somewhat emaciated and was consid-
ered a poor anesthetic risk. Twenty-two d after ad-

mission, pronounced muscle atrophy was detected in
all muscles of the left wing. An evoked motor re-
sponse could not be elicited at a proximal or distal
site when the left median-ulnar nerve was stimu-
lated. In addition to fibrillation potentials (Fig. 4),

Spring 1989

Avulsion of the Brachial Plexus

7

Figure 7. Note the avulsion of the nerve roots from the spinal cord (large arrow). The 1.0 cm granuloma due to
Aspergillus sp. has been removed in order to more clearly demonstrate the avulsion. There is a 1.0 cm
granuloma of Aspergillus sp. situated in the facial planes of the shoulder (small arrow) that was continuous

with the granuloma that was removed.

positive sharp waves (Fig. 5), were now present.
Conduction was present (50 m/s) in the contralat-
eral median-ulnar nerve. Brachial plexus avulsion
was suspected because of the EMG abnormalities

in every muscle supplied by the brachial plexus and
the absence of the evoked motor response from the
median-ulnar nerve. The bird was euthanatized be-
cause of the negative prognosis for rehabilitation.

8

Moore et al.

Vol. 23, No. 1

At necropsy the bird was judged to be in good
nutritional condition and weighed 1100 g. Left pec-
toral muscles and muscles of the left wing were thin,
brown and diffusely pale streaked (Fig. 6). Roots of
the left brachial plexus were separated from the
cervical spinal cord and displaced 1.5 cm lateral to
their origin forming a 0.75 cm spherical enlarge-
ment (Fig. 7). A 1.0 cm encapsulated mass of
gray-yellow caseous inspissated material was seen
between avulsed segments of nerve roots and was
continuous with a 1.0 cm friable, white powdery
plaque positioned in the facial planes of the shoulder.
Fracture of the left scapula was bridged by a bony
callus and held rigidly with the caudal fragment
ventral to normal position. Several small masses sim-
ilar to that seen in the left shoulder region were seen
in thoracic and abdominal airsacs and were identi-
fied as granulomas of Aspergillus sp. Histologic ex-
amination of tissues showed neurilemmal cell pro-
liferation, demyelination and axon degeneration
leading to muscle cell atrophy and degeneration.

Discussion

Cause of the fractured scapula and avulsion of the
brachial plexus could not be determined. The reason
for infection with Aspergillus sp. at the brachial plex-
us was not apparent. Perhaps infection was related
to a pre-existing condition in adjacent airsacs which
later spread to the fracture at the time of the sus-
pected trauma, or infection could have been associ-
ated with the fracture and extended into the thorax
and around nerve roots of the brachial plexus. There
was no histological evidence that the Aspergillus sp.
granuloma was invading peripheral nervous tissues.
Therefore, brachial plexus avulsion was most likely
the result of trauma. Also, Aspergillus sp. infection
is common in raptors, and therefore could have been
coincidental with fracture and avulsion (Redig 1980).
Other cases of brachial plexus avulsion in raptors
diagnosed subsequently have been related to collision
with automobiles.

Nerve injury in raptors can be difficult to differ-
entiate from musculoskeletal causes of limb dys-
function. Electrodiagnostic evaluations have been
useful in pathoanatomical localization of disease
within the motor unit (Steinberg 1979b). Needle
electromyography detects electrical activity of muscle
by inserting needles into muscles, amplifying the
response, observing the response on an oscilloscope
and/or permanently recording the response for fur-
ther analysis (Kimura 1983). Sound characteristics

are also recorded. Abnormalities of resting muscle
are detected by both visual inspection of recordings
and by sound characteristics. Muscle diseases, neu-
romuscular junction, peripheral nerve, spinal motor
nerve roots or the ventral motor horn cells may be
detected by the use of needle EMG (Ghrisman 1982).
When EMG is combined with nerve conduction
studies, the lesion can be localized to the peripheral
nerve, the neuromuscular junction or the muscle it-
self. Wallerian degeneration of nerves will occur
with avulsion or injury of the nerve resulting in an
inability to conduct an impulse (DeLahunta 1983)
Electrodiagnostic evaluations were helpful in this
case for diagnostic and prognostic purposes. Mus-
culoskeletal injury to the scapula and antebrachium
may result in brachial plexus and nerve root injury
(Griffiths 1974; Griffiths et al. 1974). In this case
neurologic dysfunction resulted from total avulsion
of nerve roots of the brachial plexus rather than a
lesion within the peripheral nerve. Information re-
garding nerve conduction techniques in raptors has
not been previously described. The depiction of me-
dian-ulnar motor nerve conduction velocity should
provide valuable information for those interested in
clinical electrodiagnostic assessment of raptors.

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Amy Werner for the graphic rep-
resentation and Jerry McCollum for the photography.

Literature Cited

Chrisman, C. L. (Ed.). 1982. Special ancillary inves-
tigations. Pages 67-89. In Problems in small animal
neurology. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, PA.
DeLahunta, A. (Ed.). 1983. Lower motor neuron-

general somatic efferent system. Pages 65-66. In Vet-
erinary neuroanatomy and clinical neurology. W. B.
Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA.

Griffiths, I. R. 1974. Avulsion of the brachial plexus,
Part 1 . Neuropathology of the spinal cord and periph-
eral nerves. /. Sm. Anim. Practice 15:165-176.

, I. D. Duncan and D. D. Lawson. 1974. Avul-
sion of the brachial plexus, Part 2. Clinical aspects. /
Sm. Anim. Practice 15:177-182,

Kimura, J. (Ed.). 1983. Techniques and normal find-
ings. Pages 235-257. In Electrodiagnosis in diseases of
nerve and muscle: principles and practice. F. A. Davis,
Philadelphia, PA.

Redig, P. T. 1980. Aspergillosis in raptors. Pages 117-
129. In J. E. Cooper, and A. G. Greenwood, Eds
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Dis-
eases of Birds of Prey: Recent advances in the study
of raptor diseases, London.

Spring 1989

Avulsion of the Brachial Plexus

9

Steinberg, S. H. 1979a. A review of electromyographic
and motor nerve conduction velocity techniques. J. Am.
Anim. Hasp. Assoc. 15:613-619.

. 1979b. The use of electrodiagnostic techniques

in evaluating traumatic brachial plexus root injuries.
J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assoc. 15:621-626.

Walker, T. L., R. W. Redding and K. G. Braund.
1979. Motor nerve conduction velocity and latency in
the dog. Am. J. Vet. Res. 40:1422-1439.

Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine and Sur-
gery and Department of Microbiology and Pathol-
ogy, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington
State University, Pullman, Washington 99164. Cur-
rent address of third author: 5913 Lincoln Road,
Oregon, Wisconsin 53575.

Received 15 June 1988; accepted 8 December 1988

J. Raptor Res. 23(1):10-13
© 1989 The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc.

A FLOATING-FISH SNARE FOR CAPTURING BALD EAGLES

Steven L. Cain and John I. Hodges

Abstract. — Bald Eagles ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus) were captured using a system of 4 monofilament
snares fixed on a small (20-24 cm) floating fish attached by monofilament and shock cord to a free-
floating (or anchored) driftwood log. When an eagle strikes the bait and begins to fly away, the snare
loops close around the bird’s toes as the line tightens. Resistance of the shock cord and log then slows
the bird’s flight until it is forced into the water. Snare sets were placed in view of perched birds and were
effective at capturing specific individuals. Capture success averaged 50% of all birds that struck the bait.
Floating-fish snares are useful where topographical features, eagle foraging habits, or trap fouling by
non-target terrestrial species make open water sets more effective. Non-target aquatic species occasionally
fouled sets.

Common methods of capturing the Bald Eagle
(. Haliaeetus leucocephalus ) have included padded leg-
hold traps, perch snares, modified bal-chatris, can-
non nets and floating-fish snares (Southern 1963,
1964; Robards 1966; Frenzel and Anthony 1982;
Young 1983; Harmata 1985; Hodges et al. 1987).
Among techniques, padded leg-hold traps and float-
ing-fish snares have become the most widely used.
Leg-hold traps are useful in areas where water is
frozen or otherwise unavailable and in areas where
shallow water sets can be made before daylight.
Floating-fish snares are often necessary where steep-
gradient beaches, shoreline vegetation, visibility, or
eagle foraging habits make open-water sets more
effective.

Southern (1963, 1964) provided the first pub-
lished accounts of capture attempts using a floating-
fish snare, but his efforts were unsuccessful. The late
Fred C. Robards was, to our knowledge, the first to
use a floating-fish snare to successfully capture Bald
Eagles. In the late 1960s Robards experimented with
and managed to capture several birds using a floating
Herring (Clupea pallasii) with a single monofilament
snare loop attached and reeled in and out with a
fishing rod from a small boat. The floating-fish snare
technique has since become widely known as the
“Robards method.” For years, the Robards method
was spread among Bald Eagle researchers by word
of mouth. More recently, Frenzel and Anthony
(1982) provided a brief description of a 2-noosed
variation of Robard’s (unpublished) technique.

We have experimented with many variations of
Robard’s technique, variations which, even though
very subtle, can affect capture success significantly.
With any animal capturing technique it is advan-
tageous to 1) minimize trauma and handling time,

and (2) maximize efficiency, ease of use, versatility
and effectiveness. Of all design variations of floating-
fish snares we have used, the one described here best
meets these criteria.

Materials and Construction

Attention to detail is critical as poorly crafted baits will
result in a low capture rate. We used fresh or frozen bait
Herring 20-24 cm in length for trapping in marine waters
and similar sized salmonid fishes for inland lakes and
rivers (equivalent sized fish species preferred by local ea-
gles should be used). Larger fish are not recommended
because of difficulty with predicting where the talons will
strike. Fresh fish were more durable and easier to work
with.

To insert the buoyant material into the fish, a transverse
incision just posterior to the pectoral fins on the ventral
side was made. Entrails were removed, and a buoyant
plug, carved to fit into the resulting cavity, was inserted
(Fig. ID, arrow).

Snare loops were made from 14 kg (30 lb) breaking
strength, cryptic-colored monofilament. For each of the 4
loops, we cut an approximately 80 cm length of monofil-
ament, formed the first knot (Fig. 1 A arrow) and tightened
firmly. The resulting loop formed a slip knot which was
tightened to maintain a snare loop dia of 10-12 cm. If the
finished snare loop did not lay smooth and flat, rotating
the slip knot about the shank of the loop to remove twist
in the line usually remedied the problem. New monofil-
ament sold on large dia spools was easier to work with
than old or tightly wound line that was kinky and less
supple.

To affix snares on a fish, we used a small dia nail (4
penny) (or leg band pop-rivet) to punch passageways for
snare loop ends. Two holes 1 cm apart passed through the
center line of the fish, ventral to dorsal, and through the
styrofoam in the gut cavity. On either side a total of 4
holes were made through the body wall (Fig. IB). Each
snare loop end was then threaded through a side hole into
the body cavity and out the center hole ventrally, then back
down through the center hole and styrofoam to exit dor-
sally (Fig. IB, D). Threading in this manner insured that

10

Spring 1989

Bald Eagle Fish Snare

11

Figure 1. Floating-fish snare system for capturing Bald Eagles: (A) snare loop slip knot; (B) top view of fish snare,
(C) log/shock cord unit; and (D) side view of fish snare.

loops would lie in the plane of the water’s surface when
the bait fish was floating belly-up (Fig. ID).

Once loops were in place, the 4 ends exiting dorsally
were tied together and into a loop with an overhand knot.
Ordinary household staples, bent in the middle and slightly
pinched through the skin of the fish, worked well for
holding the snare loops in place (Fig. IB, arrows), or to
close gaps where the plug was inserted into the gut cavity.

Our capture logs measured approximately 80 x 15 cm
and weighed 3.5 kg. Weight was functionally more im-
portant than size. Nails (16 penny) were partially driven
into the log and bent over to form loops that temporarily
held the coiled shock cord in place on the underside (Fig.
1C). We used 1.5 m of 6.5 mm shock cord. Approximately
10 m of 18 kg (40 lb) monofilament connected the log/
shock cord unit to the floating-fish snare. Finally, a short
length of 4.5 kg (10 lb) monofilament was used to tem-
porarily bypass the shock cord, connecting the fish snare
line directly to the log (Fig. 1C, arrow). After a strike, an
abrupt tightening of line and closing of snare loops resulted
as the eagle attempted to fly away with the fish. The bypass
would then break, and the shock cord and movement of
the log on the surface would smooth the eagle’s descent
into the water. Without the bypass, eagles appeared to
feel the resistance of the shock cord and sometimes dropped
the fish before the snare loops had closed.

A word of caution regarding the use of buoyant plugs
in floating fish snares is warranted. We used styrofoam
for plugs, which was buoyant and easily worked. But since
some baits are taken by birds that strike and are not caught,
the possibility of adults and nestlings ingesting plugs may
be of concern. When baits are so taken, the styrofoam plug
is generally left behind, still attached to the snare lines,
which emphasizes an important reason for running lines
through the plug when preparing baits. However, on a

few occasions the snare loops closed and pulled through
the plug allowing the eagle to fly away with the plugged
fish. In one instance we observed the bird dropping the
plug as it consumed the fish. Other observations of feeding
captive and wild eagles indicate that non-food items are
usually discarded or, if ingested, are immediately regur-
gitated (A. R. Harmata, pers. comm.). Nevertheless, po-
tential for birds ingesting the styrofoam exists, and pre-
cautions should be taken to avoid possible deleterious effects
If plugs are made from styrofoam, only good quality, high-
density material should be used. Plugs should always con-
sist of a single piece of material to increase the likelihood
of a plug being regurgitated if ingested. Baits used for
chumming purposes should not contain styrofoam.

Another, more desirable alternative that we have not
yet investigated would be to carve plugs from a lightweight
but durable, buoyant wood. Passageways for the snare
loop ends could then be drilled to a dia that would stop
the slip knots from pulling through the plug. This would
effectively fix the plug to the snares and eliminate potential
for birds to fly away with a plugged bait.

Use

Eagles selected for capture were usually perched
along the shoreline in a hunting or lookout position.
The snare was placed 75-150 m (or further for
eagles with greater flushing distances) offshore, at
an angle that would allow wind, river, or tidal cur-
rents to move the bait toward a target bird. Moni-
toring took place at a distance of 0.5 to 1.0 km. If
the first set failed or drifted out of the area, replacing
the snare progressively closer to the bird usually
resulted in a strike.

12

Steven L. Cain and John I. Hodges

Vol. 23, No. 1

Once caught, eagles floated with their wings out-
stretched and heads well above the water, occasion-
ally swimming toward shore or flying short distances
before being pulled back into the water by the shock
cord and weight of the log. Snares should be set far
enough from shore and continuously monitored to
ensure that snared birds can be retrieved before they
reach the shore. To retrieve a snared eagle we first
approached the log, then grabbed the connecting line
and slowly reeled in the bird with the log remaining
afloat. If the bird attempted to fly, we could simply
release the line and let the log and shock cord force
the eagle back into the water. Because snared birds
are relatively free of constraint and capable of in-
flicting serious injury, only individuals with consid-
erable experience in handling large raptors should
attempt to retrieve eagles from the water.

In areas where water depth and current are not
prohibitive the log/shock cord unit can be fixed in
place with an anchor and additional shock cord.
Additional shock cord between anchor and log is
needed because the log will no longer be free to skim
across the water. Too little give in the system will
result in broken lines and, possibly, injured eagles.
The anchor effectively eliminates drift of the system
out of the area and can be used to place snares in
favorite hunting areas before daylight. Such may be
advantageous in areas where eagles are not habit-
uated to boats and flush at distances that preclude
placing a snare in full view of a perched bird.

During our studies, capture rate was influenced
by several factors, including experience, skill and
persistence of the trapper and quality of bait prep-
aration. Trapping success was best away from food
concentrations during winter and spring when eagles
were food stressed. Unfortunately, we kept no rec-
ords of the proportion of all eagles that actually
struck the bait. However, if alternative food sources
were not abundant, most birds readily took the bait.
Providing fish of equivalent size and species without
snares attached, sometimes over a period of several
days, increased chances of capturing eagles that were
reluctant to strike. Occasionally, non-target species,
primarily gulls ( Larus spp.), fouled sets, but more
often their interest in the bait elicited strikes from
eagles. Others have experienced greater interference
from gulls (B. R. McClelland, pers. comm.) as well
as inadvertent captures of Ospreys ( Pandion hal-
meetus ) (Frenzel and Anthony 1982) while using
floating-fish snares.

Capture success (percentage of strikes that re-

sulted in successful capture) was 50% (N = 15)
during one study (Cain 1985) and was estimated to
be from 30-50% (N = 60) during another on-going
study where sets without breakaway line were used
(P. F. Schempf pers. comm.). J. Crenshaw (pers.
comm.) also reported a capture success of 50% (N
= 15) using a similar 2-noosed variation. Others
have estimated success rates of from 25% (Bloom
1987, citing pers. comm, from W. G. Hunt, L. Young,
and R. Jackman) to nearly 100% (“if nooses and
lines are set in proper positions” [Frenzel and An-
thony 1982]) for floating-fish snares. We found that
incidences of birds striking the bait and not getting
caught were due to a number of factors, including
the bird dropping the bait before snare loops had
closed, snare loops sliding off the foot or toes, or the
bird breaking the snare line with its beak after being
forced into the water. Only 1 injury occurred during
the capture of 90 eagles in 3 separate studies: a small
cut on the phalanx of a bird caused by the mono-
filament snare line (Cain 1985; J. Crenshaw pers.
comm.; P. F. Schempf pers. comm.).

The primary advantage of floating-fish snares over
other Bald Eagle capture techniques is the ability
to use open water as a trapping medium. In most
areas, especially during the nesting season, Bald Ea-
gles forage over open water, and thus floating fish
snares appear more natural than terrestrial based
systems. Open water sets also eliminate problems
with non-target terrestrial species fouling traps.
However, problems with non-target aquatic species
persist. Where eagles are habituated to boat traffic,
fish snares offer an effective means of selecting for
specific, individual birds. Snares can be quickly and
easily placed while making a slow pass by a target
bird, greatly reducing the chance of non-target cap-
ture. The first author captured target birds from
each of 6 pre-selected nest territories using our meth-
od. Finally, where eagles feed on spawning salmo-
nids, floating-fish snares may select for adult birds,
since subadults are more likely to forage on beached
fish (Young 1983).

Acknowledgments

The late Fred C. Robards introduced us to this inno-
vative capture scheme. We thank A. Anderson for design
suggestions and assistance, S. McPhearson for technical
assistance, and B. R. McClelland, P. F. Schempf, G. R
Bortolotti and A. R. Harmata for reviewing earlier drafts

Literature Cited

Bloom, P. H. 1987. Capturing and handling raptors.

In B. A. Pendleton, B. A. Millsap, K. W. Cline, and

Spring 1989

Bald Eagle Fish Snare

13

D. M. Bird, Eds. Raptor management techniques
manual. Nat. Wildl. Fed. Scientific and Tech. Series
No. 10.

Cain, S. L. 1985. Nesting activity time budgets of Bald
Eagles in southeast Alaska. M.S. thesis, Univ. of Mon-
tana, Missoula. 47 pp.

Frenzel, R. W. and R. G. Anthony. 1982. Method
for live-capturing Bald Eagles and Osprey over open
water. U. S. Dept, of Inter. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Res.
Infor. Bull. 82-13.

HARMATA, A. R. 1985. Capture of wintering and nesting
Bald Eagles. Pages 139-159. In J. M. Gerrard and T.
M. Ingram, Eds. The Bald Eagle in Canada. Proc. of
Bald Eagle Days, 1983. White Horse Publis., Mani-
toba.

Hodges, J. I., E. L. Boeker and A. J. Hansen. 1987.
Movements of radio-tagged Bald Eagles, Haliaeetus
leucocephaius , in and from southeastern Alaska. Can.
Field Nat. 101:136-140.

RobarDS, F. C. 1966. Capture, handling and banding

of Bald Eagles. U. S. Dept, of Inter., Fish and Wildlife
Serv. unpublished Report. Juneau, Alaska. 25 pp.

SOUTHERN, W. E. 1963. Populations, behavior, and sea-
sonal dispersal of Bald Eagles wintering in north-
western Illinois. Wilson Bull. 75:42-55.

. 1964. Additional observations on winter Bald

Eagle populations: including remarks on biotelemetry
techniques and immature plumages. Wilson Bull. 76(2)
121-137.

Young, L. 1963. Movements of Bald Eagles associated
with an autumn concentration in Glacier National Park
M. S. thesis, Univ. of Montana, Missoula. 102 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, P.O. Box 021287, Ju-
neau, AK 99802. Present address of first author:
U.S. National Park Service, P.O. Box 25287, Den-
ver, CO 80225.

Received 20 September 1988' accepted 22 December 1988

Short Communications

/ Raptor Res. 23(1):14— 16
© 1989 The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc.

Unusual Leg Injury in a Nestling Bald Eagle
Richard E. Yates and B. Riley McClelland

In this paper we report a tarsometatarsal joint dislo-
cation, possible cause of the injury, and subsequent effects
on a nestling Bald Eagle ( Hahaeetus leucocephalus). Joint
dislocations in raptors are uncommon, most occurring in
the pelvis in tethered, captive birds (P. Redig, Raptor
Research and Rehabilitation Program (RRRP), Univer-
sity of Minnesota, pers. comm.). The RRRP has treated
only 2 tarsometatarsal joint dislocations within the past
15 yr, and at the National Wildlife Health Laboratory
(Madison, Wisconsin) such an injury is rare (N. Thomas,
pers. comm.).

Our observations during a prenesting through post-
fledging period, 16 March-4 September 1985, totaled 1038
hrs (approximately 50% of daylight hrs) at a nest near
Lake McDonald in Glacier National Park, northwestern
Montana. Observations were made with a spotting scope
2-3 km from the nest, a distance which did not appear to
interfere with adult nesting and foraging activity.

Incubation commenced on 1 1 April. Thirty-five d later
changes in adult behavior indicated that at least 1 egg had
hatched. We were unaware that the eaglet was crippled
until we banded the 8-wk-old nestling on 10 July and
noticed that the bird’s right leg was deformed. The tar-
sometatarsus and toes were rotated 90° with the hallux
pointing inward. The tarsometatarsal joint was noticeably
swollen. Although the young bird could move the crippled
leg toward its breast, a normal standing position was not
possible. We observed that the toes and talons were useless
for perching or grasping prey (Fig. 1).

Tarsometatarsal joint dislocation probably occurred
within 14 d after hatching, when distorting forces would
most likely cause a separation at the distal cartilaginous
growth plate (P. Redig, pers. comm.). Such forces could
have resulted from a number of events. No evidence (such
as scarring of skin tissue) of an encounter with a predator
was observed. The nestling could have caught its leg be-
tween nest sticks, but this is unlikely because very young
chicks do not venture far from the nest cup. However, we
recorded 1 disturbance during the first 14 d after hatching
which may have caused an adult to step on the chick.
During this period the nest was observed for 55% of the
daylight hours. On 24 May, when the chick was 8 d old,
a loud sonic boom originated from a military jet approx-
imately 10 km from the nest at 1053 H. The noise caused
the brooding adult to vault to a standing position and look
toward the disturbance source. We could not see the nest-

ling, but the unusual brooding and feeding activity sub-
sequent to the noise indicated that the adults were greatly
disturbed. We also have observed flushes of migrant Bald
Eagles as a result of sonic booms during autumn Bald
Eagle concentrations at Lower McDonald Creek in Gla-
cier National Park.

Prior to 24 May, continuous brooding was observed,
and feedings averaged 0.4 bouts/hr. Immediately after the
sonic boom, the attending adult moved to the nest edge for
20 min but returned to feed the nestling 3 times in the
next 45 min, which was the most frequent feeding ob-
served. A third feeding bout lasted 18 min, the longest
bout recorded during the first 26 d of the nestling period
Just prior to the third feeding bout, the adult left the nest
for 1 min (the first observation of the chick being unat-
tended for even a brief period). The adult did not return
to a brooding posture during the entire 3.5 hr observation
interval following the disturbance, the longest non-brood-
ing period until 31 May. Later, between 1800 and 2107
H, the adults exchanged brooding 3 times. We did not
record any other brooding substitutions that were made
as frequently. Brooding time during this period ranged
from 1-23 min; no other broodings as brief were recorded.
Frequent feedings and brooding exchanges and the adults’
agitated behavior following disturbance were dissimilar to
observations made prior to the sonic boom. We observed
similar agitated behavior the following year, on 14 April
1986, after a Common Raven ( Corvus corax ) consumed at
least 1 eagle egg at the same nest.

Considering the unusual behavior of the Lake Mc-
Donald adults immediately following the sonic boom, we
believe that the event probably resulted in the eaglet’s
injury. We recognize that evidence linking this eaglet’s
injury to a sonic boom is circumstantial. However, T
Grubb (U.S. Forest Serv., Tempe, Arizona, pers. comm.)
found that nesting Bald Eagles in Arizona reacted to sonic
booms (N = 77) 58% of the time by becoming alert or by
flying. Ellis (Responses of raptorial birds to low level
military jets and sonic booms. Inst. Raptor Stud., Oracle,
Arizona. 59 pp., 1981) determined that sonic booms were
disruptive to nesting Peregrine Falcons (Falco per egrinus)
in Arizona and caused some adults to flee their nests. He
also stated that eggs or tiny young might be dislodged from
a nest by a fleeing adult.

The injured leg was an obvious handicap to the eaglet
during the late nestling period when the bird could be

14

Spring 1989

Short Communications

15

Figure 1. Nestling Bald Eagle (8 wks) showing rotated
right tarsometatarsus (arrow points to rotated
hallux).

Figure 2. Fledgling Bald Eagle (1 6 wks) showing rotated
right tarsometatarsus and elevated position of
leg (arrow points to rotated hallux).

seen hobbling across the nest. The eaglet often balanced
on the normal leg with the crippled leg held close to the
abdomen (Fig. 2). The only movement observed in the
injured leg was a flexion of toes, and the eaglet had dif-
ficulty feeding. The eaglet first attempted to feed itself at
6 wk post-hatching; the adults continued to feed the eaglet
intermittently until 13 wk post-hatching (2 wk prior to
fledging). Cain (Nesting activity time budgets of Bald
Eagles in Southeast Alaska. M.S. Thesis. Univ. of Mon-
tana, Missoula. 47 pp., 1985) reported that nesting Bald
Eagles in Alaska fed young until fledging.

Exercise bouts (wing-flapping and bounding) increased
in frequency during July and August, with the highest
number of bouts (26) occurring on the day of fledging, 29
August. At 1712 H the eaglet fell from the nest during a
flapping bout, clung to the edge of the nest with its normal
leg, and finally flapped back into the nest several seconds
later. Wing-flapping continued every 15-20 min for the
next hr. At 1945 H the eaglet hopped to the edge of the
nest, extended its wings and flew for 10-15 s before drop-
ping out of view into the surrounding old-growth forest
canopy. Normal fledging of Bald Eagles occurs at 10-12
wk (Brown, L. H., and D. Amadon. Eagles, hawks and
falcons of the world. Vol. 1. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New

York, NY. 414 pp. 1968). The crippled eaglet fledged
from the Lake McDonald nest 15 wk (105 d) after hatch-
ing.

The adults were not seen in the McDonald Valley for
2 d prior to the fledging date, and the eaglet had not fed
for 35 hr before leaving the nest. At 07 1 5 H on 30 August
we found the bird on the ground, about 200 m east of the
nest tree. The adults returned to the nest area at 1412 H
and flew into the forest near the fledgling, left the area 1
hr 43 min later and were not observed on the territory
again until 12 October.

By 1430 H on 1 September the fledgling arrived at the
Lake McDonald shoreline 400 m downslope from the nest
tree. The eaglet made a 30 m flight and hobbled to the
lakeshore through thick undergrowth after crossing a near-
by road. The bird appeared to be exhausted as it flew to
a tree along the shore and tried to perch. By 1330 H on
2 September the eaglet moved 400 m downshore near
several private homes. The bird could fly up to 100 m but
could not perch in a tree; instead, the eaglet hung from
branches by its wings, eventually tumbling to lower
branches or to the ground.

On 3 September we captured the juvenile and relocated
it to near one of the adults’ frequently-used perches, 1 km

16

Short Communications

Vol. 23, No. 1

south of private homes, with hopes that the adults would
return and care for the young bird. When the adults did
not return we recaptured the eaglet at 1400 H on 4 Sep-
tember for medical examination.

P. Redig determined that the injury could not be cor-
rected and the fledgling was euthanized. Necropsy revealed
that the eaglet had a severe luxation of the right tarso-
metatarsal joint and was emaciated.

Acknowledgments

We thank E. Caton, P. McClelland, and R. Bennetts
for field work, support, and suggestions. The National
Park Service provided partial funding support. Glacier
National Park Rangers D. O’Brien and M. Ober helped

with logistics. Northwest Orient Airlines shipped the in-
jured eaglet to RRRP without charge. G. McFarland
prepared illustrations. P. Redig contributed valuable ad-
vice, and we appreciated his efforts to save the injured
eaglet. Constructive comments on an earlier draft were
made by R. Anthony, R. Dunsmore, R. Hutto, K. Keating,
C. Key, J. Parrish, P. Redig, L. Young, and H. Zuuring

Wildlife Biology Program, School of Forestry, Uni-
versity of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812. Address
of second author: U.S. National Park Service, Gla-
cier National Park, West Glacier, MT 59936.

Received 30 May 1988; accepted 19 December 1988

/. Raptor Res. 23(1 ):1 6—1 7
© 1989 The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc.

Predation of Bald Eagles ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus) on American Coots ( Fulica americana )

Bayard H. Brattstrom

Observations of Bald Eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus )
predation on the American Coot ( Fulica americana ) were
made along the east shore of Flathead Lake, 16-22 km
northeast of Poison, Lake County, Montana, between 13-
22 January 1978. During this time a group of 50-1000
coots fed in Gravel Bay. The coots were in a close aggre-
gation (Fig. 1A) with individuals separated by about 1-2
m. Occasionally coots fed by diving 3-6 m deep into this
glacial, oligotrophic lake for filamentous algae attached to
submerged rocks.

At night, the coots formed a tight aggregation with
individual coots in contact with each other forming a raft
(or a Pod 1 group, fide Breder 1959) (Fig. IB). I observed
these rafts near dark, 1630 H, 15 January and at 0945
H, 21 January.

On 15 January between 1430-1500 H, I observed a
large feeding aggregation of about 400 coots in Gravel
Bay. A Bald Eagle flew over the bay and then soared 10-

A

V,'

FEEDING AGGREGATION

NOCTURNAL AGGREGATION

Figure 1 . Behavior patterns of American Coots. (A) feed-
ing aggregation; coots 1-2 m apart; (B) noc-
turnal aggregation; most coots in contact with
one or more coots; (C) anti-predator aggre-
gation in response to the presence of a Bald
Eagle ; coots about 10-20 cm apart; (D) mov-
ing aggregation: coots about 1 m apart; strag-
glers are at greater distance from main group;
the eagle attack described in the text was on
the last solitary coot.

c

COOT AGGREGATION
IN RESPONSE
TO PRESENCE OF EAGLE

I

♦ I •

V

• 1*1

t

A

I '

hi 1 !

i i *

i

i

MOVING AGGREGATION

Spring 1989

Short Communications

17

30 m, circling over the end of the elongated flock where
coots were more isolated. In response to the eagle these
isolated coots formed a tight aggregation (Fig. 1C) with
each coot only about 10-20 cm apart. The aggregation,
similar to the “huddle” described by Grubb (1977), slowly
swam towards the main group. The main group also began
to move together into a “huddle.” The eagle made no
attempt to capture coots.

I observed a moving group of 800 coots on 17 January.
The coots swam at about 11-16 km/hr in an elongate
band of about 6 coots wide with each coot about 1 m apart
(Fig. ID). At the end of the column there were some
stragglers 3-10 m behind the main group (Fig. ID), fol-
lowed by 2 coots 300 m further behind which in turn,
were followed by a single coot, approximately 10 m further
behind. At 1135 H, an immature Bald Eagle flew by and
then dove on the single coot. The coot submerged and the
eagle flew up about 6 m and dove down again as the coot
surfaced. In a 3-min period, the eagle dove 1 1 times as
the coot submerged and surfaced repeatedly. On the elev-
enth attempt, the eagle caught the harassed coot and flew
low over the water.

On 6 January, a Bald Eagle was seen to dive on a lone
coot in the water (G. and D. Buswell, pers. comm.). The
eagle missed the coot on the first try but was successful in
a second try as the coot surfaced. Apparently, the eagle
had difficulty lifting the coot which was dragged along the
water and onto ice cover. The eagle started to eat the coot
but was soon harassed by 4 other eagles which unsuc-
cessfully tried to steal the coot. The eagle finally left the
dead coot. One of the other eagles then obtained the coot
but also soon left. On another occasion, a Bald Eagle with
a coot was being chased by 3 Common Ravens ( Corvus

corax). The ravens unsuccessfully tried to grab the coot
from the eagle.

Groups of birds, fish, bats and ungulates will aggregate
closely in response to a predator (Breder 1959, 1967; Se-
ghers, 1974; Hamilton, 1978). Most authors suggest such
behavior prevents a predator from separating out 1 indi-
vidual upon which to focus an attack. Movement and
confusion within an aggregation further prevent a predator
from concentrating on 1 individual, hence predation is
often unsuccessful. Aggregation behavior appears to be an
effective response by the American Coot to approach of a
predator such as the Bald Eagle, and eagles are thus pri-
marily successful with predation on solitary individuals.

Literature Cited

Breder, C. M. 1959. Studies on social groupings in
fishes. Bull Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 117:397-481.

. 1967. On the survival value of fish schools.

Zoologica 52:25-40.

Grubb, T. C. 1977. Discrimination of aerial predators
by American Coots in nature. Anim. Beh. 25:1065-
1066.

HAMILTON, W. D. 1978. Geometry for the selfish herd.
/. Theor. Biol. 31:142-159.

SEGHERS, G. H. 1974. Schooling behavior in the guppy
(. Poecilia reticulata ): an evolutionary response to pre-
dation. Evolution 28:486-488.

Department of Biological Science, California State
University, Fullerton, CA 92634.

Received 18 September 1988; accepted 22 December 1988

J. Raptor Res. 23( 1 ): 1 8— 1 9
© 1989 The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc.

Commentary

Effects of Strychnine on Raptors
Stanley N. Wiemeyer

Cheney et al. (1987) recently reported on the effects of
strychnine on raptors. Three individual raptors of 2 species
were used to determine the effects of sublethal doses of
strychnine on motor function, acquisition of taste aversion
and behavior. Some of the methods used in this series of
experiments were inappropriate, therefore the results and
conclusions may be invalid.

First, the sample sizes of birds used in the experiments
were far too small to provide meaningful results that can
be extrapolated to the field with any degree of confidence.
Only one Red-tailed Hawk {Buteo jamaicensis) and 2 Great
Horned Owls ( Bubo virginianus ) were used in the study
which encompassed 5 different experiments. Greater num-
bers of birds, possibly 5/species, should have been used
for each experiment. A minimum of 3 subjects is required
m statistical analyses to estimate variability. Thus, statis-
tical credibility in the study was lacking.

Secondly, using the same individual birds in >1 ex-
periment is inappropriate. A basic premise in toxicological
research is that animals should not be previously treated
with test substances in other studies (Chan et al. 1982).
In Experiment One as described by Cheney et al. (1987)
3 birds were repeatedly exposed to strychnine at increasing
doses. The first or early exposure(s) could have affected
tolerance of the birds to later exposures to strychnine
through several routes, including sensitization or desen-
sitization. The objective of Experiment One can only be
met by using previously unexposed subjects, not through
repeated exposure of the same subjects. In Experiments
One and Two, Cheney et al. (1987) dosed birds on alter-
nate days which was assumed to allow sufficient time for
elimination of the toxin, but they later stated “. . . complete
elimination may take several days.” No evidence was pro-
vided that strychnine did not accumulate in the birds.
Hudson et al. (1984) found delayed mortality in California
Quail ( Callipepla californica ) dosed with strychnine, which
suggests that irreversible effects may occur. Cheney et al.
(1987) provided no evidence that irreversible effects do
not occur following sublethal exposure to strychnine. Con-
ceivably, strychnine exposure could affect the immune sys-
tem or mixed function oxidases. The basic premise was
also violated in Experiment Three where birds, previously
treated with strychnine, were fed mice injected with lith-
ium chloride and dipped in vinegar to determine if food
aversion could be learned. Whether the birds averted to
food because of the vinegar, the lithium chloride, or pre-
exposure to strychnine in combination with one of these

was unclear. Sequential experiments using the same 3
birds might have confounded results within or between
experiments, an issue that was not addressed by the au-
thors.

Thirdly, no “controls” (undosed birds) were used in the
experiments. Their absence is most conspicuous in Ex-
periments Two, Three and Four. Undosed subjects are
necessary for proper interpretation of data from treated
subjects in toxicological research.

We live in a time when the activities of the research
community are being closely scrutinized in relation to how
animals are treated. One general consideration in con-
ducting research is that the procedures used should avoid
or minimize distress and pain, in keeping with the design
and objectives of the study. Also, “Studies should use the
fewest animals necessary to answer reliably the questions
posed. Use of adequate samples at the outset will prevent
unnecessary repetition, resulting in waste or increased dis-
tress” (A.O.U. 1988). Cheney et al. (1987) recognized that
strychnine increases the excitability of the central nervous
system and described instances where treated birds flew
against the cage wall and/or fell to the ground in response
to dosage and the presence of an investigator. Such be-
havior clearly involves distress and possibly pain and ap-
pears to have occurred repeatedly in the same birds in > 1
experiment. Whether such treatment was related to study
objectives in all cases was unclear. Treatment of study
animals that causes pain and distress must be carefully
justified. Otherwise the research community will come
under increasingly heavy attack and could eventually be
prevented from performing critically needed research. In-
adequate design and inappropriate methods used by Che-
ney et al. (1987) negate the value of the information gained
and therefore offer little support for the use of and distress
to the Red-tailed Hawk and Great Horned Owls in their
study. Toxicological research that is adequately designed
and justified should be continued.

I thank C. E. Grue, E. F. Hill, J. L. Lincer, G. H
Olsen and M. R. Whitworth for their helpful comments
and discussions in relation to the preparation of this com-
mentary.

Literature Cited

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1988. Report of
the Committee on the use of Wild Birds in Research
Auk 105(1, suppl.): 1A-41A.

Chan, P. K., G. P. O’Hara and A. W. Hayes. 1982.

18

Spring 1989

Commentary

19

Principles and methods for acute and subchronic tox-
icity. Pages 1-51. In A. W. Hayes, Ed. Principles and
methods of toxicology. Raven Press, New York.

Cheney, C. D., S. B. Vander Wall and R. J. Poehl-
MANN. 1987. Effects of strychnine on the behavior
of Great Horned Owls and Red-tailed Hawks. /. Rap-
tor Res. 21:103-110.

Hudson, R. H., R. K. Tucker and M. A. Haegele.
1984. Handbook of toxicity of pesticides to wildlife

(2nd Ed.). U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and
Wildlife Service, Resource Publication 153.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Patuxent Wildlife Re-
search Center, Laurel, Maryland 20708.

Received 10 June 1988; accepted 9 December 1988

/, Rapt. Res. 23(l):20-23

© 1989 The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc.

News and Reviews
Resolution No. 88-01

Information Campaign to Prevent Raptor Electrocution

WHEREAS, The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc., has concern for the welfare of raptor populations
around the world, and;

WHEREAS, the electrocution of raptors and other birds is taking place in parts of Europe and Africa due
to improperly designed electrical power pole/insulator combinations, and;

WHEREAS, disseminating of information on alternative methods for constructing new power pole/insulator
combinations and modification of existing poles will decrease the number of European and African raptors
electrocuted,

THEREFORE, be it resolved that The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc., supports the initiation of an
international information campaign to disseminate methods of proper power pole construction to prevent
raptor electrocutions and to increase the understanding of the raptor electrocution problem.

THE RAPTOR RESEARCH FOUNDATION, INC.

Gary E. Duke, President

The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc.

Resolution No. 88-02

Maintenance of Top Priority for Birds of Prey with the
Snake River Birds of Prey Area

WHEREAS, The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc., is composed of professional raptor biologists and
managers working with birds of prey, and,

WHEREAS, The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc., recognizes the ecological value of birds of prey, and,

WHEREAS, The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc., recognizes the tenuous status of many raptor species
and has concern for the welfare of raptor populations around the world, and,

WHEREAS, the Snake River Birds of Prey Area represents a resource of international significance, and,

WHEREAS, top priority has been assigned to the birds of prey and the ecosystem that supports them
within the Snake River Birds of Prey Area, and,

WHEREAS, all other activities, barring national security demands, should be secondary to the long-term
ecological integrity of the birds of prey and their supporting ecosystem, and,

20

Spring 1989

News and Reviews

21

WHEREAS, the Idaho Division of Military and National Guard Bureau has proposed upgrading and
new construction of three training facilities at the Orchard Training Area (OTA) within the Snake River
Birds of Prey Area, and,

WHEREAS, the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was designed to insure a comprehensive
examination of proposed projects, such as the aforementioned proposal in order to identify potential
undesirable environmental impacts, and,

WHEREAS, no investigation has been carried out to determine the cumulative impact of proposed and
ongoing activities, and,

WHEREAS, the 1979 EIS contains statements which are objectively indefensible, e.g. “The National
Guard activities were assessed as to their impact on the birds of prey ecosystem. As stated in the EIS, these
activities have had no adverse effects on the neting [sic] birds of prey or the prey that inhabits the maneuver
area,” [1979 Final Statement, page 9-33],

THEREFORE, be it resolved that The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc., urges the adoption of “AL-
TERNATIVE 1: NO ACTION” until a technically sound Environmental Impact Statement is produced
which covers not only the proposed activities of the Idaho National Guard but the ongoing activities
presently occurring there, thus assuring the birds of prey and their prey base the long-term protection as
intended by NEPA.

THE RAPTOR RESEARCH FOUNDATION, INC.

Gary E. Duke, President

The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc.

Resolution No. 88-03

Thank You to the Local Committee of the 1988 RRF Annual Meeting

WHEREAS, the 1988 Raptor Research Foundation annual meeting was successful, stimulating, and
entertaining for all who participated, and;

WHEREAS, the host committee chaired by Patrick T. Redig and the local arrangements committee chaired
by Thomas Walkington did an outstanding job of organizing the 1988 meeting; finding both comfortable
accommodations and providing lively entertainment, and;

WHEREAS, the program committee chairperson, Joan Galli, organized over 100 excellent scientific
presentations and prepared an exceptional program booklet,

THEREFORE, be it resolved that The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc., thanks all the members of the
local, host and program committees for their long hours of hard work, making the 1988 annual meeting
one of the best ever.

THE RAPTOR RESEARCH FOUNDATION, INC.

Gary E. Duke, President

The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc.

22

News and Reviews

Vol. 23, No. 1

Hawks and Owls of the World: a Distributional and Taxonomic List by Dean Amadon and John Bull, with the
genus Otus by Joe T. Marshall and Ben F. King. Proc. Western Found. Vert. Zool., Vol. 3, no. 4, 1988, pp. 295-
357, 2 color plates, cost $10.00 U.S. (obtainable from Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology, 1100 Glendon Ave ,
Los Angeles, CA 90024, U.S. A.).

Dean Amadon and John Bull, both of whom are capable scientists and knowledgeable of raptors, have joined forces
with 2 other biologists with intimate knowledge of owls, Joe Marshall and Ben King, to produce this volume. To me,
this publication has proven most useful as a quick reference and ready source for considerable information on raptor
names and distribution. The publication for me has also been handy in a general overview of who might be most
closely related to whom by looking at the sequence of names.

In format there are 8V2 pages of introductory material explaining more or less each “group” composition, an overview
of the species (also superspecies) and genera, a broad outline of the limits of distribution and what each region contains,
a review of what the names of the habitats mentioned mean (e.g., tropical vs. rain forest), and a discussion of authors’
choices of vernacular names (based, I suspect, largely on length of time in usage). Lastly, within the introductory
material there are several pages of comments on genera, such as taxa included within a genus and how a given genus
might be related to another.

At the beginning of the typical owl (subfamily Striginae) section, Marshall and King have a one-page discussion of
Otus owls and give their views on how various Otus line up systematically. Many of those discussed are either insular
or Neotropical. The remainder and bulk of the publication is a phylogenetic list of named species with a few lines
under each that gives general geographic occurrence with 1 or 2 words on habitat (e.g., semi-open and lightly wooded
country).

While I generally find this publication very useful there are some distracting items, however, as I try to use it. I
could find no statement as to the cut off date for information acquisition. It’s hard to know what data were available
to the authors, although there is one literature reference as late as 1987. Therefore, it is a bit frustrating to read the
brief paragraph description of Family Cathartidae, for example, and note the still very tenuous alignment of that group
with the storks (family Ciconiidae) in view of the excellent paper by Rea (Catharid Affinities: a brief overview in
Vulture Biology and Management, S. Wilbur and J. Jackson, Eds., U. Calif. Press, 1983) and the DNA/DNA
hybridization information of C. Sibley and J. Ahlquist (papers presented at 19th International Ornith. Congr., Ottawa,
1986; A.O.U. Mississippi, 1986), findings which removed any doubt, I believe, concerning the Ciconiid-Catharid
relationship.

There is likewise not enough discussion in the introductory material or in the several-line statement under each
species to clarify why a given discussion was made. This could have been easily handled with more literature references
If anyone is qualified to discuss relationships among genera, for example, it is Dean Amadon and additional insights
into his views would have been invaluable. The material under the heading “Accipitres” would have been a great
place for Amadon to have suggested why certain genera are of uncertain position and affinity and list them. Instead,
we are simply told that many genera are of uncertain positions and then we are referred to Brown and Amadon
(Eagles, hawks, and falcons of the World, McGraw Hill, New York 1968). The problem is that certainly there has
been new data to help elucidate the sequential position of some genera in the past 20 years. Kaupifalco and Butastur
were earlier (1968) placed with the Sub-buteos and in fact Amadon (A revision of the Sub-Buteonine Hawks (Acci-
pitridae, Aves), Amer. Mus. Novilates, no. 2741, 1982) places them with the sub-buteos as late as 1982. In this current
publication they are placed between Snake Eagles and Harriers and not at all allied with Sub-buteos. The 2 genera
are probably correctly placed in the current publication but there should at least have been a footnote as to why the
differences in these sequences.

The use of some vernacular (common) names needed more explanation. For example, Spiziapterxy is called a falcon,
not a falconet as it has been earlier. Why the change, especially if the species is indeed allied w r ith the Subfamily
Polyborinae (Caracaras and relatives) as was apparently done by Amadon and Bull? The Circus approximans / spilonotus /
aeruginosis complex (superspecies) that are named as Eastern or Western Marsh or Swamp Harrier have other
vernacular names used in areas of their occurrence than those given by Amadon and Bull. C. approximans, from
Australo-Papua and Oceania, has frequently been called the Australasian Harrier (cf. Baker-Gabb, Notornis 26:325-
327, 1979, for example) and it seems that such a name is more meaningful and utilitarian than Swamp Harrier.

I found the arguments and statistical analysis of B. Millsap (Biosystematics of the Gray Hawk ( Buteo nitidus ),
unpbl. M.S. thesis, George Mason Univ., Fairfax, VA, 1978) rather compelling. His assertion is that if the Gray
Hawk is removed from Buteo and placed in Austunna (as earlier done by Amadon 1982 and by Amadon and Bull) so
should the Roadside Hawk ( B . magnirostris), Red-shouldered Hawk (B. linneatus) and Ridgway’s Hawk ( B . ridgwayi)
Whether one agrees or not, at least the arguments of Millsap merit reference by Amadon and Bull, if only in a footnote

Among owls, especially Otus, there seems to be a lot of lumping of forms recognized as species by other authors

Spring 1989

News and Reviews

23

without any explanation. For example, no reason is given for including Otus petersoni (the description as a new species
seems rather persuasive) wfith Otus colombianus rather than recognizing species status. I am not questioning the
authoritative knowledge of Marshall and King, but rather I suggest that we should be informed in a note as to why
the decision was made. On the other side of the coin, Bubo bubo traditionally has about 23 geographic races (subspecies)
and 2 normally included in B. bubo (i.e., ascalaphus and bengalensis) were elevated to species status. A footnote suggesting
an earlier precedence or other reasons seems in order. Additionally, the above Bubo together with B. capensis are
included as a superspecies. It seems that if capensis is relegated to that association with bubo, ascalaphus and bengalensis
then the equally similar B. afncanus should have been included. Amadon (pers. comm.) has pointed out 1 typographical
error; on page 344 Pseudoscops grammacus should read P. grammicus.

Overall, I highly recommend the purchase of this useful publication, especially in view of the vast compilation of
material one gets for the modest price. I should also call attention to 2 other publications from the Western Foundation
that concern raptors: Ecological aspects of the food habits of insectivorous screech-owls, by A. Ross, Proceedings #6,
1969, 43 pp, $4.00 U.S., and Parallel variation in North and Middle American screech owls, by J. T. Marshall, Jr.,
Monograph #1, 1967, 72 pp. $10.00 U.S. — Clayton M. White

Hawks in Flight: the Flight Identification of North American Migrant Raptors by Pete Dunne, David Sibley,
and Clay Sutton. Houghton-Mifflin Company, Boston, 1988. 254 pp. Cost for hardback $17.95 U.S.

Birdwatching has become a well established hobby and avocation with numerous “field guides” attesting to its
popularity. More recently, specialty field guides (e.g., shorebirds, waterfowl, gulls, among others) are being published
at an increasing rate. Guides for “hawkwatchers” are no exception to this trend. With the addition of A Field Guide
to Hawks of North America (reviewed /. Raptor Res. 22:74) and now Hawks in Flight, hawkwatching has blossomed
into a recognized subset in the birdwatching family.

Hawks in Flight differs considerably from more conventional style field guides. Missing are schematic illustrations
with typical coloration and shadings accompanied by pointers to easily recognizable “field marks.” The “Peterson
System,” as noted by Roger Tory Peterson’s forwarding remarks, serves to simplify bird observations for the novice.
Hawks in Flight is a natural extension to Peterson’s “field marks,” under conditions unique to hawkwatching (i.e.,
accurate identification of flying raptors from often fleeting observations at extended distances). The authors’ overall
premise is that many of the shading, shape, behavioral, or other characteristic subtleties, not readily observable with
smaller birds, are visible on raptors in flight, even at extreme distances.

More notable changes from average field guide format are that all illustrations are pen and ink sketches of raptors
from angles typical in the field (rarely directly overhead). The photo appendix following the main text is all black
and white. The authors reasoned that black and white illustrations and photos best approximate field conditions,
typically poor lighting compounded by distance and optics. Also lacking are brief natural history and habitat descriptions
on each species. Only information regarding range, migration, and detailed flight identification characteristics are
provided for each of 23 species in 7 identification chapters. The authors omit non-migratory, occasional, or rare migrant
raptors from the 39 species known to occur in North America, although many are noted through comparisons with
subject birds. Field identification of subspecies is covered for such species as Red-tailed Hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis),
Merlin ( Falco columbarius) and Peregrine Falcon ( Falco peregrinus). Pertinent or cautionary recognition notes for each
species are set in italics which aids in field use. Each identification chapter concludes with a summary of how to
differentiate between other similar species. A section on “Telling Accipiters Apart” is the best I have read and reflects
the authors’ familiarity with the subject. There is a slant towards eastern raptors, probably due to the authors’ experience
and knowledge with haw r k watching stations found there; such does not detract from the usefulness of this guide for
westerners, however. Finally, this is a “non” field guide in that it is best read before entering the field.

One endpaper provides an excellent quick-reference of overhead illustrations for the 23 subject raptor species in
flight, all in the same scale. The opposite endcover has raptor topography and head-on profiles, also useful as a quick-
reference. There is a brief but usable bibliography. The index is detailed and functional. I found only one error; there
are 10 species of harriers not 9 as noted in the chapter on harrier identification. I found no typographical errors.

I had the opportunity to use much of the information provided in this guide through teaching a course on raptor
identification last summer, and was amazed at how characteristics of flight (buoyancy in flight, rate of wing beats, head-
body size comparison, chord-span length ratio, etc.) were more readily observable than color, tail-bars, etc. This guide
provides much more identification information than Hawks of North America. However, the two guides appear to
compliment each other. Hawks in Flight will make raptor identification more accurate and interesting for novice and
experts, whether used alone or in conjunction with other field guides— John W. Martin

24

News and Reviews

Vol. 23, No. 1

1988 Leslie Brown Memorial Grant Recipients

Robert E. Simmons, Ph.D.

Amount Received: $600

Project: Reproductive Ecology of Wahl berg’s Eagle

Rob Simmons was born in Kent, England in 1957 and studied astrophysics for an honors degree at London University
Realizing the folly of his ways, he switched to Ornithology and moved to Acadia University in Canada for his M.Sc
research on polygyny and population dynamics of the Northern Harrier. His newfound love of behavioral ecology in
general, and harrier mating systems in particular, led Rob to South Africa in 1983 where he has studied a variety of
raptors, including Black Harriers, Red-breasted Sparrowhawks, African Marsh Harriers (for his Ph.D.) and Wahl-
berg’s Eagle. Rob is currently looking at reproductive constraints, population regulation and breeding biology of
Wahlberg’s Eagle, a study funded in part by the Leslie Brown Memorial Award. His theoretical interests are broad,
ranging from life history strategies, cainism and population dynamics to the evolution of sexual behavior. When not
with his binoculars or computer, Rob enjoys running, squash, cricket, golf and food, and more recently, making faces
at his two-month-old daughter.

°A RAPTOR FILE FOR RAPTORPUILESo

GABAR

Amount Received: $400

The African raptor research journal GABAR was established in 1986 by Robert Simmons, David Allan and Phoebe
Barnard in order to fill a gap highlighted by recent conferences on African predatory birds. The name of the journal
is both that of an ubiquitous small African Goshawk [the Gabar Goshawk, Micronisus {Melierax) gabar ], and an
acronym for the journal’s subject, the Growth and Biology of African Raptors. The journal features both refereed
articles on recent research, a forum for discussion of controversial issues and ideas, a science review summarizing
selected papers from international journals, informal short notes, and news. The journal has been edited jointly by

Spring 1989

News and Reviews

25

Rob Simmons (Chief Editor) and Phoebe Barnard (Copy Editor), with representatives in Botswana, Kenya, Namibia,
South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe, and will in the future be edited by John Mendelsohn and David Allan. GABAR
has recently become affiliated to the newly formed African Raptor Information Centre (ARIC) as the centre’s scientific
publication and has a readership of close to 1000. Editorial correspondence regarding GABAR should be addressed to
the new Editor, John M. Mendelsohn, State Museum, Box 1203, Windhoek 9000, Namibia, and subscription/
membership enquiries to ARIC’s Secretary, Shelley Berkow, ARIC, Box 59507, Karenpark 0118, Republic of South
Africa.

1989 Leslie Brown Memorial Grant, In memory of one of the most inspired and productive raptor biologists of recent
decades, The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc., announces the availability of up to $1000 to provide financial assistance
to promote the research and/or dissemination of information on birds of prey. Applicants must submit a resume,
specific study objectives, an account of how funds will be spent, and a statement indicating how the proposed work
would relate to other work by the applicant and to other sources of funds. Proposals concerning African raptors will
receive highest priority between proposals of otherwise equal merit. Application material must be received by 1
October 1989. Proposals, donations and inquiries about tax-exempt contributions to the fund should be sent to: Jeffrey
L. Lincer, Ph.D., Chairman, RRF Leslie Brown Memorial Fund, 4718 Dunn Drive, Sarasota, FL 34233, U.S.A.

1988 Stephen R, Tully Memorial Grant Recipient

Gian Basili graduated from Colorado College in 1987 with a B.A. in Biology. Since then, Gian has spent one year
working as a teacher’s assistant in the Department of Biology at Colorado College. Gian has participated in numerous
Peregrine Falcon management projects, including population surveys in Utah’s canyon country and in the Wasatch
Mountains and release projects in Wyoming and Colorado.

Gian’s career objectives are in foreign conservation, with specific interest in endangered species. After finishing a
research project on raptors in Venezuela, Gian plans to enter a graduate study program in tropical raptor ecology.

1989 Stephen R. Tully Memorial Grant. The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc., announces the availability of the
Stephen R. Tully Memorial Grant to provide financial assistance to promote the research, management, and conservation

26

News and Reviews

Vol. 23, No. 1

of birds of prey. Individuals demonstrating serious interest in raptors, particularly students and amateurs with limited
access to major granting agencies, are eligible. Applicants must submit 3 copies of the following: resume (vitae), study
plan (5 pages maximum), an account of how funds will be spent, and a statement indicating how the proposed work
would relate to other work by the applicant and to other sources of funds. Applications must be postmarked by 10
September 1989, and addressed to Stephen R. Tully Memorial Grant, 5666 West Flying Hawk Lane, Boise, ID
83709, U.S.A. Grant awards will be announced at the annual Raptor Research Foundation meeting 10-14 October
1989 in Veracruz, Mexico.

Hawk Mountain-Zeiss Raptor Research Award. The Hawk Mountain Sanctuary Association awarded its 1989
research grant to Suzanne M. Joy, a M.S. candidate at Colorado State University. Her project is entitled “Nest-site
characteristics and foraging behavior of Sharp-shinned Hawks in mature aspen and conifer habitats.”

The Hawk Mountain Sanctuary Association is now accepting applications for its thirteenth annual award to support
student research on birds of prey. Support for this award is provided by Carl Zeiss Optical, Inc. Up to $2000 in funds
are available and will be awarded to one or two recipients. To apply, a student applicant should submit a brief
description of his or her research program (five pages maximum), a curriculum vitae, a budget summary including
other funding anticipated, and two letters of recommendation to Dr. James C. Bednarz, Hawk Mountain Sanctuary
Association, Route 2, Kempton, PA 19529, U.S.A. The deadline for applications is 15 November 1989. The
Association’s board of directors will make a final decision in February 1990. Only undergraduate and graduate students
in degree-granting institutions are eligible to apply. The awards will be granted on the basis of the project’s potential
to improve understanding of raptor biology and its ultimate relevance to the conservation of raptor populations. The
funds are no longer restricted to studies in North America and applications from anywhere in the world will
be considered.

The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc., 1989Annual Meeting and II Western Hemisphere Meeting of the World
Working Group on Birds of Prey. The annual meeting of The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc., will be held in
conjunction with the II Western Hemisphere Meeting of the World Working Group on Birds of Prey on 10-14
October 1989 at the Hotel Mocambo in Veracruz City, Veracruz, Mexico. The meeting will focus on the biology,
ecology and conservation of neotropical raptors, as well as wintering ecology of Nearctic raptors in the Neotropics.
For further information contact: Mario A. Ramos, Chairperson, RRF-WWGBP 1989 Meeting, Mexico Project
Officer, World Wildlife Fund, 1250 Twenty-Fourth Street, Northwest, Washington, D.C. 20037 U.S.A.; Telephone
(202) 293-4800, or Eduardo E. Inigo-Elias and Michael W. Collopy, Department of Wildlife and Range Sciences,
118 Newins-Ziegler Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0304, U.S.A.; Telephone (904) 392-4851.

Request For Assistance. I am anxious to locate a male Brown Wood Owl ( Strix leptogrammica ) to pair with my
female which is one of only two in England. Any help or suggestions for further correspondence would be most
welcome. Marshall Lee, 88 Priestwood Avenue, Brachnell, Berkshire, ENGLAND RD12 1X9.

THE RAPTOR RESEARCH FOUNDATION, INC.

(Founded 1966)

PRESIDENT: Gary E. Duke
VICE-PRESIDENT: Richard J. Clark

OFFICERS

SECRETARY; James D. Fraser
TREASURER: Jim Fitzpatrick

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

EASTERN DIRECTOR: Keith Bildstein
CENTRAL DIRECTOR: Patrick T. Redig
MOUNTAIN & PACIFIC DIRECTOR:

W. Grainger Hunt

EAST CANADA DIRECTOR: David M. Bird

WEST CANADA DIRECTOR: Lynn Oliphant
INTERNATIONAL DIRECTOR: Bernd Meyburg
DIRECTOR AT LARGE #1: Michael Collopy
DIRECTOR AT LARGE #2: Gary Duke
DIRECTOR AT LARGE #3: Jeffrey L. Lincer

********************

EDITORIAL STAFF

EDITOR: Jimmie R. Parrish, Department of Zoology, 159 Widtsoe Building, Brigham Young Uni-
versity, Provo, Utah 84602

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Reed Bowman — Behavior

Susan Chaplin — Anatomy and Physiology

Richard J. Clark — Order Strigiformes

Jeffrey L. Lincer — Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology

Carl Marti — Ecology

Patricia P. Rabenold — New World Vultures

PATRICK T. Redig — Pathology, Rehabilitation and Reintroduction

Sanford R. Wilbur — Old World Vultures

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENT: Richard J. Clark, York College of Pennsylvania, Coun-
try Club Road, York, Pennsylvania 17405

The Journal of Raptor Research is distributed quarterly to all current members. Original manuscripts
dealing with all aspects of general ecology, natural history, management and conservation of diurnal and
nocturnal predatory birds are welcomed from throughout the world, but must be written in English.
Contributors should submit a typewritten original and three copies of text, tables, figures and other
pertinent material to the Editor. Two original copies of photographic illustrations are required. All
submissions must be typewritten double-spaced on one side of 8V6 x 11 -inch (21 VS x 28 cm) good
quality, bond paper. Number pages through the Literature Cited section. The cover page should contain
the full title and a shortened version of the title (not to exceed 30 characters in length) to be used as a
running head. Author addresses are listed at the end of the Literature Cited section. Provide an abstract
for each manuscript more than 4 double-spaced typewritten pages in length. Abstracts are submitted as
a separate section from the main body of the manuscript and should not exceed 5% of the length of the
manuscript.

Both scientific and common names of all organisms are always given where first appearing in the text
and should conform to the current checklists, or equivalent references, such as the A.O.U. Checklist of
North American Birds (6th ed., 1983). Authors should ensure that all text citations arc listed and checked
for accuracy. If five or fewer citations appear in the text, place the complete citation in the text, following
these examples: (Brown and Amadon, Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World. McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1968), or Nelson ( Raptor Res. 16(4):99, 1982).

Metric units should be used in all measurements. Abbreviations should conform with the Council of
Biology Editors (CBE) Style Manual, 5th ed. Use the 24-hour clock (e.g., 0830 and 2030) and “conti-
nental” dating (e.g., 1 January 1984).

A more detailed set of instructions for contributors appeared in J. Raptor Res., Vol. 21, No. 1,
Spring 1987, and is available from the Editor. Send all manuscripts for consideration and books for
review to the Editor.