JUD6IHG LIYE STOCK

JOHN A. CRAIG.

3 9090 013 400 07i

Wf^bster raniiiy Library of Veterinary Medicine
CiHTrrnings Schooi or Veterinary Medicine at
Tutts University
200 Westboro Road

HIGHI>AND SHEEP AT HOME

Flioto by Reid

THE PRESENTATION of this photo-engraving as a frontispiece
is meant to be a tribute to the talent of Mr. Chas. Ried. of
Wishaw. Scotland, whose worix in this direction has shown tlie
degree to which animal photography may be made both artistic and
instructive. The sustained merit of the work which he has done has
pointed the way to gratifying results, and the outcome has just
recently made it possible to illustrate a book of this kind with all the
typos and qualities shown as they are. through the agency of photo-
graphs made by him and such artists as Schreiber. of Philadelphia.
Hills, of Ohio, and Brown of Scotland. In addition to theclearness of
detail in this reproduction of some Highland sheep, note the beauty of
the mountain stream witii the old water wheel at the side of it, the
naturalness of the sheep, the watchful pose of the dog, guardlike in
position, with the shepherds resting at the foot of the trees and all in
the foreground of the rolling hills suggested beyond.

Judging Live Stock

By JOHN A. CRAIG,

Professor of Animal Hlsbandrv

Iowa Agricultural College

Ames, Iowa

FOURTH EDITION

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR

1902

COPYRIGHTED 1901

BY

JOHN A. CRAIG.

SET UP AND ELECTROTYPED JANUARY, 1901

REPRINTED, SECOND EDITION, MARCH, 1901

REPRINTED, THIRD EDITION, APRIL, 1901

REPRINTED, FOURTH EDITION, JANUARY, 1902

THE KENYON PRINTING & MFC. CO.,

DES MOINES. IOWA.

31X11-01111^1011.

Beauty is bough t by
judgment of the eye

— Shakespeare.

IN JUDGING LIVE STOCK there are two faculties which
* seem to require special development — observation and
judgment.

The eye must see quickly and accurately, so that there may
be no mistake in the observations which are to form the basis for
a conclusion. While this is to a considerable extent dependent
on being informed on what to look for, yet no amount of informa-
tion will supply keen powers of observa-
tion, which in addition, must be kept in
practice by continuous use. The student
should never be dilatory in this, for once
allow it to be said that he sees a thing which he does not, the
foundation for candid criticism is being built on sand. It is better
to be " simpler than the infancy of truth " and completely candid
with one's observations than to be in the least deceptive or dilatory
in recording them.

Not only should one be quick to see things as they really are
but there should be as much dispatch in detecting deviations from,
the correct standard. There is much
difficulty in this for a standard only forms
itself clearly in one's mind after the re-
sults of experience, observation and study
have merged together into a clearly de-
fined ideal. To formulate an ideal is
absolutely essential and in doing this it is imperative to familiarize
one's self with the good qualities of animal life, correct conform-
ation and the highest types, so that the least variation from these
at once attracts the attention. When a
distinct ideal, based on the best types
and their highest qualities has been
formed in the mind, and this is sup-

What, then, makes a dog
beautiful ? The possession
of the excellence of a dog.
And what makes a horse
beautiful ? The possession
of the excellence of a horse.
What, then, makes a man
beautiful ? Is it not the po-
session of the excellence of
a man ? — Epictetus.

No pessimist ever made
much in the study of life his-
tories of animals. The stu-
dent of such had better bean
optimist out and out. — Samuel
Lockwood.

ported by a discriminating eye, it is but another step to render a
correct judgment.

In judging the market classes of stock the demands of the
market should have a strong influence in the establishment of
standards and in the judging of breeding
classes the official scales of points, when
such exist, should be relied upon chiefly as
a guide, and when these are not officially

But do thou, I say, simply
and fully, choose the better
and hold to it. But that which
is useful is the better. — An-
toninus.

published an effort should be made to become informed regarding
the understanding that exists among the breeders. While these
standards are so wide in scope as to include many minor points,
yet it will be noticeable that the essential features are given the
greatest prominence and they are usually based on the utility of
the animal for its purpose. This does not mean that the minor
features should be slighted, for the degree
of excellence in domestic animals is now
so high and the competition so keen that

No detail is too small to be
studied for truth.

— Stevenson.

it is most frequently on some of these minor details that their
rank in the show ring is determined.

In show ring judging, after the inspection is completed, a draft
or " short leet "' is made of the likely winners of place from the
rest of the competitors. Up to this time the judging has been the
detection of faults and deviations from the standard required, but
now the work is more of the nature of comparative judging, in
which the points of the animals considered worthy of prizes are
compared to determine their rank. It
greatly aids dispatch and tends to more
exactness to make such a draft when

Reverence the faculty
which produces opinion. —
Antoninus.

there are five or more animals in the class. It also materially
assists the examiner in keeping in mind the qualities which he must
compare. Carefulness at this point will do much towards the
formation of a decision, which may be afterwards maintained
with justice.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I— JUDGING HORSES.

THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY

The Rones as Levers ; Action of the Muscles ; Function
of the Nervous Systen ; Temperaments.

Page

II. JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 8

General Examinaiiofi. — Form ; Propelling Power Re-
sides in Hindcjuarters ; Three Classes of Light Horses ;
The Coach or Carriage Horse ; Analysis of Style ; The
Trotter or Roadster ; The Pacer as a Roadster ; The
Saddle Horse ; Quality ; Durability Associated with
Quality ; Action ; The Walk ; Observing Straightness
of the Walk ; Manner of Noting Levelness ; The High
Stepper in Action ; The Carriage Horse ; Straight and
Regular Action ; The Driver's Sensation of Action ;
The Trotter ; The Pacing Gait.

Structural Examination. — Head ; Nostrils ; Eyes ; Ears ;
Jaw Bones ; Neck ; Shoulders ; Fore Legs : Arms ;
Elbows ; Fore Arms ; Knees ; Cannons : Pasterns ;
Feet ; Ribs ; Back ; Loin ; Croup ; Thighs ; Quarters ;
Hind Legs ; Hocks ; Hind Cannons ; Hind Pasterns ;
Hind Feet ; Scale of Points for Light Horses.

III. JUDGING HEAVY HORSES . 32

Consideration of condition.

General Examination. — Form ; Advantage of Weight ;
Market \'alueof Weight ; Quality with Substance Neces-
sary for Durability ; Action ; Trotting Action.
Structural Examination. — Head ; Neck ; Shoulder ;
Chest : Arm ; Fore Leg ; Knees ; Fetlocks, Pasterns ;
Feet ; Body ; Loin ; Croup ; Hock ; Scale of Points for
Heavy Horses.

IV. JUDGING HORSES IN THE BREEDING CLASSES ... 44

Sex Characteristics ; Differences in Disposition ; Differ-
ences in Form : \'ariation in Features ; Relation of Sex
Characteristics to Sterility ; Relation of Sex Character-
istics to Prepotency ; The Stallion Classes : Importance
of Correct Conformation ; Hereditary Diseases ; The
Mare Classes ; Colts and Fillies.

V. ESTIMATING THE AGE OF HORSES BY THEIR TEETH 50

Appearance of Incisors ; Order of Appearance of
Incisors ; Disappearance of the Tables.

CONTENTS — CONTINUED

Page

VI. EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS ....... 52

A Blemish Different from Unsoundness ; Decayed and
Worn Teeth : Discharges from the Nostrils ; Defective
Hearing ; Sweenied Shoulders; Capped Elbows; Splints;
Ringbones ; Sidebones ; Quarter Cracks and Sand
Cracks ; Corns ; Thrush^and Scratches ; Locating Lame-
ness ; Thoroughpin ; Curb ; Bone Spavin ; Bog Spavin ;
Unsound in Wind ; Detection of Stable Vices.

VII. OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES 58

Standard for Trotting and Pacing Horses ; Shetland
Pony Scale of Points.

CHAPTER II— JUDGING CATTLE.

Method of examination 63

I. JUDGING BEEF CATTLE . • 63

Method of Handling ; Store Steer ; P^orm of the Feeder:
Quality ; Inferences from Good Handling ; Features of
the Head; Neck; Chest; Ribs; Hips; Judging Fat
Steers ; Handling ; Condition ; Relation of Parts ;
Value of Cuts ; Scale of Points for Beef Steer.

II. JUDGING BEEF ;3TOCK FOR BREEDING PURPOSES . 73

fudging Beef Bulls ; Judging Beef Cows ; Judging Young
Beef Stock.

III. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 76

Dairy Cow's Function; Making of Milk ; Function of

the Blood ; Function of the Udder ; Nervous System
The Dairy Form ; Skin ; Hair ; Bone ; Head ; Neck
Hind Quarters; Hips: Thigh; Escutcheon; Udder
Teats ; Milk Veins ; Scale of Points for Dairy Cow.

IV. JUDGING DAIRY BULLS »o

Purity of Breeding ; Uniformity of Breeding ; Pedi-
gree Based on Performance ; Qualities Associated with
Individuality ; Judging Calves.

V. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 90

Aberdeen Angus ; Devon ; Red Polled ; Holstein-
Friesian ; Jersey ; Guernsey ; Dutch Belted ; Ayrshire.

CHAPTER III — JUDGING SHEEP.

Method of Examining Sheep ; Deception Due to Trim-
ming ; Estimating Age by the Teeth 107

I. JUDGING SHEEP FOR MUTTON AND WOOL . . . . IO9
Feeding Type that Gives the Best Gains ; Feeding Type
Bringing Most at Maturity ; Type Desired by the Butch-
er ; Quality ; The Importance of Condition ; Judging
Condition ; Importance of Dressed Weight ; Considera-
tion of the Consumer ; Qualities of the Fleece ; Examin-
ing the Fleece ; QuantiTy of Fleece ; Density ; Length

CONTENTS — CONTINUED

Page

of Staple ; Classification of Wool ; Quality of Fleece ;
Softness ; Commercial Grades ; Crimp ; Soundness ;
Condition ; Purity ; Domestic Wool ; Territory Wool ;
Blanket Wool; Lustre; Brightness; Yolk; Scale of
Points for Fine Wooled Sheep ; Scale of Points for Fat
Sheep.

II. JUDGING SHEEP FOR BREEDING PURPOSES . . .12']

Formation of Types ; Value of Breed Type ; The Ram ;
The Ewe ; Judging Lambs and Flocks.

III. OFFICIAL STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP I3I
Southdown ; Shropshire ; Hampshire ; Suffolk ; Oxford ;
Cotswold ; Wensleydale ; Dorset Horn ; Cheviot ; De-
laine ; Spanish Merino ; Black Top Spanish Merino ;
Tunis.

CHAPTER IV -JUDGING SWINE.

I. JUDGING FAT HOGS I45

Form ; Quality ; Head ; Eyes ; Ears ; Jowl ; Neck ;
Shoulder ; Front Legs ; Chest ; Sides ; Back ; Loin ;
Hips ; Rump ; Hams ; Hind Legs ; Scale of Points for
Fat Hogs.

II. JUDGING BACON HOGS I52

Condition ; Form ; Weight ; Shoulder ; Side ; Scale of
Points for Bacon Hogs.

III. JUDGING SWINE FOR BREEDING PURPOSES . . . I56
The Boar ; The Sow.

IV. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 1 58
Berkshire ; Poland China ; Essex ; Chester White ;
Duroc Jersey ; \'ictoria ; Cheshire ; Large White York-
shire; Middle White Yorkshire ; Small White ^'orkshire ;
Suffolks ; Tamworth ; Thin-Rind.

CHAPTER I.

JUDGING HORSES.

To furnisli reasons for many of the points that will be
submitted in discussing the types of horses, it becomes neces-
sary to consider the horse as a mechanism in which the bones
are levers, the muscles the source of power and the nervous
system the stimulator of the muscles.

I. THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY.

I. The Bones as Levers. The three classes of levers
are all represented in the anatomy of the horse. The first
class may be fittingly illustrated by a pair of scissors; the
power is applied at the holes for the fingers, the fulcrum is
in the center where the blades are united and the applica-
tion of the power is at the points. This is the strongest
form of leverage and it is employed in the skeleton of the
horse by the parts involved in the extension of the limbs.

The lever of the second class may be said to be clearly
represented by a wheelbarrow. The power is applied at
the handle, the weight is in the center and the application
of the power is at the wheel. This leverage in the horse
enables it to sleep standing or to stand without feeling much
strain. It is in action in such parts as that in the region of
the humerus.

The leverage of the third class is represented by a pair of
sheep shears. The power is applied at the center, the ful-
crum is at one end and the application of the power is at the
other. This leverage is not common but it is shown in the
action of the lower jaw of the horse. The masseter muscles

6 JUDGING HORSES

of the jaw apph' their power to the center of the jaw bone,
the fulcrum is at the point where the under jaw joins the
head, while the application of the power is at the teeth,

2. Action of the Muscles. In considering the leverage,
the attachment of the muscles and their nature are impor-
tant. As the muscles consist of bundles of fibers, it is easy
to understand that when these fibers are long, thej' possess
more elasticity than when they are short. The long muscle
with long leverage, added to b}' length of the bones is more
favorable for quick action or speed, while the heavier muscle
is more favorable for draft or power. The attachment of the
muscles to the skeleton is also an important feature. When
the muscles by means of the tendons are attached to promi-
nences thus enabling them to work some distance from the
bones that furnish the leverage, it is easy to see that the
action of the muscles would be more efiective. Hence, in
most joints there are prominences to give the muscles the
most favorable attachment.

In this connection it will be interesting to study the pro-
portions of the bones of the skeleton to find reasons for the
advantages which are supposed to originate with difierent
proportions. In general we look for short bones in those
parts where the function is simply the transmission of power;
while we desire greater length in those [parts where the mus-
cles, the source of power or speed, are to be found. In the
front leg for instance, it is desirable to have the distance long
from the elbow to the knee, with the proportions showing a
much greater distance from the knee to the fetlock joint for the
reason that the distance over which the power travels should
be as short as possible that it may be economized and but
little of it lost in transmission.

3. Function of the Nervous System. In studying the
horse as a mechanism, more than bone and muscle should be
included. The stimulation for action comes from the nerve
power or force. The nerve power is represented centrally

Ancient :ind luodern scliools in stoclc judging. In eurly times wliat
was known in regard to tlie judging of stocic liad to be garnered under tlie
envii'onmeut and with tlio material sliown in tlie upper illustration. Modern
facilities and methods are shown in the lower illustration, which is a photo-
grapli of tlie stock judging i)avilion at the Iowa Agricultural t'oUege, with
the first class to come together for special instruction in stock judging.
Three hundi'ed were in attendance at this school January, limi.

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THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STl'DY 7

by the brain and from there it is carried to all parts of the
body by the spinal cord through the main channel of the
vertebrse, and from this it branches out to stimulate many
muscles. The stimulation for action must come from the
nerve centers and these consequently have much to do with
the quickness and the strength with which a horse may act.
It has been determined -■- in the races of dogs and other ani-
mals showing superior speed, that the nerves regul^.ting the
heart and lungs have greater power than in the instance of
those that are slower. Another authority f who has given
this feature special study states that the degree of contraction
of the muscle is proportioned to the degree of stimulation.
This general statement serves to sustain the positicm that the
horse of strong nervous organization has quicker and more
complete control over its muscles than the one deficient in
this feature.

4. Temperaments. To the nervous organization, its tone
and force, we can largely trace the temperaments that are
characteristic of horses. The horse of nervous temperament
expresses the fact by being a willing and enduring worker in
its sphere; while the horse of lymphatic temperament seem-
ingly lacks zest in its labors for the want of tone in its nerv-
ous system. The bilious temperament reflects itself in a bad
temper and springs chiefly from the condition of the body;
while the sanguine temperament, resulting from apparently
opposite conditions, finds expression in a disposition that is
kind and willing. In this connection it should be stated that
the term nervous temperament is not used in the sense in
which it is commonly accepted, namely, a lack of nervous
control; for such a condition usually results in an irritable
and erratic temperament which is devoid of results as
expressed in work.

* Mills. Comparative Physiology, page 213.
+ Smith, I*hysiolo;:y of Animals, page 721.

8 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

II. JUDGING LIGHT HORSES.

/. General Exarnhiation.
In the general examination of horses, the form, quality and
action are the chief features requiring consideration. This
examination takes in the horse as a whole, while the struc-
tural examination requires detailed criticism of each part
independent of others.

5. Form — The Contribution of Skeleton and Muscle. To
be able to accurately estimate the form of a horse, it is neces-
sary to understand the extent to which the ^orm is due to
the skeleton and how much of it depends on the muscular
development.

A comparison of a skeleton of a horse with a living and
well developed animal will show clearly that some parts owe
their form to the framework of bone, while other regions are
shaped wholly by the muscle. Beginning at the head, it
will be noticed that the form of it is determined almost alto-
gether by the bones that comprise it. The outlines of the
neck, however, are just as distinctly due to the muscular
development of that region. The shoulder and chest are
outlined in form chiefly by the skeleton though smoothened
with muscle. The shape of the leg from the knee upwards
to the body is determined by muscles of that region, while
from the knee to the fetlock the outline is due largely to the
tendons that make the leg at this point appear flat from the
side. The common supposition is that the leg appears flat
from the side view because the bone is flat, but the fact is
the flat appearance is due to the degree to which the tendons
stand back from the bone.

6. Propelling Power Resides in Hind Quarlers. A stud}^
of the degree to which the skeleton and the muscular develop-
ment contribute to the form of a horse, brings into promi-
nence the idea that most of the power resides in the hind
parts. The fact that the greatest muscular development is
in that region would indicate this.

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Photo by;Schreiber.

Lk.vdkij, TIIK ScoTCBMAX, winner of iiniiioious ijiizes ;i1 the lUistoii and

Pliihuk-lpliia liorso sliows in the lieavy harness chisses. Illustrative of the

fuiliK'ss and symmetry of form that sliould be a feature of the caniase

or coach t\i)e.

Photo from Rider and Driver.
The Demon and Lothario showing the type desirable in a pair of car-
riage liorses.

Photo by Schreiber.

Hood's McGregor record 2:26^4, by Robert McGregor 2:17'4. Winner of
three first prizes Philadelpliia Horse Sliow, 1897, in roadster classes, and
also first for best appointed road rig.

Plioto by Lillic

Saddh^ Kclding, OoiiUMBUS, sliowing Spanish trot. Winner of first prize
high scliool chiss at Kansas City Horse Show. 1898. Owned by C. T. Wall<er.

GENERAL EXAMINATION

It will be noticed that the form of the loin, the shape of the
croup, the fullness of the thigh and quarters are due in the
greatest degree to the extra development of muscle in these
parts. The front quarter of the horse is bare of muscle in
comparison with the hind quarter.

Another reason for accepting this theory is the difference
in the manner of the attachment of the fore legs to the body,
compared to that of the hind legs. The shoulder blade
is loosely attached to the trunk while the hind leg connects
with the body through the agency of an unusually strong
ball and socket joint. The shoulder blade plays loosely,
seemingly for the purpose of lessening the concussion the leg
receives from contact with the ground, while the hind legs
in their connection with the pelvis make a joint that is the
most powerful of the bod}-.

7. Three Classes of Light Horses. The light horse in
respect to form and other characteristics may be divided into
three main classes: the carriage horse, the road horse and
the saddle horse. These may be spoken of as the most com-
mon types recognized in the market, w^hile the pure bred
representatives of them are to be seen in the breeds of coach
horses, the standard trotter and the standard saddle horse.

8. The Coach or Carriage Horse. The distinguishing
features of the coach or carriage horse are its symmetry and
action. The height should be about i6 hands to make a
good appearance. In contrast with the roadster the carriage
horse is very smooth and symmetrical. The smoothness
should be due to plumpness of the muscle over all parts.
In the carriage type the head saould be comparatively small
and lean, the ear neat, the neck long and carried gracefully,
the body round and plump and the limbs clean cut, with
well formed and durable feet. Graceful carriage and stylish
action are leading qualifications.

9. Analysis of Style. When in any posture, style is a
very desirable attribute in any carriage horse. A critical

10 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

examination of this type would indicate how far the posses-
sion of style depends on the adjustment of the parts of the
framework. When a carriage or coach horse possesses
characteristic style, there seems to be an appropriate blend-
ing of all proportions of form. In analyzing this i*: will be
found that most of the lines have a similar direction, in
addition to the fullness of contour already discussed. The
line running from the poll to the nose seems to be parallel
to that of the shoulder, the line dividing the pastern also
has a similar direction, and the line of the thigh in the hind
quarter corresponds with the slope of the hind pastern.
Considering the lines that run different from these it will be
noticed that the one made by the arm from the point of the
shoulder to the elbow is very similar in direction to that
made by the ischium of the pelvis and this again is similar to
that of the lower thigh. Kach part of a typical carriage
horse seems to bear a fixed relation to every other part both
in size, length and slope, giving the horse that symmetry
which contributes so much to its style and beauty while
standing or in action.

10. The Trotter or Roadster. The chief characteristics
of the roadster are .speed and stamina. The ability to trot
fast is a desirable quality and the ability to maintain a rapid
gait is equally essential in a horse of this kind. In addition
to being able to stand steady road work, such a horse must
be well mannered so as to be safe and pleasurable to drive.

The typical roadster may be said to be about 15 ^2 hands
high and about a thousand pounds in weight. In conforma-
tion the horse of this class is somewhat narrow in front,
deep chested, wide at the loin and very muscular in the
quarters. Every feature about the horse appears clean cut,
giving a hard finish which indicates durability. The linea-
ments of the face and the outlines of the neck and especially
the distinctness with which the tendons stand away from the
leg are very desirable features.

Combination saddle and harness gelding Highland, owned by Professor
C. F. Curtiss. Iowa Agricultui'al College, Ames, Iowa. A winner at state
fairs in this class.

Prize winning Kentucky bred saddle horse Compeer, property of Edwin
n. Wetherbee, New York City. The Breeder's Gazette, referring to this
horse, says ; " Of magnificent presence, with a height of 15.3 and a weight
of 1,100 pounds, this young horse wants merely to settle to his height by the
development of another /ear; in sound feet, elastic pasterns, quantity and
quality of bone, height at withers, range of neck and strength of back Com-
peer makes good his name. Disposition and manners are the essentials of a
perfect saddle horse, and these Compeer possesses in unusual degree. He is
brilliant in his action ; his walk is fine, his trot distinguislied by a superb flex
of hocks, while his haunches could not be better tucked under at the
canter."

I'hotograpli taken at entrance to Mr. Murtiuier Leverin;;s's residence at
LaFayctie. Indiana, showing a team of Shetlaiids, IJlack Peppeii (I2M) and
A1.LSPICK. ci-J'.m. the latter imported from the Shetland Isles. The combina-
tion saddle and harness mare Leop.\kdess is also shown. She was sired by
Geiici 111 Grant's Arabian The Leopard and has been a winner in the light
harness cla.ss at several shows.

Ben Bolt, champion light weight hunter. Philadelphia Horse Show
Association, 1900. Owned and ridden by Miss Marion Halloway.

Eagle Plume, champion heavy weight hunter. and winner of numerous
prizes as a saddle liorse, owned by Gi'O. Pepper & Pons, of Ontario, Canada.

Photo by Sehreiber.

Polo pony owned by Robert E. 9trawbridge, Philadelphia. Purchased at
a cost of Sl.OOO.

GENERAL EXAMINATION 11

The type lacks the fullness and symmetry that are char-
acteristic in the carriage or coach horse. To do effective
and hard work on the road is the sphere of the roadster and
the type that has been evolved is an illustration of the evo-
lution of a form for a specific purpose. The type of the best
campaigners that have marks of 2:10 or better will show a
similarit}^ that indicates the type towards which the trotter is
tending. Though it should be noted here that the roadster
in show form will show quite different outlines from one that
has been subjected to the hard training that the campaigner
receives.

To describe the roadster form in detail it may be said that
the head is proportioned to the rest of the body, wide between
the eyes and somewhat sharp at the poll. The neck is slim,
long and very often carried somewhat straight, owing to the
continual use of the top check. The shoulder slopes very
markedly and extends well along towards the back. The
arm is short and this with the slope of the shoulder makes
the under line much longer than the length of the back.
The fore arm is long, the cannon short and the pasterns with
sufficient length and slope. The horse appears too far from
the ground in proportion to its height. The back is short
and strong rising some at the hips and the croup is strongly
muscled. Perhaps the most noticeable feature of the type
is the exceptional length from the hip joint to the point of
hock and then from the point of the hock to the fetlock
joint the distance is short, making the hock appear as if set
low.

II. The Pacep as a Roadster. As a roadster, the pacer
has many claims for consideration chiefly on account of the
speed that characterizes this gait and the fact that it is easily
maintained on smooth city roads. It is, however, mainly the
quickness with which full speed is attained that makes the
pacer so popular among the road riders of our cities. The
difficulty that a pacer encounters on rough, broken roads or

12 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

in snow, makes it necessarj^ to have a smooth hard road to
enjoy the pleasures of the gait.

Among pacers there is often noticeable a type that is not
desirable in any class. It can hardly be called typical
of this class of horses for many of those that are fastest at
this gait, do not have the very low fore hand, the cramped
hind quarters or bent-in hocks that are often connected with
this form. The horse that paces smooth and true exhibits
an easy and pleasing manner of going as well as one effective
in producing speed, but there are many varieties of this gait
that are the reverse of this because of defects in conformation
which preclude rapid movement in any other manner.

12. The Saddle Horse. The type of the saddle horse is
somewhat similar to that of the carriage horse but the typical
saddle horse shows more quality and better manners than
any other class of light horses. Aside from these features
the most necessary qualifications of the saddle horse are the
ability to show the different gaits that are required of horses
of this class. The standard performances adopted by the
executive committee of the American Saddle Horse Associa-
tion are the following gaits: (i) Walk. (2) Trot. (3)
Single foot or rack (4) Canter. (5) Slow pace, running
walk or fox trot. The gait known as single foot or rack is
very similar to the pace, except that in the latter the two
feet of the same side move together while in the single foot
the hind foot reaches the ground shortly before the front
foot on the same side. The gait known as single foot is con-
sidered synonymous with that of the rack and it has been
described as exactly intermediate between the true walk and
the true trot, each foot apparent^-/ moves independent of the
other with what has been termed a "one at a time move-
ment."

13. Quality. This term applied to horses has reference
to their bones, skin and hair. Evidences of quality are
clearly cut features, glove-like skin, silky hair and firm, clean

The Abbot, record 2 :03'4. the fastest trotter in the world. Sired by Chimes
5348. Photographed in racing form, this horse shows the extreme roadster
type.

The Abbot, 2:03'4, in track harness witli Geers up at the time tliat he
made the world's record.

Photo seciired through courtesy of Clarks Horse Review.

Standard bred pacing stallion, Star Pointer, record l:59;-4, the fastest
pacer in the world. The photographs show him stripped, and also in the
harness and rigging worn at the time he made his record.

Photogi-aph of Cresceus 2:04, tlie champion trotting stallion of the world,
in track liarness, with Geo. H. Ketcham, his owner, in the suUvy. Cresceus
was sired by Robert McGregor, 2:17J4. Owned by Geo. H. Ketcham, Toledo, O.

GENERAL EXAMINATION 13

bone. In the instance of the horse possessing quality, the
lines of the face are clearly defined and in every region there
is a complete absence of coarseness. It is possible in such a
horse to easily distinguish the muscles, tendons and bones
and when slightly exerted, so that the coat lies smooth, the
veins in the skin show clearly in an intricate net work as
delicate and fine grained as the skin. This freedom from
coarseness in the joints and tendons show a soundness in
these features that guarantees durability. Coarse hair is
associated with coarse skin and that is a true indication of
soft, spongy bones which quickly become diseased when sub-
jected to the strain of hard usage or neglect.

14. Endurance Indicated by Quality. The connection
between a horse's staying power or endurance and its quality
is frequently seen when subjected to severe road work, but
the reason for the connection is not so plainly evident. The
fine skin that is one of the features of high quality is consid-
ered to be of value for what it tells of the internal organiza-
tion of the animal, for it may be said in a general way that
the one skin covers the horse internally as well as externally.
The inner coat of the skin which covers the ribs and all exter-
nal parts is a continuation of that which lines the stomach
and intestines. If the skin covering the internal region is
soft, fine and pliable it indicates that the secretions are
healthy and it would seem natural to reason from this that
the lining of the stomach would be in the same state, and if
such is the case it is in a better condition to digest the food
that goes into it, thereby increasing the horse's recuperative
powers and endurance.

15. Durability Associated with Quality. Quality in a
horse's limbs and feet is especiall}- desirable for the reason
that such prove more durable under stress or strain. In
looking for this feature in the leg, it is a common practice to
run the hand over the cannon bone. In doing this the skin
and hair are felt against the bone and if there is the proper

14 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

quality there, the skin seems to melt from under the hand
letting the latter come in close contact with the bone which
feels firm and smooth. The fingers seem to touch each other
as they pass between the tendon and the bone of the leg,
when the latter has the right degree of quality. It is a fact
that in finely bred horses that undergo unusual trials of
endurance, such as the thoroughbred and the trotter, the
texture of the bone is decidedly firmer and closer than that
of horses bred for slower work. Another evidence of quality
is to be seen in the lines showing the division of the muscles
as these should appear distinct in the horse of quality and
the joints of the limbs Should not show any fullness but be
clearly defined and hard.

16. Action — Why Highly Valued. In the market for
light horses there is no single feature held in higher estima-
tion than that of desirable action. It has different degrees
of valuation when associated with the various types of horses,
but to sell well they all must have as much as may be dis-
played and used to advantage. The fact that proper action
associated with the coach type brings exceptional prices in
the market, would of itself make the subject an important
study but when its influence on the prices of all classes of
horses is considered, it at once assumes the position of being
the most valuable characteristic connected with the classes
of I'-'^ht horses.

Good action is mainly desirable for its utility and akso for
the many other qualities which it indicates. It will readily
be expected that the horse with good action is more durable
and more enjoyable, as the work is done easier, and also
more profitable, for more of it is accomplished. But looking
further into the subject it is surprising what other attributes
are dependent on it. The action of a horse reflects its tem-
perament, proves the balance of its conformation and indi-
cates soundness. With right action there must be a dash
and zest which is the outflow of a sanguine temperament

Highstopper in action. Photographed from '" Driving for Pleasure "show-
ing tlie extreme degree to wliich knee and hock action may be developed by
lieavy shoeing and training.

, ■

,^^

/^

^t^ /^

m

7

w

J

^^,i..>--^r

Photo ey Schreiber.
Leader, the Scotchman, in action, showing the folding of the knee and
the flexing of the hock desired in carriage horses.

Photo by Pliilliiis, Independence, low;

Allerton, record 2:09'4, in action, showing the reacli and movement to
secure greatest speed.

Onlink, record :i:04, a world's champion 4-.year old pacer, owned by Lesli
Stock Farm, Goshen, Ind. The photograph shows clearly the movement of
the legs when a horse paces level and true.

GENERAL EXAMINATION 15

making light of the hardest effort. Then the conformation
which is but a living mechanism of levers, pullies and trans-
mitters must have the delicate adjustment and balance, that
gives grace and smoothness to every movement. Further
there cannot be any unsoundness to render less free or firm
the step as both these characteristics must be prominent in
actions of all kinds. The more action is studied the deeper
becomes the conviction that every attribute of the horse con-
tributes to it. Every quality comes more or less into play
and for that reason the difficulties in the way of securing the
typical action of the high degree of merit are almost insuper-
able.

17. The Walk — Active, Straight, Level. Excellence at
this gait is a very desirable quality in all varieties of horses,
and unlike the trot its meritorious features are the same in
all, as it has no connection with type. In the enjoyment of
a road horse there is much to admire in the manner in which
he conducts himself when walking. It is questionable as to
which is the most pleasurable to observe — the walking of the
horse whose step is evenly timed and nervy, or the trotting
of one that has all the grace, style and snap that character-
izes the coacher.

18. Observing Straightness of the Walk. In moving
away from you the feet of the active walker leave the ground
with a quick snap, showing in its passage the reflection
of the whole shoe. After leaving the ground with this
peculiar snap the foot swings upward and forward, then
the knee unfolds, the pastern carries the foot gracefully for-
ward and it again comes to the ground lightly but firmly
with the characteristic spring and snap that identified the
first mov^ement. The feet move straight away, swerving
neither to the left or to the right, nor should the folding of the
knees or the flexing of the hocks result in an outward pitch-
ing or spreading. A horse that will lift and plant his foot
in the way described almost invariably has the upheaded and

16 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

commandmg appearance in movement which is so admirable
in the harness horse.

19. Manner of Noting Leveiness. The crucial test of the
balance of a horse's walk is the side view. Any variation
from proper structural proportions results in wobbling, hob-
bling or an otherwise uneven walk, and all these are readily
seen from the side. The leveiness with which a horse walks
is one of the best evidences that the legs work in harmony.
The most common deflection from this is attributable to a
long, slim coupling which gives the onlooker the impression
that the horse might break away into two parts near the
region of the loin. In defective conformations of this kind
the stride of the hind limbs is short and he usually has an
uneven, choppy gait that is unsightly as well as ineffectual
in covering distances. On the other hand an opposite rela-
tion of the parts, close coupling and short back, with long
legs, is likely to give use to a slovenly swinging gait, pro-
ducing clicking, stumbling or other deficiencies. If there is
a flaw in the mechanism of the front legs, it is usually made
evident by the movement of the front feet, especially as they
are about to touch the ground. If the limb proportions are
ungainly the feet do not seem to reach the ground at the
proper stage, either turning too much on the heel or not turn-
ing enough and precipitating the toe. From behind it is
easy to observe if the walk of the hind limbs is level thus
being free from any hitching, wobbling or unevenness in
the stride.

20. The High Stepper in Action. The highest priced
action in the general horse market is that of the high stepper.
The peculiarity of this action consists in lifting the knees
inordinately high and flexing the hocks so that they come
close to the body and keep the legs well under it. From
the standpoint of action alone, the higher the knees and the
hocks are lifted the more valuable is the horse, provided
the type and other features more common are equally

GENERAL EXAMINATION 17

satisfactory. The feet must be thrown forward without any
dishing on either side and the hocks must pass each other
close and in Hue with the forward movement. It is easy to
understand that while this method of movement is the most
showy and stylish, it is not serviceable action for a road horse.
The front legs soon succumb to the heavy concussion they
would be called upon to stand under hard driving. But
this action is .sought only in the horse that is used for short
drives about the city where style is paramount to speed and
stamina. While it is recognized that the high stepper should
have as many as possible of the other qualities of excellence
in addition to high action, yet all others are considered of
minor value among horses of this class. "All-around action
only to be considered " is the current phra.se in the prize lists
that provide classes for competition among the high steppers,
which means a combination of shoulder, knee and hock
action.

21. The Carriage Horse — Manners When in Motion. A
connoisseur of hor.ses will see much more than the legs of a
carriage horse when moving. As such a horse moves before
an appropriate vehicle with the latitude of a light hand
assisting him there are flashes of gracefulness from every
motion. With this there is a quality of mind that gives
buoyancy to the step and accounts in no small degree for the
uplifted carriage of the head. It is expressive of a happy
temperament that gives gracefulness to every poise and
smooth flow to ever)' movement. Even such a minor organ
as an ear plays its part, the eye, too, shows the fire from
within and challenges the critic for its meed of praise in
measuring the step and alertness in giving it security. Scan
the lines of the neck, and notice their tenseness and yet the
unusual elasticity it shows when occasion offers for the move-
ment of greater gracefulness. The shoulder plays with free-
dom and the smooth turned loin and quarter seems tiie only

18 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

region that are not taking part in this unusual display,
though in this immobility they show their real strength.

22. Straight and Regular Action. As to the action of the
fore legs, it is straight away with continuous folding and
unfolding. In the action of the carriage horse there must
be some style and dash and high lifting of the feet, but never
enough of it to make the action unserviceable. At no time
is the fore leg held in poise as it does not dwell either in
flexion or extension. The foot snaps from the ground and
is then carried forward wkile the limb unfolds, as if follow-
ing the rim of a wheel. It seems to reach the ground at the
right stage of the unfolding so that it is not held in suspense
at any point along the line of descent. The feet pass close
and in a straight line so that there is no swaying or dropping
down of the fore hand with each step. The hind foot leaves
the ground with the same quick movement and at no time
is it allowed to hang back so as to give the horse the appear-
ance of not gathering himself well together,

23. The Driver's Sensation of Action. After all is writ-
ten that it is possible to write about the action of the car-
riage horse, there is something else that must go with it which
can not be described with sufficient vividness to make the
novice appreciate it. It has somethmg to do with power
and its connection between the animal and its master seems
to be the driving lines. As you sit behind the horse of true
carriage action and conduct you feel your proximity to a
powerful mechanism that is undergoing a test of its minutest
parts. If anything fails everything will be demoralized but
it is the feeling of strength and power in the animal that
allays unnecessary fears.

Without leaving this feature connected with the carriage
horse let us study its relation to the trotter. Substance and
strength in the carriage horse gives momentum to the occu-
pants of the somewhat cumbersome carriage, while the trot-
ter loses these for speed and stamina. Between the trotter

An easy iind satisf;iL'toiy metlKid of opening a horses luonth. The two
thurabs are inserted just back of the incisors and the lower is pressed down
so that the horse drops the lower jaw. It is usually easy in this way to make
observations regarding the teeth.

I'roper met hod of lift iii<r and linhling the foot of a horse. In seckinf:^ to
lift the front foot of a horse the hand should be run over the cannon in the
manner indicated in one of the plioto^raphs. Usually a horse will lift his
foot as soon as this done. To hold it firmly without much elTort, the proper
plan is to hold the toe with the foot doubled against the elbow as shown in
tlie above photograph.

Tlie illustration on the right hand shows a well bred and intelligent head,
the subject being Lola RoNAN.-standard bred road mare owned by the
author, while that to the left is a photograph of a head showing lack or
breedino and deBcient in fullness of forehead.

Two photographs to illustrate the dilferences in the appearance of
horses' heads when they are trimmed and untrimmed. The head shown
trimmed is that of Boralma. 3:08, the unbeaten four-year-old trotter. * * *
The trim appearance of the head is to some extent due to the fact that
the foretop lias been clipped, the ears trimmed, the mane clipped back of the
foretop. The companion head, on the right, though of a French Coach mare
showing abundance of quality, is yet very coarse in appearance, largely due
to the fact that the head has not been trimmed. The mane has not been
cutaway. The long hair is in the ears, the foretop has not been removed,
while the long growth of coarse hair below the jaw has not been trimmed.

GENERAL EXAMINATION 19

and its driver the feeling is that of flight instead of power in
motion. The difference in the feeling resulting from follow-
ing the movement of these two classes of horses might be
better expressed by reference to the difference in the feeling
that one has when standing beside a swift turning windmill,
as compared with the effects of observing the turn of a pon-
derous water wheel. The former takes advantage of every
breath of wind and speeds a merry clip without apparent
exertion or strength; the other impresses one at once with
its power and in a lesser degree with its combination of
strength and speed.

24. The Trotter — Speed and Stamina. The leading fea-
ture of the action of the trotter is speed at the trotting gnit,
but there are many others that must be companions of this
to result in the greatest development and the chief of these
is stamina or the ability to maintain the necessary ^ait.
It is generally thought that if a horse has speed he has the
one essential necessary to make a trotter or a good road
horse. Not only is speed desirable but there must be a true
balance of parts, that insures their protection together with
trueness of stride. Being true and level gaited guarantees
ths greatest durability and that with an ambitions turn of
mind give us that very desirable quality in the trotter,
termed " gameness " or stamina. Of all features of the trot-
ter's action it must be the most evident that it is not in the
least wasteful of energy. While that of the carriage horse
or high stepper must display effort, the trotter should move
so as to leave the least impression of this.

Less roll to the knee, more propulsion from the stifle and
less motion in the hocks carries the trotter forward closer to
the ground and with less expenditure of force and without the
higher lifting of the knee and hock which is characteristic of
the high stepper. There is much more extension of the limbs
in the trotter, as shown in the reach of the fore leg, while the
hind legs pass back farther and reach farther forward than

20 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

in the action of the high stepper or carriage horse as the latter
must keep his legs under him to gather himself together in the
proper degree. A wider spread in the movement of the hind
legs in the instance of the trotter is not as bad a fault as it
would be if associated with the carriage horse. It is frequently
noticeable as a distinction between the action of a trotter and
coacher, that the latter is balanced in stride when going an
easy gait but becomes unbalanced or weak when urged
beyond it, while the trotter may very often show an uneven
gait when moving slowly but when urged to the limit of its
speed, displays truly balanced action without any tendency
towards losing its stride.

25. The Pacing Gait — Level and True. A study of this
gait will disclose the fact that there is more variations in it
than in any other form of action. Horses pace in many
ways, some lurching, others shuffling and many more wob-
bling in an unsightly manner; but, however they may go, they
are nearly all characterized by possessing speed. A level
and true pacer displays a sightly gait. In pacing level and
true the body remains steadier than in any other movement.
The legs move in harmony with the directness of a machine.
The nervy, machine-like pace peculiar to many of the fast
pacing animals is a study in the degree to which the mini-
mum of effort results in the maximum of speed. Some horses
pace because of bent hocks, others because of ungainly pro-
portion but when the gait results from breeding and is the
outcome of straight and direct movement, it is difl&cult to
imagine a gait with less friction or display of effort. In the
instance of the horse that possesses true excellence at this
gait, if you were to shut off your view of the limbs in motion,
you would have the impression that the animal was standing
on a rapidly moving train hidden from your view, so little
does the body and other parts above the line make any dis-
play of effort. As a rule the pace from the standpoint of the
spectator is an unsightly gait, but one that is usually

These photograpiis have been selected to sliow the dilTerences In the dis-
positions of horses. The upper one shows desirable temperament with har-
mony between liorse and rider. The lower one sliows horse and rider out of
touoh with each otlier and the horse discloses by expression and countenance
a strong will and vicious disposition.

Photo from Horse Show Monthly.

A row of good heads. The heads of tiie horses shown here indicate a
high order- of intelligence, borne out by tlie fact tliat they all possess suffi-
cient nitelk'ct to act. Rcf^inning on the left hand their names are Charley
Adams, Nixon, Alice, Blair, Charlie Ross, Ella, Maud. They are used In
the stage plays Sporting Life and the Great Ruby. Ttiey are owned by the
LeRoy Payne Co.. of 171 Michigan Avenue. Chicago. Without exception they
show intelligent heads in that they display full foreheads, open counte-
nances, large eyes, with abundant width between them.

Rules Governing Position of the Limbs of the Horse When Standing.

FRONT VIEW OF FORE LIMBS.

A vertical line downward from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the
knee, cannon, pastern and foot. Cut A of Plate I represents the right conforraatlon. B. C. D,
E. F and G reuresent common defects.

SIDE VIEW OF FORE LIMBS.

A vertical line drawn downward from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the
center of the Unee and pastern j"lnts and bacU of the foot; and a vertical line drawn down-
ward from the middle of the arm should fall upon the center of the foot. Cut A of Plate II re-
" ' -. - - . '- , far back; C. too far forward;

SIDE VIEW OF HIND LIMBS.

A vertical line drawn downward from the hip joint .ohould fall upon the center of the foot
and divide the gaskin In the middle; and a vertical line drawn from the point of the buttock
should coincide with the angle of the hock and pastern joints. Cut A of Plate III represents
right conformation. B, C and D represent common defects.

REAR VIEW OF HIND LIMBS,

A vertical line drawn downward from ihe point of the buttork si
of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. Cut A of Plate IV represent:
and E represent common defects.

STRLCTT'RAL EXAMINATION 21

thoroughly enjoyable from the point of view of the driver.
Owing to the ease with which the pacer moves and the light-
ness with which they speed over pavements, combined with
the rapidity with which they can reach their speed, the pacer
has become very popular among city road riders.

//. Striichiral Examination.

Thus far the features that enter largely into the general
appearance of the horse, the form, quality and action, have
been considered, but in addition to these qualities there are
numerous details of structure and soundness which have a
predominating influence on the value of any of the classes
that have been discussed. Not only must horses of the
classes described prove sound to be of service, but to sell
well they must also show the strength of structure that
wards ofi" the possibility of any unsoundness developing in
the future. A badly constructed hock without a curb may
depreciate the value of the horse fully as much as a curb
present on a strong and well formed hock. The first does
not have a curb solely because it has never been subjected
to a strain, while the curb in the latter instance must have
been due to stress of more than common severity. To
discuss this division of the subject in detail it will be neces-
sary to arrange the material that follows so as to consider
the various parts of a horse completely.

26. Head — Straight, Lean . The shape of the head and the
countenance of a horse adds greatly to its appearance, end as
this is the part which is most frequently observed it becomes
of some importance. The line from the ears to the point of the
nose as seen from the side should be almost straight. In
scanning the photographs of a great number of trotters it
will be noticed that nearly all stallions have slight Roman
noses while most of the mares have slightly dished faces, a
distinction which seems to be characteristic of the sexes. As
a rule it will be found that horses of very prominent Roman

22 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

noses are self willed. Small nostrils are generally associ-
ated with this form of nose and as a consequence we find in
such instances, that the respiratory or breathing organs lack
development. The features of the face should be distinct,
without the least appearance of coarseness or meatiness. A
lean face is suggestive of good quality in a horse. The
muzzle should be fine in quality to make the head appear at
its best. Between the eyes there should be breadth enough
to give a pleasing frankness to the countenance. It is a
point of practical value as an index to the brain development
which is of much importance in a light horse, for in this class
intelligence is a merit of high value. While it is granted
that the intelligence of a horse depends mostly on the train-
ing received, 3^et there is a marked difierence in the benefit
which horses derive from training, and that difference may
only be accounted for by variations in the brain development.

27. Nostrils— Large, Open. The nostrils of a horse should
be large, thin, dilatable and of a pink color. While there
should be no discharges from them, they should always have
the appearance of being moist.

28. Eyes — Full, Clear. A bright eye indicates vigor of con-
stitution, that iS; stamina, staying power, or bottom as it is
sometimes called. It is also associated with a happy disposi-
tion and it seems to be this that accounts for the fact that
some horses do an enormous amount of work with little
worry and strain upon themselves. A large, full, clear eye
is indicative of a kind, generous disposition and good health.

29. Ears— Erect, Active. The ears should be close together
and carried in an erect position. They should be active and
somewhat pointed. Lop ears indicate lassitude, or in plainer
words, laziness. When it is noticed that a horse does not
shift or move either of its ears to any extent to catch sound,
it is safe to presume that 'it is afflicted with deafness. On
the other hand if it is continually moving them, it is advis-
able to inspect the eyesight carefully as it is likely that the

STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 23

extra labor imposed on the ears has its origin in the defect
of one or both of the eyes.

30. Jaw Bones — Wide, Sharp. Between the jaw bones
there should be sufficient width for a large wind-pipe and also
enough to allow the head to play freely on the neck. When the
space between the jaw bones is very narrow it will often be
noticed that the horse carries his head stif&y, but when there
is suflficient width in this region, the head is usually carried
gracefully and moved freely on the neck. The throttle or
throat latch should be light without any unnatural fullness
between the jaw bones or heaviness at the juncture of the
head and neck.

31. Neck — Arched, Muscled. A nicely moulded and dis-
tinctly chiseled neck of sufficient length, carrying the head
gracefully is one of the most beautiful features of the light
horse. Extending towards the shoulder the neck should swell
gradually so as to join the body smoothly. The windpipe
should be large and appear distinct from the rest of the neck
and the upper outlines of the latter should be sharp. While
many excellent road horses have what is called a ewe neck,
it is none the less a defect as it detracts very much from a
symmetrical appearance.

32. Chest— Deep, Projecting. In the light horse that is
called upon for light work, the chest should obtain its capa-
city more by depth than breadth. The reason for this is that
the deeper chest permits the freer play of the shoulder. It
is easy to see that swift, smooth action of the fore legs is
hardly possible in the broad chested horse, mainly because
it throws them too far apart and out of line with those
behind. It will often be noticed in this direction that too
much width causes the horse to pitch or roll in its action.
A deep chest is evidence of staying power. The conforma-
tion of noted campaigners on the turf, such as Mary Marshall
(2:12), The Abbot (2:03^), Cresceus (2:04), may be cited,
to illustrate full development in this feature.

24 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

33. Shoulders — Long, Oblique. The conformation of the
shoulder is one of the parts of all light horses that requires
critical scanning. To give elasticity to the movement of
saddle horses and to permit of quick and clean action in the
roadster, the shoulder should be long and oblique. An
upright shoulder is very likely to result in short, stilted
action, frequently accompanied by stumbling, and it is quite
a fertile cause of such bone diseases as sidebones and ring-
bones. The high action which is desired in the coach horse
and the long reaching, clean action so sought after in the
roadster depends as much on the obliquity and freedom of
movement in the shoulder, as in any other feature. In
addition, a sloping and long shoulder strengthens the back
and extends the length of the under-line. The muscular
development of the shoulder should also be carefully noted,
for if there is an unusual bareness or lack of muscular cover-
ing it would denote the fact that sweeny has affected it.

34. Fore Legs — Broad, Cordy, Straight. The appearance
of the fore leg from the side should show it to be flat and cordy.
The flatness shows the tendons to be properly attached and
some distance from the bone and the clean cut appearance
denotes the absence of any coarseness about the legs. View-
ing the legs from in front and using a plumb line it will be
found in the instance of a leg that is straight, that a perpen-
dicular line downward from the point of the shoulder,
should equally divide the knee, cannon, pastern and foot.
Viewing the fore leg from the side, a similar line dropped
from the center of the leg at a point where it joins the body
should nearly divide the leg until the fetlock joint is reached
and from there to the ground it should fall exactly behind
the foot. Any variation from these two lines shows crook-
edness from either point of view. The leg should be long
from the elbow to the knee, for the reason, that free and
clean action follows such a conformation. In these parts it
will be noticed that most of the muscles extending and

The photo on the left, Hummer 6112, shows a sloping shoulder and a lore
Icj; of quality set properly and strongly supported below the knee with cor-
rect pastern and excellent foot. Subject of the other photo is too straight
in slioulder and pastern with weak knees.

Photo of a smootlily turned horse, especially round ribbed and on that
account appearing too long in the legs, though not really so.

The illustration on the right Is a photograph of the hind quarter of St.
Saviour, a thoroughbred stallion, showing a clean, strong hock and properly-
set hind leg. The photograph on the left shows a curb on the right leg due
to a weakly supported hock also improperly set.

The left illustration shows a liind leg too straight, while the right one
shows the other extreme in being set too far back.

STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 25

flexing the leg, are located between the elbow and the knee.
If this region is long, the muscle must necessarily be long
and that produces quick and easy action. The muscle of the
fore arm flexes and extends the rest of the leg, and in order
that these motions may take place with the least expenditure
of power the course over which it must travel must be as
short as possible; that is, the cannon running from the knee
to the fetlock should be much shorter than from the knee to
the elbow.

Mr. H. T. Helm has made a careful study of the effect
that the proportions of these parts to each other have upon the
horse's action. He has measured a great many horses and
finds that their action in the fore legs seems to be governed by
the proportionate length of the fore arm and the cannon. He
found that Administrator has superior action in front, and
that his cannon was 1 1 ^ inches long, and the fore arm 2 1
inches long. About the same proportions were found to
exist in the fore legs of George Wilkes, and there was no lack
of knee action in his movement. The actual proportions
were io}4 to 20 inches. In Governor Sprague the cannon
was II inches and the fore arm 21 inches, and here the front
action was not quite as rounding as that of George Wilkes.
In the instance of St. Lawrence, the proportions were iij^
to 2 1 inches and the action was noted to be far reaching and
gently curving. It will be easily understood that the strain
upon the knees would be greater in those horses that were
long in the cannons in comparison with the length of the
fore arm, and it will usually be found that such a conforma-
tion predisposes a horse to weak knees. On the other hand
when the fore arm is inordinantely long the tendency is for
the front legs to bend back at the knees and give rise to what
is commonly termed calf knees.

35. Arms — Short, Thrown Forward. The humerus which
forms the arm should be i-.hort and appear comparatively

26 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

straight. When it is so, it gives a horse an upright appear-
ance and adds to the latter' s style.

36. Elbows — Free. The space between the leg and the
body should permit of easy insertion of the hand. If the elbow
is closer than this or tied in, as it is termed, the toes are usually
thrown out; or if the opposite is the case, the toes are likely
to be thrown in, which makes the action of the horse awk-
ward and dangerous.

37^ Fore Arms — Wide, Muscled, Perhaps the most impor-
tant matter to notice in examining the fore leg is the size of
the fore arm, or the muscular development observable just
below the juncture of the leg and the body. As fat accumu-
lates very little there it is a safe criterion of the muscular
development of the animal.

38. Knees — Wide, Deep, Straight. The knees should be
broad in front, much broader than the rest of the leg, either
above or below, and the pisiform bone, which is the bone form-
ing the projection at the back of the knee, should be sharp and
prominent, for to this some of the most important muscles of
the fore leg are attached. Breadth is desirable in such joints,
because of the fact that the concussion is more evenly dis-
tributed, and better spent by the many bones forming the
joint, when their surfaces are large. The most common
defects of the knee are calf knees, knock knees, knee sprung,
speedy cut and scars.

39. Cannons — Wide, Short, Large Sinews. There should
be very little shrinkage below the knee as the joints require as
much support as possible. This defect of being tied in below
the knee is one of the most common weaknesses to be seen in
the fore legs of light horses. A light horse of common size
should measure at least 8 inches at this point. The cannon
should be short, wide and clean and the sinews should be
back from the bone. It is sometimes noticeable that the
cannon is thicker than usual which is generally caused by
hard road work.

A fully developed bog spavin is shown on the left leg in the right luind
illustration, while the one in the left illustration shows a large ringbone at
the base of the pastern.

A clean, clearly defined hock appears In the photo on the right shown
from the point of view most likely to discover bone spavin. The photo to
the left shows this, as a spavin majr be clearly seen at the inner base of the
right hock.

Tlie illustration to the right shows a cocked ankle while the other one
is a photograph of a large sidebone which may be seen on the outside of the
right leg at the junction of the pastern and foot.

Prize winning Mammoth jack .Tumboak, owned by W. R. Goodwin. Jr., Oak-
hurst Stock Farm, Napersville. Illinois. In size of bone and general form this
jack shows the characteristics which are most sought in this breed. First
prize at Illinois State Fair, 1900; height. 15.3; weight, 1,100 lbs. at three years
old.

STRICTURAL EXAMINATION 27

40. Pasterns — Sloping, Strong. The pastern should stand
at an angle of 45 degrees with the ground, and with the cannon
it should form an angle of about 135 degrees. When more
upright than this, the}' will cause bone diseases, such as side-
bones and ringbones, as the concussion is ver}- severe in
such instances. Moreover it detracts greatly from the utilitj'
of the light horse, especially those intended for the saddle,
as the step is short and stilted, and this is very disagreeable
to the rider. On the other hand, sometimes the pasterns of
light horses, and of thoroughbred horses especially, are too
long and slanting, which weakens them and ultimately ends
in the snapping of the suspensory ligament resulting in the
horse "breaking down."

41. Feet — Dense, Waxy, Large. The foot should receive
careful attention as it has an important part to play in the
work of the horse, and it is subject to man}' defects and various
kinds of unsoundness. It should be of firm texture, good
size, moderately upright and thoroughly sound. It should
have a healthy appearance which is indicated by an oily coat
of natural wax. The frog should bear the mark of natural
usage as a buffer, being spongy and touching the ground at
each step. The roof or sole of the hoof should be distinctly
concave. Flatness, brittleness and contraction, are the three
most common defects in horses' feet. It will be noticed in
many instances that the bar of the foot has been cut away,
so that the hoof splits from the heel towards the coronet.
This is due to the blacksmith's practice of cutting away the
bars that bind the foot together. When this is done the foot
begins to spread and the crack ultimately extends as far as
possible.

42. Ribs— Well Sprung, Deep, Close. The ribs should be
well sprung from the spine and they should be close to each
other. It will generally be found that horses having well
sprung ribs always make a better appearance than those that
are flat ribbed ; and, in addition, they will be found to be

28 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

easier keepers. It should be noted that the round ribbed
horse always has the appearance of being inordinately long
in the legs. This deception is due to the roundness of the
body. It can easily be seen that from a side view the flat
ribbed horse presents a body of deeper appearance and seem-
ingly has shorter legs than the horse that is rounder ribbed.

43. Back — Strong, Short, Muscled. In its proportion the
body should be short above and long underneath. This not
only adds to its strength, but it gives the legs free play and
insures a balanced stride. The horse of this conformation
under the saddle will unite himself more quickly and better,
while the same horse on the line, or in harness will have ■
a freer and more balanced stride. It is the opinion of
many that the roach back is an evidence of strength. It is
the most undesirable feature in a horse for the saddle, and
it is to say the least, an eyesore in road or in carriage horses.

44. Loin — Short, Broad, Muscled. It is a defect of many
horses to be light and narrow at the juncture of the body
and the hind quarter. If the loin is long or slack, that is,
if the distance is great between the last rib and the hip bone,
the horse is likely to be weak in the coupling and deficient
in action, and when this is viewed from the side, it will be
noticed that the hind foot fails to reach the point where the
front foot left the ground. This probably is due more to
lack of muscle over the loin than to any other defect.

45. Croup — Long, Muscular. The part included in the
hind quarters should be critically examined, for, as it has
been previously explained. It is in this region that the pro-
pelling power resides. The haunch or croup should be long
and on account of the improved appearance it should be
comparatively straight. When the croup is long, it allows
a greater play of the main muscles that are located in this
region. It will be noticed in nearly all fast trotters that the
croup generally has this characteristic. Length of muscle
Tiprp as (^Isewhere contributes to speed.

Arabian stallion. Shahwan, bred by All Pasha. Sherif, Egypt, sold to W.
S. Blount, it! 1^9'^. and taken by him to England and afterwards sold to pres-
ent owner, .J. A. P. Kamsdell, Newburg, N. Y. The photograph shows this
horse to be a model of symmetry, style and quality.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ARAB HORSE

I'HOUGH there is some unreliable sentiment associated with the Arab horse, yet
there is not a vestige of doubt but that they are of superior symmetry and
quality. This is perfectly summed up by Sheik Abd.-El.-Kader : '"The horse
of pure descent is distinguished by thinness of its lips, and the cartilage of the nose,
by the dilation of its nostrils, by the leanness of the flesh encircling the veins of
the head, by the graceful manner the neck is attached, by the softness of its coat,
Its mane and the liairsof its tall, by its breadth of chest, the largeness of its joints
and leanness of its extremities. According to the traditions of our ancestors, the
thoroughbred is still better known by its moral characteristics than its physical
peculiarities." Major R. D. Upton in " Newmarket and Arabia" gives the charac-
teristics of the Arabian horse in tlie following statement which is true of those
familiar to the author : " The Arabian is a horse of the highest courage, in stature
about 14 hands 2 inches, a horse of length, power and substance, combined with the
elastic and sinuous like movement of the serpent. He is a very perfect animal ;
he is not exaggerated — in some parts large, meagre and diminished in otliers.
There is a balance and harmony throughout his frame not seen in any other horse;
the quintessence of all good qualities in a compact form."

The head of the typical Arabian horse is exceedingly straight and the eye
markedly full and briglit. Perhaps the most striking feature of the type is the
round and extra well ribbed barrel. In action the movement of the legs is very
peculiar. i)eing very strong and elastic. Though small, the form is exceedingly
smooth and symmetrical, while tlie evidences of (juality are strikingly shown.

I'liot" by (i. A. Tadinan.

Hackney stallion. Royal Danegelt 5785, owned by Sir Walter Gilbey,
Elsenham Hall. Essex. Winner of championsliip at London Hackney Show,
1898, and at the Manchester show of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng-
land in ]8'.)7.

DESCRIPTION OF THE HACKNEY HORSE

T^HE HACKNEY was established in Great Britain as a breed to meet the require-
ments f(»r a horse of extreme smoothness, with gracefully curved outlines,
liaving the action necessary to show these to the best advantage. The head
is light, neck muscular and curved but free from heaviness; siioulders smooth
and laid well back ; body circular, compact, short; hips smooth; cjuartcrs plump
with muscle, legs short with tendons clearly defined. Their action is noted for its
straightness and height, and the regularity of knee and hock movement. Tiicre is
a variation in tlie types of the breed, some showing more upstanding with abun-
dance of quality and straighter lines, while others are shorter limbed, fuller made
and especially strong in action from a carriage standpoint. The secretary of the
Hackney Horse Association of Great Britain has summed up the general descrip-
tion of the hackney which, as he says, fitted old style and new ideal, in the follow-
ing : "A powerfully built, sliort legged, big, broad horse, with an intelligent liead,
neat neck, strong, level back, powerful lines and as perfect shoulders as can be
produced; good feet, flat boned legs, and height of from 16 3' hands to]r).3'2. In
addition to showing a type required for a carriage horse, the hackney must pos-
sess as a necessary essential true carriage or coach action.

STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 2'J

46. Thighs — Muscular, Deep. The thigh should be full
and plump with muscle which should also extend as far
down towards the hocks as possible. Some horses have this
feature so strongly developed that the muscle continues to
the hock and gives the latter a thicker appearance. The
thigh should be long, making the hocks low, as this con-
tributes to a long stride.

47. Quarters — Heavily Muscled. The quarters viewed
from behind should show a heavy mass of muscle between
the legs. Perhaps there is not another part of the muscular
system that shows a greater variation in development in dif-
ferent horses than the quarters, for while some will be cat-
hammed there are others surprisingly full in this part, with
deep, hard muscle.

48. Hind Legs. The set of the hind legs has a direct
bearing on their liability to diseases. A leg that is bent too
far forward is likely to develop a curb, while one that is too
straight is more subject to fullness in the hock region, pre-
disposing it to either thoroughpiu or bog spavin. In look-
ing from the side at a leg that has correct conformation, a
plumb line from the center of the hip joint should equally
divide the gaskin and the foot. Dropping a plumb line from
the point of the buttock it should run parallel with the line of
the cannon. From behind, the same line should equally
divide the hock, cannon, pastern and foot.

49. Hocks- Wide, Straight, Clean. The hocks should be
clean and broad and the point should be prominent as the
leverage of the most powerful muscles attached here depend
to a great extent upon this. There should be no gumminess
about the hocks; the web should be especially clean and free
from all fleshiness or puffs of any kind. In running the hand
over the hock, all the depressions that are characteristic of
the sound hock should be easily felt and the bone should
feel firm without the least indication of unsoundness of any

30 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

part. Too much attention can hardly be given to this joint
as it is one of the most important in the whole frame.

50. Hind Cannons — Wide, Short, Clean. The hind can-
nons should be comparatively short as such a conformation
gives the hind leg a longer stride while at the same time
allowing the feet to keep under the body more. They should
also be wide for that gives better attachment to the tendons
and especially if the width continue just below the hock it
materially strengthens that part. When the support for the
bones of the hock is slight and narrow at the top of the can-
non there is greater susceptibility to curbs on account of the
weakness of +hat region. The fetlock joint should be of
normal size with good width and particularly free from any
pufl&ness indicating windgalls.

51. Hind Pasterns — Sloping, Strong. The slope of the
hind pasterns is not of such importance as that of the front
pastern for the reason that it is seldom that this part will be
found too straight in light horses. There is less concussion
for the hind foot to stand, consequently there is less need for
the pastern '.o be very sloping. The pasterns should be of
medium size and length so that they may be strong. Free-
dom from thick, coarse skin and hair is desirable for in the
instance of such there is less susceptibility to scratches.

52. Hind Feet — Dense, Rounded. The hind feet should
have the characteristics that have been described in the
reference to the desirable points of the fore feet. It may be
noted in addition that the hind feet are more inclined to
become narrow in front and not have the nicely rounded sur-
face that is desirable in a good foot. The sides of the foot
viewed from in front very often appear to have shrunken
some, making a ridge down the center of the foot from the
hoof head to the toe and leaving the sides flat. Narrowness
at the hoof head usually accompanies this. The foot should
be dense in structure, mediui in size, with strong, wide heel
and full front.

Photo from The Wave, 1S97

Thoroughbred stallion, Imp. Ormonde, owned by W. O'B. Macdonough,
Menlo Park, Cal. A Derby winner sired by Bend Or.

DESCRIPTION OF THE THOROUGHBREB HORSE

It It* of much assistance in understanding the type of the thorouRhbred to
remember that they are the oldest of the breeds of horses and that they have
been bred for many years for a leading purpose and this has generally been running
speed. To secure this there had to be associated with the mechanism that pro-
duces it, unusual quality of structure, stamina and ambition. The running record
for a mile is held by Salvator, the time being l:3.J!j. The common colors among the
representatives of this breed are brown, bay and chestnut. The distinguishing
features are a refined appearance, especially clearly defined lineaments, with length
of neck, deep chest, short upper line, long under line, somewhat straight croup,
muscular thighs, neat pasterns, dense bone, firm muscle and active temperament.
An inclination to ranginess in type is required, with a racy appearance, usually
resulting in a horse standing 16 hands. E.xtreme breeding for the leading charac-
teristics mentioned makes it necessary to discountenance in the show ring light
bodies ;*ud a general appearance which has given rise to the term " weedy," which '
is also associated with lengthy pasterns and long legs. Being highly sensitive in
organization they frequently reflect an erratic temperament. Their purpose being
principally for racing, high quality with endurance and spirit are cardinal quali-
ties, and it is these same features which have made them useful In the production
of strong drivers and stylish carriage and saddle horses.

Photo by Schreiber.

Photograph of the American standard bred trotter. Geo. Wilkes, 3:22;
founder of tlie great Wilkes family of standard bred trotters.

DESCRIPTION OF THE STANDARD BRED HORSE

I'HE chief characteristic of the American standard bred horse is speed at the
trotting and the pacing gaits ; the world's trotting record for one mile being
held by The Abbott, the time being 2:fl.3i4, while the world's pacing record for tnt
same distance Is held by Star Pointer, the time being 1 1'lOi-j. The type which should
be encouraged in the show ring is that which conduces towards this end. while at
the same time showing the characteristics required for endurance, ambition ana
the essential features of a road horse. This means the possession of general feat-
ures represented by an intelligent head and extremely light neck, low, deep chest,
oblique shoulder, long, muscular forearm, strong knees, short cannons, slim, slop
ing pastern. and feetof good wearingquality.with round body rising slightly over the
loin; neat, long croup; thighs full with low hocks that are strongly constructed and
clearly defined. Such deficiences as are due to undersize, lack of style and sub-
stance should be points for underscoring in the show ring. In this connection, it is
of importance to understand the difference that may exist in representatives of
this breed when they are undergoing the strenuous work of campaigning or when
they are retained only for show and stud purposes. As many carriage horses have
their origin in this breed, as well as most of the roadsters and trotters, emphasis
should be given to the qualities which mean endurance, ambition and high finish^
It sometimes occurs that both pacing and trotting action compete in the show
ring in a class for roadsters or standard breds. Both these gaits must be recognized
and the preference given to the one that shows the most purity and is the best in
every particular of its kind. The distinction must be made between the high knee
and hock action of the carriage horse and the more reaching and easier folding
action of the roadster or trotter. See standard, page .58.

STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 31

(X,

SCALE OF POINTS FOR LIGHT HORSES — GELDING.

GENERAL APPEARANCE:

Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish 4

Quality, bone clean, firm, and indicating sufficient sub-
stance; tendons defined; hair and skin fine 4

Temperament, active, kind disposition 4

HEAD AND NECK:

Head, lean, straight i

Muzzle, fine, nostrils large; lips thin, even; teeth sound. . i

Eyes, full, bright, clear, large i

Forehead, broad, full i

Ears, medium size, pointed; well carried, and not far apart i
Neck, muscled; crest, high; throatlatch, fine; windpipe,

large i

FORE QUARTERS:

Shoulders, long, smooth with muscle, oblique, extending

into back 2

Arms, short, thrown forward i

Fore arms, muscled, long, wide 2

Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly supported. ... 2

Cannons, short, wide; sinews, large, set back 2

Fetlocks, wide, straight, i

Pasterns, strong, angle with ground 45 degrees 3

Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense; frog large,

elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide 6

Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point
of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee,
cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a perpendicu-
lar line dropping from the center of the elbow joint should
fall upon the center of the knee and pastern joints and

back of hoof 4

BODY:

Withers, muscled and well finished at top i

Chest, deep, low, large girth 2

Ribs, long, sprung, close 2

Back, straight, short, broad, muscled 2

Loin, wide, short, thick 2

Underline, long; flank let down i

HIND QUARTERS:

Hips, smooth, wide, level 2

Croup, long, wide, muscular 2

Tail, attached high, well carried i

Thighs, long, muscular, spread, open angled 2

Quarters, heavily muscled, deep 2

Qaskin or Lower Thighs, long, wide, muscular 2

Hocks, clearly defined, wide, straight 5

Cannons, short, wide; sinews, large, set back 2

Fetlocks, wide, straight i

Pasterns, strong, sloping 2

32 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES

Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense, frog large,
elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide, high 4

Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the
point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the
hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a per-
pendicular line from the hip joint should fall upon the
center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle;
and a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock

should run paraHel with the line of the cannon 4

ACTION:

Walk, elastic, quick, balanced 5

Trot, rapid, straight, regular, high 15

Total 100

III. JUDGING HEAVY HORSES.

53. Consideration of Condition. In examining draft
horses it is vi^ell to remember that defects that are often
apparent to the eye in the instance of light horses, require
more careful observation to detect them in heavy horses.
The defects are usually harder to see owing to the degree to
which the horses may be pampered. Draft horses may be
fed to such a high condition and in this way so " veneered "
that it becomes a very hard matter to detect the structural
defects. A horse in lean serviceable condition will often
show many defects especially in the body that a thick cover-
ing of fat would hide. In judging draft horses it is neces-
sary to observe the greatest precaution so as not to mistake
such padding with fat for development of muscle.

/. General Examination.
As in the light horse the most important matters to notice
in the general examination are the form, quality and action
of the horse under inspection.

54. Form — Massive, Broad, Deep. In form the draft
horse should be broad, square, close to the ground and well
proportioned. It is necessary to remember that power rather
than speed should be the outcome of the effort of a draft
horse. It is evident that the size of the muscles has more to
do with power, while the length of the muscle is indicative
principally of speed. There is a combination of power and

French Coach stallion Marin. Imported by Mr. Edward Kemp, of New
York for breeding carriage horses. Reproduced from Rider and Driver.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FRENCH COACH HORSE

I ARGELY through the encouragement and direction of the Frencli government
the French coach horse has been moulded into a type that has as its leading
cliaracteristic extreme smoothness, symmetry, a grace in movement with strong
action approaching closely to that required for the carriage horse. Tlie head
should 1)6 intelligent looking, the neck clearly outlined and gracefully carried, the
body snugly ril^bed and quartersdeepand muscular. To be striking in appearance,
upstanding and higli headed are features which have a paramount value in this
type, and in addition there should be every evidence of quality in all structures.
The common colors arc bay, brown and black, and usually these are solid and not
broken. Uniformity is desirable in any breed, so that it is necessary for the judge
to adopt a certain type as that which he prefers, and then be consistent in the
awards which follow. The highest pattern of a coach Iiorse without coarseness or
lack of action sliould be the standard carried in mind. When at rest it may be
said that for true symmetry, fullness and graceful curves tlic hishest type of the
French coach liorse is almost an idealistic pattern of what is required of a repre-
sentative of this class.

German coach stallion Imported Socrates, owned by Mr. John Parrott,
San Francisco, California. At the San Francisco Horse Show this stallion
was first prize winner in the stallion class for coachers.

A Cleveland Bay coach stallion, first prize winner at the Royal Agricul-
tural Society Show in 1899.

BESCRIPTION OF THE GERMAN COACH HORSE

T^HE GERMAN coach horse is representative of the larger breeds coming within
.BE, the coach class. The type of the best carries with it the smoothness and the
full development of muscular regions which give powerful movement and at the
same time fullness of form Substance, meaning thereby the possession of a strong
frame, shown especially in the bone below the kuee, is one of the features which
has a pre-eminent place in the qualities desired by the adherents of the breed.
Soundness of joints and cleanness of limb arc qualities which must be secured in
horses suitable for the purpose of these, and the show ring inspection should be
directed clearly towards discountenancing undue roughness of structure, loose-
ness of joints. The colors are bay, brown and black, and these are rarely broken
by splashes or otlier striking markings.

DESCRIPTION OF THE CLEVELAND BAY HORSE

"l^llIS BREED, taking its name from its native district in England, has for its
characteristic color dliferent shades of bay with black points. Being bred for
the heaviest carriage work, a representative of this breed should stand sixteen
hands high, somewhat large in size, and with more evidence of power than most
other breeds of light horses. While possessing substance and symmetry, there
should not be any deficiencies in evidence such as rough joints, coarse bone and
lack of action for carriage purposes. Their size, power and evenness of disposition
adapt them for general work on light farms or for heavy carriage work in the cities
As the sphere of this breed has not demanded the action called for in the lighter
coach breeds, true coach action has not been commonly associated with its mem-
bers, but, more or less, the critical judge should look for it in the show ring as in all
coach classes.

GENERAL EXAMINATION '.VA

speed which is desirable to secure in the draft horse but as
in all things opposed to each other it is impossible to secure
the highest development of both in the same individual. It
has been stated by a writer on this subject* that in the
instance of animals of short bones, slight angularity and
short muscles, the conditions are most favorable for drawing
heavy loads, and animals with long bones, long muscles and
slightly angular joints are especially adapted for speed.

55. Advantage of Weight. In considering the form,
weight should be given a high valuation, for a horse that
does not weigh at least 1,500 pounds should not be consid-
ered a draft horse. In addition, this w^eight must be the
outcome of strong bone, heavy muscles and large proportions
and not have its origin in excessive fatness. As to the
importance of weight it may be illustrated best by citing what
is said to be the first experience that inventors had with the
locomotive. When this was being perfected before its intro-
duction as a means of transportation, it is stated that a small
model of a locomotive with the necessary track arrangement
was used by those desiring to bring it into practical use. It
was found in the model that the wheels would not adhere to
the track but would .spin around and waste the power. Con-
siderable study was given to the best means of overcoming
this difl&culty. It was thought that the wheels .should have
cogs and the track furnished in the same way but a better
plan was happened upon by accident. The inventor having
a small load in form of bags to take over the track, instead of
putting it in the car of the model train threw them across the
locomotive and when steam was generated the train started
without any of the difficulties that had been before observed.
He found through this that the locomotive to exert its power
to the best advantage should have a proportionate weight
and it ultimately assisted in the perfection of the locomotive.
The same principle attached itself to the draft horse as a

*Smith. Physiolojiy of Doniostic Animals, pajic ")♦;

34 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES

motor. It has been further illustrated in this way — a driver
with a rather light horse was trying to take a carload of
grain up a hill, the horse tried several times to accomplish
it but would only get partly up the hill when the load would
draw him back. After studying the matter the driver took
some bags out of the cart and put them on the horse and
accomplished his object. The same principle is applied as
in the instance of the locomotive. He added just so much
to the weight of the horse and this enabled him to overcome
in a degree the weight of the load. The factor of weight is
not only of value in matter of work but this is also observ-
able as an influence in the general market.

56. Market Value of Weight. Arranging the sales re-
ported by a leading firm of Chicago, during 1893, according
to the weight of the horses sold, it will be seen that the
variation in price is in accordance with the weight of the
horse, as follows :

AVERAGE AVERAGE

WEIGHT. PRICE.

1400 ^155-87

1450 159- 15

1500 169.15

J550 176.56

1600 17662

1650 208.64

1700 212.89

1750 236.14

1800 258 33

It will be noticed that there is a constant increase in the
prices from the lighter to the heavier weight and this factor of
weight seems to be so marked as to dominate all other merits.
The weight increasing from 1,400 to 1,800 pounds advanced
the price about $100, which means that the added weight
within this range was worth about 25 cents per pound on
the general market.

57. Quality with Substance Necessary for Durability. Of
all desirable features to be sought in a draft horse that of
strong, clean and firm bone is one of the most important.

Iruportod Tivikehuer couch stallion Virgil. Black horse witli brown
muzzle. 16 hands high. Foaled 1S87. Weight 1,27.5 pounds. Bred by W. Ger-
hich, Walterkehmen, I'russia. Imported by Jacob Heyl, of Milwaukee, Wis-
consin, in l.s'JO.

Russian Orloff stallion Wzmakh. record 2:26^4. Gray horse. 16 hands
high. Foaled 18«7. Bred by S. DeBeauvais. Kogojkinow. Gouveraenient
Pensa. District of Mokshausk, Russia. Imported by .Jacob Heyl. of Mil-
waukee, Wisconsin, 1892.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TRAKEHNER COACH HORSE

I^IIIS BREED of coach horses, developed under the patronage of the Prussian
government. Includes among its representatives horses that for general use
exhibit a high standard of excellence. They possess the substance required in a
weight pulling coach horse and with it much <<f the quality which reflects a high
order of breeding. The outline of the best type illustrates a high order of perfec-
tion for a coach horse : while the advantage of large size with good bone adds
greatly to their weight pulling qualities. In color these horses are with rare
exception bright bays with few if any markings. Though typical coach action has
not been made a feature of their brA^ding. as in the Instance of some of the other
breeds of coach horses. yet it is a characteristic which should be in evidence In any
show ring coutainjng a display of this class.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ORLOFF TROTTER

I'lIE ORLOFF trotter, being the national liorse of Russia, has been designed
largely by government direction to meet the many demands which are made
u])on a horse of general utility. They should be expected to show the
quality which would be required in any light horse fre(]uently subjected to
severe tests of endurance and strength of structure. The type is one smoothly
moulded with muscle, strong in all its partsaiid yctnot unduly coarse, while at tlie
same time not being so finely constructed as to detract any from its general strength.
Being vigorous, they possess an abundance of ambition, and associated with this
there is a compsictness and general unity of structure which makes them good
wearers under work. It is not expected that a horse of this type would have the
ability to trot as fast as one showing a higher and more special construction, but it
is proper to look for that type which would be adapted for covering long distances
with the least fatigue.

Champion Slietland pony Phin'CE of Wales, ut nine years of ajje, liei^lit
39 inches. This stallion has won a championship at every show exhibited
since his two-year-old form, liaving won over 13 consecutive championship
prizes. Owned by Chas. E. Bonn, Peoria, Illinois. See Shetland Standard
page 59.

A typical Welsli pony.

.STANDARD FOR PONY

BEFORE the establishment of the Hacl<ney Horse Society in 1883, the dividing
line between the horse and the pony m England was vague and undefined. It
was then found necessary to distinguish clearly between horses and ponies, at^d
accordingly all animals measuring fourteen hands or under were designated
"ponies " and registered in a separate part of the Stud Bool<. This record of height
with other particulars as to Ijreeding, etc., serves to direct breeders in their clioice
of sires and dams. The standard of height established by the Hackney Horse Soci-
ety was accepted and officially recognized by tlie Royal Agricultural Society in 1889
wlien the prize list for the Windsor Show contained pony classes for animals not
exceeding 14 hands. The altered Polo rule which fixes the limit of height at 14
hands 2 inches may be productive of some little confusion; but for all other pur-
poses 14 hands is the recognized maximum heiglitof a pony. Prior to 1883 small
horses were called indifferently galloways, hol)bi','s, cobs or ponies, irrespective rtf
their height.— Pojitcs Past and Prenent, by Sir Walter Oilbcy, Bart.

DESCRIPTION OF WflLSH PONY

Koii THE information of those interested in this breed, the following descrip-
■ tions, furnished to the Polo Pony Society for their stud book (V^ol. V.) by the
local committees, may be quoted : "Height — Not to exceed 13.2 hands. Color —
Bay or brown preferred; grey or black allowable; but dun, chestnut or broken
color considered objectionable. Action — Best described as that of the hunter;
low 'dairy-cutting' action to be avoided. Tlie pony should move quickly and
actively, stepping out well from the shoulder, at the same time flexing the hocks
and bringing tlie hind legs well under the body when going. General Charactcii
— The pony should show good pony chai'acter and evidence of robust constitution,
with the unmistakable appearance of hardiness peculiar to mountain ponies, and
at the same time have a lively appearance. Head — Shc)uld be small, well chiseled
in its outline and well set on; foreliead broad, tapering toward nose. Nostrils —
Large and expanding. Eyes— Bright, mild, intelligent and ptomiiiont Ears —
Neatly set, well formed and small. Throat and J.\ws — Fine, showing no signs cif
coarseness or throatincss. Neck — Of proportionate length; strong but not too
heavy with a moderate crest in the case of the stallion. Shoulders — Good should-
ers most important; should be well laid hack and sloping, but not too fine at the
withers, not loaded at the points. The pony should have a good, long shoulder
blade. Back and Loins Strong and well covered with muscle. Oindqi^vrti-.hs
- Long, and tail well carried, as much like the Arab as possible, springing well frohi
the top of the back. Hocks — Well let down, clean cut, with plenty of lione between
the. joint; they should not be ' sicklod ' <jr •cow-hocked.' Forelegs — Well placed;
not tied in any way at the elbows; good muscular arm. shor't from the knee to the
fetlock joints; flat bone; pasterns sloping but not- too long; feet well developed and
open at the heel; hoof sound and hard." — PornV;.^ PaM and Prrsfint. Sir \V(tltrr (lillicu,
Bart.

GENERAL EXAMINATION 35

The leg below the cannon should be flat, the bone should
feel firm and the tendons should stand out distinctly from
the bone. There should be such a feeling about the bone of
the legs as to warrant the assumption that it is of a fine, firm
texture. If you will compare the texture of a piece of hick-
ory wood with that of tamarac or larch, which differ mark-
edly in their relative strength, the difference which exists in
the bone of horses will be made clear. Although a horse has
never been known to break its leg in this region by severe
exertion yet the importance of strength of bone in these parts
is of high value, not simply because of its wearing quality but
also largely for what it indicates. It will be found that in the
instance of a horse that has what is generally known as flat,
clean bone with hard defined joints, its endurance is double
that of a horse showing the opposite quality. In those
breeds which have hair on their legs or ' ' feather " as it is
sometimes called, the quality of the hair is an index to the
nature of the bone. Coarse, porous bone, and coarse skin are
associated and the latter gives rise to coarse hair; while on
the other hand fine, silky hair is accepted as an indication
that the bone is of close and hard texture. The mistake some-
times made of considering small bone a characteristic of
quality should be guarded against as this is a very detri-
mental feature in a draft horse. In heavy horses the impor-
tant consideration is to secure as close a combination as pos-
sible of quality with substance and weight.

58. Action— Straight, Regular. The common working
pace of the draft horse is the walk and for this reason it
deserves prominence. In it's sphere the draft horse is only
at times urged beyond a walk so that it becomes a very
important attribute of this horse to be a good walker. In
criticising the walk of a draft horse, the action should be
noted from three points of view — before, behind and from the
side. In approaching, the horse should carrj^ his head high
and the stride should be regular. The feet should be lifted

36 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES

clear of the ground and placed down evenly as if in delibera-
tion. From the side it may be noted that if the hind and
fore legs work in unison. Horses with short bones and long
underlines present the best view from the side while in action
but on the other hand those with long backs and weak loins
usually drag their legs in a slovenly way. Viewed from
behind the action of the hock should be carefully noted.
The flexion in this region should be free and straight. It
is a common weakness of the hocks to be turned outward
when raised, but more frequently the hocks are bent in too
much and the feet thrown out of line. As a rule the stride
should not be too long but well balanced with a movement
quick and elastic.

59. Trotting Action. The ability to trot well is not gen-
erally considered a valuable attribute for a draft horse, as it
is claimed that to walk well is a much more useful achieve-
ment. Good trotting action, however, is not only valuable
in itself but it also brings with it many other qualities such
as activity, style, balance of conformation and other features
that are desirable in any class of horses. The draft horse in
trotting should go level, straight and regular, for any devia-
tion from these qualities are usually evidences of unsound-
ness or the absence of a balanced conformation. The legs,
both fore and hind, should flex freely at the hocks and knees,
for a rigidness of movement of these is indicative of defects
of some kind. A stilted hock action is much too common
in draft horses and is very often due to the fact that the hock
is not properly set as may be observed in all hind legs that
are too straight. Such are usually lacking in reach and
power.

//. Structural Examinatioii.

60. Head — Lean, Medium Size. Coarseness of the head
is a prevalent fault. While it should be of only medium
size there should be sufficient breadth between the eyes and
the face lines should be clearly defined with the total length

r^hoto from Horse Show Monthly.

Saddle stallion, Monte Crist<j, Jr., owned by J.T. Crenshaw, Scott Station.
Ky. Winner of numerous prizes at leading horse shows.

Morgan liorso. Hillside, bred by Morgan Horse Comijany, e :u penters-
ville. 111. Hillside and his full brother sold during the depressed times of
the horse industry for Sl.fiOO. He wasfirst at the Illinois State Fair in 1894,
ISO."), and also first prize winner at the Chicago Horse Show in isii4.

Standard bred trotting stallion. Ali.erton, when a tliree year old with
a record of 3:12, formerly champion trotting stallion, and within recent
years the leading sire of standard trotters. Sired by Jay Bird 5060, and
owned by C. W. Williams, Galesburg, 111.

American standard bred stallion Allehton. 2:0;i'4. Kcp'-odnred from a
pliolugraph taken when 14 years old. A comparison of this wiLli the illustra-
tion shown aijove, which was talcen wlion tliree years old, indicates thi'
<levelopment which takes place in a stallion as he advances in years. A
comi)arison will iilsoidd to 1 he prestige of lliis liorse, for it shows how well
I)reserv( (I in for rn lie is, without any blemishes, after having passed through
severe campaigninp;.

STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 37

of the head proportionate to the rest of the body, It should
be well set on the neck and carried gracefully. The nostrils
should be large and of a healthy color. A n examination of
the mouth, though usually made to estimate the age, should
include inspection for the most frequent defects in this region
which, in heavy horses are parrot mouth or overshot mouth
and troubles of the teeth. The eye should be bright, full
and mild with no appearance of film to interfere with the
vision. In looking at the eye it is well to remember that the
natural shape of the pupil is elliptical, while a spherical
form indicates blindness or impaired vision. Haziness of
the eye, one being smaller than the other or a wrinkled
eyelid are indications of ophthalmia.

61. Neck — Strong, Lengthy. The neck should have the
appearance of being strong and massive and also of sufiicient
length and well arched. Undue length of neck especially
in draft horses is so rare that it may be considered unknown.

62. Shoulders — Sloping, Muscular. While a decidedly
upright shoulder may give increased power in the shafts, it
must be remembered that it may be in an extreme position
in this respect, and if so it forces the step to be short and
slow. It is eas}^ to see that a moderately oblique .shoulder
favors a long, quick step and at the same time it detracts
but little from the power. When the shoulder is very upright
the concussion upon the feet is increased and hence this con-
formation is generally associated with sidebones and ring-
bones. Activity and elasticity of movement, especially in
the walk is a desirable feature of the heavy horse and such is
vei v seldom found in connection with an upright shoulder.

63. Chest — Deep, Full. The chest should be deep and
comparatively broad giving great volume and lung room.
It is best estimated by the girth, which is the body's circum-
ference behind the fore legs. Horses that are slack in that
part, are generall}' of weak constitution without average
staying power. Exceptional width in the chest usually

38 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES

results in rolling and pitching in action, but if the shoulder
blades fit snug to the body this is not generally noticeable.

64. Arms — Sloping. The humerus or bone that forms the
arm should be short and sloping so as to bring the fore legs
properly under the body. In addition it should be well cov-
ered with muscle.

65. Fore Legs — Wide, Defined, Fore Arm Large. The
fore arm should be large and its prominence should be due
to a large bunch of muscle which gives the horse complete
control of his legs. It is an especially valuable feature to
notice in a draft horse for the reason that it is not as easily
padded with fat as the rest of the body.

66. Knees — Broad, Defined. A broad, clean knee is im-
portant and there should not be the least shrinkage in the
breadth below it. The extremities should be lean and the
tendons should stand out prominently from the rest of the
leg. In Clydesdales and Shires there should be a fringe of
fine, silky hair starting from behind the knee and running
to the fetlock and this should spring from the edge of the
leg. It is well to bear in mind that this "feather" verj^
often gives one a false impression of the width of the leg
below the knee. Horses that are coarse about the fetlocks
with matted, wiry hair in this region are as a rule more sub-
ject to the skin diseases characteristic of these regions.

67. Fetlocks — Clean, Wide. This joint should be clearly
defined without any fullness, due to windgalls. In addition
it should be wide so as to give favorable attachment to the
strong tendons that pass this point.

68. Pasterns — Sloping, Springy. The pastern of the draft
horse should be medium in length and it .should be critically
examined especially in regard to its slope, for this has much
to do with the durability of the horse's feet and also has an
effect on the animal's action. A glance at the skeleton in
this region will .show that there are four small bones below
the fetlock joint. The first one below this joint is the one

A yearling II;u-kiiey filly, winner of numerous pcizes In the learilu!;
Hritish show riiijjs.

A thoroughbred yearling, Disguise II. owned by James R. Keene. Tlils
Americati bred horse finished third in the Derby, and afterwards beat the
winner of the race, the Prince of Wales' Diamond Jubilee.

A firoup of French Coach yearling fillies at OaUlawn Stock Furm, the
property of Messrs. Dunham, Fletcher & Coleman. Wayne, 111. These fillies
were sired l)y Perfection and they show the form and quality desired in
coach fillies of this age.

Nancy HANKs2:01and foal by Arion 2:07'4. This foal shows the quali-
ties desired in a trotting bred weanling, while the mare in form illustrates a
very desiraltle type of standard bred brood mare.

Photo by Scott, of Carlisle.
An old fasliioned hunting group, with a hunter of remarkable qualities
in the background. This is a reproduction of a photograph taken from
Field and Fern, and is entitled "A Glimpse of Knockhill, IHW." Tho hunter
shown illustrates a type which is usually remarkable for staying power.
The head alone reflects remarkable qualities as may be noted by critical
-nspection. The form as a whole is that of a strongly built, stoutly made
hunter, with unusual quality. It is this type without any waste weight
that usually ranks first in stamina.

The illustration on the risht band shows a deGcieut fore leg for a draft
horse, as it lacks muscle, with straisht. coarse pastern and shelly feet. The
shoulder is also too straight and the less very deficient in (juality. as the hair
is coarse and wiry, which may be noted by comparison with the one on the
left. The latter shows srood feet, sloping pasterns, strongly supported knee,
rather weak fore arm, and moderately sloping shonUler.

Clydesdale gelding Sens.ation, In 1896 this horse was champion gelding
of Scotland and then weighed 2184 pounds when shown by Mr. William Clark
of Netherlca. Scotland, who paid S()00 for him. After working during the inter-
vening time on the streets of Liverpool, he was shown at Chicago at the
International K\ posit ion in Deceniber. liWO, where he won a S1(M» special for the
best aged gelding in harness. Photo taken December, litOO. This horse was
bred by .Mr. .Tohti Crawford, of Scotland and he was sired by the Darnley
horse Gartsherrie (2M0O'.

A frout view of the two teams shown below, illustrating the width
desirable in the forequaiters of,a;draft horse. The horse on theirightuhand
iS'too.wide, and as a conseciuence rolls when in action.

.\ view ol llir liiiiil (|ua.i tfi s of t Wo ijaiis of Wi-al'l lioises. HeginninR witn
the horse on the left, the hind legs are too slraiglit. Tlie second one from
the left shows the proper set of the hind legs with very full development of
muscle on the hips, quarters and thighs. The third from the left shows
heavy muscle above but Is rather deficient below, with the hocks set too far
apart, which makes the action too wide. The one on the extreme right
shows fair development of muscle, but especially deficient iu the set of the
liind legs and their quality.

STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 39

that forms the pastern and below this there are two others
continuing the slope of the pastern; while the fourth is
located at the juncture of the two just mentioned. It is evi-
dent that it is desirable for the pastern bone to slope at least
forty-five degrees, for if it is straighter than this, the concus-
sion given to the foot is not dissipated over all the structures
as it should be. A horse putting the foot down (except
when severely taxed in draft and then the toe reaches the
ground first) receives the concussion on the frog which trans-
mits it to the tendinous tissue padding the heel of the foot.
From there it passes to the bones of the foot apparently
about the region of the first joint made by the three bones,
the navicular, coffin and the coronary, which are admirably
arranged in the leg having a sloping pastern to each receive
a share of the buffeting. If the pastern is sloping it would
seem that only a small part of the concussion is likely to
reach the pastern bone and this seemingly would be com-
pletely spent before the fetlock joint would be reached. This
joint when the pastern slopes properly, swings in a sling ot
ligaments and tendons and consequently when the parts
below slope considerably, it is much more effective in pro-
tecting the bones of the leg from the irritation that arises
from concussion. It is easy to see why navicular disease,
ridebones and ringbones, are most frequently associated
with straight pasterns. The concussion from the foot in the
straight pastern falls most severely on the first joint formed
by the navicular, coffin and coronary bones and consequently
it is about this region that these various bone diseases are
located. Concussion produces irritation, which continued
results in inflammation followed by bony deposits. To give
the pastern the proper springiness, a proportionate length
should be associated with the slope. The slope however, is
of still more importance than length or size. The features
of the joints at both ends should be clearly defined, showing

40 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES

that they are completely free from puflSness, sidebones or
other diseases or blemishes.

It may be stated here that pasterns that are upright in a
mature horse generally become more so with age and the
action depreciates in proportion. Such a conformation gives
but .slight command of the feet and the horse that has it
literally forces the feet into the ground or batters them on
the hard pavement of the city streets.

69. Feet — Large, Dense, Concave Sole, Large Frog,
Diseases and defects of the foot are exceedingly prevalent
among heavy horses. As sound feet are rather the excep-
tion, and this is an important structure, considerable
attention should be directed to it. The foot is made up of
three bones. These are covered by a highly sensitive secret-
ing layer. The external surface is made up of the wall, sole
and frog. In shape the proper foot is somewhat irregular
as the outer quarter running back to the sole curves consid-
erably outward, while the inner quarter is straighter. This
shape it will be easily seen not only gives a strong hold
upon the ground, but it also decreases the possibility of the
inner edge of the foot striking the opposite leg or interfer-
ing. In color the foot should be dark and it .should have
a waxy appearance. The angle formed by the hoof from the
ground to the top .should be about fifty degrees. One of the
parts to be examined most critically is the frog. This should
be plump, large and elastic. Just above the frog is what is
known as the sensitive frog, which is a mass of blood vessels
and nerves and above this again is a fatty frog which acts as
a buffer. On top of the latter is the small navicular bone.
This bone is enveloped in a very sensitive secreting mem-
brane and if this becomes irritated in the least through con-
cussion resulting from the frog not fulfilling its functions as
a buffer then inflammation at once sets in; the fluid for lubri-
cating the joint is not secreted ; then follows absorption of
the cartilage and finally disease of the bone which interferes

STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 41

with the function of the joint. These all result in excruci-
ating pain and greatly lessen the horse's utility. Wide,
open hoof heads (this has reference to the top of the foot)
are very desirable.

70. Body— Short, Broad Back, Deep Ribs. The typical
draft horse should stand comparatively high in front. This
should not be due to straight shoulders or height of the
withers, for when these are high it will generally be found
that they are not well covered with muscle. Undue length
of the back, very often sunken, is a common defect of draft
horses. Another feature to look for in viewing the barrel i->
the breadth and depth of the ribs. If the body is not round
and the ribs well sprung and deep, the chest is likely lo be
narrow. The volume of the chest behind the withers is an
index to the capacity of the lungs, and it is a fact that horses
that are light there and short in the hind rib easily become
languid and depressed during exertion. The horse with a
poorly sprung rib making a shallow barrel and light loin is
usually a poor feeder and ill doer.

71. Loin — Thick, Broad. The loin should be thick and
broad. If there is a slight elevation over the loin due to an
extra development of the muscle it may be considered as
indicating strength, though it detracts from the symmetry.

72. Croup — Broad, Muscled. The croup should be broad
and thick with muscle. There is considerable diffen^nce in
draft horses in regard to the slope of the croup. In some it
appears as if they had been hit with a board in the hind
quarter giving the croup an extreme slope, while in others
it runs almost straight. The main factor which adds to the
strength of the croup is not the slope of it but the degree to
which it is muscled. The slope that runs from the center of
the hips to the root of the tail is made by the vertebrae to
which some important muscles are attached. The other
slope which runs from the sides of the hip joints as seen from
the side has perhaps more to do with the favorable applica-

42 judg:ng heavy horses

tion of power in this part, than the slope that has been first
mentioned. It is easy to see that when a muscle is perpen-
dicular to the weight to be lifted the power is applied in the
most advantageous way, just the same as when 3^ou wish to
lift a weight you stand straight over it instead of trying to
lift it at arm's length. There seems to be no real reason
why the croup should slope so markedly as it does in some
strains of horses, as it certainly detracts from their appearance.

73. Thighs — Muscled; Quarters Full. Passing down to
the hind leg the thigh should be closely examined for the
development of muscle in that region. The quarters should
also be observed with the same object in view. There is a
vast difference in horses in this respect, and it will sometimes
be found that horses very heavily muscled at the croup are
very lightly muscled in the quarters. It is a bad defect for
a draft horse to be deficient in muscle in the quarters, for it
is from these parts that they obtain most of their power to
pull.

74. Hock — Wide, Defined, Properly Set. The hock
should be closely examined, for in this joint there is likely
more work done than in any other single joint of the body.
Narrow, tied-in hocks are more subject to curbs than
those that are broad. Fleshiness or coarseness about the
hocks is very prevalent among draft horses and it is well to
examine such closely for bog spavins. The tendons running
from the hocks should be large, lean and firm. It is a com-
mon defect for a draft horse to be too straight or too crooked
in the hock. One that is set properly gives more power.
The worst trouble and the most common one to be noted in
hocks of draft hor.ses is that of fleshiness or " gumminess,"
and such are not only more liable to hock troubles, but it
indicates coarseness of organization which is not usually
associated with durability. In looking at the hock it should
appear wide both from in front of the horse and the side,
especially so from the latter point of view. The point of the

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Photo by Reiil.

Suffolk stallion. Kendesham Cupbearer. First at the Royal Agricul-
tural Society Show. IS'Jil.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SUFFOLK PUNCH HORSE

I'm IS BRITISH breed of draft horses is e.xceptionally uniform in type, owinj; to
the fact that they have been long established and liave been carefully bred
for this feature. They are chestnut in color and the best representatives in form
show a type that is low set, short leased and deep bodied. Considerins; the average
weight of the breed tliey show an unusual amount of thi.s to be due to the e.xtretne
development of muscle. The bone is most frequently of a high quality and the
limbs clean cut in every feature, while feet of durable texture are atnong their
common attributes. They have a well established reputation for being docile in
temperament, easy keepers, steady when working, and activity is a leading
quality of the breed. Desirable weight is sometimes absent in its representatives
and frequently when this is ample it is secured by abnormal fatness rather than
by general massiveness. While the fact that their qualities, chiefly activity and
durability, especially adapt them for general farm work of lighter draft purposes
yet the importance of the other essential and draft qualities, especially weight
should not be overlooked by the judge in the show ring.

Hiawatha (10II6T), Veil. XVIII. Champiou Clydesdale stallion; buy; ris-
ing nine years old ; lieif,'ht lT-1 hands high ; weight at present 2l:iK
lbs. Bred by William Hunter, Garthland Mains, Stranraer. Property of
John Pollock, Paper Mill. Langside. Winner of first prizes in the Aged Open
Class and the Cawdor Scottish cup at the Scottish Stallion Show, Glasgow,
inl8y8 and 1899; first prize and R. II. the Prince of Wales' Gold Medal at H. A.S.
Show, Edinburgh, 1899; first prize and Duke of Montrose Plate, Glasgow
Summer Show; also Duke of Portland's cup at Ayi', 1900; Brst prize and Caw-
dor Challenge cup at Scottish Stallion show, Glasgow, 1901.

DESCRIPTION OF THE CLYDESDALE HORSE
T^HE representatives of this breed of Scotch draft horses are usually bay, brown,
black or chestnut in color, with white markings. In conformation, the lead
ing characteristics sought are the possession of weight with quality and action.
While the adherents of the breed recognize the value of weight yet they always
associate with it quality of structure with superior mechanical action, and in judg-
ing a class of horses of this breed these features should have equal prominence.
The head in the typical Clydesdale, though sometimes out of proportior to the
other parts, is usually possessed of intelligent features. To secure tlie action
desired the shoulders must be sloping so as to permit a free and long stride in the
walk and trot ; the arm must necessarily be full muscled, legs fluted and flat witli
a fine featlier springing from the edge. The pasterns, which have received much
attention in tlie formation of this breed, should be decidedly sloping, the hoof head
or top of the foot should be large, and no amount of line feather or excellence of
l)astern should be allowed to overbalance the necessity of a good sized foot, cor-
rectly shaped and of splendid wearing texture. The back should be short and,
though seemingly low from the extra style secured by high carriage of head, should
never be weak, whicii is prevented by shortness in this part, and with an easy ris-
ing and full coupled loin running smoothly into a strong croup. The quarters
should be well muscled, and the hind legs in addition to having every evidence of
quality should be properly set, meaning thereby that they stand close and the
parts have correct proportion in relation to each other. In no case should
style be allowed to supplant essential draft qualities, as it would be a fault of
judgment to permit high carriage and flashy action to attain prominence over a
deep middle, strong coupling in association with properly set limbs, as the source
of Clydesdale popularity is the degree to whicli they combine the many essentials
()f a draft horse with activity.

STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 43

hock should be as sharp as possible and the same may be
said of all its features. Some horses are especially sharp in
the prominences of the hock leading some to question their
freedom from spavins. This formation is desirable for the
reason that it is usually associated with the best quality of
bone and tendon and further it gives this region more power
because of the more favorable attachment of the tendons that
pass these points.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR DRAFT HORSES — GF.LDING. di o

GENERAL APPEARANCE :

Weight, over 1,500 lbs; score according to age 4

Form, broad, massive, proportioned 4

Quality, bone smooth, hard; tendons lean; skin and hair

fine 4

Temperament, energetic, good disposition 4

HEAD AND NECK:

Head, lean, medium size ... i

Muzzle, fine; nostrils large; lips thin, even i

Eyes, full, bright, clear i

Forehead, broad, full i

Ears, medium size, well carried i

Neck, muscled, crest high; throatlatch fine; windpipe large i

FORE QUARTERS:

Shoulder, sloping, smooth, snug, extending into back. ... 2

Arm, short, thrown back i

Fore Arm, heavily muscled, long, wide 2

Knees, wide, clean cut, straight, deep, strongly supported 2

Cannons, short, lean, wide; sinews large, set back 2

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong i

Pasterns, sloping, lengthy, strong 3

Feet, large, even size; horn dense; sole concave; bars
strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide, one-half length of

toe and vertical to ground 8

Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point
of tne shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee,
cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a perpendicu-
lar line dropping from the center of the elbow joint
should fall upon the center of the knee and pastern joints

and back of hoof. 4

BODY:

Chest, deep, wide, low, large girth 2

Ribs, long, close, sprung 2

Back, straight, short, broad 2

Loins, wide, short, thick, straight 2

Underline, flank low i

44 JUDGING HORSES

SCALE OF POINTS FOR DRAFT HORSES — GELDING. ^ O

Continued. "t: rn

HIND QUARTERS:

Hips, smooth, wide 2

Croup, wide, muscular 2

Tail, attached high, well carried i

Thighs, muscular 2

Quarters, deep, heavily muscled 2

Gaskin or lower thighs, wide muscled 2

Hocks, clean cut, wide, straight 8

Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, set back 2

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong i

Pasterns, sloping, strong, lengthy 2

Feet, large, even size; horn dense; dark color; sole con-
cave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide, one half

length of toe and vertical to ground 6

Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the
point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the
hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From side, a perpendicu-
lar line from the hip joint should iall upon the center of
the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle; and a per-
pendicular line from the point of the buttock should run
parallel to the line of the cannon 4

ACTION :

Walk, smooth, quick, long, balanced 6

Trot, rapid, straight, regular 4

Total 100

IV. JUDGING HORSES IN THE BREEDING CLASSES.

The preceding discussion has most to do with the judging
of the various types of the horse in use for pleasure or for
work; so that it is necessary to present some details that
should be observed in making awards in the breeding classes.
In this work the judge must closely discriminate between the
peculiar characteristics of the sexes and also employ much
judgment in determining the development according to the
age.

75. Sex Characteristics. Preceding birth and for some
time in foetal life, there are no evidences of sex. Such are
apparent at birth, but it is not until the approach of puberty
that the sex characteristics referred to here begin to develop.
After this period is reached the sexes begin to diverge from

IN THE BREEDING CLASSES 45

each other, the male acquiring characteristics that are dis-
tinctly masculine, while the female acquires others peculiarly
feminine in that they are strikingly different from those of
the male. The reproductive cells of each seem through their
characteristics to influence the peculiarities of the sexes in a
remarkable manner.

76. Differences in Disposition. In all classes of farm live
stock there are very noticeable differences in disposition, that
may be credited to the influence of the sex. The active dis-
position of the male animal oftentimes is forced to spend
itself in the development of viciousness and it cannot be dis-
puted that such has been true of many of the best breeding
sires, especially- among those of the lighter breeds of horses and
the dairy breeds of cattle. The difference in the nature of the
sexes is even characteristic of the reproductive cells — the
sperm or male cell being active and smaller, while the ovum
or female cell is larger and more stable. From this condi-
tion through the various stages of life the differences in the
disposition of the sexes is easily traceable. The lamb of the
male sex becomes combative and more active in disposition
as he develops while the ewe lamb loses the early activity
that was common iD all and develops into the gentler ewe;
the calf of the male has a fierceness of mien that seeks active
expression in imaginary combats, becoming easily excited to
anger, when it is noticeable that the suppliant bawl has
become a fierce roar; while the cow has lost the playful
energy that she had as a calf and now has none to spare for
anything but her quiet vocation of making milk; the colts
tend to develop the same restless activities while the fillies
assume the quieter quality of mind common to maternity, and
in a like manner the pigs separate in their dispositions as the
sex characteristics become pronounced. Thus in all live stock
the changes of disposition are traceable to sexual develop-
ment and it is because of the close connection between the
two features that many breeders consider the characteristic

46 JUDGING HORSES

disposition valuable indications of future usefulness for
breeding purposes.

77. Differences in Topm. In the development of the sexes
marked differences in form result. The true male form is
heavier at the shoulders than the female while the latter is
wider in the region of the pelvis. This should be borne in
mind in critically examining animals of the different sexes,
for it may oftentimes prevent an adverse criticism which
should be favorable comment. It is not infrequent to hear
the remark passed that a ram lor instance, in a breeding
class, would be an exceptionally good sheep if he were as
wide behind as he is in front. This is thought by .some to
be the striking defect of our mutton breeds (and perhaps it is)
but in many instances it is but the universal pattern that
nature has adopted for the male form, A male of any class
of stock should be expected to be wider in the chest than
bL-hind though it should not be weak in the latter part.
Width of hip, however, is not the chief qualification of the
female form; depth in this region or length of the barrel and
from rib to hip, is of more importance as this makes provis-
ion for the proper growth of the foetus.

78. Variation in Features. There are many marked vari-
ations in the features that are characteristic of the difference
in the sexes. In the stallion the face has a harder look and
the head is larger. The neck is fuller and the crest or swell
of the neck is very pronounced and surmounted with a heavy
mane. The mare has a slimmer face with a softer expres-
sion, the neck is thin and often ewe shaped and the mane
light and fine. In cattle the face of the bull is more or less
burly and covered with wavy hair, the horn is strong and
inclined to roundness while the neck is thick and stout with
a full crest. In the cow the face is long, free from wavy
hair, the horn light and flat and the neck thin and in-curved
on the top line. In sheep the face of the ram is shorter and
heavier and the neck has a heavy ' ' scrag ' ' or crest. The

Photo by Reid.

Pliire mare. IIendri;; Crown Pkincess, (irst in 1898 and first and reserve
champion Royal Agricultural Society Show. 1809. Sold for S-^.r>00 at Lord
Wantage's auction sale.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SHIRE HORSE

fM MONG tlie representatives of tliis long established breed of English draft horse
the most desirable form is low, broad and massive. Weight is considered a
leaditig feature and so with this we must associate the attributes of being heavily
built, muscular, with large bone and rather slow movement. Strength of shoulder
has been preferable to slope, which is probably given power in the collar but
detracted from the freedom and length of the stride. The body of the best repre-
sentatives is of exceptional merit, being large in girth, deep, strongly coupled with
broad, short bacU and heavily muscled quarters. Their points of excellence
are undoubtedly exceptional weight, made up of heavy bone, full muscular
development, with width and depth of form ; associated with these qualities
there are kindred deficiencies which are sometimes in evidence, meaning
thereby a lack in general quality, coupled with a sluggish temperauicnt.
The superior consideration which has been given to weight has frequently over-
balanced the claims of action, consequently while showing to excellent advantage
standing there are some which fail to sustain their merit when their action is
shown. A lack of quality in a draft horse must necessarily be discountenanced,
for durability depends on this and also on the set of the limbs.

Group of Perclieroii stallions, prize witiners in Fram-e and America,
showing tlie quality and type requisite in representatives of lliis breed.
Owned by Messrs. Dunham, Fletcher & Coleman, Oaklawn Stock Farm,
Wayne. Illinois.

BESCRIPTION OF THE PERCHERON HORSE

In the establishment of this French breed of draft horses the suif^^ng ideal has
been to develop an iictive and durable type of draft horses suited for drawing
loads at a rapid pace. The degree to which weight is desirable in the modern draft
horse has resulted in the production of a heavier type with those characteristcs yet
in evidence. The modern type of this breed is short legged, compactly and stoutly
built. The representatives which best exemplify the type show an active
lemperament, intelligent heads, short, full crested necks, with deep body and wide
croup. To meet the requirements of their patrons they must possess with this
abundj'.nco of tiuality, attractiv^e style and active movement. The modern type
shows ii dilfcrcnce from the original in being black in color and sotnownat closer to
the ground than tliose first imported. The original gray Perchcron had for its
peculiar characteristics an unusual combination of strength and active
action wilh style and endurance. They had an abundance of style, with
round bodies and an exceptional quality of bono. The highest typo of this breed
in the present show rings should be typical of aniictive draft horse with thequallty
and the substance to jitstify durability. To serve this purpose to the fullest extent
the necessity of regular and straight action with properly set limbs should not be
a secondary consideration in any show ring, and in the mind of the .iudge no
amount of flashy action and toppiness should be allowed to overbalance these
features. The weight that is necessary in representatives of this breed should be
made up of a desirable quality of bone with muscle in those parts where real
strength resides and not by a development in regions that have little to do with
pulling power.

IN THE BREEDING CLASSES 47

ewe's face is finer and the neck much Hghter. In swine the
boar's head is short and inclined to coarseness and the tusks
are strong and large. The neck is full and the bristles
abundant and with age the shields (thickening of the hide
over the shoulder blades) develop. The sow is smaller in
the face, the neck much lighter and finer just at the point
where it joins the head. These things are all features of the
sex characteristics and their value, which will be discussed
in what follows, will indicate the degree to which they should
be looked for in all breeding classes.

79. Relation of Sex Charactepistics to Sterility. When the
sex characteristics that have been described fail to develop
in the mature animal, it is invariably good evidence of the
lack of procreative power. The effect of castration is evi-
dence of the fact that if anything interferes with the maturity
of the reproductive organs, the sex characteristics fail to
develop. If the operation is performed early in life there is
a decided approach to the characteristics of the feminine type
in the instance of geldings, .steers, wethers and barrows.
On the other hand, it is equally true of the opposite sex —
thwarted or impaired development results in the production
of the characteristics that are peculiar to the male type. As
an instance of this the occurrence of " free martins ' ' in cattle
may be cited. This term is applied to twins in which the one
is a male and the other a female. The female usually pos-
sesses the sex characteristics of the male as she has the coarse
appearance in the head, neck and horn, and when this is so
it will be found that she is invariably infertile. Extreme
effeminacy on the part of the male is equally indicative of
sterility as may be attested to by the effeminate appearance
and the sterility that results from inbreeding some classes of
stock. Low, referring to this says of closely in and inbred
animals, ' ' They become as it were sooner old; the males lose
their virile aspect and become at length incapable of recreat-
ing their race." Walker (Intermarriages) cites many

48 JUDGING HORSES

instances that have been observed by diflferent poultry breed-
ers, bearing out the proposition that sterility through close
in and inbreeding with some animals is followed by the loss
or interchange of sex characteristics.

80. Relation of Sex Characteristics to Prepotency. The
non-development of the sex characteristics in the male is
indicative of the lack of vigor and that in turn has a close
relation to prepotency or the impressive powers of a sire.
Effeminacy means a lack of tone in muscle and loss of vigor
and this is very observable in sires lacking in impressive
powers, while the most noted sires in the history of breeding
have been remarkably virile with the characteristics of mas-
culinity unusually developed.

81. The Stallion Classes. Excepting the sex character-
istics the stallion should have the qualities that have been
described in the class for geldings. The stallion should have
the determined expression, the hard features, the high crest
and full neck, that are evidences of masculinity. With
these there should be the active vigorous temperament,
which also indicates virility. The testicles should be nor-
mal in size and both should be visible in the sac or scrotum,
for impotency is often indicated by their non-appearance.

It is a frequent subject for discussion as to whether or not
the stallions in some classes should be judged solely as to
their individual merit or also include the merit of their pedi-
gree, performance and progeny. Usually the conditions
relating to the awarding of the prizes are explicit enough
to avoid such a discussion but where they are not it is best
to consider in making awards all the attributes that will
add to the value of the stallion. Pedigree in a breeding
class has a value, so has performance ; and for this reason
they should be given consideration along with the personal
merit of the stallion and his progeny. In the instance
of a standard bred trotter it is assumed by some that
the fact that the stallion complies with the standard is

IN THE 15REEDING CLASSES 49

sufl&cient consideration to give his breeding but those who
have given the matter any study will concede that there is a
vast diflference in the value of the pedigrees of standard
horses. The judge should be able to discriminate between
pedigrees and also to be broad minded enough to include in
his estimate of the different stallions before him the other
charactetistics that make the animal valuable for breeding
purposes.

82. Importance of Correct Conformation. In the breed-
ing classes special attention should !)e given to the confocma-
tion. A defect of conformation even in the smallest particu-
lar is very apt to be transmitted and for that reason it should
be discountenanced in breeding stock. It is generally known
that even such a slight matter as a twist of the fetlock, or
the turn of the foot in action is very likely to pass from a
stallion to all his get. Considering however greater defects
such as a curby hock, a weak knee or other malformations, it
is certainly the duty of the judge to pronounce against them.
To present this feature plainly it may be stated that a breeder
would be better justified in using a stallion that had a spavin
on a well constructed hock than one that was without a
spavin but had a hock that was very defective in conforma-
tion; the reason being that in the instance of the well con-
structed hock with a spavin it is certain that the horse was
subjected to a severe wrench or injury of some kind else the
spavin would not be there. In the instance of the horse
with the badly constructed hock it needs only the opportu-
nity, which occurs in nearl}- all kind of work, to develop a
spavin, and the reason there is not one there is solely because
extra care has been given to the protection of this part. Breed-
ing animals of this kind may be so carefully tended and
pampered that the}' fail to show such diseases as would be
produced by their conformation under the ordinary stress of
labor.

50 JUDGING HORSES

83. Hereditary Diseases. In these classes it is of impor-
tance to have in mind the diseases that are known as heredi-
tary. This term does not imply that the disease is directly
transmitted but that a horse having them transmits to his
get a decided tendency to contract them. The newly bom
foal never shows them, but from its parents it inherits the
defects of conformation that predisposes it towards these
diseases. The Royal Commission composed of the leading
veterinarians of England have decided that the following
diseases in horses are hereditary: Roaring, whistling, side-
bone, ringbone, navicular disease, curb, bone spavin, bog
spavin, thoroughpin, grease, shivering and cataract.

84. The Mare Classes. In addition to the lighter head,
neck and fore quarter which is the proper type of the sex,
the mare should specially d?ffer from the stallion in the
roominess of the barrel. The ribs should be deeper and the
body less compact and with much more length of loin than
in the case of the stallion.

85. Colts and Fillies. This is probably the hardest class
for the judge to satisfy himself in rendering decisions. This
class cannot be judged without considering the possibilities
of the future which comes' only from experience. It is the
growthy colt or filly with ideal limbs and rather lanky body
that is likely to prove the superior animal when mature;
while the compact, smooth bodied colt or filly that is not
constructed on correct mechanical principles is likely to
develop into a disappointment.

V. ESTIMATING THE AGE OF HORSES BY THEIR TEETH.

It is necessary to know the indications of age as they
appear in the teeth that no animal may be unfairly classed
with those that are younger. The indications become in a
degree satisfactory to those who have proven them many
times by personal observation and experience in noting the

Belgium stallion Ideal, imported by Lefebure & Sons, of Fairfax, Iowa,
in 1899 (13008) at 31 months. Sold to F. A. Eckstein & Bro., of Chester, Iowa.

Sketches of horses' teeth showinK — 1, a temporary incisor of character-
istic shape; '^, a permanent Incisor, broader and lonj^er tlian No. 1; 3, a per-
manent incisor with linos indicatiiif; the appearance of the two as it is sub-
jected to wear. At "A" tlio unworti surface of the new tooth is shown. At
'"B" the mark is indicated with the general shape of the table. At "C" it is
noticeable that the mark becomes much smaller while at "li" the triangular
shape of the tooth that Is well worn makes its appearance; 4, shows the
natural mark and table of a horse's tooth. It will be noticed that there is a
ring of enamel around the black mark or center; '■>. this sketch sliowstho
table of the horse's tootli that has been "Hishoped" or fi.\ed so as to bear
some resemblance to a young tooth with the natural mark. This black mark
has been made in tlie tooth by the use of a hard instrument.

2/2 to a Yeans

^_..3i/2 to 4 Years
4'/2 to 5 Years

Sketfh (if tlie permanent incisors, indicatinpc the order in which they
appear in pairs. Tlie central pair of permanent incisors in botl] the upper
and lower jaws appear when the horse is about two and one-half or three
years of age, the next pair replace the temporary incisors when the horse is
about four years of age, and the outside pair, making a full mouth, usually
appear at five years of age.

R]yi:|j7qo"ini»'pp,v^ 1,1 r,

Five Years
Lower Incisors

Six Years

Lower Incisors

Seven Years

Lower Incisors

Eight Years

Lower Incisors

At five years it will be noticed that the marks are very distinct and the
tables worn but slightly in all of the incisors. At six years the center pair
In the lower jaw show some wear, the mark becoming smaller. At seven
years the second pair have nearly lost their marks, while at eight the third
or outside pair show considerable wear with but a trace of the mark.

ESTIMATING THE AGE BY THEIR TEETH 51

differences that exist. It is to be remembered however, that
the foods fed them have a marked influence on the wear of
the teeth, thus making differences which are not solely due
to age. Liberal feeding which favors early maturity is also
likely to affect the appearance and arrival of the incisors.

86. Appearance of Incisors. The difference in the appear-
ance of the milk teeth or temporary incisors and the perma-
nent incisors is readily understood after they have been once
inspected. The temporary incisors are slender, narrow and
constricted at the neck and very white, while the permanent
incisors are broader, thicker and usually of a light yellow-
ish tinge.

87. Order of Appearance of Incisors. The permanent
incisors of both the upper and the lower jaws appear at the
same time so that it is only necessary to refer to the upper.
There are six permanent incisors in each jaw in the full mouth
and these make their appearance in pairs about as follows :
The pair in the center are the first to appear and they have
displaced the temporary pair and are full grown when the colt
is from 2^2 to 3 years old. The second pair or the two next
to these are fully grown at 2,% to 4 years and the third pair
have displaced the two corner temporary incisors at 4J2 to 5
years of age. At this time the horse usuall}- has a full mouth.

88. Disappearance of the Tables. The best indications
of the age from five to ten years is the order of the disap-
pearance of the tables or marks in the incisors. At five
years the tables in the central pair of incisors of the lower
jaw show some wear but it is not until the horse is about six
years old that they have almost disappeared. At seven
years of age the " swallow-tail " as it is called, or the nick
in the corner incisor appears. At this age also, the two
incisors next to the central pair lose almost all traces of their
tables through wear, and at eight years the corner incisors or
outside pair are so worn as to be almost free from any ap-
pearance of having tables. At nine years of age the tables

52 JUDGING HORSES

have disappeared from the central pair of incisors in the
upper jaw; at ten the marks in the next pair in the upper
jaw are about worn out and when eleven is reached the tables
have almost disappeared from the corner pair of the upper row
of incisors. Sometimes the teeth are "bishoped," that is,
marks are made in the teeth to represent tables thus making
the horse appear to be younger by the tables of its teeth.
This treatment may always be told from the unnatural
appearance of the table as the normal tooth always has a rim
of enamel around the tables.

After a horse passes beyond the age mentioned it is a dif-
ficult matter to make any further estimate with any degree
of certainty. As the age increases, however, the upper sur-
face of the incisors appear more triangular and the teeth
spring from the jaw with a greater slope.

VI. EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS.

89. A Blemish Different from Unsoundness. A blemish
is something that depreciates the value of a horse without
interfering with its usefulness. Such injuries as wire cuts
mar the appearance of a horse and are properly called blem-
ishes, while unsoundnesses include spavins, curbs, ringbones
and all other diseases that lessen the usefulness of a horse in
its sphere.

90. Decayed and Worn Teeth. In examining a horse for
unsoundness it is well to follow a regular order beginning
with the teeth. The best indication of decayed teeth or any
similar unsoundness of the mouth is the odor that comes
from it or attaches itself to the hand on the introduction of
the latter. If the outer edges of the incisors are broken and
worn away, it is an indication that the horse is addicted to
" cribbing " in the stable.

91. Discharges from the Nostrils. The nostrils should be
of a fresh pink color somewhat moist but there should be no
discharge from them. If there is, glanders or distemper

Eleven Years
Upper Incisors

Ten ftAk:3
Upper Incisors

Fifteen tears
Lower Incisors

Passing to the permanent incisors in the upper jaw at nine years tlie
central pairhave almost completely lost their mark. At ten those adjoining
these have reached the same condition, while at eleven the marks have
about vanished from all of the permanent incisors. It will be noticed that
as tlie age advances the appearance of the worn tables assumes a more tri-
angular form.

Five Ye.ars

Twenty One Years

Comparison of a five-year-old moutli with one that is twenty years old,
showing the marked contrast that develops, as age advances, in the slope of
the teeth as viewed from the side. To Goubaux and Barrier's "Exterior of
the Horse" the author is greatly indebted for the prints of horses' teeth
which have been shown. These have been modified somewhat to bring out
more clearly the necessary distinctions.

Photo by Thompson.

Clydesdale stallion, Earl of Bombie 9:i10, siced by Baron's Pride, cham-
pion of the breed at the International Exposition, Chicago, 1900. Tlie prop-
erty of N. P. Clarke, Meadowlawn Stoclv Farm, St. Cloud, Minnesota.

A (juartet of two-year-old Clydesdale stallions, owned by Alex. Galbraith,
.lanesviUe, Wis. Tliis group shows in set of limbs, depth of chest and front
view generally, the right stamp for draft horses. The second one from the
left is slightly bcait in at the knees, but in all others the fore legs are straight.

EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 53

may be suspected, which should lead to a trial of the mallein
test if there is any suspicion of the former.

92. Impaired Vision. In regard to the eye there are
many defects of vision which can hardly be termed unsound-
nesses, 5'et they should be carefully looked for. A horse by
its action will usually indicate if the eyesight is good. Step-
ping inordinately high or an inclination to shy readily indi-
cate defective vision. By moving the hand gently in front
of the eye, blindness may generally be discovered if the eye
is so aflfected. The hand should be moved slowly for if the
motion is made quickly the influence of the air on the eye
will induce the horse to shut it though it may not have seen
the motion of the hand.

93. Defective Hearing. Defects of hearing are more com-
mon than is ordinarily supposed and they can usually be
foretold by the action of the ears. Rigid ears indicate that
the hearing has been lost. On the other hand when the ears
are used excessively there is reason to suspect that the eye-
sight is not as perfect as it should be and on that account
the horse is trying to make its ears assist its eyes bj^ follow-
ing closely every sound.

94. Sweenied Shoulders. Passing to the shoulder it
should be closely observed for the presence of sweeny.
This is a shrinkage or atrophy of the muscles of this region
leaving the shoulder appear flat and the blade bare of muscle.

95. Capped Elbows. On the point of the elbow, shoe
boils or capped elbows may be frequently seen. The point
of the elbow is unduly enlarged by the accumulation of mat-
ter. It is a blemish as it is unsightly though not interfering
with the horse at work.

96. Splints. Continuing down the fore leg, splints should
be looked for on the cannon. They may be found on almost
any part of this region but some care is necessary not to
mistake the ends of the two small bones, that are associated
with the cannon, for splints. In some horses the end of

54 JUDGING HORSES

these bones are surmounted with noticeable knobs. If these
lumps are found on both of the legs in exactly the same place,
it may be taken for granted that they are natural. When
the splint is located at the back part of the leg near the ten-
don or close to the knee joint, so as to interfere with the
action, it is in the worst place that it is possible to have it.
A small splint in a position of the leg where it is not likely
to cause lameness is not considered by most judges to be
more than a blemish. The fact that splints on young horses
very frequently disappear in a year or two is sufficient rea-
son for overlooking this defect when it is present in young
animals.

97. Ringbones. These are generally located on the pas-
tern. There are two forms of it called high and low ring-
bone, depending on the location. Ordinarily it is situated
at the hoof head where the foot joins the pastern and it may
be on any one of the four feet. Usually it can be seen
because of the prominence produced but the hand should be
passed over the part that a small form of it may not escape
detection.

98. Sidebones. By pressing the thumb and the fore
finger around the hind quarter of the front foot this disease
may be easily detected. It is common to the front feet only.
Small, hard prominences may be found on the side of the
pastern just above the foot in horses that have them. They
were originally cartilage but became ossified and solid caus-
ing pain and considerable lameness especially when the horse
having them is driven on hard roads.

99. Quarter Cracks and Sand Cracks. The feet are sub-
ject to many forms of unsoundnesses and among the most
prevalent are sand cracks and quarter cracks. In very sandy
districts during the hot days of summer when horses are
driven considerable the hoof becomes so heated that it cracks
and in time results in a very troublesome disorder. Usually
this defect originates from weak feet. Quarter cracks are

EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 55

very similar to sand cracks excepting that they are seen on
the quarters of the hoof. The)' extend from the coronary
band or the hoof head to about the middle of the hoof in
cases of ordinary severity. Looking at the bottom of the
foot there should be no cracks running from the bars to the
top of the hoof. Large cracks here are very common owing
to the general practice of cutting out the heels in shoeing.

100. Corns. These are generally located in the corner
of the heels and their presence may be more or less indicated
by the way a horse wiL shrink when the sole of the foot is
hit in that region with the handle of a knife.

101. Thrush and Scratches. Thrush is a diseased condi-
tion of the foot in the region of the frog and invariably makes
its presence known by the disagreeable odor that comes from
it. Scratches occur in the back part of the pastern, and,
while not properly an unsoundness, they cause the animal
affected a great deal of pain and annoyance. It is a condi-
tion due to the filthiness of this part and will generally dis-
appear before cleanliness and antiseptic lotions.

102. Locating Lameness. In locating lameness in the
leg, it should be borne in mind that it is the sound limb that
the horse puts down with the most confidence and when the
ailing leg comes to the ground an effort to ease it is made
by throwing the head up. When a horse shows lameness
in the front legs, if the trouble is in the shoulder the leg will
usually be flexed at the knee when standing at ease; but
when the sprain or lameness is below the knee the affected
limb will be extended. When sore on both front feet they
will be extended as far as convenient.

103. Thoroughpin. In detecting diseases in the region of
the hock or in fact in any other part, it is absolutely neces-
sary to first know the outlines of the perfect structure. This
has special application to the diseases of this region; for
there are many that may show but a very slight variation
from the normal condition and thoroughpin is one of these.

56 JUDGING HORSES

Thoroughpin is located between the tendon of the hind leg
and the bone and appears just above the hock. It consists
of a soft swelling that may be pushed from side to side.

104. Curb. Curb, which occurs just below the hock
and to the rear is a thickening of the ligaments in that
region. By looking at the leg from the side it may be easily
noticed as it is a variation from the straight line which
should run from the point of the hock down towards the end
of the cannon.

105. Bone Spavin. The most common trouble of the
hocks, and the worst of all, is bone spavin. To detect this,
it is best to stand in front of the horse and take a position so
that in looking back the inner outline of the hind leg may be
seen very clearly. This is a bone deposit which nature has
thrown out to strengthen an otherwise weak joint and when
it has developed it ties the joint so that it interferes with the
proper action of the horse. The hind leg instead of coming
down on the heel as it should in a sound limb, is thrown
forward so that the toe reaches the ground first and the stride
is unnaturally .shortened, and lameness frequently results.
Occult spavin, that is where the deposit is not apparent to
the eye but hidden in the joints, is very hard to determine;
the usual method of detection is to lift the suspected leg and
then starting the horse quickly observe the result when the
foot reaches the ground. Undue shrinkage indicates the
presence of spavin in this form.

!06. Bog Spavin. Bog spavin is usually associated with
thoroughpin and it is very similar to the latter; diSering
from it only in location. In the natural depression that
occurs on the inner and front part of the hock, the oil from
the joint accumulates and forms a soft swelling commonly
known as bog spavin. The term blood spavin is sometimes
applied to the enlargement of the vein that passes across the
hock from in front. This, however, is not an unsoundness.

EXAMINATION KOk UNSOUNDNESS 57

107. Unsound in Wind. After giving all the parts careful
inspection for soundness, the horse should be driven rapidly
for a quarter of a mile so as to discover wind troubles. The
horse should be stopped quickly and then by advancing
closely to the neck the breathing may be noted whether free
and easy or accompanied with a sound similar to whistling.
If the breathing is characterized by a wheezing or whistling
sound, then whistling, roaring or some other disorder of the
air passages is present. If the origin of the sound is
doubtful — it might be possible to result from too tight
a collar — have the horse taken out of the harness and
ridden rapidly. When the breathing is not regular it is
likely that the horse is troubled with the heaves. In the
instance of horses so afflicted, the breathing is more or less
spasmodic, the air from the lungs seeming to be half expelled
when the respiration stops for a brief period and then the
expulsion of the air is continued. In this way the depres-
sion of the flanks is not gradual and continuous as it is in
the instance of the horse with sound lungs but it is stayed
for a short period at a time when the breath is about half
expelled from the lungs.

108. Detection of Stable Vices. Horses may have many
stable vices that detract greatly Irom their utility, but these
cannot be discovered as a rule in the show ring. To make
a satisfactory examination of a horse, it is necessary to see
it in the stable, then have it harnessed, hitched, driven and
subjected to a critical examination, and after these things
have been given careful consideration it will be only after
continuous companionship on the road that a man may be
said to truly know his horse.

58 JUDGING HORSES

VII. OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES.

THE TROTTING STANDARD — ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN TROTTING
REGISTER ASSOCIATION.

When an animal meets these requirements and is duly registered
it shall be accepted as a standard bred trotter:

1. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse and a reg-
istered standard trotting mare.

2. A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting horse pro-
vided his dam and grandam were sired by registeied standard trot-
ting horses, and he himself has a record of 2 -.^o and is the sire of three
trotters with records of 2:30 from different mares.

3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting horse, and
whose dam and grandam were sired by registered standard trotting
horses, provided she herself has a trotting record of 2:30 or is the
dam of one trotter with a record of 2:30.

4. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, provided
she is the dam of two trotters with records of 2:30.

5. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, provided
her first, second and third dams are each sired by a registered stand-
ard trotting horse.

THE PACING STANDARD.

When an animal meets these requirements and is duly registered,
it shall be accepted as a standard bred pacer:

1. The progeny of a registered standard pacing horse and a reg-
istered standard pacing mare.

2. A stallion sired by a registered standard pacing horse provided
his dam and grand dam were sired by registered standard pacing
horses, and he himself has a pacing record of 2:25, and is the sire of
three pacers with records of 2:25, from different mares.

3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard pacing horse and
whose dam and grand dam were sired by registered standard pacing
horses, provided she herself has a pacing record of 2:25, or is the dam
of one pacer with a record of 2:25.

4. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, provided
she is the dam of two pacers with records of 2:25.

5. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, provided
her first, second and third dams are each sired by a registered stand-
ard pacing horse.

6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse out of a
registered standard pacing mare, or a registered standard pacing
horse out of a registered standard trotting mare

OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES

59

SCALE OF POINTS FOR SHETLAND PONY— ADOPTED BY AMERICAN
SHETLAND PONY CLUB.

Constitution — Constitution indicated by general healthy

appearance, perfect respiration, brightness of eyes lo

Size— Ponies over four years old, 42 inches and under in height,
two points to be deducted for every inch over 42 inches up
to 46 inches, fractional portions to count as full inches. ... 25

Head — Head symmetrical, rather small and fine, wide between

eyes, ears short and erect 10

Body — Barrel well rounded, back short and level, deep chested,

good breast, compact, "pony build " 10

Legs — Legs muscular, fiat boned, hind legs not cow-hocked or

too crooked 25

Mane and Tail — Foretop, mane and tail heavy 10

Feet — Good 10

Note. In judging horses the height is sometimes a subject of dis-
cussion so that the manner of determining this should be well under-
stood. It is generally conceded that the horse should stand on a
perfectly level floor and the measurement made to the highest point
of the withers. The position of the horse should be such that the
head at the poll should be in line with the withers and this parallel
to the floor. The fore legs and hind legs should be as perpendicular
to the floor and as parallel to each other as the conformation of the
horse permits. It should be noted that the spirit level in the cross bar
of the standard should indicate that it is being held properly. The
horse should be measured in shoes of the same thickness as he wears
when in competition in the show ring.

Clydesdale stallion, Baron's Pride, the leading sire In Scotland during
recent years, and 6ve of liis get Illustrating the uniformity of type which
is desir:il)le to secure in an exhibition of this kind. Note the wide hoof
heads, sloping pasterns, clean bone and fine feather shown by all in addition
to thp uiiiforniity .-irid excellent '^^ *'>e type.

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Group of Clydchidale fillies that wou first pri7A>. at the Glasgow Spring
Stallion show in 1897 for the best group of Clydesdales sired by one horse.
They were got by Royal Gartly 9844. This family group shows not only the
uniformity which is desirable in a display of this kind, but they also illus-
trate in a high degree the type desiraVjle in draft horses in yearling
form. It is worthy of close study to notice the set of limbs and the
beautiful quality and pisterns shown by each individual in this group.

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A group of Clydesdale mares Illustrating the type; desirable in draft
mares for breeding purposes. The character of the limbs shown by the
filly illustrates a feature very important in draft fillies of this age.

JUDGING CATTLE.

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CHAPTER II.

JUDGING CATTLE.

109. Method of Examination, In judging cattle in the
show ring the most satisfactory plan is to make a verj^ care-
ful scrutiny of the animal as it stands before you; then ap-
proaching it from the front, notice the head and neck before
placing the hands upon the shoulder to review the various
parts of the body.

I. JUDGING BEEF CATTLE.

110. Method of Handling. In judging beef cattle it is of
much importance to see that they stand properly and are not
held so as to hide any natural defects which otherwise would
be easily seen. They should stand on a surface as level as
possible with the legs naturally placed under them, with the
head held straight forward. By variations from this it is
quite possible to hide from the examiner as he makes his
first inspection many of the natural defects. It becomes
very easy to vastly improve the handling qualities of an
animal by turning the head towards the judge or to make
the top or lower lines more level by choosing an advantage-
ous position. In moving towards the animal from in front,
note the characteristics of the head and neck quickly and
then placing the hand upon the shoulder and using the tips
of the fingers feel the compactness of the shoulder, its cover-
ing and the smoothness with which it fits to the body. From
this point it is usual to pass to the back, handling this region

64 JUDGING CATTLE

very carefully as the back rib and loin is the most valuable
part in the butcher's point of view. After handling the back
carefully, the covering of the ribs should also be observed
very closely. It is considered a good method for determin-
ing the quality of the flesh to gently push the ends of the
fingers between the ribs. If there is no natural flesh or muscle
there, the ends of the fingers are easily inserted in this
region but if the flesh is of the best quality and it is mostly
muscle the ends of the fingers cannot be inserted very far
between the ribs. To estimate the character of the skin and
the mellowness of the flesh, the skin is generally lifted be-
tween the first finger and the thumb and its quality carefully
noted. Then with the fingers flat gentle pressure against
the rib reveals the mellowness or firmness of the flesh. The
thickness of the loin is an exceedingly important point and
one of the ways of determining this is to push the
back of the hand in at the lower level of the loin and then
note the distance from the top of the loin to the back of the
hand. Leaving this point the fullness and characteristics of
the hind quarter are observed, then the fullness of the flank
and the cod, which make the criticism of the one side of the
animal complete. Standing squarely behind it, the develop-
ment of the hind quarter is noted after which it is only nec-
essary to pass down the other side very similar to that which
has been followed on the right side.

The steer may be considered from two points of view. The
first has to do with the qualities of the store steer or feeder
to be fattened, while the other refers to the merits of the
prime steer that is ready for the butcher.

III. Store Steers. It is a common practice in some com-
munities for the stockmen to buy young steers with the
object of feeding them for market. The steers are generally
procured in the early fall, fed through most of the winter
months and put on the market in the spring or early sum-
mer. The most forcible factors in determining the profits

Aberdeen Anjius steer Advance, champion International Exposition,
ChioaKO. 1900. Bred and fed by Stanley R. Pierce, Creston. 111. Illustrating
the type most desirable for the block as the flesh is of the right quality and
most abundant in the proper places.

I'liutonraph of a steer selected to siiow the form that is not desirable
either from the standpoint of the feeder or the butcher.

Photo by Hills.

Shorthorn steer, Britisher, illustratiui; desirable type for a feedlug steer
as shown in a short face, large muzzle, wide forehead, short neck, deep chest,
straight, wide back, deep ribs and smooth, long hind quarters.

Photo obtained through kindness of Prof. Georgesen.

The type and other qualities usually indicative of an undesirable feeding
.steer, showing slim face, thin, long neck, sharp withers, shallow chest, nar-
row back, t liin loin, light (|uarters, long legs and the characteristic expression
of the steer t hut eats most and makes least progress in the feed lot.

JUDGING EEEF CATTLE 65

from this work is the skill of the purchaser in selecting ani-
mals that will make good feeders and then buying them at a
proper price. The skill lies generally in being able to esti-
mate the possibilities of improvement in the animals selected;
and to do this with any degree of certainty, calls for a prac-
tical knowledge of the conduct of animals in the feed lot
where the reasons for the points are unfolded and tested.

112. Form of the Feeder. The best feeding steers are
comparatively wide, round and deep ribbed. The steer that
stands high from the ground, light in the flanks and shallow
in the heart girth rarely makes a good feeder. In type the
form of the store steer should fill out a parallelogram, the lines
being true in every direction.

It should be broad and deep in front and this should be
characteristic of the hind most parts as well. As much
width as possible is desirable if it is not accompanied with
roughness over the shoulder or the hips or hooks. It is not
expected, however, that a store steer should be as level and
smooth in form as the finished animal ready for the block.
Stoutness of form with depth of body are usually the char-
acteristics of vigorous feeders, which may be accounted for
by the supposition that in the stout individual the blood cur-
rents have less distance to travel and consequently the
circulation is more active.

113. Quality. The possession of quality does not seem to
have much influence on the feeding ability of the steer though
it has a marked effect on the value of the steer after being
fattened. Animals of quality usually fatten more quickly
than those that are rough and coarse, though if the latter
are exceptionally vigorous, which is generally the case, they
will sometimes make greater gains than those having quality
because of delicac}'. Quality in the steer means fine bone,
soft, mellow hide and silky hair; while such attributes as a
very rough, heavy frame, coarse joints, prominent, ragged

66 JUDGING CATTLE

hips and rough, open shoulders are the most pronounced
evidences of deficiency in this feature.

114. Inferences from Good HandNng. The handling of a
feeder or the condition of the hide is one of the most valuable
indications that may be observed. If the skin is mellow and
elastic, it possesses what is called good handling. Such a
skin is invariably associated with rapid fattening qualities,
while a heavy, stiff hide is considered to indicate slower fat-
tening. The previous management which the steers have
had has a marked influence on the handling. When liberally
fed and they are thrift}', the skin has the softness and elas-
ticity that usually accompanies a condition which has been
termed by stockmen as "sappy." On the other hand if
scrimped in their feed or if it has been dry without anything
of a succulent nature as a part of the ration, the skin becomes
tightly attached to the frame and it feels dry and paper like.
In animals that possess good handling, when the hand is
placed on the body just back of the shoulder and pressed
against it, there is a soft elastic feel to the touch which is
only found in animals having a thick coat of hair of fine
quality, mellow skin and firm flesh. This feature of good
handling cannot be magnified too much in judging all classes
of beef stock, for it not only reflects the thriftiness of the
animal at the time but also foretells its future progress.

115. Features of the Head. The features and proportions
of the head are usually a condensed reflection of the rest of
the form. A broad, short head is invariably accompanied
with a thick, wide, low set body and the long, slim face is
generally associated with the greater length of body and
more narrowness. There is a co-relation of parts here as
elsewhere that is seldom at fault and no other part offers
such a field of study in this regard as that of the head. The
mouth and the lips should be large, making the juncture oi
the muzzle and the face appear to be somewhat concave.
From the muzzle to the eyes the aspect of the face should

THE ENGLISH METHOD OE CUTTING BEEF.

1.2. 3, 4 and 10 1st quality.

5, 6. 7. 9 and 13 2nd (luality.

8.11audl2 3rdquallty.

14,15andl6 4tli quality.

CHICAGO RETAIL DEALERS' METHOD OF CUTTING BEEF.

A Kood 1200- lb. steer dresses about iiOO pounds, and of tills 70S pounds Is
marketable meat. All of llie hi-jh-prlced cuts are taken from ribs, loins and
hind quarters, and the best cuts come piineipally from tlie ribs and loins.
These valuable cuts together weiffh 346 pounds, and at above prices sell for
$44.5,5. The less valuable cuts from the fore quarters belly and flank weigh
3(>2 pounds and brinf? only $10.48.

Photo by Hills.

Shorthorn bull, Cupbearer 91223 (52692), a leading prize winner at numer-
ous state fairs. Photo taken at four years of age, when owned by Bow Park
Stock Farm, Brantford, Canada.

DESCRIPTION OF SHORTHORN CATTLE

'PhE shorthorn in the course of its development has been mainly represented
by three family types — the Bates, noted for style, fine heads, clean necks,
straight, level backs, refined bone, with a combination of milking and beefing
qualities ; the Booths, famous for excellence in girth, wide backs, lengthy quarters,
deep flesh and beefing attributes ; the Cruickshanks, or Scotch cattle, possessed of
scale, with low, broad, deep forms, heavy flesh, mossy coats and early maturity.
With this as the source of their evolution, the modern shorthorn should reflect in
the show ring a blending of the foregoing family types in possessing beef form,
early maturity and all the general evidences of thrift and vigor. In the show ring
tlie type that is recognized is that of a beef animal combining the butchers ideas,
the feeder's requirements and the breeder's demands. This means a representa-
tive that possesses a liigh percentage of valuable meat of the quality that Is
desired for the block. With this there should be the general evidences of produc-
tive capacity in the making of beef, which means a full development of the vital
organs and the other regions which have to do with the powers of production. In
unison with the breeding, and held in equal estimation, there should be the finish,
style and other characteristics which the breeder seeks In the breeding herd
required chiefly for the production of beef. The common colors are red, white and
roan, and these as well as all families should not be subject to tlie personal prefer-
ences of the judge or to present popularity.

JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 67

appear triangular with the base at the muzzle and the top at
the line running between the eyes. The openings of the
nostrils should be very prominent indicating that there is an
abundance of lung capacity. The lower jaw should appear
strong and well clothed with muscle. The eyes should be
large, somewhat prominent yet placid, indicating a quiet,
generous temperament. Quietness and laziness are attributes
of the temperament favorable to the process of fattening and
we know that animals of lymphatic temperament have both
these characteristics. The head should not be long between
the eye and the horn and the poll should be somewhat
prominent and topped with a mass of wavy hair. A fine
texture is desired in the horn and it should be somewhat flat
in shape and in no sense coarse. The ear should be neatly
attached to the head, pointed and covered inside and on the
edge with a profuse growth of fine, silky hair.

116. Neck — Short, Full. The neck should be short, in
fact many well bred steers appear as if thej' had none. The
top line from the base of the poll should run back straight
and almost level with the top of the shoulder. The blade of
the latter should fit closely to the body with a nice slope so
that the animal may have a gay carriage. In steers that are
very coarse in the shoulder with the blade standing out from
the body, this part is apt to show bare of flesh giving also a
marked appearance of shrinkage in the girth just behind the
blade.

117. Chest — Wide, Deep, Full. In this region the steer
should appear fully developed with the brisket light but yet
far enough advanced to fill out the squareness of the frame
to the proper degree. It will be found frequently that the
narrow chested animal is a poor feeder, which makes but
little progress in proportion to the feed that it eats. In
addition to the chest being wide it .should also be deep. The
bottom of it should come down well between the fore legs
with no shrinkage behind these as may be noticed frequently

68 JUDGING CATTLE

in animals that are deficient in constitution. Such animals
do not have the capacity to make feed into flesh and fat
economically as they are deficient in vital force or constitu-
tion.

118. Ribs — Long, Hooped. These should be long and
hooped so as to give an abundance of room to the vital
organs, the lungs and the heart, and also provide a place for
the storage of food in large quantities. A large, deep chest
and a capacious stomach are good indications that an ani-
mal has the capacity to utilize large quantities of food and
make rapid progress in fattening. The hind ribs should be
comparatively long bringing the plates and the flanks on
almost a level with the bottom of the fore part of the body.
The loin should be wide leaving the ribs on a level and join-
ing the hind quarters with little departure from a straight
line.

119. Hips — Smooth; Long Hind Quarters. While width is
desirable at the hips yet smoothness should not be sacrificed
to secure this. When the hips are too wide apart they are
likely to be prominent and appear coarse. It would be
impossible to finish such an animal without the hind quarters
appearing rough and very deficient in covering. The hind
quarters should be long and carry out the squareness of form
which should be characteristic of the fore quarters of the
ideal feeding steer.

120. Judging Fat Steers. In judging the finished or
fattened steer, the view must be largely that of the butcher.
The butcher invariably prefers animals that are small in frame;
the low set, thick sort that yield heavily in the most profitable
parts. The finished steer should also be of fine quality so that
the quantity of offal may be small, as this has much to do with
the profitableness of the carcass from the standpoint of the
butcher. In coarse steers fully one-half of their live weight
is made up of what is largely waste to the butcher. If the

Hereford bull. Dale, champion of breed. International Exposition,
Chicago, 1900. Owni-d by (•. Graves, BunkiT Hill, Indiana.

DESCRIPTION OF HEREFORD CATTLE

VhIS BREED, which derives Its name from its native district in EnRland. is
most popular in color and marliinfis when showing a dark claret or cherry
with white face, throat, chest, legs, belly, twist, and small stripe of white on neck
and before shoulder. The type represented by this breed Is that suitable for the
largest production of beef, as it is low set and broad, heavy in fore (juarters. full
deep chest; levil, wide back; wide, thu^k loin and full quarters. In t hose lepre-
senting the best of the breed the covering of flesh Is usually thick while the coat
possesses a thickness and mossiness which is very conducive lo the gener.-il thrift.
The form represents that which is invariably associated with a strong constitu-
tion, vigor and prepotency, and these qualities are sometimes so strongly in evi-
dence as to give rise to undue coarseness and roughness which should necessarily
be discouraged in the show ring. Two of the cardinal qualities of the breed are
early maturity and grazing attributes, and as these have their origin in natural
vigor and activity those qualities of form and general appearance which con
ti ibute to these should have prominence in rendering decisions.

Aberdeon Angus bull. Prince Ito, the pi-operty of Sir George MaePherson
Grant, BalUiidallofh, Scotland. Clianipion of the brt-ed, lloyal Asi'icultural
Society Show.

DESCKIPTION OF ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE

I^HE characteristic color of this breed of Scotch cattle is black without any
white beyond the udder or above the under line. The type of the breed is
favorable to the production of the highest quality of meat in the greatest quantity.
Smoothness is a leading feature, this being encouraged by the type which is noted
for the rotundity of form with symmetry and quality, and it should be noticeable
in the show animal by the evenness with which tlie flesh covers the carcass over all
regions. The head is hornless without any appearance of scurs, and it should be
surmounted by a sharp poll ; neck free from loose skin with a stron,:^ shoulder
vein; shoulder oblique, fitting close to the body and not rough at the top; ribs
deep, (-iroular; hips moderately far apart, smoothly covered ; rump, long, level,
smooth; thighs muscular, twist low and full; quarters low, full and rounded. The
general form is cylindrical, covered with even depth of mellow flesh and hide that
is pliable yet not thin, and coated with fine, black hair. See oiHcial scale of points,
page 90.

JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 69

bone is fine, the skin and hair of good quality, there is much
less waste than if they were coarse.

121. Handling — Indicates Condition and Quality of Meat.

The handling quality of the prime steer has considerable
value in the butcher's view. On this he relies for indications
of the steer's condition, and also the quality of the meat.
If the covering of flesh is evenly distributed over the steer
and it is springy and mellow to the touch, it is considered
ready for the block. If in denting the side with the finger
the dent lingers some time the condition is due to soft, flabby
fat that brings but a small price at the butcher's stalls.
This is quite common in finishing steers to find them flabbj'
in places, most commonly over the loin and about the root
of the tail. This patchiness is due to the unevenness of the
fat distribution and it is a very undesirable feature.

122. Condition. A sure sign of the condition of a steer
and its fitness for the block is fullness of the scrotum or cod.
When a steer is ready for the butcher the scrotum will be
soft and large. The condition of the flank is another sign
of ripeness. This should be thick, full, pendent, and the
lower lines of it should be nearly even with the bottom lines
of the body. Another indication considered very reliable is
the development of tongue fat or the fullness which appears
at the root of the tongue.

123. Relation of Parts. In the finished steer from the
butcher's standpoint the head is of little value, it should be
in harmony with the rest of the body and not too large, as
that means waste. The neck should be short and thick.
The shoulder vein or the juncture of the neck and the
shoulder should be full, giving both these parts a character-
istic smoothness due to the base of the neck swelling nicely
over the shoulder blade. The latter should be well covered
and evenly packed on top. The brisket should not be too
heavy, as this is very cheap meat, but only advanced enough
to contribute to the desired squareness of form. Just back of

70 JUDGING CATTLE

the shoulder there should be no slackness in the girth. The
ribs should be well covered with springy, mellow, yet firm
flesh. The loin should be broad and thick ; the reason for
this is that there are more valuable cuts in the broad, thick
loin than in the thin, narrow one, and this region in addition
has a high value in the view of the butcher. The hips
should be smoothly covered and their breadth should be car-
ried back uniformly. The hind quarters should be long, as
this adds greatly to the value of the carcass. The flesh
should extend far down the legs with the twist deep and
plump. Viewed from the side the top line of the animal
and the long line should be parallel or nearly so.

124. Value of Cuts. The value of the different parts
may be said to be a point of first consideration with the
butcher. Dividing the steer into parts according to the way
the butcher cuts them, we find that the head is only worth
about ten or fifteen cents altogether, while the neck only has
a value of from three to seven cents. Then the cut called
the chuck, which runs from the top of the shoulder to the
beginning of the forearm and above the brisket, is worth
from five to ten cents per pound. The brisket as a whole
only has a value of from four to eight cents, while the fore
leg from the point where it joins the body to the chuck,
known as the clod, is worth about six cents. The crops, or
as the butchers term it, the ribs, which consist of that part
just back of tha shoulder, is worth seven cents in the poor
steer against sixteen cents per pound in the best. The region
just below the crops known as the fore flank or the plates,
has a value usually from four to eight cents per pound.
Following this comes the loin and this varies from ten to
twenty cents. The upper part of the hind quarter has a
value of about ten cents per pound, while the lower part,
ranges from ten to twelve cents per pound in the best
steers. The neck, brisket and plates are the cheapest
portions. In regard to ribs the two end ribs go with

Iiiipoited Clianipioii Galloway bull. Scottish Stanuakd, owned by
Hi'OokHJde Farm. Fort Wayne, Indiana.

DE.SCKIPTION or GALLOWAT CATTLE

'Phis breed, derlvins its name from its native district in Scotland, is black in
color, with no white admissible except on the udder or below the under line.
The type represents a form that is thick, close to the ground and symmet rical, with
long, wavy and thick coat of hair. As hardiness and strength of constitution are
leading features, there should be every indication of general thrift and ruggedness
in a representative of the breed.

The scale of points adopted by the Council of the Galloway Cattle Breeders
Association of Great Britain in issa gives the features of the breed in detail as
follows :

Color — Black, witli a brownish tinge.

Head — Short and wide, witli broad forehead and wide nostrils; without the
slightest symptoms of horns or scurs.

Eyes— Large and prominent.

Eahs — Moderate in length and broad, pointing forward and upward; fringe of
long hairs.

Neck — Moderate in length, clean and filling well into the shoulders, the top in
a line witli the back in a female, and in a male naturally rising with age.

Body — Deep, rounded and symmetrical.

Shoulders— Fine and straight, moderately wide above; coarse shoulder
points and sharp or liigh shoulders are objectionable.

Breast — Full and deep.

Back and Kump Straight.

Ribs— Deep and well sprung.

Loin and Sirloin- Well filled.

Hook Bones- Not prominent.

Hind Quarters — Long, moderately wide and well filled.

Flank — Deep and full.

Thighs — Broad, straight and well let down to hock ; rounded buttocks are very
objectionable.

Legs — Short and clean, with fine bone.

Tail — Well set on and moderately thick.

Skin— Mellow and moderately thick.

Hair— Soft and wavy, with a mossy undercoat; wiry and curly hair Is very
obiectii liable.

Photo by Reid.

Red Polled cow, Delphine, winner of first prize at the Royal Agricul-
tural Society Sliow (England), in 1899.

DESCRIPTION OF RED POLLED CATTLE

'Phis breed winch originated in Norfolk and Suffolk, England, have been polled
and red in color and otherwise possessed the type characteristics which now
identify them for a century past. The type of the breed should represent a high
combination of beefing qualities with utility for dairy purposes. This means a
form that carries a covering of flesh and is especially developed in those parts
which produce the best quality of meat. The head should be clearly defined in its
features, the face being clean cut, the eye full and large, the ear medium size and
the poll sharp without any fullness at the sides where the horns are
usually located. The throat should be free from looseness and while fine
should run easily into a somewhat thick neck whicli swells smoothly over the
shoulder. The chest should be both broad and deep and the body should consist
of a back moderately broad and well covered and a rib that is deep and somewhat
round; the loin should have width with smoothness due to flesh and the same should
be characteristic of the hind quarter. Moderate meatiness is allowable in this
region and in tlie cow the udder should be specially well developed, largo and cir-
cular and the teats of good size and well placed. Tiie udder should be the sponsor
for the dairy qualities while the general form and the condition should be indica-
tive of the beefing propensities. In the show ring the tendencies towards beef pro-
duction find more favor than those considered conducive to dairy qualities. See
official scale of points page 94.

JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 71

the hind quarters, while the two second ribs in the fore
quarters sell from ten cents upwards, as they are the best
cuts in that part. The two first ribs in the front quarter
have a value of ten to twelve cents per pound. The wing*
cut of the sirloin grows narrower as it runs down but it still
affords a large and valuable cut in finished steers. Porter-
house steak and sirloin taken from the parts which run from
the front of the hooks to the end of the wing cut (that is
where the fore quarter is separated from the hind quarter) is
worth from ten to twenty cents per pound, making this
region the most valuable of the steer. The rump steak
which comes from the lower part of the hind quarter includ-
ing the thigh and twist, has only a value of ten to twelve
cents per pound. When it is understood that the average
percentage of pounds that a steer possesses is usually sixty,
it is easy to see that the butcher must pay close attention to
the form which yields the smallest percentage of offal and
returns the most valuable cuts. From the foregoing we see
that the animal from the butcher's point of view depends
mostly on its quality and then on its form, and in regard to
the latter we find that the value of the animal grows greater
as we pass from the fore quarters towards the hinder parts.
It is important to know that the feeder's ideal does not differ
markedly from the best for the butcher, except that the latter
has been matured and fattened.

Location of the cuts in the dressed carcass of the steer.'showluK also the
pounds and the percentage returned by each part; 1. Shank; 3. Round;
3. Rump; 4. Loin; 5. Riii; fi. Flanlc; 7. Plato; S. Chuck; 0. Clod; 10. Neck.
Tenderloins, Sirloin Butts, and Strips cut from No. 4. Rib Rolls cut from
No. 5.

72 JUDGING CATTLE

SCALE OF POINTS FOR BEEF CATTLE — STEERS. JJ u

C O
V U

GENERAL APPEARANCE:

Weight, score according to age lo

Form, straight topline and underline ; deep, broad, low set,
stylish I o

Quality, firm handling, hair fine ; pliable skin ; dense bone ;
evenly fleshed lo

Condition, deep, even covering of firm flesh, especially in
regions of valuable cuts lo

HEAD AND NECK:

Muzzle, broad ; mouth large ; jaw wide ; nostrils large

Eyes, large, clear, placid

Face, short, quiet expression ...

Forehead, broad, full

Ears, medium size, fine texture

Horns, fine texture, oval, medium size

Neck, thick, short ; throat clean

FORE QUARTERS:

Shoulder Vein, full 2

Shoulder, covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth 2

Brisket, advanced, breast wide i

Dewlap, skin not too loose and drooping i

Legs, straight, short ; arm full ; shank fine, smooth 2

BODY:

Chest, full, deep, wide ; girth large ; crops full 4

Ribs, long, arched, thickly fleshed 8

Back, broad, straight, smooth, even 10

Loin, thick, broad 8

Flank, full, even, with underline 2

HIND QUARTERS:

Hips, smoothly covered ; distance apart in proportion with

other parts 2

Rump, long, wide, even, tail head smooth, not patchy 2

Pin Bones, not prominent, far apart i

Thighs, full, deep, wide 2

Twist, deep, plump 2

Purse, full, indicating fleshiness 2

Legs, straight, short, shank fine, smooth 2

Total 100

Hijiiilancl bull. Laoich 12C0. The property of J. R. Campbell. Sliimiess.
Scctlaud. A winner of numerous first and champion prizes at the Royal
Agricultural Society Show of England and the Highland Agricultural Society
Show of Scotland. The upper illustration shows this bull when champion of
the breed at two years of age, while the lower one shows him again when in the
same honored position at six years of age. A comparison of these photographs,
both taken by Reld, is very instructive as they clearly indicate the develop-
ment which takes place as a bull approaches maturity.

DESCRIPTION OF HIGHLAND CATTLE

'PrilS BREED which comes from the highlands of Scotland is noted especially
for their robustness and the high quality of the meat which they produce
In type they exemplify the characteristics which we associate with constitution,
being very deep and full chested, strong and rugged framed with a dense and
long coat which protects them from the exposure to mountain conditions. The
head is somewhat shaggy with bright, piercing eye and the horns strong and long.
The neck is short the chest deep and full and the fore quarter shows unusual devel-
opment especially in the region of the vital organs. The back is long and level and
the quarter well covered and lengthy. The general form is massive and the gen-
eral appearance of ruggedness is added to by a thick shaggy coat of various shades
of i.;uu, black and sometimes brindle in color.

Hereford bull, Sib Bred\vel,l636S5, by Corrector, Champion at the Trans-
Mlsslsslppi Exposition, 1898. Bred by T. F. B. Sotham of Chillicothe, Mo.
Purchased by Col. C. C. Slaughter, of Texas, for $.5,000.

Rear view of Sir Bredwell 6368.5, showing the extent to which it is pos-
sible for a bull to be developed in the most valuable parts for meat produc-
tion. Note the covering of the back, loin, fullness and depth of the hind
quarters

JUDGING BEEF STOCK FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 73

1 1 . JUDGING BEEF STOCK FOR BREEDING PURPOSES.

In judging beef stock for breeding purposes, the breeder
must have in view the demands of his own interests, and
yet those of the feeder and butcher must also receive due
consideration. For this reason the desirable qualities that
are sought for in feeding stock, the features that make the
animal valuable to the butcher and the attributes that the
breeder knows to be of value, must all have proportionate
consideration. Those of the feeder's and the butcher's type
have been discussed, so that it is required to comment only
on the peculiar features that are especially valuable from the
breeder's point of view. There are two features of this
kind that because of their importance deserve special empha-
sis in the judging of breeding stock in the beef classes, and
these are the possession of all the evidences of constitution
in combination wath deep natural flesh. The breeder to
appreciate his work must rely greatly on the constitution of
his animals, for it is this that guarantees thrift and vigorous
reproduction.

The other feature of special importance in beef stock is
that of natural flesh. Natural flesh means the possession
of muscle or red meat witn '.vhich an animal must be born to
make a carcass for the butcher's block that is properly
mixed in fat and lean.

There is no feature of more value in the breeding of beef
stock than that of having natural flesh characteristic of all
animals in the herd, and there is likely no other quality
which is transmitted with more certainty than this.

125. Judging Beef Bulls. In form and condition those
qualities which mark the feeder's and butcher's ideal should
be strikingly shown in the beef sire. As already mentioned
there are two features that require special emphasis, as they
are especially valuable in the breeding herd of beef cattle
and consequently should be possessed in a marked degree by
the head of the herd. Reference is made to constitution and

74 JUDGING CATTLE

depth or wealth of natural flesh. A careful study of the
work of those breeders who have made a name in the breed
ing of beef cattle will Dear out the assertion that every one
of them highly appreciated these two qualities. To illus-
trate this point we may use the most marked example in
recent years, by referring to the work of two of the most
successful breeders of beef cattle, Amos and Anthony
Cruickshank, of Sittyton, Scotland, as their work bears out
the value of the two features that have been selected for
more prominence than others. Two of the best sires that
were used in their herd, Champion of England and Roan
Gauntlet, have been described by a recent writer (Prof. T.
F. Jamieson, in the London Live Stock Journal) as posses-
sing this quality in an inordinate degree, though they had
other features of minor importance which, however, would
cause some judges to overlook such animals in a show ring.
Referring to the Champion of England, this writer states
that his produce were better than those of any other bull
used at Sittyton, asserting that "they were large, growthy,
health}^ thriving beasts, with straight backs, deep ribs and
good hair ; heavy carcasses on short legs ; often not so styl-
ish and neat in their hind quarters, for they lacked that
finish in their frames that would have brought them to the
top in the Royal or Highland society's shows. A marked
feature was their early development. No other bull's calves
came out so strong as young animals. Champion himself
was in color a roan, of good size but not extra large, stood
on short legs, had a deep-ribbed, heavy carcass, a strong
back, which so far from shrinking at all at the loins or
middle rather tended to arch up there. He had a slight
drop from the hooks to the rump which detracted from his
appearance, but had good hmd quarters, was heavy and full
in his thighs, unusually good in his fore ribs and had a fine
elastic skin with good hair. ' '

COUNCrLLoli.

MlLLIONAUtK.

Ingham's Style.

Yearlius Shorthorn bulls, first, second and third at R. A. S. E. Show.
Birniiii-^harn. Ingram's Style e.xliibited by Mr. ,Jolin Handley (first prize);
MiM.ioNAiuE, e.xhibited by Messrs. G. and H. Biciiford (second prize);
CouNciM.oit. exhibited l)y H. M. tlio Queen, (third prize).

Reproduced from Bibby's Quarterly.

Three Hereford prize winners at Birmingham (England) Fat Stock Show,
fir.st, second and third in the same class. The left hand animal. Gakmsh.
took- first prize ; the middle one. Grace, third prize. The risht hand ani-
mal took the second prize in the same class. First and third prize winners
botli the property of the liisht Honorable the Earl of Coventry, president
of the Koyal Agricultural Society. The second prize winner is the property
of G. II. Baker. Estj., The Hill, Bridjiiiorth.

Two prize vvinoiug Aberdeen-Angus representatives from the lierd of
W. A. ISIcHeury, Denison, Iowa. The cow shown in the upper corner of tlie
plate is Lucia of Estill, a frequent prize winner, while the lower one shows
Barbara ok Denison 13th, a yearling heifer that was a fretiuent prize win-
ner in the state fair circuit of I'JOO.

Plioto by Breeders Gazette.

Group of Herefords from tlie lierd of K. B. Armour. Kansas City. Mo.
This group illustrates the uniform marking and conformation for beef pro-
duction which is eminently desirable in a breeding herd.

JUDGING BEEF STOCK FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 75

Commenting on Roan Gauntlet, this writer says : " Roan
Gauntlet was a lightish roan color, with a deep heavy carcass
on shortish legs. For size, quality, hair and substance be
was all right ; he was well let down in his hind quarters and
his ribs sprung out well from his back, but inclined to flatten
lower down. He had a biggish head and his face was cov-
ered with very curly hair. The stock got by Roan Gauntlet
were, like those of Champion of England, of good size and
remarkable for their early development, natural depth of
flesh and quality." These are the qualities that the breeder
desires to have perpetuated in the produce of his herd, and
they are also the qualities that the feeder desires and the
butcher requires in the animals he buys. In addition to
them the beef sire should have the features of masculinity
that attach themselves to cattle very strikingly apparent.
The face should be broad, the head burly, the horns strong
but not coarse, and the crest full and prominent. There
should be a marked appearance of massiveness presented in
the front view and the hind quarters should not in any sense
be feminine ; that is, they should not have the shortness
and width and roughness that are usually associated with
those of the other sex.

126. Judging Beef Cows. In judging beef cows the
preference should be given those that show constitution,
wealth of natural flesh and feminine character. Constitution
in the female is of as much importance as it is in the sire,
and its value cannot be overestimated in the breeding herd.
The question of condition or flesh in this class constantly
challenges the judgment of the judge, as it is very frequent
that a good cow of excellent type and style competes in the
show ring with an indifferent animal in high flesh. While
this is an occurrence where every instance will most likely
call for a different judgment, yet it ma}- be said that the
preference .should be given to the cow that is lacking in con-
dition rather than the poorer individual that is highly

76 • JUDGING CATTLE

pampered. In this connection it should be stated that cows
are probably more apt to be rough and patchy, yet this is a
feature that should always be condemned. Over the ribs
there are apt to be creases, or around the tail the fat may be
accumulated in bunches or the back may show patches,
"ties" or unevenness of flesh. Though not often trans-
mitted, yet this tendency to patchiness should be discount-
enanced, as it is an undesirable condition in all fat stock.

127. Judging Young Beef Stock. In judging young beef
stock the peculiar feature to which much importance should
be attached is that of early maturity. Early maturity is a
profitable characteristic to encourage in beef animals and for
that reason should be given ^11 possible prominence in the
show ring. The young animals that show an early tendency
to put on an even and somewhat firm and deep covering of
flesh and at the same time show size, constitution and qual-
ity are the ones that should have the preference of the judge.

III. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE.

To estimate the merits of dairy cows when giving milk
there is no method so satisfactory as the actual records made
with the Babcock test and the scales. Having the weight
of milk yielded, the percentage of fat in it, duration of the
milking season and period of pregnancy together with the
amount of feed consumed, the merit of a cow for dairy pur-
poses may be rated accurately. But even all these details
will not completely express the meritorious qualities that it
is possible for a dairy cow to possess; for the breeder has in
mind some other qualities that he desires, chief among
which may be mentioned the ability of the cow to produce
calves of the merit of herself and to continue doing this for a
number of years. To attempt to encompass all the merits
that any domesticated animals may possess and express this
in a scale of points is at best but a stimulus to the study of

TTereford calf, winnerof Sweepstakes. Tnteriialional Exposition, Chicago.
IStno. Owned by Mr. Geo. P. Henry, Goodenow, III.

.~li(irthorii hull calf, Scottish Champion, at T mouths. The highest
priced calf of 189S. Bred by W. S. Marr. Uppermlll, Scotland. Sold at auction
for Sl.iiiiO.

Photo by Reid.

Polled Durham cow. owned by H.Lee Borden, of Tontl, III. The term
"double standard" is applied to such Polled Durhanis as are eligible for reg-
istration in the American Shorthorn Herd Book as well as in the Polled
Durham Record.

Hereford herd owned by Messrs. Gudgell & Simpson, Independence, Mo.
This herd won first prize as the best young herd at the Kansas City National
Live Stock Show in 1900.

JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE / i

them, and it is only with this in mind that the various scales
of points are submitted here in this work. That which fol-
lows is used at the London and Canadian Dairy Show as a
basis for making awards: Twenty points for constitution and
conformation, one point for each pound of milk, twenty
points for each pound of fat, four points for each pound of
solids not fat, one point for each ten days in milk after the
first twenty days (limit 200 days); ten points is deducted
from the total score for each per cent of fat below three per
cent fat in the milk.

While the judging of dairy cattle by points may not be
completely satisfactory, it is a quick method for use in the
show ring and it assists in the study of the mau}^ traits that
are common to dairy cattle. Its value does not lie in the
degree to which it assists in distinguishing the good cows
from the bad ones but chiefly for the insight which it gives
into the nature and functions of the dairy animal, and it is
the deeper knowledge of them that leads to better care, more
intelligent feeding and more successful breeding, which all
culminate in greater production.

128. Dairy Cow's Function. To be able to draw correct
inferences from the points of the dairy cow, it is necessary
to understand her function and how she performs it. The
function of the dairy cow is to make milk, so that it is desir-
able to have a complete knowledge of how she does this and
more especially the operation of the chief organs employed
in the process. After studying this so as to see the work
performed by each part, it is then realized that the type of
the dairy cow is produced simply by the activity of these
parts and it is in this way that it is possible to obtain a clear
conception of the close relation of function or work, to type.

129. Making of Milk. To understand how milk is made
let us follow the course of the food after entering the cow's
mouth. From there it passes into the gullet and then to the
first stomach or paunch. After remaining there for a time,

78 JUDGING CATTLE

the most of it is returned to the mouth and remasticated;
when this is accomplished the food passes through the two
other stomachs and finally lodges in the fourth. After
undergoing a mixing process by the action of the muscles of
the stomach, the food passes into the small intestines. Up to
this time the chief action of the various parts has been to break
up the food, so that the fluids of the body may act upon it,
and make the digestible and nutritive portion into a solution.
In its passage thus far the food has been subjected to the
action of the saliva of the mouth and the gastric juice of the
stomach, together with the bile of the liver and pancreatic juice
which attack it in the small intestine. The result of this action
is that the soluble nitrogenous material, carbohydrates and
salts are now in a condition to be received by the blood and
carried to the parts of the body that make the most abund-
ant use of it. We see from this that the stomach and its aids
have an important part to play in preparing the food, so that
it may supply the cow the material to carry on her specialty,
which is the making of milk.

130. Function of the Blood. The food now being in a
condition to be utilized by the animal economy, let us see
how it passes into the blood and finally reaches that other
great manufacturing center of the body of the dairy cow,
the udder. It is the blood that is the medium for carrying
the nutritive portions of the food to the organs needing them.
The mucous membrane or inner lining of the small intestines
is covered with a large number of small glands that have the
appearance of the pile on velvet. These villi consist of cells
and numerous small branches of veins called capillaries, and
they also have what are known as lacteals. All the consti-
tuents, excepting the fat, pass through the wall of the small
capillaries and these connect with the portal vein, which
carries the blood to the liver and thence to the right side of
the heart. The emulsified fat of the food reaches the same
destination by a slightly different course. It passes into the

JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 79

lacteals that are contained in the villi mentioned and these
join a long tube that runs beneath the spine and finalh-
reaches the thoracic duct, which also receives all the fluid
coming from the other lymphatics in the cow. The thoracic
duct empties its contents about the region of the first rib into
a great vein (the anterior vena cava) wliich opens into the
right side of the heart, so all the digestible constituents of
the food are now in the blood and have reached the right
side of the heart. From here the blood goes to the lungs to
be purified by the air that is breathed in and then it again
goes back to the left side of the heart to be pumped through
the arteries to the various portions of the body. Several
branches run to the various organs of the body but that
which goes to the mammary gland is of chief interest in
the function of making milk. The aorta runs along under
the spinal column and finally reaches the femoral arterj^
which is about parallel with the femur or thigh bone. This
throws off" a branch (prepubic; which again branches into
another (the external pubic) and this again after it passes
through the inguinal ring divides into two branches (the
anterior or subcutaneous artery, and the posterior abdominal
or mammary artery) and from these the mammary gland
receives its supply, as they branch into all the regions of the
udder.

Following the blood still further, it passes through the
udder and appears outside of it in what are known as the
milk veins. They run along the belly, pass into the body,
and finally direct the blood to the heart again. In respect
to the function and relations of the organs up to this point,
we can understand that the stomach and its accessories per-
form the greatest amount of work in making food into blood,
while the lungs purify it, aiid the heart propels it to those
parts that are in most need of it.

131. Function of the Udder. In the dairy cow the udder
is an important organ, for it directly performs the work of

»U JUDGING CATTLE

making milk, v*^hich is the dairy cow's specialty. With the
exception of the water, the udder is generally considered to
produce as the direct product of its own action all the constit-
uents of the milk. The casein, the fat and the milk sugar
are elaborated in the udder, the only constituent that is
thought not to undergo any change is the water in the blood.
However, it is from the blood that the milk is made, for the
action of the udder is to so change all the constituents that
the milk distinctly becomes the peculiar product of the
udder.

To better understand the construction of the udder let us
follow the course of the small opening which exists at the
end of the teat. This opening at the upper part of the teat
swells into a cistern or milk reservoir, where the milk
accumulates to a degree between the time of milking. The
milk is prevented from passing out of this cistern through
the teat by a small muscle (sphincter) which holds the milk
in the udder until relaxed by the stimulation of milking.
From this cistern a canal extends further into the udder.
This branches many times and at the end of each branch
there is a cluster (a lobe) of tissue very similar to a bunch
of grapes. What is known as the lobe is similar to the
bunch, the lobule resembling one grape, and what is known
as the alveoli the seeds of the grape. The alveoli are lined
with small cells in which the milk is made. These cells
produce within themselves the fat peculiar to milk and also
secrete the water, salts, etc., that enter into the composition
of milk. The milk being secreted in these millions of small
cells, which compose the udder, passes into the branches that
lead to them, and from these it passes into the main branch
and finally reaches the milk cistern, where it accumulates
until milking begins. The four quarters which make up the
whole udder are each constructed in the way indicated and
they act somewhat independently of each other.

HI

C O ■■f-

3 -«. g

'2. ^ 2.

c 5 5'

H ^

2 ~ ~

•c X ^-

JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 81

132. Nervous System. Besides the organs performing the
work of digestion and secretion, there is another feature of
the physiology of the dairy cow, which is of equal importance.
Reference is made to the brain, the spinal cord, and the
numberless nerves connected with the nervous system. These
control the action of most of the organs of the body and have
an effective influence over the amount of work that they may
accomplish. The nervous system is represented by the
brain and the spinal cord with its branches. The spinal
cord runs through the vertebrae from the head to the tail,
and sends out from each vertebra branches that connect with
the various organs of the body. The feature connected with
the nervous system that has special application to the dairy
cow is that of temperament. More study has been given
this in the instance of men, and those who have given most
attention to it have divided their temperament into four
classes — nervous, lymphatic, bilious and sanguinary. In cat-
tle the two divisions, nervous and lymphatic are most in
evidence, and they are very markedl^^ characteristic of two
classes of cattle, dairy stock and beef animals. In an ani-
mal of nervous temperament, the nervous organization is
strong and well developed. Such an animal is able to stand
labor beyond what would be expected of it from its physical
appearance. The animal of lymphatic temperament is slug-
gish in disposition and inclined to fatten or become fleshy.
It should be stated that the common conception of nervous
temperament is not the same as that which is referred to
here. Generally when reference is made to an animal's hav-
ing a nervous temperament is commonly supposed to mean
that it is irritable and excitable which actually indicates the
lack of nervous control. The term as properly used in refer-
ence to dairy cattle means an animal that is full of nerves,
one that has strong nerves which gives tone to the various
organs of the body. The animal of nervous temperament
is one that is sensitive and active, giving all regions the

82 JUDGING CATTLE

greatest vitality and all the organs the greatest productive
powers.

To sum up, if we consider a cow simply as a machine for
making milk, we find that the food is manufactured into
blood by the stomach and its accessories and the blood in a
general sense is made into milk by the udder so that the two
main manufacturing centers of the dairy cow are the stomach
and the udder, and it is around these that what is known as
the dairy type has evolved its peculiarities. But as the
dairy cow is more than a machine, as she has vitality and
recuperative power, we find that the nervous system as
expressed in the nervous temperament is what enables her
to maintain her enormous productive powers in these
centers

133. The Dairy Form. It will be understood from the
previous discussion of the function of the dairy cow that
there are four main centers of activity when she is perform-
ing her function ; the digestive system, the milk secreting
system, the circulatory system and the nervous system.
And it is because of extreme activity in these centers that
the dairy cow inclines towards a given type. She tends to
become wedge shaped and lean because of the unusual
activity in the regions mentioned. Certain portions of her
organization have an undue amount of work which tends to
their development in an extreme degree, while the other
portions because of their activity and lack of nourishment
do not develop to the fullest degree ; this results in the
instance of unusual performers in a type that is inclined to
be narrow in front and wide and deep behind. While it
does not necessarily follow that a cow, to be a good dairy
animal, must be of this type yet because of the work she
does, most of them tend towards it. The relation of type
to performance has been the subject of experiments by
Professor Haecker, reported in Bulletin 67 of the Minne-
sota Experiment Station. When a cow is milking freely

Mh

1

Jersey cow, Dolly's Valentine. Yearly test, made by Kentucky Exper-
iment Station, 679.5 lbs. butter. Owned by Kentuclty Experiment Station.

DESCRIPTION OF JERSET CATTLE

In the estiibllshtiient of this breed on the island, from which it takes its name,
the work was conducted very systematically to produce uniformity of type
and bovine beauty. In establishing the ideal, two representative animals were
chosen for excellence and the scale of points adopted was made a combination of
these. The early breeders adhered very closely to color, markinjrs and type but
the modern breeder has lessened the attention towards these by breeding more
strictly for utility as a butter producer. The foundation stock foi' the Jersey
represented chiefly by those on the island at the present time are noted specially
for the deer like appearance of their heads, fine, slim necks, light shoulders, deep
though narrow fore quarters, large bodies with abundant capacity, lean hind quar-
ters and more particularly for the beautiful appearance of the udder in its fullness
.and placing of the teats. Since the introduction of a system of testing, the indica-
tions which give power of production have overbalanced to some degree the fine
discriminations which existed astothe general color and markings, of nose, tongue
and switch. The modern type may be of l)roken color, or lack in the fancy points
referred to but it has the ability for larger butter production more intensified, as
''he frame is inclined to show more strength and the general form more ruggedness
of constitution. While the type should show the angular form which is conducive
to the highest butter production, yet those features which contribute to beauty, the
head and neck, should not be wholly without the graceful lines so characteristic of
the breed. See .-cale of points, page !I7.

Guernsey cow. Fantine 2d 3720. Record. 9,738 lbs. of milk and 602 lbs. of
butter. Owned by Chas. Solveson, Washota, Wisconsin.

DESCRIPTION OF GUKRNSET CATTLE

I^HE GUERNSEY cattle coming from the island of that name have not had
attached to them any peculiar requirements as to the type or markings, as
these have been allowed to evolve themselves as the breed developed under the
patronage of the Royal Agricultural Society of the island. Being carefully pro-
tected from the infusions of biood from foreign sources they have become of a dis-
tinct type and their markings and color have necessarily assumed uniformity. The
greatest production of butter has been the aim and the evolution of the breed and
this has evolved the type of large capacity, necessarily strong in frame without
any encouragement being given to the finer lines of beauty, The color is usually
some shade of fawn with white markings, but this is considered subordinate to the
color of the skin which should be of a rich orange tinge. The head in all its linea-
ments should show refinement, the nostril and mouth large, the face slightly dished
and clearly chiseled, the eye large and full with the top of the head surmounted
by delicate liorns. The .iuncture of the head and neck should be tiim and light
and the latter slim. A sharp shoulder should run Into a deep chest and the latter
should swell into a roomy barrel, The back should be sharp and straight and the
hind quarters completely free from fleshiness with a thin thigh. The udder is a
leading consideration and it should be long with full, circular form and teats large
and the milk veins prominent, branched and tortuous. See the elaborate official
scale of points, page 98.

I

JUDGING UAIKY CATTLE S3

if she possesses good dairj' qualities there is likely to be
a lean appearance over every region of the body show-
ing that she is an animal of nervous organization and
further that she utilizes all her foods for the making of milk
and not for the filling out of her form.

In a good dairy cow there is a feminine look that is very
characteristic. There is no thickening of the neck, or a
crest on the neck, or any heaviness of the fore quarters indi-
cating the slightest masculinity, but all of these parts are
light, clean cut and in every way indicitive of feminine
character. The size of the dairy cow comes into the discus-
sion of type. This has something to do with her perform-
ance, but there is no distinct advantage in having a cov\^ very
large if there is not with it characieristics which indicate
enlarged dairy qualities.

134. Skin — Soft, Fine. The skin should be .soft and
comparatively thin. It is a point of much value to discrim-
inate against a thin, papery skin, as such is usually a.ssoci-
ated with the weakness of constitution. The skin should be
unctuous, or oily to the touch, giving the impr£ssion that
butter might be .squeezed out of it. When the secretions of
the skin are healthy it may be expected that the secretions
in the rest of the body are going on vigorously. The skin
lining the ear should be a golden color and so should that in
the region of the udder, inside the thighs, around the eyes,
at the root of the tail and below any spots of white hair.

135. Hair — Silky, Fine. The hair covering all the body
should be short, soft and silky. The udder especially should
be covered with hair of this character, and not with long,
coarse hair, as is often observed on poorl}' milking animals.
Coarse, harsh hair is generally an indication of lack of
refinement and an evidence of unthriftiness.

136. Bone — Fine Texture. The dairy cow in her daily
life needs but sufficient bone to maintain her form. As a
rule the milking cows are loose in form but possessed of fine

84 JUDGING CATTLE

quality. There should not be any appearance of weakness
due to fineness, yet the form should not be coarse and heavy,

137. Head — Feminine, Lean, Long. A very essential
quality is for the head to have a feminine appearance. The
ideal head of a cow is devoid of the heaviness and coarse-
ness characteristic of the bull. Just as milk giving is a
peculiar trait of the cow so is fineness in the head. The
face should be long and especially lean with the features very
distinct. The eye should be full, mild and bright, and more
or less active. A kindly disposition is reflected by a mild
eye, while one that is bright is indicative of vigorous circu-
lation and good health. Large, dilated nostrils permitting
easy entrance of air to the lungs, with prominent windpipe,
are usually associated with depth of chest and lung capacity.
In size the ear should be medium, possessed of fine quality,
and a rich orange color inside. The strong horn of the bull
is not desirable, but rather one that is small and fine in
quality. The poll should be prominent, with the forehead
broad and full, showing strong development of brain.

138. Neck — Thin. A slim, fine neck carrying the head
gracefully is a characteristic that adds much to the appear-
ance of a dairy cow. The fullness and heaviness here which
characterizes the beef animal should be completely absent.
The neck must be thin and join an equally thin and bare
shoulder, with the withers sharp but yet quite open. The
performing powers of the dairy cow depend greatly on the
depth and volume of the barrel. It has been noted the
important part that the heart, lungs and stomach perform in
the work of a dairy cow, so that the necessity of having a
barrel that will afford ample room for the work of these will
be readily apparent. The ribs should be long to supply
storage capacity for food. The backbone should be promi-
nent and strong, for through it and under it run two of the
largest channels, representing two of the most vital systems
of the body, the nervous and the circulatory.

JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 85

139. Hind Quarter — Lean, Elevated. As a whole, the
hind quarter in a deep milking cow is strikingly free from
fleshiness, and there is usually a slight raise in the quarter
from the loin to the attachment of the tail. Some think this
conformation indicates vigor, but a more reasonable view of
the merit of the point asserts that it is to some extent
unfavorable for the premature birth of calves.

140. Hips — Sharp, Wide Apart. The hip bones should
be prominent, sharp and wide apart, giving plenty of room
to the generative organs. From the point of the hip to the
end of the tail there should be a marked hollow or shrink-
age, due to the absence of the fle.sh. a condition character-
istic of heavy performers when in full milk.

141. Thigh — Thin, Incurving. The thigh, for the same
reason should be thin and retreating and possessed of length.
A thin thigh, decidedly in-curving is a noteworthy feature.
Attention has been drawn to the use of the tail as a plumb
line to determine the degree to which the thigh curves.

142. Escutcheon. — High, Wide, Spreading. Viewing the
thighs and the region of the cow above the udder, it will be
observed that on this part the hair runs in the opposite
direction from that to which it inclines on the other parts of
the body. Where it does this, it is known as the escutcheon,
to which attention was first directed by Guenon. It is sup-
posed that the reason of this hair growing in the direction
mentioned is due to the artery which passes this part. The
artery suppl3'ing the udder with blood also nourishes the
skin on which the escutcheon grows. Many have the idea
that Guenon considered this the only point of value in
determining the worth of a cow. The fact is that he con-
sidered it only one of ten to be included in the merits of a
first-class dairy cow. There is some reason for considering
the escutcheon as it is undoubtedly to a degree an index of
the quautit}^ of blood received by the udder, for the same
reason that the milk veins are of value as they indicate the

86 JUDGING CATTLE

quality of blood that leaves the udder. lu 1878 a commis-
sion was appointed by the Governor of Pennsylvania to
inquire into the reliability of this point, and they reported
in its favor. It is unnecessary to go into the details of the
various classes of escutcheons as Guenon enumerates eight
classes and eight orders or, in other words, eight different
shapes and eight different sizes. He claimed that the shape
was indicative of the quantity and the size was an index of
the duration of the milk flow. The broader it extends over
the thigh and the greater the length of it the better the
escutcheon is considered to be. Guenon believed that he
thigh escutcheon indicated the quantity of milk the cow
gave, while the upper portion or vertical escutcheon the length
of time she would milk, and with these he considered the
feel of the skin, the character of the hair, and the color of
the skin as indicative of the quality of the milk. With
these features he also associated " the thigh ovals" on the
udder just above the hind teats, for in his view an escutcheon
was not considered of a high order without them.

143. Udder — Long, Plastic. When empty the udder
should nearly lose its form and appear to consist of folds of
soft, pliable and elastic skin. The hind quarter should be
full behind and attached high, while the fore quarter should
extend far forward. Length in the udder is important, as
it gives a long line of absorption. It should be fully thirty
inches long from the attachment at the back to where it
joins the belly. It is to be remembered that the udder not
only secretes milk from the blood and hence is an important
organ, but it is also a receptacle for holding the milk. In
Bulletin 62 issued by Purdue University, Professor Plumb
presents some instructive studies of this important organ.

144. Teats — Evenly Placed. These should be just large
enough to fill the hand and yield milk easily but never leak.
They should be evenly placed, standing at least six inches
apart in all directions when the udder is full.

jriJGING DAIRY CATTLE 87

145. Milk Veins — Large, Branching. The milk veins are
considered important as they indicate the amount of blood
that has passed through the udder. In a cow that has
recently dropped her calf they should be very prominent and
full and branched. The milk wells through which the veins
pass into the body of the cow are indicative of the size of
the milk veins and consequently they should receive consid-
eration, especially when the cow is dry, for at that time the
milk veins themselves are not in evidence.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR DAIRY CATTLE

am
cu

GENERAL APPEARANCE:

Form, inclined to be wedge shaped 6

Quality, hair fine, soft; skin, mellow, loose, medium

thickness; secretion j-ellow; bone clean, fine 6

Temperament, nervous, indicated by lean appearance

when in milk 6

HEAD AND NECK:

Muzzle, clean cut ; mouth large ; nostrils large

Eyes, large, bright, full, mild

Face, lean, long, quiet expression

Forehead, broad

Ears, medium size, yellow inside, fine texture

Horns, fine texture, waxy

Neck, fine, medium length, throat clean, light dewlap . . .
FORE QUARTERS:

Withers, lean, thin i

Shoulders, light, oblique 2

Legs, straight, short ; shank fine 2

BODY:

Chest, deep, low, girth large with full fore flank lo

Barrel, ribs broad, long, wide apart ; large stomach lo

Back, lean, straight, open jointed 2

Loin, broad 2

Navel, large 2

HIND QUARTERS:

Hips, far apart, level. . . 2

Rump, long, wide 2

Pin Bones or Thurls, high, wide apart. . i

Tail, long, slim ; fine hair in switch i

Thighs, thin, long 4

Escutcheon, spreading over thighs, extending high and

wide ; large thigh ovals. 2

Udder, long, attached high and full behind, extending far

in front and full, flexible ; quarters even and free from

fleshiness 20

»» JUDGING CATTLE

SCALE OF POINTS FOR DAIRY CATTLE — COW. ^ O

Conti7m€d. 'V. , ^

Teats, large, evenly placed 5

Mammary Veins, large, long, tortuous, branched with

double extension ; large and numerous milk wells 5

Legs, straight ; shank fine 2

Total 100

IV. JUDGING DAIRY BULI^S

146. Judging Dairy Bulls. In judging dairy bulls many
points may be noted that they have in common with dairy
COWS, especially features of type, but it is a much more dif-
ficult task to judge between those of this sex than it is to
discriminate between developed cows.

147. Purity of Breeding. It seems necessary to say that
the first reqtiirement in the dairy bull, as in the instance of
all other stock sires, is purity of breeding. The sire should
meet all the requirements demanded of a pure-bred animal
for registration. In addition the dairy sire should have
the characteristics which are called for by the scale of
points for the breed represented.

148. Uniformity of Breeding. To secure the greatest
prepotenc}^ in a sire, the breeding for some generations
back must show a uniformity in the type and characteristics
of the ancestry. When the animals mentioned in a pedi-
gree lack uniformity, or have been dissimilar in type and
characteristics, it is not probable that the progeny will show
that tmiformity which every breeder desires to see in the
herd.

149. Pedigree Based on Performance. The most valu-
able characteristic relating to the pedigree of a dairy bull
is the number and the merit of the records that have been
made by the cows that are named in it. This feature is not
usually considered in the show ring, though it should be,
as it has a marked influence on the worth of a dairy sire.
The most important feature of the pedigree of a dairy sire is
the degree to which his dam was a good dairy cow, and in a

JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 89

lessening degree tlie records of those that preceded her.
Next in importance to this is the number and the merit of
the performances of the cows that are mentioned in the
sires' line. Not only should the dams in the pedigrees
have good records as performers, but the males should al.so
be getters of performers. A bull that has breeding of high
order based on performance, is as certain as things can be
to sire superior stock, provided he is satisfactory as an in-
dividual.

150. Qualities Associated with Individuah'ty. Impressive
power or prepotency and constitution are indicated to a cer-
tain extent by the individual. The first mentioned may be
estimated with some certainty by the masculine appearance
of the bull in the head, horn, and crest; while the consti-
tution is reflected by the depth of chest, the size of the na-
vel and the general appearance of the hair, hide, and eye,
as these are closely associated with thrift and vigor. The
type in other respects should be that outlined for the dairy
cow. A very common defect in the form of the dairy bull
is roundness of the hips and undue fullness of the thighs,
traceable to heaviness of flesh in these regions.

The hip bones and the hocks should be prominent and
between these points there should be a marked falling away
due to the absence of any tendency towards fatness in this
region. The undeveloped teats should be large and well
placed and the navel should be prominent. The skin,
especially where it gathers in loose folds between the thighs
and at other points, should be soft, pliable and rich in color.
All points should show much more openness and relaxation
than is customary in beef animals, for this characteristic
appears to be prevalent among deep milking types.

151. Judging Calves. In the selection of the best calves
the merit of the dam as a dairy cow is a valuable guide but
it is not a point that is usually employed in show yard
judging. In reference to the form of heifer calves the type

90 JUDGING CATTLE

of the typical dair}^ cow in miniature is the most desirable.
The long face, the thin neck, light shoulder, sharp withers,
deep chest, large capacious body, wide, long and thin rump,
thin thighs, mellow hide of red color and soft hair should all
be in evidence. The folds of skin in the udder regions should
be loose and pliable. The teats should not be bunched
together but wide apart and evenly placed. It is desirable
to have the navel of such size that it may be easil^^ noticed,
and the form in every part should have the open and relaxed
condition referred to in discussing developed cows. The
bull calf differs in no marked degree from the heifer calf
until it approaches the age of one year when the .sex char-
acteristics have developed to a noticeable extent.

V. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE.
ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE,

c

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN g

ABERDEEN ANGUS ASSOCIATION — BULL. (J

Color — Black. White is objectionable, except on the underline
behind the navel, and there only to a moderate extent ; a
white cod is most undesirable 3

Head — Forehead broad ; face slightly prominent, and tapering
toward the nose ; muzzle fine ; nostrils wide and open ; dis-
tance from eyes to nostrils of moderate length ; eyes mild,
full and expressive, indicative of good disposition ; ears of
good medium size ; well set and well covered with hair ;
poll well defined, and without any appearance of horns or
scurs ; jaws clean 10

Throat — Clean, without any development of loose flesh under-
neath 3

Neck — Of medium length, muscular, with moderate crest
(which increases with age), spreading out to meet the
shoulders, with full neck vein 3

Shoulders — Moderately oblique, well covered on the blades
and top ; with vertebra or backbone sli>;htly above the scapula
or shoulder blades, which should be moderately broad 6

Chest --Wide and deep , also round and full just back of elbows 10

Brisket^ Deep and moderately projecting from between the
legs, and proportionately covered with flesh and fat 4

Ribs — Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, neatly
joined to the crops and loins 8

Back — Broad and straight from crops to hooks ; loins strong ;
hook bones moderate in width, not prominent and well
covered ; rumps long, full, level and rounded neatly into
hind quarters 10

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 91

ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE. "g

Bull — Continued, g

U
Hind Quarters — Deep and full ; thighs thick and muscular, and
in proportion to hindquarters; twist filled out well in its
"seam " so as to form an even wide plane between thighs . . 8
Tail — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with the

back and hanging at right angles to it 3

Underline — Straight, as nearly as possible ; flank, deep and full 4
Less — Short, straight and squarely placed, hind legs slightly
inclined forward below the hocks ; forearm muscular ; bones

fine and clean 4

Flesh — Even and without patchiness. . . 4

Skin ^ Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly
covered with thick soft hair. (Much of tlie thrifliness, feeding
properties, and value of the animal, depend upon this qual-
ity which is of great weight in the grazier's and butcher's
judgment, A good "touch" will compensate for some
deficiencies of form. Nothing can compensate for a skin
hard and stiff. In raising the skin from the body it should
have a substantial, soft, flexible feeling, and when beneath
the outspread hand it should move easily as though resting
on a soft cellular substance, which however becomes firmer
as the animal ripens. A thin papery skin is objectionable,

especially in a cold climate) 10

General Appearance — Elegant, well-bred and masculine. The

walk square, the step quick, and the head up 10

Total 100

When bulls are exhibited with their progeny in a separate class,
add 25 counts for progeny

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN g

ABERDEEN ANGUS ASSOCIATION — COW. {J

Color — Black. White is objectionable, except on the imderline

behind the navel and there only to a moderate extent 2

Head — Forehead moderately broad and slightly indented; lajier-
ing toward the nose ; muzzle fine ; nostrils wide and open ;
distance from eyes to nostrils of moderate length ; eyes full,
bright and expressive, indicative of good d sposilion ; ears
large, slightly rising upward, and well furnished with hair;
poll well defined, and without any appearance of horns or
scurs ; jaw s clean 10

Throat — Clean, without any development of loose flesh under-
neath .. 3

Neck — Of medium length, spreading out to meet the shoulders,

with full neck vein 3

Shoulders — Moderately oblique, well covered on the blades and
top , with vertebra or backbone slightly above the scapula or
shoulder blades, which should be moderately broad 6

Chest — Wide and deep ; round and full just back of elbows. . . 10

Brisket — Deep and moderately projecting from between the

legs, and proportionately covered with flesh and fat 4

92 JUDGING CATTLE

ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE.

Cow — Confiimed. 5

o

Ribs — Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, neatly

joined to the crops and loins 8

Back — Broad and straight from crops to hooks ; loins strong ;
hook bones moderate in width, not prominent, and well cov-
ered ; rumps long, full, level and rounded neatly into hind
quarters lo

Mind Quarters — Deep and full; thighs thick and muscular, and
in proportion to hind quarters ; twist filled out well in its
" seam " so as to form an even wide plain between thighs. . . 8.

Tail — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with the

back, and hanging at right angles to it 3

Udder — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the body
and well up behind ; teats squarely placed, well apart and of
good size 8

Underline — Straight, as nearly as possible, flank deep and full. 4

Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed; hind legs slightly
inclined forward below the hocks; fore arm muscular; bones
fine and clean 3

Flesh — Even and without patchiness 3

Skin — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly
covered with thick, soft hair. (Much of the thriftiness, feed-
ing properties and value of the animal depend upon this
quality, which is of great weight in the grazier's and butch-
er's judgment. A good "touch " will compensate for some
deficiencies of form. Nothing can compensate for a skin
hard and stiff". In raising the skin from the body it should
have a substantial, soft, flexible feeling, and when beneath
the outspread hand it should move easily, as though resting
on a soft, cellular substance, which, however, becomes
firmer as the animal ripens. A thin, papery skin is objec-
tionable, especially in a cold climate.) 10

General Appearance — Elegant, well bred and feminine. The

walk square, the step quick, and the head up 5

Total 100

In judging heifers omit No. 12, and add 3 counts to "Flesh." and
5 counts to No. 17, in the order named above.

DEVON CATTLE.

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR DEVON BULL — ADOPTED BY DEVON
CATTLE BREEDERS SOCIETY, ENGLAND, 1896,

Registered pedigree.

Head masculine, forehead broad, tapering towards the nose, which
should be flesh-colored; nostrils high and open, muzzle broad; eyes
full and placid; ears medium size and thickness, fringed with hair;
horns growing at right angles from the head or slightly elevated
stout and waxy at the base, tipped with a darker shade.

Cheek full and broad at the root of the tongue. Throat clean.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 93

Neck of medium length and muscular, growing from the head to
the shoulders and spreading out to meet them.

Withers fine, shoulders flat, sloping and well covered.

Chest deep, broad and somewhat circular in character.

Ribs well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep and fully
developed.

Back straight and level from the withers to the setting on of tail,
loins broad and full, hips of medium width and on a level with the
back.

Rumps moderately long, thick and square.

Hind quarters deep, thick and square.

Tail, thick at the root, and tapering with a brush of strong hair,
reaching to the hocks and hanging at right angles with the back.

The underline as nearly as possible parallel with the top.

Arms and thighs muscular.

Legs straight and squarely placed when viewed from behind, not
to cross or sweep when walking.

Skin moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant coat
of rich mossy hair of a red color; a little white in front of the purse
is admissible; but it should not extend beyond the navel forward, on
the outside of the flanks, or any other part of the limbs or body.

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR DEVON COW — ADOPTED BY DEVON
CATTLE BREEDERS SOCIETY, ENGLAND, 1S96.

Registered pedigree.

Head, moderately long, with a broad indented forehead, tapering
considerably towards the nostrils; the nose of a creamy white, the
nostrils high and open, the jaws clean, the eye bright, lively and
prominent; throat clean, ears thin, the expression being gentle and
intelligent; horns matching, long, spreading and gracefully turned up
of a waxy color tipped with a darker shade.

Neck of medium length, growing from the head to the shoulders,
and spreading out to meet them.

Withers fine, shoulders flat, sloping and well covered.

Ribs well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep and
fully developed.

Back straight and level from the withers to the setting on of tlie
tail, loins broad and full, hips of medium width and on a level with
the back.

Rumps moderately long and level.

Hindquarters, deep, thick and square.

Udder not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the belly and
well up behind; teats moderately large and squarely placed.

Tail thick at the root and tapering, with a brush of strong hair
reaching the hocks and hanging at right angles with the back.

The underline as nearly as possible parallel with the top.

Legs straight, squarely placed, when viewed from behind, not to
cross or sweep when walking.

Skin moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant coat
of rich mossy hair of a red color; white about the udder is admissible,
but it should not extend beyond the navel forward, on the outside of
flanks or any other part of the limbs or body.

94 JUDGING CATTLE

NORFOLK AND SUFFOLK RED POLLED CATTLE.

STANDARD DESCRIPTION — ADOPTED 1S73, AT NORWICH, ENGLAND BY

A REPRESENTATIVE COMMITTEE OF BREEDERS FROM

EACH COUNTY, PUBLISHED IN AMERICAN RED

POLLED HERD BOOK, VOLUME I, 189I.

ESSENTIALS.

Color — Red ; the tip of the tail and udder may be white. The exten-
sion of the white of the udder a few inches along the side of the flank,
or a small white spot or mark on the under part of the belly by the
milk veins, shall not be held to disqualify an animal whose sire and
dam form part of an established herd, or answer all other essentials
of this standard description.

Form — There should be no horns, slugs or abortive horns.

POINTS OF A SUPERIOR ANIMAL.

Color — A deep red, with udder of the same color, but the tip of the
tail may be white. Nose, not dark or cloudy.

Form — A neat head and throat.

A full eye.

A tuft or crest of hair should hang over the forehead. The
frontal bones should begin to contract a little above the eyes and
should terminate in a comparatively narrow prominence at the summit
of the head.

la all other particulars the commonly accepted points of a superior
animal to be taken as applying to the Norfolk and Suffolk red polled
cattle.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CaTMLE

HOLSTEIN-FRESIAN CATTLE.

——— *'

c

SCALE OF POINTS PUBLISHED IN ADVANCED g

REGISTRY, VOL. II, I8S9 — BULL. {j

Head — Showing full vigor, elegant in contour 2

Forehead — Broad between the eyes, dishing 2

Face — Contour graceful, especially under the eyes, medium in

leng;th, broad muzzle 2

Ear — Of medium size, fine, covered with soft hair t

Eyes — Moderately large, full and bright 2

Horns — Medium in size, fine in texture, short, oval, inclinirig

forward 2

Neck — Neatly joined to head and shoulders, nearly free from

dewlap, good length, proud in bearing 5

Shoulders — Of medium height, well rounded and even over top 4

Chest — Low, deep and full s

Crops — Full and level with shoulders 4

Chine — Straight, broadly developed and open 3

Barrel — Well rounded and large abdomen 6

Loins and Hip — Broad, full, long and level 5

Rump — High, long, broad and level 5

Thurl — High, with great width 4

Quarters — Long, straight behind and full at sides 5

Flanks — Deep and full 2

Legs — Short, clean, tapering, with strong arm, with position
firm, wide apart ; feet of medium size, round, solid and

deep 6

Tail — Reaching to hock or below, large at setting, tapering to a

full switch 2

Hair and Handling — Fine, soft and mellow, skin of moderate

thickness, secretions oily and of rich brown or yellow color. 10
Mammary Veins — Long, large, branched, with extensions enter-
ing large orifices 10

Rudimentary Teats — Not less than four, large, well spread ... 2

Escutcheon — Large and fine development 8

Total K)o

A bull that has from three to five of his progeny in Advanced
Register shall be credited with five points, in excess of what he may
scale in structure.

A bull that has five or more of his progeny in Advanced Register
shall be credited with ten points, in excess of what he may scale in
structure.

No bull shall be received to Advanced Registrj' who does not
scale 80 points.

No bull shall be received to Advanced Registry that in the judg-
ment of the inspectors will not reach a minimum weight of i,Soo in
good flesh at full age.

96 JUDGING CATTLE

SCALE OF POINTS PUBLISHED IN ADVANCED ■£

REGISTRY, VOL. II, 1889— COW. 3

. U

Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance, comparatively long

from eyes to base of horns, fine in contour 2

Forehead — Broad between the eyes, dishing. 2

Face — Contour fine, especially under the eyes, showing facial

veins, length medium, broad muzzle 2

Ears — Ot medium size, fine, covered with soft hair i

Eyes — Moderately full, large and mild 2

Horns — Set moderately narrow at base, fine, oval, well bent,

inclining forward 2

Neck — Fine, nearly free from dewlap, neatly joined to head and
shoulders, topline slightly curving, of good length, moder-
ately thin, elegant in bearing 4

Shoulders —Fine and even over top, lower than hips and moder-
ately thick, deep and broad 3

Chest — Low, deep and broad 6

Crops — Full and level with shoulders 2

Chine — Straight, broadly developed and open. 3

Barrel — Well rounded with large abdomen 5

Loin and Hip — Broad, full, long and level 5

Rump — High, broad and level, with roomy pelvis 4

Thurl — ^ High, with great width 4

Quarters — Long, straight behind, roomy in the twist, wide and

full at sides .... 4

Flanks — Fairly deep and full 2

Legs — Short, clean, tapering, with strong arm, in position firm,

wide apart; feet of medium size, round, solid and deep. .... 5
Tail — Reaching to hocks or below, large at setting, tapering

finely to a full switch 2

Hair and Handling — Fine, soft and mellow, skin of moderate

thickness, secretions oily and of rich brown or yellow color. 10
Mammary Veins — Large, long, crooked, branched with exten-
sion entering large orifices 10

Udder — Capacious, flexible, well developed, both in front and

rear ; teats well formed, wide apart and of convenient size. . 12
Escutcheon 8

Total 100

A cow that has made milk or butter record in excess of the mini-
mum requirement applicable to her case (see Rule 6) shall be cred-
ited one point for each and every eight per cent that such record
exceeds such requirement.

No cow shall be received to Advanced Registry that doesnot
scale 75 points (credits from milk records being allowed as provided
above).

No cow shall be received to Advanced Registry that in the judg-
ment of the inspector will not reach a minimum weight of 1,000 lbs.,
at full age, in ordinary flesh milking form.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 97

JERSEY CATTLE. ^.

c

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN JERSEY g

CATTLE CLUB, MAY 6, 1SS5. VOL. 45, 1S96 — COW. (J

Head — Small and lean ; face dished, broad between the eyes

and narrow between the horns 2

Eyes — Full and placid ; horns small, crumpled and amber-col-
ored I

Neck — T hin, rather long, with clean throat and not heavy at the

shoulders 8

Back — Level t o the setting on of tail i

Loin — Broad ac ross the loin 6

Barrel — Long, hooped, broad and deep at the flank 10

Hips — Wide apart ; rump long 10

Legs — Short 2

Tail ^ Fine, reaching the hocks, with good switch i

Color and mellowness of hide ; inside of ears yellow 5

Fore Udder — Full in form and not fleshy 13

Hind Udder- — ^FuU in form and well up behind 11

Teats — Rather large, wide apart and squarely placed 10

Milk Veins — Prominent 5

Disposition — Quiet 5

General Appearance and apparent constitution 10

Total 100

In judging heifers, omit Nos. 11, 13 and 14.

FOR BULLS.

The same scale of points shall be used in judging bulls, omitting
Nos. II, 12 and 14, in the order named above, and making due allow-
ance for masculinity ; but when bulls are exhibited with their
progeny in a separate class, add 30 counts for progeny.

98

JUDGING CATTLE

GUERNSEY CATTLE.

Dairy Tempera-
ment. Consti-
tution 38

a

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN g

GUERNSEY CATTLE CLUB, DEC. I3, 1899 — COW. rj

Clean cut, lean face; strong, sinewy jaw;
wide muzzle with wide open nostrils; full,
bright eye wiih quiet and gentle expres-
sion ; forehead long and broad 5

Long, thin neck with strong juncture to
head; clean throat. Backbone rising well
between shoulder blades ; large, rugged
spinal processes, indicating good develop-
ment of the spinal cord 5

Pelvis arching and wide ; rump long ; wide,
strong structure of spine at setting on of
tail. Long, thin tail with good switch ;
Thin, in-curving thighs 5

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart,
giving an open, relaxed conformation; thin,
arching flank 5

Abdomen large and deep, with strong mus-
cular and navel development, indicative of
capacity and vitality 15

Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and
texture but not thick 3

Milking Marks
denoting quan-
tity of flow. ... 10

Udder Forma-
tion 26

Indicating Color
of Milk 15

Milking M arks
denoting qual-
ity of flow 6

Symmetry and
Size 5

Escutcheon wide on thighs, high and broad
with thigh ovals 2

Milk veins crooked, branching and promi-
nent, with large or deep wells 8

Udder full in front 8

Udder full and well up behind 8

Udder of large size and capacity 4

Teats wide apart, squarely placed and of

good and even size 6

Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of
tail, at base of horns, on udder, teats and
body generally. Hoof amber colored. .. . 15

Udder showing plenty of substance but not
too meaty 6

Color of hair a shade of fawn with white
markings. Cream colored nose. Horns
amber colored, small, curved and not
coarse. Hoofs amber colored 3

Size for the breed : Mature cows four years
old or over, about 1,050 lbs 2

Total 100

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLKNCE FOR CATTLE

99

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THK AMERICAN
GUERNSEY CATTLE CLUB, DEC. I3, 1899 — I!ULL.

Temperament.
Constitution . .38

Dairy Prepo-
tency

Clean cut, lean face; strong, sinewy jaw;
wide muzzle with wide open nostrils; full,
bright eye with quiet and gentle expres-
sion ; forehead long and broad 5

Long masculine neck with strong juncture
to head ; clean throat. Backbone rising
well between shouldc r blades ; large, rug-
ged spinal processes, indicating good
development (if the spinal cord 5

Pelvis arching and wide ; rump long ; wide,
strong structure of spine at setting on of
tail. Long, thin tail with good switch.
Thin, in-curving thighs 5

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart,
giving an open, relaxed conformation ;
thin, arching flank 5

Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscle
and navel development, indicative of
capacity and vitality 15

Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and
texture but not thick 3

As shown by having a great deal of vigor,
style, alertness and resolute appearance. .

Rudimentar- |
ies and Milk .
Veins 10 '

Indicating Color (
of Milk in Off-
spring 15 (

Symmetry ana
Size 22

15

Rudimentaries of good size, squarely and
broadly placed in front of and free from
scrotum. Milk veins prominent ....... 10

Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of
tail, at base of horns and body generally,
hoofs amber colored 15

Color of hair a shade of fawn with white
markings. Cream colored nose. Horns
amber colored, curving and not coarse. . . 8

Size for the breed : Mature bulls four years
old or over, about 1,500 lbs 4

General appearance as indicative of the
power to beget animals of strong dairy
qualities 10

Total

EXPLANATORY NOTES I!V COMMITTEE.

We recognize the Guernsey should be —

First. A dairy animal with a distinctive dairy temperament and
conformation, having f strong, nervy structure with a corresponding
flow of nervous energy, and every indication of capacity and vitality.

Second. In color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white on limbs
and under part of body are considered the prevailing markings, and
some degree of uniformity is desirable.

100 JUDGING CATTLE

Third. One of the important distinguishing features of the breed
is the presence of a yellow color in the pigment of the skin, which is
indicative of rich golden color in the milk. This is very pronounced
in the Guernsey and held by her to the greatest extent under all con-
ditions of stabling and feed. The intensity of this trait is more
marked in some animals and families than in others, but it should be
kept at the highest standard. It is fast being recognized that this
color is accompanied by a superior flavor in the milk and thus in the
butter.

DAIRY TEMPERAMENT.

By " dairy temperament " is meant a strong overruling predispo-
sition or tendency to turn the consumption of food towards the pro-
duction of milk with a high content of solids, especially butter fat, as
against the constitutional tendency so often seen to turn food into
flesh. Even in the strongest dairy breeds there are more or less fre-
quent out-crops in male and female of the flesh-making temperament.
To breed from such animals, while we are striving to establish a pre-
potent dairy temperament or tendency is not wise. All cattle bred
specifically for dairy purposes should possess a clear and decided
dairy temperament, for it is that quality of character we desire most
to establish, enlarge and perpetuate in the Guernsey cow.

This is especially indicated by the shape of the head, showing
brain capacity, wide muzzle, open nostril, full bright eyes, feminine
neck and a construction of the backbone indicating a strong flow of
nerve power and L^upport from the brain to all of the maternal organs.

CONSTITUTION.

In breeding our domestic animals, especially for long service like
the dairy cow, it is very important that they should have abundant
vital power which we call "constitution." But constitution must be
judged and measured by the peculiar function the animal is bred to
fulfill. With the race horse the function is speed ; with the steer, the
laying on of flesh ; with the dairy cow, the production of milk solids.
In all these various functions the animal that is to represent any one
of them must show not only large capacity in the line of that func-
tion but also the ability to endure long and well the strain of such
function and keep in good health. Constitution is best indicated by
a full development at the navel and strong abdominal walls, showing
that the animal when in a prenatal state was abundantly nourished by
the mother through a well developed umbilical cord.

PREPOTENCY.

In the scale for bulls, for the first time, we believe, in the history
of dairy breeds, this point is introduced. The reason we have
included it is that "prepotency" is the chief consideration in the
selection of all male breeding animals. The pedigree and conforma-
tion is often all that can be desired, but because the bull is lacking in
prepotent breeding power he is an expensive failure. This quality is,
in a sense, difficult to perceive or describe, but we know certain ani-
mals have it in high degree and others fail of it completely. It is
fairly well indicated by vigor of appearance, strong, resolute bearing
and abundant nervous energy. We would distinguish this from an
ugly disposition. A bull is ugly by the way he is handled rather than
by his breeding. What we want is strong, impressive blood. A dull,
sluggish spirit and action, we consider it indicative of a lack of true

OFFICIAL STANUAKUS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 101

dairy prepotency, but we would prefer to breed to a rather sluggish
appearing bull with first-class rudimentaries than to a stylish one
with badly placed rudimentaries.

RUDLMENTARY TEATS.

We consider that a well balanced and well shaped udder in the
cow is largely due to the way the rudimentary teats are placed on the
sire. If they are crowded close together the result is likely to be
narrow, pointed udders. If they are placed well apart, of good size,
and well forward of the scrotum, the effect, we think, will be to
intluence largely the production of well shaped udders in the result-
ing heifers and counteract the tendency to ill shaped udders inher-
itable from dams deficient in this respect. We believe the future
excellence of the Guernsey cow will be greatly aided by close atten-
tion on the part of her breeders to this point.

102 JUDGING CATTLE

DUTCH BELTED CATTLE.

c

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE DUTCH BELTED 3

CATTLE ASSOCIATION — COW. (j

Body — Color black, with a clearly defined continuous white
belt. The belt to be of medium width, beginning behind the

shoulder and extending nearly to the hips 8

Head — Comparatively long and somewhat dishing ; broad be-
tween the eyes. Poll prominent ; muzzle fine ; dark tongue 6
Eyes — Black, full and mild. Horns long compared with their

diameter 4

Neck — Fine and moderately thin and should harmonize in sym-
metry with the head and shoulders 6

Shoulders — Fine at the top, becoming deep and broad as they

extend backward and downward, with a low chest 4

Barrel — Large and deep with well developed abdomen; ribs

well rounded and free from fat 10

Hips — Broad, and chine level, with full loin lo

Rump — High, long and broad 6

Hind Quarters — Long and deep, rear line in-curving. Tail

long, slim, tapering to a full switch 8

Legs — Short, clean, standing well apart 3

Udder — Large, well developed front and rear. Teats of con-
venient size and wide apart; mammary veins large, long and

crooked, entering large orifices 20

Escutcheon 2

Hair — Fine and soft ; skin of moderate thickness, of a rich dark

or yellow color 3

Quiet Disposition and free from excessive fat 4

General Condition and apparent constitution 6

Total . . , 100

FOR BULLS.

The scale of points for males shall be the same as those given for
females, except that "Udder" shall he omitted and the bull credited 10
points for size and wide spread placing of rudimentary teats, 5 points
additional for development of shoulder, and 5 additional points for
perfection of belt.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 103

AYRSHIRE CATTLE. ^

c

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN AYRSHIRE o

BREEDERS ASSOCIATION, FEB. 21, 1889 — BULL. U

The points desirable in the female are generally so in the male,
but must, of course, be attended with that masculine character
which is inseparable from a strong and vigorous constitution.
Even a degree of coarseness is admissible ; but then it must
be so exclusively of masculine description as never to be dis-
covered in a female of his get.

The Head of the bull should be shorter than that of the cow, but
the frontal bone should be broad, the muzzle good size,
throat nearly free from hanging folds, eyes full. The horns
should have an upward turn, with sufficient size at the base

to indicate strength of constitution 10

Neck — Of medium length, somewhat arched, and large in those

muscles which indicate power and strength 10

Fore Quarters — Shoulders close to the body, without any hollow
space behind; chest broad, brisket deep and well developed,

but not too large 7

Back — Short and straight ; spine sufficiently well defined, but
not in the same degree as in the cow ; ribs well sprung and

body deep in the flanks . • 10

Hind Quarters — Long, broad and straight; hip bones wide
apart ; pelvis long, broad and straight ; tail set on a level

with the back ; thighs deep and broad 10

Scrotum — Large, with well developed teats in front 7

Legs — Short in proportion to size, joints firm. Hind legs well

apart, and not to cross in walking. 5

Skin — Yellow, soft, elastic and of medium thickness lo

Color — Red of any shade, brown or white, or a mixture of

these — each color being distinctly defined 3

Average Live Weight at maturity, about 1.500 10

General Appearance, including style and movement 15

Escutcheon, large and fine development 3

Total 100

104 JUDGING CATTLE

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN AYRSHIRE
BREEDERS ASSOCIATION, FEB. 21, 1889 — COW.

The following scale of points for the Ayrshire cow were
adopted — being similar to the scale adopted in Scotland in
1884 — and changed in a few points to render them applicable
to this country :

Head — Short ; forehead wide ; nose, fine between the muzzle
and the eyes ; muzzle, large ; eyes, full and lively ; horns,

wide set on, inclining upwards lo

Neck — Moderately long and straight from the head to the top of
the shoulder, free from loose skin on the under side, fine at
its junction with the head, and enlarging symmetrically

towards the shoulder 5

Fore Quarters ^Shoulders sloping; withers fine; chest suffi-
ciently broad and deep to insure constitution ; brisket and
whole fore quarters light, the cow gradually increasing in

depth and width backwards 5

Back — Short and straight ; spine well defined, especially at the

shoulders ; short ribs, arched ; the body deep at the flanks. . 10
Hind Quarters — Long, broad and straight, hook bones wide
apart and not overlaid with fat; thighs, deep and broad; tail,

long, slender, and set on level with the back 8

Udder — Capacious and not fleshy, hind part broad and firmly
attached to the body, the sole nearly level and extending
well forward ; milk veins about udder and abdomen well
developed ; the teats from 2^1 to 3 inches in length, equal in
thickness — the thickness being in proportion to the length —
hanging perpendicularly, their distance apart at the sides
should be equal to one-third of the length of the vessel, and

across to about one-half of the breadth 30

Legs — Short in proportion to size, the bones fine, the joints firm. 3
Skin — Yellow, soft and elastic, and covered with soft, close,

woolly hair 5

Color — Red of any shade, brown or white, or a mixture of

these — each color being distinctly defined 3

Average Live Weight in full milk, about 1,000 pounds 8

General Appearance, including style and movement 10

Escutcheon — Large and fine development 3

Total 100

Ayrsliire l-ow, Ni.i.i.ii, osi;i)ii.\E. wiumi- (.1 .-wcfpstakcs Gold Mecl.il foi'
breed at World's Columbiau Exposition, Cliicago. 1893. Owned by D. Drun'.
mond. Petite Cote. Quebec.

DE.SCRIPTION OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE

I^HIS BREED of Sfotcli dairy cattle originated undcrtlie rugged conditions of Ayr-
sliire and in their type and general characteristics tliey exemplify the form and
quality which would be called for in a dairy animal required to make the most eco-
nomical use of their food and do the best under conditions too severe for finer and
more delicate cattle. The head is slim, rather long in the face and surmounted
with a horn not wholly devoid of strength, the neck somewhat short is clean cut
though not delicate, tlie shoulder is sharp and the cliest full and deep, the body is
straight in its top lines, slightly more compact than usually found in the dairy typo
but has the volume which invariably results in large capacity for consumption and
production. The hind quarter is moderately wide and covered with flesh while
the thigh is thin and the udder long and excellent in its proportion. The size and
the placing of tlie teats is a feature which calls for careful attention in ranking
representatives of tliis breed. See official scale of points, pages 10:j and lOI.

Holstciii-Friesiau cow Colantha 4th, in lier four year old and six year
old form. The lower Illustration is a photo of her as a four year old. Com-
pare this with the upper, which is a photo of her as a six year old, and the
changes that take place in a dairy cow as she approaches maturity may be
seen. This cow is owned by Messrs. Gillett & Son. of Rosendale, Wis., and
her records are as follows:

AGE. Milk, 1 day. Butter, 1 w'k. Milk, ly'r. Butter Fat, 1 y'r.

2 years 52.2 B>s. 14.1 fts. 13,46:i.4 lbs.

3 years 64.8 fts. 18.7 tbs. 14,a">1.5 lbs. .">77.71bs.

4 years 70.3 B>s. 21.1 fts. 1:^,992.2 lbs. 532.9 lbs.

5 years ■ 14.481.8 ftis.

6 years 77.3 fts. 24.5 lbs. 14,782.7 ttis. .562.9 lbs.

This cow was also first in the official tests of the IIolstein-Fricsian Asso-
ciation in 1900, and also winner of first prize in tests lor economy of produc-
tion making 19.6 lbs. fat in one week at a food cost of 6 3-5 cents per pound.

DE.SCRIPTION OF HOL.STEIN-PKIK.SIAN CATTLE

T^HE ORIGINAL type of this breed had more size of frame than that which char-
acterizes the modern representative. Tlie conditions existing have favored
the production of a large dairy animal with extreme development for yielding
milk. The type which is now common shows more refinement but still has the
characteristics in the main which identified tlie first importations. The color
should be black and white, with no mixture of this or tinge of brown. The head
should be lengthy, generally because of a long face, the eye should be large and
bright and that portion of the head between the horn and the eye should be full.
The neck should be slim and lengthy, the shoulder sharp and fitting well while the
che.st should be deep and the body have for its most noted feature a large develop-
ment of the digestive organs. The loins should be strong though bare of flesh and
the hind quarters straight and angular and tlie thighs thin. The frame should
show as much refinement as possible without any indication of delicacy. The gen-
eral conformation should be such as to favor large capacity for the consumption of
food and the production of the largestquantity of milk. .See official scale of points-
page 95.

Paradise II 97112, bred by H. C. Taylor, Orfordvilie, Wis. Record, Is lbs.
4 ounces. Owned by A.O. Auten, Jersey ville, Illinois. Dropped Oct. 17, 1893.
Good type of a dairy cow. Udder very capacious and very hand-
somely developed, teats large and well placed, veins very prominent. Not
only does the cow show unusual merit as to form, but the calf is especially
illustrative of the type desirable for dairy purposes.

Guernsey bull Rkn.iamin, owned by Geo. C. Hill & Son, Eosendale, Wis., a
noted prize winner in the show rings, illustrating the main features of form
reciuired in a dairy bull.

Holstein herd owned by Messrs. W. B. Smith & Sons, of Columbus, O. In
this remarkable photograph of a large herd there cannot be found a single
animal which does not illustrate desirable dairy type.

Photo by Sehreiber.

Photograph of the head of the .Jersey cow. Hitttercup. Tliis photograph
shows in iin unusual degree the confoi niatioii of head and neck whicii is
dcsinililc ill a highly bred Jersey.

A pair of Holsteiii calvt's l)red by llie Iowa Aj^ricultural College, illus-
trating the type most desirable for calves intended for dairy purposes.

A photoprapli of some Jersey calves, taken at the stock farm of H. C.
Taylor, Orfordville. Wisconsin. The heads illustrate the cliaracteristic
features sought in dairy calves.

JUDGING SHEEP.

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CHAPTER III.

JUDGING SHEEP.

152. Method of Examining Sheep. Tn examining
sheep it is advisable to adopt a definite course of pro-
cedure so that nothing may be overlooked and each mo-
tion made to disclose something in regard to the merit or
demerit of the sheep. In the show ring that contains as
many as ten sheep in a class it is easy to see that the judge
must work quickly as well as accurately. And there is
nothing that will contribute to both of these like examin-
mg each part of the sheep in regular order. The best
course to follow is perhaps to begin at the head, pressing
down the lower lip with the finger and thumb so that the
teeth may be seen and the age estimated. Then with the
hands under the jaw look carefully over the head, seeing
that the eyes are all right, the head a good shape and no
appearance of horns in those breeds that are hornless,
while ill those that possess these, note that they spring
clear from the head. Then pass to the neck, feeling with
the hands the fullness of it, and in addition observing the
length and the way it swells to meet the shoulder at the
shoulder vein. Pass down to the brisket, putting one
hand on the floor of the chest and the other at the top of
the shoulder and in this way form an idea as to the depth
of the sheep through these parts. Next note the shoulder,
observing how it is covered with flesh along the side and
top and also taking the girth of the spring of the ribs
with the sheep. From the top of the shoulder, using one
hand, follow the line of the l)ack to the end of the body.
By carefully handling these parts the fleshiness of the

108 JUDGING SHEEP

sheep or the way the ribs are covered and the straightness
lof the back are determined and at the same time the
spring of the ribs is made apparent. The width of the
loin should then be taken and also its covering and thick-
ness. The width of the hips should next be observed,
and turning to one side and using two hands the length
from the hip to the end of the hind quarter should be
made apparent between the two points. Then the width
of the hind quarter and the manner in which it is carried
back and the fullness should also be examined. Follow-
ing the joint towards the leg the development of the
thigh on the outside requires examination, and then with
the hand the quarters should be firmly felt.

153. Deception Due to Trimming. In this way
the sheep has been thoroughly examined as to form, but
it is to be remembered that the hands should be thor-
oughly relied on to discover all defects of form, and un-
less the sheep is carefully handled the examiner is very
likely to be deceived. The wool of all show sheep and
fat stock of the medium wool classes, is (always
trimmed, and the trimmer possessing skill can give any
desired form to sheep, providing the wool is long enough
and the sheep approaches somewhat towards the form
which is being imitated.

154. Estimating Age by the Teeth. The order
of appearance of the nippers or incisors in sheep is a
fairly reliable method of telling their age. The sheep
lias eight permanent incisors, and these appear in regular
order in supplanting the milk teeth. The milk teeth can
always be told from the permanent incisors by the fact
that they are narrower. The permanent incisors are
t)road and wide and widened considerably towards the
top. The first or central pair of incisors appear wdien
the sheep is slightly over one year old. The next pair,

Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handlinu Sheep in judging Them.

Looking at the face and head and
feeling the fullness of the neck.

With one hand on top and the other
below estimate t he depth of the chest.

Notice the heart girth Ijy the dis-
tance between the hands.

With the iiand perfectly flat note
the levelness of the back, its tirniness
and covering.

Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handling Sheep in Judging Them — Continued.

Taking the width of the loin ; also
DOtH tlie thickness.

Witli one liuud at the hip joint and
the other at the end of the body, the
length of the hind quarters may be
estimated.

Noting the degree to which the width
of body is carried to the end.

Feeling the development in the leg
of mutton.

Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handlini; Sheep in Judging Them — Continued.

Manner and place of openinir fleece
to see the finest fjuallly of wool.

Manner and phice of opening fleece
to see tlie poorest (|iia ity of wool.

a

Illustration show in t; the proper nnilKKi of lioldins 'he hand in iwamin-
ingshcep. It will be noticed that in this illustration those e.xamining tiie
sheep hold the fingers together in a sloping tnanner, in this way it is possible
to feel the form of tlie sheep without disturt)ing or breaking the fleece. The
very common method of sticking the fingers into the fleece maltes holes in it
which greatly annoy tlie shepherd.

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FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 109

that is, one on each side of the central pair, appear the fol-
lowing year, and that is when the sheep is two years old ;
the third pair appear wiien the sheep is slightly over two
years old, and the fourth pair when it is between four
and five years old. This completes the numl)cr of incisors
and a complete set always indicates that the sheep is be-
tween four and five years old. High feeding or forcing
hastens the age indications, so that the variations are
often unnoticeal)]e, especially in show sheep or those im-
ported from Great Britain.

I. JUDGING SHEEP FOR MUTTON AND WOOL.

In judging fat sheep it is necessary to consider the
needs of the feeder of this class of stock, the demands of
the Initclier for lambs and mutton, the desires of the con-
sumer and the requirements of the manufacturer of
wool. These requisites must be merged together to ar-
rive at a correct view^ of the whole.

155. The Feeding Type That Gives the Best
Gains. In considering the type of sheep which gives
the best results in the feed lot, we have only to have in
view the type that gives us the greatest vigor, insuring
an active digestion and the most constitution, so that
nothing may upset the sheep in the rapid progress de-
sired. In this connection it will be well to report the re-
sults of an experiment made at the Wisconsin Experi-
ment Station In* the writer. Two lots of lambs were se-
lected; the one bred by the station showing in fleece and
form a high degree of merit for grade sheep. These
lambs were bred from high grade ewes and the rams
had been selected at high prices for some years to make
the best blend with the ewes. The lambs were very uni-
form as to type and they showed what might be called an

JIO JUDGING SUEEF

unusual degree of merit for ordinary feeding lambs. To
compare with these, some lambs native to northern Wis-
consin showing the type common to that territory were
put upon similar rations. The representatives of both
these kinds of lambs, in addition to having the same kind
of food, were kept under identically the same conditions,
putting both lots of lambs in the fed lot at three cents a
pound and taking them out at four cents at the end of
the feeding period. The well bred lambs of good feed-
ing type after paying for the feed that they ate, at current
prices yielded a profit of $1.13 per head; while those
representative of the poor type being indiscriminately
bred only yielded a profit of $ . 60 per head. The lambs
of the best type ate more food, but they made more than
a corresponding gain, and the chief point should not be
lost sight of, that the profit from each one of them was
just twice as much as that from those being of inferior
type.

156. The Feeding Type Bringing Most at
Maturity In the selection of feeding lambs the feeder

has to keep in view the fact that there is most demand
for the lamb that when fat weighs about 100 pounds.
Such a lamb has the ([uickest sale at the highest price
per pound. This type is one that is not too heavy boned
and large framed, but such as require only a medium
amount of flesh to make the carcass smooth and plump at
the weight indicated. It is the low set, thick type that
possesses these qualities to the highest degree. To se-
cure the greatest profit in feeding it is desirable to have
the gain made as rapidly as possible. The younger the
animal the cheaper the cost of gain, and it is that feature
that makes early maturity such an important considera-
tion in the different classes of stock. The market favors

Tlio tliit'o ijhutos oil the li^lil liaiid show uslifop of a
bad feeding type. Note narrowness of face, sliallowness
of chest, with length of leg in botli front and side view,
while the hind view shows thinness of leg of mutton.
The three photos on the left show a good feeding type
in breadth of face, depth and width of chest, spring of
rib, S(]uaieness of form throughout and fullness of leg
of mutton. The sheep used for these illustrations were
selected from the lots experimented with at the Wis-
consin station and referred to in paragraph 15.5

Photographs of the 1)acks of two carfusses are shown in tlio upper I'ow;
the one on the left, a fine wool wether, shows lack of development in leg of
nautton, narrowness and thinness of flesh on back. The one on the right, a
Shropshire grade, shows much more development and covering in valuable
parts. Front views of the same carcasses are shown in the lower row. The
one on tlie loft, a fine wool grade, showing lack of development in parts
desired by the Ijutcher, in comparison with the Shropshire grade on t he I'iglit.

Location of cuts in a mutton carcass and their valuation in the Chicago
market.

Summarizing an experiment with seven special mutton breeds. Prof. Cur-
tiss gives the I'ehitive value of these relative parts as follows : Leg, 22.3
pounds, at 10 cents. $2.32 ; loin. 17.5 pounds, at 9 cents, $l..'i7; rib, 14..5 pounds,
at 9 cents, $1.I!0; chuck. !(•.« pounds, at U'i cents, '.H cents ; total, $.5.43.

FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 111

a lamb of the weight mentioned, because as a rule such
usually dress better and the cuts are smaller.

157. The Type Desired by the Butcher. If we

were to consider only the things that have the most im-
portance in the view of the butcher we would have a very
queerly formed sheep presented to us. The butcher is
very desirous of obtaining the greatest percentage of
valuable cuts, consequently the different parts of a lamb
from a butcher's point of view show a wide variation
from the feeder's and breeder's ideal. In the lamb
that is ideal from a butcher's standpoint, it would
not be necessary to have any neck, chest, digestive
apparatus or leg. As may be seen from the illustration
herewith submitted, the neck has a value of only one cent
per pound, the shoulder is two cents and the shanks tha
same. The rib running from the point of the shoulder to
the loin has a value of nine cents per pound, and the same
is true of the loin ; while the leg of mutton has the high-
est value per pound, as that is quoted at ten cents. The
breast and chest have the very low value of two cents per
pound. It is very evident from these facts that the back,
loin and the leg are the three divisions that are most
prized in the lambs that would be ideal from the butcher's
standpoint.

158. Quality. After the form of the sheep has been
carefully examined the quality should be noticed. This
means the cleanness of the bone, fineness of the skin and
the nature of the hair which covers the face and legs.
These are important features in either breeding or fat
sheep. It is perhaps the most valuable from the butcher's
standpoint, because the waste is less from a sheep of
good quality than it is from one that is inferior. The
range in the percentage of dressed weight in lambs will
vary from 50 per cent to 60 per cent of their live

112 JUDGING SHEEP

weight, so that it will be understood that quality is an
important factor from the butcher's standpoint, where the
profit from the carcass is largely determined by the
dressed weight returns.

159. The Importance of Condition. Not only
should a lamb be well developed in the parts indicated to
satisfy the butcher, but the flesh should be uniformly
deep over the parts ; this is a factor in giving a high per-
centage of dressed weight which adds greatly to the profit
of the carcass. While it is very desirable that the lamb
should weigh about lOO pounds, it is even more so that
the condition should be equally satisfactory to produce the
highest price. As indicating the progress of the lambs
in the feed lot in this particular it w^ould perhaps be ad-
visable to follow them through their development.

When put in the feed lot under proper conditions,
lambs w^ill usually begin to show the influence of good
feeding at the end of the third or fourth week. During
this time they seem to be simply getting into good con-
dition to put on flesh, though it appears that some fat is
being deposited internally. Towards the end of that
time many of the lambs may be noticed standing leisurely
in the sun in a partially stretched posture. This pose in
the laml)s is a delight to the shepherd. The fattening
process seems to extend from the internal regions, and is
first in evidence at the tail. It then passes along the back
over the shoulder and reaches the neck ; from this line it
seems to extend down the sides and over the breast in
front. There are six main points at which its extension
seems most in evidence — at the tail, middle of the back,
the neck, the flank, the purse and the breast.

160. Judging Condition. Judges of condition
handle these different points and seem to arrive at the
same conclusions from continued practice in observing

Two pliotoKi'iiplis of the same sheep — the upper before trimming arifi tlie
lower after triiiiiniiif; — by Thomas Bradbourno. shepherd for Altamont flook.
who holds the sheep. This illustrates the necessity of careful handling of
sheep to determine the form.

Pure bred gliropshire wether lamb, winner of first prize at the Inter-
national Exposition. Chicago. 1900. Bred by H. G. Skinner and owned by the
Iowa Agricultural College, Ames, la.

I'hotogrnplis of slieep teeth, showing changes that occur in the order of
appearance of the iueisor.s. The photo on tlie upper left hand shows a
lamb's moutli with all temporary incisors. The upper riu'ht hand photo-
graph shows mouth of a sheep about one year old, with the first pair of per-
manent incisors and the temporary incisors back of them. The photo in the
lower right hand corner shows the mouth of a sheep about two years old.
with two pairs of permanent incisors appearing. The photograph in the
center below shows the mouth of a three year old sheep, with three pairs of
permanent incisors. The lower right hand illustration is a photograph of a
sheep's mouth when four and a half to five years old. The incisors are all
permanent, worn down some and more sloping than the others.

FOR MUTTON AND WOOL ll:j

the development of any one of them, although a critical
examination will reveal that sheep sometimes fatten un-
evenly and may he good in one or more of these points
and comparatively deficient in others. By feeling the tail
head some will form their opinion as to the degree to
which the lamb is fat. Others are satisfied with feeling
the back. Many after feeling the tail, grasp the neck
and base their opinion on the fullness of that part. The
flank and breast are often used for further assistance,
and some butchers estimate condition by the fullness of
the purse. At any of these points, more especially the
back, the covering should be such in the prime lamb as
to prevent feeling the sharp projection of backbone. In
a lamb that is completely fattened there is a distinct
trough or groove running from the tail to the shoulders
and the covering of flesh should extend well down over
tile sides, without softness due to excessive fat or oily
tissue. All lambs do not fatten as smoothly or as uni-
formly as herein indicated. In most lambs, however.
The worst defect is bareness of the loin and lightness in
the hind quarters. With these parts well covered and
fully developed, a rather sharp shoulder and peaked bris-
ket will be overlooked. Not only should the flesh be
thick over the valuable cuts, but it should be firm. Very
often it will be found that soft rough patches will be
present about the head of the tail, owing to the deposit-
ing of too much soft flesh on the back, which may slip
from there on the over ripe limb and gather at the flank
<dr along the sides in long soft rolls.

161. The Importance of Dressed Weight. In

considering this subject still further from the butcher's
point of view, there is the ([uestion of quality which ma-
terially affects the percentage of the dressed meat ob-
tained. This in addition to being largely influenced by

114 JUDGING SHEEP

the condition of the sheep, is perhaps most influenced by
the fineness of the bone, thickness of the pelt and other
features, which all have a marked influence on the profit
from the butcher's standpoint. In this connection to show
how important it is to have the dressed weight yield a
large percentage of valuable cuts, it will be interesting
to quote some results obtained from an experiment at the
Iowa Station under direction of Professor Curtiss. He
found in a lot of ten pure bred Oxford lambs marketed
by the Iowa Experiment Station, that the leg cuts con-
stituted 31.87 per cent of the whole carcass by weight
and sold for 42.63 per cent of the total value. The leg,
rib and loin cuts together aggregated 73.74 per cent of
the total weight and sold for 92 per cent of the total.
162. Consideration of the Consumer. The butcher
and the consumer are very similar in their demands, but
there are a few points that are of peculiar importance to
the latter, and among these may be mentioned the charac-
ter of the flesh. A clear distinction should be drawn be-
tween flesh and fat, or, as it may be otherwise stated, be-
tween muscle and lean meat and tallow. The ideal sheep
from the consumer's standpoint is one that carries a large
proportion of flesh or lean meat with but a limited quan-
tity of fat. In live sheep this is indicated by a firm, even
covering over the parts of the body. The flesh has a
firm but springy touch and is smooth over all regions,
especially thick where it has the highest value. The con-
sumer asserts his preference for another feature and that
is a marked desire for lamb in contrast to matured sheep,
owing to the desirability of small cuts and the supposi-
tion that lamb is more tender than older sheep.

163. The Qualities of the Fleece In estimating
the worth of a sheep or judging it, not only is it fair to
consider the demands of the feeder, the butcher and the

FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 115

consumer, but with these we must inckide the quahties
desired by the wool manufacturer. Though the returns
from the fleece are not very large, yet the sheep breeder
must consider them so that the ultimate profit may be
as great as possible. To arrive at a correct understand-
ing in regard to this, the examiner must follow the best
method of examination and also know in detail the mar-
ket requirements for wool.

164. Examining the Fleece. In examining and
valuing the fleece the chief points to consider are the
quantity, quality and the condition. In grouping the
qualities under these three divisions we can include the
interests of those directly concerned on the various prod-
ucts coming from sheep, on the market. The best method
of arriving at the nature of a fleece is to open it first just
over the shoulder. It is in this region that the finest and
the soundest wool of the fleece is found. By using the
hands in a flat position instead of sticking the end of the
fingers into the wool the fleece may be parted in a more
satisfactory manner. After looking at the wool and skin
in this region, the thigh should be the next place of ex-
amination, for here grows the poorest and coarsest wool
of the wdiole fleece. Then the covering of the wool on
the belly also demands notice, for very often sheep are
quite poor in this region, making the wool light and in-
dicating a lack of constitution. By examining the fleece
in these three parts a fair estimate may be made of its
qualities.

165. Quantity of Fleece. The chief factors which
determine the (juantity are the length, density and even-
Jiess of both of these over all parts.

166. Density. The density of the fleece means the
closeness of the fibers. Technically it means the number
of fibers that grow on a square inch. Density is not only

116 JUDGING SHEEP

of value to secure a heavy fleece, but from a breeder's
point of view its chief importance Hes in the fact that It
is more protection to the sheep than a fleece that is open.
Not only is a sheep with a loose open fleece more liable
to contract a cold from exposure to rain or wind, but it is
also more apt to yield a dirty fleece, as the loose fleece
catches the dirt and dust and pieces of hay and straw.
From the shepherd's point of view the denseness of the
fleece is its leading feature, for it will be found that those
animals with dense close fleeces are less subject to such
diseases as catarrh, running at the nose or scouring.
When a sheep experiences a chill, it at once affects the
circulation and sends the blood to the internal organs, and
inflammation or scouring results. This is why sheep that
have open fleeces are more subject to such diseases than
those that have dense fleeces. Wool is one of the best
non-conductors of heat that we have and when it is on a
sheep in the form of a dense fleece, it gives them the
greatest possible protection from exposure. Furthermore,
if the fleece is not dense, it »s almost impossible for the
fiber to be sound, — that is, free from weak spots. When
a sheep has been badly chilled or has become sick in any
way so as to cause the pores of the skin to contract, a
break or shrinkage occurs in the fiber at that point. The
wool on a sheep grows from a small sac in the skin and
it passes away from the skin through a small opening
•.vhich may be easily contracted or expanded, according
LO different influences. The influences are various, and
for that reason it is important that the sheep be covered
with a fleece that is so dense as not to be affer.ted much
by external conditions.

167. Length of Staple. The length of the staple is
an important feature, both from a commercial point of
view and from the shepherd's standpoint. Wools are geii-

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Lincoln ewu, a wiiiuer uf many prizes in 1897
Denfield, Ontario, Canada.

owned by .lolni T. Gibson,

DESCKIPTION OF THE LINCOLN SHEEP

T^HIS BREED whicli originated in Linconshire England, vies with the Cotswold
for the position of being considered the largest of the long wooled breeds.
The form is very squarely built and when mature the representatives of this breed
are very heavy. The face is pure white, somewhat long and surmounted by a tuft
of wool. The body is e.xceedingly full in its development and marked specially by
a very wide, level and deep fleshed back, while the hind quarters are usually
well developed, being very square in form. The wool is long in fiber, very strong,
frequently inclined to be coarse because of tliis, but it is particularly lustrous and
partsoasily iu flakes. In yield of mutton and wool this breed occupies a foremost
position.

FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 117

erally known as short-stapled or the carding wools, which
are used for woolen clothes, or long-stapled or combing
wools, which are used for worsted clothes. The long sta-
pled wools include the Lincoln, Leicester, Cotswold,
Romney j\Iarsh and Black Face or Highland. The short-
stapled include all the Downs (Southdown, Hampshire,
Suffolk, Shropshire, Oxford), — and the Cheviot and
Welsh. The manufacturer of woolens desires a short-
stapled wool, for such a wool has better felting qualities
and usually more serrations or spirals than the long
wools. In manufacturing woolens into yarns the fibers
are transversely disposed to the axis or length of the
thread. In yarns of this nature this feature
is termed "pile." The points projecting from
the center should be numerous, so that in felt-
ing the fabric unites and also when the cloth
comes to be finished it will appear on top like short
fur (Royal Agricultural Society Transactions, A^ol. II,
Second Series). On the other hand, in worsted goods,
the object is to stretch the fibers and lay them parallel
with each other, and this produces a yarn, even, strong,
and composed of as fine fil)ers as possible. In this process
of manufacture, it is easy to see that the length and
strength of a fiber includes its most valuable character-
istics.

168. Classification of Wool. There is another mar-
ket classification which is more definite than this, but is
very similar in nature. The wools according to their
length and strength in the Chicago market are divided
into clothing, which is short, being about two inches, or
it is weak ; then there is the delaine class, which is a fine
wool from two to three inches long in fiber. The other
class is a combing, which is a strong wool over three
inches long. This classification, it will be seen, depends
altogether on the length and strength of the wool. Con-
sidering first, clothing wool, which is used for making

118 JUDGING SHEEP

flannels and certain kinds of rough cloth, shortness in
the fiber is its leading- characteristic. If the fiber of a
fleece, however, is four inches long, it would, on its
length, be classified as combing wool, but if that fiber has
a weak spot in it where it readily breaks it passes from
the combing class into the clothing class and drops two
or more cents on the pound in price. The delaine wools
are fine wools that are not longer than three inches. They
are used for making the finest kinds of cloth. The comb-
ing wool must in the first place be strong to stand the
process of combing, and with that the greatest length is
desired. In further reference to the quality of the wool,
in examining a fleece, it should be noticed that the length
and the density are even over all parts. Considering: first
the length, the fleece should be examined at the brisket,
on top of the back, along the side on the thigh and on
the belly. As a rule sheep fitted for show are trimmed in
such a way that the wool in front of the brisket is much
longer than that on top of the back, and the same may be
said of that on the sides. In an untrimmed sheep, on
which the wool has grown naturally, it will be found that
there is a natural, variation in the length of the fiber on
different parts of the body. The wool on the brisket will
invariably be found to be longer than that on the top or
in most other parts. The density of the fleece may be
determined by the feel of it under the hand. If the fleece
feels firm and it seems to be compact, it is likely dense.

169. Quality of Fleece. As in most other instances
it is rare to find quality and quantity associated. As a
general rule it will be found that the short wooled sheep
have the finest quality of wool. In judging of the qual-
ity, it should be noted again that the finest wool occurs
just over the heart and on the belly, while the coarsest
grows on the thigh.

I'air of prize winning ('otswold ewes owned by Messrs. GeorRe FlardiiiK &
Son, Waukesha. Wisconsin, sliowiu.cj the desirable qualities of this breed in
long forelocics, upstanding and full fronts, long, level bacUs and heavy fleeces
of wool.

DE.SCRIPTION OF THE COTS^'OLD .SHEEP

I^HIS BREED which is native to the Cotswold iiills in Gloucestershire, England.
Is one of very ancient origin and is one of tliose breeds which show a high order
ot style and finish and utiifortnity, due to the long continued breeding for a type.
The form is remarkably square, upstanding and stylish, the latter being contrib-
uted to in no small degree by a beautiful tuft of wool growing from the forehead
and falling luxuriantly over the face. The head is somewhat long in the face and
may be white or slightly mixed with gray. The forelock is full and long, the ear
small, the neck of sufficient length to uphold tlie head with style. The character-
istic form of the body is long, level and wide with a strong back. The hind (luar-
tcr comes up square and should have suflRcient fullness below. The fleece owing
to its length is usually somewhat open but it possesses a long, strong fiber that
yields heavy. The fleece most desired, while wavy, parts into locks showing a clear
pink skin tree from dark spots. The popularity of the breed lies chiefly in their
large yield of wool and mutton, and these features should be leading character-
istics yet they should also be associated with quality in all the essentials. See
ofiicial scale'of points. i)age 136.

Photo by Reid.

Border Leicester ram, Favorite, winner first prize at Highland and
Agricultural Society. Dumfries, Scotland. 189.5. Bred by and property of
Andrew Smith. Longniddry. Hadington. Scotland.

DESCRIPTION OF THE LEICESTER SHEEP
*1*HIS BREED which was one of the first to be established originated in Leicester-
shire, England. The first improver, Robert Bakewell. 1726-179."). sought chiefly
to increase the early maturity of this breed and lessen the size of the bone and in-
crease the weight of flesh. The characteristics secured at that early time are main-
tained in the modern representative. The face is bare and pure white, body, square,
fore quarters especially full with the hind quarters peculiarly rounded on top.
There are usually many evidences of quiility as seen in the fine bone and the fur-
ther fact that the fiberof the fleece is usually reroarkably fine considering its length.
The marked aptitudeof the representatives of this breed to fatten results in remark-
able Ijacks liut frequently the same aptitude produces a soft and uneven covering.
Tlie Border Leicester, originating from an infusion of Cheviot iilood. is generally
stronger in bone and more vigorous than the English type. The wool of the fleece
s lustrous, five or si.\ inches long and very soft though frequently too open and
sometiiiu^s auscnt on tlic belly.

FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 119

170. Softness. By pressing the fleece with the hand
the softness of it can readily be approximated. This
feature is opposed to harshness. The softness of the fleece
not only depends greatly on the management, but also on
the nature of the food and the soil. In reference to the
foods, those that are rich in sulphur have been observed
to have the most influence on the softness of the wool.
It is interesting to know that in one hundred pounds of
wool there is at least five pounds of sulphur, and it seems
that the abundance of this in the food, has an effect on
this feature of softness in the fleece. It is well known
that soil has a strong influence on the properties of wool,
especially in regard to its softness. Clay soils are con-
sidered to produce the softest wool, of the best lustre and
next to these ranks sandy soils, and lastly, those of the
nature of limestone. Chalky soils have been noted for
the deterioration they produce in the softness of the wool.
Harshness of the fleece is generally due to the absence of
yolk which has resulted from ill health on the part of the
sheep or from exposure. Considering the nature of the
fiber of wool, it is easy to understand how anything, such
as ill health or exposure which effects the secretion of
yolk is certain to make the wool harsh. A fiber of wool
is covered with a series of scales which overlap in a sim-
ilar manner to the shingles on a roof. When the secre-
tion of yolk is abundant, these scales fit it closely to the
fiber, but when the secretion of yolk is stopped from any
injurious cause, the scales stand out from the fiber very
similar to warped shingles on a roof. The result of this
is that the fibers lock and when you feel the fleece that
has fibers of this nature they seem to grate each other
very similarly to file shavings. The wool is harsh and
dry and when pressed it gives that grating feeling which

120 JUDGING SHEEP

is also characteristic of an mihealthy fleece. It is this
that produces what is generally known as a cotted fleece.

171. Commercial Grades. According to the fine-
ness of fiber, or, in other words, the size of it, wool is ar-
i-anged in three grades, — fine, medium and coarse. These
terms are applied to all the classes of wool, — the cloth-
ing, delaine and combing that go into the market. For
instance, there is fine, medium and coarse clothing; there
is fine delaine and medium delaine, and there are all
three grades of combing wools. These terms relating to
the grades are used to designate certain size of fiber. No
exact measurement limits the arrangement of it, but yet
they are so defined that one can readily tell them after
becoming acquainted with them in practice.

172. Crimp. All wool is more or less crimped, pos-
sessing what are sometimes called spirals. The most im-
portant point in regard to the crimp is that it should be
reeular and the folds should not be thrown on each other.

o

Regularity in the crimp indicates that the fiber is sound
from end to end, but if in some places the crimp is short
and close, and in others long and wavy, it usually indi-
cates that where this difference occurs, there is an un-
sound spot in the fiber. It shows that the growth has
been irregular and there is a close relation between the
fineness of the fiber and the nature of the crimp. When
the crimp is fine and close almost invariably the fiber will
be found to be of fine quality. In all coarse wool it should
be noted that the crimp is open and wavy. In opening a
fleece and looking at it, the crimp should always be
noted, for from it an estimate may be made, both as to
the soundness and the fineness of it.

173. Soundness. The soundness of the fiber is of
much importance in the process of manufacturing wool-
ens. The fleece of unsound fibers will bring four or five

Southdown i-iim Banner Bkaker, formerly stock sireof Turlinunori J^tock
Farm, Turliugton, Nebraska, now owned by W. E. iripicer.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTHDOWN SHEEP

'Phis breed, winch is one of the oldest and purest, originated on the Downs of
Sussex in England and they represent a uniformity of type for mutton pur
poses which may be accepted as a model of mutton form. The type shown by this
breed is very symmetrical, compact and close to the ground and there is a marked
refinement in every feature; the general structure being of fine quality wluloevery
part strongly reflects the same characteristic. The head is moderate in size, short
and clearly defined in its lineaments. The forehead should be covered with wool and
the cheeks also but this usually does not join forward of the eye. There is a com-
plete absence of horns, with small i)(jinted ears, the face is some shade of brown or
gray tint and tlie same markings should prevail on the legs. The neck is very short
and straight, the breast broad and full, the back Is straight, well covered and
tightly knit, while the loin is wide, straight and smooth. The general form of the
body shows much depth and width with a trimness characteristic of every region.
The hips while markedly wide are not prominent, the hind quarter fills out square
and the twist and thigh are low and full. The fleece Is characterized more by its
fineness and density rather tlian the weight of the wool which it yields as it is gen -
erally medium In length and comparatively free from yolk. A marked uniformity
in the qu.ality of the wool should be in evidence; that over the shoulder and that
which covers the thigh and other parts being very even in quality. The best types
of this breed may be accepted as a model form for the block See ofiQclal scale of
points, page 181.

Photo by Hills.

Sliropsliire r;im. Ringleader, a frequent prize winner and stock ram at
the head of the Altamout flock, owned by Dr. G. Howard Davidson, Mill-
brook, N. Y.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SHROPSHIRE SHEEP

I'^HIS BREED having its home in the Downs of England is very symmetrical and
stylish in form. The head should show refinement inevery feature with mod-
erate length. A characteristic attribute is for it to be closely covered with wool,
the cap between the ears being dense running to the bridge of the nose and joining
that which covers the cheek and lower part of the head. The ears should be far
apart, pointed and moderate in thickness and preferably covered to the tip with
fine curly wool. There should not be the least evidence of horns as the places
where these sometimes appear should be covered with wool. The neck should be
nicely attached and full and of sufficient length to carry the head with peculiar
style. The body to possess this cliaracteristic smoothness and symmetry must be
somewhat circular and round ribbed. Tlie back should be straight, strong and knit
so that the handling of this part sliows it to be smooth and evenly covered. The
loin must be wide and hips not prominent and the quarters lengtliy and deep, the
width from the loin and hips should be carried out to the tail head and the fullness
characteristic of this part should be maintained on the outside of the thigh and on
the inside as well, making the twist not only deep but plump with flesh. The fleece
should be strong and fine in fiber with all the density possible. From the bridge of
the nose to the fetlocl< as well as along the belly, a dense covering of wool is desir-
able. In opening the fleece the fibers, which are generally about tliree inches long,
should part readily, show clear white in strong contrast to the pink skin. About
the ears or top of the head there should be no patches of black fiber nor should
these appear distributed anywhere in the fleece. The characteristic markings for
the face and legs are a rich dark brown in color. The best type of this breed shows
an unusual combination of quality and quantity of both wool and mutton. See
oflQcial scale of points, page 133.

KOR MUTTON AND WOOL 121

cents less than one that is strong throughout. To test
tlie soundness of a fiber in addition to knowing it by the
character of the crimp, a small lock of wool is taken be-
tween the fingers and stretched evenly and gently until
the unsoundness or the strength becomes apparent. The
wool may break at the bottom, having what is called
"weak bottoms," or it may have "weak middles" or "weak
tops," according to the location of the unsoundness.
Evenness of all the desirable characteristics should exist
over all parts of the fleece. The softness should be ap-
. parent over all regions and fineness also, and the crimp
should in addition appear uniform throughout the fiber.

174. Condition. The condition of the fleece refers
more to its purity, lustre, brightness and the quantity and
character of the yolk. The condition of a fleece results
mostly from correct breeding and proper management.

175. Purity. Purity refers to the freedom of the
fleece from dead fibers and foreign matter. In fleeces that
are grown on sheep that are exposed to conditions un-
favorable to thrift, there is a natural tendency for the
fleece to revert to its original state; that is, fibers of hair
begin. to appear in it and these take the place of the wool.
Very often in fleeces grown by sheep that have been ex-
posed there will be found a great many dead fibers which
are technically spoken of as "kemp." These dead fibers
are very injurious to the fleece from the commercial
standpoint, because they do not absorb dyes, and in any
cloth that is made from such wool these dead fibers will
retain the white and hard appearance that they had in
the fleece.

176. Domestic Wool. Based on the condition oi
the fleece the market makes a division of four kinds.
These are what is known as domestic wool, territon'
wool, blanket wool and carpet wool. Domestic wools art'

122 , JUDGING SHEEP

clean and bright. Wool of this kind comes from fleeces
that are grown under what might l^e termed domesticated
conditions, that is, — sheep are given shelter, fed well and
otherwise have good management. This results in a
clean, bright wool which the market classifies as domes-
tic wool.

177. Territopy Wool. In contrast to this is the ter-
ritory wool. This wool is called territory wool simply
because it is dirty or it is discolored. It is wool that
comes from sheep managed and cared for in a w^ay very
similar to that which is common in the territories. The
sheep have run out the year round ; the fleece has be-
come full of sand, straw, chaff and similar substances,
and this has filled the fleece with foreign material.

178. Blanket Wool. In contrast to this is the ter-
that go to the market are known as carpet wool and
blanket wool. The worst feature connected with this
kind of wool is the presence of kemp or the dead fibers
previously mentioned. On account of these not freely
absorbing the dyes, this wool has to be manufactured
into carpets and blankets. When the nature of the fleece
of the original sheep is understood so that the improve-
ment that has been made through breeding for many
years becomes apparent, it can easily be seen that when
sheep are neglected the tendency is for their fleece to re-
vert to the original condition. In this condition the
fleece was made up of an external covering of hairs and
beneath it an undergrowth of very finely fibered wool.
Domestication by man has completely removed the hair
and gives us a fine fleece of wool which exists on well
bred sheep today. Neglect on the part of the breeder
will surely result in the sheep reverting to the kind of
fleece that it at one time possessed.

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IniDorted Hampshire ram. Barton's Best 099. Weight, 313 lbs; fleece 12H
lbs., April 1.5, 1896. At head of the Prairie Castle flock. Dropped February
10, 1893. Owned by J. H. Taft Estate, Mendon, Mich.

DESCRIPTION OF THE HAMPSHIRE SHEEP

I^HIS BREED, findins its name from its native district in England is strong
framed with those features which denote constitution, strikingly sliown. The
head is strong and somewhat large with prominent nose and ear inclined to be
thick and large yet tlierc should not be any undue coarseness in these parts. The
neck should be strong and deep from head to shoulder, the clicst very deep and
wide. The back strong with width and proper covering. The liind quii.rter sliould
be characterized by fullness both befoie and below. In general tlie frame is strong,
lengthy and close to the ground with tlie other attributes whicli indicate vigor.
The wool of the fleece is somewhat short, dense and strong In fiber. Ruggedness
ind weight of form are desirable yet these sliould be secured if possible without
extreme coarseness of form or fleece. The early development of the lambs of this
breed is a leading characteristic and should be recognized, consequently a heavy
wuight at an early age but not at the expense of quality and breed type is very
desirable. See official scale of points, page 133.

An Oxford Down ram, winner of numei-ous state fair prizes, owned by
George JIcKerrow, Sussex, Wisconsin.

DESCRIPTION OF THK OXFOKD DO\VN SHEEP

T'HIS breed originated in the county of Oxford, England, and the type was
evolved by tlie use of tlie Cotswold and Hampshire. The origin of the type is
sliown somewliat in the modern representatives for the scale, substance and back
w hich tliey possess reflect the qualities of tlie long wool line, while the dark face^
fleece characteristics and quality of structure are attributable to the Down ancestry.
Tlie face and markings are either gray or brown. The .head of the Oxford differs
somewhat from the Shropshire in being longer and not so densely wooled past tlie
eye, while the car is slightly larger and longer. The form is square in general
appearance, wider than In that of the other Down breeds and the hind quarter
square on top and below carrying flesh close to the hocks. The fleece is heavy,
moderately open and the fiber is long and strong. When mature they are one of
the heaviest of the Down breeds being large in size and strong in frame. See official
scale of points, page iijo.

FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 123

179. Lustre. This refers to the glistening appear-
ance of the fiber when held to the light. This is inde-
pendent of the amount of yolk, and it is also quite dis-
tinct from the brightness of the fiber. Although yolk in
a fleece may add to the lustre of the fiber, yet all lustrous
wools have this characteristic independent of the amount
of yolk that is present. The chief advantage from a com-
mercial standpoint that attaches itself to lustrous wools
is that they more readily take delicate dyes. Wools in
the market are known as lustrous or dull, according to
the appearance of the fiber. The lustrous fiber has the
appearance of having been varnished, while a dull one
does not show the least tendency to glisten when held
in the light.

180. Brightness. Brightness is quite distinct from
lustre, as it refers altogether to the color of the wool. In
the market wools are said to be bright or dark as they
vary in this characteristic. The bright wool is one that
has a clear white color, while the dark wool is one that
has become discolored from the soil on which the sheep
has ranged, or some similar source. Brightness is always
characteristic of domestic wool and discoloration is a
feature of all territory wools.

181. Yolk. This is the grease or oil that is naturally
secreted by the skin. As before indicated the yolk in the
fleece is an indication of the healthiness of the sheep.
The yolk is secreted in the skin, but it passes down
through the fiber and finds an outlet at the end of the
fiber. If you will notice sheep on certain days when the
weather is close and the sheep are likely sweating, the
yolk seems to accumulate on the end of the fiber, and if
you were to run your hand over the fleece at that time
you would find it became quite oily. The yolk apparently
comes out at the end of the fibers and works back into the

124 JUDGING SHEEP

fleece. In some flocks the quantity of yolk has been in-
creased and encouraged by selection in breeding, so that
heavy fleeces might be obtained. The ordinary fleece in
which yolk is abundant in proper quantity will lose nearly
one-third through washing it in hot water. This grease
is of no value to the manufacturer and it represents a di-
rect loss to him when it is in the fleece in very large quan-
tities. The feeding and the management undoubtedly
influence the amount of yolk. Feeding sheep foods that
are rich in oils seems to further the secretion of grease
and especially in feeding with such rations as are gen-
erally given to fattening sheep, the quantity of yolk seems
to increase. In fattening lambs at the Wisconsin Station
it was found that the lambs which received grain from
birth invariably sheared heavier fleeces than those that
liad grain only during the latter three months of fatten
ing. By washing samples from the fleece of these sheep
it was determined that the increased weight of the fleece
was almost altogether due to the increased amount of
yolk which the grain -fed lambs secreted. The presence
of yolk in proper quantities is of chief importance, be-
cause the fleece becomes soft through it, and is made
more compact, thereby keeping bright and clean in con-
dition. Furthermore, it is a safe index of the thriftiness
in the sheep, though if present in excessive quantities ano
accumulated in flakes it indicates undue pampering oi
unthriftiness due to overfeeding^.

Cheviotram. Sandy Walkeh; wiiinerof fii.sl prize at Ktiiiibur'^li, Morpt'th,
and the II. and A. y. Show. Dumfries. lsn.">. Hred by and properly of John
Elliott, Uindhope. .Jedburgh, Scot laud.

DESCRIPTION Of' THK CHEVIOT SHEEP

VhIS breed, a native of the Cheviot mountains and the most common slieep of
Scotch borders has been known on tlie liiils of Scotland for more tlian 200 years.
To thrive under the conditions of their nativity they must naturally possess
unusual activity with strong constitutions. The modern type exemplifies this fact
as it Is that of a sheep blocky in body and deep, with short legs Tlic face is bare
of wool from the cars forward without any appearance of horns and pure white, as
on all other regions of the body excepting tiie immediate vicinity of tlie nostrils
and tlie hoofs which should be black. Being liardy. active and prolific they have
a perlness in loolc. and activity in movement which is thoroughly characteristic of
the breed. The manner of the slieep is cliaracterized by alertness added to further
by a keen face, bright eye and active, fine ears. The chest is deep with the floor of
it close to the ground, the girth full, the back rather short but strong, witli a deep
rib, the hind quarter is low set but well developed from the mutton standpoint.
The fleece should be dense and fine in texture. The breeders are particularly care-
ful that the quality of the fleece sliould be even throughout and free from kemp or
dead hairs and especially fill the hand well. As constitution is eminently desirable
in these sheep the evidences of this should be strikingly shown in type and tem
peranient. See ofScial scale of points, page i:W.

Dorset ram lamb owned and bred by Tranquility Stoclv Farms, Alla-
muchy, N. J.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DORSET SHEEP

^SrIGINALLY a mountain breed of Dorsetshire and Summersetshire of the
south of England, this breed has been modified considerably In type during
late years and the modern representative now shows a form that is long, round-
bodied and yet compactly built.

Standard of excellence and scale of points of the Dorset sheep, adopted by the
Continental Dorset Association.— Head neat, face white, nostrils large, well covered
on crown and around jaws with wool, 5; horns, small and gracefully curving for-
ward, rather close to jaws, 5; , eyes, prominent, briglit, 2; ears, moderately large,
covered with short white hair, 3; neck, symmetrical, strongly set on shoulders,
gradually tapering to junction of head, 5; shoulders, broad and full, joining neck
forward, and chine backward with no depression at either point (important),!,");
brisket, wide and well forward, chest full and deep, 8> fore flank, quite full, showing
no depression behind shoulder, 10; back and loin, flat and straight, from which ribs
should spring with a fine circular arch, 10; quarters, wide and full with mutton
extending down to hock, 6; belly, straight on underlines; fleece, medium grade,
of even quality, and presenting a smooth surface, well covered on belly and legs 13;
general conform:;t;on of the mutto:i type, body moderately lengthy, short legs
placed squarely under body, appearance attractive, skin pink colored. 15.

FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 125

SCALE OF POINTS FOR FINK WOOLED SHBKP. tj O

GENERAL APPEARANCE:

Form, level, deep, stylish, round rather than square. .... 8
Quality, clean, fine bone; silky hair; fine skin 6

HEAD AND NECK:

Muzzle, fine; broad, wrinkly nose; pure white , . . .

Eyes, large, clear, placid

Face, wrinkly, covered with soft, velvety coat

Forehead, broad, full

Ears, soft, thick, velvety

Neck, short, muscular, well set on shoulders

FORE QUARTERS :

Shoulder, strong, being deep and broad 4

Brisket, projecting forward, breast wide i

Legs, straight, short, wide apart ; shank smooth and fine. 2

BODY:

Chest, deep, full, indicating constitution 10

Back, level, long; round ribbed . . 4

Loin, wide, level 4

Flank, low, making underline straight 2

HINDQUARTERS:

Hips, far apart, level, smooth 2

Rump, long, level, wide 4

Legs, straight, short, strong ; shank smooth, fine 2

WOOL :

Kind — Domestic, clean and bright.
Territory, dirty or discolored.

^^''P^'- I Hairy or having dead fibers.

Class — Clothing, fiber under two inches in length or
unsound.
Delaine, fiber two or three inches in length.
Combing, fiber over three inches in length and
sound.
Grade — Fine, medium or coarse.
Quantity — Long, dense, even covering, especially over

crown, cheek, armpit, hind legs and belly 15

Quality — Fine fiber, crimp close, regular; even quality

including tops of folds . • • • 15

Condition — Bright, lustrous, sound, pure, soft, even distri-
bution of yolk, with even surface to fleece 15

Total 100

126 JUDGING SHEEP

SCALE OF POINTS FOR MUTTON SHEEP — FOR WETHER.

>- O
(U o

GENERAL APPEARANCE:

Weight, score according to age 8

Form, long, level, deep, broad, low set, stylish lo

Quality, clean bone, silky hair, fine skin, light in offal,

yielding large percentage of meat lo

Condition, deep even covering of firm flesh especially in
region of valuable cuts. Points indicating condition or
ripeness are thick dock, back thickly covered with flesh,
thick neck, full purse, full low flank, plump breast lo

HEAD AND NECK:

Muzzle, fine, mouth large, lips thin, nostrils large i

Eyes, large, clear, placid i

Face, short, clean cut features i

Forehead, broad, full i

Ears, fine, erect i

Neck, thick, short, throat free from folds i

FORE QUARTERS:

Shoulder Vein, full i

Shoulder, covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth. . . i

Brisket, projecting forward, breast wide i

Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong; fore arm full,

shank smooth and fine i

BODY:

Chest, wide, deep, full, indicating constitution 8

Back, broad, straight, long, wide, thickly fleshed, ribs

arched lo

Loin, thick, broad, long lo

HIND QUARTERS:

Hips, far apart, level, smooth 2

Rump, long, level, wide to tail head 3

Thighs, full, deep, wide 3

Twist, plump, deep 3

Legs, straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine. ..... . I

WOOL:

Kind, domestic, territory, carpet or blanket •

Class, clothing, delaine or combing

Grade, fine, medium or coarse

Quantity, long, dense, even 4

Quality, fine, pure; crimp close, regular, even 4

Condition, bright, sound, clean, soft, light 4

Total 100

Kanibouillet ram lamb imported by Gioiuc llaiilm^' \ J^oiis, \\auke-
sha, Wis. A frequent, first prize winner in the state fair circuit of 1899.
Owned by J. F. Jensen, Mount Pleasant, Utah.

DESCRIPTION OF THE RAMBOUILLET SHEEP

'Phis is tlie largest Ijreed of tine wooled slieep and they have been established In
France from the original Merino type by jrenerous feeding and careful selection,
having in view a large foi-m witli tendency towards mutton making and fleece that
is line in fiber, very long and markedly dense. The aim has been to produce a fine
wooled sheep with mutton tjualities. Size of form has been secured and where this
possesses sufficient quality and smoothness it represents a high order of combina-
tion of wool and mutton producing tendencies. The head is covered with a dense
growth of wool extending over nose, cheek and around the eye. The ewe sliouid be
polled and the rams possessed of hoi'ns. The ears are somewhat short, silky in feel-
ing, due largely to pliability and a fine growth of hair. The neck is somewhat thick
but comparatively free from wrinkles and the chest very deep. The body should
continue its depth and have a smooth layer of flesh. The hind quarter sliould not
droop but characterized by levelness with a crease at the tail head. The legs are
short, strong and straight. The feature of most decided merit connected with this
breed is the character of the fleece which yields heavily because of its unusual
density and the combination of length and fineness which the fiber shows. The
fleece should show bright and lustrous with a uniformly fine crimp extending from
tip to base. The yolk should be free and not clotted at any part of the fleece.-
These characteristics should be noticeable in all regions showing it to be true .and
even in (luality thi'oughout. The fleece in addition to extending well over the face
should run down on the legs as far as possible and make a complete covering of the
belly.

A Merino ewe. winner of first in Merino (A) as yearling ewe, and sweep-
stakes as best Merino ewe of any age, at ttie World's Fair, 1893; bred by E. D.
King, Burlington, Kansas.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DELAINE MERINO SHEEP

T^HIS FAMILY of American Merinos has been estaV)lished by increasing the size

■ smoothening the form, lengthening the fiber and adding somewhat to the mut-
ton properties of the ancestral stock. In somefamilies the polled ftaturcis an addi-
tional characteristic. In those that are horned these should in t utiiiiig keep clear
of the face. The form in general has been enlarged and snioothcncd l)y the develop-
ment of a tendency to take on flesh. The fleece l)eing comparatively free of wrinkles
has al.so contributed t(j the smoothness of form which it? characteristic of the Delaine.
As in the otlier type rjuality of bone, skin and hair and the addition of quality of
fleece with fineness in every particular should be mainly characteristic. See official
scale of points, page 140.

DESCRIPTION OF THE AMERICAN MERINO SHEEP

I^HIS BREED with its fascinating history starting in Syria, passing into Greece,

■ from there to Italy, then to Spain on to France and from thence to England
and later to Australia and America has an historical record for inherent constitu-
tion which has made them strong in type and very decided in their characteristics.
Size and mutton form are not characteristic of the breed but quality in every
requirement is a striking attribute. The face is white and the head closely capped
with wool extending down on the bridge of the nose and completely surrounding the
eyes. The ear is small, pointed and covered with wool and a soft growth of hair.
In the ram the horn should spring strong and completely clear of the face, the neck
is light and so is the shoulder and a marked feature is the depth of the chest, the
floor coming down well Ijetween the fore legs which are short and strong. The body
is short the rib deep, the loin and hind quarter strong. The fleece under careful
examin:ition should be very dense with flat surface as shown by a very even pile.
The fiber should be long, fine, sound and when the fleece is opened it should part
readily from end to end showing an even and free distribution of yolk. To the finger
and thumb softness of the wool should be apparent, while to the eye it should show
a lustre and brightness tliroughout. Where the wrinkles occur they should not
have any coarse fibers on the tops of the folds and the yolk should not be clotted in
the creases or any portion of the fleece.

The following scale of points is taken from the Merino Sheep Registry:
" Merino Sheei) Register— First. Blood, a perfectly authenticated line of ances-
try tracing to iinijortat ions made from Spain prior to lsl2 witliout a mixture. 20. Con-
stitution, 18. Fleece. (|uality. quantity and condition as shown by weight of fleece,
length and strength of staple, eiiinp. fineness and brightness of fiber, evenness
throughout, freedom from dead fil)er and aijiount of yolk, 13 Form, 9. Size, rams at
full growth in l)ret-dirig condition should weigh 130 pounds or upwards; ewes 100
pounds. 9. Head medium size, muzzle clear, nose covered with glossy, furry hair;
eyes bright and placid; forehead broad; ears soft, thick and set well apart; ewes
hornless; liorns on ram well turned (set not too close to the head and neck, nor yet
standing out too widely from them) and free from black or dark colored streaks, 6.
Neck short on top. long below; strongly set to head and shoulders becoming deeper
towards shoulder folds, heavier underneath and extending upsidesof neck, includ-
ing dewlap and apron. ■'5. Legs and feet. 4. General apoear.ance, good carriage; bold,
vigorous style, symmetrical form and proper comple.xion of covering, 4.

FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 127

II. JUDGING SHBEP FOR BREEDING PURPOSES.

In judging pure bred sheep in the breeding classes, the
subject of breed type should receive careful considera-
tion. While it has a bearing on the judging of all classes
of pure bred stock, yet it is of double importance in the
pure bred classes of sheep.

182. Formation of Types. The type that has be-
come characteristic of each breed has arisen from a vari-
ety of causes. In all instances the breeder's skill in se-
lecting and mating has been a controlling factor, but
other influences have assisted more or less. In some in-
stances, the function of the animal or the work it is called
upon to do has had a strong influence. This is evident
in the instance of the running horse, the trotting horse
and the dairy cow ; wdiere the form or the type has de-
veloped from the function. In other instances the en-
vironment has aided man in the work of selection and
this is notably true of sheep. The adaptability of sheep
for different altitudes of land enables us to divide them
into lowland breeds, upland or down breeds, and moun-
tain breeds. The lowland breeds are large, square and
strongly framed, and heavy producers of wool and mut-
ton; the down breeds are smaller, but rounder and more
compact with fleece, frame and mutton of better quality.
The mountain breeds must have more vigor and agility
than those previously mentioned to earn subsistance un-
der rougher conditions, so that the possession of a rugged
constitution, and active disposition with strong limbs and
muscles are of more importance than the other features
that are characteristic of other types. Man seeks to fix
the type considered characteristic of the breeds by elab-
orating a scale of points representing the features desired
in the types and towards the production of these ideal
types all the breeders bend their energies.

128 JUDGING SHEEP

183. Value of Breed Type. The type of the
breed having been decided upon by all the breeders, it
should be the aim of the judge to recognize it, for aside
from an acknowledgment of the wishes of the breeders
it is a point of direct value to do so. When a breed has
been bred uniformly to a type for many years the type
has become so fixed that it is uniformly transmitted.
Two of the most powerful factors aiding the fixing of
the type of a breed are the breeders seeking to produce
the animal of ideal type as represented by the scale of
points and the judges conforming to it in the show ring.
The result is influential in regard to breeding, as it as-
sists in making the breed prepotent or able to transmit
its characteristics with a greater degree of certainty.
Another feature associated with the fixing of the breed
type by the assistance of the breeder and the judge is the
fact that it then becomes possible to select breeding stock
from among the pure breeds with special reference to
their adaptability for a definite environment. Knowing
the environment that has assisted in producing a type of
any breed of sheep and knowing that a certain type has
become the fixed property of that breed, it is possible to
make an intelligent choice of a breed for any environ-
ment. It is this adaptability for different environments
that has given us over twenty-five different breeds of
sheep, and as it is the possession of these peculiarities
which unite in what is called breed type that gives each a
place. Consequently it is important that the breeder
should try to retain the type and in this secure the co-
operation of the judge.

184. The Ram. Aside from the breed type which
is outlined in the scales of points that are given elsewhere,
the ram in type should show masculinity in many fea-
tures. In those breeds that have horns, the latter should

Au.->ti:ili;iu Merino i"ina. Golden Hokx 1 1, bi-t'd liy IIoii. .J:is. Gibson. 'V;is-
ruuniii. and owned \>y II. li. Roberts. Triveilon 15;uw;ing. New South Wales.
Photo taken 18!t4, wiieu ram was eielit years old- sired vii lambs same year and
sheared litu pounds. Sold for 0:i;> Kiiineas (over i::i.0O0), July (!, ISinJ.

From photograph in the "Australian Fastoralists' Ucview." Merino ram
President, bred by lion. .lames Gibson : sold at Sydney. Australia, for
$8,000 July, 18it6.

Southdown ewe, winner of several firsts at state fairs. Owned by George
Allen. Allerton, Illinois.

Shropshire ewe owned ))y A. O. Fox, Oregon. Wisconsin. Winner of
sweepstakes at the World's Fair, 1893.

FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 129

spring strong from the head and turn free from the face.
In all rams the face should be broad between the eyes,
somewhat short with a Roman nose. The crest or scrag
should be thick and rising and the neck full. A point de-
serving emphasis is the depth of the chest. The body
should sink deep between the fore legs and the ribs back
of the shoulder should be deep and round, making the
girth large and the brisket prominent and wide, — two
features that are indicative of a strong constitution. A
live fleece, that is, one that is springy and not dead to the
touch, and especially a dense thick covering of belly
wool is also indicative of vigor or constitution. For the
same reason in those breeds that are wooled about the
head, the more complete and dense this covering is, the
better it is liked. The legs of the ram should be straight
and strong and short. The movement of the ram should
be bold and active. This is often influenced by the con-
dition. A ram should never be so heavy in flesh as to be
useless for service, as is too often the case in the show
ring. The flesh should be even and firm, and not gath-
ered in masses or rolls at any part of the body. It is very
apt to gather at the fore flank, leaving the back bare or
raw. Excessive condition is likely to make the ram un-
wieldy in action or result in broken down pasterns which
usually render a ram useless for breeding purposes.

185. The Ewe. The ewe should be rather long: in
the face with fine features. The neck should be slender
and without any of the thickness noticeable in the ram.
The body should be deep, round ribbed and specially long
so as to provide room for the growing lamb. The type
of the good milking ewe verges strongly towards that
which is typical of the good dairy cow. The ewe that
milks well, and, consequently, rears early maturing lambs
tends towards the wedge shape, deep in the chest, large

130 JUDGING SHEEP

bodied and wiae across the loins and the hips. The con-
dition of the ewe should not be such as to impair her
breeding qualities. Excessive fatness as a rule is in this
way injurious. The flesh should be evenly distributed
and not gathered in bunches about the tail head, and it
should be firm and not flabby.

186. Judging Lambs and Flocks. In judging lambs
the main consideration is to make due allowance for
the differece in age among the contestants. As to
the possibilities of future development, the judge can only
have his own experience and observation to guide him.
It may be said, however, that it will be found as a rule
that the short, smooth and thick lamb, which shows best
at five or six months old or under, will rarely develop into
a sheep of desirable size when mature ; while the lamb
that is more growthy, yet possessing a well knit frame,
showing some length and also quality, will develop both
size and smoothness. Stress should be laid on the strength,
straightness and firmness of the back and the depth of the
body. In judging flocks the rams that head them should
receive chief consideration, though this does not mean
that the uniformity and the type of the ewes should be
overlooked. An exceptionally good ram either in the
showing or in use as a sire will as a rule obliterate a
multitude of small faults in the remainder of the flock.
In reference to the ages of the individual in the flock, the
nearer they are to being yearlings the higher they should
be appraised. Younger than this calls for suppositions re-
lating to their development, and when they pass beyond
two years, their worth in the flock has last the value that
results from the production of one year, though it can-
not be said that the merit of the sheep has decreased in
any other respect.

Photo by Schreiber.
Iinportfd Shi-opshire ewe lambs owned by W. L. Elkins, Phihidelpbia. Pa.

Southdown ram lambs. The property of the Pagham Harbour Company.
Selsey, Chichester. England. Winners of first prize at K. A. S. E. Show, 1898.

Hampshire Dowu sheep owned by John J. Gordon, Mercer. Pennsylvania.

Imported Oxford Down prize winning ewo, Irchester Model 1)S445, and
ram, IIohh's Uectoii IT-iTO. First prize winners at tlie Trans-Mississippi Expo-
sition lield at Omaha 1S98. The ram was tlie champion slieep of the Exposi-
tion. Owned by Ricliard Stone. Stonington, 111.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 131

III, OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF KXCELLENCB FOR SHEEP.
SOUTHDOWN SHEEP.

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE —AMERICAN SOUTHDOWN g

RECORD, VOL. I, 1884. {j

Head — Medium in size and hornless, fine, carried well up,
forehead or face well covered with wool, especially be-
tween the ears and on the cheeks, and in the ewe slightly
dished 5

Lips and under jaw fine and thin 1

Ears — Rather small, tolerably wide apart, covered with fine
hair and carried with a lively back and forth move-
ment 2

Eyes^FuU and bright 3

Face — A uniform tint of brown, or gray, or mouse color 3

Neck — Short, fine at the head, but nicely tapering, and broad
and straight on top at the shoulders 4

Shoulders — Broad and full, smoothly joining the neck with
the back 5

Breast — Wide, deep and projecting well forward, the fore-
Jegs standing well apart 5

Back and loin broad and straight from shoulders to rump... 7

Ribs — Well arched, extending lar backward, the last project-
ing more than the others 6

Rump — Broad, square and full, with tail well set up 6

Hips — Wide, with little space between tnem and the last ribs. 6

Thighs — Full and well let down in twist, the legs standing
well apart 6

Limbs — Short and fine in bone, and in color to agree with
face 3

Fore Legs — Well wooled and carrying mutton to the knees,
but free from meat below 2

Hind Legs — Well filled with mutton and wooled to the hocks,
neat and clean below 2

Belly — Straight and well covered with wool, the flank extend-
ing so as to form a line parallel with the back or top
line 5

Fleece — Compact, the whole body well covered with moder-
ately long and close wool, white in color, carrying some
yolk 12

Form — Throughout smooth and symmetrical, with no coarse-
ness in any part 9

General Appearance — Spirited and attractive, with a de-
termined look, a proud and firm step, indicating consti-
tutional vigor and thorough breeding 8

Total 100

132 JUDGING SHEEP

SHROPSHIRE SHEEP.

POINTS OF EXCELLENCE FOR PURE BRED SHROPSHIRE ^

SHEEP RECORDED OR ELIGIBLE TO REGISTRY ■£

INTHE AMERICAN SHROPSHIRE REG- g

ISTRY ASSOCIATION RECORD. (J

General Appearance — Attractive, indicating breeding and
quality, with stylisli carriage and a symmetrical form,
covered with dense fleece 25

Constitution — Robust as indicated by width and depth of
chest, strength and formation of neck, and by bold act-
ive movement 10

Size^ — In breeding condition when fully matured. Rams
should weigh not less than 180 to 225 pounds, and Ewes
should weigh not less than 125 to 170 pounds 10

Fleece and Skin — Fleece of good length, dense, elastic to touch
medium fine, free from black fiber, slightly crimped,
witl: evenness of texture throughout; scrotum of rams
well covered with wool. Skin light cherry color, clear
and free from dark spots 15

Body — Well proportioned, with shoulders well placed, fitting
smoothly upon chest, which should be deep and wide,
broad and straight back, thick loins, well covered with
firm flesh; hind quarters well finished; twist deep and
full 20

Head and Neck — Head, short, broad between the ears and
eyes bold and masculine in rams, withor.t horns, well
covered with wool, ears short and erect, eyes bright,
color of face and ears dark brown. Neck of medium
length, strong and masculine (especially in rams), sym-
metrically joined to head and shoulders 15

Legs — Well set apart, broad, short, straight, color dark brown
and well wooled; pastern strong and upright 5

Total 100

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP I'.i'S

HAMPSHIRE DOWN.

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY AMERICAN

HAMPSHIRE DOWN SHEEP BREEDERS

ASSOCIATION, VOL. I, 189O.

Head — :\Io(lerately large, but not coarse; well covered with
wool on forehead and cheeks.

Nostrils — Wide.

Color — Head and Legs — Dark brown or black.

Eyes — Prominent and lustrous.

Ears — Moderately long and thin and dark brown or black
color.

Leg«- — Well under outside of body, straight with good size
of bone, black.

Neck — A regular taper from shoulders to head, without any
hollow in front of shoulders, set high up on body.

Shoulders — Sloping full, and not higher than the line of
back and neck.

Chest — Deep and full in the heart place, with breast prom-
inent and full.

Back — Straight with full spring of rib.

Loin — Wide and straight, without depression in front of hips.

Quarters — Long from hips to rump, without sloping, and
deep in thigh. Broad in hips and rump, with full hams. Inside
of thighs full.

c

SCALE OF POINTS. 5

O

u

Head — Size and .shape, 5; ears and eyes, 3; color, 5; legs and

feet, 2 15

Neck, Shoulders and Breast — Neck, 5; shoulders, 10; chest

and breast, 15 30

Body — Back and loin, 15 ; rib, 5 20

Quarters — Length, 10; width, 10; twist, 5 25

Wool — Forehead and cheeks, 2; belly, well covered, 3; qual-
ity, 5 10

Total 100

134 JUDGING SHEEP

SUFFOLK SHEEP. «

c

SCALE OF POINTS. SUFFOLK SHEEP SOCIETY FLOCK O

BOOK, VOL. VII, 1893. ENGLAND. ^

Head — Hornless; face black and long, and muzzle moderately
fine, especially in ewes. (A small quantity of clean
white wool on the forehead not objected to.) Ears a
medium length, black, and fine texture. Eyes bright and

full 25

Neck — Moderate length and well set. (In rams stronger, with

a good crest) 5

Shoulder — Broad and oblique 5

Chest — Deep and wide 5

Back and Loin — Long, level, and well covered with meat and
muscle; tail broad and well set up. The ribs long and

well sprung, with a full flank 20

Legs and Feet — Straight and black, with fine and flat bone.
Wooled to knees and hocks, clean below. Fore legs well

filled with mutton 20

Belly; Also Scrotum of Rams — Well covered with wool.... 5
Fleece — Moderately short; close, fine fiber, without tendency
to mat or felt together, and well defined, i. e., not shad-
ing off into dark wool or hair 10

Skin — Fine, soft, and pink color 5

Total 100

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 135

OXFORD DOWN SHEEP.

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED liV AMERICAN OXFORD DOWN "£

SHEEP BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. IN FOUR g

DIVISIONS. (J

Breed type 30

Constitution 25

Mutton form and quality 30

Wool 15

SUBDIVISION — BREED TYPE OF ANIMALS.

Form of a good general appearance, made by a well balanced
conformation, free from coarseness in any part, and
showing good style both at rest and in motion 15

Head of moderate length and width between the ears and
between the eyes, and well covered with wool over poll
and down to the eyes. Color of face an even dark gray
or brown, either with or without gray spot on tip of
nose 6

When fully matured and in good condition rams should
weigh 250 to 350 pounds; ewes, 180 to 275 pounds 5

Ears medium size, not too thick and of an even brown or dark
gray color 2

Legs short, strong in bone, flat and of even dark gray or
brown color, placed squarely under the body and well
apart 2

CONSTITUTION.

Large around the heart and wide and full in the chest 10

The movement must be bold and vigorous 5

Eyes bold, prominent and bright 4

Skin bright pink in color 3

Neck strong and muscular in rams and well set on in both
sexes 3

MUTTON FORM AND QUALITY.

Wide and straight on top of shoulders, back, loin and rump,
from base of neck to tail 15

Full shoulders and thighs, well meated both inside and out-
side 5

Flanks well filled and strong so as to make the lower lines
of the body as straight as possible, and side lines straight
or rather full 4

The whole carcass evenly covered with good, well marbled
meat 6

WOOL.

Fleece of moderate length, close and of even quality, cover-
ing the whole carcass well, and free from black patches
upon the body, neck or head 15

136 JUDGING SHEEP

COTSWOLD SHEEP.

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED g

BY AMERICAN COTSWOLD ASSOCIATION, g

VOL. V, 1S92 — EWES. (J

Head — Moderately fine, broad between the eyes and nostrils,
but without a short, thick appearance, and well covered
on crown with long lustrous wool 8

Face — Either white or slightly mixed with gray, or white
dappled with brown 4

Nostrils — Wide and expanded. Nose dark 1

Eyes — Prominent, but mild looking 2

Ears — Broad, long, moderately thin and covered with short
hair 4

Collar — Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually
all the way to where the neck and head join — neck
should be fine and graceful, and free from coarse and
loose skin 5

Shoulders — Broad and full, and, at the same time, joined so
gradually to the collar forward and chine backwards, as
not to leave the least hollow in either place 8

Fore Legs — The mutton on the arm, or fore thigh, should
come quite to the knee. Leg upright with heavy bone,
— being clear from superfluous skin, with wool to fetlock
and may be mixed with gray 4

Breast — Broad and well forward, keeping the legs wide apart.
Girth and chest full and deep 10

Fore Flank — Quite full, not showing hollow behind the
shoulder 4

Back and Loin — Broad, flat and straight, from which the ribs
must spring, with a fine circular arch 12

Belly — Straight on underline 5

Quarters — Long and full, with mutton quite down to the
hock 8

Hock — Should stand neither in nor out 2

Twist — Or junction inside of thighs delep, wide and full,
which with a broad breast, will keep the legs open and
upright 5

Fleece — The whole body should be covered with long lustrous
wool 18

Total 100

Cotswold ewes from the Hock of C. E. Ladd, Portland. Oregon, showing
the vigor and thrift of sheep wlieii under environment which favoi's them,
such as the Willamette Valley, in that state.

Selected heads to show the characteristic form of this part in the breeds
represented. The one to the left is photographed from the head of a Cots-
wold ram owned by Messrs. Geo. Harding & Sou, of Waukesha, Wisconsin.
This photograph shows the beautiful forelock desired in representatives of
this breed. The head shown in the upper right hand corner is that of an
imported Shropshire ram lamb owned by Craig & Stevenson, Rice Lake, Wis.
The head shown shows not only a very complete covering, but also much
width between the eyes and across the forehead, while the cars are well
placed being far apart. The photograph of the black faced ram's head which
appears in the center Is taken from Scott's " Black Faced Sheep," and it rep-
resents the head of "Seventy-Two," first prize winner at the Highland and
Agricultural Society Shows, 1883 to 18a5. The horn illustrates the type which
Is sought in representatives of any of the horned breeds.

A KToupuf Leicestei' ewes, prize winners at the Highland Agricultural
Society Show of Scotland.

Suffolk ram, a first prize winner at the Royal Agiioultiiral Society Show,
England.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP I'.i ,

FOR RAMS. =

u

Head — Not too fine, moderately small, and broad between the
eyes and nostrils, but without a short, thick appearance,
and in young animals well covered on crown with long
lustrous wool 8

Face — Either white or slightly mixed with gray, or white
dappled with brown 4

Nostrils — Wide and expanded. Nose dark 1

Eyes — Prominent, but mild looking 2

Ears — Broad, long, moderately thin, and covered with short
hair 4

Collar — Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually
all the way to where the neck and head join. The neck
should be short, thick and strong, indicating constitu-
tional vigor, and free from coarse and loose skin C

Shoulders^Broad ana full, and at the same time joined grad-
ually to the collar forward, and chine backward as not to
leave the least hollow in either place 8

Fore Legs — The mutton on the arm or fore thigh should
come quite to the knee. Leg upright with heavy bone —
being clear from superfluous skin, with wool to fetlock,
and may be mixed with gray 4

Breast — Broad and well forward, keeping the legs wide apart.
Girth or chest, full and deep 10

Fore Flank — Quite full, not showing hollow behind the
shoulder 5

Back and Loin — Broad, flat and straight, from which the ribs
must spring with a fine circular arch 12

Belly — Straight on underline 3

Quarters — Long and full, with mutton quite down to the
hock 8

Hock — Should stand neither in nor out 2

Twist — Or junction inside thighs, deep, wide and full, which
with a broad breast will keep the legs open and upright. 5

Fleece — The whole body should be covered with long lustrous
wool IS

Total 100

138 JUDGING SHEEP

WENSLEYDALE SHEEP. ^

. ■*-•

c

SCALE OF POINTS. WENSLEYDALE FLOCK BOOK, g

VOL. II, 189I. ENGLAND. {J

Head — Face dark. Ears dark, and well set on. Head broad
and flat between ears. Muzzle strong in rams. A tuft
of wool on forehead. Eyes bright and full. Head gaily

carried 20

Neck — Moderate length, strong, and well set on to the

shoulders 10

Shoulders — Broad and oblique 5

Chest — Deep and wide 10

Wool — Bright lustre, curled all over body, all alike in staple. 10
Back and Loins — Ribs well sprung and deep. Loin broad and

covered with meat. Tail broad. Flank full 20

Legs and Feet — Straight and a little fine wool below the
hock. Fore legs set well apart. Hind legs well filled

with mutton 20

Ski n — Blue fine and soft 5

Total ., 100

DORSET HORN SHEEP.

c

SCALE OF POINTS. AMERICAN FLOCK RECORD OF g

DORSET HORN SHEEP. VOL. II, 1894. CJ

General Appearance — Head well up, eyes bright and alert,

and standing square on legs 20

Chest — Broad, full, brisket well forward 10

Back — Broad, straight, with well sprung ribs 15

Quarters — Heavy, square, set on short straight legs, well

apart 10

Legs — White, with small light colored hoof 5

Head — Small, face white, nostrils well expanded, nose and

lips pink in color 5

Neck — Short and round, set well on shoulders 5

Horn — Neat, curving forward, and light in color 10

Fore Top — Good and well covered on belly and legs 10

Wool — Medium quality and good weight, presenting an even,

smooth, white surface 10

Total 100

Wensleydule ewes, first prize wiunLis ai ilic \\ Lii.--luydalu A.xiicuUur&.i
Show, 1892. Bred and owned by C. M. Brown, Leyburn, England.

Flock i)f Dorsut uwes. reproduced from Live Stock Journal, showiui,' uni-
formity and type desired in a foundation flock. Address of owner not given.

Flock of Cheviot sheep. While the origin of the photogiaph is unknown
it is used here because it is so excellent in conception and in addition shows
the best types of this breed.

Yearling Rambouillet ram. First prize at Mhinesota State Fair. Owned
by Cole Brothers, of Spring Grove, Illinois.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 139

CHEVIOT SHEEP.

SCALE OF POINTS. CHEVIOT SHEEP BREEDERS FLOCK g

BOOK. U. S. AND CANADA. VOL, I, 1893. {J

Blood — Pure bred from one or more importations from Scot-
land 15

Constitution and Quality — Indicated by the form of body;
deep and large in breast and through the heart; back
wide and straight and well covered with lean meat; wide
and full in the thigh; deep in flank; skin soft and pink in
color; prominent eyes; healthful countenance. Deficiency
of brisket or fish back objectionable 20

Size — in fair condition, when full matured rams should
weigh not less than 200 pounds, ewes, 150 pounds, (when
bred in America. Imported stock, rams, 125 to 150
pounds, ewes, 100 to 125) 10

General Appearance — Good carriage; head well up; elastic
movement, showing symmetry of form and uniformity
of character throughout 10

Body — Well proportioned; small bone; great scale and
length; well fiL'ished hind quarters; thick back and loins;
standing with legs well placed outside; breast wide and
prominent in front; tail wide and well covered with
wool 10

Head — I-cng and broad, and wide between the eyes; ears of
medium length and erect; face white, but small black
spots on head and ears not objectionable; straight or
Roman nose, a white nose objectionable, end of nose dark
(but never smut nose on top with black or brown) ; no
tuft of wool on head t 10

Neck — Medium in length; thick, and well placed on the
shoulders 5

Legs and Feet — Short legs, set well apart; color white; no
wool on legs; fore legs round, hind legs flat and straight;
hoofs black and well shaped 5

Covering — Body and belly well covered with fleece of medium
length and good quality 10

Quality of Wool — Medium; such as is known in market as
half combing wool 5

Total 100

140 JUDGING SHEEP

DELAINE SPANISH MERINO SHEEP.

c

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE STANDARD DELAINE 3

SPANISH MERINO REGISTER. (j

Pure Merino Blood — Which must be established by certifi-
cate

Constitution — Indicated by a deep chest, long rib well arch-
ed, giving heart and lung room, with great digestive ca-
pacity 20

Fleece — XX and delaine wool. This includes the quantity and
quality as shown by weight of fleece, the length and
strength of staple, crimp, fineness and trueness of fiber. . 10

Density of Fleece 3

Evenness of Surface 3

Evenness of Crimpf 3

Length of Fiber 2

Free Flow/ing Oil — Of the best quality and the right quan-
tity to protect the sheep and preserve the fleece 9

Head — Medium size. Ewes showing a feminine appearance;

rams, a masculine, with properly turned horns 4

Eyes — Bright, prominent and well set apart, with a thick,

soft eye lid 3

Noge — Short, broad, with well expanded nostrils, skin thick
and covered with thick, furry coating, joining the wool

one inch below the eye 4

Ears — Medium size, set well apart, thickly coated 2

Neck — Short on top, deep and strongly attached to should-
ers, tapering to head; rams with a fold across the

breast, and deep neck 4

Fleece — Covering over the entire body, head and legs, skin

thick and spongy 4

Legs — Short, strong and well apart 2

Feet — Neatly shaped, thin hoof, v.-ell set under the leg 4

Quarters — Deep and well rounded; back, broad, straight and

strongly coupled to quarters 10

Weight — Ewes at maturity, 100 pounds and above; rams,

150 and above 8

General Appearance — Good carriage, bold and vigoror.s style,
symmetrical form 5

Total 100

Any sheep scaling below 60 per cent, in any point can not
be recorded.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 141

BLACK TOP SPANISH MERINO.

c

SCALE OF POINTS. BLACK TOP SPANISH MERINO SHEEP g

REGISTER, VOL. I I I , 1891. (J

Biood — Purely bred from the Humphrey importation of
Merino sheep from Spain, in the year 1S02, as bred by
W. R. Dickinson, of Steubenville, Ohio

Constitution — Indicated by physical development; deep and
large in the breast and through the heart; broad back;
very heavy square quarters; skin of fine texture, and
pinkish in color; expansive nostril; brilliant eye; health-
ful countenance and good feeders 15

Size — In good condition, with fleece of five months growth,
full grown rams should weigh not less than 1/5 pounds,
and ewes not less than 120 pounds 12

General Appearance — Head carried well up; standing square-
ly on feet and legs; well rounded body, showing in all
points symmetry of form 3

Body — Throughout heavy boned; well proportioned in length;
smooth joints; ribs starting horizontally from the back
bone, and well around to breast bone; breast bone wide,
strong and prominent in front; strong, straight and heavy
back bone; heavy muscular quarters, deep through and
squarely formed before and behind; shoulders broad and
flat, and not projecting sharply above the back bone,
muscles firm and heavy, and body entirely free from folds.
There may be a slight throatiness, and a small dewlap
— smaller on the ewes than en the rams 15

Head — Wide, medium in length, eyes clear and bright, prom-
inent ears, medium in size and covered with soft fur.
Ewes should give no appearance of horns, while upon the
rams the horns should be well developed, clear in color,
and symmetrically curved, without tendency to extreme
expansion 5

Neck— rMedium in length and very heavy, especially with the
rams, deepening towards the shoulder 4

Legs and Feet — Legs medium in length, set well apart, medi-
um bone and smooth joints. The feet must be well
shaped, medium sized, firm and solid 10

Covering — Evenness of fleece and crimp; body and legs cov-
ered to the knees; head covered forward between the
eyes; the surface should be free from hair or gare.... 8

Quality — Medium or fine, such as is known in the market as
fine delaine 7

Density — Shown by compactness of fleece, which should
open freely, and have no tendency to be stringy or knotty 7

Length — At twelve months, growth must be not less than
three inches, and as near as may be of uniform length. . 8

Oil — Evenly distributed, white, soft and flowing freely from
skin to surface, forming on the exterior a uniform dark
coating 6

Total 100

142 JUDGING SHEEP

TUNIS OR BROAD TAILED SHEEP.

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN "£

TUNIS SHEEP BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. g

SCALE OF POINTS. CJ

Blood 20

Constitution 15

Fleece 10

Covering 10

Form and Tail 12

Head and Ears 10

Neck ?

Legs 6

Size 6

General Appearance 6

Total 100

Blood — Imported from Tunis, or having a perfect line of an-
cestors extending back to the floclv owned and bred by Judge
Richard Peters of Belmont, near Philadelphia, who received his
first pair from Tunis in 1779, and bred them pure for more than
20 years.

Constitution — Healthful countenance, lively look, head erect,
deep chest, ribs well arched, round body with good length.
Strong straight back; muscles fine and firm.

Fleece — Medium lengtli, medium quality, medium quantitj% col-
or tinctur-ed with gray, never pure wliite. Evenness throughout.

Covering — Body and neck well covered with wool. Legs bare
or slightly covered; face free from wool and covered with fine
hair.

Form and Tail — Body straight and broad and well proportioned.
Small bone; breast wide and prominent in front. Tail, the little
end should be docked, leaving the fleshy part fan shaped, or
tapering; five or ten inches broad, six or eight inches long and
well covered wath wool.

Head and Ears — Head small and hornless, tapering to end of
nose; face and nose clean; in color, brown and white. Ears
broad, tliin, pendulous, covered with fine hair; in color brown
to light fawn.

Neck — Medium in length, well placed on shoulders; small and
tapering.

Legs — Short. In color brown and white; slightly wooled not
objectionable.

Size — In fair condition, when fully matured, rams should weigh
150 pounds and upw^ards; ewes 120 pounds and upwards.

General Appearance — Good carriage; head well up; quick,
elastic movements; showing symmetry of form and uniformity
of character throughout.

Photograph showinj; serious objections in a ram. The liind leg is too
straiglit and die pasterns broicen down.

I'liolograpli of a ram I'liosen to illustrate the quaiitU'S luit (iosirod in a
Shropshire ram. Note the bareness oT the face, thinness and lightness of tlie
uuck, narrowness and sliallowness of the chest, flat rib, sliort liind quarter
with hicli of development in leg of mutton. The appearance of the fleece in-
dicates that it lacks density, possesses harshness, coarseness and is likely
cotted.

Prize Dorset ewe and lamb, winners at International Exposition. Cbica-
go, 1900. Owned by J. E. Wine:. Mechanicsburfr. O.

Imported Shropsbire yearling ewes from the flocli of Craig & Stevenson.
Rice Lake, Wis.

JUDGING SWINE.

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CHAPTER IV.
JUDGING SWINE.

In judging swine the Initcher's preference must be the
leading guide as it is in judging all other classes of fat
stock. These preferences are in turn largely controlled
by the demands of the market, so we find in some mar-
kets a bacon hog, so called because of its deep, long sides,
is preferred by the butchers ; while in others the prefer-
ence is for fat hogs because there is demand for hams,
shoulders and broad, fat backs, and these features would
attract the butcher's attention. In forming an opinion as
to the best type of swine it is necessary to keep the re-
quirements of these two markets distinctly in view, for
they have established for us two very distinct market
classes of hogs, the fat hog and the bacon hog. While
every consideration should be given to the butcher's pref-
erence, for the profit of hog feeding largely lies in suc-
cessfully catering to them, yet there are some points re-
lating to the feeding qualities of a hog which demand
consideration in the joint interests of the feeder and
breeder. The evidences of constitution and vigor are
things on which the butcher cannot realize profit, but the
feeder and the breeder know that they are prime essen-
tials in the animals required for their purpose.

I. JUDGING FAT HOGS.

187. Form — -Low, Long, Deep. In respect to the
form of the fat hog, one of the leading considerations is
the weight, though the market requirements in this re-

146 JUDGING SWINE

spect are l)y no means stable. At some times the market
preferences are decidedly in favor of the hog weighing
200 pounds, and again in a short while the 400-pound
hog makes the top price, but as a rule it will be found
that the most profitable weight for selling is from 200 to
300 pounds. This fact meets the breeders' preferences
exactly, for he realizes that up to the attainment of this
weight his hogs have been making the most profitable
gain for him. The influences of the present market are
all directed towards the development of a rapidly matur-
mg hog that will be in smooth prime condition for the
butcher when it reaches about 250 pounds in live weight.
The hogs that fatten quickest and meet the butcher's re-
quirements for fat hogs are low, deep and wide in form.
They are compactly built, deep chested, long, and round-
ribbed, with straight top and bottom lines sustained by
standing squarely on strong and straight legs. Over these
parts there is a smoothness that is indicative of the proper
development of form and flesh.

188. Quality — Fine Hair; Clean Bone.. The indi-
cations of quality are fine hair and comparatively light,
hard and clean looking bone. Fineness of parts in gen-
eral is an evidence of quality. Hogs with coarse bone,
coarse hair and hide are not the l)est breeders, and the
butcher does not like them because of the large percentage
of offal which they dress. In addition to being fine, the
hair should lie close to the body and the skin free from
undue roughness caused by scurf.

189. Head — Short, Broad. The head of a hog that
will fatten readily is very similar in its relative portions
and parts to that of a steer, it should be comparatively
short and broad. The snout should be of medium length
with the face fine in features.

JUDGING FAT HOGS 147

190. Eyes — Clear, Prominent. The eyes should be
wide apart and large without any appearance of being
watery. Folds of fat in creases about the eyes are com-
mon, but are none the less oljjectionable.

191. Ears — Small, Fine in Texture. The ear
sliuukl be small in size and pointed. The way the ear is
carried depends largely on the parentage of the hog, be-
ing erect in the Berkshire, half drooping in the Poland
China and wholly pendant in the instance of most of the
large white liDgs. Large and coarse ears are generally
associated with heavy and coarse bone and hide and con-
sequently they are not desirable.

192. Jowl — Firm, Broad, Neat. The jowl should
be smooth, tirm, broad and neat. A jowl that is flabby
owing to the abnormal accumulation of fat in this region
is very objectional, and the same may be said of the op-
posite condition which produces a very small jowl that is
sliarp at the edges. This region should not be so full as
to be pen'lant and loose.

193. Neck — Short; Narrow Nape. The neck in
its upper part nearest the head should spring sharply up-
v.ard and the ears should be comparatively fine or nar-
row at the nape, and swell (juickly to the l)readth of the
shoulders. It should be short and thick and deep as well,
mereinsf in this rec'ion into the brisket without anv shrink-
age. From the cheeks the neck should swell smoothly
into the shoulder vein and pass from the shotdder witli-
out any noticeable depression.

194. Shoulder— Full Vein, Level Top. Just forward
of the shoulder where the neck swells most is the region
known as the shoulder vein. Fullness in this part is de-
sirable for it generally results in a smoothly covered and
wide shoulder. On top. the shoulder should be level, be-
ing well packed with flesh, and in addition it should be

148 JUDGING SWINE

broad and deep. To fill out the form desired there should
be some development of the brisket, though as a rule there
is very little of this in the fat hog.

195. Front Legs — Short, Straight; Pasterns Strong.

The front legs should be short, straight, strong and tap-
ering. The pastern should be strong and the feet com-
paratively short and of medium size. What are known
as "bucked knees" or pasterns are sometimes observable
in hogs that bend over in these parts. Long, slim pasterns
are very undesirable, for hogs having them readily break
down when carrying much flesh. The fat hog should
stand firm and high on the toes without any evidence of
weakness of the pasterns. Viewed from in front the leg
should be straight. A rather common defect here is
crooked knees which come too close together, but the re-
verse defect is very rare among hogs.

196. Chest — Low, Wide. The floor of the chest
should be as low as possible, for it is the depth and width
of this part that adds to the girth. With width between
the fore legs there is usually width above on the shoulder,
though this is not always true. The girth should be
large, for it is undesirable to have any shrinkage just be-
hind the fore leg at the fore flank.

197. Sides — Deep, Fleshed Evenly. The sides
may be deep and yet supported with a round rib. Usually
depth of side is associated with flatness of rib, but there
are many decided exceptions to this to be found among
fat hogs. When the rib springs from the back, well
arched, and continues to follow the circumference of a
circle it gives the hog the appearance of not only being
leggy, but also lacking in depth of body. The rib, how-
ever, not only should lie well sprung, but it should also
be long, giving roundness and smoothness of body with
more depth than appearance would indicate. The sides

Photograpli slK)\viiif; the expression, liead and otlicr features of form
cliaracteristic of liojrs tluit do not fatten rapidly. These pifis on srain and
grass gained only 31!^ pounds while being fed 91 days in an experiment by the
Utah Experiment Station.

Photograph showing the head and form of a typical fat iiog, also comfort
ably disposed for rapid increase in weight.

449

Carcass of a fat hog showing the tlivision commonly made and the relative
prices of the various parts in Chicago market.

447

PRIME PART

°'r, THICK BACK BACK RIBS. PRIME CUT

-TOP or THICK PRIME THIN STREAKY

STREAKY THICK STREAKY FLANK

FORE HOCK iHlLKblHtAUr /"»« GAMMON HOCK

-Diagram ahowlog various cuts o( a side of bacon, and the average prices re&lueJ lor each duriug WJ7.
(Jumuai ul Koyui Agncuiiur;il Society IbUci.)

JIDGING FAT HOGS 149

should be thickly and evenly fleshed. It is not uncom-
mon to notice creases just behind the shoulders and at
different points between the shoulders and the hips. This
is an indication of uneven fattening with a poor quality
of flesh and is consequently objectionable. From the
shoulder to the ham in the fat hog there should be that
evenness of line which would permit the laying of a
straight edge along the sides from one of these points to
the other and no deviation from the edge should be no-
ticed at any point. Usually the development of the
shoulders or the hams is as much greater as to leave a
marked depression behind the shoulder and forward of
the ham.

198. Back — Straight, Broad, Evenly Covered With
Flesh. Looking at the back from the side the tup
line should be straight, though if it rises gradually from
the neck to the center of the back and there slopes very
gradually to the tail, it usually carries more flesh and is
considered a stronger and better back. There certainly
should be no depression from shoulder to tail in the back
of the hog that is in fat condition. Viewing the back
from above it should appear broad and the two lines that
bound it on each side should be carried straight from the
upper sides of the shoulder to the hips. In addition, the
back should be evenly and thickly fleshed. Any tendency
towards what is called a fish back, in which the center
rises very sharply, is undesirable.

199. Loin — Wide, Thick. The width of the loin
should be such as to sustain the width of the back. In
addition to being wide it must be straight and thickly
fleshed to fill out the lines properly. Another part of the
body that should receive some consideration is the belly.
The underline should run parallel with the top line : that
is, the belly should be equally as straight as the back.

150 JUDGING SWINE

The most common defect is a marked drooping in this
region. The fore flank and the hind flank should be
nearly on the same level, though this is seldom so, unless
the hog is far advanced in fattening. A full and pendant
hind flank is an indication of fatness,

200. Hips — Smoothly Covered With Flesh. The
hips should be wide apart, completely covered with flesh
and low. Where they are placed high, it is seh.lom that
they are smoothly covered with flesh. In an evenly
fleshed hog, the location of the hips is not apparent to
the eye, so smoothly are they covered.

201. Rump — Long, Smooth. The width of the hips
should be carried back over this part. From the hip to
the end of the body there should be as much length as
may be secured. It is not possible to find a hog that is
exactly level over this part, as they invariably droop
somewhat towards the tail, but some nevertheless closely
approach exact levelness in this region.

202. Hams — Wide, Deep, Plump. Looking at the
ham from the side, it should be wide from the stifle to
the end of the body and it should also be plump and full
right down to the hock. Viewed from behind, width
from between the legs to the outside of the ham, is very
desirable. Perhaps the most difference in this part will
be found in the degree to which the ham continues plump
and full towards the hock. This part of the thigh should
not be bare, but heavy with flesh.

203. Hind Legs — Properly Set, Strong. The most
common defect of the hind leg is a cramped condi-
tion of the hock. Though this is most usually found in
hogs with light bone, yet it is common among hogs that
otherwise appear strong in the limbs. It is noticeable that
many hogs are higher behind than in front, showing the
line running from the hind quarter to the head, to be very

JUDGING FAT HOGS 151

slanting. This is generally caused by the undue length
of the hind legs. The legs should be short, strong and
placed wide apart and when the hog moves the hind and
the front legs should pass forward in a straight line. An
in and out movement of the legs is not uncommon and it
accounts for much of the awkwardness observable in the
gait of fat hogs.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR FAT HOGS — BARROW. i^, o

^^
GENERAL APPEARANCE:

Weight, score according to age 6

Form, deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, compact,

standing squarely on legs lo

Quality, hair silky; skin fine; bone fine; flesh smooth,

mellow, and free from lumps or wrinkles lo

Condition, deep, even covering of flesh, especially in reg-
ions of valuable cuts lo

MEAD AND NECK;

Snout, medium length, not coarse

Eyes, full, mild, bright

Face, short, cheeks full

Ears, fine, medium size, soft

Jowl, strong, neat, broad

Neck, thick, medium length

FORE QUARTERS:

Shoulder, broad, deep, full, compact on top 6

Breast, advanced, wide 2

Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns up-
right; feet medium size 2

BODY:

Chest, deep, broad, large girth 2

Sides, deep, lengthy, full; ribs close and well sprung. ... 6

Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 10

Loin, wide, thick, straight 10

Belly, straight, even 2

HIND QUARTERS:

Hips, wide apart, smooth 2

Rump, long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight 2

Ham, heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wide 10

Thighs, fleshed close to hocks 2

Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns upright;

feet medium size 2

Total 100

152 JUDGING SWINE

II. JUDGING BACON HOGS.

Owing to the demand that has originated in the mar-
kets for lean meats, the bacon ijpQ of hog has Ijeen
evolved. The consumption of bacon has extended
greatly and this has made a strong demand on the large
markets for the type of hog which produces this. To ob-
tain a clear conception of the type required it is essential
to remember that flesh is the leading characteristic de-
manded and with this there are certain peculiar cuts
which are quite distinct from those taken from the fat hog.

204. Condition — Even and Thick Fleshed. The
condition of the bacon hog is a feature of paramount im-
portance, for it must be smooth over all parts with a thick
covering of flesh. It is very necessary to understand that
a thin hog is not in any sense a bacon hog. In the bacon
hog it is desirable to have about one inch of fat with an
abundance of lean flesh in the carcass. It is flesh, muscle
or lean meat that is desirable and not in any sense a thin
carcass.

205. Form — Smooth, Long, Level, Deep. An important
point among the desiraljle characteristics of the bacon
hog is that of form, because this must be peculiar, as
there are unusual cuts to be made from the carcass. The
side should be as long as possible with great depth and
levelness from shoulder to hip. The shoulder should not
bulge out and the hams should not be pendant and plump
as in the case of the lard hog. If a straight edge is laid
along the side of the typical bacon hog it should touch
every point from the start of the shoulder to the end of
the hind quarter. Width is not sought for, but length
and depth are cardinal points. The form should show a
striking trimness in every region, due to an even cover-
ing of smooth flesh without any soft or flabby parts and

Photo from Ontario Farmers' Institute Rejiort.
Photograph showing packer's model of a bacon hog. The extreme length,
levelness and smoothness are the particular features of this type.

rliit fr.m Ontario Farmers' Institute Reii'.rt.

Photograph illustrating a pig too tliin for the bacon market, but of desir-
able type in other essentials.

Berkshire sow, Elphick's Matchless, a prize winner owned by Mr. Edwin
Buss, England. ^

DESCRIPTION OF THE BERKSHIRE SWINE

rjURlNG the last century this British breed of swine has been the subject of high
breeding and careful selection. Writing in 1700, Lawrence describes the Berk-
shire as being "long and crooked in snout, muzzle turning upwards, ears large and
heavy and Inclined to be pendulous, the body long and thick but not deep, legs
short, bone large and great size." In "The Complete Grazier," written in 1805, the
Berkshire of that time is described as follows : "Color reddish brown, with brown
or black spots, sides very broad, flat legs, ears large and pendulous over eyes, body
thick, close and well made." The modern type of this breed reflects many changes
from the old, as it represents a hog that is black in color with white on the face,
feet and tip of tail. They are not such a large hog as those of the original stock as
they are long in type, trim without undue roughness over the shoulder or promi-
nence of hips. The face is short and dished, the ears short, pointed and erect, jaws
full, back broad and straight, full over the shoulder, the loin thick and level and
the hams especially full with short, strong and straight legs. Straightness in lines
and trimness and smoothness over all parts are leading Berkshire characteristics
and these should be strongly in evidence along the back and especially from the
hock backward as the hind quarter should come out square to the tail and be full.
As straightness and strength of legs are leading Berkshire features, it should be
noted that the fore legs drop straight without any crookedness at the knee and the
hind legs should not appear cramped above the hock. A thick coat of black hair
lying close to the body and without swirls should contribute much to the general
appearance of smoothness which is due in the main to an even covering of firm yet
mellow flesh. See oiBcial scale of points, page 158.

JUDGING BACON HOGS 153

a well coupled form without undue coarseness. This
trimness should be observable in the smoothness by which
the shoulder and the quarter join the side, and it is also
brought out very effectively by the thick trim belly which
is characteristic of the bacon type.

206. Weight. In reference to the weight that is de-
sirable, the packers uniformly prefer a hog weighing from
I/O to 200 pounds live weight. This preference exists in
the markets of the world and most decidedly in that of
Great Britain where the production of this hog has
reached its highest development. It seems that a hog of
this weight in proper condition offers the most satisfac-
tory cuts, both in weight and quality.

207. Shoulders — Smooth, Compact. It will not be
necessary to dwell on the minor points desired in the
bacon type, but merely to discuss the salient features.
Among these the shoulders demands attention, for they
are much different in the ideal bacon hog than they are
in the typical fat hog. The shoulder in the bacon type
is not heavy, but completely free from roughness and
characterized by compactness. It should fit closely to the
body and not show any more width than the back and
hind quarter, thereby adding to the trimness of form
which is eminently desired in hogs of this type. The
flesh should extend well down on the leg, indicating
muscular development with a long shoulder cut.

208. Sides — Long, Smooth, Level. The side is a
very characteristic point in the bacon type, as it should
possess as much length as possible with smoothness and
levelness from the beginning of the shoulder to the end
of the hind quarter. The choicest bacon comes from this
region and on this account there should be as much as
possible of the dressed weight in this region. The upper

154 JUDGING SWINE

part of the side should carry a straight line from the
shoulder to the hip and the lower side should show almost
as full a line running from the elbow to the stifle. The
belly should be thicker with flesh than is usual in the case
of the fat hog. In addition this part should be trim in
form and thick without any flabbiness or shrinkage at
either the fore or hind flank. The hind quarter of the
bacon type is markedly different from that of the fat hog,
because the extreme development of the latter is not
considered an advantage in the bacon type. In the bacon
hog the hips should be smooth and proportionately wide
to the rest of the body. The hind quarter should be long,
even and straight and slightly rounded towards the tail.
A peculiar feature in the hog of this type is the gammon,
which is a cut very similar to the ham. This should be
firm, rounded, tapering and fleshed deep and low towards
the hocks. Plumpness or fullness in this part is not con-
sidered an advantage ; while length with smooth develop-
ment of muscle is a prime requisite.

Foland-China sow. a winner of many prizes at state fairs, owned by
Messrs. Risk & Gabbert. Weston, Missouri. Tiiis sow shows very smooth and
is especially thicicly fleshed over shoulder, back and ham. the valuable cuts
of the fat hoiz type. Though heavy, note how erect slie stands on her pas-
terns.

DESCBIPTION OF THE POLAND-CHINA .SWINE

'Phis American breed of swine originated in the Miami Valley of the Ohio dur-
ing the years intervening between ISiT to 1840. It had for Us ancestry a large,
coarse hog that was broken in color, being mostly white and black. The improve-
ment of the last 40 years has resulted in producing an exceedingly symmetrical hog
with early maturing qualities which has been added to further by disposition very
favorable to qui(;k fattening. The modern type shows unusual fullness which
makesthewidthof the body remarkable though giving the appearanceof undue shorts
ness. With it all there is a quality of hair, bone and skin which eontril)utesin agrcat
degree to the percentiige of meat from the carcass. The color is black with a few
white markings, these consisting preferably of a splash on the face, four white feet
and white on tip of the tail. The coat of hair should be thick, fine and free from
swirls or spots around which the liair seems to twist. The head is small, slightly
dished and runs to a fine snout. The ear starts strong and straiglit from tlic head
but break and drops about one-third its length. The shoulder is well covei-ed on
top. the girth f uU, riljs well sprung, deep; hind quarter very full with deep hati.»
The desirability of plumpness in all parts should not lead to undue shortness of
body nor lack of length in the hind quarters. Straightness in the latter is also
desirable as fretjuently the dnjp from the hip to the tail is quite marked. The legs
should be straight and sti-ong and t he pasterns set so as to make the liog appear to
be standing on the very tips of its toes. See oflBcial scale of points, page Itil.

^hmi^ii^

""^■^'l^^ :i

Duroc-Jersey sow. Miss L()c;an is-tm. a sweopstakt's winner, owned by
E. B. Watson, Newton. Iowa. Being close to the ground and full made and
compact, this sow shows the leading characteristics of this breed.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DUROC-JERSET SW^INE

plT THE National Swine Breeders Convention, held In 1872, the Jersey swine of
New Jersey and the Durocs of New York were classified In the families of red
swine with similar characteristics; the Durocs it was then stated being finer in bone
and carcass than the other reds. Previous to that time the Jersey reds had been
bred in New Jersey state for over fifty years. The most popular color for this breed
is a deep cherry red without any markings. The type most approved is that of a very
compact hog exceedingly smooth in all parts and very close to the ground. The
head Is fine, the ear light and pendent, neck short and thick, the shoulder full yet
smooth with the body, the back slightly arching, wide and strong. The hips deep
and the hind quarter very plump and full with meat yet somewhat short, the legs
are very short and straight allowing the frame to approach very close to the ground.
The type is that of a very early maturing hog that will dress a high percentage of
valuable cuts. See official scale of points, page 177.

JUDGING BACON HOGS 155

SCALE OK POINTS FOR KACON HOGS— BARROW. ^ O

^

GENERAL APPEARANCE:

Weight, 170 to 200 lbs., largely the result of thick cover

of firm flesh 6

Form, long, level, smooth, deep lo

Quality, hair fine; skin thin; bone fine; firm, even cover-
ing of flesh without any soft bunches of fat or wrinkles. . lo
Condition, deep, uniform covering of flesh, especially in

regions of valuable cuts lo

HEAD AND NECK:

Snout, fine

Eyes, full, mild, bright

Face, slim

Ears, trim, medium size

Jowl, light, trim

Neck, medium lengtli, light

FORE QUARTERS ;

Shoulders, free from roughness, smooth, compact and

same width as back and hind quarters 6

Breast, moderately wide, full 2

Legs, straight, short, strong, bone clean; pasterns upright;

feet medium size 2

BODY:

Chest, deep, full girth 4

Back, medium and uniform in width, smooth 8

Sides, long, smooth, level from beginning of shoulders to
end of hind quarters. The side at all points should
touch a straight edge running from fore to hind quarter. 10

Ribs, deep 2

Belly, trim, firm, thick without any flabbiness or shrink-
age at flank 10

HIND QUARTERS:

Hips, smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of body 2

Rump, long, even, straight, rounded toward tail 2

Qammon, firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed deep and low

toward hocks 8

Legs, straight, short, strong; feet medium size; bone clean;
pasterns upright 2

Total 100

156 JUDGING SWINE

III. JUDGING SWINE FOR BREEDING PURPOSES.

The judging of swine in the pure hred classes requires
of the judge an intimate acquaintance with the scale of
points adopted hy the different associations of the various
breeds. These scales of points have been arranged with
much labor by the associations and consequently they
should be closely followed. As they are published in full
in another part of this work attention will be here given
to a few peculiar points that should be sought in all
breeds.

209. Boar. In addition to having the characteristics
of the type of the breed, the boar should be strong in
those traits that are peculiar to the sex. The head may
be slightly inclined to coarseness, the neck full and arched
somewhat, with the shoulder heavy. The fore quarters
are usually slightly heavier than the hind quarters and
this distinction grows greater with age as the shields de"
velop. Strength of frame without coarseness is desira-
ble and the body should be deep, long and low. Just be-
hind the elbow there should be as much depth as possible,
as this with a rugged appearance is indicative of a vigor-
ous constitution. Short and strong limbs with straight
pasterns of a fine quality should carry the body easily
and without awkwardness at all times.

210. Sow. Omitting consideration of the breed type
the sow should represent, the sex type is of first import-
ance. There should not be the least appearance of coarse-
ness— the head should be light, neck slim and neat and
also inclined to sharpness between and l)ack of the ears.
In the sow it is expected that the hips and hind quarters
should l)e slightly wider than the fore, though the width
before and behind should be almost uniform. Length of
body is specially desirable to give room for the growth of

linpfoved Yorkshire sow. iiifirst prize winner at Toronto Industrial Exhi-
bition, owned l)y J. E. Brethour, Burford. Ontario.

DESCRIPTION OF THE YORKSHIRE SWINE

J^HEKE are tliree varieties of Yorkshires, namely; the largo, middle and the
small, and as may be surmised these divisions are based wliolly on size. The
larRc Yorkshiit is descended from the old English wliich were white in color witii a
few black spots and it was bi-cd principally in Yorkshii-e. Both the white Chinese
pigs, introduced at an early t.me in England, and the Neapolitan swine were used
sliglitly upon the native Steele. The middle Yorkshire originated by crossing the
small and largo varieties. The small Yorkshire is an offshoot of the large varieties
containing a largo percentage of Chinese blood. The Improved large Yorkshire
retains the hardiness and prolificness of the old English hog and has improved in
symmetry, flesh and early maturity through the Chinese cross. They are strong
in bone, deep and long In body and of medium quality throughout. They have
thick bellies, well mixed meat and long sides, points that curers of bacon value
liighly. The niiddle or Improved Yorkshire are as heavy as the large variety but
are lighter in bono and head with a smaller quantity of offal. In type they are very
similar to the large Yorkshire, being long, level and deep In carcass. The small
■^'ork'sliire ai'o finer in quality, possess more symmetry and tliey are more compact
in form. These features contribute to their early maturity but do not enalile them
to ;it tain the heavy weights of the others. All the varieties are white in color a few
blue spots are permissible but these should not be covered with colored hair. See
official scale of points, page 182.

Chester White sow. Alma, sired by Coco 222:J. Tlie property of Joseph
t\-iirns, Camlachie, Ontario, Canada. The litter of Alma when three months
old tipped the scales at 100 pounds.

DESCRIPTION OF THE CHESTER WHITE STVINE
I^HIS BREED which originated in Chester county, Pennsylvania, about the
beginning of the last century was the result of crossing the big Chinas with
white pigs from Bedfordshire, England, which were of Yorkshire descent, thus giving
these breeds much in common. The Chester White is a large breed, strong though
fine in bone, vigorous with very deep and lengthy bodies. They should be pure
white in color and where black spots occur, those should not be covered with colored
hair. The head has a fine snout with broad face slightly dished and the ears pen-
dent. The jowl is light and the neck short and deep. Depth of chest is a very desir-
able characteristic and this should also be a feature of the body. Tlie shoulder
sliould fit snugly to the body and its width should be almost uniform witli that of
the body and hind quarter. Uniformity in these lines is desirable as the girth over
the heart sliould be about equal to that around the flank. The hair should be fine
and lie close to the body without any tenden(!y to harshness or extreme coarseness.
See official scale of points, page 174.

FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 157

the litter. Tliere should be twelve teats beginning well
forward and none of them blind. Blind teats in young
sows do not protrude as the normal teats do, and when
the sow has farrowed they usually fail to yield any milk.
In judging swine the best plan is to have them arranged
in small yards so that they may be readily compared and
driven enough to determine whether or not they are
strong and active on their legs.

158 JUDGING SWINE

IV. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCEI.LB;NCB; FOR SWINB.

BERKSHIRE SWINE.

w

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN 3

BERKSHIRE ASSOCIATION. ^

Color — Black, with white on feet, face, tip of tail and an oc;-

casional splash on the arm 4

Face and Snout — Short; the former fine and well dished, and

broad between the eyes 7

Eye — Very clear, rather large, dark hazel or gray 2

Ear — Generally almost erect, but sometimes inclined forward

with advancing age; medium size; thin and soft 4

Jowl — Full and heavy, running well back on neck 4

Neck — Short and broad on top 4

Hair — Fine and soft; medium thickness 3

Skin — Smooth and pliable 4

Shoulder — Thick and even, broad on top, and deep through

chest 7

Back — Broad, short and straight; ribs well sprung, coupling

close to hips 8

Side — Deep and well let down; straight on bottom lines G

Flank — Well back and low down on leg, making nearly straight

line with the lower part of side 5

Loin — Full and wide y

Ham — Deep and thick, extending well up on back, and hold-
ing thickness well down to hock 10

Tail — Well set up on back; tapering and not coarse 2

Legs — Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart, with hoofs

erect and capable of holding good weight 5

Symmetry — Well proportioned throughout, depending large-
ly on condition G

Condition — In a good healthy, growing state; not over-fed.. 5
Style — Attractive, spirited, indicative of thorough breeding
and constitutional vigor 5

Total 100

BERKSHIRE SWINE.

The Berkshire Society of Great Britain has issued to the lead-
ing Agricultural Show Societies the following instructions as
guides to judges in making their awards:

"We recommend that a perfectly black face, or a black foot,
or black tail should disqualify a pig in the show yard. W^hite or
sandy spots on the top or sides of the animal, or a decidedly
white ear should be disqualifications. Any desrription of coloring
staining or clipping should also be a disqualification. White on
the ear or under the throat or on the underline of the bodj .
should be considered objectionable. Either too much or too little
white in the place of the recognizee*^ markings should be an ob-
jection, also to be noted in the competition."

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 159

DESCRIPTION OF BERKSHIRE — ARRANGED BY THE NATIONAL
ASSOCIATION OF EXPERT JUDGES OF SWINE, 1897.

DISQUALIFICATIONS.

Form. — Very large and heavy or drooping ears; small, cramped
chest, crease back of shoulders and over tne back so as to
cause a depression in back easily noticed, deformed or crooked
legs, feet broken down, so that the animal walks on pastern
joints.

Size. — Overgrown, gangling, narrow, contracted or not two-
thirds large enough for age.

Condition. — Barrenness, deformed, seriously diseased, total
blindness from any cause.

Score. — Les than sixty points.

Pedigree. — Not eligible to record.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION.

1. — Head and Face. — Head short, broad, coming well forward
at poll, face short and fine and well dished, broad between the
eyes tapering from eyes to poinl of nose, surface even and regu-
lar.

Objections. — Head long, narrow and coarse, forehead low and
narrow, jaws narrow or contracted, lower jaws extending be-
yond upper; face long, straight between the eyes; nose coarse,
thick or crooked, or ridgy.

2. — Eyes. — Very clear, rather large, dark, hazel or gray.

Objections. — Small, dull, bloodshot, deep set or obscure, vision
impaired by wrinkles, fat or other cause.

3.— Ears. — Generally almost erect, but sometimes inclined for-
ward with advancing age, medium size, thin and soft.

Objections. — Large, coarse, thick, round or dVooping, long or
large knuck, difference in form, size or position one with the
other, animal unable to control iiieir position.

4. — Neck. — Full, deep, short and slightly arched, broad on top,
well connected with shoulder.

Objections. — Long, flat, lacking in fullness and depth.

5.- — Jowl. — Full, firm and neat, carrying fullness back to shoul-
der and brisket.

Objections. — Light, flabby, thin, tucked up or wrinkled.

6. — Shoulder. — Broad, deep and full, not extended above line
of back and being as wide on top as back, carrying size down
to line of belly and having lateral width.

Objections. — Lacking in depth or width, thick beyond the line
of sides and hams or extending above line of back, heavy shields
on hogs under eighteen months of age.

1.- — Chest. — Large, wide deep and roomy, lull girth, breast
bone curving well forward, extending back on level, not tucked
up, broad between fore legs.

Objections. — Flat, narrow at top or bottom, small girth, lack-
ing depth or fullness, breast bone crooked or tucked up.

8. — Back. — Broad and straight, carrying same width from
shoulder to ham, surface even and smooth without creases or
projections and not too long.

Objections. — Narrow, swayed or hollow, dropping below a
straight line.

160 JUDGING SWINE

9. — Sides and Ribs. — Sides full, smooth, firm and deep, carrying
size down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder. Ribs long,
strong, well sprung at top and bottom.

Objections. — Flat, thin, flabby, not as full at bottom as top.
Ribs weak, not well sprung at top or bottom.

lO.^Belly and Flank. — Wide, full and straight on bottom line.

Objections. — Belly narrow and sagging. Flank thin and tuck-
ed up.

11. — Ham and Rump. — Hams broad, full and long; the lower
front part of ham should be full and stifle well covered with
flesh, coming well down on hock. Rump should have a round-
ing slope from loin to root of tail, same width as back and filling
out on each side( and above the tail.

Objections. — Ham narrow, short, thin, not projecting beyond
and coming down on hock, cut up too high in crotch. Rump
flat, narrow and too steep.

12. — Legs and Feet. — Legs short, straight and strong, set
wide apart with hoofs erect and capable of holding good weight.

Objections. — Legs, long, slim, coarse, crooked, muscles light,
pastern long, slim or flat, feet long or sprawling.

13. — Tail. — Well set up, fine, tapering and neatly curled.

Objections. — Coarse and straight, too low.

14." — Coat. — Fine, straight, smooth, laying close to and cover-
ing body well, not clipped, evenly distributed over body.

Objections. — Hair, coarse, harsh, wavy or curly, not evenly
distriUuted over body, swirls or clipped.

15. — Color. — Black, with white on, feet, face, tip of tail and an
occasional splash on arm.

Objections. — Solid black or black points, or white spots on
body.

16.^ — Size.^ — Large for age. Boar two years and over not less
than 450 pounds, sow same age^ 400 pounds. Boar eighteen
months 350 pounds, sow same age 325 pounds. Boar twelve
months 300 pounds, sow same age 275 pounds. Boar and sow
six months, 150 pounds.

Objections. — Underweight, coarse, not in good form to fatten.

17. — Action and Style. — Action, vigorous. Style, graceful and
attractive.

Objections.- — Dull, sluggish and clumsy.

18. — Condition.^ — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, sicales or sores,
soft and mellow to the touch, flesh fine, evenly laid on and free
from lumps, hair soft and lying close to body, good feeding
qualities.

Objections. — Unhealthy, skin scaly, acabby or harsh, dry and
or lumpy flesh, too much fat for breeding. Hair harsh, dry and
standing up from body, poor feeders, deafness, partial or total.

19. — Disposition. — Quiet and gentle and easy to handle.

Objections. — Cross, restless, vicious and wild.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 161

POLAND^CHINA.

NATIONAL SCORE CARD ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL ■§

ASSOCIATION OF EXI'ERT JUDGES ON 3

SWINE, JUNE, 1S97. (J

Head 4

Eyes 2

Ears 2

Neck 2

Jowl 2

Shoulders 6

Chest 12

Back and Loin 1 {

Sides and Ribs 10

Belly and Flank 4

Ham and Rump 10

Feet and Legs 10

Tail 1

Coat 3

Color 3

Size , 5

Action and Style 3

Condition 2

Disposition l'

Symmetry of Points 3

Total ino

GENERAL RULES FOR SCORING.

Rule 1. Experts shall not use fractions other than the decimal
and not above tenths.

Rule 2. Experts shall not indicate the score of an animal by
amount of cut opposite the number of points.

Rule 3. Experts shall at all times call the score of each di-
vision aloud and the attendant shall take the score as called.

Rule 4. — Should ties in scores be indicated by footings, then
such ties shall be determined as follows: The officers attending
the expert shall foot the score on tie cards o"' the following di-
visions, 7, 8, 11 and 12, and the animal scoring the highest on
the above divisions shall be awarded the first premium, and the
second highest score, the second premium. Should there be a
tie on the above division then another addition of the following
divisions should be made, to-wit: divisions 6 and 9. Should a tie
exist, then division 1 should be added to above.

Rule 5. When an expert who has scored the entire class is
called upon to award the sweepstakes premium he shall take
the highest scoring animal or animals in class score for such
sweepstakes premium.

Rule 6. Experts shall not be required to score entries in
class for sow^ and litter of pigs.

Rule 7. Experts shall not be required to score pigs under
four months of age.

Rule 8. When animal is presented for score and the expert
determines it to be disqualified he shall call out the disqualifica-
tions and the attendant shall indicate the same on card.

162 JUDGING SWINE

Rule 9. Experts are required to keep themselves familiar with
the score card and details of this Association.

Rule 10. — Experts holding certificates issued by this Associa-
tion are not required by the rule^ of this Association to use any
standard other than the one issued by this Association.

DESCRIPTION OF SCORE CARD FOR POLAND-CHINAS ISSUED BY

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF EXPERT JUDGES

ON SWINE, 1S97.

Head. — 4. — Head should be broad, even and smooth oetween
and above the eyes. Slightly dished, tapering even and gradu-
ally to near the end of the nose. Broad lower jaw, head in-
clined to shortness, but not enough to give the appearance of
stubby nose. And in male a masculine expression and appear-
ance.

Objections. — Head long, narrow between the eyes; nose un-
even and coarse; too large at the muzzle or the head too short;
not full or high above the eyes, or too much wrinkled around
or above the eyes.

Eyes. — 2. — Full, clear, prominent and expressive.

Objections. — Dull expression, deep set or obscure. Sight im-
paired by wrinkles, fat or other cause.

Ears: — 2. — Ears attached to the head by a short, firm knuckle
giving free and easy action. Standing up slightly at the base to
within two-thirds of the tip where a gentle break or drop .should
occur; in size neither too large nor too small, but even, fine, thin,
leaf shape. Slightly inclined outward.

Objections. — Large, floppy, straight, upright or coarse; knuckle
long, letting the ear drop too close to the head and face, hindering
the animal of free use of the ears.

Neck. — 2. — Short, wide, even, smooth, well arched. Rounding
and full from poll to shoulder, with due regard to the character-
istics of the sex.

Objections. — Long, narrow, thin and drooping from the shoul-
der to the poll with unevenness caused by wrinkles or creases.

Jowl. — 2. — Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying full-
ness back near to point of shoulders, and below line of low^er
jaw so that lower line will be as low as breast bone when nead
is carried up level.

Objections. — Light, flabby, thin and wedgie shaped, deeply
wrinkled, not drooping below line of lower jaw, and not carry-
ing fullness back to shoulder and brisket

Shoulder. — G.^ — Broad and oval at the top, showing evenness
with the back and neck, with good width from the top to the
bottom, and even smoothness extending well forward.

Objections. — Narrow at the top or bottom; not as deep as the
body; uneven width. Shields on pigs und,er eight months of
age. or showing too much shield at any age.

Chest. — 12. — Large, wide, deep and full; even underline to
the shoulder and sides with no creases; giving plenty of room
for heart and other organs, making a large girth indicating
much vitality. Brisket smooth, even and broad, wide between
legs and extending well forward showing in front.

Objections — Pinched appearance at the top or bottom, or
tucked in back of the fore legs; showing too narrow between the

Tamwortli sow, Katie Bell, owned by Criiig & Stevenson, Rice Lake.
Wisconsin. A very prolific sow that reared thirty-three living pigs In one
year while in the herd of the Iowa Agricultural College.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TAMAVORTH SAVINE

'Phis English breed has been bred with care during the past sixty years with-
out any infusions of foreign blood, consequently the representatives of this
breed are very uniform as to color and type. The color should be a cherry red or a
dark chestnut and very uniform in shade throughout without any black spots in skin
or patches of h;iir other than the color indicated. The form should show the type
tliat Is desired for bacon production, this means a hog that is exceedingly light In
ofTal with a long trim body and especially very smoothly covered with firm flesh iiuii-
cating a desirable mixture of fat and flesh. The head should be slim, the snout fine
and not unduly long, the ear of appropriate size for the head with the neck sharp
between the ears and light, swelling easily to cover a deep shoulder smoothly.
Depth of shoulder is desirable but without any roughness. The shoulder should not
bulge out beyond the body or the hips for this detracts from the general appearance
of trimness and smoothness which is so very desirable. The back should be long and
strong with a gradually rising arch over the shoulder to the loin and then a corres-
ponding descending line from there to the end of the tail. Width of the back is not de-
m.'inded l)ut extivme smoothness and an even covering of firm flesli is aljsohitely es-
.sential. The ribs should drop as deep as possible making the body appear from the side
as if it had abundance of depth. The loin is oven in width with the shoulder .-ind back
well covered. The hind quarter lacks the width characteristic of the lard hog as
this should not be any wider tlian the parts which precede it. Length of ham or gam-
mon is a peculiar feature which should be looked for. A long ham. fleshed firmly
towards the hock without folds of fat is eminently desired. Tiie leading featuresof
the type throughout are length and depth with trimness and smoothness in all
regions. See official scale of points, page 186.

Essex sow, a prize wrnner at Toronto Industrial Exhibition, owned by
Jos. Featherstone, Ontario, Canada. A sow very typical of the breed, being
exceptionally smooth and possessed of unusual quality.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ES.SEX .S-WINE
^HIS BREED of swine originated in the county of Essex. England, and from this
it talves its name. Loudon, writing in lH2,'i, described the old Essex as being
" up-eared with long, sharp head, roach bacli ; flat, long carcass and long in the legs."
They were improved by Lord Weston who, in 1830, purcliased in Italy a Neapolitan
boar and two sows and these were crossed on the native Essex. Extreme refinement
resulted with loss of size, constitution and fecundity, but through the after worlc of
Kisher Ilobbs these defects have been largely overcome. Some autliorities (Long)
claim that the black Suffolk pig l)red in England at tlie present time is but an im-
proved Essex; otliors ( Ooleman) assert that the Suffolk is adistinct breed. However,
the two now are recognized as separatebreeds. According to the standard agreed upon
by file American association, the characteristics of tlie Essex are as follows: "Color,
l)la,ck without any white wliatever; face short and dishing; ears small, soft and
standing erect while young but drooping slightly witli increasing age; carcass long,
broad, straight and deep; hams heavy and well let down; bone flue; hair ordinarily
ratlier thin, fattening qualities very superior. The typo of the Essex represents a
very compact hog of fine (|uality and very stoutly built; a type which is considered
to mature early aud fatten easily. See official scale of points, page 170.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINB 163

legs; not depth enough back of the shoulder. Brisket uneven,
narrow, not prominent.

Back and Loin. — 14. Broad, straight or slightly arched, car-
rying name width from shoulder to ham, surface even, smooth,
free from lumps, creases or projections, not too long but broad
on top, indicating well sprung ribs; should not be higher at hip
than at shoulder and should fill out at junction with side so that
a straightedge placed along at top of side will touch all the
way from point of shoulder to point of ham, should bo shorter
than lower belly line.

Objections. — Narrow, creased back of shoulders, swayed or
hollow, dropping below a straight line; humped or wrinkled; too
long or sun-fish shaped; loin high, narrow, depressed or hump-
ed up; surface lumpy, creased, ridgy or uneven, width at side
not as much as shoulder and ham.

Sides and Ribs.^10. — Sides full, firm and deep, free from
wrinkles; carrying size down to belly; even from ham to shoul-
der: ribs of good length, well sprung at top and bottom.

Objections.^Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, not as full at bottom
as top; drawn in at shoulder so as to produce a crease or pinch-
ed and tucked up and in as it approaches the ham; uneven sur-
face; ribs flat or too short.

Belly and Flank. — 4. — Belly broad, straight and full, indicat-
ing capacity and room, being about the same or on a level at
the flank with the under chest line. Underline straight, or
nearly so, and free from flabby appearance.

Objections. — Belly uneven and flabby, or apparent looseness in
the make-up. Pinched up in the flank or flanked too hight.

Ham and Rump. — 10. — Hams broad, full, deep and long from
rump to hock, fully developed above and below, being wide at
the point of the hip, carrying width well down to the lower
part of the hams. Fleshy, plump, rounding fullness perceptible
everywhere. Rump rounding and gradually sloping from the loin
to the root of the tail. Broad and well developed all along from
loin and gradually rounding to the buttock; lower front part of
ham should be full and stifle well covered with flesh. Even
width of ham and rump with the back, loin and body. Even a
greater width as to females not objectionable.

Objections. — Ham short, narrow, too round or slim. Not fllled
out above or below, or unshapely for deep meat; not as wide as
the body, back or loin too tapering or small. Rump narrow or
pointed, not plump or well filled or too steep from loin to the
tail.

Legs and Feet. — 10. — Legs medium length, straight, set well
apart and squarely under body, tapering, well muscled and wide
above knee and hock; below hock and knee round and tapering,
capable of sustaining weight of animal in full flesh without
breaking down; bone firm and of fine texture; pasterns short
and nearly upright. Feet firm, short, tough and free from de-
fects.

Objections. — Legs long. slim, coarse, crooked; muscles small
above hock and knee; bone lar.ge. coarse; as large at foot as
above knee; pasterns lona:. slim, crooked or weak; the hocks
turned in or out of strai.ght line; legs too close together: hoofs
long, slim and weak; toes spreading or crooked or unable to
bear up weight of animal without breaking down.

164 JUDGING SWINE

Tail. — 1. — Tail of medium length and size, smooth and taper-
ing well and carried in a curl.

Objections. — Coarse and long without a curl; or short, crook-
ed or stubby; or too small, fine, even, not tapering.

Coat. — 3. — Fine, straight, smooth, laying close to and cover-
ing the body well; not clipped, evenly distributed over the body.

Objections. — Bristle's, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or curly;
swirls, standing up, ends of hair split and brown, not evenly dis-
tributed over all of the body except belly. Clipped coats should
bo cut 1.5 points.

Color. — 3. — Black with six (6) white points: Tip of tail, four
white feet and white in face, on the nose or on the point of low-
er jaw. All to be perceptible without close .examination. Splashes
of white on the jaw, legs oi'' flank or a few spots of white on the
body not objectionable.

Objections. — Solid black, white mixed or sandy spots. Spec-
kled with white hairs over the body; mottled face of white
and black; hair mixed, making a grizzly appearance.

Size. — 5. — Large for age. Condition, vigor and vitality to be
considered. There should be a difference between breeding
animals and those kept or fitted for the show of at least 25 per
cent, in size. In show condition, or when fat, a two-year-old
boar should not weigh less than six hundred (600) pounds, and
a sow not less than five hundred (500) pounds. Boar one year
and over, four hundred (400) pounds; sow three hundred and
fifty (350) pounds. Boar eighteen months, five hundred (500)
pounds; sow, four hundred and fifty (450) pounds. Boar and
sows six months old, not less than one hundred and sixty (160)
pounds. All hogs in just fair breeding condition, one-fourth
less for size. The keeping and chance that a young hog has
cuts quite a figure in his size and should be considered, other
points being equal. Fine quality and size combined, are the de-
sirable.

Objections. — Overrg[rown; 'coarse, flabbiy, loose appearance.
Gangling, hard to fatten; too fine, undersize; short, stubby,
inclined to chubby fatness. Not a hardy robust animal.

Action and Style. — 3. — Action vigorous, easy and graceful.
Style attractive; high carriage; and in males testicles should
be prominent and of about the same size, and yet not too large
and pouchy.

Objections. — Clumsy, slow, av/kward movement; low carriage;
waddling or twisting walk. A seeming tired or lazy appear-
ance; not stand erect and firm.

Condition. — 2. — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales and sores;
soft and mellow to the touch; flesh flne; evenly laid on and
free from lumps and wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close to
body; good feeding qualities.

Objections. — Unhealthy, skin scaly, wrinkled, scabby or harsh,
flabbiness or lumpy flesh; too much fat for breeding. Hair harsh
dry and standing up from body; poor feeders; deafness, partial
or total.

Disposition. — 2. — Lively, easily handled and seemingly kind,
'■esponsive to good treatment.

Objections. — Cross, sluggish, restless, wild or of a vicious
turn.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 1()5

Symmetry or Adaptation of Points. — 3. — The adaptation of
all the points, size and style combined to make the desired type
or model.

POLAND'CHINA SWINE.

NATIONAL BREEDERS SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY
THE NATIONAL POLAND-CHINA BREEDERS ASSO-
CIATION AT THE ANNUAL MEETING HELD
IN CHICAGO IN NOVEMBER, lSS6.

Published in the Poland-China Kecord, Dayton, Ohio, "£

Vol. XVIIl, 18'J0, and American Poland-China Kecord, g

Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Vol. XI, 1800. CJ

Color — Dark spotted or black 3

Head — Small, broad, face slightly dished 5

Ears — Fine and drooping 2

Jowl — Neat and full 2

Neck— Short, full, slightly arched 3

Brisket— Full ...> 3

Shoulder — Broad and deep tj

Girth- Around Heart 10

Back — Straight and broad 7

Sides — Deep and full 6

Ribs — Well sprung 7

Loin — Broad and strong 7

Belly — Wide and straight 4

Flank— Well let down 3

Ham — Broad, full and deep 10

Tail — Tapering and not coarse 2

Limbs — Strong, straight and tapering 7

Coat— Thick and soft 3

Action — Prompt, easy and gracel"ul 5

Symmetry — Adaptation of the several points to each other.. 5

Total 100

DETAILED DESCRIPTION.

Color — Black, or dark spotted, with white points. (Sandy
spots and speckled color shall not argue impurity of blood, but
are not desirable.)

Objections. — Solid black or with more sandy than black hairs-
over body.

Head. — Short, broad between eyes, and nicely tapering from
eyes to point of nose; face slightly dished, cheeks full.

Objectisns. — Head coarse, long and narrow; face too much
dished ; snout coarse and thick.

Ears. — Droopincr, fine and silky ; pointing forward and a little
outward: well proportioned to size of body.

Objections. — Too large and coarse; thick, lopping; lying too
near the face; stiff, erect or too round.

Jowl. — Full, firm and neat; carrying fullness well back to
shoulder and brisket.

Objections. — Flabby: light: thin in cheeks, tucking up under
the neck.

166 JUDGING SWINE

Neck. — Full, deep, short, and slightly arched.

Objections. — Long, flat; lacking in fullness or depth.

Brisket. — Full, well let down, extending well forward and on
line with belly.

Objections. — Narrow or tucked up.

Shoulders. — Broad, deep; thickness in proportion to sides
and hams, full and even on top.

Objections. — Lacking in depth or width; thick beyond the
lines of the sides and hams; blade too prominent.
.Girth' Around Heart. — Full back of shoulders, ribs extending
well down; wide and full back of fore legs.

Objections. — Less than flank measure or length of b;)dy from
top of head to root of tail, or creased back of shoulders.

Back. — Broad, straight or slightly arched, carrying width well
back to hams, and of medium length.

Objections. — Narrow, creasing back of shoulders; narrow
across loins; swayed; too long; sunfish shaped.

Loin. — Broad, strong and full.

Objections. — Narrow, weak.

Sides. — Full, deep; carrying sides well down and back.

Objections. — Too round or flat; shallow or thin at the flank.

Ribs.^Well sprung and long; carrying fullness well back.

Objections. — Too flat, curve of the ribs too short.

Belly. — Wide and straight.

Objections. — Sagging, narrow.

Flank. — Well let down and full.

Objections. — Thin and tucked in; cut up too high.

Ham. — Full, broad, deep, holding width and coming well over
back.

Objections. — Narrow, short, too steep at the rump and cut up
too high in the crotch.

Tail. — Well set on; small, smooth and well tapered.

Objections. — Coarse, large, too prominent at the root.

Limbs. — Medium length; well set apart and well tapered; bone
Arm and flinty; not coarse; muscles full above knee and hock;
pastern short; foot short.

Objections. — Long, slim, coarse, crooked, muscles light; pas-
tern long, slim or flat ; feet long or sprawling.

Coat. — Fine, thick, and covering the body well.

Objections. — Coarse, bristly, harsh and wiry.

Action. — Easy, prompt, fine and graceful.

Objections.- — Dull, sluggish, clumsy.

Symmetrv. — A harmonious combination of the foregoing scale
of pumts.

Objections. — Too much developed in some points and lacking
in others.

SERIOUS OBJECTIONS.

Form — Small growth; upright ears; small, cramped chest;
crease back or shoulders, so as to be readily seen; deformed
and badly crooked legs; feet broken down so that the animal
walks on pastern joints and dew-claws.

DISQUALIFICATIONS.

Condition — Excessive fat; barren; deformed; rnsound or
diseased; ridging or one-sided.

Score — A score or less than sixty points of the standard.
Pedigree — Lack of eligibility to record.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 167

POLAND-CHINA SWINE.

CENTRAL ASSOCIATION SCALE OF POINTS.

Published in the Central Poland-China Record, Indian- t^
apolis, Ind., Vol. XII, 1891, and Standard Poland-China 5
Record, Maryville, Mo., Vol. XIII, 1894. U

Head and Face ./ 4

Eyes 2

Ears 2

Neck 2

Jowl 2

Shoulders 6

Chest 12

Back and Loirt 15

Sides and Ribs 8

Belly and Flank 6

Ham and Rump 10

Feet and Legs 10

Tail 1

Coat 2

Color 2

Size 5

Action and Style 4

Condition 4

Disposition 3

Total 100

DISQUALIFICATIONS.

Form — Upright ears; small, cramped chest, crease back of
shoulders and over the back so as to cause a depression in
back easily noticed; defoi'med or badly crooked legs; feet
broken down, so that the animal walks on pastern joints.

Size — China build, or not two-thirds large enough for age.

Condition — Excessive fatness; barrenness; deformed; seriously
diseased; total blindness, caused by defective eyes, or by rea-
son of fat or loose and wrinkled skin over the eyes.

Score — Less than sixty points.

Pedigree — Not eligible to record.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION.

Head and Face. — Head short and wide; cheeks full; jaws
broad; forehead high and wide; face short; smooth; wide be-
tween the eyes; tapering from eyes to point of nose and slight-
ly dished; surface even and regular.

Objections. — Head long; narrow; coarse; forehead low and
narrow or contracted: lower jaw extending beyond upper; face
long, straight and narrow between the eyes; nose coarse, thick
or crooked, ridgy or dished as much as a Berkshire.

Eyes. — Large, prominent; bright; lively, clear and free from
wrinkled or fat surroundings.

Objections. — Small, dull, blood-shot, deep ,set or obscure, vis-
ion impaired by wrinkles, fat or other cause.

Ears.- — Small; thin; soft; silky; attached to the head by a
short and small knuckle; tips pointing forward and slightly out-

168 JUDGING SWINE

ward, and the forward half drooping gracefully; fully under
control of animal; both of same size, position and shape.

Objections. — Large; Straight; stiff; coarse; thick; round;
long or large knuckle, drooping close to face, swinging and
flabby; difference in form, size or position.

Neck. — Wide; deep; short, and nicely arched at top, from
poll of head to shoulder.

Objections. — Long; narrow; thin; flat on top; not extending
down to breast bone; tucked up.

Jowl. f— Full; broad; deep; smooth and firm; carrying fullness
back near to point of shoulders, and below line of lower jaw,
so that lower line will be as low as breast bone when head is
carried up level.

Objections. — Light; flabby; thin; wedge shaped; deeply wrin-
kled; not drooping below line of lower jaw, and not carry-
ing fullness back to shoulder and brisket.

Shoulders. — Broad; deep and full; not extending above line
of back, and being as wide on top as back; carrying size down
to line of belly and having good lateral width.

Objections. — Narrow; not same depth as body; narrow on top
or bottom or extending above line of back; less than body in
breadth at top or bottom portions, or lacking in lateral width;
shields on boars under eight months of age, or large, heavy
shields on hogs under eighteen months of age.

Chest. — Large; wide; deep; roomy, indicating plenty of room
for vital organs, and making a large girth just back of shoul-
ders; the breast bone extending forward so as to show slightly
in front of legs and extending in a straight line back to end of
breast bone; showing width of not less than six inches be-
tween fore legs in a large, full grown hog.

Objections. — Flat; pinched; narrow at top or at either end
of breast bone; breast bone crooked or not extending slightly
in front of fore legs.

Back and Loin.^ — Broad; straight; or slightly arched; car-
rying same width from shoulder to ham; surface leven; smooth,
free from lumps, creases or projections; not too long, but broad
on top, indicating well sprung ribs; should not be higher at hip
than at shoulder and should fill out at junction, with side so
that a straight edge placed along top of side will touch all the
way from point of shoulder to point of ham; should be shorter
than the lower belly line.

Objections. — Narrow; creased back of shoulders; swayed or
hollow; dropping below a straight line; humped or wrinkled;
too long, or sunfish shaped; loin high, narrow, depressed or
humped up; surface lumpy, creased, ridgy or uneven; width at
side not as much as shoulder and ham.

Sides and Ribs.- — Sides full; smooth; firm and deep; carrying
size down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder; ribs long,
strong, well sprung at top and bottom.

Objections. — Flat: thin: flabby: pinched; not as full at bottom
as top; drawn in at shoulders so^ as to produce a crease or
pinched and tucked up, and in as it approaches the ham; lumpy
or uneven surface: ribs flat or too short.

Belly and Flank. — Wide, straight and full and drooping as
low at flank as bottom of chest; back of fore leg making a
f^traight line from fore legs to hind legs; flank full and out even

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 169

with surrounding portions of bodj'; the belly at that point
drooping down on a line with lower line of chest; the loose
skin connecting ham and belly being on a line even with bot-
tom of side.

Objections. — Belly narrow; pinched; sagging or flabby. Flank
tucked up or drawn in.

Hams and Rump.^Hams broad; full, long and wide. They
should be as wide at point of the hip as the swell of the ham.
Buttocks large and full; should project beyond and come down
upon and full between the hocks. The lower front part of the
ham should be full and stifle well covered with flesh and a
gradual rounding toward the hock. Rump should have a round-
ing slope from loin to root of tail; same width as back and fill-
ing out full on each side of, and above the tail.

Objections. — Ham narrow; short; thin; not projecting beyond
and coming down to hock; cut up too high in crotch or twist;
lacking in fullness at top or bottom; lacking In width from
stifle straight back; lower fore part thin and flat; straight from
root of tail to hock; buttocks light, thin or flabby. Rump flat,
narrow and peaked at root of tail; too steep.

Legs and Feet. — Legs medium length; straight; set well apart
and squarely under body; tapering; well muscled and wide
above knee and hock; below hock and knee round and taper-
ing, capable of sustaining weight of animal in full flesh
without breaking down; bone firm and of fine texture; pasterns
short and nearly upright. Feet firm; short; tough and free
from defects.

Objections.— Legs long; slim; coar'se; crooked; muscles
small above hock and knee; bone large, coarse, as large at
foot as above knee; pasterns long, slim, crooked or weak;
the hocks turned in or out of straight line; legs too close
together; hoofs long, slim and weak; toes spreading or crooked
or unable to bear up weight of animal without breaking down.

Tail. — Well set on; small, smooth, tapering and carried in a
curl.

Objections. — Coarse; long; crooked or hanging straight down
like a rope.

Coat. — Fine; straight; smooth; laying close to and covering
the body well; not clipped; evenly distributed over body.

Objections. — Bristles; hair coarse; harsh; thin; wavy or cur-
ly; swirls; standing up; ends of hair split and brown; not
evenly distributed over all of the body except belly. Clipped
coats should be cut 1.5 points.

Color. — Black with white in face or on lower jaw; white on
feet and tip of tail, and a few small, clear white spots on body
not objectionable.

Objections. — Solid black, more than one-forth white; sandy
hairs or spots; a grizzled or speckled appearance.

Size. — Large for age and condition; boars two years old and
over, if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds.
Sows same age and condition not less than 450 pounds. Boars
eighteen months old, in good condition, not less than 400 pounds;
sows, 350 pounds. Boars twelve months, not less than 300
pounds; sow,s. 300 pounds. Boar and sow six months, not less
than 150 pounds. Other ages in proportion.

170 JUDGING SWINE

Objections. — Overgrown; coarse; gangling, or hard to fatten
at any age.

Action and Style. — Action vigorous; easy; quick and grace-
ful. Style attractive; high carriage; and in males testicles
should be of same size, carriage; readily seen and yet not too
large.

Objections. — Slow; dull; clumsy; awkward; difficulty in get-
ting up when down; low carriage; w^abbling walk. In males
testicles not easily seen, not of same size or carriage, too large
or only one showing

Condition. — Healthy; skin clear of scurf, scales, or sores;
soft and mellow to the touch; flesh fine, evenly laid on ahd free
from lumps or wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close to body;
good feeding qualities.

Objections.— Unhealthy; skin scaly, wrinkly, scabby or harsh,
flabbiness or lumpy flesh; too much fat for breeding. Hair
harsh, dry and standing up from body; poor feeder; deafness,
partial or total.

Disposition. — Quiet, gentle and easily handled.

Objections. — Cross, restless, vicious or wild.

ESSEX SWINE.

c

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN ESSEX ASSOCIA- g
TION, VOL. II, IMPROVED ESSEX SWINE RECORD, 1893. {J

Color— Black 2

Head — Small, broad and face dished 3

Ears — Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age 2

Jowl — Full and neat 1

Neck— Short, full, well arched 3

Shoulders — Broad and deep 7

Girth Around Heart 6

Back — Straight, broad and level 12

Sides — Deep and full 6

Ribs — Well sprung 7

Loin — Broad and strong 12

Flank — Well let down 2

Ham — Broad, full and deep 12

Tail — Medium, fine, and curled 2

Legs — Fine, straight and tapering 3

Feet— Small 3

Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles 3

Action — Easy and graceful 4

Symmetry — Adaptation of the several parts to each other... 10

Total 100

Pen of two Berkshire pigs. Exhibited by Mr. J. A. Flrckert, of Burton,
Mere, Wiltslilre. Winners of the challenge cup for the best pen of two pigs,
at the Smithtield Show. England. 1898.

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Pure bred Tauiworth smv. AiiixcouRT (^>rEEN. The property of Mr. John
Hell, Amber. Ontario, Canada. Agineourt (Jueen was farrowed February ii.
1896. Photo was taken May 26. 1897.

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Tliiu Rind Sow, Beauty 27, owned by John S. Phelps, Lexington, Ky.

Berkshire sow, Hiqhclere Cocntess IX, of Hood Farm, and her litter
of nine pigs at three weeks old, by Wantage King of Hood Farm. First prize
winners at numerous fairs in ls<»M. Two of the pigs are under the others, the
white brush of one showing between the second and third from the left end,
and the other in the same position from the other end. Owned by Hood
Farm, Lowell, Massachusetts.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCK FOR SWINE 171

CHESTER WHITE SWINE.

SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY THE STANDARD CHESTER

WHITE RECORD ASSOCIATION. CHESTER WHITE ^

RECORD, VOL. Ill, 1892. C

The description which follows is similar to that adopted g
by the National Association of Expert Judges. cj

Head and Face 4

Eyes 2

Ears 2

Neck 2

Jowl 2

Shoulders 6

Chest i)

Back and Loin 15

Sides and Rib 8

Belly and Flank 6

Ham and Rump 10

Feet and Legs 10

Tail 1

Coat 2

Color 5

Size 5

Action and Style 4

Condition 4

Disposition 3

Total 100

DISQUALIFICATIONS.

Form. — Upright ears; small cramped chest; crease around
hack of shoulders and over the back, causing a depression easily
noticed; feet broken down causing the animal to walk on
pastern joints; deformed or badly crooked legs.

Size. — Chuffy, or not two-thirds large enough for age.

Condition. — Squabby fat; deformed, seriously deformed; bar-
renness; total blindness.

Score. — Less than sixty points.

Pedigree. — Not eligible to record.

Color. — Black or sandy spots in hair.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION.

Head and Face. — Head short and wide; cheeks neat but not
too full; jaws broad and strong; forehead medium, high and
wide. Face short and smooth; wide betw^een the eyes; nose
neat and tapering and slightly dished.

Objections. — Head long, narrow and coarse; lorehead low
and narrow; jaws contracted and weak. Face long, narrow and
straight; nose coarse, clumsy or dished like a Berkshire.

Eyes. — Large, bright, clear and free from wrinkles or fat sur-
roundings.

objections. — Small, deep or obscure; vision impaired in any
way.

Ears. — ^Medium size; not too thick; soft; attached to the
head so as not to look clumsy; pointing forward and slightly

172 JUDGING SWINE

outward; fully under the control of the animal and drooping
so as to give a graceful appearance.

Objections.^Large; upright; coarse; thick; round; too small;
drooping too close to the face; animal not being able to con-
trol them.

Neck. — Wide; deep; short and nicely arched.

Objections. — Long, narrow; thin; flat on top; tucked up; not
extending down to breast bone.

Jowl. — Full; smooth, neat and firm; carrying fullness back
to shoulder and brisket when the head is carried up level.

Objections.^ — Light; too large and flabby; rough and deeply
wrinkled; not carrying fullness back to shoulder and brisket.

Shoulder. — Broad, deep and full, extending in a straight line
with the side, and carrying size down to line of belly.

Objections. — Narrow at top or bottom, not full nor same depth
as body; extending above line of back; shields on boars too
coarse and prominent.

Chest. — Large; deep and roomy so as not to cramp vital or-
gans; full in girth around the heart; the breast bone extend-
ing forward so as to show slightly in front of legs, and let
down so as to be even with line of belly, showing a width
of not less than 7 inches between fore legs of a full grown hog.

Objections. — Narrow; pinched; heart girth less than flank
girth; too far let down between fore legs; breast bone crooked
or too short.

Back and Loin. — Back broad on top; straight or slightly
arched; uniform width; smooth; free from lumps or rolls;
shorter than lower belly line; same height and width at shoul-
der as at ham; loin wide and full.

Objections. — Back narrow; creased back of shoulders; sun-
fished shape; humped; swayed; too long or lumpy rolls; un-
even in width; loin narrow, depressed or humped.

Sides and Ribs. — Sides full; smooth; deep; carrying size
down to belly; even with line of ham and shoulder; ribs long;
well sprung at top or bottom, giving hog a square form.

Objections. — Flat; thin; flabby; compressed at bottom;
shrunken at shoulder and ham; uneven surface; ribs flat ana
too short.

Belly and Flank. — Same width as back; full, making a
straight line and dropping as low at flank as at bottom of chest;
line of lower edge running parallel with sides; flank full and
even with body.

Objections. — Belly narrow; pinched; sagging or flabby; flank
thin, tucked up or drawn in.

Ham and Rump. — Ham broad; full; long, wide and deep;
admitting of no swells; buttock full; neat and clean, thus avoid-
ing flabbiness; stifle well covered with flesh, nicely tapering
towards the hock; rump should have a slightly rounding shape
from loin to root of tail; same width as back, making an even
line with sides.

Objections. — Hams narrow; short: not filled out to stifle; too
much cut up in crotch or twist; not coming down to hock but-
tocks flabby; rump flat, narrow, too long, too steep, sharp or
peaked at root of tail.

Legs and Feet. — Legs short; straight; set well apart and
squarely under body; bone of good size; flrm; well muscled;

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINL 17LJ

wide above knee and hock; below knee and hock round and
tapering, enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease;
pastern short and nearly upright; feet short, firm, tough and
free from defects.

Objections. — Legs too short, long, slim, crooked, too coarse;
too close together; weak muscles above hock and knee; bone
large and coarse without taper; pasterns long; crooked, slim
like a deer's; hoofs long, slim, weak; toes .spreading, crooked
or turned up.

Tail. — Small; smooth; tapering, well set on, root slightly
covered with flesh; carried in a curl.

Objections. — Coarse; long; clumsy; set too high or too low;
hanging like a rope.

Coat. — Fine; straight or wavy; evenly distributed and cov-
ering the body well; nicely clipped coats no objection.

Objections. — Bristles; hair coarse; thin; standing up; not
evenly distributed over all the body except belly.

Color. — White (blue spots or black specks in skin shall not
argue impurity of blood.)

Objections. — Color any other than white.

Size. — Large for age and condition; boars two years old and
over, if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds.
Sow same age and condition, not less than 4.50 pounds. Boars
18 months old in good flesh should weigh not less than 400
pounds. Sows 350. Boars 12 months old not less than 300
pounds. Sows 300. Boars and sows 6 months old, not less
than 150 pounds each, and other ages in proportion.

Objections. — Overgrown; coarse; uncouth; hard to fatten.

Action and Style. — Action easy and graceful; style attrac-
tive; high carriage; in males testicles should be readily seen;
same size and carriage.

Objections. — Sluggish; awkward low carriage; wabbling walk;
in males testicles not easily seen; not of same size or carriage,
or onlj- one showing.

Condition.^Healthy skin clear and bright; free from scurf
and sores; flesh fine and mellow to the touch; evenly laid
on and free from lumps; good feeding qualities.

Objections. — Unhealthy; skin scaly, scabby or harsh; flesh
lumtpy or flabby: hair harsh, dry and standing up from body;
poor feeders; total deafness.

Disposition. — Quiet; gentle and easily handled; with ambi-
tion f'liongh to look out for themselves if nesjlected.

Objections. — Cross; restless; vicious or wild; no ambition.

174 JUDGING SWINE

CHESTER WHITE SWINE.

SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY THE CHESTER WHITE

RECORD ASSOCIATION AT THEIR ANNUAL MEETING, ^5

JAN., 1885, AND REVISED JAN., 1888. PUBLISHED "g

TODD's IMPROVED CHESTER WHITE SWINE g

RECORD, VOL. IV, IS9I. (J

Head — Small, broad, slightly dished 5

Eye — Large and bright 2

Ear — Thin, fine and drooping ' 2

Jowl — Neat and full 3

Neck — Short, full and slightly arched 3

Brisket — Full and deep 3

Shoulder — Broad and deep 6

Girth Around Heart 10

Back — Straight and broad 7

Sides — Deep and full 6

Ribs — Well sprung 7

Belly — Wide and straight 4

Girth Around Flank 10

Ham — Broad, full and deep 10

Limbs — Strong, straight and neat 7

Tail — Tapering, and not coarse 2

Coat — Fine and thick 3

Color— White 1

Action — Prompt, easy and graceful 5

Symmetry 4

Total 100

DETAILED DESCRIPTION.

Head — Short; broad between the eyes, and nicely tapering
from eyes to point of nose; face slightly dished; cheeks full.

Objections. — Head coarse, long and narrow; face straight or
too much dished; snout coarse or thick.

Eye. — Large, bright, and free from overgrowing fat.

Objections. — Small, dim. or hidden under protruding fat.

Ear. — Drooping; thin; pointing outward and forward; well
proportioned to size of body.

Objections. — Too large and coarse: thick, lopping; lying too
near the face; stiff, erect, or too small.

Jowl. — ^Full, firm and neat; carrying fullness well back to
neck and brisket.

Objections. — Flabby; light; thin in cheek; tucking up under
the neck.

Neck. — Full, deep, short, and well arched.

Objections. — Long; flat; lacking in fullness or depth.

Brisket. — Full; strong; well let down; extending well for-
ward, and on line of the belly.

Objections. — Narrow, or tucked un.

Shoulder — Broad; deep; thickness in proportion to the side
and ham: full and even on top.

Objections. — Thick beyond the line of side and ham; lacking
in depth or width; blade prominent, or extending above the
line of the back.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 175

Girth Around the Heart. — Full back of shoulders; ribs ex-
tending well down; wide and full back of fore legs.

Objections. — Less than flank or length of body from top of
the head to root of the tail.

Back. — Broad, straight, or slightly arched, carrying width
well back to the hams, and of medium length.

Objections. — Narrow; sinking back of shoulders; narrow
across the loin; swayed; too long; sunfish shaped.

Sides. — Full; deep; carrying weight and thickness well down
and back.

Objections.— Too round or flat; shallow, or thin at the flank.

Ribs. — Well sprung, carrying fullness well back and deep.

Objections.- — Too flat; curve of rib too short; tucking in at
bottom; sagging about loin.

Loin. — Broad, strong and full.

Objections. — Narrow; poorly ribbed up; weak.

Belly. — Wide and straight; width approximating that of the
back.

Objections. — Sagging; narrow; skin coarse, harsh and thick.

Girth Around Flank. — Flank well let down and full; loin
broad, strong and full; measurement of flank girth equal to
heart girth.

Objections. — Flank thin, tucked in, or cut up too high; loin
narrow or weak.

Ham. — Broad, full, deep; of medium length; coming down
well over the hock.

Objections.— Narrow; short; running too far up the back;
steep at the rump.

Limbs. — Medium length: short rather than long; set well
apart, and well under; muscles full above knee and hock: bone
firm and not coarse; pasterns short and strong; foot short.

Objections. — Long, slim, coarse, crooked; muscles light; pas-
terns long, slim or flat; hoofs long or sprawling.

Tail. — Small, tapering, smooth, well set on.

Objections. — Coarse; large; too prominent at the root.

Coat. — Fine and thick.

Objections. — Coarse; hair too long; wiry; harsh.

Color. — White. (Blue spots in skin and black specks shall
not argue impurity of blood.)

Action. — Easy; prompt; fine and graceful.

Objections. — Dull, sluggish, clumsy.

Symmetry. — Uniform build, and all points in animal in pro-
portion.

Objections. — Wanting in some points, and too much develop-
ed in others.

SERIOUS OBJECTIONS.

Form. — Smlall growth; upright ears; small, cramped chest;
crease back of the shoulders, so as to be readily seen; deformed
and badly crooked legs; feet broken down so that animal w'alks
on pastern joints and dew-claws.

DISQUALIFICATIONS.

Conditions. — Excessive fat; barren; deformed, unsound or
diseased; ridgling or one-seeded.

Score. — A score of less than sixty of the standard.
Pedigree. — Lack of eligibility to record.

176 JUDGING SWINE

DUROC.JEFSEY SWINE.

STANDARD OF CHARACTERISTICS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN DUROC-

JERSEY SWINE BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN

DUROC-JERSEY RECORD, VOL IV, 1S93.

Color. — The coloi- is a very important factor in establishing
the fancy markings of any of the improved breeds of swine,
and it seems as though the Doroc-Jersey is no exception. Our
breeders, (at least many of them) seem to not have the right
idea as to what our "Standard of Characteristics" means by
the term "Cherry Red."

There are many shades of red and we shall here endeavor
to make some suggestions which will enable breeders to give
the exact color of their hogs sent for registration.

The best way is to take a few hairs from the back of the
animal and hold them in a bright light, and then you can tell
very accurately the exact color. If the hair is a clear, deep
red, and not shading brown or black at the end, you have a
cherry red color and should be recorded as "Cherry Red."
Should the hair be as above and shading brown or black, it
should be recorded as "Dark Cherry." Should the hair be
lighter and glossy in the sun light, they should be recorded as
"Bright Red," or "Bright Cherry." Should the hair be light
and have a dull appearance, they should be recorded as "Medi-
um." Should the hair be dark or shading black, they should be
recorded as "Dark Red."

The most fashionable color and the one our breeders should
use every possible means to establish in their herd is a
"Cherry Red," and as speedily as possible, discard all animals
with black spots or flecks, and avoid very light or dark shades
in their selection of breeding animals.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 1/ /

DUFOC-JERSEY SWINE.

SCALE OF POINTS — AMERICAN DUKOC-JERSEY RECORD. ^•

Similar to the description prepared by the >sational Asso- g

ciation of Expert Judges. Cj

Head and Face 4

Eyes 2

Ears 2

Neck 2

Jowl 2

Shoulders G

Chest 12

Back and Loin 15

Sides and Ribs S

Belly and Flank G

Hams and Rumps 10

Legs and Feet 10

Tail 1

Coat 2

Color 2

Size 5

Action and Style ■!

Condition 4

Disposition 3

Total 100

DISQUALIFICATIONS.

Form. — Ears standing erect; small cramped chest, and
crease back of shoulders and over back so as to cause a depres-
sion in the back easily noticed: seriously deformed legs, or
badly broken down feet.

Size. — Very small, or not two-thirds large enough as given by
the standard.

Score. — Less than fifty points.

Pedigree. — Not eligible to record.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION.

Head and Face. — Head small in proportion to size of body;
wide between eyes; face nicely dished (about half way be-
tween a Poland-China and a Berkshire) and tapering well down
tj the nrse; surface smooth and even.

Objections. — Large and coarse; narrow between the eyes;
face straight; crooked nose, or too much dished.

Eyes. — Lively, bright and prominent.

Objections. — Dull, weak and obscure.

Ears. — Medium; moderately thin; pointing forward, down-
ward and slightly outward, carrying a slight curve, attached to
head very neatly.

Objections. — Very large; nearly round; too thick; swinging
or flabby; not of same size; different position and not under
control of animal.

Neck. — Short, thick and very deep and slightly arching.

Objections. — Long, shallow and thin.

178 JUDGING SWINE

Jowl. — Broad, full and neat; carrying fullness back to point
of shoulders and on a line with breast bone.

Objections. — Too large, loose and flabby small thin and
wedging.

Shoulders. — Moderately broad; very deep and full; carrying
thickness well down and not extending above line of back.

Objections. — Small; thin; shallow; extending above line of
back. Boars under one year old heavily shielded.

Chest. — Large; very deep; filled full behind shoulders; breast
bone extending well forward so as to be readily seen.

Objections. — Flat; shallow, or not extending well down be-
tween fore legs.

Back and Loin. — Back medium in breadth; straight or slight-
ly arching; carrying even width from shoulder to ham; surface
even and smooth.

Objections. — Narrow; crease behind shoulders^; siwayed or
humped backed.

Sides and Ribs. — Sides very deep; medium in length; level
between shoulders and hams and carrying out full down to
line of belly. Ribs long, strong and sprung in proportion to
width of shoulders and hams.

Objections. — Flabby, creased, shallow and not carrying prop-
er width from top to bottom.

Belly and Flank. — Straight and full and carrying well out to
line of sides. Flank well down to lower line of sides.

Objections. — Narrow; tucked up or drawn in; sagging or
flabby.

Hams and Rump. — Broad, full and well let down to the, hock;
buttock full and coming nearly down and filling full between
hocks. Rump should have a round slope, from loin to root of
tail; same width as back and well filled out around tail.

Objections. — Ham narrow; short; thin; not projecting well
down to hock; cut up too high in crotch. Rump narrow: flat
or peaked at root of tail; too steep.

Legs and Feet. — Medium size and length; straight; nicely
tapered; wide apart and well set under the body; pasterns
short and strong. Feet short, firm and tough.

Objections. — Legs extremely long, or very short; slim; coarse;
crooked; legs as large below knee and hock as above; set too
close together; hocks turned in or out of straight line. Feet,
hoofs long; slim and weak; toes spreading or crooked.

Tail. — Medium; large at base and nicely tapering and rather
bushy at end.

Objections. — Extremely heavy; too long and ropy.

Coat. — Moderately thick and fine; straight, smooth and cov-
ering the body well.

Objections. — Too many bristles; hair coarse, harsh, and
rough; wavy or curly; swirls, or not evenly laid over the body.

Color. — Cherry red without other admixtures.

Objections.^ — Very dark red or shading brown; very pale or
light red; black spots over the body; black fiecks on belly and
legs not desired but admissible.

Size. — Large for age and condition. Boars two years old and
over should weigh 600 lbs.; sow same age and condition, 500
ll)s. Boar eighteen months, 475 lbs.; sow 400 lbs. Boar twelve
months, 350 lbs.; sow, 300 lbs. Boar and sow pigs six months,

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 179

150 lbs. The figures are for animals in a fair show condition.

Objections. — Rough and coarse and lacking in feeding quali-
ties.

Action and Style. — Action vigorous and animated. Style
free and easy.

Objections. — Dull or stupid; awkward and wabbling. In boars
testicles not easily seen nor of same size or carriage; too large
or only one showing.

Condition. — Healthy; skin free from scurf, scales, sores,
and mange; flesh evenly laid over the entire body and free
from any lumps.

Objections. — Unhealthy; scurfy; scaly; sores; mange; too
fat for breading purposes; hair harsh and standing r.p; poor
feeders.

Disposition. — Very quiet and gentle; easily handled or driven.

Objections. — Wild, vicious or stubborn.

VICTORIA SWINE.

o

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY VICTORIA SWINE BREEDERS

ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN VICTORIA SWINE RECORD,

VOL. I, 18S7.

The description that follows is similar to that adopted by
the National Association of Expert Judges. 0

Color — White, with occasional dark spots in the skin 2

Head — Small, broad and face medium dished 3

Ears — Fine, pointing forward 2

Jowl — Medium size and neat 1

Neck^Short, full and well arched 3

Shoulders — Broad and deep 7

Girth Around Heart 6

Back — Straight, broad and level 12

Sides — Deep and full C

Ribs — Well sprung 7

Loin — Broad and strong 12

Flank— Well let down 2

Ham — Broad, full and deep, without loose fat 12

Tail — Medium fine and curled 2

Legs — Fine and straight 3

Feet— Small 3

Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles 3

Action — Easy and graceful -1

Symmetry — Adaptation of the several parts to each other. . 10

Total 100

Detailed Description of Victoria swine as adopted by the Vic-
toria Swine Breeders' Association at their annual meeting, No-
vember, 1888, as an aid to judges at fairs in place of the score
card.

Color — White, with occasional dark spot in the skin.

Head and Face — Head rather small and neat. Face medium
dished and smooth; wide between eyes; tapering irom eyes to
nose.

180 JUDGING SWINE

Eyes — Medium size, prominent, bright; clear and lively in
young, and quiet expression in aged animals.

Neck. — Medium wide, deep, short, well arched and full at
top.

Jowl. — Medium full, nicely rounded, neat and free from loose,
flabby fat.

Shoulders. — Broad, deep and full, not higher than the line of
baclv, and as wide on top as back.

Chest. — Large, wide, deep and roomy, with large girth back
of shoulders.

Back and Loin. — Broad, straight or slightly arched, carrying
same width from shoulders to ham; level and full at loin; some-
times higher at hip than at shoulder.

Ribs and Sides. — Ribs well sprung at top; strong and firm;
sides deep, full, smooth and firm; free from creases.

Belly and Flank — Wide; straight and full; as low or slightly
lower at flank than at chest. Flank full and nearly even with
sides.

Hams and Rump. — Hams long; full and wide; nicely rounded;
trim and free from loose fat. Buttocks large and full; reaching
well down towards hocks. Rump, slightly sloped from end of
loin to root of taii.

Legs and Feet. — Legs short; set well apart and firm; wide
above knee and hock tapering below. Feet firm and standing
well up on toes.

Tail. — Small; fine and tapering; nicely curled.

Coat. — Fine and silky; evenly covering the body.

Size. — Boars two years old and over when in good condition
should weigh not less than 500 lbs.; sow same age and condi-
tion, 450 lbs. Boars twelve months old not less than 300 lbs.;
sows in good flesh 300 lbs. Pigs 5 to 6 months old 140 to 160
lbs.

Action. — Easy and graceful, but quiet.

Condition. — Healthy; skin clean, and white or pink in color;
free from scurf; flesh flrm and evenly laid on.

Disposition. — Quiet and gentle.

DISQUALIFICATIONS.

Color. — other than white or creamy white, with occasional
dark spots in skin.

Form. — Crooked jaws or deformed face; crooked or deformed
legs; large, coarse, drooping ears.

Condition.— Excessive fatness; barrenness; deformity in any
part of the body.

Pedigree. — Not eligible for record.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 181

CHESHIRE SWINE.

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE. THE CHESHIRE HERD BOOK.
VOL I, 1S89.

Head. — Short to medium in length, short in proportion to
length of body; face somewhat dished and wide between the
eyes; ears small, erect, in old animals often .slightly pointing
forward; neck, short; shoulders broad and full; hips broad;
body long, broad and deep; hams, broad, nearly straight with
back and running well down towards hock; legs small and slim,
set well apart and supporting the body on the toes; tail, small
and slim; hair fine, medium in thickness and quantity; color
white, a few blue spots in skin not to disqualify, but objectiona-
ble; when grown and well fattened should dress from 400 to
COO lbs.

SCALE OF POINTS.

Cheshires must be shown in fair breeding condition. -^

Animals too fleshy to meet this requirement must be docked g

ttMi points. Cj
Head. — Snort to medium in length, short in proportion to

length of body 8

Face. — Somewhat dished and wide between the eyes S

Jowl. — Medium in fullness 3

Ears. — Small, fine, erect; in old animals often pointing for-
ward 5

Neck. — Short and broad 3

Shoulders.— Broad, full and deep 6

Girth. — Size of body around heart S

Back. — Long, broad and straight nearly to root cf tail 10

Side. — Deep and full, nearly straight on bottom line 7

Flank. — Well back and low down, making flank girth nearly

equal to heart girth 3

Hams. — Broad, nearly straight with back and running well

down towards hock 10

Legs.^Small and slim, set well apart and supporting body

on toes 10

Tail. — Small, slim and tapering 3

Hair. — Fine, medium in thickness and quality 3

Color.— White, any other colored hair to disqualify 2

Skin. — Thin and pliable; small blue spots objectionable, but

aUowable , 3

Symmetry. — Animal well proportioned, handsome, stylish.... 8

Total 100

182 JUDGING SWINE

YORKSHIRE SWINE : LARGE WHITE.

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE PUBLISHED IN THE NATIONAL
PIG BREEDERS ASSOCIATION HERD BOOK, NOTTING-
HAM, ENG., VOL. XII, 1S96.

Color. — White, free from black hairs, and as far as possible
from blue spots on the skin.

Head. — Moderately long, face slightly dished, snout broad,
not too much turned up, jowl not too heavy, wide between ears.

Ears. — Long, thin, slightly inclined forward, and fringe with
fine hair.

NecK. — Long, and proportionately full to the shoulders.

Chest. — Wide and deep.

Shoulders. — Level across the top, not too wide, free from
coarseness.

Legs. — Straight and well set, level with the outside of the
body, with flat bone.

Pasterns. — Short and springy.

Feet. — Strong, even and wide.

Back. — Long, level and wide from neck to rump.

Loin." — Broad.

Tail. — Set high, stout and long, but not coarse, with tassels
of fine hair.

Sides. — Deep.

Ribs. — Well sprung.

Belly. — Full, but not flabby, with straight underline.

Flank. — Thick and well let down.

Quarttrs.^ — Long and wide.

Hams. — Broad, full and deep to hocks.

Coat. — Long and moderately fine.

Action. — Firm and free.

Skin. — Not too thick, quite free from wrinkles. Large bred
pigs do not fully develop their points until some months old,
the pig at five months often proving at a year or fifteen months
a much better animal than could be anticipated at the earlier
age and vice versa; but size and quality are most important.

Objections. — Black hairs, black spots, a curly coat, a coarse
mane, short snout, in-bent knees, hollowness at back of shoul-
ders.

MIDDLE WHITE SWINE.

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL PIG
BREEDERS ASSOCIATION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Color. — White, free from black hairs and blue spots on the
skin.

Head. — Moderately short, face dished, snout broad and turned
up, jowl full, wide between the ears.

Ears. — Fairly large, carried erect and fringed with fine hair.

Neck. — Medium length, proportionately full to the shoulders.

Chest. — Wide and deep.

Shoulders. — Level across the top, moderately wide, free from
coarseness.

Leg. — Straight and w^ell set, level with outside of the body
with fine bone.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 183

Pasterns. — Short and springy.

Feet. — Strong, even and wide.

Back. — Long, level and wide from rump.

Loin. — Broad.

Tail. — Set high, moderate length, but not coarse, with tassel
of fine hair.

Sides. — Deep.

Ribs. — Well sprung.

Belly. — Full, but not flabby and straight underline.

Flank. — Thick and well let down.

Quarters— Long and wide.

Hams. — Broad, full and deep to hocks.

Coat. — Long, fine and silky.

Action. — Firm and free.

Skin. — Fine and quite free from wrinkles.

Objections. — Black nairs, black or blue spots, a coarse mane,
in-bent knees, hollowness of shoulders, wrinkled skin.

SMALL V/HITE SWINE.

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BV THE NATIONAL PIG
BREEDERS ASSOCIATION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Color. — Pure white.

Head. — Very short and dished, snout broad and turned up,
jowl very full, broad between the ears.

Ears. — Small, short, and erect.

Neck. — Short and thick.

Chest, — Full and broad.

Shoulders. — Full and wide.

Legs. — Short, set well outside the body, fine bone.

Pasterns. — Short and springy.

Feet. — Small.

Ba/ck. — Broad, level and straight.

Loin. — Wide.

Tail. — High set, small and fine, with tassel of fine hair.

Girth. — As deep as possible consistent with length.

Sides. — Deep.

Ribs. — Well sprung.

Belly. — Deep and near ground.

Flank. — Thick and well let down.

Quarters. — Wide and full.

Hams. — Deep, wide, full, and well rounded.

Coat. — Fine and silky.

Action. — Free and firm.

Skin. — Fine, quite free from w-rinkles. The general appear-
ance of animals, small, thick and compact when compared with
other breeds.

Objections. — Black hairs, black or ])lue spots, coarse hair, in-
bent knees, hollowness at back of shoulder, wrinkled skin.

184

JUDGING SWINE

SMALL YORKSHIRE SWINE.

Head.

15

SCALE OF POINTS — AMERICAN SMALL YORKSHIRE SWINE ■£

RECORD, VOLUME II, i8qO. 3

U

Smaller the better 2

Nose, shorter the better 5

Dish, greater the better 3

Width between ears, greater, the better. ... 3
Ears, small, thin, erect, more so the better

(may be pricked forward, not lopped) ... 2

Top line, straighter the better, from

shoulder to tail 5

Belly line, the more level the better 5

Girth in excess of length, more the better, if

not more than ten per cent 5

Depth, greater the better 5

Width, greater and evener the better, from

shoulder to ham 5

Loin, broader the better 5

Flank, deeper and fuller the better 5

/ Length, longer the better 10

Hams 25 I Breadth, broader the better 10

( Thickness, greater the better 5

/ Length, longer the better 2

Shoulders 5 | Breadth, broader the better 3

(Thickness o

Trunk.

•35

Legs,

Skin.

Hair

) Shorter the better 3

Straighter the better 2

Smooth, flexible, fine; more so the better. . 5
Must not be too thin, nor ridgy and
coarse, nor show discolored spots from
old sores, not pale and ashy but heahhy
in color and free from eruption.

Evener, finer and tliicker the better 5

General appear-

H

Symmetry and evidence of vigorous health . 5
Total 100

DISCOUNTS AND DISOUALIFICATIONS.

Pedigree, lack of registration or ineligibility to be registered dis-
qualifies 100

Sterility, inability to produce ofl^spring disqualifies 100

Deformity, any structural deformity or lack disqualifies 100

Disease, any evidence of, or tendency to disease disqualifies 100

Disease, scars of sores, discolored spots, eruptions, eczema, etc. 5 to 25

Colored hair, disqualifies 100

Colored spots, dark spots in skin 5 to 25

Size, inordinate size, with coarseness of bone or form 10 to 50

Size, diminutive size 5 to 25

Disposition, savage or fierce nature 5 to 10

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 185

SUFFOLK SWINE. ^

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN SUFFOLK g

ASSOCIATION. (J

Color. — White i- . 2

Head. — Small, broad and face dished 3

Ears. — Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age 2

Jowl. — Full and neat 1

Neck. — Short, full and slightly arched 3

Shoulders. — Broad and deep 7

Girth Around Heart 6

Back. — Straight, broad, level 12

Sides. — Deep and full 6

Ribs. — Well sprung 7

Loin. — Broad and strong 12

Flank.— Well let down 2

Ham. — Broad, full, deep 12

Tail. — Medium, fine and curled 2

Legs. — Fine, straight and tapering 3

Feet.— Small 3

Hair. — Fine and silky, free from bristles 3

Action. — Easy and graceful 4

Symmetry. — Adaptation of the several parts to ea^h otht.-. . . 10

Total 100

186 JUDGING SWINE

TAMWORTH SWINE.

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL PIG
BREEDERS ASSOCIATION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Color. — uolden-red hair on a flesh colored skin, free from
black.

Head. — Fairly long, snout moderately long, and quite straight,
face slightly dished, wide between ears.

Ears. — Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid, but in-
clined slightly forward.

Neck. — Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar.

Chest. — Wide and deep.

Shoulders. — Fine standing, and well set.

Legs. — Strong and shapely with plenty of bone and set well
outside of body.

Pasterns. — Strong and sloping.

Feet. — Strong and fair size.

Back. — Long and straight.

Loin. — Strong and broad.

Tail. — Set on high and well tasseled.

Girth. — Deep and full around heart.

Sides. — Long and deep.

Ribs. — Well sprung, and extending well up to flank.

Belly. — Deep, with straight underline.

Flank. — Full and well let down.

Quarters. — Long, wide, and straight from hip to taiL

Hams. — Broad and full, and well let down to hock.

Coat. — Abundant, long, straight, and fine.

TAMWORTH SWINE.

The following is the Tamworth Scale of Points Adopted by
the English Breeders:

Formation and setting on of fore legs 10

Foi-mation and setting on of hind legs 10

Length and general conformation 10

Head, ears, jowl and snout 10

Breadth of neck 5

Breadth and depth of shoulders 10

Width of loin, depth of sides, springing of ribs 15

Depth and breadth of hams 10

Straightness of back 5

Hair and quality of skin 5

Color 5

Fineness of bone 5

Action. — Firm and free.

Objections. — Black hairs, very light or ginger hair, curly
coat, coarse mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping
ears, short or turned up snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled
skin, inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders.

OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 187

THIN RIND HOGS. ^

c

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE THIN RIND RECORD g
ASSOCIATION. O

Head. — Medium, well proportioned to length of bodj^ and
grade as follows:

Face. — Straight and rather narrow between eyes 3

Eyes. — Full and bright 2

Ears. — Medium length, thin and slightly inclining forward.. 3

Jowl. — Light and tapering from neck to point 5

Neck. — Short and well set to shoulders 3

Shoulders. — Wide, full and deep, smoothly joined lo back. . 6
Back. — Medium in length, broad with nearly uniform width
from shoulders to loins, slightly arched from neck to top

of tail 10

Sides. — Deep and well rounded, nearly straight on bottom

line 8

Ribs. — Nicely sprung in line with shoulders and haras 3

Girth. — Very full, denoting great vigor and strong consti-
tution '. 8

Flank. — Running low nearly in line with belly 2

Hams. — Full and rounding up to rump and of great breadth. . 12
Legs. — Small, set well apart, very erect on feet, denoting

great carrying capacity 10

Tail. — Medium length, neat and tapering 2

Hair. — Fine and of medium thickness 3

Color. — Black, with exception of white belt encircling body
including fore legs, or solid black, white running high

upon hind legs objectionable but allowable 5

Form and General Appearance. — Smooth and symmetrical,
devoid of such grossness as excess of bone, jowl and
flabby belly: spirited, attractive, easy movement, indi-
cating constitutional vigor and good breeding 1.5

Total 100

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

This book has been developed to its present form under influ-
ences that have been very favorable to it and the .author feels that
these should be fittingly acknowledged. From its inception, some
ten years ago, these influences have been so encouraging that it
becomes necessary to give tangible evidence of them, and con-
sequently the work had to be published without any thought of
filling the traditional " long-felt want " which is so frequently the
source of authorship. Previous to attending the Ontario Agricul-
tural College the writer had a very limited knowledge of any phase
of live stock work but a deep love and active interest in animal life,
centered chiefly on horses, made the instruction from such teachers
as Prof. Win. Brown, Dr. F. C. Grenside and Prof. J. W. Rob-
ertson, a genuine pleasure. After graduation, three years of edi-
torial management of the Canadian Live Stock Journal offered
unusual opportunities for analyzing the ideals of the best Canadian
breeders, to whom unlimited appreciation is hereby tendered for a
foundation which could hardly have been laid without more than
usual co-operation from them. With the acceptance of the Chair
of Animal Husbandry in the University of Wisconsin, a wider field
was entered upon for deeper study and investigation. Stock judging
was made a leading feature of the course, and w'ith the develop-
ment of ideas a new system of instruction was evolved. The writer
is vastly indebted to Mr. R. B. Ogilvie, formerly proprietor of Blair-
gowrie Stock Farm, for not only directly assisting the development
of this department at the University, but also for the results from
frequent visits and conferences at Blairgowrie, through which a
much stronger grasp of the essentials of horse judging was obtained.
For many valuable observations on the qualities of draft horses the
writer finds himself also greatly in the debt of Mr. Alexander
Galbraith. The influence of Hon. W. A. Jones, now Commis-
sioner of Indian Affairs, was clearly felt on the development

192 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

of this department of the University, for through him as chair-
man of the Farm Committee of the Board of Regents, the
equipment for this work was materially uplifted with corresponding
encouragement. Mr. George McKerrow liberally assisted the writer
in his work and much advancement is due to him and others,
including Messrs. George Harding and Son, the late Mr. M. W. Dun-
ham, Ex-Governor Hoard, H. C. Taylor, John Gosling and M. J.
Hoven, all of whom in more than one way gave material impetus
to the movement.

It was at this time that the writer came under the inspiring
influence of the late Mr. William Watson. It was a source of intense
pleasure to see this experienced fitter and judge subject any of his
loving friends, chiefly cattle and sheep, to his considerate inspec-
tion. Equally fair minded, another friend, William Lysaght, had
this rare faculty of candid criticism even of his own, and to both
of these men the writer owes more than he is able to acknowledge.
After coming to Iowa, enlarged opportunities were entered upon
for the pursuit of these studies. Prof. C. F. Curtiss and Hon.
James Wilson, present Secretary of Agriculture, had prepared the way
with an equipment in live stock and other facilities of exceptional
merit for the teaching of this subject. Continued association with
the former has vastly deepened and widened the writer's interest
and knowledge of this subject ; for such must be the outcome of
contact with a broad and fair minded judge of wide experience in
American live stock show rings. One of the most effective sources
of encouragement to the development of this line of teaching has
been the support given the movement by the commission firm of
Messrs, Clay, Robinson & Company, of the Union Stock yards,
Chicago. By liberally donating prizes for the study of this subject
in our colleges, this firm brought the attention of the practical man
to it, as the latter realized that when a large firm stopped in its
work to do this there must be something of genuine merit in the
movement. With such interest from outside sources and such direct
associations is it any wonder that the subject should grow until it
became a necessity to publish a book about it ?

Other influences have been drawn on in studying this subject
further. In earlier davs the writer happened on one of the first

acknowlkdgments 103

nuinbers of the Breeders Gazette, containing an illustrated edito-
rial on the points of horses. This emphasized the importance of
the subject and at once started the note taking and the collection
of photographs which seem essential features for a work like this.
Since then the same source has been frequently drawn upon. The
writer has also found it very desirable to keep in touch with the
London Live Stock .hmrnal, as weli as many other publications
along this line included in the American press. Among contempo-
rary works, Capt. Hayes' " Points of the Horse," Goubaux and
Barrier's " Exterior of the Horse, " LTnderhill's " Driving for
Pleasure" and many others have been consulted. To continue
acknowledging all the sources ot assistance to the writer, would
require another volume but let it suffice to say — there are hundreds
of American, Canadian and British breeders to whom he vividly
recognizes bis debt but feels utterly unable to adequately acknowl-
edge it.

Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine

Cumminas School of Veterinary Medicine at

Tiiits University

200 VVestboro Road

Morih Grafton, MA 01536 ' ,^:^.^^,: