JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA VOLUME 61 PART 1 MAY, 1978. PRICE TWO DOLLARS REGISTERED FOR POSTING AS A PERIODICAL-CATEGORY B THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA PATRON Her Majesty the Queen VICE-PATRON His Excellency Air Chief Marshal Sir Wallace Kyle, G.C.B., C.B.E., D.S.O., D.F.C., K.St.J., Governor of Western Australia President Vice-Presidents Past President Joint Hon. Secretaries Hon. Treasurer Hon. Librarian Hon. Editor COUNCIL 1977-1978 . A. J. McComb, M.Sc., Ph.D. C. F. H. Jenkins, M.A,, M.A.I.A.S. M. J. Mulcahy, B.Sc. (For.), Ph.D. . P. R. Wycherley, O.B.E., B.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S. G. Perry, B.Sc. (Hons.) M. W. Perry, B.Sc. (Agric.) (Hons.) S. J. Curry, M.A. A. Neumann, B.A. A. E. Cockbain, B.Sc., Ph.D. P. R. Atkinson, B.Sc. B. E. Balme, D.Sc. C. E. Dortch, B.S., M.Phil. B. B. Lamont, B.Sc. (Agric.), Ph.D., F.R.H.S. J. K. Marshall, B-Sc. (Hons.), Ph.D. L. J. Peet, B.Sc., F.G.S. P. E. Playford, B.Sc., Ph.D. J. C. Taylor, B.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.C.S. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 61, Part 1, 1978, p. 1-10. Changes in artefact assemblages during the last 8 000 years at Walyunga, Western Australia by R. H. Pearce Anthropology Department. University of Western Australia, Nedlands, W.A. 6009 Manuscript received 14 September 1976; accepted 21 February 1978 Abstract Excavations at Walyunga, a large open site near Perth, Western Australia, produced an artefact sequence and datable charcoal, indicating recurrent occupation of the site through most of the Holocene period. Marked changes between assemblages from lower and upper levels occurred about 4 600 years ago. “Backed blade" and “flat adze" tools were found only in the upper levels. The presence of bryozoan chert artefacts in the lower levels only, supports a recent hypothesis by Glover (1975), that the chert sources lay exposed off the west coast until submerged by rising sea levels. The sequence and dates now indicate that sources are close to the present sea level. Introduction Th*3 excavations at Walyunga were designed to produce “backed" tools from stratified assemb- lages in a datable deposit. Tools of this type (backed blades and geometric microliths) were recovered from dated contexts in three earlier excavations in Western Australia, at Puntutjarpa in the Western Desert (Gould 1968), at Frieze Cave 90 km east of Perth (Hallam 1972) and at Northcliffe near the south coast (Dortch 1975). Such tools occurred in small quantities in surface samples from about 20% of artefact sites recorded near Perth by Hallam (1972). Walyunga was selected for detailed investiga- tion since it Is one of the few large sites near Perth having numerous artefacts, including backed tools, exposed over a wide area (Butler 1958, Akerman 1969, Turner 1969). The site lies within Walyunga National Park near the west bank of the Swan River valley in the Darling Range about 38 km northeast of Perth. Artefacts occur over an area about 200 x 200 m on the eroding surface of a sand dune resting on the lower slopes of a granite hill. On the western side of the dune an old fence is partly covered by sand. Since the fence is European the sand must have accumulated there to a depth of more than a metre in less than 150 years. Contours of the dune (Fig. 1) indicated movement of sand from east to west, and it seemed possible that a similar but slower movement may have occurred in the prehistoric period. This was supported by excavations which revealed a deep stratified deposit contain- ing charcoal and numerous artefacts. Backed tools were confined to the upper levels, and several other changes occurred through the sequence. Excavations With student assistance I excavated two trenches (C18 and B6>, each 1 m^, near the crest of the dune (Fig, 1). The trenches were 25 m apart and contained similar artefact sequences. Trench B6 reached 140 cm below surface yielding 690 artefacts spread through all levels. The main trench (C18) was excavated in spits of 5 cm depth or less, to a level 190 cm below surface, yielding artefacts in every spit except the last two (180-190 cm). Two holes drilled below 190 cm reached hard base (probably granite) at 5.1 m below surface. Sand from the bores contained no artefacts nor charcoal. The trench yielded 2 874 flaked artefacts, 302 non- flaked items and 1 071 g lateritic gravel (Table 1 ). Within several spits artefacts were concen- trated in narrow bands about 2 cm thick, pos- sibly indicating conditions of temporary stand- still or erosion. These were not accompanied by distinctive soil changes except near 16 cm, where the upper loose orange sand changed abruptly to dark brown firm soil. This may be the buried humic zone of an old soil covered by sand wind blown from deflating areas of the dune. Numerous stone artefacts and iron frag- ments lay at the Interface, indicating that the dune crest was once subjected to erosion, like other parts of the site at present. This erosion, and the rapid sand build-up at the fence, may be related to disturbance of local environment by European activities. Artefacts occurred above 16 cm. either as a result of European activities or of Aboriginal usage of the site after European occupation. 73589 — ( 2 ) 1 Table 1 Analysis of excavated material from trench CIS, Walyunga Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 61, Part 1. 1978. — r4fsr4'^f»ir»^^^«r>v^>o^t*»r«oooo^0*00 — — — nnrsi^r^f^^^irnr>'®'0r*r*oeaeova'00 — — ^^'/^»^^scr«-r«-oeM 2 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 61. Part 1, 1978. Figure 1. — Contour map and profile of Walyunga site, Walyunga National Park, Western Australia. Map reference SH50-H 4064 0743. Contour lines at Im intervals above river level. Stippling Indicates the area of high surface density of artefacts. Crosses indicate the area set out with 10x10 m squares for sampling. S — Positions of surface samples. C18 ^ Main excavated trench. B6 ~ Second excavated trench. D — Site datum. Dune profile; vertical scale = 5x horizontal scale. Inset A — South West of Western Australia. Inset B — Perth — Walyunga district. Key to numerals on inset maps A and B; 1 Perth, 2 Walyunga. 3 Bullsbrook. 4 Guildford, 5 Swan River, 6 Darling Range, 7 Frieze Cave, 8 Devil’s Lair. 9 Indian Ocean. The latter is Indicated by the presence of worked glass artefacts at other parts of the site (Aker- man 1969). The material may represent a post- contact phase of the sequence. Five samples of charcoal from trench CIS were analysed by R. Gillespie and R. B. Temple at Sydney University Radiocarbon Laboratory. I use their values based on the Libby half-life of 5 568 y. in this paper (Table 1. Pig. 2). These dates indicate occupation starting early in the Holocene and continuing at intervals until European settlement. Petrology The commonest material was quartz, used for more than 80% of artefacts in all levels. Small quantities of quartzite, dolerite, granite and ochre occurred through the deposit, more fre- quently in lower than upper levels. Lateritic gravel (total 1071g) was retained on the 3 mm screen, in quantities approximately proportional to the number of artefacts In each spit except for higher values in spits 16 and 18. Bryozoan chert Artefacts made of fossiliferous chert com- prised about 3% of artefacts throughout the lower levels up to the level 75 to 80 cm below surface (spit 17, dated 4 560 ± 150 bp) (Fig. 2). Above 75 cm only one example occurred, within 16 cm of the surface, probably carried from an eroded part of the site. Glover (1975) found artefacts of this chert, containing distinctive bryozoan fossils of Middle- Late Eocene age. at many prehistoric sites on the Sw^an Coastal Plain, yet none of the chert nor any rock of that age is known to outcrop at the present land surface in this area. Strata of that age are known from only one location 3 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 61. Part 1, 1978. Root o Charcoal * Figure 2. — Trench section, and changes of technology, trench C18 at Walyunga. The diagram shows the north- west wall in cross section with soil colour changes, the unconformity at 16 cm below surface, and positions of levels dated by charcoal samples listed in Table 1. Graphs show changes with time In percentages of some tool types and materials, calculated out of flaked Items in each 10 cm interval. in the Perth Basin, in an offshore well drilled about 60 km west of Mandurah (Glover 1975, p. 83). Glover pointed out “ . . . that the sites with the highest proportion of these chert arte- facts are invariably near the western coast’* Chert artefacts of late Pleistocene age w’ert! excavated at Devil’s Lair (Dortch and Merrilees 1973), and at Minim Cove near Perth (Clarke and Dortch 1977). Since sea level then was much lower than at present, Glover (1975, p. 84) proposed that the chert “. . . probably came from an off-shore source in the west . . . there is a probable pattern of west-east transportation ... of fossili-ferous cryptocrystalline chert from sites now submerged”. If so then the source was cut off by rising sea level at some time before the present level was attained. Thom and Chappell (1975) consider that the sea first reached its present level around the Australian coast about 6 000 years ago. Churchill (1959) suggested the date was around 5 000 years ago. The latest bryozoan chert in spit 17 of the Walyunga trench C18 may be contempor- ary with the charcoal sample (SUA 633) from that level, but it could have been deposited earlier if there was intervening erosion. This is not easily resolved since the change of depth with time is small at this level in the trench (Fig. 2). The evidence from this trench indi- cates that the chert continued to be available until about 4 560 ± 150 bp. In the second trench (B6) situated 25 m south of the main trench, charcoal from the level at 65-70 cm containing the latest bryozoan chert was dated 4 700 zt 215 bp (SUA 644). The combination of this with SUA 633 gives a satisfactorily tight bracket for cessation of chert use. The presence of bryozoan chert artefacts through the lower levels of the Walyunga excavat ons, their sudden disappearance, and absence from the upper levels (with one exception mentioned above) support Glover’s hypothesis that the source was cut off by rising sea level. The date indicated for disappearance of chert from the Walyunga sequence is close to but a little later than the date suggested at which the sea first reached its present level. The exact dates of these events and of changes in the local coastline are not yet known. 'Die chert source may lie near present sea level, possibly quite close to the present coastline, or it may be buried under coastal deposits. The small quantities of this chert at Walyunga reflect the distance of the site — 30 km — from the coast. Silcrete Silcrete artefacts occurred almost in parallel with bryozoan chert in the Walyunga sequence, indicating they might be closely related in usage. Possibly their sources were close together, sub- merged near the coast or under coastal depositr or they may have been linked by trade or other cultural interaction that ceased when the chert disappeared. Silcrete artefacts occur in small quantities at some surface sites around Perth, but a source for the Perth and Walyunga material has not been established. Mylonite About 4% of artefacts in the Walyunga excavation were made of greenish “chert” con- taining thin veins of quartz. Glover (1976) 4 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 61. Part 1, 1978. identified this material as mylonite and located outcrops on a granite hill adjacent to the Wal- yunga site. Although a possible source is so close it occurred only sparsely in the lower levels of the excavation (1.7% of artefacts), but in signi- ficantly higher quantities (average 8%) in levels above 75 cm. A similar situation existed in the second trench. Possibly mylonite was a partial substitute after bryozoan chert and silcrete dropped out of the sequence, although these materials differ in petrology and to some extent in flaking properties (Glover 1975, 1976). The change in usage of materials may be related to development of different tool types, depending on specific physical properties of the stone. Thus mylonite was used for 9 out of the 11 flat adzes and for only 3 other tools, all in the upper levels of the trench, where most of the 75 formal tools were made quartz. Similar pro- portions exist in surface samples in which mylonite is 10% of all artefacts and 80% of flat adzes. This indicates preferential selection of mylonite for flat adze tools at this site. Relationships involving trade between groups of people in the district (cf. Berndt and Berndt 1968, p. Ill) may have been affected by the change in material usage, since in the early phase bryozoan chert was probably transported from west to east across the Swan Coastal Plain (Glover 1975, p. 84) while mylonite would have to be transported in the opposite direction to sites such as North Lake and Mongers Lake. Since the mylonite source was not covered by rising seas the material became more important in the second half of the Holocene, and may perhaps serve to indicate an age range of some assemblages. Typology Formal tool types — general. Of the 2 874 flaked artefacts. 273 were secondarily worked or utilized, and c€ these 108 were recognizable formal tools. The proportions of formal tools were significantly higher in the upper than in the lower levels of the trench, 5.2% above 75 cm. as against 2.4% below 75 cm. The main differences between assemblages of upper and lower levels are summarised in Table 3. Artefacts were classified using current Aus- tralian typology (e.g. Mulvaney 1975). Scrapers were fairly evenly distributed through the trench, indicating continuity of usage, but steep edge scrapers, all less than 4.3 cm long were less common in upper levels (larger items occur on the surface of the site). Adze flakes occurred only above 75 cm. All are small non-tula forms (see “flat adzes“ below). Fabricators or “scalar cores’* occur in signi- ficant numbers only near the top of the trench, but are present in smaU quantities in lower levels. This accords with early dates for fabri- cators from Green Gully (Wright 1970), Kow Sw'amp (Wright 1975), and Devil’s Lair (Dortch Table 2 A. Parameters of * fabricators' excavated at Walyunga {N 21 ) “ Mass ( 8 ) Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Length :widlh Thickness rwidth Mean Standard deviation Minimum . . Maximum Coefficient of variation 2 04 1 06 0-34 4-72 53% 19 7 4 89 1 1 0 28 4 25% 13 1 3 69 8-8 19 2 28% 7 6 1 75 1 -75 11 0 23% 1- 58 0 53 0 97 2- 93 33% 0 61 0-18 0 31 0 90 30% B. Parameters of flat adzes excavated at Walyunga (N II) Mass Length Width Thickness Length Thickness Edge (g) (mm) (mm) (mm) :width :widih angle Mean 0 86 18 4 9 9 4-3 2-2 0-47 56® Standard deviation 0 58 3 4 31 0 94 1 1 0-16 13® Minimum 0-32 13-3 4 4 2-7 1 -2 0 3 31® Maximum 2-21 23-5 16 0 5-9 4 8 0 9 86 ° Coefficient of variation 67 ^ 19"; 32% 22 % 50% 350 / / 0 20 ®.; C. Parameters of 'backed' tools excavated at Walyunga (N 13) (Includes 5 items from trench Bb) Mass Length Width Thickness Length Thickness (g) (mm) (mm) (mm) :width :width Mean 0 337 13 2 7 6 2 9 1 76 0- 38 Standard deviation 0 397 4 1 2 0 0 88 0 37 0 077 Minimum 0 05 7 9 4 0 1 5 1 -23 0-27 Maximum 1-55 24-6 12-0 5 1 2-71 0 - ^0 Coelficient of variation 116% 29% 26% 30% 21 % 20 % 5 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 61. Part 1. 1978. Table 3 Summary of differences between assemblages o f upper and lower levels. Percentages expressed out of all flaked artefacts in each layer. Levels Trench C 18 1 rench B 6 Below 75 cm Above 75 cm Below 60 cm Above 60 cm Percentages of materials — Bryozoan chert Silcrete Mylonite 3*0 1-5% 18% 0 1% nil 8 5% 5 9% 0 4% 2-9% 0 3% nil 94% Percentages of secondarily worked/utilized items 8-9% 10 05% 8 1% 12-5% Percentages of formal tools 2-4% 5 0% 3 6?„ 5 1% Range of types of formal tools 4 types 7 types 3 types 6 types Percentages of some formal tool types— Steep scraper Fabricator Adze, miscellaneous Flat adze Backed tool 0 56% 0 35% nil nil nil 0 28% 0 63*4 0 76% 0 56% 0 4% 11% nil nil nil 0 3% 0 6% 0 6% 0-3% 2 0% Flake dimension.s (except chips)- Mean width Mean thickness 1 7 mm 6 mm 1 5 mm 5 mm Insufficient data Insufficient data Total flaked artefacts 1 441 1 433 272 351 and Merrilees 1973); and more numerous occurrences later (Wright 1970, p. 90). Fabri- cator dimensions are listed in Table 2, where length is taken as the maximum distance between bipolar altered edges, and width as the maximum measurement normal to length. One item from spit 4, a slab otf quartz 7.6 cm long, trimmed bifacially at one end to a sharp sinuous edge Is perhaps a chopping tool or Kodja. No edge-ground items were excavated although a few occurred in surface collections (Butler 1958, Ride 1958, Akerman 1969). Four large broken pebbles (one used as an anvil) were found near the bottom of the trench. One small oval pebble with use marks at each end was probably a hammer-stone. Six pieces from various levels had one face uneven but partly smoothed, evidently rubbed on some other object. Four of these were small slabs of granite 6 to 10 cm long and about 2 cm thick. Flat adzes This tool type occurred in levels above 75 cm in the trench at Walynnga. Akerman (1969, p. 15) illustrated examples from a surface collection at Walyunga and described them as concave or biconcave adzes or slugs. “Flat adze" is the term suggested by Gould and Quilter (1972) for a type of small implement collected by Gould at two sites about 450 km northeast of Perth, and from suKace collections from South Bullsbrook and Walyunga, held at the Western Australian Museum. Three quali- tative attributes apply to flat adzes: (1) “Steep unifacial retouch along the working edge (or edges)"; (2) “Small, terminated flakes appear- ing along the bulbar face of the adze flake, directly behind the working edge", (Gould and Quilter 1972, p. 3); (3) “Successive use and resharpenings, however, caused the working edges of these tools to become deeply concave" (p.5). The tools were “extremely small" (p. 11). Mean thickness was 5.4 mm, and mean edge angle 46.5*. The items in Gould and Quilter’s scale drawings have maximum dimensions averaging 27 mm. Their term "width" is ambiguous. A set of 51 flat adzes from surface collections at Walyunga by Butler (1958) and others, now held at the Western Australian Museum, had mean dimensions similar to Gould and Quilter’s except edge angle (65* in the Walyunga set). Mean length was 26 mm. mean width 12.8 mm and mean thickness 5.6 mm. The excavated specimens are smaller (Table 2). perhaps due to a more systematic recovery process. These items were worked on one or sometimes both lateral margins (Fig. 3). Some of the original bulb of percussion usually remained, showing that it was small, while the bulbiplatform angle was less than 110'’. The last two attributes are similar to those of backed tools from this district and quite unlike those of small or large tula adzes. In measuring these tools length was taken as the greatest dimension the tool. This was in most cases in the direction of the blow of percussion that produced the flake, and parallel to the worked edge who revised the genus, are in agreement with regards to the use of the name acuminatus for this species. H. macrolepidotus, also described by Linnaeus was frequently recog- nised as a distinct closely related species during the 19th century, but is now generally regarded as a junior synonym of acuminatus. Another species which has been placed in the synonymy of acuminatus by Fowler and Bean (1929) and Weber and de Beaufort (1936) is H. diphreutes Jordan (1903) described from Japan. However, Klausewitz failed to mention it either as a synonym or valid entity. The senior author made several field trips to Eniwetok Atoll, Marshall Islands while residing in Hawaii between 1967 and 1971. During this period individuals of Heniochus acuminatus were frequently observed while SCUBA diving at both Hawaii and Eniwetok. Specimens from the two localities appeared to be morphologically similar, although a detailed comparison was not made at the time. However, there was a very notice- able difference between the two populations with regards to ecology and behaviour. The Hawaiian fish characteristically occurs over rocky areas in aggregations which may include more than 100 individuals. Furthermore, they swim well above the bottom and apparently forage on plankton. Members the Eniwetok population, on the contrary, were nearly always sighted alone or in pairs and occurred near the bottom in the vicinity of coral reefs. Klausewitz (1969) commented that H. acumin- atus is often falsely assumed to be a reef inhabi- tant, but pointed out that it prefers shallow coastal waters, in bays, lagoons, estuaries, and along rocky coasts. His observations were largely, if not entirely, based on the population occurring at Eilat, northern Red Sea. He further noted that most specimens of H. ‘^acuminatus” from the Indo-Pacific had 11 dorsal spines while those from the Gulf of Aqaba. Red Sea had 12. He also recorded a difference in the number of soft dorsal rays and maximum length between individuals from these two areas. He concluded that the Red Sea population might be deserving c*f sub-specific status. The present study, how- ever, indicates that these populations are distinct. Between 1971 and 1973 the senior author collected fishes and made underwater observa- tions at the Caroline Islands, Great Barrier Reef of Australia, New Guinea, New Britain. Solomon Islands. New Hebrides. New Caledonia, and the Fiji Islands. H. acuminatus was observed at all these localities and the behaviour and ecology in each place was similar to that of the Eniwetok population. During 1973 the junior author collected two very similar species of Heniochus from Sydney, Australia which when Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 61, Part 1, 1978. {/'?c 7 > f j / BOMIN 1 1 \J FORMOSA * 1 PHILIPPINE *3 IS. . J c A r * * *. MARIANA ; IS. ' t . . i / lOUIME A* IS.' 94^ MARSHALL * . * • • ♦ • ** Mi 5. \ M \c V . V'. . h.,. ^ NEW ^HEBRIDES suns. % • f ♦ • « # • fe . - ' •• • • • B • ; ... 1-t ' ' ' ' 'riji- •V-\ cA LEPONIA • • • . ' • . ‘'-5. ••• • • 4 - ■ j---', ' - - ‘ - ! m I 1 f 1 . . 1 • H. di S AH.ac LW LLANO phreutes iuminatus 1 ■ 1 , , , ■,H ao ao’ 0 . 0 * Figure 1. — Pacific Ocean distribution of Heniochus acurninatus and H. diphreutes. first presented to the senior author for identi- fication were believed to be only morphological variants of acurninatus. An adequate sample of both forms was eventually procured and a detailed comparison of this material supple- mented by additional underwater observations reveals that they are indeed distinct. A sub- sequent literature search indicates that one of these is the widespread H. acurninatus and the other is //. diphreutes which perhaps has a relict distribution including Hawaii. Japan, New^ South Wales, Western Australia. Maidive Islands. South Africa, and the Red Sea. The two species are compared and a brief diagnosis for each is presented below. Selected fin ray counts are presented in Table 1 and the distributions are summarised in Figs. 1 and 2. The latter were compiled from Fowler and Bean <1929), Weber and de Beaufort (1936), Klausewitz (1969), personal observations, and examination of museum specimens. The following abbreviations are used in the subsequent text: AMS — Australian Museum. Sydney: BPBM — Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu: CAS— California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco; JLBS — J.LJB. Smith Institute of Ichthyology. Grahamstown, South Africa; QM — Queensland Museum. Brisbane; SMF — Natur- Museum Senckenberg, Frankfurt: SU — Stanford University. California < specimens now deposited at CAS); WAM — Western Australian Museum, Perth. lleniochus acurninatus (Linnaeus) (Figs. 3 and 4; Table 1) Chaetodon acurninatus Linnaeus, 1758: 272 (type locality. Indies). Chaetodon macrolepidotus Linnaeus. 1758: 274 (type locality. Indies). Chaetodon hifasciatus Shaw, 1803: 342 (type locality, Indian Seas). Chaetodon mycteryzans Gray, 1854: 76 (no locality given). 12 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 61. Part I, 1978. Material examined: 111 specimens, 22.8-196.0 mm SL. Australia-New South Wales: AMS IA.177, 113.3 mm SL (no locality): AMS IB.2929, 26.5 mm SL (Newcastle); AMS IB.5707, 2 specimens. 24.0- 44.8 mm SL (Lord Howe Island); AMS IB.5742. 75.4 mm SL (Sydney Harbour): AMS IB.5744- 5745. 2 specimens. 33.2-53.5 mm SL (Sydney Harbour); AMS IB.8104. 47.1 mm SL (Port Hack- ing); AMS IB.8208. 66.7 mm SL (Woolongong): AMS 1.15575-001, 52.5 mm SL (Woolongong): AMS 1.15778-003. 44.0mm SL (Port Macquarie); AMS unregistered. 112.0 mm SL (Lord Howe Island); WAM P25e32-001. 2 specimens. 22.8* 35.7mm SL (Lakes Entrance); WAM P25833-001. 4 specimens, 25.9-41.5 mm SL (Sydney); WAM P25634-001. 2 specimens, 40.3-43.4 mm SL (Sydney); WAM P25635-001. 58.0mm SL (Syd- ney); WAM P25636-001. 2 specimens. 35.0-36.0 mm SL (Sydney Harbour); WAM P25637-001. 2 speci- mens. 29.2-54.5 mm SL (Sydney Harbour); WAM P25638-001. 123.6 mm SL (Sydney). Queens- land: AMS lA. 1750-1752. 3 specimens. 54.7- 57.3mm SL (Port Denison): AMS 1.15557-197, 65.0mm SL (Gulf of Carpentaria): QM 1.1777- 1778, 2 specimens. 79.0-92.0 mm SL (Moreton Bay); QM 1.3467, 166.0mm SL (Moreton Bay); WAM P24688. 34.3mm SL (Lizard Island): WAM P24701. 38.5 mm SL (Lizard Island): WAM P24714. 3 specimens. 30.0-33.0 mm SL (Lizard Island). Western Australia; WAM P4432. 52.0 mm SL (Ex- mouth Gulf); WAM P4438. 5 specimens. 77.0- 152.0 mm SL (Dampler Archipelago): WAM P4453. 81.5 mm SL (Exmouth Gulf); WAM P4763. 196.0 mm SL (Wedge Island); WAM P5329, 71.5 mm SL (Exmouth Gulf); WAM P6101. 55.6 mm SL (Exraouth Gulf); WAM P8347. 56.2 mm SL (Point Quobba); WAM P24068. 149.5 mm SL (Dampler Archipelago); WAM P25113-006, 124.6 mm SL (Dampler Archipelago); WAM unregistered. 2 specimens, 53.0-57.2 mm SL (North West Cape). East Africa: SMF 8241. 47.0mm SL; SMF 11557, 5 specimens. 75.0-91.0 mm SL (Dar es Salam). Fiji Islands; AMS 1.7465. 82.9 mm SL (Suva). India: AMS 1.54. 120.6 mm SL (Madras); SMF 6773. 4 specimens, 75.0-141.0 mm SL (Madras). Indonesia: SMF 3965. 62.0mm SL (Jakarta); SMF 8242, 2 specimens. 91.0-114.0 mm SL (Celebes). Madagascar: SMF 10379, 6 specimens, 94.0-148.0 mm SL. Mauritius: SMF 1705, 2 specimens. 81.0-140.0 mm SL. 13 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 61. Part 1. 1978. Persian Gulf: BPBM unregistered, 6 specimens, 60.0- 151.0mm SL (Bahrain); SMP 9803, 5 specimens, 83.0-108.0 mm SL; SMF 11974, 3 specimens, 91.0- 93.0 mm SL (Kuwait). Philippine Islands: AMS 1.10575, 79.0 mm SL (Cebu); SMF 9262, 4 specimens. 64.0-78.0 mm SL. Sri Lanka: SMF 4267. 6 specimens. 54.0-61.0 mm SL; SMF 8243, 3 specimens. 64.0-73.0 mm SL; SMF 9117, 3 specimens. 85.0-115.0 mm SL; SMF 9120, 89.0 mm SL; SMF 10748, 2 specimens, 62.0-84.0 mm SL; SMF 12208. 74.0 mm SL. Diagnosis: Dorsal rays usually XI (rarely XII), 24 to 27; anal rays III, 17 to 19; pectoral rays 15 to 18; tubed lateral-line scales 47 to 54. The following proportions are based on 10 specimens, 53.0-196.0 mm SL; depth of body 1.2 to 1.4, head length 2.6 to 3.1. both in standard length; snout length 2.7 to 3.3, eye diameter 2.5 to 3.6, interorbital width 2.9 to 3.8, caudal peduncle depth 2.7 to 3.7, pectoral fin length 1.0 to 1.2, pelvic fin length 0.9 to 1.1, anal fin length 1.0 to 1.3 all in head length. Colour in alcohol; ground colour of head and body yellowish-white or tan; dorsal portion of snout blackish; lower lip and chin frequently with black smudges; a blackish bar connecting orbits across interorbital region; body with two oblique black bars, the first encompassing anteriormost dorsal spines and posterior part of nape extending to abdomen, becoming gradu- ally broader ventrally, the lowermost width extending approximately from pelvic base to anus; the second bar extending from distal part of 6th-8th dorsal spines to ventral half of anal fin, more oblique in position than first bar and of more uniform width; dorsal fin greyish-white to yellowish except where interrupted by dark bars; caudal fin yellowish; anal fin yellowish-tan on anterior half, black posteriorly (continuation of second body bar), anal spines and anterior edge of soft anal also black; pelvic fins black; pectoral fin yellowish with black base and axil. Colour in life: similar to preserved coloration except filamentous extension of fourth dorsal spine and ground colour of body generally whitish, and region posterior to second body bar largely yellow grading to translucent on distal edge of soft dorsal and caudal fins. Remarks: This species generally occurs soli- tarily or in pairs, usually in coral reef areas. How'ever, at certain subtropical or warm tem- perate localities it may be encountered over rocky substratum. The young are frequently seen around caves and crevices. We have observed the species at depths ranging from about 2 to 30 m, but it is most often encountered between 5 and 15 m. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 61, Part 1. 1978. Figure 4. — Juvenile specimens of closely related Heniochus collected at Sydney. Australia: left — H. acuminatus, 58 mm SL; right — H. diphreutes, 51.8 mm SL. Nomenclature: Linnaeus (1758), in his brief description of this species, gave a dorsal ray count of “3/28'* three spines and 25 soft rays or 28 total elements). This must certainly represent an error as the description is appar- ently based on the specimen illustrated by him in 1754 (Linnaeus 1754, plate 33. flg. 3). The illustration clearly shows at least 11 dorsal spines and the characteristic snout shape of acuminatus (see discussion of comparative morphology under H. diphreutes). Furthermore. B. Broberg of the Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet in Stockholm (the depository of many Linnaean types) has confirmed the existence of the type specimen in their collection. He stated that the specimen “is in good condition and agrees very well with the figure in Museum Adolphi Friderlci (Linnaeus 1754) and still retains much c^ the original pattern of coloration. Dorsal spines of the specimen are 11 and the pectoral rays are 16 on one and 17 on the other side. Standard length is 67.3 mm and the three anal spines appear dark’*. Comparisons: H. acuminatus differs from H. diphreutes by having 11 (rarely 12) dorsal spines instead of 12 (rarely 13). a longer snout, a longer anal fin. and a shorter pelvic fin. There are also differences in coloration, behaviour, ecology, and postlarval size. These are sum- marised in the comparisons section for H. diph- reutes. Less than 1% of the specimens examined possessed an abnormal count of 12 spines, and these were from widely scattered localities. Identification was facilitated in these cases primarily on the basis of snout shape and the length of the pelvic and anal fins. Distribution: isee maps. Figs. 1 and 2) H. acuminatus appears to be widespread in the tropical Indo-West Pacific from the coast of East Africa to the islands of southeastern Polynesia. However, some o€ the published records (such as those from Hawaii and the Red Sea) are no doubt attributable to H. diph- reutes. The senior author has observed it at the Society Islands, Marshall Islands, Fiji Islands. New Hebrides, Solomon Islands. New Britain, New Guinea. Palau Islands Ryukyu Islands, Philippine Islands. Indonesia, eastern Australia (Great Barrier Reef and Sydney), Lord Howe Island, Western Australia, Sri Lanka. Persian Gulf, and Gulf of Oman. It appears to be largely allopatric with H. diphreutes, but the two species occur together at certain localities such as Exmouth Gulf, Western Australia; 15 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 61. Part 1, 1978. Flsure 5. — Heniochus diphreutes, 100 mm SL. Oahu. Hawaiian Islands (J. Randall photo). Sydney. New South Wales; and the Durban area of South Africa (based on specimens examined for us by M. M. Smith). Heniochus diphreutes Jordan (Figs. 4 and 5; Table 1) Heniochus diphreutes Jordan. 1903; 694 (type locality. Wakamoura. Japan). Material examined: 23 specimens, 36.0-134.0 mm SL. Australia— New South Wales: AMS IB.5743. 46.0 mm SL (no locality); WAM P25640-001. 3 specimens. 48.8-52.0 mm SL ndon. Jordan, D. S. (1903). — Supplementary note on Bleekeria mitsukurii, and on certain Japanese fishes. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 26. 693-696. Klausewitz. W. (1969).— Verglclchend-taxonomlsche Untersuchungen an Fischen der Oattung Heniochus. Senckenhergiana biol., 50; 49-89. Linnaeus, C. (1754). — Museum Adolphi Frlderlcl ... in quo animalla Imprimis 4 exotica . . . plsces descrlbuntur. etc. Holmlae: 1-133. Linnaeus, C. (1758 ). — Systema naturae. Edition 10. Lon- don: 1-824. Shaw, G. (1803).— General Zoology. Vol. 4. London: 1-632. Strasburg. D. W., Jones. E. C. and Iverson. R. T. B. (1968).— Use of a small submarine for bio- logical and oceanographic research. J. con5. int. Explor. Mer., 31 (3): 410-426. Weber. M. and de Beaufort. L. F. (1936).— Die fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago. Vol. 7. E. J. Brill, Leiden: 1-607. 18 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 61. Part 1, 1978, p. 19-24. Cadmium levels in coastal and estuarine waters of Western Australia by P. D. Morris, K. J. R. Rosman and J. R. De Laeter Department of Physics. Western Australian Institute of Technology. South Bentley. W.A. 6102 Manuscript received 21 February 1978; accepted 21 February 1978 Abstract The stable isotope dilution technique has been used to measure the cadmium concentration in 30 coastal and estuarine water samples from 16 locations around the Western Ai^tralian coast, from Albany in the south to Pardoo Station in the north. A base-line value of 0.013 ppb (^g kg'* ) cadmium for coastal sea water has been established, and this result compares favourably with overseas studies It is pleasing to note the minimal levels of contamination caused by industry and in most cases It seems that the nature of the environment controls the cadmium levels present. 'x**s*****L*i*i Introduction Cadmium was recogniz-ed many years ago as a highly toxic element. However it was not until comparatively recently that concern was expressed over the possible effects to human health of exposure over long periods to low concentrations of cadmium. This situation has developed because of the increasing technological use of cadmium (Cox 1974). Ingestion from food or wat’Sr, and inhalation from the atmos- phere are the major routes by which cadmium enters the body. Cadmium is used by industry in electroplating, in pigments and chemicals, as a plastics stabi- liser. in alloys and solder, in making batteries, photocells and in pesticides. Cadmium minerals are found in conjunction with zinc ores because of the geochemical similarity of the two elements, and hence a major source of cadmium in the environment Is the zinc industry. Thus, in addition to zinc refining, there are a number of processes which involve cadmium including galvanizing iron and steel, making brass and other alloys and in the production of zinc oxide. The World Health Organisation (WHO 1963). has declared that the maximum advisable con- centration limit for cadmium In drinking waters is 10 ppb kg'*). Long term exposure to cadmium-contaminated food and water has been found to Induce a bone disease in members of a small community in Japan, who live In the Jlntsu ragion situated on a river heavily polluted by mining wastes (Singhal et al. 1975). A variety of cadmium minerals exist in nature and these are soluble in excess aqueous salt solutions; many cadmium compounds are also .^luble in fresh water (Cox 1974). Williams and David (1973) have shown that the cadmium ^^^tent of phosphatic fertilisers and superphos- phate used on Australian pastures ranges from 27 to 90 ppm (mg kg*'). Thus cadmium can be transferred to natural waterways, and hence find Its way to estuaries and the oceans. Rosman and De Laeter (1976), have measured the concentration of cadmium in two river systems in Western Australia, and shown that approximately one hundi-edth of the WHO recommended value. This data mav therefore serve as a basis for comparison with cadmium concentrations in waterways in other parts of the world. De Laeter et al (1976) examined the cadmium content of rural tank water and have shown that in most cases the concentration Is less than 1 ppb. There is considerable interest in the fate of heavy metals in estuarine and coastal environ- ments, and several studies have been carried out to determine the effects of discharging effluents containing heavy metals into estuarine waters It has usually been assumed that such effluents are rapidly dispersed in the open sea (Butter- worth et al. 1972). in assessing the impact on the environment of effluent containing cadmium it is necessary to know the concentration of cadmium that w'ould have been present in the absence of waste material. However these back- ground levels are poorly documented in the literature, and the present study was undertaken to provide a set of base-line values for coastal and estuarine w'aters around the Western Aus- tralian coast, similar to the base-line values determined by Rosman and De Laeter (1976) for river systems. Experimental procedure It is quite likely that much of the published work on environmental cadmium is inaccurate particularly where the content is at the sub-ppb level. The present project has used the stable Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 61. Part 1. 1978. SOUTHERN OCEAN Figure 1 . -Cadmium concentrations (In kg-') of seawater around the Western Australia coast. 20 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 61. Part 1. 1978. isotope dilution technique to measure the cadmium content of ocean water along the coast of Western Australia. Because of its excellent sensitivity, high accuracy and precision, the isotope dilution technique is ideally suited to the analysis o€ cadmium in the environment. The sensitivity of this technique for cadmium in aqueous samples is 0.003 ppb. and the absolute accuracy is better than 10% at the sub-ppb level. Water samples were collected in high density polyethylene containers, since it has been shown that polyethylene does not absorb cadmium from aqueous solutions and exhibits a low blank