-~ orgie ernerer eres Te aie cena te aI Ath Ea ot etree am Ai aad eet dome Rages Piper ame te mien ate a ate Pan pemnein serine neater isa “ Raise het Tawa a taal wt SN Gann sh sien tarbatinet yg Sathertgrte Wh mitatbenSonstig nals iim pete attra Cow tw Boalt MyPal op hee hata AT peer eereecerde De eS Ne tenet eeeareren erat cote high ante Rta ie anne te eae ree tan tat ae Meo fn tm a et 0 cnet enete nome Jonah tate any eh on oI ls nN. oe py Pet bara KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. EDITED BY THEO. 8S. CASE. VO Va ioo2-3- aaa niae MO.: & Sy Astronomy, 14, 113, 239, 312, 335, 389, 465, 579, 660, 697 Auroraot April WG) L882 i... scenccccselc eau 20 Aurora, Coincidence of Sun-Spots and.... 17 Auroral Phenomena, Sept. 12, 1881......... 14 | Aztec Remains in Colorado.......:...ssecsees 442 Bacillus Tuberculosis the cause of Tuber- cle... 5001 PAS) Berthoud, an} Aun West Tndian ‘Geographi- cal Notes Nr a neal gatee ae eee Renew tease Berthoud, E. L., Climate of Paris in Pre- EN StORT CMM CSiaeecancnuaueoeen Caron ce eteatcs 104 Berthoud, E. L., Cabot’s Map of the AVVOnl etcee teen Nome ream vacosnenner ein ancectian 218 | 1] J: Merial NAVIGATION . 2.2.0.0. cen sesentes 347, 557 | Billings, Melvin O., Ancient Remains in Affinities between Ancient Customs in all Marion Co., Tee Ch ae ey en eRe PAUL WO ota MES ae css ci daciinsssie seveseeeoSecans sees 363 | Biology of American Mollusks.....see+se 351 African Exploration. ........0....sseeeseseeeees 606 | Bitumen in the Ohio Shales, Source of ...349 Aicoholvyand its Witects......c-cscsscossasvesess 274 | Bolivia a New Source of Rubber.........+.- 496 Alexander, W. W., Transit of Venus, Dec. Bolivian Indians, Dialects of............---+- 679 (5, TUS a'S ada siete aaa SB ERR EOS Reds un aaerearaD 508 | Book Notices...56, 115, 189, 252, 314, 380, American Association, 3lst Annual Meet- "447, 503, 595, 668, 733 TIDE @Medecdags aboncooencen beose aco BEE aCe EOUaceEn ZAR ab Obetiygeereo see siete secaaeen see ecco 413, 551, 648 Analysis ofevead valle Ores-......<<..02+--e. 110°) Bottom: of the Oceans. <---2..--cnsecrce= neers 626 Anatomy and Physiology.............0...s00 471 | Broadhead, G. C., Geological Notes on Ancient Cemetery at Madisonville, O.... .529 Southeastern Kansas...........-s.e-e2+-eee- 172 Ancient Man of Calaveras.........cesse-.seees 453 Bugpdheees G. C., Jura-Trias in Colora- Ancient Mississippi and its Tributaries...615 | d0........eccess ce senese sonseceeececens scosteneeees 534 Ancient Remains, Marion Co., Kansas....211] Bigaahead, G. C., “North Park in Colora- Amerent Romans; Coims:....-.s.cs-esc0+ cee- S Su | B+ << o o © = = aS of Ss 3 a O° oa = = = Ay fae) x 4 4 = ic I |29.779| 47-7 | W_ | 29.70} 62 37 18 213 2 |30.110] 453 | NW R 61 37 20 175 3 |30.318] 40.3 | NE | 30.37] 50 34 13 188 4 |29 937| 33.3 | E 29.68| 43 | 33 58 | 33 | 519 5 |29 827) 35.7| SW |] R 43 Bio eis) 25 385 6 |30 218] 25.3 | W SPE ee Laka? 23 | ——| 22 356 7 |30.620] 22.0 | NE | 30.65 | 29 15 — 17 249 8 |30.357| 30.0 | E F 36 23 13 13 211 9 |29.903] 26.7 | N_ | 29.75] 30 25 66 | 34 | 484 10 |30.270| 29.7 | NW | 30.30] 35 25 — 16 257 II |30.160} 29.3 | SW F 33 26 05 12 181 I2 |29.935| 26.7 | W 29.87} 33 22 OI 24 301 13 |30.162} 25.7 | NW R 34 17 — 18 278 14 |30 129] 32.3 | SE F 39 27 25 21 274 15 |30.052] 34.7 | N R By 32 .05 16 218 16 |30.302] 35.7 | E 30.36] 40 31) |) ———| 20 184 17 |29.911) 36.7 | E F 38 | 34 | -32 | 25 | 449 18 |29.870] 39 0 | NW | 20.67] 49 35 | .08 22 270) 19 |30.174] 39.0 | N 30.25 | 48 30 | —— | 12 158 20 |29.734| 38.7 | E B 43 SN sores 28 418 21 |20.722| 24.3 | W 29.56] 39 19 .07 32 503 22 |30.328| 29.7 | NW | 30.38] 39 22 — 25 372 23 +|30.200] 34.0| NW | F R 49 221 ee AO 445 24 130 401] 23.7 | N High | 35 Asser crea aed 276 25 |29.916] 36.0 | SE F 43 3I 35 25 326 26 |29.586| 39.7 | N 29.39} 49 35 95 12 118 27 |29.761| 36.7 | NW | R 43 33 | -49 25 415 280205032427 F 50 32 66 P28 Bie 29 |29.793| 45.0 | W R 58 36 - | 28 514 30 |30.431) 32.3 | NW | 30.48] 41 27 25 307 31 /30-213] 43.3 | S F 57 31 : S’m | 4.73 9732 NW ES Go YU AAR | ABOU, 6 6 21 314 these cyclonic nuclei which express themselves as storm centers; or whether it be that there are, perhaps, stationary heapings of atmosphere along certain latitudes which push shoulder to shoulder, like two athletes, and mutually strug- gle to encroach and prevent encroachment; or whether local influences, varia- a METEOROLOGICAL SUB-CONDITIONS. 5 tions in the distribution of heat, either of territorial action, or from equinoctial shiftings or other suppositions, none can be applied with a dominant purpose of practical utility. Of the immediate effect, however, of the passage of one of these areas of lower pressures the conditions follow very regularly. As the depression ap- proaches from the west or southwest, the wind begins to blow from the southeast to east, increasing in force as the greatest gradient is reached. If the area passes south of a station, the wind follows it round from the northeast to north and northwest. If it passes to the north of the station, the wind takes a reverse direction from the southeast to south and southwest, the velocity of the following wind being dependent upon similar differences of pressure as that which acted during its approach. The rainfall, it is to be noticed, depends rather upon local conditions, as the greater or less humidity which the winds possess from passing over areas of snow or bodies of water. It frequently happens that a wind partially saturated receives sufficient additional moisture to produce precipitation over a damp dis- trict, which would be inoperative over a dry one. The normal action of an area of low barometers seems to depend upon its free passage in the line of its natural direction. If this course is interrupted, as by the opposition of a body of air of greater pressure, so that its movement is delayed or wholly arrested, the tendency is to narrow its dimensions, sometimes to turn it aside, and generally to increase its destructive cyclonic tendencies, while not infrequently a second area is developed at some distance to the south, which moves obliquely to join it. The contrary effect of a dissipation of a marked area results when opposition to its movements becomes removed. Its force is then expended in a lateral expansion. Perhaps this dissipation is the result of a secondary formation, which causes a transference of direction of pressure, for if we look at the line of a track of low barometer we cannot fail to be struck by its valley-like line. It is as if it were the track of a marble among shifting elevations of an agitated soil. Whatever electrical influences may accompany the passage of a storm area their accessory nature seems quite well proven. Their intensity is certainly associated with peculiar conditions of the atmosphere rather than with variations in its pressure, as indicated by the barometer, and if it can be shown that the mechanical action of the winds is the chief element of these disturbances there will be renewed the extraneous and conflicting theories which now distant the gathered facts and prevent accurate formulating of simple mechanical causes for their results. 6 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. WEATHER REPORT FOR APRIL, 1882. FROM OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT LAWRENCE, KANSAS, BY PROF. F. H. SNOW, OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY. During this month the temperature and cloudiness were above the average, while the rainfall and wind velocity were nearly normal. The cold week, from gth to 16th, produced only harmless ‘‘ white frost,” so that the immense fruit crops have escaped entirely uninjured. There was a brilliant auroral display on the night of the 16th, and a curious storm of almost impalpable dust on the 18th from 5 to 5:30 p. m. Mean Temperature—56.83°, which is 3.02° above the average April temper- ature of the fourteen preceding years. The highest temperature was 88°, on the 1st and 21st; the lowest was 35°, on the 11th; monthly range, 53°. Mean Fie Ff Bs Wy Hewes B GE ATO, Wey ORaghs” & 2b @) D> Ml, FAwe. Rainfall—3.20 inches, which is 0.17 inches above the April average. Rain fellon nine days. There was no snow. ‘There were five thunder showers, of which four were accompanied by hail. : The entire rainfall for the four months of 1882 now completed, has been 7.18 inches, which is 0.62 inch below the average for the same period in the fourteen preceding years. Mean Cloudiness—s51.77 per cent of the sky, the month being 3.06 per cent cloudier than the average. Number of clear days, 12, (entirely clear, 4); half clear, 6; cloudy, 12, (entirely cloudy, 6). Mean cloudiness at 7 a. m., 57.33 per cent; at 2 p. m., 55.33 per cent; at 9 p. m., 42.66 per cent. Wind—Southwest, 21 times; southeast, 17 times; northeast, 15 times; south, 9 times; north, 9 times; northwest, 8 times; west, 6 times; east, 5 times. The entire distance travelled by the wind was 14,226 miles, which gives a mean daily velocity of 474.20 miles, and a mean hourly velocity of 19.76 miles. The highest velocity was 40 miles an hour, from 2 to 4 p. m. on the 17th. Mean Fleight 0f Barometer—29.032 inches; at 7 a. m., 29.065 inches; at 2 p. m., 29.006 inches; at 9 p. m., 29.027 inches; maximum, 29.449 inches, on the 29th; minimum, 28.542 inches, on the 21st; monthly range, 0.907 inches. Relative Humidity—Mean for month, 61.7; at 7 a. m., 69.8; at 2p.m., 48.7; at 9 p. m., 66.8; greatest, roo, on the 22d; least, 21.3; on the 3oth: There was no fog during the month. The following table furnishes a comparison with preceding Aprils : PRECIPITATION AND TEMPERATURE AT MORRISON, ILL. 7 Maximum Temperature. Minimum Temperature. Mean Temperature. Rain, Inches. APRIL. Mean Cloudiness Miles Wind. Mean Humidity | | | | | | | 1868 49.65 83.0 25.0 2.95 52.00 1869 51.44 87.0 18.0 2.43 51.00 4 72.1 1870 56.84 g1.0 19.0 1.08 AOE SC ee tetewe: 54:7 1871 57-90 92.0 30.5 2.38 HN Uaioe sn aa 53-5 1872 56.42 85.0 30.0 4.74 Isis a ead 56.5 1873 48.85 88.0 26.0 4.42 55-89 | 18.371 | 63-4 1874 48.77 83.0 Pn 2.86 siete |p aiZls grey Wy NGS) 1875 49.70 ALO) i WRK 2.54 48.22 | 14.144] 57.6 1876 55.60 87.5 30.0 3.38 44.78 | 14.442 | 59.6 1877 53-90 81.0 25.0 Bee 53-00 | 11.976 | 64.9 1878 58.60 82.0 36.0 5-48 Bosca | VERA | COs 1879 56.40 84.0 20.0 4.18 AGO || UMSARQIUE || Oia I I 3 1880 56.92 93.0 31.0 otis aya: |) 1. G/CG) |) 5 e571 1881 52.47 84.0 1256) 2 51.78 | 14.495 | 67.6 1882 56.83 88.0 BIER .20 SoG | UALeAS |. Oia’ Mean of 15 Aprils.| 54.01 86.0 25.5 3.04 48°91 | 14.184] 60.7 PRECIPITATION AND AVERAGE TEMPERATURE FOR MARCH, FOR EIGHT YEARS AT MORRISON, ILLINOIS. S. A. MAXWELL, VOL. OBS. U. S. SIG. SERV. YEAR. PRECIPITATION, TEMPERATURE. 1875 1.00 Inches. 29.09° 1876 SHG 0 31.58 1877 ' CeO iience 26.70 1878 atl eee 48.05 1879 2.40 7 39-57 1880 PA Selena 36.37 1881 Beco 9 Oe 28.88 1882 Cees hints 37-37 Means) eG . Bes eunelies: Bulg IO" 8 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, REPORT FROM OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT CENTRAL STATION, WASHBURN COLLEGE, TOPEKA, KANSAS. BY PROF. J. T. LOVEWELL, DIRECTOR. Highest barometer during month 29.29, on the 30th. Lowest barometer during month 28.56, on the 2oth. Highest temperature during month 87°, on the znd. Lowest temperature during month 4°, on the rath. Highest velocity of wind during month 60 miles, on the 25th. The usual summary by decades is given below. a ar. 20th Apr. Ist Apr. 10th Mean. TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR. to Apr. Ist.| tooth. to 20th. wen MIN. AND MAx. AVERAGES. IVD IN yaa To gratin pyre niles el ive gta sits 29.0 49.4 33-5 37S Max. . .e- eee eee ee ee 62.0 75-5 52.3 63.3 Wikia, aya) MIR 5° GotG 5 6 0 6 0 o 45:5 62.4 43.0 50.3 IREWNAS! 4.6 savaee Talco aor on an 34.0 26.1 19.1 26.4 TRI-DAILY OBSERVATIONS. F lo Te o a8 000 0 6 0 6-0 0.0 39.9 57.6 43.4 47.0 Pi NAN sigs ratio et Wao) ai (ay etyeeriately Conltee 61.1 69.9 55-3 62.1 Yael eae ys foe sta tegtn ies oo Ulett, Reames 47.0 59.0 47-4 51.1 IVS ATR pe cle Natalee aero! teh el onto Pe 49.0 60.6 48.3 55-9 RELATIVE HUMIDITY. MOT sree fai aeheiy |-sca cee es 78 78 .72 76 BMD erie asve hss haste co er lea) ao leetenne 43 58 61 54 O}.FOys 10 (UN ote ea nM eee ates ate Feces 60 -76 77 7I WMIGEH EB aoa aL at upiewtee lalenees 60 -70 -70 67 PRESSURE AS OBSERVED, Ppa VMLey iia ss ah cho heen SPN lay eallesuitee me 29,01 28.87 28.96 28.95 2 BDepUe Wer eiMef lotta etlcues ean st een 28.99 28.86 28.91 28.92 OMP ME hren Carede weet y sna omen see 28.99 28.86 28.89 28.91 MVS crn Ae So se) haere ties p es RSet 29.00 28.86 28.92 28.93 MILEs PER HouR OF WIND. 7] Bo: TNs 616g Blow 6 OG) Go 6 6.10 19.0 15.9 14.1 16.3 QB eRe sie Kike atrial er alte athcaNite Ree 23.7 26.2 19.1 24.7 OMPEMUA Gey icn alka) wSntees |=) eliel ce eced ie 21.3 15.6 15.0 17.4 Motalamillesiys sncpos isa enei eee 6616 5035 4099 15750 CLOUDING BY TENTHS. PT ECUSBERY otic ing huss lah gh vera No lena ee uate pirates 3.4 5-6 5.2 4.7 PTT Come eR OMEeR URE sate Rain ce Ale te 3.1 5-9 6.2 5.1 UD ERED yc oN meshes ov ete war cae bans 1.7 5-0 4.9 3-9 RAIN. THE ARRIVAL OF MAN IN EUROPE, 9 THE ARRIVAL OF MAN IN EUROPE. BY JOHN FISKE. Toward the close of the Pleistocene age, the general outlines of the Euro- pean continent had assumed very much their present appearance everywhere except in the northwest. The British Islands still remained joined to one an- other and to the Gaulish mainland, and occupied the greater part of the area of the German Ocean. According to Mr James Geikie, the connection with Nor- way again became complete, and the Atlantic ridge was again so far elevated as to bring Scotland into connection with Greenland through the Faroe Islands and Iceland. .The whole of Britain stood at an average elevation of from 600 to 1000 feet above its present level. The Thames, Humber, Tyne, and Forth, must all have flowed into the Rhine, which emptied itself into the North Sea beyond the latitude of the Shetlands. The glaciers of Europe had retreated within the Arctic Circle, or up to the higher valleys of the great mountain ranges; and the climate was beginning to assume its present temperate and equable character. At this remote epoch Europe had already been inhabited by human beings during several thousand years. How long before the beginning of the Pleisto- cene period man had arrived in Europe is still open to questi: n; but there is no doubt whatever that he lived in Gaul and Britain as a contemporary of the big- nosed rhinocerous, and before the arrival of the Arctic mammalia which were driven from the north as the glacial cold set in. This race of man—described by Mr. Boyd Dawkins as the ‘‘ River-Drift-Man’”’—is probably now as extinet as the cave-bear or the mammoth. Late in the Pleistocene period it disappeared from Europe, and was replaced by a new race, coming from the northeast, along with the musk-sheep and reindeer, and called by the same eminent writer the “*Cave-Man.”’ Both the Cave-Men and the Red-Drift men were in the stage of culture known as the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age; that is, they used only stone implements, and these implements were never polished or ground to a fine edge, but were only roughly chipped into shape, and were very rude and irregular in contour. The Palzolithic Age, referring as the phrase does to a stage of cul- ture, and not to any chronological period, is something which has come and gone at very different dates in different parts of the world. It may be conven- ient to remember that in northwestern Europe it seems to have very nearly coin cided with the Pleistocene period, provided we also bear in mind that the coin- cidence is purely fortuitous. The implements of the River-drift men, found in Pleistocene river-beds, are very rude, and imply a social condition at least as low as that of the Australian savages of the present day. ‘‘ They consist,” says Mr. Dawkins, ‘‘of the flake ; the chopper or pebble roughly chipped to an edge on one side; the Aéche or oval- pointed implement, intended for use without a handle; an oval or rounded form 10 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. with a cutting edge all round, which may have been used in a handle; a scraper for preparing skins; and pointed flints used for boring.” Man did not then seek for the materials out of which to make these weapons or tools, but ‘‘ merely fashioned the stones which happened to be within his reach—flint, quartzite, or chert—in the shallows of the rivers, as they were wanted, throwing them away after they had been used.” No pottery of any sort has been found in association with these implements, nor were there at that period any domesticated animals. The River-drift men were evidently no tillers of the ground, neither were they herdsmen or shepherds ; but they gained a precarious subsistence by hunting the great elk and other deer, and contendede with packs of hyenas for the caves which might serve for shelter against the storm. As to what may have been the social organization of these primeval savages, nothing whatever is known. They were a wide-spread race. Their implements have been found, in more or less abundance, in Britain, Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Greece, Northern Africa, Palestine, and Hindustan. Their bones have been found in the valleys of the Rhine, the Seine, the Somme, and the Vezére, in sufficient numbers to show that they were dolicocephalic or long-headed race, with prominent jaws, but no complete skeleton has as yet been discovered. These River-drift men, as already observed, belonged to the southern fauna which inhabited Europe before the approach of the glacial cold. As the climate of Europe became arctic and temperate by turns, the River-drift men appear to have by turns retreated southward to Italy and Africa, and advanced northward into Britain, along with the leopards, hyzenas, and elephants, with which they were contemporary. But after several such migrations they returned no more, but instead of them we find plentiful traces of the Cave men, —a race apparently more limited in its range, and clearly belonging to a sub-arctic fauna. The bones and implements of the Cave-men are found in ,association with remains of | _ the reindeer and bison, the arctic fox, the mammoth, "and the woolly rhinoceros. They are found in great abundance in southern and central England, in Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland, and in every part of France; but nowhere as yet have their remains been discovered south of the Alps and Pyrenees. A diligent ex- ploration of the Pleistocene caves of England and France, during the past twenty years, has thrown some light upon their mode of life. Not a trace of pottery has been found anywhere associated with their remains, so that it is quite clear that the Cave-men did not make earthenware vessels. Burnt clay is a peculiarly indestructible material, and where it has once been in existence it is sure to leave plentiful traces of itself. Meat was baked in the caves by contact with hot stones, or roasted before the blazing fire. Fire may have been obtained by friction be- tween two pieces of wood, or between bits of flint and iron pyrites. Clothes were made of the furs of bisons, reindeer, bears, and other animals, rudely sewn together with threads of reindeer sinew. Even long fur gloves were used, and necklaces of shells and of bear’s and lion’s teeth. The stone tools and weapons were far finer in appearance than those of the River-drift-men, though they were still chipped, and not ground. ‘They made borers and saws as well as THE ARRIVAL OF MAN IN EUROPE. - 11 spears and arrow-heads; and besides these stone implements they used spears and arrows headed with bone, and daggers of reindeer antler. The reindeer, which thus supplied them with clothes and weapons, was also slain for food; and, besides, they slew whales and seals on the coast of the Bay of Biscay, and in the rivers they speared salmon, trout, and pike. ‘They also appear to have eaten, as well as to have been eaten by, the cave-lion and cave-bear. Many details of their life are preserved to us through their extraordinary taste for engraving and carving. Sketches of reindeer, mammoths, horses, cave-bears, pike and seals, and hunting scenes have been found by the hundred, incised upon antlers or bones, or sometimes upon stone ; and the artistic skill which they show is really astonishing. Most savages can make rude drawings of objects in which they feel a familiar interest, but such drawings are usually excessively grotesque, like a child’s attempt to depict a man as a sort of figure eight, with four straight lines standing forth from lower half to represent the arms and legs. But the Cave- men, with a piece of sharp-pointed flint, would engrave, on a reindeer antler, an outline of a urus so accurately that it can be clearly distinguished from an ox or a bison. And their drawings are remarkable not only for their accuracy, but often equally so for the taste and vigor with which the subject is treated. Among uncivilized races of men now living, there are none which possess this remarkable artistic talent save the Eskimos; and in this respect there is com- plete similarity between the Eskimos and the Cave-men. But this is by no means the only point of agreement between the Eskimos and the Cave-men. Be- tween the sets of tools and weapons used by the one and by the other the agree- ment is also complete. The stone spears and arrow-heads, the sewing-needles and skin-scrapers, used by the Eskimos are exactly like the similar implements found in the Pleistocene caves of Franceand England. The necklaces and amu- lets of cut teeth and the daggers made from antler, show an equally close corres- pondence. ‘The resemblances are not merely general, but extend so far into de- tails that if modern Eskimo remains were to be put into European caves they would be indistinguishable in appearance from the remains of the Cave-men which are now found there. Now, when these facts are taken in connection with the facts that the Cavemen were an arctic race, and especially that the musk-sheep, which accompanied the advance of the Cave-men into Europe, is now found only in the country of the Eskimos, though its fossil remains are scattered in abundance all along a line stretching from the Pyrenees through Germany, Russia, and Siberia,—when these facts are taken in connection, the opinion of Mr. Dawkins, that the Cave-men were actually identical with the Eskimos, seems © highly plausible. Nothing can be more probable than that, in early or middle Pleistocene times, the Eskimos lived all about the Arctic Circle, in Siberia and northern Europe as well as in North America; that during the coldest portion of the Glacial period they found their way as far south as the Pyrenees, along with the rest of the sub-arctic mammalian fauna to which they belonged; and that, as the climate grew warmer again, and vigorous enemies from the south began to press into Europe and compete with them, they gradually fell back to the north- 12 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, ward, leaving behind them the innumerable relics of their former presence, which we find in the late Pleistocene caves of France and England. The Eskimos, then, are probably the sole survivors of the Cave-men of the Pleistocene period: among the present people of Europe the Cave men have left no representatives what- ever. With the passing away of Pleistocene times, further considerable changes occurred in the geography of Europe and its population. Early in the Recent perjod the British Islands had become detached from each other and from the continent, and the North Sea and the English and Irish Channels had assumed very nearly their present sizes and shapes. The contour of the Mediterranean, also, had become nearly what it is now; and in general such changes as have oc- curred in the physical structure of Europe during the Recent period have been comparatively slight. Of the mammalia living at the beginning of this period, only one species, the Irish elk, has become extinct. The gigantic Cave-bear, the cave-lion, the mammoth, and the woolly rhinoceros had all become extinct at the close of the Pleistocene period, and the elephants and hyzenas had finally retreat- ed into Africa. In Europe were now to be found the brown and grizzly bears, the elk and reindeer, the wild boar, the urus or wild ox, the wolf and fox, the rabbit and hare, and the badger; and along with these there came those harbing- ers of the dawn of civilization,—the dog and horse, the domestic ox and pig, with the sheep and goat. A new race of men, also, the tamers and owners of these domestic animals, had appeared on the scene. These new men could build rude huts of oak logs and rough planks, made by splitting the tree trunks with wedges. Such work was not done with chipped flint-flakes. The men of the early Recent period had the grindstone, and used it to put a fine edge on their stone hatchets and adzes ; so that their appearance marks the beginning of a new era in culture. The sharp and accurate edge of the axe, unattainable save by grinding, is the symbol of this new era, which is known to archeologists as the Neolithic, or New Stone Age. The huts of the Neolithic farmers and shepherds were built in clusters, and defended by stockades. Wheat and flax were raised, and linen garments were added to those of fur. The distaff and loom, in rude shape, were in use, and grain was pounded in the mortar with a pestle. Rude earthenware vessels were made, sometimes ornamented with patterns. Canoes were also in use. The dead were buried in long barrows, and from the almost constant presence of ar- row-heads, pottery, or trinkets in these tombs it has been inferred that the Neo- lithic men had some idea of a future life, and buried these objects for the use of the departed spirits, as is the custom among most savage races at the present time The celebrated lake-villages of Switzerland belong to the Neolithic or early Recent period; and the remains of their cattle and of their cultivated seeds and fruits have thrown light upon the origin of the Neolithic civilization. It is cer- tain that the domestic animals did not originate in Europe, but were domesticat- ed in Central Asia, which was the home of their wild ancestors; and, moreover, - THE ARRIVAL OF MAN IN EUROPE, ' 13 they were not introduced into Europe gradually and one by one, but suddenly and en masse. It is clear, therefore, that they must have been brought in from Asia by the Neolithic men; and the same is true of the four kinds of wheat, two of barley, the millet, peas, poppies, apples, pears, plums, and flax, which grew in the gardens and orchards of Neolithic Switzerland. This rudimentary Neolithic civilization was spread all over Europe, with the exception of the northern parts of Russia and Scandinavia; and there can be no doubt that it lasted for a great many centuries. It certainly lingered in Gaul and Britain long after the valley of the Nile had become the seat of a mighty empire ; perhaps even after the Akkadian power had established itself at the mouth the of Euphrates, and ‘‘ Ur of the Chaldees” had become a name famous in the world. Still more, it is clear that the Neolithic population has never been swept out of Europe, like the Cave-men and the River-drift men who had preceded it, but has remained there, in a certain sense, to this day, and constitutes a very important portion of our ancestry. So many skeletons have been obtained of the men and women of the Neo- lithic period that we can say, with some confidence, that the whole of Europe was inhabited by one homogeneous population, uniform in physical appearance. The stature was small, averaging 5 feet 4 inches for the men, and 4 feet 11 inches for the women; and the figure was slight. The skulls were ‘‘ dolicocephalic,” or long and narrow; but the jaws were small, the eyebrows and cheek-bones were not very prominent, the nose was aquiline, and the general outline of the face oval and probably handsome. In all these points the men of the Neolithic age agree exactly with the Basks of northern Spain, the remnant of a population which at the dawn of history still maintained an independent existence in many parts of Europe. By their conquerors, the Kelts, who led the van of the great Aryan invasion of Europe, these small-statured Basks were known as “‘ Iberians ”’ or ‘‘ westerners’? (Gael zver, Sanskr. avara, ‘‘ western”), and ‘‘ Iberian” is now generally adopted as the name of the race which possessed the whole of Europe in the Neolithic age and until the Aryan invasions, and which still preserves its integrity in the little territory between the Pyrenees and the Bay of Biscay. The Iberian complexion is a dark olive, with black eyes and black hair; so that we may figure to ourselves with some completeness how the prehistoric inhabitants of Europe looked. It is probable that in Neolithic times this Iberian population was spread not only all over Europe, but also over Africa north of the Desert of Sahara; so that the Moorish and Berber peoples are simply Iberians, with more or less infusion of blood from the Arabs, who conquered them at the end of the seventh century after Christ. And it is also probable that the Silures of ancient Britain, the Lig- urians of southern Gaul and northern Italy, and the rich and powerful Etruskans all belonged to the Iberian race. In very recent times—probably not more than twenty centuries before Christ —Europe was invaded by a new race of men, coming from central Asia. These were the Aryans, a race tall and massive in stature (the men averaging at least 5 14 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. feet 8 inches, and the women 5 feet 3 inches), with ‘‘ brachycephalic” or round and broad skulls, with powerful jaws and prominent eyebrows, with faces rather square or angular than oval, with fair, ruddy complexions and blue eyes, and red or flaxen hair. Of these, the earliest that came may perhaps have been the Latin tribes, with the Dorians and Ionians; but the first that made their way through western Europe to the shores of the Atlantic were the Gael, or true Kelts. After these came the Kymry; then the Teutons; and finally—in very recent times, near the beginning of the Christian era—the Slavs. These Aryan invaders were further advanced in civilization that the Iberians, who had so long inhabited Europe. They understood the arts which the latter understood, and besides all this, they had learned how to work metals; and their invasion of Europe marks the beginning of what archzeologists call the Bronze Age, when tools and weapons were no longer made of polished stones, but were wrought from an alloy of copper and tin. The great Blonde’ Ayrans everywhere overcame the small brunette Iberians, but, instead of one race exterminating or expelling the other, the two races everywhere became commingled in various proportions. In Greece, southern Italy, Spain, and southern France, where the Iberians were most numerous as compared with the Aryan invaders, the people are still mainly small in stature and dark in complexion. In Russia and Scandinavia, where there were few Iberians, the people show the purity of their Aryan descent in their fair complexion and large stature. While in northern Italy and northern France, in Germany and the British Islands, in Iberian and Aryan statures and complexions are intermingled in endless variety. 6 ** i — Atlantic Monthly. INSIDE OUN OUMING AURORAL PHENOMENA ON THE EVENING OF SEPT. 12, 1881. BY E. A. ENGLER, WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, 8ST. LOUIS. As an addition to data from which a more complete knowledge of certain celestial phenomena now unexplained may in future be derived, it may not be out of place to record a description of a peculiar and interesting phenomenon seen by the writer and others at sea off the coast of Newfoundland. On September 12th, 1881, after a nine days’ voyage on the Atlantic from London towards Halifax, N. S., Cape Race was sighted about noon. Our course after noon was about southwest; at eight o’clock in the evening (ship’s time) our position—estimated roughly by the course and speed of the ship—was Lat. 46° N., Long. 55° W. The sky was partly clear in the north and west and overhead, but hazy and in places cloudy in the south and east. The aurora was AURORAL PHENOMENA ON THE EVENING OF SEPT. QT SIS Te 15 clearly to be seen in the northern sky, sometimes shooting up streamers of light nearly to the zenith, and varying continually in form and brightness; this display, however, was no more brilliant or interesting than many similar ones seen on other nights, and deserves mention only to be distinguished from the following. But in the southeast sky, about 30 or 35 degrees above the horizon, there appeared two horizontal streaks of light—about five 5 degrees apart and 15 or 20 degrees in length—which at the time I took to be two clouds highly charged with electricity. The accompanying sketch (Fig. 1) will be of service in describing the appearance, but must not be taken as accurate in any detail, being made after some months and from memory; moreover, the entire phenomenon was continually changing. Both streaks were luminous, with a pale hazy light very similar to moonlight. From the upper of the two were suspended by small cords of light a number of balls, brighter than either of the streaks, which were continually jumping up and down in vertical lines, much after the manner of pith-balls when charged with electricity. Above the upper streak there was a bright space, whose sides were convergent at about the angle shown in the sketch, which seemed to be compos- ed of streamers of light, gauzy in appearance and decreasing in brightness from the streak outwards. From the lower streak a similar mass of light extended. The only difference noticed in the two streams of light was that the inclination of the lower was greater than that of the upper. _ BORLINGHAUS (Fic. No. 1.) I appeared on the scene about fifteen or twenty minutes after the beginning ‘when the brilliancy of the display was approaching a maximum. Soon after it began to fade, the balls and cords first gradually disappearing, then the streamers -of light on both sides, and finally the two horizontal streaks—the whole being lost to sight in the darkness in the course of about fifteen minutes. 16 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. When first seen the phenomenon had the appearance shown in the sketch (Fig. 2.), kindly furnished me by Prof. Halsey C. Ives, who had the good fortune to see the display at the beginning, but lost the latter part of it. The sketch gives an idea of what he saw only in general form. He says that it did not seem to him that there were clouds, but rather a space between clouds through which light was streaming; the upper luminous appearance seemed to him to be an in- verted reflection of the lower one. The position remained unchanged during the whole time. No explanation of the phenomenon is offered. The matter may have a wider interest when it is remembered that on the evening of September 12th, at the fame hour, a most remarkable band of white light was seen at Albany, N. Y., Utica, N. Y., Hanover, N. H., Boston, Mass., and elsewhere in the North Atlantic States, spanning the heavens from east to west near the zenith. The following account of the phenomenon seen at Albany, given by an assistant at the Observatory, is taken from the Albany Argus : BORLINGHAUS=U ST.L. (Fic. No. 2.) ‘* At eight o’clock I first saw it, and its effect was absolutely startling. It spanned the heavens from east to west, and seemeed of very nearly equal breadth the whole distance. It was sharply defined. At its southern edge it extended from the horizon through Zeta and Delta Bootis; thence through Nu Pi Hercules, to and through Alpha Lyra. From that point it extended to the south of the Great Square in Pegasus. The northern branch in the east extended up through the head of Draco, and there seemed to be a strong ray of light, very marked, continuing from Gamma Bootis, while around to the north there were several parallel streaks inclined at an angle of fifty degrees with the general motion of the phenomenon. ‘Three or four of these were noticed near the head of Draco. ‘At 8:30 it was observed to clear away on the zenith. The eastern portion now consisted of a narrow strip, very bright, clearly marked at the edges, extending from Gamma Pisces through Alpha Lyra, and at the same time seeming to be COINCIDENCE OF SUN SPOTS AND AURORAL DISPLAYS, 17 moving southwest, it being about thirty degrees from he zenith and appearing to roll like columns of smoke spirally towards the west. At 8:33, in the east were two parallel streaks, the northern the heavier and the southern throwing out diverging lines of light that seemed to gradually curve as they approached the zenith. At 8:35 o’clock the main branches had separated at the zenith, while the western One was very narrow, extending through the Northern crown. A small line of light now extended from a point about three degrees north of Alpha Lyra to a point about seven degrees from Eta Ursa Major. At 8:39 a brighter streak appeared between Alpha Lyra and Ursa Major, while that over the Crown was broken up into a series of parallel, smaller and fainter streaks. The eastern branch was now very faint and narrow, and extended nearly from Pi Pisces to Alpha Lyra, while all along the northern horizon was a bright rosy glow like the Northern Lights, but brightest toward the west. At 8:45 the phenomenon pre- sented a faint, yet beautiful appearance, and 8:55 it had vanished.” In the Kansas City REVIEW oF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY, November, 1881,. Prof. S. A. Maxwell, Morrison, Ills., remarks: ‘The mysterious band of light seen at Albany was probably, what I have stated, a mere auroral arch, but, appearing as it did in the zenith, more nearly resembled a band than an arch. ‘The same viewed from a lower latitude would have presented an arch-like appearance, similar to those often seen by us in the distant north; and these latter would present to an observer beneath them the same band-like appearance seen at Albany.” My point of observation was north and east of any I have seen mentioned ; some other explanation is needed for the appearance there presented.— Z7ansac- tions St. Louis Academy of Science. COINCIDENCE OF SUN SPOTS AND AURORAL DISPLAYS. PROF. EDGAR L, LARKIN. Sunday, April 16th, will pass into the history of astronomy as an eventful day. From morning to night the solar surface was in violent agitation, while- colossal centers of cyclonic activity were clearly seen in telescope. There were IIr spots seen during the day, the largest being 67,000 miles in length and 48,- ooo miles in width. These were arranged in ten clusters, none being far from the equator of the sun. ‘Thirty-four spots was the largest number seen in any cluster. Each aggregation of spots had one or two very large, the remainder varying in size from medium to small. The large spot was seen at this Observa- tory at8 A. M. April 15, already advanced on the eastern edge of the sun 15 degrees. Throughout the 15th it did not display unusual turbulence, but during Saturday night activity set in, for on Sunday morning its appearance and internal structure had materially changed. {t was cut into four portions by what was Vi—2 18 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. termed ‘‘bridges” of fire. But these bridges did not maintain the same position an hour. They were widening, contracting, or bending into ever-changing forms. They were white-hot; that is, whiter than the solar disc,—presumably hotter. One could not see them move any more than the hour-hand of a clock can be seen in motion, but on returning to the telescope after an interval of half an hour, displacement could be detected. Atg A. M. two tongues of fire were pointing toward each other from opposite sides of the abyss, and at 12:30 P. M. P. M. passed, leaving quite a space between. Shortly after they began a curva- ture, which, at 2 P. M., formed a circle, clearly a case of solar cyclone. . A sun-spot is composed of two portions, the umbra and penumbra. ‘The umbra is the dark central portion, while the penumbra or border is many shades lighter, yet, much darker than the disc of the sun. The penumbral fringe looks like a down-rush of matter into or upon the umbra; its sides are inclined, and are striated throughout, the strie having the appearance of willow leaves laid on the incline, parallel to one another, their small ends projecting over the back umbra, giving the edge of the penumbra a serrated form, like saw-teethe When many of these projections join and receive an impulse, they pass entirely across the umbra, forming an incandescent bridge. And Sunday every large spot had bridges complete or in the process of formation. In the large chasm, at about 4:30 in the after- noon, one of the bridges split lengthwise, the separation requiring more than two hours, while the ends of several jets were tufted and tasseled with filaments of white hot matter, which coinciding near the center of one of the largest divisions, presented the appearance of the whirlpool rapids below Niagara, should that frenzy of water be instantly rendered motionless. We have no spectroscope, but with one of good dispersion we should have been able without doubt to behold move- ment in the troubled mass; or, at all events, the displacement of hydrogen lines in the spectrum of the seething vortex. Neither have we a micrometer ; hence were not able to arrive at accurate measurement. But the results above, 67,000 miles in length and 48,000 miles in breadth, are within 2,000 miles of the truth. The width given is that at the maximum point; the spot, contracting somewhat toward the solar equator, gives it the shape of a rude triangle. Calculating its area, we found that thirty worlds like the earth, side by side, could plunge at once into the mighty gulf and be destroyed in a moment. Measurement was made by time of transit of longest diameter of spot over central wire in eye-piece, the time being ten seconds. But one second of time of the earth’s rotation equals fifteen seconds of arc, celestial space. One second of space on the sun is 450 miles, and the diameter of the spot being 15,000 seconds arc, made 67,500 miles. Several spots beside had diameters of from 5,000 to 10,000 miles, which, forming centers of clusters, gave the solar disc an impressive aspect. There were three faculz also on the sun—brilliant spaces much brighter than the general surface. The terrestrial atmosphere being in fine condition for telescopic manipulation, the ‘‘rice-grains,’”’ granulations and pores all over the sun could be distinctly seen. Altogether the day was one of moment in the means offered of studying solar COINCIDENCE OF SUN SPOTS AND AURORAL DISPLAYS. ils) phenomena, and we shall be impatient until Prof. C. A. Young makes a report of his observations with the diffraction spectroscope, scarcely daring to think even of a possibility of clouds hanging over Princeton, N. J. We watched the sun the entire day, and when it disappeared in the west, wished the day might be longer, but night brought still other wonders in the heavens. At g P. M., while viewing Wells’ comet, it waned and disappeared. Look- ing out to learn the cause, its obscuration was found to come from the rising arc of an aurora. The advancing phenomenon presented a yellowish-green are of a circle, whose altitude was eighteen degrees--nearly half way to Polaris—and whose ends rested on the eastern and western horizon. The thickness of the light was five degrees, clear sky showing the stars in Cassiopeia, being between it _and the horizon. - The center of the auroral arc did not appear to be on aline below the pole star, so we proceeded to measure its displacement with the decli- nation circle on the telescopic axis. The eastern termination of the arc was only fifteen degrees north of the equator, while the western was twenty-five degrees, the center, therefore, being ten degrees east of the pole of the heavens. For nearly an hour the apparition developed no sign of coming grandeur, but at 10 P. M., three pillars of crimson light shot up to an altitude of forty degrees from the western extremity of the arc, a few yellowish streamers ascending in the east. These outbursts seemed to be a preconcerted signal with the celestial pyrotech- nists, for within two minutes the whole arch flashed and trembled, and then expanded, ascending eight degrees. A halt was made, which lasted, however, not more than one minute, when two flashes in rapid succession were seen throughout the widened arc now twenty degrees broad. A mighty upheaval fol- lowed, the apex of the band at once rose to Polaris, filling the northern heavens with supernal light brilliant enough to read by; but the terminal points on the horizon, east and west, did not draw nearer the earth’s equator. The altitude of the pole at this place is forty-one degrees, and as there was open sky under the band ten degrees wide the belt was thirty degrees broad. The great aurora reserved its forces a few moments and then discharged simultaneously hundreds of columns of scarlet, violet, and light yellow flames, instantly converging at the zenith. This display waned only to make way for another more magnificent ; and so the whole night passed, outbursts succeeding in rapid movement. From mid- night to 1 A. M. the phenomena was at its heighth, the whole northern heavens from the horizon to the equator being striped and banded with varying streamers. ‘Flashes were incessant. A wave of light would appear in the northern horizon, and instantly rush to the zenith, producing curvature in the straight columns, which at once resumed their original position when the wave subsided, only to be wrought again within a few seconds. The whole northern hemisphere quaked with the rapidity of lightning without cessation during the hour succeeding mid- night, each outburst of energy impelled light-emitting matter directly to the zenith, when it was no longer subject to upheaval, but floated slowly south. Much of this actually descended as far as Scorpio, thirty degrees south of the equator, so 20 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. that nearly the entire celestial vault was filled with corruscation. This unparalled display of auroral activity was still in motion at 4:30 A. M., when the solar rays obscured the scene. The sun-spot maximum occurs at periods of eleven years, and we are now in the midst of one of these ; but it is now known that auroral displays and secular disturbance of the earth’s currents of magnetic energy, as indicated by diurnal oscillation in declination of the needle, also have eleven years as their periodic time of maximum, and behold both epochs are coincident with the maximum solar period of upheaval. When the sun’s surface is in agitation we have auroras and large vibration in the magnetograph following terrestrial magnetic storms. A remarkable solar phenomenon occurred on the sun Sept. 1, 1869, and was seen by two observers at the Kew Observatory in England. ‘Two jets of the most brilliant light burst from the solar surface just preceeding a large spot. These remained in view five minutes and moved 33,700 miles. The time of the occur- rence was noted, and then the self registering magnetographs were examined, and, to the astronomer’s surprise, were found to have been in great agitation at the precise time of the outburst, showing that magnetic force, whatever it may be, does not require time to traverse the distance of the sun, while light con- sumes eight minutes in the journey. In sixteen hours the earth suffered a magnetic disturbance, telegraph offices were set on fire, and an aurora was seen in the even- ing. [See Chambers’ Astronomy, pp. 22—-3.] These facts show that there ex- ists a magnetic relation between the sun and earth, whose nature cannot be sur- mised, and auroral displays are doubtless electric or magnetic; yet this branch of science is so barren of facts that an opinion, even, on these topics cannot be formed. | The perpetual flashing of the aurora, Sunday night, was its most noteworthy feature, and seemed to clearly indicate its electric character. Polariscopic re- search into the nature of the light might be of service, while it is to be hoped spectra of the last display were closely examined. Study was made of auroral phenomena during the last maximum, 1870-3, but spectroscopes of such power were not then in use as may now be obtained. Anybody with a smoked glass can now see the great spot on the sun with no other optical aid. It will be well to deposit the carbon film on the glass with varying degrees of thickness. The solar turbulence, the aurora, and Well’s comet are making lively astronom- ical times Oe THE AURORA OF APRIL 16, 1882. NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS BY A. W. BROWNE, OF THE U. S. SIGNAL SERVICE, LEAVENWORTH, KANSAS. The Aurora Polaris is a luminous appearance frequently seen near the hori- zon as a diffuse light like the morning twilight, whence the title ‘‘aurora.’’ In this hemisphere it is usually termed ‘‘ Aurora Borealis,” on account of being seen THE AURORA OF APRIL 16, 1882, 21 chiefly in the north. Its congener when seen in the southern hemisphere, is call- ed ‘‘ Aurora Australis ;”’ both may be more pertinently classed ‘‘ aurora polaris,” or polar light. At 9 o’clock Sunday night a horizontal light, similar to the morning aurora or break of day, was observed along the northern horizon; gradually but steadily it extended in length and height, and after a lapse of fifteen minutes several ver- tical, luminous beams of a pale yellowish tint, and extending to from 30 to 40 degrees above the horizon, appeared, thus presenting unmistakable evidence of the appearance within our visual range of that beautiful and sublime phenomenon, the ‘‘ Aurora Polaris.”. A 9:20 these beams vanished, and were immediately followed by several faint arches appearing simultaneously and parallel; they were arcs of small circles, our meridian bisecting the uppermost one at a point 30 de- grees above the horizon. Beams similar to but more numerous than the primary ones shot up from these arches, while a dark segment obscured that portion of the heavens nearest the horizon, and continued throughout the successive recur- rences. A more decidedly active phase of the display developed at 10 P. M., when a column of a rosy hue shot up from the horizon, at a point west of north, and quickly deepened to almost a blood red; as if by preconcertion a series of sim- ilar columns appeared in rapid succession to the right of it. They were of less width, but of greater altitude, some reaching to as high as eighty degrees above the visible horizon, and extending from north to nearly dueeast. This first began to wane at 10:20, and fifteen minutes later only a faint trace of the display could be seen. ‘Traces of diminished activity continued until shortly after midnight, when an almost identical recurrence of the last active display took place. De- tails are therefore unnecessary. It was, however, of greater extent, as the space along the horizon from 45 degrees west of north to due east, or in all 135 degrees of the celestial vault was almost simultaneously covered with auroral light, many of the columns going as high as the ‘‘ Zenith.” This spectacle lasted about twenty minutes, and then the usual faint trace of diminished activity ensued un- til 3:10 Monday A. M., when a reaction took place, and the grandest display of the night was presented by the appearance of the ‘‘ merry dancers.” The space over which they frolicked was not so extended as that occupied by the previous display, 60 degrees of the horizon would embrace its eastern and western limits, the ‘‘ polar star” was observed to be in the exact center of this group of lumin- ous beams which were arranged very closely and though slender, presented un- broken outlines as they reached up to zenith, where they seemed to converge as if forming the ribs of a great dome; along the base of these columns was a dark slate colored segment which terminated at 150° above the horizon; from behind this segment horizontal flashes of light rolled up in rapid and successive waves along the luminous beams; these were the ‘‘ merry dancers.” The ‘polar star” was noted again and none of these waves were seen to pass it, most of them vanished when within 10 degrees of it. This, the grandest display of series of the late phenomenon was of about the same duration as the others, again came the usual familiar sky, and shortly afterwards the twilight arc pro- 22 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. claimed that the orb of day was approaching, before whose light all luminaries should pale, and so ended the auroral display of that night, but not until a fitting finale” was had by a merry dance. The basis of the auroral light is electrici- ty, in fact it may be considered an electric light. True, it is not so brilliant as the light of the same name as that produced by mechanical appliances. This is owing to the diffusion of electricity over a space of great extent, while in the case of the artificial light the electricity is concentrated and the arc of light in- stead of being diffused is made to flash from one point. ‘That the air is highly charged with electricity during the existence of auroral displays, has been amply verified by the difficulty experienced during Sunday by telegraphers. The dis- patches traversed the wires during the active displays in a confused and unintelli- gible manner, and at times the magnets were almost solely under the influence of nature’s great electric battery the ‘‘ Aurora Polaris.” VARIETIES OF AURORA. ¥ Auroras exhibit an infinite variety of appearances, but they may generally be referred to one of the following: First—A horizontal aurora or break of day. The polar light may be dis- tinguished from the true dawn by its position in the heavens, since in the United States it always appears in the northern quarter. Second—An arch of light somewhat in the form of a rainbow. ‘This arch frequently extends entirely across the heavens from east to west, and cuts the magnetic meridian nearly at right angles. This arch does not long remain sta- tionary, but frequently rises and falls; and when the aurora exhibits great splen- dor several parallel arches are often seen at the same time, appearing as broad belts of light stretching from the eastern to the western horizon. Third—Slender luminous beams or columns, well-defined and often of a bright light. These beams rise to various heights in the heavens, sometimes, though rarely, passing the zenith. Frequently they last but a few minutes some- times they continue a quarter of an hour, a half hour, or even a whole hour— sometimes they remain at rest, and sometimes they have a quick, lateral motion. Fourth—The corone luminous sometimes shoot up simultaneously from near- ly every part of the horizon and converge to a point a little south of the zenith, forming a quivering canopy of flame, which is called the corona. The sky now resembles a fiery dome, and the crown appears to rest upon variegated fiery pil- lars which are frequently traversed by waves or flames of light. ‘This may be called a complete aurora, and comprehends most of the peculiarities of the other varieties. The corona seldom continues complete longer than an hour. . The streamers then become fewer and less intensely colored; the luminous arches break up, while a dark segment is still visible near the northern horizon, and at last nothing remains but masses of cirro-cumulus clouds. Fifth—Waves or flashes of light. The luminous sometimes appear to shake with a tremulous motion ; flashes like waves of light roll up toward the zenith, and sometimes travel along the line of an auroral arch. Sometimes the beams COMETS. ' fans} have a slow lateral motion from east to west. These sudden flashes of auroral light are known by the name of the ‘‘Merry Dancers,” and form an important feature of nearly every splendid aurora. The color of the aurora is very variable. If the aurora be faint its light is usually white, or a pale yellow. When the aurora is brilliant, the sky exhibits at the same time a great variety of tints; some portions of the sky are nearly white, but with a tinge of emerald green; other portions are of a pale yellow or straw color; others are tinged with a rosy hue, while others have a crimson hue, which sometimes, but rarely, deepens to a blood red. These colors are ever varying in position and intensity. There was another display on Thursday morning ult., lasting from after mid- night until daybreak, with recurring fits of activity, but not so brilliant or extend- ing over so much of the heavens as that of Sunday night. Although somewhat similar, with the exception that the phenomenon of the ‘‘Merry Dancers” did not occur during the display. A remarkable and very rare phenomenon occurred during this display, viz: The sky became obscured and a light shower of rain fell from 1:35 a. M. to 1:45 A. M., Shortly afterwards the sky became clear, and disclosed auroral activity simi ar to that of Sunday night, but not extending to so high an altitude. The highest beams did not reach above 60°, nor were the colors as brilliant or so well defined. COMETS. R. J. M’CARTY, KANSAS CITY, MO. Such is the magnificent aspect of comets, such their shape, so remarkable the contrast between them and the surrounding stars, so capricious do they seem in their movements, so seldom do they appear and so quickly do they vanish, that it is by no means strange that their appearance should fill the ignorant with alarm and the wise with admiration and curiosity. _ Previous to the apparition of the celebrated comet of 1685, we may say nothing was known of the motions of these extraordinary bodies, except that they had been observed to make their appearance among the stars, approach the sun for a certain time, and then recede until lost in the depths of space. In elaborating the principle of gravitation, Sir Isaac Newton had demon- strated that any body revolving about the sun under the dominion of that princi- ple must describe some one of the conic sections, with the sun at its focus, and that the particular conic described would be determined solely by the velocity of the body at any given point of its orbit. I have here a cone so cut as to show the curves alluded to. A body moving with a velocity equal to that which it would acquire by fall- ing directly to the center of the sun (supposing the attraction of the sun for the 24 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. body not to vary as the distance diminished) will move in a parabolic orbit. If the orbital velocity be less than this, the body will move in an ellipse. If it be greater, the orbit will be an hyperbola, the sun in every instance being situated at the focus. For that portion of this theorem relating to elliptical orbits Sir Isaac Newton found immediate application in our planetary system, and his wonderful sagacity had anticipated that its more general application would be found in the motions of comets. The appearance of the great comet of 1680 afforded him a most excellent opportunity. He found this comet to move in an orbit which, if an ellipse, was so greatly elongated as to be undistinguishable from a parabola. The period of this comet is estimated at 575 years, and it is supposed to be identical with the comet of 1194 B. C.; with that of 618 B. C.; with that of 43 B. C., which was supposed to be the soul of Czesar taking its place in heaven; with that of A. D. 575, which was seen at noonday close to the sun; and with the mag- ficent comet of A. D. 1105. Applying the above theorem to the comet of 1682, Sir Edmund Halley was led to predict its reappearance in 1759—a prediction fully justified by the event. This comet again appeared in 1835, and is again due at its perihelion in 1910. Since the year 1680 several comets have appeared which were found to move in hyperbolic orbits, viz: those of 1723, 1771, and the second comet of 1818. Now, since the parabola and hyperbola are curves of infinite length, it is. evident that comets moving in either of these could never before have visited our system, nor is it possible that they should ever return. Again, it is found that while all the planets revolve around the sun in the same direction and nearly in the same plane, comefs move in any direction and in planes greatly inclined to each other, which shows that they cannot be regarded as permament members of our system. It is interesting to speculate upon the career of a comet which moves in an orbit of infinite length. We cannot but think, as it has visited us on one branch of such a curve to retire on the other, that at some time in the past it must have swept around some fixed star or sun, whose distance can be measured by no means at our disposal, and that on its outward journey it will reach a point at which the attraction of some other fixed star will predominate and cause the comet to visit it, just as it did our sun. And as these comets may thus in time traverse the utmost bounds of space in search of equilibrium, so may, and so does, our ponderous sun himself obey the same law and traverse space about some unknown center of force; and thus is it possible that he may now be moving in a cometary orbit, from which he will ultimately be deflected into a planetary by some sun mightier than he, and by the process of cooling and per- turbation be reduced to the state of a planet, while the planets of his own system will become his satellites. If such a speculation be admissible, it is easy to see that in time all matter would be caused to revolve around a common center, and all systems would be reduced to one. COMETS. 25 The motion of a comet as it recedes from the sun becomes slower and slower, so that comets of parabolic or hyperbolic orbits may reach such a great distance that their motion may be but a few feet per second. Now, such is the immense distance of the fixed stars that such a velocity may obtain before any one of them would exert a predominant influence upon the motion of the comet; and this, it is reasonable to suppose, is generally the case. If, now, we remember that the form of orbit is determined by the Tansey we are led to suspect that, generally, comets leaving our system on hyperbolic or parabolic orbits will visit other systems on ellipses, and that comets leaving other systems on these infinite curves would be most apt to visit us in ellipses. This may explain why so few of the comets which approach the sun move in hyper- bolic orbits. | Since there can be but one velocity which gives a parabolic orbit, while an increase or diminution of same would give either an hyperbola or an ellipse, we may assume that few if any comets ever moved in strictly parabolic orbits. And should a comet at any time move on a parabola, it would soon be forced to abandon it for either an ellipse or hyperbola by the attractions of other bodies. There is great difficulty in determining the exact orbits of comets: First, because (as will be shown further on) comets are very light bodies, and therefore their motions are subject to great derangements from the attractions of the planets. Second, because in most cases they can be observed while traversing only a small portion of their orbits. By lengthening out an ellipse it may be made to approach more and more nearly to the form of a parabola, so that if the two be placed with their vertices touching, they may be made to coincide for a greater and greater distance. It will be seen, therefore, that if a comet can be ob- served only while it is within the limits of this coincidence (which is always the case with comets of so-called parabolic orbits), it is impossible to determine the orbit beyond. A good illustration of this is afforded in the theory of projectiles. We are taught that, neglecting the resistance of the air and the motion of the earth, a body projected in any direction except vertically will describe a parabola. Now, in order that a body so projected should describe this curve, it must be given a velocity equal to that which it would acquire by falling to the center of the earth, supposing all the matter in the earth collected at that point, and the - acceleration to be constantly equal to 32.2 feet per second. ‘This would be about seven miles per second; and since no such velocity can be given to a projectile, it is evident that they all move in ellipses so very much elongated that there is no objection to regarding them as parabolas. The difficulty, therefore, in calculating the orbits of comets is not caused by any defect in theory, is not because these bodies refuse to obey the same laws which control the motion of all matter; but simply because it is not always pos- sible to obtain sufficient data. While science has thus reached the motions of comets, and shown them to consist of inert matter, obeying the general laws of motion, it has been able to postulate little with regard to their physical constitution. Situated in the head of a comet is a bright nucleus like a star; next this and 26 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. surrounding it is a comparatively dark substance, and next this last is a bright envelope which covers the head of the comet on the side next the sun, and trails off into space forming that remarkable appendage which renders these bodies so conspicuous. This train or tail is in some instances projected to the most enor- mous distances—that of the comet of 1680 attaining the length of 123,000,000 miles—a distance much exceeding that from the earth to the sun. The process of forming the nebulous envelopes and the tail often results in giving to comets the most gigantic dimensions—the volume of the great comet of 1843, for instance, including, of course, its tail, being at one time more than three times that of the sun. This immense size indicates either a vast amount or an extreme tenuity of cometic matter. That these bodies contain but a small quan- tity of matter was shown in the case of Lexell’s comet of 1770. Lexell had cal- culated the period of this comet to be about five and one-half years, yet the comet has never since been seen. In seeking for the cause of its failure to appear as expected, it was found that on the occasion of its first return in 1776 it was completely hidden by the rays of the sun, and that in 1779 it approached so near the giant planet Jupiter as to become, as it were, entangled among his moons, the effect of which ren- contre was to deflect the comet entirely out of its orbit, so that it either no longer moves around the sun in an ellipse, or 1f so, does not approach sufficiently near to become visible to us. While the comet was so remarkably affected there was not the slightest visible change produced in the motions of any of Jupiter's satel- lites, which must have resulted had the mass of the comet been at all comparable with that of those small bodies. We have seen that the volume of the great comet of 1843 was more than three times that of the sun. Now the earth is about 5,000 times as dense as ordinary air and the sun about one-quarter the density of the earth but contains about 314,000 times as much matter—so that if the great comet of 1843 had been of the mean density of ordinary air it would have contained nearly 1,000 times as much matter as the earth. Now if this comet was at all analogous to that of Lexell, and there is every reason to believe so, it could not have contained the 5,45 part of the mass of the earth, so that its mean density probably did not exceed the +, 523575 Of the density of the air we breathe. Comets being thus known to be bodies of small mass and great size it is natural to suspect them to consist principally if not entirely of gas. There is some question, however, as to whether a body composed entirely of gas could exist In outer space: some holding that the repulsive properties of such a state of matter would dissipate it indefinitely, to be disrupted and appropriated by bodies more dense and rigid. Against this it may be said that ‘‘ Marriotte’s Law of the Compression of Gases” indicates that the expansive force of a gas diminishes as the cube of the distance between its particles increases, while the gravitation of these particles toward each other is known to diminish as the sguare of their dis- pances from each other increases. So that the expansion of a gaseous body in COMETS. F 27 outer space would be arrested within finite Jimits by the gravitation of its particles. I am led to present the two sides of this question from a remark in a very able and interesting essay on Comets by Professor Lewis Boss, of the Dudley Ob- servatory, published in the April number of the Kansas City REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY, mers he states that ‘‘It is certain that no body entirely Baseoue could exist in space.” With all due respect to the learned Professor I will say that science seems to answer the question differently. It is, however, generally conceded that while they are not composed entirely of gaseous matter, to some degree gas is present in cometary structures. Again it has been ascertained that comets shine in some degree by native and in some degree by reflected light, and the weight of scien- tific opinion is in favor of regarding the bright nucleus as a solid or liquid body in an incandescent state. Therefore, if we, for instance, suppose a comet freed from that influence which produces its tail we would have a body consisting of a glowing mass at the centre and surrounded by a highly attenuated substance shin- ing partly by reflected light. This is in fact the shape to which comets generally approach as they recede from the sun; in which, it is believed, lies the agency which produces the tail. A total eclipse of the sun reveals that he is surrounded by a luminous envelope, to which the name of ‘‘ corona” has been given, which has been perceptible for a distance of 850,000 miles from his surface. In addition to this, luminous stream- ers have been observed proceeding in directions perpendicular to the surface of the sun to a distance of nearly 2,000,000 miles, as if expelled by some active force. Both corona and streamers have been found to shine partly by reflected light. Taking this view of the sun we find it to consist of a glowing mass surround- ed by an apparently gaseous substance shining in part by reflected light. This is precisely the condition to which we reduced the comet by freeing it from the agency which generates the tail. We may then reasonably carry the analogy further and conclude that the nucleus of a comet corresponds to the photosphere of the sun and that the nebulous envelope corresponds to the corona observed in eclipses. Also that as the phenomena of sun-spots indicate that within the shin- ing photosphere of the sun is a darker mass which is in some manner protected from intense heat, so there may be within the bright nucleus of a comet a similar mass similarly situated and protected. . When it is remembered that the great comet of 1680 was subjected to a tem- perature of more than 2,000 times that of red-hot iron, a temperature capable of dissipating any known substance, this supposition does not seem unreasonable. Again, it is believed that the photosphere of the sun is composed of gas. If, then, the bright nucleus of a comet is analogous to it, the latter must be inconceivably less dense than the former, owing to the vast difference between the mass of the stun and that of a comet, and this may explain why the nuclei of some comets are transparent, and why they diminish in size with an increase of telescopic power. Again, it is as yet a unanswered question as to what maintains the heat 28 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, “a of the sun, and if the nuclei of comets are glowing masses, the question is more pressing owing to the small quantity of matter which they contain. Moreover, the luminous streamers from the sun alluded to above would seem to indicate the presence of that agency which produces the tails of comets, and also would seem to explain some phenomena exhibited in the heads of comets. There are are other analogies between the sun and comets which could be cited, but I think enough has been said to show it probable that comets are sim1- lar to the sun in physical composition. We will now give back to the comet its tail and briefly consider the cause of that wonderful phenomenon. , There seems to be no room for doubt that the agency which generates the tail of a comet must be sought in the sun, and that it consists of a repulsive force exerted by that luminary upon the nebulous envelope of the comet. ‘This is sup- ported in some cases by calculation. The tail of Donati’s Comet of 1858 having been found to be nearly the shape which it would have taken under the operation of a repulsive force exerted by the sun. Now, as this repulsion begins to act, assuming the nebulous matter of the comet spherical to begin with, it would naturally cause this substance to bank up between the nucleus and the sun, thus increasing its temperature and density and making it more luminous than any portion of the comet except the nucleus: thus forming what is called the nebulous envelopes. This repulsive force may be electrical, as has often been supposed, or it may be that same force which pro- jects the luminous streamers from the surface of the sun, but whatever it is, it is impossible that it alone could produce all the phenomena which are presented in the tails of comets; because, generally, while the tail of a comet is single—it is turned directly from the sun and slightly curved toward that region of space which the comet has just left, and while its magnitude is greatest when its dis- tance from the sun is least—there are exceptions to every one of these particulars. The analogy between the physical constitution of our sun and that of comets, which I have endeavored to establish, would indicate that the same agencies eXist in comets that exists in the sun and that it is to the conflicting or co-oper- ation of these forces, to the different modes and directions of their action, that we owe the variety of phenomena presented by different comets and by the same comet at different times. FACTS AND FANCY CONCERNING COMETS. BY PROF. E. L. LARKIN. At intervals of considerable regularity the press is burdened with accounts of impending disaster. Some dire astronomical event is always about to occur that will annihilate the human species. A Chicago writer, oblivious of the laws of gray- ity and motion, predicted evil to the earth to fall on June 19, 1881, and published a diagram of the solar system as it would appear on the eventful day. The earth FACTS AND FANCY CONCERNING COMETS. 29 was to suffer because it would be on one side of the sun, while the large planets on the opposite would so attract our world as to attract earthquakes, pestilence and death. So dense was the ignorance of the alarmist, that he actually dia- gramed Venus on the wrong side of a sun, in a position in which it would not arrive for more than six months. June 19 came and was all serene, but we read of some being rendered insane by these publications. And now it is sought again to awaken fear by the formulation of predictions of appalling heat that is to reach the earth, because the great comet that illuminated the circumpolar heavens last summer passed perihelion at a point close to the sun. The scheme to destroy mankind is that the comet on its return in 1897, will suffer sufficient retardation in passing through the gases constituting the corona of the sun to cause it to fall. Inconceivable heat will be generated from the arrested motion, and waves of it will surge against the earth, literally burning humanity alive. All such doctrines are without the slightest grounds in reason or scientific deduc- tion, and the mystery is why any man pretending to astronomical or mathemati- cal acquirements will print such dogmas. If we raise a mass weighing 772 pounds 1 foot, and then let it fall, the pre- cise amount of power required to raise it will be restored, and will appear iz the form of heat, at the instant of impact of the mass on the earth. And, as has been proven, the amount of heat generated is just enough to raise the tempera- ture of 1 pound of water 1° F. But the heat evolved by the fall of 772 pounds 1 foot is equal to that developed by the fall of 1:pound 772 feet. A mass weigh- ing 1 pound that has fallen 772 feet has motion sufficient to conserve heat enough to heat 1 pound of water 1°; or r pound of water falling 772 feet generates 1° of heat throughout its mass. This .is termed Joule’s heat equivalent, and is a valuable element of human knowledge. It is a postulate of recent science that when one mode of force vanishes, another of equal intensity takes its place. Force cannot be increased or diminished ; it is one of nature’s constants. Motion is a mode of energy, and, invariably, when it terminates, heat—another form of force—appears. Now, what possibly can be of greater moment than to learn how much motion is required to evolve 1° of heat. We know how great a weight, and how much space; but now comes the question, how rapid must be the motion? The velocity acquired by a falling body at any instant of its fall is equal to the square root of the product of twice the force of gravity and the space fallen through. If a body be let fall, it will be found by delicate instruments to be moving, at the close of 1 second, with a velocity of 32.2078 feet per second. - And this velocity is an expression for the force of gravity exerted by the mass of the earth on bod- ies near its surface. By the rule, 32.2078 multiplied by 2 equals 64.4156, and this multiplied by 772 equals 49,729 feet, whose square root is 223. Of all num- bers known to man for purposes of physical research, this 223 is the most im- portant ; for we now know that 1 pound of matter moving with velocity of 223 feet per second generates heat enough, when its motion ends, to heat 1 pound of water 1°. That is, this velocity represents 1 pound-degree of heat, or simply 1°, 30 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. water being unity. With this magic number, all depths of space may be explor- ed, and it can at once be told how much heat will be evolved by the cessation of motion of any cosmical body, as soon as it is learned how fast it is moving. Having now the heat unit of the universe refined down to definite velocity, we are ready to launch into interstellar space, to learn first the velocities of bodies moving therein, and, secondly, to calculate the intensity of heat capable of being developed if the motion should be brought to a rest. The rule for finding the amount of heat evolved by the termination of motion is: Multiply the square of the velocity in feet per second by the reciprocal of the square of 223, or .00002010899. If a mass of matter fall from an infinite distance, with unimpeded motion, and strike the earth, its velocity at the ins‘ant of impact is equal to the square root of the product of twice the intensity of gravity multiplied by the length of the radius of the earth. And this motion at the moment of collision must be found in feet per second, because the unit of measurement is 223 feet per second. Twice the force of gravity is 64.4156, and the mean equatorial radius of the earth is 20,923,161 feet. The square root of the product of these numbers is 36,645 feet, or 6.94034 miles per second, velocity acquired by a mass falling on the earth from a distance that is infinite. The force of gravity on the surface of the sun is 27.696 times stronger than on the earth’s surface while the radius of the sun is 108.5113 times greater than that of the earth. Therefore, by the law of gravity, the velocity of impact of cosmic matter on the sun must be 54.8208 times more rapid than on the earth. ‘This is known, because the square root of the product of 27.696 and 108.5113 is 54.8208, whence 36,645 multiplied by 54.8208 gives 2,008,908 feet, or 380.0962 miles per second velocity with which a mass would strike the sun after falling from an infinite distance. And this inconceivable motion must all be converted into heat at the instant of collision. Now, square 2,008,908, multiply the product by .oo002010899, and we have the appalling heat of 81,154,081° F. as the intensity generated by cometary or other cosmic bom- bardment of the sun by masses that fall from infinite distances. Some sensa- tional writers, having heard of this, at once seek to alarm all timid people by printing outrageous accounts of the impending destruction of man. Such publi- cations are little better than criminal. . What we have said relates to bodies making impact on the sun after reaching it from distances that are infinite; now; how great velocity will be imparted to masses falling from distances that are finite, and capable of being handled by figures? Distance in relation to solar gravity has peculiar properties, thus: The nearest sun to Ours 1s 20,000 000,000,000 miles away ; let us go out into space half way, or 10,000,000,000,000 miles, and make computation, seeking to learn with what velocity a mass beginning to fall from that point will finally strike the sun. ‘The velocity, 2,008,908 feet per second, is called the solar constant of velocity, and many complicated problems wherein gravity and motion are factors, can be solved in a few minutes by its use. Employing it in a calculation for a | radius 10,000,000,000,000 miles, and carrying out the work into minute decimals, ! FACTS AND FANCY CONCERNING COMETS, 31 we shall be surprised to find that the velocity of impact on the sun, by a mass falling that distance, is only one-fourth of an inch less per second than if it came from an infinite distance, or, what is the same thing, had been falling forever! Surprise will wane, however, when it is remembered that gravity varies as dis- tance squared inversely, and at an infinite distance must be infinitely weak, and the motion it can impart infinitely slow. Hence, 10,000,000,000,000 miles has nearly the same relations to solar gravity that infinite space has. Drawing near- er the sun, let us halt at the orbit of Neptune, 2,780,000,000 miles distant, and again apply the formula; when behold, if a mass fall through the distance of Neptune, it will reach the sun with only 155 feet per second less velocity than if it had been falling throughout all duration of time. Still nearer, we come to the orbit of the earth, 92,000,000 miles from the sun’s center, and, again com- puting, find that final velocity of impact on the solar globe of matter from terres- tial distance, would be but 2,411 feet per second less than if it arrived from in- finite space. By the use of this important number, 2,008,908, it can at once be told what is the velocity of any cosmical mass at any point in its flight to the sun. Calculating for the earth’s distance, it is found that a body passing our world on its way to the sun has a velocity of twenty-six miles per second, which is the greatest velocity with which anything can strike the earth. Arriving at the orbit of Mercury and again calculating, we find that a mass beginning to fall from that distance, 36,000,000 miles, will impinge on the sun with a rate of motion only 5,706 feet per second less than if it had been falling forever. Hence, terminal velocities lies within small limits of variation. Here is a table of velocities in feet per second of bodies making impact on the sun, falling different distances: From infinite distance, maximum ... . . . 2,c08,908 TOMMINE UMN Meme we Aten Neate erste i es a 2 OOO GS rome Miatsotrer ohms ein Mere pte a2 "OO 7.20 Bronte kanthes esa. 4% We AU ania ote sel OO ON AO 7 ER OieN ler Cuny Amie erat ce th ces Petr aa 2 COR .2O2 IsieGian AeCncoroye) MmmullSs, jaMiuaNTObO Ne a ala, Be Wy episig It is'seen that interstellar matter, whether colliding with the sun from infinite fall, or from Mercury, has 5,706 feet, a trifle over 1 mile per second difference in final velocity, variation being within the limits of 1-380 of the whole. ‘The rate of the motion in the last line of the table is that attained by a mass falling on the sun from a distance equal to the solar radius, 430,000 miles, as we can not imagine that any cosmic matter will begin to fall from a less-distance. There- fore, the least velocity of impact is 1,420,513 feet, or 269 miles, per second, and this least motion multiplied by 1.414213 equals 2,008,908, the greatest, hence the maximum and minimum velocities are to each other as 1 is to the square root of 2, or aS I is to 1.414213. If we square 1,420,513 and multiply the reciprocal of the square of Joule’s equivalent, as above, we obtain the least heat possible, or 40,577,090° F. What astonishing results are brought to light by these researches. Incredible intensity a 32 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. of heat, the highest being 80,000,000° and the least 40,000,000°! What effect will such outbursts of thermal energy have on the earth? Will the heat vaporize the oceans, parch the land, and consume all organisms? Let us see. First, we must find the relations between velocity, heat and mass. Take any mass at random, say 52 pounds, and give it any velocity, say 892 feet per second, how intense will be the heat evolved when its motion ends? By analysis, 1 pound moving 223 feet per second has a motion sufficient to generate heat enough to increase the temperature of 1 pound of matter of the density of water 1°, hence if it moves 4 times as fast, or 892 feet, it has motion able to develop heat 16 times more intense, or 16°, because the square of 4 is 16 times greater than the square of 1, the ratios of their velocities. If a mass weighing 1 pound, moving 892 feet per second, generates on im- pact 16°, fifty-two pounds will evolve fifty-two times that amount, or 832°, but the heat will still have the same intensity. By thermometer the mass will indicate only 16°,—that is, fifty-two pounds moving &g2 feet per second can generate heat enough to heat one pound of water 832 degrees, 832 pounds r°, or fifty-two pounds 16°. Now double the mass, by making it 104 pounds, the velocity re- maining the same, and we double the quantity of heat and will have 1,664°; still the thermometer reads 16 degrees. ‘The 1,664°, being distributed through twice the mass, can have no greater intensity than that conserved from its velocity. Therefore : t. Increase of mass does not increase the intensity of heat. If we double velocity instead of mass the heat is quadrupled in intensity, thus: 892 multiplied by 2 equals 1,784, and the square of two is four times greater than the square of one; and since heat of impact is proportional in intensity to squares of velocities, we have four times the heat energy, or 3,328° degrees in amount, and four times the intensity or 64°. This is because four times the heat raises the temperature of fifty-two pounds four times 16°, or 64°, the3,328° degrees being able to warm 3,328 pounds 1°, one pound 3,328°, or fifty-two pounds 64°. Whence: 2. Heat depends for intensity on velocity, and not on mass. Let one pound of matter strike the sun, and whether it fall from an infinite distance or from the distance of any planet its motion will develop on collision, in round numbers, 80,000,000°; let a mass of two pounds impinge, and double the amount of heat will appear, but its intensity will be the same, since the final ve- locity cannot be more than 380.0962, nor less than 379.3943 miles per second. Thence: : 3. A comet of great mass colliding with the sun will produce no greater intensity of heat on the sun or earth than one of small mass. Velocities of impact mentioned are those of interstellar masses falling on the sun with unim- peded motion on straight lines. Any comet that can make impact must move around the sun many times before it can collide, its perihelion at each circuit approaching, until finally it is so far retarded by gases in the vicinity of the sun that its orbit comes to almost coincide with the solar surface. Then, if the nucleus is solid, it will ricochet like a cannon-ball, and surrender portions of its heat at FACTS AND FANCY CONCERNING COMETS. 33 each impact, nothing like 80,000,000 degrees being developed at any point. When: 4. Maximum heat can not appear unless cosmic matter fall on right lines to the sun, and not on curves. Heat is now known to be a mode of atomic motion; the greater the rapidity of atomic oscillation the more intense the heat. The reason why a mass on collision evolves heat is because the motion of the whole mass through space is instantly arrested, and massive motion becomes atomic. When the body is moving, each atom in it maintains constant relation to all the others, and no heat is developed. Let the mass strike a solid and each atom begins motion in relation with every other, the instant translation through space ends. If the velocity of impact is great, atomic motion is most rapid, and the heat intense. If the collision is not powerful enough to cause every atom to shift position, all the heat possible will not appear. Let a rifle ball strike a rock, every atom of the lead changes location, the ball is flattened, and, if velocity is suffic- ient, melted. But if it strike a mass of cork, resistance being so slight, the lead atoms will not shift nor heat appear. Behold the sun; its density is only 1.44, that of water being one, or about the consistency of calcimine applied to our ceil- ings. A comet would plunge thousands of miles beneath the liquid surface of the sun, and the heat would slowly radiate away, benefitting man instead of destroy- ing him. Therefore: 5. Highty million degrees of heat can not develop unless the sun becomes rigid as platinum and cometary nuclei solid. But it is not on these arguments that we rely. We will grant that comets can fall upon the sun, developing maxi- mum heat, allowing alarmists the worst, and then demonstrate that such impact can not affect the earth in any way except for good. If we burn fifty pounds of coal in one hour it will radiate genial heat, and an iron bar suspended, say, at a distance of four feet from the fire will be warmed through, supposing it to be an inch in thickness. Now, put on a blast and consume the coal in one minute; the bar ‘will not be warmed throughout. Consume the coal in one second, and the surface only of the bar next the fire will be warmed. Burn the coal in the millionth part of a second, the same amount of heat will be given out as when one hour was occupied in the combustion, but the human hand could be held in place of the bar and not feel pain. The heat would be intense, but of such incon- ceivably short duration that it would not destroy the structure of one’s hand. Whence time is a factor in all problems where the action of heat is concerned. Now, let a mass in motion at the rate of one foot per second collide with the sun, and we say the time consumed in impact is such a part of a second; but let it move 2,008,908 feet per second, the time of collision is 2,008,908 times shorter, and the heat that many times more intense, the intensity of the heat depending ing solely on the tine of impact, and the time directly on velocity. Hence: 6. The intensity of 80,000,000 degrees exists less than the 1-2,008,908 part of a second, and the heat-wave that can strike the earth will have the same dura- tion. Heat, light, or any other energy emanating from a center varies in the vI—3 B4.. 8). 92%. . KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, inverse ratio of the square of the distance. The éarth is 92,000,000 miles feom : the sun, but to arrive at results, a ratio must first be deduced. Suppose that above-~ = where the comet strikes we place a flat surface ata distance of 100,000 miles, and admit that the radiation of heat hereon from the disintegrated comet would be 80,000,000 degrees. Of course it would not be that intense, for of such intensity is the heat 100,000 miles below; but allow that it would be, then how intense will be the heat reaching the earth? The quotient of 92,000,000 divided by 100,000 is 920, and the square of this number is 846,400. Then, the heat falling on the earth is 846,400 times less than that radiating on a surface 100,000 miles from the scene of collision. Dividing 80,000,000 degrees by 846,400 we find the inten- sity of a heat-wave that can reach the earth from the disruption of any comet large or small on the sunto be 94 degrees. Take a hot day with the thermometer at 94 degrees, double the heat for the 1-2,008,908 part of a second, or indeed for half a minute, and observe the effect on the human species. Really the only way to detect the arrival of the wave would be to turn a large telescope on the sun just before the comet fell, and place in the focus one of Prof. Langley’s balometers capable of measuring the 1-50,000 degree of heat, and look intently on the index with a microscope. Even then it is doubtful if movement of the delicate balance could be seen. We should be pleased to have our telescope set upon the precise point of impact at the time the comet falls to see what would take place. It is scarcely possible that a movement so rapid would make impression on the retina. And high magnifying powers would have to be used, since one second of arc on the solar disc is.in linear dimensions 450 miles, and is as small an object as can be seen in a telescope on the sun. But the comet of 1811 had for what was sup- posed to be a solid nucleus a diameter of 428 miles—less than one second of angu- lar measurement when at the sun’s distance; hence the final plunge of.a comet into the solar flames could only be seen in good telescopes under favorable circum- stances. But a tele-spectroscope of powerful dispersive powers set on the spot after irapact might in the spectrum produced exhibit slight disturbance, such as displacement of the lines caused by outbursts of hydrogen and other gases. Hence: 7. The effect of cometary precipitation on the sun can not be detected on earth save by the most powerful instruments. What is the sun? It is a colossal ball 860,000 miles in‘diameter, whose mighty mass is 331,654 times greater than that of the earth: -What is a comet falling into this awful furnace? Nothing but as one firebrand in the conflagration of Chicago. Explosions are always taking place on the sun, causing greater upheaval than the downrush of a dozen comets. Can cometary collision on the sun injure man? Indeed, such impact serves to keep him alive. The sun does not radiate too much heat now, and astronomers are agreed that part of the present supply is kept up by cosmical bombardment. We are flung away in some nook of the universe chained to an expiring world— a home that is already suffering encroachment of polar ice. We exist only by the heat of the sun. The real danger lies not in cometary downrush, but in the fear that not enough meteors and comets will gravitate into solar fires. The longer ASTRONOMICAL NOTES FOR MAY, 1882. 30 comets continue to strike the sun, the longer can man inhabit the earth. We thought it the province of science to dispel superstition and fear; and least of all did we think that astronomy would be made use of as an engine of terror. We put in a plea for pure astronomy, and urge that its truths be not tampered with’ by sensationalists. Interstellar matter perpetually bombards the sun, each collision of meteoric hail sending to earth life-sustaining heat. We trust this cosmic war will not cease, and that at least one comet per week will dash on the sun during the next ten thousand years. ASTRONOMICAL NOTES FOR MAY, 1882. BY W. W. ALEXANDER, KANSAS CITY, MO. THE SUN. Date. Right Ascension. Declination N. Equation of Time. Ist. 2h. 35m. oe Die 3m. 04s. — 5th. 2 5O nr Bi 220 roth. 3 09 17 43 3 48 15th. 2 AO ms) 5) oe Re 2oth. BANG) 20 03 3. 42 25th. 4 09 2 Ol BRI ANS) BEsts 4 33 21 58 Zoe Apparent semi-diameter on the 1st, 15’ 54”; on the 31st, 15’ 48”. THE MOON. Date. Right Ascension. Declination S. Semi-Diameter. rst. 13h. 30m. 02° Aiey ti Go)" 5th. 174-05 hs 15 43 roth. Ba TG Tana 1 OR 15th. A NO 16) ou IN: 16 00 2oth. i C2 18 54 is, velit 25th. LOW 57 OF] 14 49 3 Ist. Te BS ZONPOOLS: is ee MERCURY. Date. Right Ascension. Declination N. M. T. of Transit. Ist. 2h. 4om. Tay 1th. 58m. A.M. 5th. 3 06 UGE IS) T2, a eeeivie roth. Ba eAG Ait We 35 15th. 42 23. «50 58 2oth. 5 10 22 ee 0) 25th. 54s 2a i) SX) 31st. Ob G5 2 5elO ie Xa) Apparent diameter on the 1st, 5”; on the 31st, 8”. 36 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, By the end of the month it will be near its greatest elongation East, and will be visible in the West after sunset for rh. 30m. VENUS. Date. Right Ascension. Declination N. M. T. of Transit. Ste 3h. 46m. 20° 06' Tm, @yAene Jey toth. A 32 22 mer iy oro 2oth. i ee 2A re ene 25th. Be ot 24 36 ESS BS: 283 24 42 Teeny MARS. Date. Right Ascension. Declination N. M. T. of Meridian Transit. Ist. 7h. 55m. 23° An! 5h. 17m. P. M. roth. 8) 21 36 Fanos 2oth. oy B39) Xe) 102 4 44 31st. 9 OI TiaelOeey 4 26 Apparent diameter on the 1st, 6.2”; on the 31st, 5.4”. JUPITER. Date. Right Ascension. Declination N. M. T. of Transit. Ist. 4h. orm. 20° 00’ lis Bein, JE, Wi roth. 4 og ZOnnZ4 o 56 15th. Aurel 2 ZOOM Oy Ait 2oth. A TS) XO) 5S) S 26 25th. Ay BR Bi OF Oia Busts An 210 21 26 11 57 A. M. Apparent semi-diameter on the rst, 15.8”; on the 31st, 15.5”. SATURN. Date. Right Ascension. Declination N. M. T. of Transit. Ist. Alls GADD Ae oh, 15min eae roth. 2 Bo) 14 43 Tr Ay ASME 20th. BIO? TOA it OF 31st. 2 OF : 15 27 Io 629 . Apparent semi-diameter on the 15th, 7.7”. URANUS. Date, Right Ascension. Declination N. M. T. of Meridian Transit. Ist. realy one 6° 48' 8h. 25m. P. M. 16th. ni Omsa AO 31st. ii 6 50 Oo By NEPTUNE 16th. 2h. 58m. 1S? ithe) rth. 18m. A. M. THE JEANNETTE AND HER SURVIVORS, 37 PHENOMENA. On the 2d, at th. oom. A. M., conjunction of Mercury and the Sun superior. On the 4th, at rh. oom. A. M., conjunction of Mercury and Saturn. Mer- cury north, 2° 22’. On the 5th, at th. com. A. M., conjunction of Venus and Jupiter. Jupiter south, 2° 16’. On the 18th, Mars in Preesepe. On the 18th, at 7h. o4m. P. M., conjunction of Venus and the Moon. Venus north, 2° 45’. On the 22d, at ooh. oom., Neptune stationary. On the 22d, at 7h. 14m. P. M., conjunction of Mars and the Moon. Mars north, 6° 46’ On the 31st, evening, conjunction of Mercury and Venus. Mercury west northwest, 1° 43’. CZOGn Ar rye THE JEANNETTE AND HER SURVIVORS. The following account of the preparation, voyage and loss of the Jeannette and the subsequent wanderings and sufferings of her survivors has been compiled from various authentic sources, and is believed to include all of the more import- ant events of the expedition up to the present time.—|Ed. REviEw: That part of Siberia extending from the Taimur Peninsula to Behring’s straits is universally conceded to be one of the most desolated, frigid, and worthless sections of country that can be imagined, and one that is wholly devoid of any- thing to sustain life, except from the precarious supplies of fish and sea animals found in the Arctic Sea. Consequently, except for a few brief weeks in summer, even the iron-framed nomads of that region, Samoides, Ostiaks and Tongoose, all leave the sea coast and seek in the wooded tracts hundreds of miles from the sea that protection and that relief which the intense cold requires in the long, cold Siberian winter. From about 1620 until a very recent date in this country the Russians have sent scores of expeditions to survey and examine those gloomy, cold, inhospitable regions of the ‘‘Summa Arctus,” which, to this day, is yet what Pliny and Pom- ponius Mela 1,600 years ago said it was: ‘‘Beyond the Caspian Sea and the coast of the Scythian Ocean the land projects to the east. The first part of this coast from the Scythian Promontory (Taimur) is not habitable for the snows. The land next adjoining is uncultivated from the ferocity ofits inhabitants. These are Scythian anthropophagi and the Sacae. Near them are vast solitudes and 38 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. multitudes of wild beasts. Everything here is ferocious, beginning with man. Beyond these solitudes are deserts, peopled with wild beasts, as far as a ridge or mountain hanging over the sea, which is called. Tabin (probably East Cape.) ” In 1735 an experienced and energetic officer, Lieut. Wasili Proutscheschew, was sent to survey the Promontory of Taimur and the Siberian coasts near the mouth of the Lena. This was completed in part in 1736, but on his return in the fall, Proutscheschew fell sick at Olenek, a Russian village on the shore of the Arctic Ocean, and died from grief and disappointment at his non-success. His wife, who had heroically followed him, died some few days after. In 1738 Lieut. Chariton Laptiew took the place of Proutscheschew, but was not able any more than his predecessor to finish the survey between the Lena and the Yenesei. By sea the work was finished by a land party with full success. To survey east of the Lena, Lieut. Lassennis and fifty-two men sailed in 1735 from Jakutzsk. He went that year along the coast to a small river between the Lena and Juna. There he wintered with his vessel, sending six men with dis- patches to Jakutzsk. In that terrible winter thirty-seven men died of scurvy of the forty-six men left. When in June, 1736, assistance reached Lassennis, he and all his men were dead. After this failure Lt. Dimitri Laptiew continued the survey from the Lena east, and examined the coast to the Kolyma River, and, as some claim, he finish- ed a complete examination of the Siberian coast to East Cape and the Anadyr River, at the Anadirskoi Ostrog, but this has been denied, and that the Lieuten- ant made his examination of the route to Anadirskoi by land. In 1760 ’65 Shalauroff, an enterprising Russian, attempted to finish in per- son the exploration ended by Laptiew at the Kolyma River. He penetrated by following the coast to Tschaoon Bay, some 300 miles east. In 1764 in no man- ner daunted, Shalauroff again attempted to reach East Cape. He proceeded this time, it seems, from the inhabitable Lena. , This expedition was never afterward heard from, except from rumors obtained from the Tchutzki, which was that Shalauroff and his men had all died near Cape Barannoi Kamen of starvation. Wrangell afterward substantiated this fact, as some huts were found where the unfortunate explorers had all died. In the first portion of this century Baron Von Wrangell and Lieut. Anjew, both Russian officers, explored the coast from the Lena to near Cape Sendze Kamen, on the Arctic Sea, but did not succeed in rounding East Cape by water, which feat, since the passage of Deschnew and of Tara Staduchein in the 17th century, has not been done until 1878-’79, when it was completed by Professor Nordenskiold in the steamer Vega, who rounded.the whole of Russia and Siberia from North Cape to Behrings Strait. The Liakoff Islands were discovered in the last century by Sergeant Andreef in 1770, and by a merchant Liakoff in 1770, who followed the back trail of a herd of reindeer that had crossed from these islands to the main land of Siberia. Liakoff in 1773 repeated his trip and wintered there, gathering fossil ivory, some of the tusks measuring seven seven-twelfths feet long and weighing 115 pounds. —* THE JEANNETTE AND HER SURVIVORS, : 39 In 1806 one Sanikof, besides exploring the islands of Liakoff, also discover- ed Sanikoff Island, and what is now known as New Siberia. The Russian gov- ernment, interested in these discoveries, deputed a savant naméd Hedenstrom, a Siberian, to make a report and more detailed examinations. In 1810 Henden- strom went out north from the mouth of the River Jana and explored the coast 250 miles until he arrived at its eastern extremity. Hedenstrom thought that this was a prolongation of the American continent. Omitting mention of numerous explorations in other portions of the arctic regions, we will take up only those of the more immediate predecessors of De- Long in the United States. The disaster which overtook the expedition of Sir John Franklin in 1847-8 gave a new impetus to Arctic adventure, and some of the most chivalric deeds which the historian of modern times has been called upon to chronicle are connected with the Polar voyages of the navigators dis- patched to ascertain the fate of that gallant commander. The story of the perils through which these brave men pass, the sufferings they endured and obstacles they overcame, reads like a romance. In 1850 no less than eleven separate expeditions were engaged in the search for the missing explorer, and in this year Henry Grinnell, of New York City, in conjunction with the Government, fitted out the first American expedition sent to the Arctic region, and under the command of Lieutenants Griffith and De- Harten the United States brigs ‘‘ Advance” and ‘‘ Rescue” carried the stars and stripes well into the regions of perpetual snow. The results attained by these various expeditions, however, were meager in the extreme, and science profited little from the vast expenditure of money and occasional loss of life. In 1855 the ‘‘ Advance,” under the command of Dr. Kane, made a second voyage to the Arctic Seas, but beyond a delightful narrative, as fascinating in style as it was graphic in description, which the accomplished explorer left behind him, the voyage was productive of little real benefit to the scanty fund of knowledge re- garding the mysteries which surround the earth’s apex. In 1850-1 Captain McClure, sailing eastward through Behrings Straits, de- monstrated the fact of a northwest passage, and although compelled to abandon his vessel, succeeded in passing through to Baffin’s Bay with his crew—they be- ing the first explorers that ever passed from ocean to ocean. In 1871, Capt. Hall, who had previously made several Arctic voyages, and had lived amongst the Esquimaux for several years, and become thoroughly acquainted with their language and customs, sailed in the steamer ‘‘ Polaris,’? determined to unravel the mystery of the open Polar Sea, in the existence of which he was a firm be- liever. So sanguine was he of success that a short time before his departure he stated in a public address, delivered before the Chamber of Commerce in his native city, Cincinnati, that, acclimated as he was to the Arctic winter, he felt no hesitation about going back again, and that he proposed to plant his foot upon the North Pole before he died. Capt. Hall succeeded in reaching the highest latitude ever attained with his vessel—viz: 82° 16’, while with a sledge party he went as far north as 84°, or within 360 miles of the goal of his heart’s desire. 40 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. Unfortunately, however, he fell a victim to dissensions among his own crew, and died under circumstances which gave rise to the rumor that he had been poisoned. After the death of Capt. Hall, and the consequent failure of the Polaris expedi- tion, the American people have taken little interest in Arctic exploration. In 1873 the Navy Department, incited by popular inquiry as to the fate of the Polaris, decided to send a vessel to the Greenland coast in search of her, or, if she was lost, to obtain tidings of her survivors. The United States steamer Juniata was selected for the purpose, Commander Braine, U. S. N., was in com- mand, and Lieut. Geo. W. De Long was on board as Lieutenant and navigator. The Juniata sailed from New York in June, 1873, and proceded as far north as Upernavik, the most northerly settlement of Greenland. Beyond this point, which was reached in August, it was not deemed safe to proceed with the steamer. After a brief consultation it was decided to fit out the steam launch and send her into the recesses of Melville Bay, to discover, if possible, some traces of the missing vessel or her crew. The launch, which, since that voyage, is known as the Little Juniata, was thirty-two feet two inches in length} over all; eight feet four inches beam, and four feet eight inches deep. She was rigged with one ‘mast anda jib and mainsail, and her propeller was so guarded by an iron frame- work that little danger was to be feared from contact with floating ice. At his urgent request, Lieut. De Long was placed in command, with the following as a volunteer crew: Lieut. C. W. Chipp, present executive officer of the Jeannette ; Ensign Sidney H. May, H. W. Dodge, ice pilot; Francis Hamilton, machinist . Wm. King, fireman; Street and Meagher, seamen, and a New York Herald cor- respondent. To their number was added an Esquimaux pilot. The Little Juniata steamed boldly away from the parent ship on the morning of the 31st of August, with coal for fifteen days and provisions for sixty days in case of emergency, but the orders of Commander Braine to Lieut. De Long were not to extend the voyage beyond eight, or at the utmost ten days. After a most dangerous and profitless exploration they returned to the Juniata in safety after an absence of eleven days. Lieut. De Long desired to make another attempt, but Commander Braine did not consider the facilities at hand sufficient to warrant the undertaking, and so declined to grant his request. From their cruise in the Little Juniata, Lieut. De Long may be said to have imbibed his love for Arctic adventure. Soon after his return to New York he was thrown into the society of Mr. James Gordon-Bennett, proprietor of the fZerald. Stanley had just succeeded in penetrating the wilds of Africa and meet- ing with Dr. Livingstone, had astonished the world by showing what the enter- prise of a private individual can accomplish when backed by capital and brains. De Long felt an ardent longing to distinguish himself by rendering similar services to science, and urged upon Mr. Bennett the undertaking. After repeat- ed consultations, during which the cost of the expedition and its probable results were freely debated, Mr. Bennett finally told Lieut. De Long to go ahead; pur- chase a vessel, provision her and make an attempt to find the North Pole. — THE JEANETTE AND HER SURVIVORS, 41 While this consultation was going on, Lieut. De Long made a trip to New Bedford, where he passed several weeks in the society of the whaling captains who are to be found there in large numbers. From conversation with them he was convinced that the Behring’s Straits route was the ‘‘ Down Hill”’ route and determined to try it. The more he studied over it and examined the charts as to the winds and currents, the more he was convinced that the whalemen were right. He imparted to Mr. Bennett the result of his conclusion, and it was decided to try it. After examining a large number of vessels, it was finally agreed to pur- chase the Pandora, which was lying in the dock at London at the time, having but lately returned from a cruise to the Arctic, which proved barren of results. An act was passed by Congress allowing Pandora’s name to be changed to Jeannette—in honor of Mrs. Bennett’s only sister—to be enrolled as an American vessel, and to be officered by officers of the American navy, Lieut. De Long and the officers under him being assigned to duty on her for the purpose of the expedition. All the expenses of every kind and nature have, however, been borne by Mr. Bennett, and when she sailed, she left our shores as a national expe- dition, as that gentleman desired his country to reap the honor of discovery, and has at all times discouraged the association of his name with the expedition, desir- ing it to be known only as ‘‘ The American Arctic Expedition.”’ The Jeannette was a Bark-rigged screw steamer of four hundred and twenty tons burden, and eighty-horse power nominal. She was built at the Pembroke Dock Yard in England, in 1864, and designed for a naval dispatch boat. She was subsequently soldto Sir Allen Young. She made three voyages to the Arctic. First to King William’s Land in 1873, again to King William’s Land in 1874, and the third time to carry mails to the Alert at Peel’s Sound in 1875. She was built of Dantzic oak, and was especially strong in the hull. She had a sharp, wedge. shaped floor, which, in case she was ‘‘ nipped,” was to lift her on the ice, instead of allowing her to be crushed between the floes. Her bow was filled in solid, and was protected on the outside by thick iron straps, to protect her timbers when cutting a channel through the ice. She was extra planked on her bottom and bilges, and her frames and beams were of heavy timber. Her hull was further strengthened while she was at Mare Island, three double-trusses and hanging- knees, each beam ten by twelve inches, with a large stanchion in the center, being put in. In addition to arms, food, cooking apparatus and clothing, the expedition was especially well provided with scientific instruments, and there was every rea- son to believe that the world would be greatly enriched by the stock of knowl- edge with which it would return. A complete set of photographic apparatus was taken, together with thirty dozen dry plates for views. There was a portable ob- servatory and a large-sized telescope for taking astronomical observations. Whenever a landing was effected experiments was made with a pendulum and the vibrations noted, so that when the pole was approached the degree of flatness of the earth’s surface would be detected. Accurate surveys of all lands were 42 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. made and soundings taken of all harbors. Two hundred miles of telegraph wire were placed on board and constant telephonic communication was to be kept up with parties on shore at a distance from the ship. Last, but not least, the expe- dition was provided with an electric light of immense power, presented by Edi- son. Mr. Collins, the scientist of the expedition, gave a good deal of attention to the study of the winds and currents and hoped to be enabled on his return, as ~ the result of his observation, to solve some knotty problems which have hereto- fore perplexed our meteorologists. The Jeannette had on board thirty-three souls—twenty-five forward and eight aft. The commander, George W. DeLong, was a mana little above the medium height, well-built, active in his movements, and thirty-five years of age. He was born in New York City, and graduated at the Naval Academy in 1865. He was married, his wife being a daughter of Capt. James A. Wotten, an old steamship commander and formerly superintendent and part owner of the famous New York and Havre Line of Steamships. Mrs. DeLong accompanied her husband in the Jeannette from Havre to San Francisco, a voyage which lasted 165 days, and afterward in a trip overland to New York and back to San Francisco. Lieut. Charles W. Chipp, U. S N., the executive officer of the Jeannette, was born in Kingston, N. Y.; thirty years of age and unmarried. He was with Capt. DeLong in the Little Juniata. | Lieut. John W. Danenhauer, U.S. N., was the Pvigator of the expedition. He was born in Chicago, IIl.; thirty years of age and unmarried. Passed Assistant Surgeon James M. M. Ambler, U. S. N., was the surgeon. He was born in Fauquier County, Va.; thirty-one years of age and unmarried, Chief Engineer George W. Melville, U. S N., the engineer of the Jeannette, was born in New York City, 1841. He has a wife and three children living in New York. Jerome J. Collins, the scientist of the expedition, was a native of Ireland and thirty-eight years of age. He is an accomplished engineer, and thoroughly versed in astronomy, botany and the kindred sciences; unmarried. Raymond L. Newcomb was a native of Salem, Mass.; twenty-nine years of age and unmarried. He was the naturalist and taxidermist of the expedition. William Dunbar, the ice-pilot, was a native of New London, Conn., and forty-five years age. The Jeannette left San Francisco July 8, 1879. She was heard of twice through the Hera/d correspondent on board, who wrote long and interesting let- ters from Ilholionk Station, in the harbor of Oonalaska, and St. Lawrence Bay, detailing the doings of the party up to August 27th of that year. In 1880, ac- cording to Danish authority, a steamer’s smoke was seen near the mouth of the Lena River by the Yakuts living there, but in the transmission of this story from tribe to tribe, from the mouth of the Lena west to the Kara Sea, where the wal- rus hunters heard it, it was no doubt somewhat changed. Nothing further was heard of the Jeannette for a year and a half, but no grave apprehensions were en- tertained until the spring of last year. Then there began to be much anxiety, — THE JEANETTE AND HER SURVIVORS. 43 and finally a bili was presented and passed Congress for the fitting out of an Arctic expedition in search of the Jeannette. The Rogers was purchased and started out last summer in its search. Its plan was to proceed along the coast of Siberia, which was a correct theory, but recent dispatches give information of her destruction by fire. Five other expeditions have attempted to gain some inform- ation concerning the Jeannette, but without success. They were fitted out by private persons and had other objects as well as searching for the Jeannette. It appears that the Jeannette, after passing through Behring Strait, took a northeasterly course, passing through an unexplored region. Several letters from different members of the party have been Sanieled but none differ from the official report of Chief Engineer Melville, except in minor points. Hesays: ‘‘ We arrived in the Harbor of Lutke, Bay of St. Lawrence on the 25th day of August, and on the 27th completed our supply of stores from the schooner and sailed for the Arctic Ocean, to visit Koliutschin Bay to search for Nordenskiold, and then to continue our voyage of discovery. We arrived at Koliutschin Bay on August 31st, and having found satisfactory proof of the safe- ty of Nordenskiold we continued our voyage to the northward. ‘¢On September 3rd came up with the ice and on the 4th sighted Herald Island. Continued to work through the ice until the 6th day of September when we became firmly fixed in the ice. On September 13th an attempt was made to land on Herald Island, but it was unsuccessful, and the traveling party re- turned 1o the ship on the 14th. We continued to drift with the ice toward the northwest, and on October 21st sighted Wrangell Land, bearing south. We con- tinued fast in close packed ice until November 25th, when, after several days severe crushing of the ice and nipping of the ship, she was forced into open water and drifted northwest without control until the evening of the same day, when we brought up against a solid floe piece and made fast, where we again froze in and remained until the vessel was eventually destroyed. ‘Long and dreary months of close confinement to the ship and anxiety for her safety continued until May 17, 1881, when we were enlivened by our first sight of land since March, 1880, when we lost sight of Wrangell Land, and as no land was laid down in any chart in our possession, we concluded it to be a new island. ‘This island was seen when we were in latitude 76° 43’ 20” north, longi- tude 161° east. The island was named Jeannette Island, though not landed upon. Its position was latitude 76° 47’ north, longitude 158° 56’ east. The ship and ice continued to drift to the west and northwest, the whole ice field being broken up in all directions. On the night of June roth several severe shocks were felt and the ship was found to have raised several inches in her bed. There was evidence of an approaching break-up of our friendly floe piece. At ten minutes past twelve A. M., June 11th, the ice suddenly opened alongside the ship, completely freeing her, and she floated on an even keel for the first time in many months. ‘‘The ice continued in motion, but no serious injury occurred to the ship until the morning of the 12th, when the ice commenced to pack together, bring- 44 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. ing a tremendous strain on the ship, heeling her over to starboard and forcing the deck seams open. This continued during the day at intervals until evening, when it was evident the ship cou'd not much longer hold together. The boats were lowered on the ice, and provisions, arms, tents, alcohol, sledges and al necessary equipment for a retreat securely placed on the floe. By 6 P. M. the ship had entirely filled with water and lay-over at an angle of about twenty-two degrees being kept from sinking by the opposing. edges of the floe. On the morning of the 13th day of June, about 4 o’clock, the ice opened and the ship went down with colors flying at the masthead. Latitude 77° 15’ north, longitude 157° east. ‘‘We remained six days on the ice organizing our system and the line of march south, during which time we had resumed a rapid drift to the northwest. On June 24th having marched south one week and obtained observations for posi- tion, we found we had drifted to latitude 74° 32’ north, a loss of twenty-four miles northwest. ‘We continued our march south and west and finally landed on Bennett Island July 29th. Hoisted the national flag and took possession of the island. It is located in north latitude 76° 38’, east longitude 150° 30’. We traversed the eastern end of the island. ‘‘Left it August 6th, and sighted the north side of Thaddeus (Faddeyev) Island, one of the New Siberia group, and remained there ten days ice bound. Landed on the south side of Thaddeus Island August 31st. Left south end of Kotelnoi Island September 6th. Camped in sight of Stolhoi Island September 7th. Landed on Simonaski Island September roth. ‘* We left for Barkin, at the Lena’s mouth, September 12th. Separated by a gale of wind the same night.” The list of people in the boats as follows. First Cutter.—Lieutenant DeLong, Dr. Ambler, Jerome J. Collins, Wil- ham Nindeman, Louis Norris, Hans Erikson, Henry Knack, Adolf Bressler, Carl Gortz, Walter Lee, Neils Ivorson, George Boyd, Alexia, Ah Lorn. Second Cutter.—Lieutenant Chipp, Captain Dunbar, Alfred Sweetman, Henry Waxen, Peter Johnson, Edward Star, Shawell, Albert Kaihne. Whale Boat.—Engineer Melville, Lieutenant Danenhauer, Jack Cole, James Bartlett, Raymond Newcomb, Herbert Leach, George Landentach, Henry Wil- son, Manson, Aniquin, Long. : Fifty miles from the mouth of the Lena they lost sight of each other during a violent gale and dense fog. Boat No. 3, under command of Engineer Melville, reached the eastern mouth of the Lena on the 29th day of September, and was stopped by icebergs near the hamlet of Idolaciro-Idolatre on the 29th day of Oc- tober. There also arrived at Bolonenga boat No. 1, with the sailors, Nindeman and Norris. ‘They brought the information that Lieutenant DeLong, Dr. Amb- ler, and a dozen other survivors, had landed at the northern mouth of the Lena, where they were in a most distressing state, many having their limbs frozen. Lieut. Danenhauer, who was in the Melville party, says in one of his letters THE JEANETTE AND HER SURVIVORS. | 45 that they had to travel 700 miles over the ice from the ship to the mouth of the Lena. They landed in shoal water and were compelled to wade two miles to land. They were forced to travel too miles further before they reached shelter, and he says he was up five days and four nights without sleep or rest. He also gives the following points of scientific interest : ‘«The result of the drift for the first five months was forty miles. There was a cycloidal movement of the ice. The drift tor the last six months was very rapid, and soundings pretty even. ‘There were eighteen fathoms near Wrangell Land, which was often visible seventy-five miles distant. The greatest depth found was eighty fathoms, and the average thirty-five; the bottom, blue mud. Shrimps and plenty of algological specimens were brought from the bottom. The surface of the water had a temperature of 20° above zero. The extremes of tem- perature of air were: greatest cold, 58° below zero, and greatest heat 44° above zero. ‘The first winter mean temperature was 33° below zero; the second winter 39° below zero. The first summer the mean temperature was 40° above zero. The heaviest gale showed a velocity about fifty miles an hour; such gales were not frequent. Barometric and thermometric fluctuations not great. There were disturbances of the needle coincident with auroras. Winter growth of ice eight feet; heaviest ice seen, twenty-three feet. Engineer Schock’s heavy truss saved the ship on November 21st from being crushed. Telephone wires were broken by a movement of the ice. The photographic collection was lost with the ship. Lieut. Chipp’s 2,000 auroral observations were also lost. The naturalist’s notes were saved. Jeannette Island was discovered May 16th, in latitude 76° 47’ north, and longitude 158° 56’ east. It was small and rocky, and we did not visit it. Henrietta Island was discovered and visited May 24th, latitude 77° 8’ north, longitude 157° 32’ east. It is an extensive island. Animals scarce; glaciers plenty. Bennett Island lies in latitude 76° 37’ north, longitude 148° 20! east. Itis very large. On it we found many birds, old horns, driftwood and coal, but no seal or walrus. A great tidal action was observed. The coast is bold and rocky. ‘The cape on south coast was named Cape Emma. Nothing has been heard from Lieut. Chipp’s party. It is more than probable that they are all lost.” As soon as Engineer Melville learned of the landing of Lieut. DeLong he organized a search for the party, turning back to Belun and subsequently to the mouth of the River Lena at the coast. Various records and articles of personal and goveryment property were found. -The latest written bulletin by DeLong was delivered to Melville by a Yokut hunter, and was dated October 1, 1881, annoucing his intention to cross to the west side of the Lena and proceed south to the settlements. The party had suffered terribly and had but two days provi- sions left. After waiting a day or two for the Lena, upon which they were to pass, to freeze over sufficiently to bear their weight, they crossed it to proceed up the west bank of the stream toward Yakutsk. They hoped to find game for food. The latest information indicates that they entered a wilderness destitute of habita- 46 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. tions or game, and soon began to experience the direst hardships. Quite likely they have all perished long before this—a sad reduplication of the fate of Sir John Franklin and his command, under almost the same circumstances, on the American instead of the Asiatic continent. In the meantime the Russian Government has taken an active interest in the matter. M. Siberiakoff, himself an experienced arctic explorer, has tendered the use of his vessel, the Lena: James Gordon Bennett has ordered and provid- ed means for the most energetic efforts and our own Government has sent out Lieut. Harber and Master Scheutze of the U. S. Navy, both of whom have ar- rived before this time at Irkutzk, to assist in the search. If Lieut. DeLong has been found and is in condition to do so, he will take command of the new expe- dition, otherwise, Lieut. Harber, who is next in rank, will assume command. Engineer Melville in his official dispatches assumes a cheerful tone and says that he has every reason to hope to find DeLong and his party, but in his private let- ters to his wife he holds out no hope whatever. There is hardly a possibility that one of the wanderers will be found alive. As late as the middle of January, DeLong’s party, which had been lost in a wild- erness for many weeks, was still untraced. Only by a miracle can any of its members have survived the winter. It is not unlikely that the searchers will come across successive graves, and a last unburied body, but even this satisfac- tion may fail to be attained. There is less probability that the fate of Chipp’s company will ever be known.* WEST INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. BY CAPTAIN E. L. BERTHOUD. Mr. Alphonso Pirrard, a French savan in a late trip in the West Indies, has visited Saint Domingo. Here he ascertained that the remains of Christopher Columbus discovered in the cathedral in 1877, are the true remains; and that the bones transported to the Havana in 1755 are not those of the celebrated nav- igator, but are those of his grandson, which were lying in a contiguous vault. After some interesting researches at Samana Bay, which furnished him a skull and the incomplete skeleton of one of the aboriginal inhabitants of Hayti, he also found a series of Indian inscriptions in the grottoes of the coast. Proceeding to the Havana, Mr. Pirrard found in the Archives of Cuba, sev- eral articles of high interest, elucidating the geographical discoveries of the last century in the range of the Rocky Mountains. One of these is the journal of the French Canadian Jacques L’ Eglise, who discovered the sources of the Missouri, and who relates that a short distance west of the head waters of the Missouri another stream took its origin, which from the account of the Indians finally emp_ ties into the Pacific Ocean.—| Zranslated from l’ Exploration. | * Dispatches just received from Melville announce the finding of DeLong and party, all dead, at the Lena Delta, about March 24th. His books and papers were all found.—[Ep. REviEw. A LOW-GRADE STAMP MILL. 47 Note By TRANSLATOR.—We think that L’ Eglise undoubtedly alluded to the Reynolds and Henry Passes of the Rocky Mountains, where the head sources of _ Jefferson and Madison Forks are not over one and one-half miles from Henry’s Lake, the main head of Lewis’ Fork of the Columbia. I have surveyed and ex- amined that locality personally. IMGUNTUNIG, UND Ua eI IEG Ne: A LOW-GRADE STAMP MILL. MRS. FLORA ELLICE STEVENS. The low grade ores are distinguished from those of the higher class, as in the former instance there is less of the precious metals to the quantity of ore than in the latter, and consequently the method of treating the low, or poor grade must be different from that acceptably employed for the richer mineral; for it is far too expensive to use the same means of treatment with that running fifteen or twenty ounces to the ton, as would pay well in the ore running several hundreds. Of course it must be remembered, that I am speaking of silver ores, as the barest trace of gold will always pay for working. But in a general silver region, particularly where the ore is found in the level ground, instead of among the mountains, there are a great many claims, which would pay well if they were worked by an inexpensive method of treat- ment. A stamp mill built to meet this exigency, I had the pleasure of visiting, a description of which | will endeavor to give, though it will necessarily be less full and complete than I would desire, as it has been a year since I examined the mill, and most of my notes made at the time have been lost. The mill is built upon the side of the hill, as by this means an advantage will be gained in the distance the ore cars are to be raised. About five hundred yards away is the mine. A tramway, perhaps a foot and a half wide, connects the two, along which iron cars carry the ore, drawn by horses a da tandem. The cars run directly on to the elevator, and are hoisted to the ore or quartz house, which is the very highest division of the mill. This room is 16 by 75 feet. The ore is ‘‘dumped” over iron screens, the fine ore dropping down to the bins, and the coarse ore falling on to the breakers, just above these, for crush- ing. The breakers in this mill were Blake’s improved, with a capacity of a 100 tons per day. As the next step, the ore is taken from the chutes to the self-feeders, which are fed automatically by the dropping of the battery. The battery room is 36 by 75 feet, and the building increases in width as we go down in about the same ratio, to make room for the machinery, which now becomes necessary. 2 48 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. This battery is a knee battery of forty stamps, makes ninety-five drops per minute, and is capable of crushing 124 tons every twenty-four hours. From the battery the sand, as it has now become, is run into settling sand tanks, there settled, and shuffled into pans for amalgamating. These pans, often erroneously called tubs, are placed in rows, in what is known as the pan room. There were in this instance twenty combination amal- gamating pans employed, of two tons capacity to the change; and with ten set- tlers capacity for the pans. From the settler bowls quicksilver is taken in pipes to the strainers; from the strainer safes, again in pipes to the reservoir of the quicksilver elevators, and to the pan floor into another receiver. From this it is taken in pipes to the bowls on the pans. Down from these bowls the quick- silver is let by charges into the pans, as needed to charge them—these contain the ore now reduced to a fine mass-—for amalgamating. The ore, now called amalgam, is ready for retorting. After retorting the crude bullion is hauled on to an iron plate, broken up, put into crucibles, and smelted into bars, generally a foot and a half long, and eight inches thick. All that remains is to ship it to the mints. In the mill visited the engine was 24 by 48 inches, of 250 horse power, the main belt thirty-six inches in width, while the main driving pulley of the fly-wheel had a capacity of 39,000 pounds. The boilers, four in number, were fifty-six inches by sixteen feet in diameter, of 250 horse power capacity. This is what termed the ‘‘ wet’ process, as the roasting does not do for poor grade ores. In the mill described, ores have been worked for less than $5 per ton. Were I a practical miner, I would be able to enlarge upon these details, and give them with more force and clearness than I have done. As I am not, I may only submit them as the skeleton of a description, trusting that those who read it, may gain from it a slight idea of a model low-grade stamp mill. MINING PROSPECTS IN COLORADO FOR 1882. From an average production of only three or four millions, Colorado has suddenly risen to the first rank as a producer of the precious metals among the States and Territories for gold and silver combined ; as for silver alone, it ranks first, while for gold it holds the fourth rank. In the relation of production to area, it holds the first rank, likewise, for gold and silver combined and for silver alone, and the third for gold alone. In the relation of production to population, however, it ranks only third for gold and silver together, second for silver alone, and sixth for gold alone. The total value of its product during the census year in gold and silver was, in round numbers, nineteen and a quarter million dollars, and if we add to this the value of lead and copper in crude metal produced, we have a total value of metallic product of twenty-two and three quarters million dollars. MINING PROSPECTS IN COLORADO FOR 17882. 49 From all sections of the State, reports received indicate hartne coming season will be the liveliest in mining operations ever recorded in the history of Colorado. Not only are the Leadville and other mining districts flourishing, but, through- out the State, innumerable small camps are springing up, many of which, it is expected, will be heard from before the end of the year. Of course, active mining operations, in many places, will be retarded for a time yet by snow; but preparations are making to resume work as soon as the weather will permit, on claims that have long lain idle. CLEAR CREEK COUNTY. At Dumont, the Albro mine is shipping ore to the smelting-works at Golden. The Unadilla Company is taking the average quantity of ore from the Eagle mine, and is actively engaged in developing the mine by running levels and cross-cuts, and in sinking the main shaft. A drift running on the vein from the cross-cut in the Syndicate mine is in 124 feet, and exposes a vein about eighteen inches thick of solid ore upon the hanging-wall. At Montezuma, the Silver King concentrator is running steadily, working about five tons per day. The Silver King mine is reported as looking excellent, and is employing a force of twenty men. Connection was recently made be- tween the first and second levels, by a winze. The Little Helen Mining Com- pany is driving a cross-cut tunnel to the Hidden Treasure lode. The various mines of less importance in the vicinity of Montezuma are reported as looking very well. According to the census reports, this county produced during the year end- ing May 31, 1880, $376,041 in gold and $1,954,547 in silver, assay value. GILPIN COUNTY. The mill of the California Mining Company at Black Hawk will start up in a short time on ore from the California mine. ‘The mine is yielding a fair amount of mill-dirt and smelting ore. A good body of ore was recently encountered in driving the 150-foot level of the Mountain City, west from the working-shaft. Twenty-five stamps of the New York mill are dropping on ore from the United Gregory lode. The other fifty stamps are working ore from the Cotton and other lodes. The Quartz Hill Company is meeting with fair success in the develop- ment of its mine, and expects in a short time to have the mill running. The more prominent mines in the vicinity of Central City continue as at last report, and the mills are kept busy crushing the product. The California Con- solidated Mining Company, which recently purchased the Standley-California mine, has begun work on the mine, and expects to have the fifty-stamp mill in operation in a few weeks. 7 Production for the census year $2,012,134 in gold, $674,727 in silver. THE SAN JUAN REGION. The San Juan region has always been understood to comprise Ouray, Do- lores, Hinsdale, La Plata, San Juan and Rio Grande, and in it are the well- pyiend 50 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. w known rich mining districts, having each its own particular town or outlet as follows: Ouray, having the Sneffels, Uncompahgre, Bear Creek, Red Mountain Gulch and Poughkeepsie Gulch mines tributary to it; Lake City, having the rich mines of Hensen Creek, Engineer Mountain, and a large number immediately around the town itself; San Miguel, haying the celebrated gold and silver mines of Marshall Basin, Ingram Basin, Bear Creek, Turkey Creek, and twenty miles of placer Claims on the San Miguel River; Ophir, having its own rich mines all around it; Rico, being the center of all the mines of Dolores County, and hav- ing an outlet by the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad near Durango, and at a dis- tance of about twenty-eight miles. With the exception of the latter, all these are tributaries to the main line of the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad. Silverton has ‘tributary to some remarkably good mines immediately around the town, and those of Cunningham Gulch, Eureka Gulch and Animas Forks, and has its out- let, as aforesaid, by the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad, now under construction from Durango to Silverton. Production for this region in 1880, $891,042. JEFFERSON COUNTY. The smelting-works at Golden are worked to their full capacity. The mines of Gilpin and Clear Creek Counties are sending them large quantities of ore, and there is received from the Robert E. Lee mine, of Leadville, one car of ore per day, which yields from $100 to $600 per ton. LAKE COUNTY. The mines in and around Leadville continue in the flourishing condition noted for sometime past. The roads which at this season of the year are generally impassable on account of the melting snow, are reported in excellent shape, and the large shipments from the mines are maintained. The report of the smelters for the quarter ended March 31st is a gratifying one, showing the aggregate product to have been $4,031,433, as against $3,097,- 820 for the same last year—an increase of nearly one million dollars thus far this year. This shipment is the largest ever made by the mines during the same length of time; and as the smelters have large quantities of ore on hand, and the mines are increasing their output, it may be taken as an indication that the product of the Leadville mines for 1882 will largely exceed that of any previous year. The mines are in good condition, and the shipments large and steady. One of the most convincing indications of Leadville’s prosperity is the large stocks on hand at the smelters, which, although working to their utmost capacity, can not treat all the ore they receive, and are accumulating large quantities in their bins and yards. The mines of Fryer Hill continue to be the leading fea- tures of interest, though there is a large increase in the output of the Carbonate Hill mines. Production for the census year, $82,687 in gold, $13,226,999 in silver. MINING PROSPECTS IN COLORADO FOR 1882. dl PITKIN COUNTY. This is a new county, lying westwardly from and adjoining Lake County. Its county-seat is Aspen, some thirty-five miles from Leadville. Among its best known mining camps is the Independence District where gold is the most abun- dant metal. The Farwell Consolidation with the well-known J. V. Farwell, of Chicago, at its head is in the lead of all, and so rich are its mines and well man- aged its affairs that its five dollar shares are said to be in demand at eighty dol- lars each. Their mines have netted about $40,000 per month, for the past three months. . The Independence mine, the Last Dollar, the Choler, Mammoth, Dolly Var- den, Lincoln, Pacific and Sheba, the Minnie, Legal Tender, Bennington and Climax, are all now the property of the Farwell Company, besides the valuable properties known as the Tam O’Shanter and Brown tunnel sites. The former is now in 170 feet and the latter 500 feet. This large array of valuable mines does not comprise all the property of the company, however. The Johnson placer and many others, which are not fully developed, are owned by the company. A good idea can be had of the extent and importance of the developments on these claims by starting from the Minnie’s workings. At this mine a tunnel has been run in about thirty feet to strike the vein. The mineral varies from a foot to two feet in thickness, and is composed of honeycombed quartz, inter- persed with iron and copper pyrites. Rich specimens of free gold are often en- countered in these workings. ‘The outcrop of the vein is about sixty feet above where the vein has been cut. Many other good mines have been opened and are now being worked in this district, among which are the Lake George and Sunrise: also those of the Hamilton Mining Company. August Schott, an old prospector and experienced miner, writes as follows: ‘‘T have just returned from a trip over the county picking up such knowl- edge as is necessary for my business. ‘There is a great rush for the lower end of this county, but the snow is so deep that no prospecting can be done by strangers. ‘The first hoisting engine has arrived in the gulch. It is for the Min- nehaha mine, a claim situated between the Farwell property and that of the Hamilton Company, and joining both. ‘There is a large body of mineral there, but it lies deep. A seventy-five foot shaft has failed to reach it, but the boys are determined to go down to it.”’ *¢ Four men have been working all winter on the Mt. Hope mine, driving a tunnel to cut the vein. At the intersection it was only six inches thick, but it soon widened to six feet solid qnartz, which yielded $25 in gold per ton under the stamps, while the tailings are worth $5 per ton. ‘The great cry is ‘a custom mill’ and this will be the leading gold camp in Colorado.” 52 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. THE PRECIOUS METALS. The Census Bureau has engaged Mr. Clarence King, who was recently at the head of the scientific survey, to collect the statistics of the production of the precious metals. Mr. King is well fitted for this work by his former studies and investigations, and has made a valuable report. The following table shows the aggregate production of the precious metals for the year ending March 31, 1880: Deep Mines, Placer Mines. Alabama. . a 1,301 Santee Alaska . Ave Base ae $ 6,002 Arizona. . 2,507,534 30,256 Calbriormeay sla Yee ale 9,652,575 8,649,253 Colorado . 19,146,066 103,106 Dakotale eae 3,325,547 51,109 Georgia. . 14,166 67,195 Idaho. . 1,049,510 894,684 Maine . 10,199 Michigan . 25,858 : Montana . 3,539,730 1,171,105 Nevada. . sais 17,268,482 50,427 New Hampshire . 26,999 INK? MIGSICO5 5 5 441,691 = Ss North Carolina. . . 114, 367 4,726 Oregon . 190,172 934,522 South Carolina. . 6,499 6,597 shennmessecr a aaae 1,998 Witahi 5,014,503 20,171 Virginia. . Qa2r : Washington . 16, 800 1 2O), OO Wyoming. 17,321 Motalar . $62,381,448 $12,109,172 ALL MINES. Gold. Silver. Alabama me 1,301 ayes Alaska. . 5,951 51 Arizona . 211,965 222i O25 California . 17,150,941 1,150,887 Colorado. . 2,699,898 16,549,274 Dakota . 3,305,843 70,818 Georgia . 81,029 332 Idaho. . 1,479,653 464,530 THE PRECIOUS METALS. 53 Maine . 2,999 7,200 Michigan beret EES 25,858 Montana. . 1,805,767 2,905,068 Nevada . 4,888,242 12,430,667 New Hampshire 16,999 16,000 New Mexico. . 49,354 392,337 North Carolina. 113,953 T40 Oregon . 1,097,701 arTOs South Carolina . 13,040 56 Tennessee . 1,998 2a arte Utah . 291,587 4,743,087 Virginia . O, 321 Washington 135,800 1,019 Wyoming . PG Qe otal y ems) en ie tp 3an 370,003 $41,110,957 It will be seen by this table that California produces in value a little more gold than Colorado does of Silver. The deep mines in California, particularly in the Bodie district, have produced more gold than the auriferous gravel which seems to be fast becoming exhausted.: The Nevada mines, which produced such quantities of precious metals from 1871 to 1879, show a notable falling off, due in large part to the diminution of the Comstock lode. Nevada also lacks water to work her gravel deposits. The Utah mines give a very steady production of the precious metals. The mines of Arizona are of recent development, and full statistics have not been collected. ‘There are large mining regions in Alaska, New Mexico, Idaho, Montana, Dakota and Washington Territory that have hardly yet been examined. The total production of gold and silver for the year 1880 was about $74,- 500,000, while the out-put in 1881 was nearly $77,000,000. It is a noticeable feature in mining operations that the production of gold mines in this country and other lands is gradually falling off, indicating that gold mines are becoming exhausted. There may still be rich gold fields in the northern part of the North Ameri- can Continent as indicated by the glaciers which have dropped gold all along their course in Indiana and other States. Prospecting for the precious metals ought not to be left entirely to private enterprise, but it could be incorporated in the scientific survey, and thus be fostered by the government. Great losses are often entailed by individuals and companies which a little scientific knowledge would have prevented. Every government certainly has the right to develop its natural resources.— Kansas City Journal. 54 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. THE PRODUCT OF GOLD AND SILVER FOR 385 YEARS. Dr. Adolph Soetbeer publishes a report upon the precious metals, taking the year 1493 as the starting date in his computations, claiming that the modern his- tory of gold and silver begins with the return of Columbus from his first voyage to the New World. Towards the end of the fifteenth century, before the treas- ures of America were unlocked, the supply of the precious metals in civilized countries had fallen far below the requirements of trade. Mr. Jacobs’ conjecture in regard to the specie which was available for the exchanges of Europe in 1492, rates the total sum at no more than $165,000,000. Since then the mines of the world have furnished over fourteen and a half billions in silver and gold. We present below a valuation of the weights tabulated by Dr. Soetbeer, for three hundred and eighty-two years, from 1493 to 1875, supplemented by an estimate of the production for the three years 1875 to 1878, uncovered by his table: Production of precious metals from 1493 to 1878. COS ioec Gg ole oa eB ab oo alo) 5 WO,OTA, 108,087 SUMS. soars oh ait | lode etisehs ton eiah ce ehetae eet cher tae Sen OW OA ZO HO2O APOtal 2. Soph et gelortete ee he Mee al en DUT CORO ONOOT We desire at present to direct attention to the steady increase in the supply of the precious metals from century to century, and especially to the enormous figures of the gold production during the last twenty-eight years. That the position may be seen at a glance, we have prepared tables of the annual average supply for each of the precious metals by decades or double-decades from 1493 to the end of last year. The production of each century is summarized and averaged by itself. Our readers will do well to preserve the tables for reference. Aver- age annual production : . SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Years. Gold. Silver. TKO) KO) SACO) GG Golo & 6 4 6 oHEpSSOyS7G. GY e.0ns. 125 SOI NEG) SUG SANG AB GN iu 6 to 6. dle PGS SO) 3,867,325 WSUS) TEKS) ol ahGi/b edo) 6! SyORRS AO 13,359,950 MATION SO.5 DG te ao arono 6) hy GAR COA 12,841,062 TMS SHTP HOY WOOK) A Sr Bi SIS SAA 1b Ay OOA, TANS 17,960, 337 The total production in the one hundred and eight years, from 1493 to 1600, amounted to $501,693,248 gold, an average of $4,645,307 per annum; and $976,024,900 in silver, an average of $9,065,045. THE PRODUCT OF GOLD AND SILVER FOR 385 YEARS. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Years. 1601 to 1620. 1621 tO 1640. . 1641 to 1660. . 1661 to 1680. . 1681 tO 1700 . Gold. . $5,662,392 5,516,180 4,828,542 6,154,196 7,154,419 Silver $18,134,837 16,875,600 15,705,112 14,448,875 14,658,962 59 The total auction in tne. one nindied years, from 1601 to 1700, amount- ed to $606,3 14,580 gold, an average of $6,063,145 per annum; 407,750 silver, an average of $15,964,077. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Years. OU 160) nye) oc M72 yt ON 7 AON 1741 to 1760 . 1761 to He : 1781 to;1800 Gold. DORMS Out 2 12,680,568 16,355,806 13,700,543 MIPOZe nay and Silver. $15,246,350 18,487,700 22,858,591 27,986,227 27,689,697 $1,596,- In the hundred years, 1701 to 71396. the production aggregated $1, 262, 806,- 4oo gold, an average of $12,628,064; and $2,445 371,337 silver, an average of $24,154,713. NINETEENTH CENTURY. Years. 1801 to 1810. . Ta WO) LEA) G 1g2r to 1830. 1831 to 1840. 1841 to 1850. 1851 to 1860. 1861 to 1870. 1871 to 1878. Gold. DIL OLS 25.5 7,606, 347 9,447-953 13,484,060 36, 392,831 134,107,307 125,284,742 112,081,628 Silver. $38,336,681 23,185,513 19,746,510 25,572,793 33,460, 293 38, 396,813 52,312,537 82,400,000 In the seventy-eight years, 1801 to 1878, the production aggregated $4, 278, - 938,135 gold, an average of $54,846,642 per annum; and $2,969, 306,913 silver, an average of $38,068,037 per annum. 56 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. IBOOK INOTICES. A History or THE St. Louis Bripcr. By C. M. Woodward, Professor of Mathematics and Applied Mechanics, and Dean of the Polytechnic School of Washington University. 4to, pp 400. Illustrated. G. I. Jones & Co., St. Louis, Publishers. Long before the St. Louis Bridge was completed, Captain Eads, its illustrious builder, closed a report to the Board of Directors with the following statement : ‘¢ When all of the many difficulties that have retarded this great work shall have at last been surmounted and the Bridge becomes an accomplished fact, it will be found unequaled in the important qualities of strength, durability, capacity and magnitude by any similar structure in the world.” : That the bridge has become an accomplished fact and stands without a rival in the world everybody knows; but of the difficulties upon whose solution the success of the bridge as a work of engineering depended, there is very little knowledge. Doubtless in every great work new questions come up which have never before presented themselves for practical answers ;, but it is doubtful if any other work transcended experience at so many points. Of all these difficulties, of the various attempts both successful and unsuccessful to overcome them, and of the construction and erection of the bridge in every detail, Prof. Woodward gives an account which cannot fail to meet the demands both of the professional and non-professional reader ; the happy combination of a plain statement of facts with an interesting story of events makes the work altogether sud generis. It is complete, clear, concise and entertaining. The book is really much more than a history of the St. Louis Bridge; its principal claim to a high place among books which last for all time is, that it has put together a great mass of experience in engineering work which would otherwise have remained scattered and useless, be- cause inaccessible, and these he has placed in form ready for use by all the world whenever wanted. By a judicious arrangement of subjects and indices, the read- er is enabled to find just what he may want without reading over much which he may not want, so that the book must prove invaluable to engineers and scientists as a work of reference. As a record of the planning and erection of a structure which required at times consummate skill both of a head and hand and not un- frequently demanded immediate answers to questions upon which experience was dumb, the book contains many chapters which would be valuable additions to scientific literature if published separately. Some of these are deserving of special mention. : The sinking of the piers was itself a great scientific work. When it is re- membered that, owing to the treacherous nature of the river, which at times cours its bed of the sediment which it had deposited years before, the great piers BOOK NOTICES. 57 of masonry had to be sunk to the bed rock of the river, the magnitude of this un- dertaking, upon which the ultimate success of the entire work depended, will at once appear. The deepest of the piers went down tro feet below the surface of the water and of this distance more than two-thirds was below the bottom of the river. Caissons of iron were used in sinking the piers, and the weight of the masonry furnished the pressure for sinking the caissons. The special peculiarities consist of the magnitude of the masses of material handled and the number of special devices which the needs of the moment only could suggest. It does not seem probable that any large bridge will in future be built upon piers before its engineer has carefully studied the methods employed in sinking the piers of the St. Louis bridge, and for this reason the value of the chapters devoted to this subject cannot at present be fully estimated. The sinking of the piers afforded exceptional opportunities not easily repro- duced for the study of the ‘‘ Physiological effects of Compressed Air.” | Under this title Prof. Woodward gives a resumé of the experiences of the men who were em- ployed in in the caisson and an exhaustive discussion of the subject from a scien- tific standpoint. The explanations here given of phenomena, no doubt observed before, are, so far as we know, quite new and have been endorsed by some of the best physicians in the country. The special features in the manufacture of materials for the superstructure of the bridge will be well shown by the following quotation from the book itself: ‘¢No sooner were preparations made for the construction of the arches than practical difficulties appeared. It is true many of them had been anticipated, but it is equally true that the difficulties actually met surpassed the shrewdest conjecture. The steel makers found that their facilities were inadequate to the magnitude of the work undertaken; their workmen were unskilled; and their foremen without experience in working steel in such large masses. ‘¢Both iron and steel makers were unaccustomed to the rigid tests required. The insertion into specifications of the items of elastic limit and modulus of elas- ticity was a new feature in bridge contracts. Moreover, the detail drawings and specifications indicated a grade of workmanship altogether exceptional. To be sure they involved nothing, as regarded accuracy, either impossible or even diffi- cult, but they were unusual and of course expensive. All these things now add to the value and fame of the great work; without them this bridge would be merely one of a thousand bridges, and this history never would have been writ- ten; but in 1871, ’72 and ’73, the fame of the bridge had little weight with a contractor or with a stockholder. ‘Most of the real difficulties were actually overcome; and through the influ- ence of Mr. Eads’s specifications the standard of good workmanship was raised throughout the world. In the construction of the St. Louis bricge, engineering made progress. Let me quote on this point from so eminent an authority as London Engineering: Im its issue of October 10, 1873, the editor said: ‘ Our present requirement being to select some example of the most highly developed type of bridge-building of the present day, we have no difficulty in passing be. 58 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. fore ourselves in mental review the different works now in progress thoughout the world, and we have still less difficulty in electing as our example the magnificent arched bridge now almost completed by Capt. Eads, at St. Louis. In that work the alliance between the theorist and the practical man is complete. The highest powers of modern analysis have been called into requisition for the determination of the strains, the resources of the manufacturer have been taxed to the utmost in production of material and perfection of ‘workmanship, and the ingenuity of the builder has been alike taxed to put the unprecedented mass into place. In short, brain power has been called into action in every department. a as *k? Thus wrote the accomplished critic, unmindful for the time of the perplexi- ties of the manufacturer, the misgivings of the contractor, the anxieties of the capitalist, and the trials of the engineer. Each in his place was abundantly ex- ercised. When cross examined before the tribunal of actual work, the steel and iron makers who had given such repeated assurance of their ability to construct all that was required, confessed themselves less confident and sometimes com- pletely at loss, and more than all, after careful study of the drawings and speci- fications, even when numerous changes had been made with a view to lessening the cost of construction, the contractors claimed that the quality of workman- ship required was far beyond their expectation and that on many points Mr. Eads demanded impossibilities. Every detail was sharply discussed, and agree- ments were reached at the expense of time and generally of money. A complete account of all these difficulties, and of the ways in which some were overcome and others avoided, makes of these chapters a standard author- ity on the manufacture of iron and steel in large pieces; in the same way the records of the tests of materials, and methods and machines used in testing, have a value far beyond that of showing the care and precision with which every part of the work was constucted. The chapter on ‘‘ The Theory of the Ribbed Arch” is also deserving of special mention; the subject has never been more beautifully and satisfactorily discussed. All the mathematical calculations used are given in detail. The book is a quarto of nearly 400 pages, and is as well printed as any book we have ever seen. It is illustrated by thirty-nine large plates of drawings, showing accurately every detail of the bridge. The drawings were made by Wm. Ger- hardt, of St. Louis, and photo-lithographed by Julius Bien, of New York. They are unsurpassed. ‘There are also eleven artotype plates, made by R. Benecke, of St. Louis, giving excellent views of the bridge in process of erection, and seventy-two diagrams illustrating special points. The book has received the highest endorsement from professional engineers. BOOK NOTICES. Birps-Nestinc. By Ernest Ingersoll, 12mo. pp. 110. Salem, Mass., Geo. A. Bates, 1882, $1.00. For sale by the Nauralist’s Bureau. This little volume, made up from a series of articles by the prolific and al- ways entertaining and instructive author, first published in the columns of Sczence News, is intended for a hand book of instruction in gathering and presuming the nests and eggs of birds for the purposes of study. The topics are Field Work, in which instructions are given for discovering nests, on the habits of birds, naming eggs, etc. ; Preparation of Specimens, in- cluding descriptions and illustrations of the various implements used; How to construct and arrange the Cabinet ; Lists of birds whose nidification is unknown; Bird architecture; the whole concluding with a full index. To amateur collectors, or even to experts, this book will be found eminently useful, while to the casual reader it will be found to possess much of interest. Joun INGLESANT, a Romance. By J. Henry Shorthouse, 12mo. pp. 445: Mac- Millan & Co., New York, 1882. For sale by M. H. Dickinson, $1.00. This might just as well be termed a historical novel, but since the author prefers to call it a philosophical romance, the reader may take his choice, but under either title he will find it an unusually attractive story, not only from its historical truthfulness, its skillful management of characters and plot, but also from the strictness with which the philosophical element is kept in view at all times. The author says on this point, ‘‘ In books where fiction is used dnly to introduce philosophy, I believe that that it is not to be expected, that human life is to be described simply as such. ‘The characters are, so to speak, sublimated, they are only introduced for a set purpose and having fulfilled this purpose— were it only to speak half a dozen words—they vanish from the stage.” If this be his only purpose, he has succeeded admirably in masking his object with an ac- curacy of description, a selection of important and thrilling events in history and a fascinating style of writing, so that many if not most readers will find the romance er se rather than the philosophical lesson the prominent feature. First Lessons IN GeEoLocy. By Prof. A. S. Packard, Jr., Brown University. Octavo, pp. 128, illustrated. Providence Lithograph Co., Providence, R. Ie ESA This is a text book to accompany a series of lithographic charts known as the Chautauqua Scientific Diagrams, Series No. 1. Geology. It is written in a clear and popular style, while Professor Packard’s connection with it guarantees its cor- rectness beyond question. The charts are of large size, fairly executed and a very excellent aid to a lecturer or teacher in illustrating his subject. There are ten in number, beginning with the Action of Water, including glaciers, cafions, etc., then the Action of Heat including volcanoes, geysers, earthquakes, etc. America during the silurian, devonian, carboniferous, triassic and jurassic, cre- 60 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. taceous, tertiary, pre-glacial and glacial periods. They will make a useful addi- tion to our school literature. THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY OF ScIENCE, OF ST. Louis; Vol. IV, No. 2, octavo pp. 394. Published by the Secretary, $2.00. This handsomely printed volume contains important papers by Dr. G. Sey- tiarth, “Profs. C. V. Riley, “FE. Nipherm, © Ay diodd:) He Ss PritchettaGcar Engelmann and E. A. Engler. We reprint one of these papers in the present issue of the Review, and shall present others to our readers in the future as may seem appropriate. OTHER PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. Commercial Relations of the United States, Nos. 13, 14, 15, from Hon. R. T. Van Horn; Transactions of the Seismological Society of Japan, Vol. II, from Prof. H. M. Paul; Bulletin of the U. S. National Museum, No. 22; Little known Facts about well known Animals, from Prof. C. V. Riley; Medicinal Flora of Kansas, by Robt. J. Brown, Leavenworth, Kansas; Time-Keeping in Paris, by Edmund A. Engler, St. Louis, Mo.; Report of the standing commit- tee on water on the Impurity of the Water Supply of Boston, with the report of Prof. fra Remsen, on the subject ; Directions for Collecting and Preserving In- sects, by Prof. A. S. Packard, Jr., M. D.; Retarded Development in Insects, by Prof. C. V. Riley; the Paleolithic Implements of the Valley of the Delaware; What is Anthropology? a lecture by Prof. Otis T. Mason; The 17th Annual Cat- alogue of Officers and Students of the Massachusetts Trctiewe of Technology, 1881-2 ; Catalogue of Officers and Students of Marietta College, Ohio, 1881-2; Hints for Painters, Industrial Publication Co., N. Y., 25c; The Silk-Worm, a Manual of Instruction for the Production of Silk, by Prof. C. V. Riley; The Pacific Northwest, Oregon and Washington Territory, from A. L. Maxwell. SClaIN WWE WSC IAIN Y, SOME RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MECHANIC ARTS. BY F. B. BROCK, WASHINGTON, D. C. AUTOMATIC CASH SYSTEM. A novel apparatus, designed to take the place of cash-boys in large stores, provides a cash-box, detachably secured to an endless cord by a spring-actuated clamping-lever. The box rests on a grooved track, and is stopped by coming in SOME RECENT IMPROVEMENTS 1N THE MECHANIC ARTS, 61 contact with projections on the under side of a cover of a trough fixed to the track, into which the cash-box enters. The box is unclamped from the endless cord by a clamping-lever, and a projection on the box bearing against two spring- guides on the under side of the trough ‘cover. Raising the cover of the trough removes the spring-guides and the stops on the trough-cover from the cash-box, which is then engaged with and carried forward by the endless cord. COMPRESSING AND COOLING AIR. This novel improvement consists in providing the cylinder of an air-compres- sor with two independent water-chambers arranged respectively upon the opposite ends or heads of the cylinder, and through which a current of cold water is con- tinually flowing. A third water-chamber surrounds the body of the cylinder. This latter chamber is divided into two compartments, each of which is supplied with cold water near the ends of the cylinder; but they have a common outlet through an annular passage arranged between them. MAKING BREAD BY MACHINERY. The bakers’ fraternity, realizing the importance of making and baking bread which shall offer serious competition to what is properly called home-made bread, have made quite a number of improvements. It is of importance in bread-mak- ing that the fibre of the dough be as nearly continuous as possible on the outside, so that the loaves may appear white and flaky where they break apart, and also to prevent them from drying out toorapidly. In making bread by hand conformity to these conditions is easy. By the use of machinery, however, the dough is cut into loaves by sharp knives, thus leaving the ends and sides without the fib- rous covering, causing them to break badly. By the use of a novel bread-mak- ing machine this difficulty is said to be entirely obviated. This machine presses rather than cuts the dough apart, so that the fibre of the of the grain shall be pre- served continuous. ‘This object is accomplished by using in the cutting-machine thick knives which are rounded instead of sharp. COMBINED MUFF AND LUNCH RECEPTACLE, A novel lunch-receptacle and muff consists of two covered receptacles joined at their upper and lower extremities, leaving an intermediate padded space in which the hands are placed. The outside of this combined receptacle and muff, is highly finished and ornamented, so as to adapt it for street wear. IMPROVED PIPE-JOINT COUPLING. A late improvement consists of a pipe-joint for coupling pipes at any angle with each other. The coupling proper consists of two hemispherical shells fitting each other with an annular overlap joint. Each half shell has a pipe opening suitably screw-threaded, to receive the adjacent ends of the pipes. In order to keep the hemispherical shells in place and steam or water-tight, a central bolt is provided, passng through the shells, when it is desired to set the pipe-joint at a certain angle this bolt is loosened and the shells adjusted, after which the thread- ed bolt is again tightened. 62 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. SIGNALING BY ELECTRICITY. This electric-signaling apparatus consists of a relay having a movable arma- ture and retractor anda device for alternately breaking and closing the circuit there- of, combined with a local battery and circuit for operating registering apparatus, the terminals of which are controlled by the said relay-armature, whereby the condition of the local circuit is changed both at the movement of the relay-arma- ture from and at its movement toward the poles of its magnet. A record is thus made both at the opening and closure of the main or relay circuit. MACHINERY FOR WAXING PAPER. This novel paper-waxing apparatus comprises a heated waxing-pan having a bar beneath its surface under which the paper is required to pass. The paper is then led to a pair of distributing, compressing, and calender rolls, located above or nearly over said pan, and an independent smoothing and cleaning device is located on the delivery side of said rollers. DESULPHURIZING FURNACE. A late and new process for desulphurizing ores consists of the following suc- cessive steps: first, drying the ore; second, subjecting the dried ore in a close chamber to thorough agitation; third, subjecting the ore to the action of heat ; and, fourth, injecting hot air which has been dehydrated or deprived of its moist- ure. The air, before being admitted to the roasting-chamber, is dehydrated by being forced through a body of common salt. ARTIFICIAL FILTRATION. As illustrations of the process of filtration on a large scale, nothing better can be had, perhaps, than the filter-beds of the London Water Companies. They cover altogether close upon eighty-four acres of ground; and though they vary very greatly in their composition, the principle on which they are constructed is the same in all cases, and any one of them may be taken to exemplify the opera- tion. In practice, all the companies requiring to filter their water do so by al- lowing it to stand in huge reservoirs, the bottoms of which are porous, and sup- ported on brick &’rches, which at once form the base of the filter-beds, and the roof of a water-tank, from which the purified water is pumped up into the mains. The composition of the filter-beds varies with each company. The New River Company, the largest of them all, make their filters of two feet three inches of sand, underneath which are three feet of gravel, increasing in coarseness toward the bottom. Others are more elaborate. ‘The Grand Junction Waterworks Com- pany, for instance, make their filters by first depositing one foot of boulders, over which are nine inches of coarse gravel, then nine inches of fine gravel, six inches of hoggin, and two feet six inches of Harwich sand. The Lambeth and the Chelsea Companies, again, construct their beds of shells, as well as sand and gravel, though in different proportions, one having altogether eight feet of filter- ANCIENT ROMAN COIN. 63 ing material, the other only seven feet. The object of all of them, however, is to make a porous bed through which the water will percolate slowly enough to insure efficient purification, but yet not so slowly as to make the process too tedious and expensive. As to what should be the rate at which the process may be carried on to be effective, is a point upon which authorities differ somewhat. Dr. Tidy considers that it should be as nearly as possible two gallons per square foot per hour; Colonel Frank Bolton, the Water Examiner under the Metropoli- tan Act of 1871, thinks it may be two and a half gallons. All agree, however, that it must not be too rapid. Such filter-beds as those of the London companies are only modifications of the natural process of filtration up through beds of gravel and sand, from which the best of spring water flows. Authorities say that the sand not only acts asa strainer, but it performs the office of the rock in bringing every particle of the water into close contact with the air. The sand, they tell us, is but a vast col- lection of minute rocks; and every grain of sand is a particle of rock, incased in a film of air. ANCIENT ROMAN COIN. St. Louis, April 27, 1882. Epitor Kansas City Review :—The following account of an ancient coin found in Illinois will without doubt be interesting to your readers. A few weeks since Dr. J. F. Snyder of Virginia, Cass Co., Illinios, wrote tome: ‘A rural friend in this county some time ago found on his farm a curious bronze coin or ornament, which he requested me to send to St. Louis or elsewhere for identifi- cation. Supposing that you are a numismatician as well as an archeologist, I will send it to you for your opinion.” Upon examination I identified it as a coin of Antiochus IV., surnamed Epi- phanes, one of the kings of Syria, of the family of the Seleucidz, who reigned from 175 B. C. to 164 B. C., and who is mentioned in the Bible (first book of Maccabees, chapter 1, verse 10) as a cruel persecutor of the Jews. The coin bears on one side a finely executed head of the King, and on the obverse a sitting figure of Jupiter, bearing in his extended right hand a small figure of Victory and in his left a wand or sceptre, with an inscription in ancient Greek characters—BASILEOS, ANTIOCHOU, EPIPHANOUS, and another word partly defaced which I believed to be NIKEPHOROU ; the translation of which is King Antiochus, Epiphanes (Illustrious), the Victorious. When found it was very much black- ened and corroded from long exposure, but when cleaned it appeared in a fine state of preservation and but little worn. Yours truly, ES BTL DER. 64 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 2 DEPORT A INC iis! IN commencing the Sixth Volume of the REVIEW we are gratified to be able to state that it has continued to receive flattering commendations from all sources on the im- provements made in its appearance within the past year and upon the popular character and good quality of the articles published. One of the most frequent comments of East- ern writers is surprise that the people of the West, where money making is supposed to be the chief object of life, should continue to support a magazine of its grade and pur- pose. They forget or overlook the fact that in the West liberality goes with money mak- ing and that many persons, who have little time to read the REVIEW, think it worthy of support and have it sent to distant friends as an evidence of the progress Kansas City is making as a centre of intelligence and knowledge as well as a commercial empo- Numerous instances can be given where this kind of patronage has resulted to the advantage of the whole community ata very small cost to the individual. As has several times been stated, the publication of the REVIEW is a labor of love with its pro- prietor, who can only devoie his evenings to the work and who has no expectation that it will ever be a source of profit, but who feels that it is an enterprise that should be foster- ed by all good citizens, not only for the good it may do in their own families, where it will pay for itself many times over every year,—but also because it helps to round out the city in those features which make it a desirable and attractive residence for the best classes of people. rium. ALL subscribers wishing back numbers of the REVIEW bound can have it done in hand- some half morocco and cloth for $1.00 per volume by leaving them at this office. THE Sixth Annual Meeting of the Kansas. City Academy of Science will be held at ‘the First Baptist Church, corner of 12th street and Baltimore Ave., on the last Tuesday of this month. The annual address will be de- livered by Rev. Alex. Proctor. The exer- cises are open to the public. THE Signal Service Bureau has published the Report of Sergeant J. P. Finley, on the Tornadoes of May 29 and 30, 1879, in Kan- sas and Missouri, and No. 4 of its Profession- al Papers. It is a comprehensive account, statistical, descriptive and theoretical, of the whole subject, which we shall take occasion to notice fully hereafter. Mr. Finley or some other officer of the Signal Corps will be sent out soon to investigate the tornadoes of last month, in which case we are expecting a synopsis of his report in advance. Pror. Wm. Dawson, the Quaker shoe- maker astronomer, of Spiceland, Indiana, says of the REVIEW in a recent letter, ‘I count it among the very choice part of my magazine literature, and hope to long receive Tig? THE Twenty-First Annual Session of the Missouri State Teachers’ Association will be held at Sweet Springs, (Brownsville) Saline County, Missouri, June 20, 21 and 22, 1882. Every friend of education is requested to en- courage, by his presence, the objects of the Association. THIS number of the REVIEW has been great- ly delayed awaiting the receipt of the cuts for the completion of Mr. Wortman’s artic'e on the ‘‘Origin and Development of Exists ing Horses.”’ When they did finally arrive mistakes were discovered necessitating the omission of the article and the substitution of another. EDITORIAL NOTES. 69 THE committee appointed by the National Academy of Science to investigate and re- port upon the sorghum-sugar industry, de- clares sorghum to be the best sugar produc- ing plant next to the sugar cane of Louis- iana, and that it has a continental spread of variableness and adaptation to various soils and climates of the United States. ABOUT two years ago Mr. Leigh Smith, an English gentleman, sailed in=his own yacht to penetrate the ice-barriers of the Polar Sea, since when he has not been heard of. The Geographical Society of England is going to send a search expedition out after him. De LzEsseps has recently celebrated his seventy-seventh birth day anniversary, at which time he announced that the Panama Canal would be completed by 1888, and that he expected to be at hand onthe occasion of formally opening it. PROF. TROWBRIDGE, of Glasgow, will give up teaching at the end of the present session and devote himself for a year to collectiag specimens of natural history. He already has a very large collection which he wishes to dispose of to some western institution, but if he does not succeed in this it will go to some eastern museum. No better opportun- ity can be found for purchasing a first-class collection. GENERAL HAZEN, Chief Signal Officer U. S. Army, promises to furnish the REVIEW with information, reports, etc., from the two Arctic stations, Lady Franklin Bay and Point Barrow, when received, probably in Septem- ber or October. THE number of distinguished scientists and literary men who have died during the present year is quite unusual. Draper, Dar- win, Thomson, Longfellow and Emerson, were all men of world-wide reputations, though but one or two of them had reach- ed much beyond sixty years of age. In our own State, Prof. J. T. Hodgen, of St. Louis, who died last week was a most skillful sur- geon and able writer. ProF. REID, of BesMoines, Iowa, in offer- cole I can in this way aid you in your arduous en- terprise I wish to do it, for I know right well how difficult it is to keep up sucha ing an article for publication says: magazine as you are publishing, in this in- tensely business-ridden country.” Pror. C. A. YOUNG, the astronomer at Princeton College, took occasion in a recent pulpit lecture, to correct Maedler’s theory of a central sun about which ours and all other solar systems are revolving as a common center. THE Signal Service officers are collecting data for a comprehensive report upon the late flood in the Mississippi River which will be published as soon as practicable. Dr. R. J. BRown’s report upon the Medi- cinal Plants of Kansas gives evidence of a great amount of careful and well directed personal labor which will be of especial im- portance to the State as the subject is still further developed. Pror, G. C. BROADHEAD says of the wood being used in paving Wyandotte Street in this city: ‘*It seems to be the kind used for telegraph poles, sometimes called white cedar, In Prof. Sargent’s catalogue of ‘North American Forest Trees,’ he includes Chame- cyparis Spherotdea : wood reddish, light, soft, easily split and worked, and very durable. Still it seems too soft for my idea of paving- blocks. I don’t like it. Use granite—Mis- souri Granite—and you will have a solid, good street.” Hon. D. C. ALLEN, of Liberty, Mo., calls the attention of archzologists to certain an- cient earthworks that he has observed in this portion of the State; the first in Cass County about half way between Strasburg and Gunn City and the other in DeKalb County, about three miles from Maysville on the road to- ward Cameron. Weshall be glad to publish a full account of them in a future number, 66 THE U. 5. Steamer Rodgers, which went to the Arctic regions last year in search of the Jeanette, was destroyed by fire near the coast of eastern Siberia January 1, 1882. The Steamer Corwin has been ordered to the relief of her officers and crew. Tue First Annual Exposition of the Na- tional Mining and Industrial Association will be held at Denver, commencing August ist. It is intended to be the most complete and extensive exhibit of agricultural and and mineral products ever made in the west. ITEMS FROM PERIODICALS. Tue April number of the Wzzeteenth Cen- tury contains an article on the subject of quieting the stormy waves of the ocean by the use of oil. Many cases are cited where this means has resulted successfully. No. 31 of the well-known Humboldt Li- brary, published by J. Fitzgerald & Co., No. 30 Lafayette Place, New York, consists of Part II of Richard Chevenix French’s Study of Words. It is most curious, interesting and valuable. Price for the two parts, 120 pages, 30 cents. AmonG the best articles in Harper's Month- ly for May, aside from the excellent stories, are: Spanish Vistas, by Geo. P. Lathrop. Pennybacker’s appreciative sketch of the Life and Work of David Rittenhouse, one of the earlier American Scientists, and F. John- son’s description of ‘‘The Upper Peninsula of Michigan.” THE Atlantic Monthly for May, 1882, pre- sents the following table of contents: Two ona Tower, I.-IV., Thomas Hardy; Mad River, in the White Mountains, Henry Wads- worth Longfellow; The Arrival of Man in Europe, John Fiske; Aunty Lane, H. H.; Old Fort Chartres, Edward G. Mason; Doc- tor Zay, III.-V, Elizabeth Stewart Phelps. ‘Sage or Poet, Edith M. Thomas; Progress in Agriculture by Education and Govern- ment Aid, II, Eugene W. Hilgard; The KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. House of a Merchant Prince, VIII, IX, Wil- liam Henry Bishop; Studies in the South, III; Evolution in Magic, Elizabeth Robins ; The French Panic, J. Lawrence Laughlin; The Divine Right of Kings, Mary W. Plum- mer; Renan’s Marcus Aurelius; The Con- tributors’ Club; Books of the Month. THE Missourz Statesman, the best weekly paper in Central Missouri, is making con- stant improvements in matter and manner and is entitled to full credit for its enterprise. WE find in the Popular Sctence Monthly, for May, the following: Methodsand Profit of Tree-Planting, by N. H. Egleston; Pro- fessor Goldwin Smith as a Critic, by Herbert Spencer; Monkeys, by Alfred Russell Wal- | lace; The Development of the Senses, by Robert W. Lovett; The Stereoscope, I, by W. Le Conte Stevens, (Illustrated); Meas- urements of Men, by Francis Galton, F. R. S.; Liberty of Thought, by Rev. E. Wood- ward Brown; A Reply to Miss Hardaker on the Woman Question, by Nina Morais; The Genesis of the Sword, (illustrated); On the Diffusion of Odors, by R. C. Rutherford ; Color-Blindness and Color-Perception, by Swan M. Burnett, M. D.; Stallo’s ‘“‘ Concepts of Modern Physics,” by W. D. Le Sueur; The Tree that Bears Quinine, by O. R. Bach- eler, M. D.; Sketch of Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M. P. (with portrait); Entertaining Varieties: The Mountains of the Moon: The ' Chronicle of Hakim Ben Sheytan, etc.; Cor- respondence; Editor’s Table: Science and Culture; Literary Notices; Popular Miscel- lany and Notes. SUBSCRIBERS to the REVIEW can obtain all other magazines and books published in | this country or England at from 15 to 20 per cent discount from the regular prices. 8 Tue Kansas City REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY is the most valuable periodical, devoted to science, published in the West, and indeed fills a place not occupied by any other magazine in the country.—C/znion (Wis.) Herald. EDITORIAL NOTES. 67 THE Worth American Review for May con- Two murderers, named respectively Baber tains several valuable contributions by distin- and Ward, were hung in St. Louis a short guished writers; notably Party Schisms and | time ago. Immediately after the drop the Future Problems, by Hon. Carl Schurtz; pulse of each was counted up to the moment Days with Longfellow, by Samue: Ward; | of death, with the following result ; Ward’s The Navy, by Lieut. Commander Gorringe; | pulse was forty for the first minute. The The Spent Bullet, by Gail Hamilton. That third minute it was fifty-seven. After that there was a gradual decline, and in five last named has probably attracted as much attention as any of them though by no means the most deserving. It is a ‘‘smart’’ spe- | For the first half minute Baber’s pulse was cious, womanish essay, but as a just, critical normal, the next half it was thirty per min- review of President Garfield’s case it is ute. The second minute there was thirty- not entitled to any consideration. Its state- six strokes; third, sixty; fourth, seventy ; ments of fact are unfair and garbled; even | fifth, seventy-six ; sixth, fifty-eight; seventh, the conclusions drawn from them, as stated, seventy ; eighth, sixty-eight; ninth, forty- are illogical and unwarranted; the handling | six; tenth, forty-eight. At the close of the eleventh minute his pulse ceased, and a half minutes the pulse ceased to beat. of the sctentific questions involved is utterly unscientific; the discussion of the religious | points is flippant and irreverent. | Oilice of the Review ci Science and Industry. KANSAS CITY, MO.; May 1, 1882. The Sixth Volume of this popular Magazine begins with the May number, 1882. It has attained a wide circulation among Teachers, Professional Men, Manufacturers, Miners and the best families of Missouri, Kansas, Colorado and the West generally. 64 pages, Octavo, Monthly; $2.50 per annum. Clubs of four or more are allowed a discount of 25 per cent. ADDRESS, WisGeiO), “Ss iS leh Kansas City, Missouri. 5 ts oe ei oe a 6 20.7 TRI-DAILY OBSERVATIONS WY Bo TDA ao & G6 O16 ae Nol aie Nae 53-7 1B): 188g Lee hella eh sone Gon ec ie 63.1 ORPemM sieve ee isyete: Gane! ot Yeu. 57-6 INICRID G? GAlBis OG Wig Meaee won salon ovr 58.3 RELATIVE HUMIDITY Flo Bo Bib 6 6 BE abt ake neha bette 89 2p.m.. eee ee Se kena oie Be 75 ORI ese cence no ey yen tot ie 84 MCAT EM ER eRe ith Leste he Rees 83 ‘PRESSURE AS OBSERVED. Gf Bis TENG ios! i to ete Ad me Cae anne ie 28.97 ZT eMINMED REL exon) ust “ge atures Monkees 28.93 QBPreIN Kjnsug st (evs lew es are 28.94 IMG Anwar en tr tile tele arson 28.95 MILES PER Hour OF WIND. G1 Gly TING) BUG LANCE AN: cae Baoan Rete 13.3 2M Deca TIM eae oth oleate ki etauyaj ie cier Liery con icy visi fev 16.1 OPPs Ml sinentn rt serie) shui ess ee 8.5 MO talemilEs awh eis} me ate os 3334 CLOUDING BY TENTHS Gp Eley WN eo ee dear te as eed are ME Re 6.7 DED ewUnl-wnrereacatcnsem evict teh feuwesltips’ bey: 7.1 ORDERS ee eich inetiaforesisiciotlion oldie aie hs 6.5 RAIN. Lowest barometer Lowest temperature June Ist June Ioth to 10th. to 20th. 52.9 59.9 75.6 81.0 64.2 70.4 22.6 20.9 61.3 66.8 74.2 79.1 63.9 70.1 65.8 71.5 81 85 57 .66 59/3 .90 .69 .80 28.95 28.87 28.91 28.84 28.91 28.85 28.92 28.85, 8.7 14.2 12.4 3.9 6.1 4.9 3:4 1.9 4.2 .98 2.90 Mean. 54.1 74-4 63.6 21.1 60.6 72.1 63.9 65.2 85 82 77 23.93 28 89 28.90 28.91 5.83 172 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. G BORON GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON A PART OF SOUTHEAST KANSAS. BY PROF. G. C. BROADHEAD. We find well exposed, below Iola at Humboldt in Allen County, about twen- ty feet of a whitish or light gray limestone, often cellular, with the cells ferrugin- ous stained; it also often shows numerous facets of limpid calcspar. A similar rock occupies the bank of the Neosho River at Neosho Falls, also cropping out low in the hills at Chanute and is also found at Galesburg in Neosho County. At Galesburg we find a succession of strata, including a few feet of rough ash- gray limestone on hill-top, then twenty feet of calcareous shales and thin rough layers of limestone containing Athyris, Sutbtilita, Producius splendens, P. praiten- ianus, Bryozoa, etc. Below this we find beds of pure whitish and gray limestone, ferruginous tinged and containing Bryozoa, Spirtferlineatus, etc., and with much crystallized calcite. This last limestone I regard as equivalent to the whitish limestone of Humboldt, and from its associated beds I would, in the absence of better evidence to the contrary, refer it to the age of a similar limestone very well exposed on the hill tops a few miles south of Ft. Scott and named by Prof. Swallow in his Geological Section of Southeastern Kansas, as the ‘‘ Pawnee Lime- stone.”? We would also recommend a comparison of this limestone with another known limestone of Bates County, Missouri, occurring there less than twenty feet below the Mulberry coal, and described in Mo. Geol. Rep. 1874. The occurrence of this limestone at Iola, Humboldt, Chanute and Galesburg would indicate a southerly dip. From Iola there is also a regular northern and western dip. : A half mile south of Galesburg we find twenty-five feet of sandstone and shales reaching to the bed of the creek. The connection of these with the Gales- burg limestones was not seen and I was disposed to assign the sandstone to a lower horizon. But it may be possible that it is higher in the series and have a southern dip which has brought it into its present position. No local dip was. observed, but if there is, it is then the equivalent of the Thayer flagstones. It is flaggy at both places Sandstones do occur about forty feet below as well as thirty-five feet above the white limestone. At the railroad quarry, two miles north of Chanute, we find on the hill-top a bluish gray limestone. The sandstone below shows an outcrop of twenty-three feet including layers of good building stone. Three miles east and across the Neosho River the sandstone extends to the hill-top, and at the base of the hill we find the white limestone. There must, therefore, be about fifty feet of this sandstone in this vicinity. At the head of Chetopah Creek, half GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON A PART OF SOUTHEAST KANSAS. 173 way from Chanute to Thayer the sandstone crops out in thick beds. A similar sandstone has also been extensively quarried at Neodesha in Wilson County where it shows on the surface some remarkably interesting fucoids. From this general view of the Neosho Valley rocks we pass to a special de- scription of the Thayer coal. The town of Thayer, Neosho County, is situated on the summit of a gently sloping ridge, descending eastwardly to a valley by a long and gentle slope, the same ridge descending more abruptly to the west. The highest rock at Thayer is a sandstone in flag-like layers. From the hill-top to the coal is fifty feet, the lower twenty feet of which is occupied by thinly bedded sandstone, the layers be- coming much thinner near the coal and also more argillaceous. The coal in the shaft is, when drifted on, from fourteen to eighteen inches thick. In some places the overlying sandy shales rest directly on the coal. When these shales are free from sand they often abound in fossil leaves of various. plants, chiefly of ferns, some of them in an excellent state of preservation. The coal is mined two to four miles south of Thayer, just west and northwest and six miles west, or over an area of about six miles square, employing in De- cember, 1881, about 100 miners. At Dickson’s shaft the coal rests on four feet of underclay, below which the miners report a thin limestone layer resting on about twenty feet of clay shales. A half mile down the creek I observed a disintegrating limestone at six feet below coal. For two miles west I observed no marked change but observed a limestone in bed of creek at thirty feet below the coal. On the bluffs of the Little Cheto- pah Creek, in Wilson County, four miles southwest of Thayer, we find the coal separated by aclay band. Above the coal there is twenty-five feet of sandstone —the upper in thick brown beds, the lower in thin blue lamine. The coal is here divided thus: 10 inches—Coal. 6 inches—Blue clay shale. 6 inches—Coal. The blue shale contains knife edges of coal. At Babcock’s, six miles west and one mile south of the Thayer road, the coal is still divided, thus: Thick bedded sandstone. 15 feet thin bedded sandstone. 5 inches coal. r inch laminated clay. 8 inches coal. 6 inches laminated clay. 6 inches coal. t inch black laminated coaly shale. 4 inches coal. Fire clay. OS MI DAARY NS o | 174 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. Further in the drift we observed : Coal, 6 inches. Clay, 1 foot. Coal, 10 inches. One and a half miles north the coal is separated by five inches of blue clay shales, and a thin limestone band is insinuated in the overlying clay shales. Sandstone crops out above. Twenty-five feet below the coal we here observed layers of ferruginous limestone conglomerated in three layers of 6 inches, 4 inches and 8 inches with 4 feet of clay shales beneath. One mile still further north the coal and its associated rocks appear thus: 1. Thin layers of deep blue limestone. 2. 2 inches roughly bedded limestone. 3. 1 foot of drab calcareous shales. 4. 20 inches of deep ash-blue pyritiferous limestone, containing re- mains of cvimozdee including fragments of Zeacrinus microspinus. 5. 2 to 6 inches brown calcareous shale. 6. 10 inches coal. 7. 4 inches blue laminated shales. 8. g inches coal. 9. 2 feet fire-clay. A quarter of a mile west observed as follows: 4 feet blue clay shales. 6 inches blue limestone. 6 inches brownish gray calcareous shales. 4 inches of limestone—No. 4 of last section. 5 inches brown shale. 9 inches coal with thin coal seams. 4 inches blue clay. 5 inches coal. COM DAU Pw NH A quarter of a mile northwest we still find some changes with the following section : 1. 2 feet brown and drab limestone. 2. 6 feet of dark shale, the lower 114 feet thinly laminated bitumin- ous shales. 3. 0 to 1 foot blue concretionary limestone. 4. 10 inches thinly laminated calcareous shales and concretionary limestone. 3 feet sandy and clay shales. 6 inches blue clay shales. ro inches coal. 4% inches clay. 6 inches coal. © OI AM THE CAUSES AND CONDITIONS OF KNOWLEDGE. 175 We thus find that in passing west, the coal is divided by clay bands, and that beds of limestone become insinuated in the superincumbent shale beds. But the total thickness of the coal does not diminish. The fossil flora formed in the shales near the coal is peculiarly interesting including, as it does Calamites—2 species. Lepidodendron brittsit. Lx. Sigillaria. Neuropteris 2 or 3 species, probably J. loschi, NV. hirsuta, NV. rarinerois, N. angustifolia, Sphenopteris, tridactyltes, alethopteris, serlu. Pecopteris squamosa. Annularia longifolia. Stigmaria, ete. In the sandstones above, good specimens can also sometimes be obtained of ferns, Lepidodendron, Calamites and Sigillaria. From the railroad we can see three noted mounds about seven miles northwest from Thayer. The highest is _ about 12s feet above the adjacent plain and ridge on which Thayer is situated, and is capped by broken layers of limestone. Other mounds can also be seen in the distance. PLEASANT HILL, Mo., May, 1882. IP BU LOSOIISING THE CAUSES AND CONDITIONS OF KNOWLEDGE. BY R. J. M’CARTY. There is a difference between the cause of a thing and the conditions which make it possible. Thus time and space are two of the conditions which make existence possible, yet they do not cause it. Therefore, when we have treated of a subject with reference to its causes, up to a point beyond which the human mind is incapable of proceeding, we may still inquire into its conditions. The object of this paper is to treat of knowledge in this manner, viz: To define the limits within which it may be treated as the effect of some cause. To treat of the conditions of its possibility—conditions without which there could be no such thing as knowledge and which obtaining make all knowledge possible—and to show that neither the causes so far as traceable nor the condi- tions as developed indicate that any of our knowledge is innate. Truth is possibility. Fact is possibility realized. Idea is a modification of mind produced in any manner whatever. Object is anything capable of produc- ing idea. The act of consciousness is the culmination of mental effort. Knowledge cannot be defined, for to do so would require a state of mind superior to that produced by its acquisition. The utmost effort to discover the causes of knowledge must conclude that it results from an inexplicable operation of the mind called the act of consciousness, 176 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. (inexplicable because it lies above knowledge), by which the object producing an idea is recognized in its ¢rve relation to the nature of things. Therefore the act of consciousness marks the limit beyond which we may not proceed in in- quiring after the causes of our knowledge The conditions necessary to the proper operation of this act of consciousness will therefore be the conditions necessary to the possibility of knowledge. Now it is evident that no knowledge would be possible without the condi_ tions of Fact or Truth, Mind, Idea and Consciousness: but these are not all the conditions necessary. There can be no knowledge without conviction, for no man can know a truth and not believe it, and if he fail to believe truth it is be- cause he does not know it. Still there may be conviction without knowledge—for instance, for a long time men believed that the earth stood still and that the stars revolved around it, and their conviction was as firmly established as if such had actually been the case. They certainly did not vow that the earth moved, nor did they know that it stood still, for it did not. Therefore they knew nothing whatever about it. They were mistaken. Hence, we may say that conviction, without knowledge is error. Again, the knowledge of no man is superior to his conviction nor is there any difference between the processes by which knowledge is gained and convic- tion established, because no man will investigate what seems to be a truth, fur- ther than to establish his conviction concerning it. If he stops short of convic- tion he will confess that he has gained no knowledge, but if he reaches it, it will be impossible to get him to proceed with his investigation until his conviction is shaken. And, furthermore, every man’s conviction, though wrong, is the same to him as knowledge until he has found his error. From which it must follow that conviction results from the same act of the mind as that producing knowl- edge, with the difference, however, that the object producing an idea is recog- nized in a particular relation to the nature of things, which relation may be true or false. It is evident then that knowledge is impossible without ¢vwe conviction. Again, should the contemplation of different objects produce the same idea, we should not be able to distinguish one object from another, and should an ob- ject at one time produce an idea different from that produced at another, we should not be able to recognize it. So that in order for knowledge to be possible it is necessary that each object should always produce in the mind a particular idea and no other, and that this idea should be different from that produced by any other object whatever. ‘This is the well known condition of Identity and Diversity of Idea, which involves both mind and object, and renders necessary an adaptation of the one to the other. | It will be seen that this condition does not require that the idea should rep- resent the object just as it is—that is, the condition of Identity and Diversity will be fulfilled if the idea be either a symbol, or an image of the object, and hence arise those numerous disputes about the doctrine uf perception into which philosophers enter by contradicting each other—seldom carry far without contra- THE CAUSES AND CONDITIONS OF KNOWLEDGE. 177 dicting themselves and which often end in useless wars over the meaning of words. But to proceed—knowledge in general may be divided under three heads, Knowledge of Fact; Knowledge of Law and Knowledge of Necessity. Knowl- edge of Fact arises from the consciousness of those ideas produced in the mind by perception. Such knowledge is possible with the conditions of Fact, Mind, Idea, Identity and Diversity of Idea, the act of consciousness, and true con- viction. Knowledge of Law arises from a consciousness of the relations between facts and involves an action of the mindabout its Knowledge of Fact which action, not being spontaneous, must be determined by something. Now everything of which we are sensible must, we are compelled to think, be the effect of some particular cause or causes. This is called the Notion of Causality and is what prompts the mind to seek for the Knowledge of Law. The process of reducing cause to effect must stop at a point immediately beyond which lies the absolute or unknowable, which has been demonstrated to be the one and indivisible cause of all that is. What the nature and attributes of the absolute may be is a theological question which does not concern this paper other than that it is the creator of law and the author of existence. Now, whether this first cause may or may not be capricious we have no means of knowing and thus it happens that Knowledge of Law having for its basis the arbitrary will of the Absolute is colored with a feeling of dependence upon that will for its persistence. The conviction accompanying such knowledge is based upon the known constancy of this will in the past, but can never be pure unless we could know that this constancy could extend to all future time. And thus it happens that we are able to conceive all Knowledge of Fact, and with it all Knowledge of Law to become void. Hence those sciences which have the Knowledge of Fact for their basis, and which are but the Knowledge of Law systematized, such as mechanics, natural philosophy, chemistry, etc., are all dependent upon the uniformity and persistence of natural law. We see therefore that in addition to those conditions necessary to a Knowledge of Fact, a Knowledge of Law could not be but for the Notion of Causality and would be impossible unless nature is uniform. We now come the Knowledge of Necessity. Necessity is that which must be and which being it is impossible should not be. It must, therefore, be inde- pendent of fact and (so far as we can know) independent of the will of the Abso- lute, and must persist if persistence is possible. Now propositions which are independent of phenomenal existence are true if they are possible. Their truth determined renders their falsity impossible, and we cannot conceive them to be dependent upon any contingency for their persistence. Take the proposition ‘‘ things which are an equal to the same thing, are equal to each other.” While the practical application of this truth depends upon existence, the truth itself does not, nor can we conceive it possible that the universe could be wiped out and rcreated without this proposition reasserting itself. 178 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. The case is different with natural law. For instance, the law of gravitation would vanish with matter but need not reappear with it. Propositions which are independent of existence, in the sense just illustrated, are therefore emblems of necessity, and our knowledge of necessity must result from the determination of the truth or falsity, or what is the same thing, the possi- bility or impossibility of them. Now these propositions are of two kinds: know- able and unknowable. It will, therefore. be necessary to distinguish them. No one can conceive of an impossible thing, and whosoever thinks he can will find by reflection that his conception is of something which is not, in his opinion, likely to happen. For instance we can conceive of the Gorgon’s head, the winged horse and the golden fleece and such things are possible, but by no means probable. Still, possibility is not limited by conception. Take the proposition ‘‘space is limited.” We cannot conceive of a limit to space without conceiving of space beyond that limit. We cannot conceive of space as boundless, for we cannot conceive of infinity. Yet we know that space is either limited or it is not. The proposition is unknowable, and so is amy propo- sition neither extreme of which is conceivable. Again, these propositions, being either true or false, there cannot be one of which both extremes are conceivable because one must be impossible. The only propositions, therefore, which are knowable are those of which one extreme is conceivable, the other not. (This is substantially the Principle of the Conditioned as enunciated by Sir William Hamilton. ) Knowable propositions are of two kinds, self-evident and demonstrable, or to be less general, axioms and theorems. Axioms are called self-evident be. cause the mind comes by the knowledge of them apparently without effort. Now since these propositions, as well as the human mind, may be regarded as independent of phenomenal existence, it was thought necessary by many phi- losophers to account for the knowledge of necessity as it obtains with us, just as they would, did there exist nothing but mind and truth. This view, of course, necessitated a relation between mind and truth which would be independent of fact, and as it was impossib!e to see how the mind could be affected by abstract truth except through the medium of fact, many philosophers got rid of the diffi- culty by assuming the ideas of axioms to be innate. But it would do just as well to assume that these propositions in some unknown way affected the mind and it would be more philosophical. Still, in either case, more would be assumed than could ever be proven. To deal with this question it must be treated just as it is presented to us, and in this aspect we will endeavor to find the conditions of the possibility of necessary knowl. edge. It cannot be denied that we could gain the knowledge of axioms just as we do the knowledge of law. Nor can it be denied that we get the knowledge theorems by reasoning from axioms in precisely the same manner that we get the knowledge of law by reasoning from fact. Moreover, the notion of causality is as necessary to the knowledge of theo. rems as it is to the knowledge of law. So that if we for convenience deprive THE CAUSES AND CONDITIONS OF KNOWLEDGE. 179 axioms of their attribute of necessity (which will in no way invalidate our reason- ing) and place them in the category of natural laws where, in fact, they would then belong, knowledge of law and knowledge of necessity would become identi- cal and the conditions of the one would become the conditions of the other. This shows that the knowledge of law and the knowledge of necessity may be obtained under the same conditions, and that since no one ever held the ideas. produced by facts to be innate, those produced by axioms should not be so con- sidered. | The only objection to this conclusion would be that in order to reach it it was necessary to reduce axioms to the category of natural laws, where they do not belong and that if we restore their attributes of necessity we would get a knowledge different from the knowledge of law. This is true, but by what is the difference determined? The answer is by a difference of conviction alone. Giving back to axioms their attributes of necessity and we find the only ef- fect is to strengthen our conviction of their truth so as not to be shaken by anything of which we can conceive. It only remains to account for the manner in which the mind becomes possessed of this distinctive conviction. We have shown that a proposition to be knowable must have one of its extremes conceiva. ble, the other not. Now the question ‘‘Is a proposition knowable?”’ is as important as the question ‘* Is it true?’ for our criterion of truth cannot be higher than our criterion of the limits within which truth may be investigated. Whence the following enunciation: When the mind can conceive of the possibility of a proposition which is independent of existence and cannot con- ceive of its impossibility, the proposition is knowable and possible and true. This then is the mind’s criterion of truth. But since we may imagine ourselves to con- ceive when we do not and fail to conceive when we can, the following is also true: When the mind has apparently conceived of the possibility of such a propo- sition and apparently cannot conceive of its impossibility, the proposition may be knowable or unknowable possible or impossible, true or false Knowable, possible and true if the conception is real, unknowable or irmpossible and false if the con- ception is imaginary. From which it wou!'d seem that the criterion enunciated is. of little value. But granting it to be fallible, it is still sufficient to establish in the mind that peculiar conviction which accompanies the knowledge of necessity and by which alone such knowledge is distinguished. Because necessary propositions are such that their possibility determines their truth. So that whosoever conceives the one must conceive the other, and no man can conceive such a proposition to be true and not believe it—and moreover he cannot then conceive the proposition to be false. It is thus therefore that the mind gets its distinctive conviction of necessary truth. It is by this conviction that knowledge of necessity is recog- nized as such, so that without it all our knowledge would be as of one kind. In support of what has been said can be cited the credulity of the untrained mind which often accepts as truth the uttermost absurdity. The caution of the: VI—12 180 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. trained intelligence which often runs to extreme skepticism, and the fact that none of the results of reasoning from either axioms or facts can ever be entirely eman- cipated from the probability of error. All of which while pointing to the fallibili- ty of the raind’s criterion of truth indicates its nature. It therefore seems reasonable to conclude that the mind gets its ideas of necessary truths through the medium of fact somewhat as it gets its idea of a true through the medium of light, and as the sense of touch would prove the true to exist in the absence of light, so the criterion laid down would prove truth to per- sist in the absence of fact; that the knowledge of necessity is known only as such by the peculiar conviction accompanying it; that this conviction is a condition of the knowledge of necessity being recognized as such but is not a condition of its possibility ; and that innate ideas are not to be found among the causes and con- ditions of knowledge, and, hence, do not exist. CORRESPONDENCE: SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. PARIS, | June 35) 0as2. M. Loyet has published a very remarkable work on the Health and Disease of the Peasantry, contrasting those of France with the rural populations of other countries. The author commences by studying the influence of soil and the na- ture of land. Marshy districts play the most important role in the question, and are of three classes: those connected with the seaside, the offspring of rivers, or inland lakes. On the shore of the Mediterranean, from Nigues-Mortes to Per- piguan, the death rate is very high; there are localities where the mean average of life hardly attains the two-thirds of the total rate for all France, namely :—24 instead of 36 years. There are also some agricultural industries which necessitate veritable marshes, such as the cultivation of rice, and the steeping of flax and hemp. These bring about an alteration of water and air. On the west coast of France, there are extensive salt marshes to the delete- rious influences of which the population has to submit. Then there are also ex- tensive bogs. In the country, the inhabitants are more affected by the influences of the soil than in the case of towns; in the latter, the state interferes to connect the insolubrity and encourages hygiene. The dwellings of the peasantry are a fruitful source of disease ; in the most smiling districts of France, where vegeta- tion is most vigorous, the peasants’ houses will ever be found to be next to buried in the soil, and deprived of almost openings. It is the same picture for all France ; the rooms serve for every usage, and between the accommodation for the inhabitants and the domestic animals, the separation is but slight. SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS.. 181 In the mountainous regions of the Alps and the Iura, the cottages are miser- able, they are constructed in wood, covered with green turf, with an aperture at the top for chimney and ventilator. The residents live in an atmosphere of smoke. At the sides of the hut are annexes filled with dry leaves or maize straw; these form the bed-rooms. On an opposite side, the domestic animals are housed, but only for the night. M. Loyet attributes the principal cause of the insolubrity of rural habitations to their defective walls, which permit humidity toenter. The thatched roof he admits may be thick and solid, but it rots quickly, and is the refuge for horrible worms. ‘The earthen floor is objectionable, and wherever one in wood, tiles, or flags can be laid down, it ought first to have a sub-stratum of broken stones and mortar, a concrete bed in fact. The dwellings are invariably overcrowded, and the rarity of windows is the natural consequence of the baneful tax on doors and windows. ‘The average “‘openings” per each house-occupant, is for fifty-three more than the one-half of the departments of France, a little above one, and, as this sad condition exists chiefly in the rural districts, disease follows regularly in the wake of habitations so constructed. Respecting manure heaps and fcecal drainage, it is the old story. As to the dietary of the peasants, it is very defective; the bread is too often mouldy; but then there are localities where it is baked for months in advance. Ordinarily the regimen is maize, oat meal, buckwheat and millet, and consumed in the form of porridge. When the grain is diseased, as in the case of ergot rye, the consequences can but be deplorable, but damaged maize produces the malady of pellagre, only second in point of disaster, as Lombardy and Venetia can testify. In reference to pel/agre, misery is not the cause of the scourge, but rather a favora- ble medium for its development. It is unknown among the poor of Ireland and Silesia, and is due, according to Professor Lombraso, to degeneracy of the grain, caused by parasitical mushrooms, and that induce the formation of a toxical alka- loid. Being rather accustomed of late to the visits of comets, may explain why no very marked interest is taken in the present visitor. It travels at the daily rate of three millions of miles, nearly double that of our earth’s diurnal rotation round the Sun. Its tail, always foremost, turned toward the Sun, like every comet’s, presents the form of a plume of feathers, and is estimated to be 600,000 miles in length. Other comets have had tails from 120,000 to 240,000 mileslong. However, the tails are only rays of light, transparentandimponderable. Spectral analysis has shown that carbon and hydrogen are the predominating elements of such luminous volumes; were they to affect the constitution of our atmosphere, the result would be grave ; a diminution in the proportion of oxygen, would plunge us into a state of heaviness and lethargy, while an augmentation would bring about a condi- tion of exhilaration and nervous excitement, caused by the rapid combustion of the blood in the lungs and arteries, not less fatal. No fear is to be apprehended under the head of a collision, the comet is not a ‘‘star of terror.” Sorne comets have attained one million and a half miles in diameter; that of 1811 had a tail 182 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. “ one hundred and thirty-two millions of miles. But density is wanting, and so they could not make an incursion into our atmosphere. However, they have been launched with such a formidable velocity, and their temperature is so ele- vated, since their elements are in a state of incandescence, that some of their noyaux, or kernels, have appeared composed of an aggregation of aérolites im- mersed in a burning gas. If a rencontre took place, though it would not be mortal, it would certainly not be inoffensive. The role of comets in the universe is still an enigma; they seem to be an ex- ception in the general harmony of the movements of the heavenly bodies. Do they voyage from one star to another, or do they circulate from systems to sys- tems? Some in traversing our planetary system have been attracted by the power of Jupiter. Saturn and Uranus remained captive, a permanent addition to our solar world. Ifa comet escapes the sphere of planetary influence, it will travel during eternity in the void of ether. It is presumed that comets are some nebu- losities abandoned at the commencement of the solar world, some external scraps of that primitive nebulosity of which the sun, the earth, and planets are the con- densations. The central-fire of our system attracts them, they flit round it as moths around a flame. Other comets may have originated from other systems, ruins, representatives of ‘‘ the wreck of matter and the crush of worlds.” Kepler believed, that comets were as numerous as the fish of the sea. Analysis of cometic light reveals it to. be analogous to that of the flame of alcohol, that is to say, con- tains the elements,carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the primordial constituents of organic life. If the comet has come from the nearest star, that represents a traveled distance of twenty-four thousand millions of miles. The angry discussion taking place respecting the addition of alcohol and sugar to wine, presents so many scientific features, as to merit examination. The wines produced in many regions of France, and notably the south, are liable on account of the large quantity of sugar they contain, to undergo after being placed in hogshead, to a new fermentation, which profoundly alters their character. The additionfoffalcohol stops this fermentation, and so enables the wine to be ex- ported to distantfcountries. In the preparation of artificial wines and liquors the fermentation’ of the must is stopped, in order to conserve the natural sugar of the grape; thenfalcohol is added to impart body. Nota few vineyard proprietors em- ploy sulphur for this process but it is less efficacious and unhealthy. The addition of sugars to the must, augments the alcoholic richness of the wine, since fermentation®of the sugar yields the spirit. Increasing the alcoholic strength of wine not alone imparts to it the qualities of generosity and conservation, the pro- cess diminishes;also the acidity of the wine. Tartaric is the dominant acid in wine, but it is combined with potash, under the form of bitartrate, and which is precipitated in the form of crystals on the sides of the hogsheads. Now the solu- bility of that acid in wine, diminishes in proportion with the quantity of alcohol present. Further,"as the coloring matters of wine are more soluble in alcohol than in water, the addition of alcohol develops the color of wines. KANSAS IN 1786. 183 But this important point must be kept in view; if it be intended to add sugar to a must poor in that substance, the sugar ought to be of the same nature as that peculiar to the grape. Now, crystallized beat-sugar supplies this want. In a year when the sun’s heat and light are defective, the grape is deficient in sugar but rich in acid; hence, the addition of beet or cane sugars supplements an ab- sent sun; that sugar ferments in the same conditions and produces the same alco- hol as the natural sugar of the fermenting fruit. Glucose, that is syrup prepared from maize or wheat, is wholly unsuitable. After a first fermentation, and a drawing off of the wine so resulting if more sugar be added to the contents of the vat, an excellent second, and even a third small wine can be prepared, called pzguetfe. Vineyard proprietors with good brands assert, the wine industry of France will lose its reputation, and will cease to be remunerative, if facilities are afforded to manufacture wines, by conceding latitude to add alcohol directly, or indirectly by the use of sugar to induce extra alcoholic fermentations. EWS TOuRIC Au, INOS; KANSAS IN 1786. BY J. R. MEAD. Any facts bearing upon the early exploration, or history of Kansas or the Missouri Valley, should be carefully collected and preserved in some form acces- sible to the future historian; I therefore give the REVIEW an item which possibly may be of interest. In the spring of 1860 I was in camp upon the north bank of the Smoky Hill — River, about two miles east of Cedar Bluff as then known in what is now the county of Ellsworth, and some forty miles west of Salina, Kansas. The south bank of the river was a steep bluff of sandstone from the summit of which the table land extended back to the divide. While hunting buffalo upon this table-land I noticed quite a deep ravine extending a mile or more back, with a number of lateral branches, and apparently emptying into the river nearly opposite my camp. Not having noticed any opening in the bluff I concluded to follow the ravine to its outlet, and, to my surprise found it ended in a cave about two hundred feet from the river which was as far back as the sandstoneextended. Onentering this cave I found it had been formed by a small stream of water running from the table- land over the bluff, and in time cutting a narrow, crooked channel from one to two feet in width down to the level of the river, and in course of ages it had wid- ened out at the bottom into considerable chambers, and the soil from the ravine had washed through it into the river. 184 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. As soon as my eyes became accustomed to the imperfect light of the cave I discovered its walls were covered with hieroglyphics and representations of all the animals common on the plains, and others to me unknown, also battle scenes and figures of men with an arrow across the body. The figures of men were made with a triangle for the head, and another for the body. These figures ap- pearec of great age, many of them overgrown with moss, and were ruder and ‘different from the representations of men and animals made by the wild tribes of the plains at that time. While studying these interesting characters, to my surprise I saw letters in a language I could understand, and on rubbing off the moss there stood re- vealed, carved by the hand evidently of an educated man, the name and date “TVREDO, 1786.” The letters and figures were about an inch in height, of beautiful proportions, and of uniform size and slope. I could discover no other evidence of civilized man having visited the spot. A careful examination of the cave at this spot satisfied me that the walls had remained in the form I then saw them unchanged, perhaps, for centuries. On going around to the river outlet of the cave, I found the walls covered with hieroglyphics, but not in so perfect a state of preservation. I intended to make a sketch of the representations on the walls and to explore further in the dark and crooked recesses of the cave, but on the second night we heard the distant sound of drums up the river, and on going to the top of Cedar Bluff saw the valley lighted by the camp-fires of the wild Indians. Hastily gathering up our effects we drove rapidly down the river, and I have not visited the place since. Will some tell us who Mr. ‘‘TV REDO” was and what he was doing in the heart of Kansas in the year 1786. TREATIES WITH INDIAN TRIBES FOR LAND IN MISSOURI. BY JOHN P. JONES, KEYTESVILLE, MO. Within a year after the treaty of peace with Great Britain in 1783, our Goy- ernment began a system of treaties with the various Indian tribes living in its ter- ritory with a view of definitely locating the districts in which they should be al. lowed to live and hunt unmolested, and rendering them a compensation for the territory which they relinquished to the whites. After the acquisition of the Louisiana purchase in 1803, a part of the area of which, is embraced in the State of Missouri, the Government continued its treaties with the Indian tribes claiming rights and privileges therein, realizing that it owed a duty to the hardy spirits who were pushing across the Mississippi, to bring to their firesides as much as possible, a seuse of security from Indian attacks, that they might be the better enabled to prosecute the development of the newly acquired country. Our State historians have universally omitted any reference to these treaties by the Government for the friendship of the Indians, and the extinguishment of TREATIES WITH INDIAN TRIBES FOR LAND IN MISSOURL 185 their claims on our lands, though they were of first importance to our pioneers, securing to them, as they did in a great measure, immunity from midnight as- saults and depredations, and the restoration of friends held as captives, and prop- erty previously stolen. Were it not for benefits of this nature there would be something ludicrous in our Government solemnly treating with the tribes that it did, for that portion of our State lying north of the Missouri River. They had driven the Missouris, lately scourged by an epidemic, from their homes, and were claiming the country from their ability to hunt over it and raid through it, owing to the near location of their villages to its borders. This claim, however, was prudently acknowledg- ed and treated for by the Government on three different occasions. The first treaty for any part of our State north of the Missouri River, was negotiated at St. Louis, Nov. 3, 1804, by Wm. H: Harrison, Governor of the Territory of Indiana and superintendent of the Indian affairs for that territory and the district of Louisiana, on the part of the United States and five chiefs of the Sac and Fox Indians for their tribes. The second article of this treaty stipulates that ‘‘ the general boundary line between the lands of the United States and of said Indian tribes shall be as follows, to-wit: beginning at a point on the Missouri River op- posite to the mouth of the Gasconade River, thence in a direct line so as to strike the river Jeffreon at a distance of thirty miles from its mouth and down the said Jeffreon to the Mississippi, thence up the Mississippi to the mouth of the Wiscon- sin River, and up the same to a point which shall be thirty-six miles in a direct line from the mouth of the said river, thence by a direct line to Fox River branch of the Illinois, thence down Fox River to the Illinois, and down the same to the Mississippi.” By this treaty the Government acquired the eastern portion of the State lying north of the Missouri River, the northwestern part of Illinois and the southwest- ern part of Wisconsin. The consideration paid was $2,234.50 in goods paid down, and the promise of $1,000 worth to be-delivered at St. Louis, yearly. Among the chiefs who signed this treaty were Jumping Fish, Sun Fish and Bear. This treaty was assented to or re-ratified at Portage des Sioux, St. Charles Co., Missouri, on the 13th day of September, 1815, William Clark, Ninian Edwards and Auguste Chouteau acting as commissioners for the Government and thirty-four Sac and Fox chiefs on the part of these tribes, among them Big Eagle, Sturgeon, The Devil, and He-that-Stands-by-the-Tree, of the Sacs, and Sur, Quick Riser, Scenting Fox, White Skin and others of the Foxes. The object of this ratification was to re-establish the peaceful relations existing between the parties thereto, prior to the war of 1812, which had been disturbed by emissaries of Great Britain. The Sacs and Foxes who had been parties to this treaty and to its subse- quent ratification were a division of these tribes that had removed from Wiscon- sin, across the Mississippi and hunted from that river to the Missouri. On the 13th day of May, 1816, the Sacs and Foxes of Rock River, Wisconsin, entered into a treaty of assent and ratification of the treaty of 1804 at St. Louis, Mo., confirming that and all other contracts and agreements heretofore made between 186 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. the tribes and the United States. Messrs. Clark, Edwards and Chouteau were the commissioners for the Government, and the Indians were represented by The-One-Who-Speaks, Jumping Sturgeon, Bad Axe, Bad Weather, Swan-Whose- Wings-Crack-When-He-Flies, and others. No consideration was expressed in the terms of this ratification and none paid except presents to the chiefs who were parties to it. The treaty of 1804 and its subsequent ratifications contributed with other causes, to bring on the Black Hawk War. That warrior contending that the chiefs who were parties to it in 1804 had separated from the nation and consequently were without authority to act, and that those who ratified it in 1816 received no compensation and their assent to it was obtained while they were under the influ- ence of liquor. Eight years after this last ratification a party of Sac and Fox chiefs and head men fully deputized to act for and in behalf of their said nations, visited Wash- ington, D. C., in company with deputations from other tribes and negotiated another treaty with the Government represented by William Clark, Superintend- ent of Indian Affairs. Article first stipulated that the Sac and Fox tribes cede, relinquish and forever quit claim unto the United States all right, title, interest and claim to the lands which the said Sac and Fox tribes have or claim without limits in the State of Missouri which are situated lying and being between the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, and a linerunning from the Missouri at the entrance of the Kansas River, north one hundred miles to the northwest corner of the State of Missouri, and from thence east to the Mississippi. This conveyance it will be seen includes all the territory of the present State of Missouri, north of the Missouri River, and the Government agreed to pay asa consideration fifteen hundred dollars in cash, and one thousand dollars for ten years. Among the chiefs who were parties to this treaty were All Fish, Crouch- ing Eagle, Wrathful Fox, Rising Cloud and White Nosed Fox. This treaty ended the dealings of the Government with the Sacs and Foxes for Missouri territory, and when we consider the slight claims they had to the country conveyed, we cannot help concluding that the consideration paid was more in the nature of a bribe to induce good behavior than for value received. These Indians were interlopers on any territory west of the Mississippi, they being of Algonquin stock and had made their home for centuries about the great lakes. When first known to the whites their home was near Lake Erie on the Canada side. About the year 1650 they moved west and located near Lake Michigan, finally settling on Fox River and its tributaries in Wisconsin, where they remained for a century and a half. Here they were found in 1670 by Father Allonez, the Jesuit missionary, who says in his relation of that year, ‘‘ The 16th day of April I embark- ed to go and commence the mission of the Outagamies (Foxes) a people well known in all these parts. The 17th we went up the river St. Francis, and after having advanced four leagues we found the village of the Indians named Saky (Sacs). The 2oth we arrived in a river that came from a lake of wild rice which TREATIES WITH INDIAN TRIBES FOR LAND IN MISSOURI. 187 we came into and at the head of whicli we found the river which leads to the Outagamies.”” Father Allonez found the Indians very much dejected on account of the loss of several of their families who had been captured near Lake Michigan by a party of Iroquois warriors. From this date these Indians are freqently mentioned by the early explorers of the lake country. In 1671 their chiefs were present at the congress of tribes at Mackinaw when St. Lusson took possession of the west in the name of the French king. In October, 1679, Hennipin and LaSalle met a party of them on the south shore of Lake Michigan, and two years later Hennnpin passed through their villages on Fox River, when returning from captivity among the Sioux. LaSalle visited their villages in 1681 in search of his men who had been driven from the Illinois country by the Iroquois, and heard from them of the safety of Tonty and the others. Father Charlevoix, the celebrated Jesuit who traveled through Louisiana in 1720-1, spent some time with the missionaries among these Indians in 1721, and urged the Sacs to greater respect for their Missionary if they hoped to retain the favor of the French King. Jona Carver the first promi- nent native American traveler in the west, was among these Indians in 1766 and mentions that one village of the Sacs could furnish three hundred warriors. There was nothing in the character of the Sacs and Foxes in any way differ- ing from the other Indians of the west and in an intercourse of one hundred and fifty years with the whites, Black Hawk is their only warrior that has won dis- tinction. But the Sacs and Foxes were not the only Indians who claimed an owner- ship in Missouri. The Ioways put forward a claim to the country and on the Ath day of August, 1824, the Government entered into a treaty with them at Washington, D. C., by which it was agreed that the Ioways cede forever quit claim and relinquish to the United States all the right, title, interest and claim to the lands which the said Ioway tribe have or claim within the State of Miss6uri and situated between the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers and a line, which has been run and marked by Colonel Sullivan, running from the Missouri, at the mouth or entrance of the Kansas River, north one hundred miles, to the north- west corner of the limits of the State of Missouri, and from thence, east to the Mississippi. The consideration paid the loways was five hundred dollars in cash and the promise of five hundred dollars to be paid annually for ten years. They were represented by Mah hos-kah, or White Cloud, and Mah-ne-hah-nah, or Great Walker, and this was the first treaty with the tribe in which they disposed of any land. This tribe had more right to treat for the disposal of Missouri territory than the Sacs and Foxes. ‘Their hunting-grounds were on the water-courses that flowed to the Missouri River and they frequently made incursions into the terri- tory when the Missouris held sway there, they were of the great Dacotah family whose natural home was west of the Mississippi, and they assisted in driving away the remnant of Missouris, hence their claims may be said to have had some foundation. 188 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. Of the many perversions and changes that have taken place in the names of our Indian tribes, that of Ioway, (or Iowa, as now spelled), is not more marked than that of many others but an explanation of this instance will serve as an index to the many errors with which our Indian nomenclature is crowded. The word Ioway has been made up from the Dacotah designation of the tribe, Ayuliapa, by taking the first two syllables Ayu, and adding to it one of the common French terminations to tribal names, either vozs, vats, or owez, as this was the manner in which the name first appears in early French annals. For instance in LaHarpe’s. narrative of LaSuer’s expedition to the Blue Earth region in 1700, they are men- tioned as Ayavois; in Penicant’s narrative of the same expedition they are called Aiavos. Charlevoix in his History of New France, 1722, speaks of them as Aiouez. On the map of De Lisle, published at Paris, 1703, in what is now the State of Iowa, on a small stream an Indian camp is represented with the follow- ing legend, ‘‘ Village des Aiaoues on Pantez.”” One hundred years later Lewis and Clark mention them as Ayauways. Lieut. Z. M. Pike who ascended the Mississippi in 1805, mentions that the Aiowais were called Nez Perce by the French, which means pierced noses, but why he does not state, nor is it true that this tribe were more in the habit of wearing ornaments in their nose than others. The name which the Ioways gave themselves is Pa-hutchae, which means. dusty heads. ‘The prefix ‘*‘ Pa” anciently signified head, and the origin of the name is accounted in the fact that they lived for many years on the Upper Mis-- souri and were accustomed to bathe in its yellow muddy water, and when they dried off after coming out, the sediment of the water remained on their heads. making them look dusty and gray. The first mention of the tribe is found on Marquette’s map drawn in 1673. where under the name Pahutet they are located as living on the Missouri above: the Omahas and Otoes, and which was their location until the establishment of French posts on the lakes and near the Mississippi drew them east for the pur- pose of trade. The friendly relations existing between the Sacs and Foxes and Iowas at the beginning of the present century did not date back to the time when the tribes. first became known to the French. Under date of July 10, 1700, Father Marest of the Jesuit Mission on the Illinois, wrote to Le Suer as follows: ‘‘I have the honor to write in order to inform you that the Sauks (Sacs) have been defeated. by the Sioux and Ayavois. These people have formed an alliance with the Kick- apoos, Mecoutins, Foxes and Metsegamies and have gone to revenge themselves, not on the Sioux for they are too powerful, but perhaps on the Ayavois, or more probably upon the Osages who suspect nothing. BOOK NOTICES. 189 DOODIENOMIC Hs: APPLETON’s ANNUAL CycLope#p1A. Vol. XXI, 1881. Octavo, pp. 905; cloth, $s. For sale by L. B. Bailey, General Agent, Kansas City, Mo. This is the sixth volume of the new series, and the twenty-first of the whole series. The publishers truthfully and aptly say, ‘‘It has grown in size to meet the increased activity in human affairs and to present the interesting public ques- tions and scientific developments which have arisen and the discussion of their principles.” . Among the historical subjects presented, none is more interesting at the pre- sent time than the summary of the Garfield assassination ; the trial of Guiteau; the discussion of the insanity question; the history of the treatment of the Presi- dent’s case, etc. All of the stirring events in South America, Russia, Germany, France, Italy and Spain, are carefully summarized under proper heads by the most competent writers. The progress of science is given with unusual minuteness and accuracy, whether in chemistry, philosophy, engineering, electricity, physics or zoology. The results of the 10th Census are given a large space and illustrated with reduced copies of the maps showing density of population, native, colored and foreign. Four fine steel portraits, as usual, embellish the volume, viz: Longfellow, Blaine, President Arthur and Gambetta, in addition to which are numerous maps and other illustrations. No book or publication of any house in the United States equals this in value or importance to the reading public. Each volume brings the world’s. history forward in a convenient, comprehensive and strictly reliable form and at a price within the reach of all classes. GATEWAYS To THE Poe. By Silas Bent. 8vo. pp. 40; R. P. Studley & Co., St. Louis. This address was delivered before the St. Louis Mercantile Library Associa- tion upon the thermal paths to the pole, or the currents of the ocean, and shows the influence of the latter upon the climates of the world. The author speaks of the currents of the ocean with all the naturalness and vividness of a voyager, and the reader can almost see them pouring their mighty floods toward the Pole. The address gives a valuable sketch of the explorations and discoveries made in the Arctic Seas since 1868. The main object of the lecture is to show that the ocean currents open the natural highways to the Poles, and should be followed by the Arctic explorers if they would attain any substantial results. The theory is well 190 _ KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. expressed in the closing paragraph as follows, where the author says: ‘That the Gulf Stream and Kur-Siwo are the prime and only cause of the open sea about the Pole, with its temperature so much above that due to the latitude; that the only practical avenues by which ships can reach that sea, and thence to the Pole, is by following the warm waters of these streams into that sea; that to find and follow these streams, the water thermometer is the only guide, and that for this reason they may be justly termed the ‘‘ Thermometric Gateways to the Pole.” Worms anp CrusracEa. By Alpheus Hyatt; pp. 68. Ginn, Heath & Co., Boston, Mass, 1882. This is one of the publications of the Boston Society of Natural History de- signed to supplement lectures given to teachers of the public schools of Boston. This is the eighth number of a series of ten publications or pamphlets on scientific studies designed for teachers. Besides simple illustrations and instruc- tions as to the modes of presentation and study, there are, in each pamphlet, hints which will be found useful in preserving, preparing, collecting and purchas- ing specimens. These publications ought to be in the hands of every teacher who loves nature, and if one does not love and study nature, is he fit to teach? WaANDERINGS IN SoUTH AMERICA. By Charles Waterton, 8vo. pp. 64. Mac- Millan & Co., London, 1882. In this publication we have the wanderings of a naturalist in South America, the northwest of the United States and the Antilles, in the years 1812, 1816, 1820 and 1824 with original instructions for the preservation of birds, etc , for cabinets of natural history. There is a biography of the author by the Rev. J. G. Wood, and an explana- tory index by the same. This publication is chiefly valuable as a work of history. - In the last fifty years there has been much progress in natural science. The narrative is quite interesting to the reader. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. Part I, January to April, 1882. 8vo. pp. 104. This publication contains fifty-six papers, illustrated by several charts. The papers are thoroughly scientific in character and very valuable. Horses’ TEETH. By William H. Clarke. 12mo. pp. 262; New York, 1880. $r. This is a treatise upon the teeth of horses, their mode of development, phy- siological relations, anatomy, microscopical character and pathology, made up from the works of Profs. Owen, Huxley, John Hunter, Dunglison, Youatt, Chau- BOOK NOTICES. 191 - yeau, Percivall, Tomes, Gamgee, Leidy and others, and will be found a very useful and readable compilation of authorities upon all the topics above named. It is also valuable for its practical suggestions concerning various diseases of horses’ mouths and teeth, and especially for a vocabulary of thirty pages defining all the technical terms ordinarily used in scientific works upon the subjects treated. The student of comparative anatomy, as well as the veterinary surgeon, will find much of interest to him in this work and will be put upon the track of much more by the copious quotations from notes and references to the noted authors named above and many more of equal standing. OTHER PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. The Reduction of Air-Pressure to Sea Level, at Elevated Stations West of the Mississippi River, by Henry A. Hazen, from Signal Bureau; Publication No. 5. by Samuel Gaty, Missouri Historical Society ; Chemical Review and Journal, Chicago; Zhe Peorta Medical Monthly; Catalogue of Missouri University for and 1881-2; Annual Report and statistics of the Meteorology of the City of Oak- land, Cal., for 1881, by J. B. Trembly ; Notes on the Mineralogy of Missouri, by Alexander V. Leonhard; Wovthern Jndiansz School Journal for June, 1882, Valpa- raiso, Ind., $1.25 per annum; Hints for Painters Decorators and Paper-Hangers, New York Inaustrial Publication Co.; Publication No. VI, Archzoloogy of Mis- souri, by F. F. Hilder, Missouri Historical Society; Hereditary Traits and other Essays, by R. A. Proctor, Humboldt Library, New York; Vignettes from Nature, by Grant Allen, New York; The Kansas Kikkabe, 1882, Lawrence, Kansas; The Kansas Review, June, 1882, Lawrence, Kansas; A New Method of Bright- Wire Illumination for Position Micrometers, by S. W. Burnham, Esq.; Catalogue of the Univerisity of New Mexico, 1881, Santa Fe, N. M.; Catalogue ot the Book- walter Engine, New York. Prof. Morangoni shows by a conclusive set of experiments that moist air is not a conductor of electricity. He proves that the loss of current in telegraph wires and the want of action in electrical machines during misty or wet weather is due to the condensation of moisture, carbonaceous deposits, adherent dust, spiders’ webs or the contact of branches of trees. The silk industry is reviving in Louisiana, the news of this spring’s hatching being very encouraging. Interest in the culture is growing, and inducements are offered to silk workers to come from France and engage in the business. The first exports of silk from Louisiana were made as far back as 1718. The culture of silk is also being revived in South Carolina and Georgia. 192 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. SOUMAIN IVGC WI SCISIL LAIN VW, THE THUNDER-BIRD. AN INDIAN LEGEND, BY WM. H. R. LYKINS. It is believed by some of the Indian tribes that thunder is caused by a great bird, which has its home in the skies. The sound, they say, is caused by the flapping of its wings as it revels in the storm cloud sweeping over the earth. In connection with this bird they tell the following story: An Indian hunter was one day returning from a visit to his traps. On his back he carried two beavers which he had taken, tied together with strings of bark. In his hand he carried a long hunting spear. As he was walking quietly along something like a dark cloud suddenly over-shadowed him, and looking up he saw an enormous bird swooping down upon him. Before he could place him- self in an attitude of defense, he was grasped in its talons and borne rapidly up- ward. Soon the tall trees dwindled into shrubs, next the high hills faded away, and finally the whole earth disappeared. Upward and onward through space the bird carried him until there appeared far in the west a long range of lofty and precipitous cliffs. Toward these cliffs the bird directed its flight, and having reached them, sailed slow and heavily along their sides. At times she would dash the hunter violently against the rocks, but with his spear which he still re- tained, he warded off the blows and escaped unharmed. At last they arrived at the mouth of a great cavern into which the bird threw the hunter and disappeared. He lay stunned by the fall until aroused by an unearthly shriek, and lifting his head he saw in one corner of cavern a young thunder-bird which was now clamoring for itsnoonday meal. Hastily untying the beavers from his back he threw them to the bird which swallowed each one of them at a gulp, then quietly settled back in its nest. The hunter now took a view of his situation. .The floor was strewn with the bones of deer, wolves and great ser- pents, with here and there a grinning human skull which seemed to mock his helplessness and remind him of the terrible death which awaited him. He ap- proached the mouth of the cavern and looked out. Far away on either hand stretched that wall of rock, lonely and desolate. Not even a blade of grass could find a resting-place on its steep and sterile sides; not even the hum of an insect or the chirp or a desert cricket broke the oppressive silence. Above and below were the awful depths of blue. There seemed to be but little chance for an escape from such a place but the hunter was one of the bravest of his tribe; tried in many times of danger and not one to despair while life remained. Approaching the young bird which was now CHARLES DARWIN. 193 quietly sleeping after its lunch of beaver, he plunged his keen hunting-knife into its throat, killing it instantly. Then making an incison in its breast he carefully drew through it the body and thighs, leaving the skin intact. Next he stretched the wings out to their full length and in this position bound them firmly to the shaft of his spear with the strings which had held his beavers. His arrangements were now complete, and dragging the skin to the mouth of the cave he crawled into it leaving his head protruding from the hole in its breast and boldly leaped off into space. His project was a complete success, and to his great delight he found himself slowly descending in graceful circles toward the earth. He alight- ed in safety and taking two of the feathers of the bird—as much as he could carry —he started homeward, and on the evening of the third day after his capture he was seated before his lodge relating to his friends his wonderful adventure. Often as the traveler journeys over the western plains he will see a tall col- umn of dust suddenly rise and after whirling along a short distance as suddenly disappear. ‘This the Indians say is caused by the ‘‘ Thunder-Bird,” who, when she descends to snatch a serpent for her young thus conceals herself from mortal sight. And sometimes when the air is pure and the skies are clear the Indian thinks that far away in the western sky he can see that place to which the hunter was borne and from which he so miraculously escaped—perhaps some summer cloud which lies weltering upon the horizon which his ‘‘untutored mind” im- agines is the rocky home of the ‘‘ Thunder-Bird.” CHARLES DARWIN. BY JOHN FISKE. It is fitting that in the great Abbey, where rests the ashes of England’s noblest heroes, the place of the discoverer of natural selection should be near that of Sir Isaac Newton. Since the publication of the immortal Principia, no scientific book has so widened the mental horizon of mankind as the Origin of Species. Mr. Darwin, like Newton, was a very young man when his great dis- covery suggested itself to him. Like Newton, he waited many years before publishing it to the world. Like Newton, he lived to see it become part and parcel of the mental equipment of all men of science. The theological objection urged against the Newtonian theory by Leibnitz, that it substituted the action ot natural causes for the immediate action of the Deity, was also urged against the Darwinian theory by Agassiz; and the same objection will doubtless continue to be urged against scientific explanations of natural phenomena so long as there are men who fail to comprehend the profoundly theistic and religious truth that the action of natural causes js in itself the immediate action of the Deity. It is interesting, however, to see that, as theologians are no longer frightened by the doctrine of gravitation, so they are already outgrowing their dread of the doctrine of natural selection. On the Sunday following Mr. Darwin’s death, Canon 194 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, Liddon, at St. Paul’s Cathedral, and Canons Barry and Prothero, at Westminster Abbey, agreed in referring to the Darwinian theory as ‘‘ not necessarily hostile to the fundamental truths of religion.” The effect of Mr. Darwin’s work has been, however, to remodel the theological conceptions of the origin and destiny of man which were current in former times. In this respect it has wrought a revolution as great as that which Copernicus inaugurated and Newton completed, | and of very much the same kind. Again has man been rudely unseated from his imaginary throne in the center of the universe, but only that he may learn to see in the universe and in human life a richer and deeper meaning than he had before suspected. Truly, he who unfolds to us the way in which God works through the world of phenomena may well be called the best of religious teach- ers. In the study of the organic world, no less than in the study of the starry heavens, is it true that ‘‘day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowledge.” —/une Atlantic. A CHEMICAL STOVE. An alleged improvement by a Dresden chemist, Herr Nieski, in the new method of heating with acetate of soda, consists in mixing hyposulphate of soda with the acetate. The former melts more quickly than the latter, and retards crystallization in cooling. Herr Nieski uses one volume of acetate with ten of hyposulphate. The cases are filled to the extent of three-fourths, hermetically closed, and kept in hot water till one no longer hears a sound from crystals with- in on shaking. The cases will then give an equable heat from ten to fifteen hours according to size. A room-stove acting on this principle is described by Herr Nieski in the Deutsche Ind, Zeitung. It consists of an inner and outer cylinder, the latter having numerous small holes. In the space between the two stand three of the heating cases. These can beeasily lifted out by the handles and put into water in the central cylinder, which can be heated in position by means of a burner below (or removed to be heated elsewhere). This done, the cases are lifted into their places in the circular space. The stove runs on castors and has a cover. ‘The water in the inner cylinder furnishes, by evaporation, a wholesome degree of moisture. —Boston Journal of Cummerce. DEADENING SOUNDS. A new plan to deaden floors has been patented, and is being tested in a new building at Philadelphia. A 6x3 plank is inserted between each joist two inches from the bottom of the joists, and projecting four inches beneath. Underneath the intervening planks the ceiling boards are nailed and the space filled with saw- dust to within one inch of the joists. By this method the waves of sound are carried off, and it is claimed that the most vigorous hammering cannot be heard in the story beneath. EDITORIAL MOTES. PDIMORDAL NOTES: WE have given considerable space in this number of the REVIEW to the article on “Tornadoes,” by Sergeant John P. Finley, of the U. S. Signal Service, for two reasons: The paper is extremely opportune in view of the great number and violence of the torna- does this year, nine tornadoes having already occurred. It is also a valuable contribution to science, and probably contains more scien- tific and practical information on this subject than can be found in any other similar pub- lication. Under the direction of the Signal Service Bureau, Sergt. Finley has devoted five years to the special study of tornadoes. He has carefully gathered on the field the data of between six and seven hundred tor- nadoes, using pen and pencil in making up his note-books. Sometimes he has followed in the path of the tornado five and six hun- dred miles carefully placing on record the reports of all ocular observers, and has put himself in correspondence with thousands of observers of tornadoes in various portions of the country. This immense mass of material has been digested, and the substance has been compacted in this valuable paper. In the death of Henry W. Longfellow, America has lost a poet who takes very high rank in the republic of letters. His death marks the close of the first important epoch in American literature. The life of literature, like all other kinds of life, is one of pulsa- tion; it has its ebbs and flows, its seasons of activity and inactivity. Chaucer and Gower were identified with the first forceful throb in English literature, after which came a barren epoch which was completely extin- guished by the glory of the Elizabethan Age. Seldom does a nation experience more than one grand era in its history of literature. Such an epoch results from the crystallization of a nation’s thought, and when the material is exhausted there must be time for the nation to gather new material, and receive new in- spiration. When Bacon, Shakespeare and their contemporaries had passed from the scene the harvest had been gathered, and the nation’s intellectual life was marked by feeble pulsations. Before the time of Bryant, Holmes, Whittier, Motley, Bancroft, Prescott and Irving, American literature can hardly be said to have demonstrated its own existence, or to have any real character. Of all writers of his age, and ot all ages, Longfellow is dis- tinguished for his purity of thought and beauty of diction. If poetry is the apprehen- sion and expression of the esthetical, Long- fellow ranks among the best poets of this or of any past age. Longfellow was a man of the greatest personal worth, he was fairly womanly in the refinement of his sensibilities, his whole nature was as bright and joyous as a morning in May, and his inner being re- sponded with youthful enthusiasm to every- thing beautiful or true in Art or Nature, His life was rounded out to the full period al- lotted to man on the earth, and the celebra- tion all through New England and elsewhere of his seventieth birth-day was a golden frui- tion seldom accorded to the most favored ones ofearth. Weare painfully reminded that the golden era in American letters has closed, and we do not know how long it may be be- fore the Nation may come to another fruit- age. By the death of Charles Darwin natural science has lost its best observer. No work in science has been written about so much, or called forth so much criticism as the *¢ Origin of Species.”” That work was writ- ten twenty-three years ago, and the effect of the new theory of evolution was prodigious, Many editions of the work in England and America have been published, and transla- tions into all the chief foreign languages A catalogue was published have been made. 196 in Germany a few years ago giving the ‘* Lit- erature of Darwinism,” which covered thirty- six pages, with the names of several hun- dred authors who have written on evolution. Charles Darwin was born in 1800, and was educated at Christ College, Cambridge. Soon after taking his degree he set out ona tour of the world in the ship ‘‘ Beagle.”” The trip lasted five years during which he made vast collections in natural science, a part of which was published in 1839 in a three-vol- ume narrative of the expedition. In the course of twenty years half a dozen other volumes were published whose foundations were laid during the voyage of the ‘‘ Beagle.” The result of these works has produced a marked modification of scientific belief, many of the best Christian scientists now believing in a species of theoristic evolution. It wasa fitting token of honor that the great scientist should be buried in Westminister Abbey, by the side of royalty. Perhaps Mr. Darwin has given the best definition ever written of the theory of evolution in the following sen- tence: ‘Those who hold the theory of evo- lution conceive that there are grounds for believing that the present conformation and composition of the earth’s crust, the distri- bution of land and water, and the infinitely diversified forms of animals and plants which constitute its present population, are merely the final terms in an immense series of changes which have been brought about, in the course of immeasurable time, by the operation of causes more or less similar to those which are at work at the present day.” WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, at St. Louis, closed in June of this year one of its most successful years of work. In all departments of the University were enrolled about 1,400 students. This includes the Law School, the Undergraduate Department, the Manual Training School, the Smith Academy and Mary Institute for Girls and the Art School. At the annual meeting of the Board of Di- rectors reports were received from the differ- ent departments. The Art School shows a large attendance and presents an urgent re- quest for greatermeans. The Manual Train- KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. ing School is filled to its utmost capacity and during the present summer a large addition is being built. From the Director of the Ob- servatory a report of the Extension Time Ser- vice of the Observatory was made and an urgent request for a few thousand dollars to to be spent in the way of fitting up the Ob- servatory was presented. It was determined to raise three thousand dollars for this pur- pose. In view of the rapid growth of the various departments of the University, a res- olution was passed that one million dollars additional endowment shall be raised within the next five years to place the University in proper shape for its work, It is confidently expected that this sum shall be raised within five years. On Friday evening, June oth, oc- curred the exhibition of the Art School. The commencement of the Manual Training School and the Mary Institute occurred on Wednesday morning, June 14th, and the commencement of the Undergraduate De- partment and Law School was held in Me- morial Hall on Thursday evening, June 15th. Besides a large law class three received the degree of B. A., three the degree of Engineer of Mines and one that of Civil Engineer. Upon Judge John R. Shipley was conferred the degree of LL. D., and upon Prof. C. M. Woodward, of Washington University, the degree of Ph. D., these being respectively the second arid third honorary degrees ever conferred by the University. THE Kansas Editorial Convention met in Lawrence, June 5th, and was largely attend- ed, The sessions were held in Liberty Hall. Mayor J. D. Bowersock and Judge S. O. Thacher gave welcoming addresses to which Capt. Henry King returned the thanks of the Convention in his usually felicitous man- ner, The address of O. H. Rothacker, of Denver, (in his absence) was read by W. H. Rossington, of Topeka. After the meeting at Lawrence adjourned, the members visited the State Institutions. The convention was very enjoyable, the programme being carried out for the excursion under the excellent management of Col. S. S. Prouty, to the complete satisfaction of the whole party. EDITORIAL NOTES. PRoF. WILLIAM B. RoGeErs, of the Insti- tute of Technology, at Boston, died very suddenly, May 30th, while delivering a lec- ture at the Institute. His funeral drew a large number of scientists and scholars, and was largely attended by citizens. Professor Rogers was President of the National Acade- my of Science which is an office for life, the previous occupants having been Profs. Bache and Henry. In the death of Professor Rog- ers science has suffered a great loss. WASHBURN COLLEGE, at Topeka, held its annual commencement beginning with the Baccalaureate Sermon, delivered by Presi- dent McVicar, Sunday evening, June 1Ith. The Annual Address was delivered by James G. Dougherty, Monday evening, June 12th, the subject being ‘‘ Orthodoxy.” On Wed- nesday the commencement exercises proper, were held in the Congregational Church with a large audience. The college year has been one of unusual prosperity, and the . College is growing and doing a good work. THE Western Academy of Homeopathy held a convention in Kansas City, beginning June 2oth, and lasting twodays. There was a good attendance of members, and much interest manifested. A number of valuable papers were read and the subjects discuss- ed. The next meeting will be held in St. Louis, THE National Academy of Sciences was an outgrowth of the American Association for Advancement of Science. It is composed of the magnates of science in this country, and takes rank with the leading scientific asso- ciations in Europe. The Presidency is a life office and has had but three occupants, Profs. Bache, Henry and Rogers, The Academy consists of ninety-five members and four hon- orary members—ninety-nine in all. Thirty- four live in New England, seventeen in Mas- sachusetts alone, and nine in the west—one 197 in Ohio, one in Kentucky, one in Illinois, two in Missouriand four in California. For- ty-three represent the mathematical sciences, as pure mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, en- gineering, physics, etc. Twelve represent chemistry ; sixteen represent the geological sciences ; twenty-four represent biological sci- ences and four are unclassified. Prof. James C. Watson, the astronomer, left about $50,- ooo, the bulk of his property, to this Acade- my. THE Kansas University held its commence- ment exercises June 6th. The attendance was unusually large, many being present from various portions of the State as well as a delegation of Kansas editors who were at- tending the Editorial Convention. Nothing transpired to mar the exercises which passed off pleasantly, the graduates doing them- The University is receiving a vigorous and substantial growth. selves credit. WE have received a hatchet from Mr. Teub- ner which has been forwarded to Prof. Put. nam, of Salem, Mass. We shall be glad to hear from Prof. Putnam in regard to it, in due time. THE storm of June 16th was remarkable for its violence, its brevity and the wide area over which it extended. Its intensity was greatest at certain points in eastern Kansas and western Missouri. At Kansas City one man lost his life by the falling of a building, and property was destroyed estimated at over $150,000, At Leavenworth four girls were killed at St. Mary’s Academy, and the city received considerable damage. The storm occurred between twelve and one o’clock at night. It was not a tornado, but a hurricane. The wind at Kansas City was estimated at between sixty and seventy miles an hour, at Leavenworth it reached at its maximum over seventy miles an hour. Washinoton University, St. Lowis, Mo., ——4 COMPRISES THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENTS: }—— I. SMITH ACADEMY: DernHam ARNOLD, Principal. A Preparatory — School, for Coilege, Polytechnic School and Business. Enrollment, 374 pupils. II. MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL: C. M. Woopwarp, Director. This is a School for Boys not less than Fourteen Years Old. The Course of In- struction runs through Three Years. Branches Taught are Mathematics, History, Physics, English Language and Literature, Drawing and the Use of Tools; the last named includes Carpentry, Pattern-Making, Blacksmithing, Machine Work, and the management of the Engine. Enrollment, 102 pupils. III. MARY INSTITUTE: C. S. PENNELL, Principal. A Completely Equipped School for Girls and Young Ladies. Enrollment, 420 pupils. IV. THE COLLEGE: M. S. Snow, Dean. DrGREEsS—1. Bachelor of Arts. 2. Bachelorof Philosophy. 3. Master of Arts. 4. Doctor of Philosophy. V. POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL: C. M. Woopwarp, Dean. DEGREEs. —1. Civil Engineer. 2. Mechanical Engineer. 3. Chemist. 4. Engineer of Mines. 5. Architect. 6. Master of Science. 7. Doctor of Philosophy. VI. ST. LOUIS SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS: Hatsey C. Ives, Director. VII. ST. LOUIS LAW SCHOOL: W. G. Hammonp, LL. D., Dean. Standards of attainment are high in all departments, and promotions are made only on merit. Every department is in a high state of efficiency, and the best of discipline is maintained. In the Undergraduate Departments, comprising the College and Polytechnic School, all facilities for the best education, Library, Apparatus, Laboratories, Assay Rooms, Gymnasium, Etc., are adequately supplied. All undergradutes have free admission to work-shop instruction in the Manual Training School. In all the Secondary Schools the classes are generally full and applications should be made early. Good board, with lodging, including fire and light, can be obtained at con- venient places in the neighborhood for $20 per month and upward. A dining-room or private restaurant has been opened near by where full board can be obtained at $3 per week, and single meals at proportionate rates. For conditions of admission, or further information, apply to the Officers named above. W. G. ELIOT, Chancellor. FOAIN SAS Clay REVIEW OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY, A MONTHLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN SCIENCE, MECHANIC ARTS AND LITERATURE. VO VI. AUGUST, 1882. NO. 4. CHORE NORTH PARK, COLORADO. G. C. BROADHEAD. On the 15th day of June, 1881, we passed west from Omaha, gradually as- cending the mountain slopes. Approaching Sherman we observed the geological features to be very similar to those observed the year previous near Las Vegas, New Mexico, evidence of the extension of the same geological uplift. The red beds are seen and the ‘‘ Hog-back” also seen at Las Vegas; and at Sherman the red granite is boldly prominent. — Between Sherman and Laramie City, in the distance, are seen remarkable weathering of columns of red beds capped with harder projecting strata, and away up the Laramie plains, twenty-five miles south of Laramie City, are seen the bold’ escarpments of red strata with the snow-capped Medicine Bow range beyond. Laramie City, Wyoming Territory, a town of 3,000 inhabitants, is pleasantly situated on Laramie plains,near Laramie River,at an elevation of 7,126 feet above the sea. The Laramie plains are for about sixty by thirty miles nearly level and only interrupted by occasional dry valleys, and covered with sand having a scant growth of grass and some other plants. From Laramie City to North Park our road will take us southwest, up Lara- mie valley and around the base of Jelm Mountain to Cummins City, or else our VI—13 198 y KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, route would cross the Laramie River three miles further up stream. By the former route we would pass through fifteen to eighteen miles of good pineries, (the Pinus Contoria) across the Medicine Bow Mountains and six miles further to Berry’s at the entrance to North Park. Following the road by the Upper Ford we pass over a well-worn road through more open woods. On this route the stratified rocks present a fine section as we leave the plains, of which the follow- ing is an approximation : 200 feet of white beds crowning the hill-top. 1000 feet of red beds. 36 feet of white gypsum with occasional crystallized laminee. too feet of yellow beds. too feet of red and grayish beds. Mm fb WN 4 The gypsum beds above named would be exceedingly valuable if nearer market. Our route across the Medicine Bow Mountains is at an elevation of probably 8000 to gooo feet above the sea, and of easy grade. ‘The prevailing rock is a red granite, sometimes schistose and sometimes graphic, but on a part of the route is very much decomposed and at one place there is apparently a broad vein of white quartz. The approach to North Park is by a long sloping valley, along which flows a clear stream. At the entrance to the North Park is a gray banded gneiss traversed by occasional quartz veins. ‘These rocks are seen for three miles along the valley from the granite of the mountains to North Park. North Park is about fifty miles north and south, by thirty miles wide, east and west, and entirely surrounded by mountains. Southwardly over the Park we ‘cross several good-sized clear streams of water, including the Canadian, Michigan and Jack’s Creeks. Illinois Creek lies just west of the last and they all are con- fluents of the North Platte, which stream they join in the northern portion of the Park near Independence Mountain. The exposed rocks in North Park are chiefly stratified sandstone and shales of recent age, probably none are older than the cretaceous. Owl Mountain isa high ridge of chiefly such rocks, projecting northwestwardly into the Park from the east and resting against the igneous rocks in the rear. The Medicine Bow Mountains extend from about 100 miles north, passing southwest for one-half their extent, then trending nearly south to a point east of Teller City (the chief mining town located at the southeast corner of North Park) where they connect with the ‘‘ Continental Divide” which trends off west to- ward Muddy Pass, forming the southern rim of the Park. ‘They then pass off northwardly forming its western rim. Spurs of these Mountains approach the North Fork of Platte River, north of the Park, and the Medicine Bow range approaches it on the east. The Park is about fifty miles long thirty wide, and, according to Clarence King, has an average elevation of 8,500 feet above the sea. Itis nearly surrounds NORTH PARK, COLORADO. : 199 ed by lofty mountains, reaching up 3,000 feet above the inclosed valley. It is covered chiefly with a dense growth of wild sage (Artemisia). On our route from any point we can see snow-clad mountains on nearly every side. ‘These snowy peaks impart a pleasant coolness to the various waters flowing through the valley. The water power of the streams flowing out from the mountains is sometimes great, that of Jack’s Creek especially so. Its width fifteen to twenty-five and thirty feet, flowing very rapidly, falling in many places five to ten feet per 100 feet or 200 to 300 feet per mile on its mountain course. Strange as it may appear these streams contain but few fish, but just across the ‘‘ Conti- nental Divide” fish are abundant. GENERAL GEOLOGY. The Colorado Range and the Black Hills are archean. The Medicine Bow Mountains and the main Continental Divide are also archean. ‘Through these archean rocks, igneous rocks of volcanic origin have pushed themselves up. Clarence King informs us (in Geol. Survey of 4oth Parallel) that those on the south rim of the Park are trachytic, those flanking the western slope of the arch- ean on the heads of Michigan River and Jack’s Creek, he terms ‘‘ Rhyolite,” and further says: ‘‘ From the meridian of 114 W. to California the Rhyolitic rocks ‘cover a greater area than any other of the volcanic family, and in age are Post- ‘“miocene, and were characteristic of the opening of the Pliocene.” Mr. King defines Rhyolite as ‘‘a ground mass of fine-grained mingling of fragmentary crys- ‘tals of Sanidin (glassy feldspar) and crystalline grains of dark quartz, the color ‘generally dark. At the head of the Illinois Creek the ground mass is lighter, ‘and includes larger crystals of feldspar and fragments of quartz. Hornblende ‘also occurs in small crystals. The middle of the ridge south of North Park is ‘of Trachyte, which Zirkel calls a granite-pbhorphyry. ‘The east wall of the Park ‘is lined with Rhyolite. Basalts occur west of the Trachyte. Rabbit’s Ear Moun- ‘tain and Buffalo Peak are of Basalt.”—King, goth Parallel Survey. King refers the chief formations of the North Park basin to the Tertiary, leaving exposed at several places near the outer rim the underlying cretaceous. The above, from King’s Report, includes about all that has been written con- cerning the geology of this interesting region. Other surveys seem to have pass- ed it by, but we infer that there were great disturbances and eruptions during the development of these trachytes. — Mt. Richthofen (probably the same as Lead Mt.) stands at the point of meeting of two distinct trends of the Rocky Mountain archean rocks. Within this angle occurs an extensive outpouring of rhyolite rocks; they flank the base of the archean for twenty-five miles, rising highest against Mt. Richthofen, when the volume of eruption was the greatest. In this vicinity the granitoid rocks are deluged by dark colored rhyolites. Virginia City, Nevada, and the adjacent mines are on or near the extreme western extension of the great Rhyolite overflow; the southern and southeast 200 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. portions of the North Park lie along its eastern limit and just here there have been many mines opened within the past two years. The line of junction of the Archean (granite, gneiss and mica schist) rocks with the volcanic (rhyolites and trachytic porphyries) rocks is about north and south, and near this junction are occasionally seen dolerytic dykes, whose strike is also north and south. ‘The principal veins also extend in a north and south line parallel with the strike of these rocks, and they are nearly everywhere ore- bearing, and in some places rich in silver ore. The minerals in these veins as found may include: Sulphuret of silver; Ruby silver and other silver ores ;: Copper and iron pyrites; Oxide of copper and of iron. Complete analysis may result in the discovery of other interesting ores and minerals. Calcite, Dolomite, Fluorite and Quartz are found at most of the mines. The veins vary from one foot to twenty feet in width, but those worked on are generally from two to five feet wide. Passing up Jack’s Creek from Teller, we find at Teller a dark trachytic por- phyry traversed by doleryte dykes, having a north and south strike, but dipping to the west at an angle of 60 degrees. Similar rocks are found as we pass up the creek for three miles generally presenting the general appearance of metamorphic porphyries, but some have a decided schistose character. Beautifully banded and contorted gray gneiss is found a little way up from Teller. At the ‘‘ Gaslight’ mine work was done on a coarse, gray porphyry twenty- five feet wide. Porphyry walls appear on the west with dolerite on the east. The gangue rock shows quartz in drusy cavities, with sulphuret of iron dissemin- ated in the veinstone of quartzose rock. Both calcite and dolomite occur here in crystals. The adjacent porphyry here is a gray with rather large light gray crystals. This mine was discovered in June, 1879, by Jno. and A. Lefevre, formerly from Missouri. It was the first mine struck on Jack’s Creek and when sixteen feet down was sold for $20,000. In 1882 it was again sold when sixty-five feet down at quite an advance. Above the ‘‘ Gaslight” dolerite extends for a mile or more to the ,Pennsyl- vania mine, and the New El Dorado. At the ‘‘Yellow Jacket” mine the work was prosecuted on dolerite with poor success. White and green fluor and pyrites occur on the wall rock. At the ‘‘ Pennsylvania” mine at forks of Jack’s Creek, the walls are still dolerytic, with streaks of pyrites, carbonate and fluorate of lime and quartz and some silver. The next mine, just above the last, is the ‘‘ New El Dorado.” It lies directly on line of contact of the volcanic rhyolites and dolerites with the gneissoid ‘and schistose rocks. ‘The vein, four and one-half feet wide, bears north and south, dipping a very little to the east and with ore well disseminated in quartz. {| Its east wall is dolerite, the west is quartz. Some galena has been obtained®here. The ‘‘ Constellation ” due north of the last and across Jack’s Creek, high up the mountain, is supposed to be a continuation of the New El Dorado. , The rocks NORTH PARK, COLORADO, ; 20 are similar. Ores from this mine are a dark gray with sulphurets evidently rich in silver. From the New El Dorado to the Josephine the gneissic rocks show numer- ous beautiful foldings with bands of light and dark laminz, and between these two lobes these rocks can be continuously seen. These gneisses were also found to abound in red garnets. The ‘‘ Josephine” is probably a continuation of the ‘‘ Endomile,” but they are 1,000 feet apart and the former several hundred feet higher on. the mountain. The ‘‘ Endomile”’ appeared to be the richest vein and information since re- ceived confirms the opinion then advanced. The course of the vein is north and south, depth worked June, 1881, was thirty-five feet, and width at that depth four and one-half feet dipping slightly to the east. [Recent letters give a width of forty-five feet to the lode at 300 feet depth with distinct walls and rich ore]. At the centre of the vein asoft opening appeared, six inches to one foot wide, and carrying ore. A soft ore yielded by assay $217.80 per ton. West of the centre the ore-mass does not appear rich, but contains a good deal of pyrites. East of the centre the gangue is rich in sulphurets for two and one-half feet, the richer portion carrying ruby silver. Fluor spar, both of violet and green tint, is abundant in the vein, occurring in vertical vein masses. Where the fluor chiefly abounds the ore is not so rich. A mass of ore thirteen inches wide shows fifty per cent. of ore thickly disseminat- ed, yielding probably ten per cent. of ore which would assay over $400 per ton. A banded schist appears on the eastern wall, the western wall including much pyrites. Assays from this vein range all the way from $80 to $800 per ton. {The assays were made by Devlin and Shelton]. A number of other less important mines were visited, but the work was yet in its infancy. No smelting or machinery then. The deeper the rock has ex- tended on the Endomile, the richer the ore has appeared. The geological rela- tion of the rocks seems favorable, the strike and course of veins about the same, nearly north and south. The Endomile, the Constellation and Gaslight and some others show evidence of being true fissure veins. We need look here for no car- bonates. Most of the mines are owned by the North Park and Vandalia Mining Company, Dr. G. W. Bassett, of Vandalia, Illinois, being President, and D. C. ‘Holcombe, of Peoria, Illinois, Secretary. About the year 1870 some mining was done on Independence Mountain by Jno. Lefevre and others, probably forty to fifty men in all. The Utes notified them to leave and not to remain over two sleeps; Lefevre and one other left, the others remaining were all killed. The Indians resided in the Park until 1878. In 1879 Antelope and his band were in the Park, remaining but a short time, but did not come up into the mountains where the miners were. They burnt the woods, doing great damage. | The first ranch started in North Park was Pinkham’s in 1876, Walden’s next, on Michigan River, in 1879, and Mendenhall’s on the Canadian in 1880. In 1881 there were fifty or sixty ranches in the Park. 202 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, The first mines in the Teller District were discovered in 1879, and for a while there was a rush of miners, but most of them soon left and in part of 1879 and 1880 there were only five miners on Jack’s Creek. These were Lefevre, Pay- son, Halstead, Latham and Fuller. The first house was built at the mines in 1879 and first house in Teller City in May, 1880. In June, 1881, Teller City had a population of about six hundred and one newspaper. Charles Smith was the discoverer of the ‘‘Endomile.’’ Discoveries have been made all the way from Rabbit’s Ear Mountain to Illinois Creek, but no real mining except on the east side of the Park. Mining has been done all the way from 9,000 feet eleva- tion near Teller, up to the snow line, chiefly under the shadow of the thickly timbered mountain sides. The wild game is fast leaving. In 1880 elk, antelope and black-tailed deer were continually seen. In 1881 the antelope could be commonly seen in the Park but were getting shy. The others had retreated to the mountains. The Medicine Bow Mountains and those east and south of the Park are gen- erally clothed with a dense pine growth (/inus contorta). In many places the ground is covered with masses of fallen dead timber, sometimes even equaling one-fourth as many trees as those remaining erect, and making the way entirely impassable. Fires are sometimes very destructive. ‘Three years ago the Utes set fire to the woods and thousands of acres of good timber were destroyed. Sev- eral times I saw as much as a thousand acres of dead standing trees, which gave a very desolate appearance to the landscape. At one place I observed the pathway of a former snowslide. The avalanche had swept every tree even from its roots in its pathway from mountain top to valley, and was apparently not less than a quarter of a mile wide. The pineries atford the material of which the houses are built, the shafts cribbed and long straight poles are hauled out fifteen to twenty-five miles into the park and used for fencing the ranches. In Wet Mountain valley the aspen (opulus tremuloides) abounds and_ affords excellent fuel. Ascending the mountains over 9,009 feet elevation, the pine gives place to the spruce and fir, the Picea engelmanus being abundant. These grow to a large size and stand thick on the mountain sides. With these, and reaching high up the mountains, we find a dwarf huckleberry (Vaccinnum myrtillus). Around Teller we observed the strawberry, raspberry and currant. The wild sage (Artemisia frigida) and greasewood stand thickly over the North Park and abound ‘on the Laramie plains. Several species of native grass, some very much resem- bling our blue grass, are abundant in the Park and on Laramie plains. Of plants common to either Missouri or Kansas, I observed not over a dozen, including a Delphinum, the strawberry, Cleome integrifolia, Malvastum coccinneum, Oxytropus lambertit, Dodecatheon meadea, Sysirhynchium bermudiana, Allium juncus, and Triticum repens. There may be a few more. Fremont in his second Report Across the Plains and Mountains in 1843 speaks glowingly of the flora in crossing the Laramie Plains and Medicine Bow Moun- tains. And he spoke the entire truth, for it is of remarkable beauty. The Del- NORTH PARK, COLORADO. 203: phinum, Dodecatheon and Oxytropus on the Laramie Plains and in the Park, the beautiful blushing Zez7sta and the Ocerothera Marginata with its large white petals, the Gla aggregata and others of the Medicine Bow range are very beau- tiful. Several species of Psoralea, the Oxytropus and others were very prominent in the North Park, and the plants in the caves and on the mountain sides are very interesting. Among the latter the Agudlegia Cerulea is most prominent, tall and very showy, and of the purest white and azure blue. The Berberis repens, with its holly-like leaf and red berry is abundant in pine woods, and is said to afford the berry of which the ‘‘ Vinegar Bitters” is made. The TZhlaspi alpestris and Trollius laxus were found blooming beside the snow banks. The Cleome integrifolia very abundant in Kansas and Nebraska, also found on the Laramie plains but not in North Park. The Primula parryi, a very handsome plant, was found at the edge of a stream at 9,000 feet elevation. The following is a partial list of plants observed and collected hurriedly. Many of them were collected at a moment’s stop on a trip of fifty miles per day. [For their determination I am under many obligations to Dr. George Engelman of St. Louis. | LIST OF PLANTS. of ui va : 4 By Sela en eet tras 2 & qo o= C2) 3 A re oO om PY a) i= a4 Su. NAME. 2 FA g ere ir 5 3 e REMARKS, iS) - & : 3 = 3 5 = | 62 S 2 = | ao Ranuculus Cymbalaria. * Trollius laxus. ? r To snow line. Aquilegia cerulea. Delphinum. % * * te Several sp. Berberis repens. = Corydalis Montana. Arabis retrofracta, te = High up. Vesicaria ludoviciana. * Vesicaria Montana. Cardannia cordifolia, Erycimum asperum. Thlaspe alpestre. ? i s High altitude. Cleome integrifolia. ? * In Kan. to E. line. Viola : 3 Arenaria fendleri. i ? Calandrina pygmea. Malvastrum coccinneum. a In Kan. & N. Mex. Linum perenne, Geranium fremonti. Geranium richardsoni, Thermopsis Montana. Trifolium longipes, Trifolium parryi. # High altitude, Oxytropus lamberti. * % Rubus : * Geum triflorum, & % Fragaria Virginiana, Rs Common in Mo. Potentilla fruticosa. Potentilla anserina. 204 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. NAME. Rosa avicularis. Saxifraga bronchialis, Sedum rhadiola. S. stenopetalum. Lewisia rediviva. Epilobium angustifolium. Oenothera marginata. Mammillaria vivipara. Lonicera involucrata. Sambucus pubens. Erigeron trifidum. Helianthus. Chenactis douglasii. Artemisia frigida. Pencedamum. Vaccinnum myrtillus. Arctostaphilos uva-ursi. Primula parryi. Androsace septentrionalis. Dodecatheon meadea. Pentstemon humilis. P. glaucus. Castilleea pallida. . Mertensia lanceolata. Eritrichium glomeratum. Phacelia sericea. Phlox coespitosa. Gillia aggregata. Eriogonum umbellatum. Rumex venosus. Polygonum bistortum. Alnus viridis var. alpinum. Pinus contorta. Picea engelmanni. Abies c Juniperis communis var, alp- ina, Sysyrhynchium bermudiana. Veratrum album. Streptopus amplexifolius, Allium, Allium. Juncus baticus, Elymus sitarion. Triticum repens, Stipa spartea. Cheyenne to Sherman. GY) * * * “a = ae = a a bol fas] 4 x CS * i * un _— ne 1 So -_ aA S * * te * od MM a Au e iol a Oo = = ° ar) vA aa * * * * % * * * % * * * * * * % 4% * 5 we a bal ns aeied 4 Sie of = REMAKKS, Hills of N. Park. High up. Found in Mo. & Ill, Common in Mo. Common in Kan. as PLEASANT Hitt, Mo., June, 1882. THE LOUP FORK GROUP OF RANSAS. 1) S Ct THE LOUP FORK GROUP OF KANSAS: CHAS. H. STERNBERG. This formation received its name from the Loup Fork of the Platte River, Nebraska, where it was first studied by Dr. Hayden, the eminent United States geologist. ‘The rocks in Kansas consist chiefly of hard gray sandstone, or pud- ding-stone conglomerate, with beds between of loose, yellowish sand, or soft gray marl, the lime of which appears to be a sulphate, and was doubtless derived from the chalk of the Niobrara Cretaceous, that lies beneath. The experiment has often been made of burning this marl for building purposes, resulting invariably in various colored slags. There are also found beds of red clay and silica. Near Fort Wallace the hills are topped with thick masses of dendrite, the upper surface consisting often of chalcedony or ‘‘ moss-agate.” Near Colyer, on the U. P. R’y (K. D.) on the high divide between the smoky Hill and Saline Rivers, Mr. Joseph Savage, of Lawrence, has discovered quarries of red, yellow and ribboned jasper belonging to this formation. At South Benner, in Rawlins County, are beds several feet thick, of fine silica, hav- ing a satin-like lustre. I had supposed from the exceeding fineness of the dust, and from the fact that it polishes the metals, that it was diatomaceous earth, but the microscope fails to show anything organic in it, only angular scales of trans- parent quartz. My party left Buffalo Park, Gove Co., on the 2oth day of July, 1881, and reached the fossil beds of Decatur Co. on the 23rd inst. Our first camp was on South Sapper Creek, ten miles southwest of Oberlin. Here we were very fortu- nate, obtaining a great many specimens of mammalian vertebrates in the soft beds of marl, sand and gravel. They occupied the spaces between the compact strata of sandstone and conglomerate. From two localities half a mile apart, we procured a number of bones and teeth of rhinoceroses, horses, mastodons, etc. One perfect skull of a rhinoceros was found with under-jaw and atlas vertebra in position. The rest of the skeleton had been dug out, evidently by other ex- plorers, judging by the number of broken ribs that lay on and through a great pile of debris, near the bank in which we found our specimen. I suppose, as is common with explorers, that they took the long bones, vertebrae and arches. This skull was preserved in grayish sand, that could be easily removed with a knife. When it was a quicksand bog along the borders of the great Loup Fork Lake, the huge animals, with many others, became entangled, and dying left their skeletons which have been preserved so many ages, hidden from the sight of the denizens of that country who never supposed that they had repeatedly walked over the remains of these tropical beasts. We found in the same locality in a space six feet wide, and about fifty feet long, a number of other specimens, including jaws with teeth, and bones of two species of rhinoceros, bones and teeth of horse and mastodon. 206 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, Four species of the rhinoceros have been described by Prof. E. D. Cope from the Loup Fork Group of Colorado and Kansas under the genetic name of Aphelops. 1 quote from the Bulletin of U. S. Survey: ‘‘ The dental formula is, Incisors 24, Canines +, Premolars #33, Molars 3, Digits 3-3. Nasal bones with persistent suture, weak—not supporting horn. This genus occupies a position intermediate between Aceratherium, Kauf., and Rhinoceros, Linn. It agrees with the former in the presence of incisor and canine teeth, and in the absence of in- dication of nasal horn, but differs from it in lacking the fifth digit of the anterior foot. In the last respect it is identical with AAznoceros, differing from it in char- acters already mentioned.” We procured specimens of the Polydactyle horse in this locality, as well as part of the lower jaw of a Mastodon. It resembles Prof. Cope’s M. Productus, described in Lt. Wheeler’s reporc as from the Loup Fork Group of New Mexico. ‘‘In this species the underjaws are prolonged into a beak, which bears two powerful tusks.” I imagine that they might have been used by the animal for digging up succulent roots, in the vast swamps through which he wandered. Although mastodons have been described in Europe with inferior tusks they are certainly unique. In the vicinity of our first camp, we worked several days and procured about two hundred teeth, a number of perfect bones from various species and individ- uals. In one place the bones and teeth were scattered and evidently worked in by a stream, as they were packed in between pebbles in a kind of mortar, the bed resembling the so called ‘‘concrete’’ of the west. Many of the bones were water-worn, and they lay through the matrix without any system. A rhinoceros tooth often close to that of a horse, or of some other species and bones of different species, are indiscriminately mixed. These animals had doubtless died on the shore and high water had rolled the bones along with pebbles; the water holding in solution chalk and sand that had cemented them together, when they found a resting place in the deep waters of the lake. The specimens were often so closely wedged in between the pebbles that it was hard work to get them out without breaking them. Another camp was made on Beaver Creek near Cedar Bluffs, north of Ober- lin, where some beautiful collections were made of bones and teeth of the horse, camel (?), rhinoceros anda carnivore. One set of underjaws of a horse had most of the teeth in position. The canines were about the size of a small goose-quill. We got also three perfect toes, z. ¢., the metatarsals, of one limb. The central one was twice as large as the lateral ones. A number of small bones, and teeth of various species were washed out of a denuded knoll, the material of which seemed to be composed largely of chalk. The bones were white, and the teeth showed the plications of the colored enamel. Near this camp we found the un- der-jaws of a young mastodon, showing the milk dentition. It was in loose soil, grass-roots penetrated the specimen in various directions, consequently it was im- possible to save them in perfect shape. On South Beaver, Rawlins County, we found.a locality (through the kind- ness of the surveyor of the county) rich in fossil land turtles. We collected about THE LOUP FORK GROUP OF KANSAS, ° 207 twenty specimens representing different stages of growth; some quite small, show- ing the elegant markings of the shells, ridges and grooves following the outlines of the plastron plates. Some specimens were nearly perfect, lacking, however, the skull, A number of nearly perfect limbs and arches were obtained. They were found in a narrow gulch where the water had cut through twelve or fifteen feet of white sandy marl. The specimens were sticking out on either side of the perpendicular banks. During October, at the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, I was able to get some of the specimens into very respectable shape, though the specimens have still fragments with them, and it requires time and patience to fully restore them. I believe they have been described by Prof. Cope under the name of Xerobates cyclopogius. ‘They are but little petrified, which is the case with all the Loup Fork fossils. I have always found that fos- sils partake largely of the characters of the rocks in which they are preserved. If it is hard and dry the specimens are well preserved and the breaks are usually angular and rarely mended. Specimens are generally well preserved in loose, dry sand, in chalk, and in hard clay concretions. ‘The older the formation the more perfect is the petrifaction. In some cases the bone is entirely replaced by silica. Where the matrix is largely composed of clay it cracks and crumbles on exposure to the atmosphere and it is very difficult to save the specimens unless they are preserved in concretions impregnated with iron. In recent formations, unless the bones are perfectly dry, they usually crumble easily, and it is hard to mend the fragments, the cement used is apt to tear loose and take part of the bone (especially spongy bone) with it. Further, if any fragments have been left in the field the difficulties of restoring the specimen are greatly augmented. One trouble the explorer meets with in northwestern Kansas is from the fact that so few fossil beds are exposed, the slopes of the hills are so gradual that the greater part of the country is covered with grass and soil. The south sides of streams are the ones usually denuded. I suppose this is because the streams, flowing as they do in a northeasterly direction, cut the southern sides, and in ad- dition the higher bluffs protect that side from the south wind and the sun so that snow and moisture remain there longer, giving Jack Frost a chance to break off great masses of rock which, rolling down the bluffs, cover their sides and prevent the growth of grass to some extent. On the southern sides of the Sappa and Beaver Creek are often seen bluffs a hundred feet or more*in’-height with: bold escarpments rising one above the other, while between them are beds slanting backward of the soft fossiliferous marls. Where the marls are perpendicular caves are often cut in them by rain finding a crevice in the hard cap above, to Se through and wash away the softer rock. In one of these caves Mr. Wright of my party found where an Indian had been buried and took away a few glass beads. He found it rather dangerous work getting down from the over-hanging rocks into the mouth of the cave and still harder to get back again. I believe I may take to myself the credit of being the first to explore these beds in northwest Kansas. For, though collections of mammalian bones had been found by Profs. Marsh, Mudge and others in the con- 208 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. glomerate beds lying above the chalk along the Saline and Smoky Hill, thus in- dicating what would likely be the result of an exploration in these beds, those gentlemen were too much interested in the Niobrara reptiles and birds to spare the time for extended explorations in a formation where at best it was uncertain whether any very valuable or new material would be found. While exploring the Niobrara of the Smoky Hill in 1877 an old-time hunter named Abernathy (who was kiJled by the Indians on the Sappa in 1878) told me of a large masto- don skull that he had seen projecting from a ledge of rocks on Sappa Creek. I had little faith at first in what he told me, but at last becoming more convinced by his oft repeated assertions I followed his lead, and after traveling seventy-five miles I found by his directions the mastodon skull, which proved to be a large land turtle shell. I remained sometime and collected eighty land and fresh water turtles, besides some valuable bones of mammals, which are in the hands of Prof. E. D. Cope, of Philadelphia. JIC Ia Ad OIL OIG. INDIAN PICTOGRAPHS IN MISSOURI. CHAS. TEUBNER, JEFFERSON CITY, MO. During a visit to Columbia, Boone Co., Mo., last fall, I learned that the bluffs on the Missouri River below Rocheport, which is situated in the extreme southwest corner of the same county, contained a number of pictures painted in red on the face of the cliffs, the supposed work of Indians. Trustworthy inform- ants assured me that these figures were known to the oldest inhabitants, and I found several who saw them thirty five or forty years ago. Lately, in passing through Rocheport, I concluded to take a look at them, and therefore made my way to the farm of Mr. L. Torbett, about four miles east of Rocheport, where, as I was informed, they were located. Mr. Torbett’s farm also contains eight or nine mounds, some of large size. His house is built on one of them, the smokehouse. on another, and there are two more in the rear and to the right of the house. The site of the house is a commanding one, and affords a fine view of the sur- rounding country, while at the same time the neat cottage, with its sloping lawn dotted over with stately forest trees and the green mounds in close proximity to the house, present a pleasing appearance from tne road. Receiving a hearty welcome from Mr. Torbett and his excellent wife, and after refreshing the inner man with a substantial dinner, I was supplied with a guide in the person of L. Torbett, Jr., a bright little lad, and together we wended our way eastward from the house, hundred yards or more, and then turned south through a small corn field, at the edge of which a short path led down a steep 209 INDIAN PICTOGRAPHS IN MISSOURI. | On GHnoé¢D [1 Ofy Gnosg, 210 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. ravine, densely overgrown with trees and vines, from which we soon emerged to _find ourselves on the banks of the great turbid river. Following the banks a distance of one hundred yards down stream we came upon a spring, which made its appearance some thirty feet above the surface of the river, at the head of the alluvial and cliff deposit, lying in a steep slant against the cliffs. Coming out of a cave-like opening, it rushes in a series of zigzag leaps over moss-covered rocks into the river. The volume of water is large enough to drive a good sized flour- ing mill. The face of the cliff from the outlet of this spring extends upward near- ly one hundred feet, the top overhanging six or eight feet, giving the whole a concave appearance, which accounts for the preservation of the pictographs. At the height of forty-five feet, immediately over the spring, is the largest group of pictographs (No. I). About five feet beneath the figures a narrow ledge extends along the cliff which served as a foothold for the artists. The ledge is accessible from points east and west of the pictographs, but it requires a person of no ordi- nary nerve to climb up to it. The relative position of the figures in group 1 corresponds with those on the cliff. This group seems to indicate the record of some important event, as the hu- man figures express wonder, though the other figures are such as to leave one in doubt as to their significance. Commencing at the west end of group 1 we come to Fig. 1, of oval shape, 8x1o inches in diameter, surrounded by Fig. 2, a semi- circle, which measures 14 inches across the ends, and is 2 inches wide. Fig. 3 somewhat resembling an Australian boomerang, measures 15 inches across the end and is one and one-half inches wide near the angle; the dot above it meas- ures a little more than an inch; Fig. 4, length 13 inches; Fig. 5, length 25 inches; Fig. 6, diam. 4 inches; Fig. 7, length 6 inches; Fig. 8, diam. of circles 4 inches, distance apart 8 inches; Figs. 9 and 10, diameter 2% inches, 6 inches apart. There are several more figures to the right of and belonging to this group, but they were grown over with American ivy (Ampelopsis Quinquefolia) to such an extent that I found it useless to try to sketch them. A few rods west we find group No. II at about the same altitude containing two very striking figures. Fig. 11 is very distinct, about 7 feet above a ledge easy of access, and measures 13 inches each way. Fig. 12 represents a man, with an ornamental head dress and frog-like extremities, also expressing surprise. Some 300 yards up the river group No. III is located, with three more figures, one being nearly obliterated ; of the remaining two, Fig. 13 is a good representa- tion of a turkey almost life size. The other, Fig. 14, is a circle of 16 inches in diameter. These last figures are fifteen to twenty feet above any foot-hold, and could not have been reached without the aid of a ladder. The paint used was the so-called ‘‘keel,’’ which had been ground up and mixed with water or fat, and applied with the fingers, or a rude brush. ANCIENT REMAINS 1N MARION COUNTY, KANSAS. 211 ANCIENT REMAINS IN MARION COUNTY, KANSAS. MELVIN O. BILLINGS. Marion, Kansas, is situated on the northwest quarter of Section five, Town- ship twenty, Range four, east of the sixth principal meridian, near the confluence of the Cottonwood River and Muddy Creek, a portion being in the valley be- tween the streams and a portion on the hill east of the Muddy. That this was at some time a far more densely populated city, is evidenced by the fact that in excavating almost every well, cellar or cistern, relics of an ancient inhabitancy are found and we are honoring this ‘‘ Buried Race” by building our prominent buildings, churches, schoolhouses and best residences, near and over their principal monuments, their mounds. The relics of aboriginal inhabitancy may be divided into three classes, Mound-Builders, Crematers and Modern Indians. Of the first class only it is our intention now to write. The mounds from which we denominate this class ‘‘ Mound-Builders” are situated on high ground around the junctions of streams adjacent, in irregular groups averaging eight mounds to the group. Inside of three miles each way from Marion there are five of these groups. These mounds measure from ten to sixty feet in diameter and from one to three and one-half feet in height. In none so far examined have been found human remains. ‘The larger ones consist of earth, stones, pebbles, broken implements and utensils of all kinds, shells and scraps of bone, all of which seem to indicate that they are only heaps of kitchen scraps and camp debris. The smaller mounds seem to be the remains of adobe huts or wigwams, mostly of clay which bear the appearance of having been partly burned; in these are found ashes, charcoal, broken pottery and a few broken bones, but they do not contain the profusion of articles which the large ones do. Some of these small mounds, after being subject to the plow and weather, are covered with flint chippings and and broken flint implements, showing that they were the workshops of arrow makers or the place where the refuse of this charac- ter alone was deposited. All mounds contain more or less shells, quartz, pebbles, concretions and peculiar little stones that to-day would interest a boy as being ‘‘funny.”? ‘The small mounds are circular while the large ones have on the south- east side a spur about one-fifth the size of the mound. This is not the exception but the rule. As to the use of these large mounds with their spurs we have no theory. We are simply stating the facts as they are. The fire beds, so named for want of evidence of their being graves, are relics of the same people, which is clearly proven by their contents being identical. One of these beds is described by Judge West in this Review, No. 2, Vol. IV. Another found three-quarters of a mile above the junction of the Cottonwood and Muddy Creeks, on the creek bank exposed by gullying, is of the same shape as the one described by the Judge, z. ¢., conical, and measured in depth six 212 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SC/ENCE. feet— width, where clay and soil meet, three feet nine inches: from bottom to where clay and soil meet, three feet—width, at bottom, five feet one inch; con- tents: flint chips, broken pottery, worked bone, shells, pebbles, ashes, charcoal and a fine arrow point, the only whole instrument found. Other remains of these people are found in cellars, wells and cisterns as be- for stated. These are not graves, as no human bones are found therein. They are small masses of debris from camp, apparently, with occasionally broken im- plements and rarely whole ones. In excavating a cellar in Marion east of Muddy, at a depth of two and one-half feet one of these ‘‘places” was found. About thirty five feet west in digging a kitchen foundation, at a depth of ten inches another was found; both containing broken pottery, flints, etc., and the first charred corn. In digging a cistern between the kitchen foundation trenches and at a depth of eleven inches red clay was struck, which had no appearance of having been disturbed. ‘Twenty-six inches of this undisturbed clay was gone through when a darker clay of the same quality was found, also undisturbed to a depth of twenty-eight inches, when a few bits of charcoal and a small amount of ashes were found. This was followed twelve inches, where upon a bed of ashes were found a rub-stone, a fine flint knife, some fragments of pottery, a beaver’s tooth and a peculiar stone tablet. Taking these and the ashes away they were found to have been in a bowl * artificially hollowed from the natural limestone formation. Depth of bowl, bed of ashes and relics, nine inches; making a total distance from surface to bottom of bowl, seven feet two inches. THE TABLET OF THE CROSS. F. F. HILDER. In the July number of the REviEw which I have just received there is an article by Mr, Warren Watson on ‘‘ The Tablet of the Cross,” which contains some errors that 1 am tempted to reply to. ‘The purpose of the article appears to be a criticism on the value of Prof. E. S. Holden’s researches in the extremely interesting field of ‘‘ The Hieroglyphics of Central America,’’ which that gentle- man has been pursuing with commendable earnestness and with promising results. The critic refers to an article on the subject written by Prof. Holden which ap- peared in the Century Magazine for December, 1881. He says: ‘‘In the article referred to Mr. Edward S. Holden gives the result of his researches in this field, with so much ec/a¢ that the reader is almost ready to admit his claim as discover- er of a clue to the difficult problem. This clue is the result of the study of a segment of hieroglyphs from the celebrated ‘‘ Tablet of the Cross” at Palenque, and this being the fact a grave doubt arises as to the value of his discovery.” Mr. Watson then refers to Stephens’ well known work and quotes from it, that the right or east slab of the three which formed the tablet ‘‘is broken, and. unfortunately altogether destroyed.”’ HIB, UBUSLIGH: OUR WiEls, (GIROSS, 213 He also states that Prof. Holden gives a cut of the entire tablet, the east portion bearing the signature of C. F. Trill, calls the cut a piece of patchwork and says it forces him to seek the source of Mr. Trill’s drawings in the works of earlier explorers. I can assure Mr. Watson that he need not seek so far for it, and that he has wasted considerable Jabor in making a list of such early explorers, as he can see the veritable missing east or right stone of the Palenque tablet by traveling to Washington, D. C., where it is safely deposited in the National Museum, also that Prof. Holden did not use in that part of his work the drawings of either ear- lier or later explorers, but had the stone itself under his inspection, with a pho- tograph of it for use in the study. Further on Mr. Watson says ‘‘ other drawings are said to exist in various Spanish, Mexican, and Central American collections; but none, other than those mentioned, have been given to the world in any publication accessible to stu- Glemicseu, This statement is certainly erroneous, as a very excellent work on the ‘‘ Pal- enque Tablet,” written by Prof. Chas. Rau, was published by the Smithsonian Institution in 1879, in which is given a very fine illustration of the whole tablet as restored, and a photograph of the east or right slab taken from the stone itself. To this book I beg to refer Mr. Watson for a full history of the whole tablet and an account of the manner in which the right or east slab reached the Nation- al Museum, where it has been since 1858. I also refer him to the “‘ First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology 1879-80,” published at Washington, D. C., 1881, in which Prof. Holden givesa very full and lucid account of his labors and the sources from which he obtained the necessary data. I think that before Mr. Watson attempted to criticise work done by such a thorough scholar as Prof. Holden he should have made himself more thoroughly acquainted with the cur- rent literature on the subject. LEE TABE ET OE DAE GROSS: PROF. OTIS T. MASON, WASHINGTON, D. C. EDITOR OF THE Kansas City REVIEW: Dear Sir,—A short article in the July number of the Review affords me the opportunity of renewing our acquaintance too long neglected. I have had the pleasure of reading Professor Holden’s article in the Century Magazine; but, if he is correctly and fully reported by Mr. Warren Watson, he has done great injust- ice to the Smithsonian Institution, to Dr. Charles Rau, and to the talented artist Nie Cae. Trill. In 1879, the Smithsonian Institution issued No. 331 of its Contributions to. Knowledge, entitled ‘‘ The Palenque Tablet in the United States National Mus-. Vi—14 214 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. eum, Washington, D. C., by Charles Rau.’?’ Among the many useful illustra- tions in that volume is a reconstruction of the Palenque Group by Mr. Trill, done under the eye and by the direction of Dr. Rau. From this restoration, doubtless, Professor Holden has drawn his material. Now for the ‘‘ east inscription, joined to Mr. Catherwood’s in a clumsy fash- ion.” I will quote from Dr. Rau: ‘‘ Among the objects of archzeological inter- est transferred to the Smithsonian Institution, in 1858, from the United States Patent Office, were several fragments composing a large rectangular stone slab, covered with glyphic designs in bas-relief, which had been presented to the National Institute by Mr. Charles Russell, Consul of the United States at Lajuna, on the Island of Carmen, State of Campeche, Mexico. The fragments had been ‘obtained at Palenque, and reached Washington in 1842, a * Eo The National Institute received at the same time a letter from Mr. Russell, dated Lajuna, March 18, 1842, in which he stated he had sent to the National Institute per ship ‘‘ Eliza and Susan,” fragments of a tablet from the ruins of Palenque, and by the ‘‘ Gil Blas” other pieces of the same tablet which made it complete ” Mr. Titian R. Peale asseris that the pieces exactly fitted, and had a cast made of them in 1848, for Baron von Gerolt, Prussian Minister, by Clark Mills. In 1863, Professor Henry charged Dr. George A. Matile to make a new mould, in order to obtain a perfect cast. While thus engaged, Dr. Matile recognized the Smithsonian tablet as one of the three stone slabs which, placed together, bore on their surface the sculpture of the famous Group of the Cross. as ote * . The middle slab and that originally joining it on the left have been des- cribed and figured by late explorers, but the one which completed the sculptured group, and is now preserved in the Smithsonian building, probably was already broken into fragments before 1832, when Waldeck explored the ruins of Palenque. Stephens, who was there eight years afterward, certainly noticed its scattered pieces. It has not, therefore, been represented by either of them; but Del Rio and Dupaix, to whom we are indebted for the earliest reports on the ruins of Pa- lenque still saw it in its proper place.” I shall not follow all the incidents in the history of the slab. Dr. Valentini, in 1873, on receipt of a photograph, redis- covered the fact that the Smithsonian slab completed the Group of the Cross, never having heard of Dr. Matile. Finally Dr. Rau conceived the idea and exe- cuted it in 1879, of presenting the celebrated bas-relief in its original complete- ness. Dr. Rau in his succeeding chapters discusses Explorations of Palenque, the Temple of the Cross, the Group of the Cross, Aboriginal writings in Mexico, Yuca- tan, and Central America, and closes with notes on the ruins of Yucatan and Central America. Finally the work is published under the acknowledgement of 5) be Elaven) and ‘el. Hi. Bancroft: I would say, in conclusion, that I watched Mr. Trill, day after day, carefully bring out his drawing, and so far from exhibiting any clumsiness, I think it was the one thing needful to justify the ingenious conceptions of Dr. Matile and Dr. Valentini. PENALOZA’S EXPEDITION TO QUIVIRA. 215 Dr. Rau’s work has been translated into other languages, notably into Span- ish, by the Museo Nacional de Mexico, together with a fac-simile of Trill’s re- production. Note.—We have also received notes from Dr, Rau and Prof, F. W. Putnam confirming the above.—[Ep. REVIEW. ELL STOIC ANE, INIA aS). PENALOZA’S EXPEDITION TO QUIVIRA. JOHN P. JONES. The recent publication of a translation from the Spanish, with notes, of Father Freytas’ narrative of Penaloza’s expedition from Santa Fe, to the rivers Mischipi and Quivirai n 1662,* has added new material to the history of the val- ley of the Missouri, and renewed the oft discussed question as to the location of Quivira. Among the subjects for investigation, especially interesting to the students of history who are investigating that of the Missouri Valley, which this narrative suggests are the following: Did the expedition reach the Mississippi River? If so, at what point? Was the Quivira of Coronado the same as that of Penaloza, and did both expeditions reach the same locality? Did the Province of Quivira lie east of the Missouri River? Who were the people of Quivira, and what In- dians are referred to as Escanxaques? How did the word Quivira originate ? As to the point reached by the expedition, the translator of the narrative says in a note to the writer of this article, that he makes a conjecture, and hopes the Missouri antiquarians will be able to determine it. His conjecture is as fol- lows: ‘‘The short distance advanced along the river after the bend and the fact ‘that the town was on a river entering the Missouri from the east seems tc ‘point to the rich lands on the Platte. The high ridge would be the line of bluffs ‘enclosing the bottom lands along the Missouri.” It is possible this conjecture is right, but there are difficulties in the way of endorsing it as the true solution of the problem. The expedition consisted of eighty soldiers with officers, and one thousand Indians, well armed and equipped for peace and war, with a train of thirty-six carts well provided with provisions and munitions, a large coach, a litter, two portable chairs, six three-pounders, eleven hundred horses and mules. If weare to believe that the narrator has truly stated the magnitude of the Penaloza’s force and accompanying train, we are bound to assume that a journey from Santa Fe to the junction of the Platte and Missouri, would be one of serious difficulty for it to accomplish in the spring of the year, when the rivers on the route would be swollen with their annual snow- * The expedition of Don Diego Diunisio De Penaloza, governor of New Mexico, from Santa Fe to the Mischipi in 1662, as described by Father Nicholas de Freytas, etc., by John Gilmary Shea, New York, 1882. > 216 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. flows. None are mentioned however, and the journey is described as one of pleasure and delight. Their route lay eastward for two hundred leagues, through pleasing, peaceful and most fertile fields, without hill or range, which finally ended at a very high and insuperable ridge, near the sea, eight leagues beyond the great city of Quivira. Through these pleasant and most fertile fields we marched, says Father Freytas, during the months of March, April, May and the kalends of June, and arrived at a large river which they call Mischipi, where we saw the first Indians of the Escanxaques nation. If the expedition had really arrived at the Mississippi, it would be another link in the accumulating evidence, which is tending to show that the river was quite well known before LaSalle explored it, but that they were far from reaching it, we believe the narrative itself shows. The Spaniards probably knew by report that there was a large river called Mississippi, running north and south two or three hundred leagues east of Santa Fe, and consequently were prepared, after traveling as far as they had, to call the first great river they came to by that name. By holding a course eastward from Santa Fe they had probably rambled among the tributaries of the Arkansas, until they reached the parent stem, not far from where the Verdigris and its several branches enter from the north and east. That it was the Arkansas rather than the Mississippi or Missouri, several state- ments in the narrative tend to prove. The most positive that can be quoted is probably that in which the narrator says they forded it in the night. After having been joined by the Escanxaques who numbered 3,000 warriors (probably 300) they marched along the river for two days and camped opposite the city of Quivira. During the night the Escan- xaques slipped off and attacked the city, upon learning which Don Diego ordered the army to cross the river which they did by fording. That this could not take place on the Mississippi, nor on the Missouri near the mouth of the Platte in the month of June, I think no one will deny, while it might have taken place on the Arkansas. The palatable plums and large, fine grapes ot extremely good flavor, are fruit much more likely to be found south of the Arkansas in early summer than in the vicinity of the Platte, while the planting of their fields twice a year as men- - tioned by Father Freytas, their houses of cane covered with straw, their gifts of Indian corn, beans and pumpkins, all indicate a climate like the region of the Arkansas River in the month of June, rather than the Platte. The very high and insuperable ridge, which ran along the right side of the city toward the north, might have been one of the hill ranges of the Ozark mountains. The very deep rivers of Quivira which the Father describes as suitable to run canals for irrigation are more likely to be found in some of the branches of the Arkansas with their deep cafions, than in the broad but shallow streams-of the more northern prairies. Dr. Shea quotes Father Escalante, a missionary explorer of the last century as expressing the belief that Quivira was the country of the Pawnees. This view is not inconsistent with the theory that Penaloza’s expedition found the province on the waters of the Arkansas. To the Spaniards, Quivira was the unknown PENALOZA’S EXPEDITION TO QUIVARA. 217 country, to be sought after by exploring expeditions, and if we accept the theory that the expedition of Coronado in 1542 found it near the 4oth degree of latitude, it does not follow that Penaloza, one hundred and twenty years later, found it in the same locality. There is nothing to warrant the belief that any special coun- try, located with boundaries, had ever received the designation of Quivira. It was the unknown, which lay beyond the country inhabited by the Indians that visited Santa Fe, and one locality was as likely to be so designated as another; but admit that it was the country of the Pawnees. Coronado describes the people inhabiting the villages which he visited, as living in huts of hides and willows, and says they changed their abode with the, buffalo. This is a correct description of the nomadic tribes of the Platte country, but does not agree with the customs of the people inhabiting the Quivira of Penaloza, yet I have no doubt that they were different branches of the same tribe. Mar- quette on his map of 1674 locates one village of the Pawnees southwest of the Arkansas and another south of the Missouri. DeLisle on his map of Mexico, 1703, has the tribe located on two streams entering the Arkansas from the south. On his map of Louisiana, 1718, he has Pawnee villages scattered from the Arkan- sas in the south, to the region of the Platte in the north. Upon the advent of the French into the valley of the Mississippi the Pawnees were the frontier tribe, that is, they occupied the most advanced locations on the waters that flowed east to the lower Missouri and the Arkansas. One of their villages near the Ar- kansas was visited by M. Dutisne, of Kashaskia, in 1719. It containedone hun- dred and thirty cabins, was situated upon a hill shut in by a prairie, by the banks of a stream. From there, it was fifteen days journey to the Padoucas which tribe they fought to the death. There were other villages of Pawnees north and west of the one visited by M. Dutisne. From the views that I have expressed it will be seen that I do not believe that Penaloza reached the Mississippi, or that the Quivira of Penaloza was the same as that of Coronado, in other words that the former did not reach the vicini- ty of the Platte River, as conjectured by Dr. Shea. Also that the Quivira of Penaloza was not east of the Missouri River, but on the Arkansas. I do be- lieve the people of Quivira, found by Coronado and Penaloza both, were Paw- nees, and that the Escanxaques were the Padoucah’s of the French or Comanches of the Spaniards, though there is a suggestion of the Algonquin A-Kan Sea in Escanxaques. KEYTESVILLE, Mo., July 10, 1882. 218 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. CABOT’S MAP OF THE WORLD. CAPT. E. L. BERTHOUD. (Zranslated from No, 251, June 12, 1552. of L’ Exploration.) Twenty years ago my learned and venerable friend Mr. Ferdinand Denis, my father and myself, had with a genuine geographical appetite of choice selec- tion, studied closely the great world map of the National Library. We had al- ready finished a commentary of it, when we resolved not to pass over one line of a very long ‘‘ Legend” which accompanies this map. Suddenly one of us cried out, a discovery! that is no longer doubtful. Effectively we read in the first col- umn on the left, Note 8, thus written: “¢This land was discovered by John Cabot, a Venetian, and Sebastian Cabot, his son, in the year of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, MCCCCXCIV (1494), the 24th day of June, at 5 o’clock in the morning. To this land has been given the name of ‘ First Land Seen,’ and to a big island near the said land, has been given the name of ‘Saint John,’ for having been discovered that same day. ” Thus we see, only two years after the discovery of Columbus, in 1494, and not in 1497, that John and Sebastian Cabot, had reached ¢ervva firma at the north- east. extremity of the New World, not far from the Tierra de los Baccalaos (Land of codfish, New Foundland.) We did not make much of a fuss over our little discovery ; we did not think there was great glory in reading and interpreting a legend that many others could have known also. We, however, communicated our discovery to a savant of the French Institute, who a little less modest than ourselves, took the honor of the discovery upon himself. Sebastian Cabot’s map merits a more critical and deeper study. The date of its publication reaches back to the year 1544. The contour of South America is almost wholly shown, except a portion of Western Patagonia, and the south — shore of Tierra del Fuego, whose name is not indicated. The eastern shore of America is pretty well drawn; the western shore stops at California. The discoveries gathered up in the several expeditions of John and Sebastian Cabot are well indicated in this world chart, which was in course of preparation for many years, and which was given to the engraver only about 1541. The first expedition of Cabot (after several failures) dates thus: the 24th day of June, 1494. The second one of 1497 was a 300 league cruise along the east coast of North America, that from the region first seen, ‘‘ Tierra Prima Vista ” in the first voyage, to the end of that sea ‘‘ Mar descubierta par Yngleses”’ whose littoral was not landed upon. IMPROVEMENT OF THE MISSOURI AND MISSISSIPPI RIVERS, 219 The third expedition due exclusively to Sebastian Cabot, mentions the en- counter of icebergs in Lat. 56° to 58° North, in the month of July, 1498, then a landing afterward on New Foundland. The fourth voyage, undertaken by Sebastian Cabot alone, mentions his reach- ing the Latitude of 67° 30’ N. on the date of June 11, 1517, probably in Baffins Bay? RICHARD CORTAMBERT, Librarian of the National Library, Paris. Nore. — Capt. Berthoud informs us that he owns Sebastian Cabot’s map with the ‘‘ Phrima Vista Land” marked upon it.—[Ep. REviEw. ENGINEERING AND MINING. THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE MISSOURI AND MISSISSIPPI RIVERS. HON. Re T. VAN HORN, M. C. (Extracts from Speech delivered in the House, June 15, 1882.) *K *k *k * * *k ok *k The problem of the improvement of the navigation of the great rivers of the United States is one involving elements as various as the character of the rivers them- selves. What is suited to one is not adapted to another, and the obstacles in one differ from those in another. For example, let us take the Mississippi and its two great tributaries—the Missouri and the Ohio. What is adapted for the Missouri is not applicable to the Upper Mississippi and the Ohio. And when I refer to “¢ Upper Mississippi” I mean above the mouth of the Ohio, and the ‘‘ Lower Mississippi’ that portion below that point. And what is practicable for the Up- per Mississippi, the Missouri, and the Ohio is not so for the Lower Mississippi. In the former the difficulty is not enough water for continuous and permanent navigation ; in the lower river there is too much water. The different methods demanded is from the differing characters of the rivers. In the Ohio and Upper Mississippi the beds of the rivers are rocky and gravelly the shoal places being unchangeable from that fact. The problem is to remove these rocky and gravelly shoals and to concentrate the water of the river in de- fined and permanent channels. The banks, too, are permanent, owing to the tenacity of the soil, and but little subject to abrasion. This is demonstrated in the navigation of those rivers by the fact that pilots run their boats by landmarks from year to year; while in the Missouri they run by the surface indications and bends of the river, landmarks being unknown. The Missouri, from the Yellow- 220 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. stone to the mouth, is an inclined plane of sand, not a rock or gravel shoal in the entire distance, nor a rapid. Its banks are for the entire distance alluvial and are abraded with the smallest force of current and rapidly dissolved. The problem, from this fact, is not to deepen the channel by removing bats, rocks, or deepening shoals after the method in the other rivers, but to prevent abrasion and confine the waters at given points to a narrower channel, when it deepens itself. 4 It is not my purpose to be tedious as to the characteristics of the river, only to state them broadly, so as to show the methods to be employed. The same plan of appropriations that is employed in the Ohio and Upper Mississippi, is not, for this reason, applicable to the Missouri. In the former given points are selected and appropriations made foreach. The same plan has been adopted heretofore in the Missouri, and no good results have followed. The present bill is the first that recognized the true method, and I take this occasion to thank the Committee on Commerce for its wise and statesmanlike action. The appropriation isin bulk, to be applied continuously, so as each year to complete a section of the river in a permanent manner. Allow me, Mr. Chairman, to briefly sketch the character of the Missouri River. From its sandy bed and the alluvial character of great valley through which it flows its course is serpentine, from bluff to bluff. When the current strikes a bluff, where it meets the rocky barriers that underlie all the bluff forma- tions of that valley, it shoots off by a sharp curve across the alluvial bottom-lands until it impinges on the opposite bluff, to repeat the same indefinitely. Now, the fact is, that where the river washes the base of a bluff it is narrow and deep, with abundance of water in the channel for the heaviest transportation possible to the business to be done. But when it leaves a bluff to cross the bot- tom to another bluff, by the abrasion of the banks it is widened, sometimes from 1,200 to 1,500 feet under the bluff toa mile anda half on bottoms. The enlarge- ment of the channel retards the current, creates eddies by the friction interposed by the shoaling process, precipitating the sand and soil held in suspension, and bars and shallows are the result. It is a curious fact that this law of the river re- sults in giving to the river one general feature that characterizes its centre course. This is a succession of pools along the bluffs, with shallower channels connecting these pools, the pools overlapping, or extending uniformly above the point of con- nection with the cross channels. Now, the problem is to*prevent the excessive widening of these cross-chan- nels, or to confine the abrasion within limits that will produce a depth of channel adequate to the demands of navigation. For example: If the pools have at low water a depth of 20 to 30 feet, as they have as a rule, with a width of 1,500 feet, by confining the cross channel of a mile or a mile and a half with four feet of water to half a mile, we have a channel of 12 feet—the problem is solved. I use these figures as comparative. IMPROVEMENT OF THE MISSOURI AND MISSISSIPPI RIVERS. 221 Now, can this be done? The engineering skill of the country says it can, and the practical experience and observation of river men agree with the en- gineers. In fact they see it done in detail every year. The real facts whichcall for theimprovement of the river arise from the irreg- ular operation of the same principle. If the snags, steamboat wrecks, and other obstructions in the channel of the Missouri had been methodically deposited they would have solved the problem long ago, and to-day we would have had deep and permanent navigation in the river. ‘That this is not overstating the case scores of examples exist along its course where a lodged tree or a sunken boat has radically changed the course and character of the river for miles, in instances improving the navigation of the river exactly as the engineers now propose to do, but when the elements were adverse, carrying destruction and devastation in their wake. In fact it is the accumulated evidence afforded by these accidental obstructions upon which the engineers have based their p an of improvement. There is only one thing to doto prevent the unnecessary washing of the banks at these points of crossing referred to, and the river will take care of itself. If the banks of Missouri were of the character of those of the Ohio, with its bed of sand, it would have always been the finest navigable river of the continent. Facts ex- ist all along its course for a thousand miles that demonstrate that even its deér7s, where lodged favorably by accident, has done just what it is proposed to do under this appropriation. I cannot state it more simply or more forcibly than by say- ing that it is proposed to follow the example of the river itself in these improve- ments. There are places in the river to-day that if the snags in one bend were deposited systematically along a few hundred feet of cross channel, boats for fifty miles would find at all seasons a depth of water ample for all purposes of naviga- tion. I think I have stated the elements of the problem involved in the improve- ment of the Missouri River sufficiently broadly to give the h use an idea of the plan, and why the appropriation asked for has been given in bulk to be expend- ed, not in removing bars, rocks or shoals from the channel, but in controlling the vagaries of the current or the waters, and allow them to do at exceptional points exactly what they do in the general channel of the river. There is not a single feature of the river proper to be changed, no interference with its Jaws or any of its peculiar characteristics. It simply is proposed to leave it as nature would have it if its banks had been less alluvial or capable of a little more resist- ance to the abrading force of its waters. The problem, as an engineering one, is based upon the true principle of aid- ing nature, rather than resisting her forces. It is proposed to let the river take care of its own improvement. Its waters are the force employed. It is not pro- posed to provide new banks or confine its waters within mud walls—only to con- -centrate at the exceptional points its waters, that the volume may as elsewhere deepen their own channel. * * * * 2 a 222 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, I now come to the second problem in the great river system—the Lower Mississippi. I favor the amendment providing for an outlet, and regret that the committee have not incorporated it in their bill. I regret also, Mr. Speaker, that this question has been allowed to drift into an antagonism that demands the sacrifice of one or the other plan. There is no necessity for this, but on the contrary there is every reason why both should go: together. I have shown that the problem of the upper river was too little water; that of the lower is too much water. Is it not a common-sense proposition that you cannot treat these two problems by the one method? In the one case you have to control the water within the river banks so as to provide at shoal places a deeper channel. In the other it is to get the superabuncant waters within the river banks. Will the plan of the one answer for the other? It is simply impos- sible, because the trouble is in the two cases directly opposite in character. *k * * *K *K *k We know that the money already appropriated has not been expended be- cause the flood-waters have been in the way. Now, we contend that if the river had had more discharging capacity the waters would have been within the banks and that money have been expended for the use intended. And why not open more discharging capacity? What is the cause of the overflows of the Lower Mississippi? It is, stating it broadly, because the mouths of the river are not big enough. This fact comes from two causes, the slow current near the sea, and the consequent precipitation of sand and mud held in suspension. These causes result in narrowing the channel as it approaches the sea. The fact that by actual measurement the inflow at average floods at Cairo is 1,475,000 cubic feet of water per second, and that after receiving the waters of all rivers below, the flow at New Orleans is only 1,100,000 cubic feet per second, tells the story of the disastrous annual overflows. This surplus water must go somewhere, and the only place for it is to overflow the adjacent country. To confine this. immense flood within artificial walls, built of the mud the river takes up and car- ries down to choke up its own discharge, is, I submit, one of those stupendous follies which sometimes fascinate men merely from the fact of their magnitude and from the vast sums of money involved. That new mouths will draw off the water just in ratio with their capacity is. as plain a propositton as that a barrel of water will be depleted by opening the bung-hole. The river below New Orleans, with a fall of one and one-half inches to the mile, has a flow of six feet in a second. The proposed Lake Borgne out- let, with a fall of two and three-fifths feet to the mile, would have a correspond- ing increase of current and consequent discharging capacity. But only calculat- ing the flow at ten feet per second, with a width of one mile and ten feet deep, its discharge would be 528,210 cubic feet of water per second, or one-third of the whole inflow at Cairo. But the current would be more than twenty feet per sec- ond, or a capacity nearly equal to the whole river at Cairo. The mere statement TMPROVEMENT Of THE MISSOURI! AND MISSISSIPPI RIVERS. 223 of the figures shows the ample character of the proposed outlet for the drainage of the highest floed ever known. Why then is this self evident plan opposed? It is upon the assumption that if you Jet the water out through these new mouths the channel will be shoaled. No other objection having any practical bearing can be made, or can be urged to stand a moment, in view of the difference in cost—the outlet being estimated at $250,000, the other plan at $50,000,000. Is the objection a valid one? I contend that it is not only without support in fact, but is based upon a false assumption as to what the outlet plan is. These outlets only propose to drain the flood-waters, not to make new river channels. When the river is within its banks now, navigation is just as desired. All the outlets propose is to keep the water from overflowing the banks. How, then, when the river is within its banks, or bank-full, in October, and at its maximum excellence for navigation, can it be destructive to navigation when in precisely the same condition, in March or July? That is all the outlets propose to do—to keep the river at this maximum at all seasons. They are not deep enough, and cannot be made deep enough, to affect the normal channel of the river, or the quantity of water in it. Or in other words, the channel of the outlet is ten feet deep, while the river channel at the outlet is 100 feet deep. How is this outlet to drain the river dry, or shoal it ? - It simply draws off the flood-waters, leaving the normal channel unaffected. But we are not left to theory. The United States topographical engineers by measure- ment at crevasses have demonstrated that the operation of these openings actual- ly deepens the channel below tlie point of outlet. And this is exactly what is claimed for its effect—that the river confined within its banks by its increased current deepens its channel. ; It is upon this theory that the Missouri River improvement is based, and I am not illogical enough to deny the operation of the same law in the Lower Mis- sissipp1 that obtains in the Missouri. But it is upon this very fact that the im- provement of the navigation of the Lower Mississippi is based. It is claimed at points where bars interfere, that by works which will confine the waters to lesser space the channel will be deepened. Now, if the water confined to the normal width of the channel on a bar deepens the water, why not the channel be deep- ened and improved when the whole river is confined within its banks? The statement is the answer. It is the object of all our appropriations, of all our sur- veys, of all our plans, to keep the river within its banks, natural or artificial. If, as is contended, when we build the banks higher in order to confine the water, it will deepen the channel, will not the same effect result if the waters are confin- ed within the natural banks? It needs no argument; its demonstration is a fact known to every practical navigator of the great rivers of the West. * ok * * *K *s I beg the House to remember one fact, that the advocates of the outlet sys- tem have only assumed one thing—the mere cost of making it. Every other fact connected with it is from the highest engineering authority ever known in this country; is copied from the official report of the board of engineers of the Army 224 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. of surveys and investigations made under the authority of Congress during a pro- tracted period of ten years, embracing everything connected with the river at high and low water, as to levees and embankments, navigation, currents, the bed of the river, its floods, and all phenomena. We assume nothing; we have no theories, no experiments, no hypotheses; simply the fact that water runs down hill, that it is not compressible; these re-inforced as to results by ascertained facts by the most thoroughly applied scientific methods. And what is the plan here proposed? Let me state it simply. As now, the river has below New Orleans a current that moves over a bed with a fall of one and one-half inches per mile. The distance is 120 miles. Ten miles below New Orleans the Gulf of Mexico approaches to within five miles of the Mississippi by an arm known as Lake Borgne. ‘The river thus reaches the Gulf level at a point 110 miles less than now, or in five miles we reach the same level that the river now does in 110 miles. Gentlemen can discount the drainage capacity of thirteen feet fall in five miles in the one case, and the same fall in 110 miles as now, in the discharge of these surplus waters. That is all there is to the proposed Lake Borgne outlet. Now, the fact to be ascertained is, will it prevent overflow to be restrained or confined by artificial banks? The plan has been tried, and has failed. By both experience and theory it will require artificial banks to be constructed from four to ten feet high for a thousand miles. Is it practicable as to money cost? and if so, will it hold the water? Both must be answered in the negative. We have found that it is difficult to confine even canal waters by artificial banks. How, then, the mighty floods of the Mississippi P Again, the experience of the ages is that just as you raise the banks of a river you decrease the force of its current, until, as in the case of the river Po, in Italy, the river bed is above the level of adjoining lands. ‘That river, after centuries of leveeing, now runs across the low lands on a ridge. But keeping a river within its natural banks deepens its channel, cutting out its bed to the proper angle of fall to the sea. It requires no science to know this; every washout in the farmer’s field illustrates and demonstrates it. The only question of a practi- cal nature in this connection is, can you get outlet enough? I have shown that you can. * *k * *k * * It has been shown by facts, in plain measured feet, that the proposed outlet cannot affect the river channel. Why not make it? It will be observed, Mr. Chairman, that these objections to the outlet are not made as formal engineering ones: they are the mere advocate arguments before the committee: there is an- other one used among members, but carefully kept from the record. This argument is that the outlet would injure the jetties. This is so new and novel that it is done in a whisper. The old soothsayers were said to laugh in each other’s faces when alone. The habit did not die with the soothsayers. Now, I can speak on this subject without fear of criticism, for from the be- ' ZADVILLE AND VICINITY. 225 ginning I favored the jetties, and have not changed. They do not need this dis- ingenuous argument, nor, even if they did, are they sacred or of more importance than the valley of the river. Let us look at this fora moment. It is shown that the river is a hundred feet deeper than the outlet at the point of junction. As the jetties are only twenty-four feet deep there is abundant water for them. We have shown that 1,100,000 cubic feet of water per second pass the point of the pro posed outlet. The same high engineering authority tells us that only 83,000 cubic feet per second enters the pass in which the jetties are. So that there is all the jetty pass can carry and a million cubic feet to spare. No wonder this ob- jection passes by a breath and is carefully kept from paper. It is not discourt- eous to say the objection is not an honest one. !t either reflects upon the intelli- gence of the person to whom it is made, or upon the candor of the one who makes it. No friend of the jetties will put the objection on that ground, for it at once raises the question of good faith and of their utility. To set this objection at rest, let us refer to the facts upon which the jetty legislation was based and those alone upon which the annual drain for keep- ing them open is made upon the Treasury. The jetties are based upon the simple fact that water is incompressible; that if you confine a stream of flow- ing water, of say half a mile wide, so as to make it pass between walls a quarter of a mile apart, the water will find room for its volume by cutting down its bed. That is all there is to the jetties. If the bed is of soft material, like sand or mud, it will cut it out. If it is hard clay or rock it won’t, and then it makes a dam. Now the best advice I can give those who urge this objection against the outlet is to be very careful how they handle the subject, for if they once let go the theory cn which they got the money to build the jetties, they turn them into a dam, and Congress may discover that a dam raises the flood-line of of the river, and vote money for the outlet to carry off the surplus waters. * * x x * LEADVILLE AND VICINITY. A recent trip to Lake and Pitkin Counties in Colorado, and a summary in- spection of the wonderful mining regions included in them, especially in the vicin- ity of Leadville, east of, and in the Independence District, west of the Sawatch Range or Continental Divide, leads me to give your readers a brief description of them, although the former, at least, has been the theme of hundreds of writers . within the past three or four years. Leadville is situated in Latitude 39° 15’, Longitude 105° 17’, on the eastern side of the Arkansas Valley, between the Mosquito Range and the Continental Divide, at an elevation of 10,025 feet above the sea at the court house door. The first discovery of ore was made in 1860 in California Gulch, and for several _ years placer mining was carried on quite successfully, not less than $5,000,000 of gold having been taken out up to 1878. At the time of the Hayden Report 226 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 6 of 1873 several valuable lode claims were being worked for gold, while carbon_ antes of lead and copper, iron pyrites, zinc blende, etc., were found. A vast body of iron ore was also reported by Hayden, ‘‘ carrying gold enough to pay moderately,” also, ‘‘ excellent galena carrying silver in the quartzites near the iron vein.” No indication, apparently, was observed of the vast quantities of silver ore that have within four years brought the district to the position of the richest min- ing camp in the world and caused Leadville to leap from a grubbing town of two or three hundred people to a thriving city of nearly 20,000. At that time two mines, the ‘‘ Printer Boy” and the ‘‘ Pilot” were yielding less than $50,000 per annum, now more than thirty mines are being worked, producing $13,170,576 in 1881. The geology of this region is quite difficult to understand except by the most extensive generalization, as will be seen from the following description by Dr. Hayden: ‘‘On the summit between Mosquito, Bird’s Eye and Evans Gulches broken masses of the quartzites and trachytes seem to have moved down a con- siderable distance from their places and are deposited in the form of windrows as if there had been glacier movements there. “ 1s i One of the peculiar geological features in this range is the trachytic beds, which appear to be interstratified with the older sedimentary rocks. These igneous layers vary much in thickness, and appear and disappear, reach a tnickness of 1,000 feet or more, and diminish in a short distance to a few feet or disappear entirely. And yet upon the outcropping of the great uplifted ridges, or in the deep gulches where not unfrequently 2,000 vertical feet of rocks are shown in their order of superposition, these trachytes seem to have flowed out over the surface of the Si- lurian quartzites or, in other words, are interstratified among the old silurian limestones and quartzites 2s if they might be of the same age and have been ele- vated with them.”’ S. F. Emmons, Geologist in charge of the Rocky Mountain Division U. S. Geological Survey, in his ‘‘ Abstract of a Report upon the Geology and Mining Industry of Leadville, 1881,” describes more minutely the peculiar geological features immediately about Leadville, as condensed by the American Journal of Science for July. ‘‘The Paleozoic rocks of the Mosquito Range have a thickness of 4,050 to 5,600 feet and are more or less folded and faulted. They comprise (1) 200 feet of Cambrian or Primordial, chiefly quartzites; (2) over these, 200 of Silurian (white or dolomitic hmestone and quartzite); and (3) 3700 to 4200 of Carbonifer- ous, which last have 200 feet of limestone, called the 4/ve limestone, at base and 1,000 to 1,500 at top (Upper Measures), with grits (Weber grits), sandstones and shales, partly calcareous, between. In the Kanab section on the Colorado, the Paleozoic has about the same thickness (85 feet of it referred to the Permian); but in the Wahsatch section cited, the thickness is 30,000 feet, 12,000 referred to the Cambrian, 3400 to the Silurian and Devonian, 15,000 to the Carboniferous and 650 to the Permian. LEADVILLE AND VICINITY. 227 . Besides these there are eruptive rocks—porphyries and diorytes—mostly Mesozoic in age. The common kind is the white porphyry, an evenly granular rock, consisting of quartz (70 per cent.), feldspar (the latter occasionally in small rectangular crystals), black mica or biotite, and some muscovite. The rock is partly decomposed, and the muscovite ‘‘is the result of the decomposition of the feldspar.” Other kinds of porphyry, more granite-like, consist of quartz, two feldspars and biotite, and in one variety horn-blende is present. The dioryte is a porphyritic crystalline-granular variety. The white porphyry occurs to the south of an east and west line through Leadville, and the other kind north of this line. The main sheet of the former which lies upon the surface of the blue limestone forms, at the Four-Mile Creek where is its principal vent, the larger portion of a hill 2,000 feet high, and thence spreads southward reaching nearly to Buffalo Peaks. On Iron and Carbonate Hills it has a possible thickness of over 1,000 feet; but along Evan’s Gulch it will scarcely average 100, and even thins out en- tirely. Other sheets occur between lower strata, and there is a local sheet in the lower quartzite or Cambrian. The intrusive masses of the other porphyries have a wider vertical distribution, ‘‘extending up to the Jurassic and possibly even to the Cretaceous.” ~I as OeVA MOISE CAIN ID) Ele SMO WO. ALCOHOL AND ITS EFFECTS. REV. L. J. TEMPLIN. The earliest authentic account we have of the use of intoxicating liquors as beverages is in the case of Noah, who, it is said, planted a vineyard and became drunken on the wine made from the fruit thereof. From that time down we have frequent accounts of the use and effects of various kinds of intoxicating liquors among many nations and tribes of people. The most common source of these drinks in ancient times was the grape; but the palm tree, pomegranate, and melon have been extensively employed for this purpose in both ancient and mod- ern times. In recent times the various cereals have come into very general use for this purpose. Various other substances, as fruits, milk, etc., are frequently employed for the manufacture of intoxicating drinks. It is only by a process of fermentation that the intoxicating principle is generated, as none of it is ever found in any living substance. In the process of decomposition of any organic substance containing sugar in the presence of water, it passes through three distinct stages ; the alcoholic, the acetic, and the putrefactive. It is the business of the brewer and distiller to check the process when it has reached the first stage, and so manipulate their liquor as to prevent any further fermentation. Intoxicating drinks were in use many centuries before any correct knowledge of the true nature of the intoxicating principle was obtained. The Arabian alchemists discovered that if wine was kept at the boiling point for a few minutes it lost its intoxicating power. The intoxicating principle, whatever that was, had escaped. But this powerful agent was invisible, hence it was regarded as a spirit—the spirit of wine. About the middle of the eleventh century Avicena caught this subtle agent and gave it a visible, bodily form. Chemists called it ‘‘alcohol.’’ This term comes from two Arabic words, Al the, and Kahol, a fine, impalpable powder. The ladies of the east were accustomed to employ such powders at their toilet. The term ‘‘ alcohol” seems to have been applied to any powerful, subtle agent, but its modern use is confined to the intoxicating principle or strong drinks—the spirit of wine. The process by which this agent is developed is now quite well understood. If starch be moistened with water in which alittle ferment, as yeast, — has been dissolved, and subjected to a temperature of one hundred degrees of heat it will be changed to grape sugar. But if the temperature be maintained in the presence of a ferment it will be decomposed and its elements separated into carbonic anhydride and alcohol. The gas speedily escapes into the air and the ALCOHOL AND ITS EFFECTS. . 275 alcohol remains dissolved into the water. By distillation this is separated from the principal part of the water, the remainder of which may be removed by cer- tain chemical processes and absolute alcohol obtained. It was once believed that alcohol was the product of distillation, but it is now known that this process only separates the alcohol that has already been generated by fermentation. The alcohol in general use contains from seven to fifteen per cent of water. Pure alcohol is a transparent fluid having a specific gravity of 796, water being r1ooo. It has a very pungent taste, boils at 170° and has never been frozen. It inflames at 300°, burning with a pale blue flame, emitting no smoke, little hght but much heat. “This agent is a powerful solvent, readily dissolving most of the resinous gums and vegetable extracts. Chemically, alcohol is composed of three gases in the following proportions : (CNT SOLE Si Hii ah ite MO anemia, Riel aeenes ao TPE MONA LRP aI Feo} 3 Heby GOS CTE Me LY adToeeal sda us hthi) a hhtt Gyee vel etn, TOTO Oxon ay Myon ei Uas Ee AS Uee ee a Gal bass. G 2A Ale 100. The amount of alcohol that is found in the different kinds of intoxicating drinks varies with the different classes and kinds of liquors. The following ex; hibits the proportion of alcohol and proof spirits found in the different kinds of fermented liquors. ALCOHOL. PROOF SPIRITS. ROnEN VIC amr sulew es 23 ie npel Cente 46 per cent. IMademcat aes Sl hare ot 24 oe Sherry... .-. .19 iS 38 x Champagne iain slimes 25 ee Cider) Pera NOR ek ng a 14 ot IROGLCT) onian cape cane etn eouaunn ns Sie 6 UENeee Wren sia: Wray (NREL OLS Mes ek 13 uC SiidalllB ee tara) mw eum lal Ateonn Dp OL From this it will be seen that these drinks contain from one fortieth to near- ly one-half of proof spirits. The proportion of alcohol found in the various _ kinds of distilled liquors is— IBKAMG yawn aN teei cma igbitehe te sno aca OeDeT Celts TRUVEO Ie Dibaba RL Une a AUaOmeatie, AL ER Ua Nite 304 6) Ge Giner common Ses MA ty ec GO ue Grol ms eh Weis tbatyh ek ae ON i eae ef Scovel wWihiskey fue Mame OU. cA nda ae AiriShe WN MSlavaMi Meira talets) aa ak ee loa cements A710 ef CommoniWihisk yw Me Ms aay er BOG Of this class of liquors we find from over two-fifths to nearly three-fourths to consist of alcohol. Besides the water mingled with the alcohol there are other 276 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. ingredients found, especially in the fermented liquors, as the hops in beer, juni- per in ale, acids in wine and cider, etc. It is a common opinion that the effects of these various drinks on the human system are modified by the presence of these foreign substances ; but it is quite doubtful whether these extraneous sub- stances in the quantities in which they are used, ever have any marked effect on the system. The various effects resulting from the use of the different kinds of drinks is more likely the result of the different degrees of dilution with water that characterize them, or of the manner in which they are taken. If taken in con- siderable quantities at once the effect will necessarily be more marked than if the same quantity is taken gradually so that it may be gradually taken up and dis- posed of by the system. In treating of the effect of alcohol on the human system no distinction will be made as to the kinds of liquors which contain the alcohol used. These effects are produced by two different processes, a chemical and a physiological one. Its most important chemical property is to arrest and prevent decomposition in all organic bodies, whether animal or vegetable. For this rea- son it is largely used for the purpose of preserving natural history specimens in the cabinets of scientists. In its antiseptic properties it is excelled only by creo- sote, carbolic acid and arseniate of soda; but it has advantages over all these and is more generally used. When taken into the stomach with food it prevents the decomposition of the food under the action of the gastric juices, and hence it tends to retard digestion and is detrimental to health. But as digestion must proceed that life may be preserved, this evil power must be disposed of in some way. It is a well established fact that the digestive powers of the stomach have no control over this powerful agent. Asit cannot be digested and as the digestion of food cannot proceed in its presence nature pro ceeds at once to banish the unwholesome intruder. Instead of being digested, alcohol is taken up by absorption by the capillary vessels of the stomach and introduced directly into the blood by which it is car- ried to all parts of the system. It is evident therefore that alcohol cannot be re garded as food in the ordinary use of the term. But it has been observed that if a portion of alcohol be taken at regular and frequent intervals the weight of the body will be increased. Numerous carefully conducted experiments prove this to be true. This fact has led many eminent physicians to believe that alcohol when taken into the stomach acts as a food. But this phenomenon may be ac- counted for in more strict accordance with the facts without giving it this inter- pretation. In order to a full understanding of this point it is necessary that we turn-aside a little and inquire into the manner in which food is made beneficial to the system. Every organized being is composed of innumerable minute vesicles. termed ‘‘cells.’”’ These cells are constantly dying and being conveyed from the system while their places are being supplied by others formed from material de- rived from the food eaten. ‘This process of composition and decomposition, of birth and death, is constantly going on in all parts of the physical system. When a particle of material has served its purpose in the system it loses its power to further serve the purposes of the system, and its further presence is detrimental ALCOHOE AND TTS ELPEFECTRS. 277 to health. The highest state of health is secured only by the prompt removal of this effete matter. Thus it appears that we live only by a constant process of dying. Alcohol in the living system, as everywhere else, antagonizes the natural tendency to decomposition. Hence the dead matter that, under the healthy ac- tion of the system, would be speedily excreted from the system, is retained longer than it should be. The result is the weight is increased, but it is by the retention of the old matter that should be cast off and not by the addition of new material obtained from the alcohol. Another argument in favor of the nutritious nature of alcohol is based on the nature of this substance. All forms of food substances may be arranged in two general classes, viz: nitrogenous and carbonaceous. The former of these goes to make up the various tissues of the animal system, and the latter results in the development of animal heat and carbonic anhydride. Now as alcohol contains so large a proportion of carbon it was placed at the head of the list of respiratory food substances, This theory, advanced by so high an authority as Baron Liebig, and look- ing so plausible on its face, gained at once general acceptance. But it was not long tiJl Dr. Prout demonstrated by experiment that the amount of carbonic acid exhaled from the lungs was directly diminished by the presence of alcohol. Dr. Davis, of Chicago, next took up the question of the development of animal heat from alcohol, and by carefully conducted experiments he demonstrated the fact that so far from the heat of the system being increased under the influence of alcohol it was actually diminished. After taking nutritious food into the stomach the temperature of the body is increased, but after taking alcohol in any form or mixture the temperature soon begins to fall and continues depressed one to two degrees below normal for two or three hours, the extent and duration of this de- pression being in exact proportion to the amount taken. The world has long labored under the delusion that both the temperature and strength of the body were increased by the presence of alcohol in the system. Dr. Davis’s experi- ments with a very delicate thermometer proved the first a mistake, and an appli- cation of the dynamometer showed the last to be an error. The common error on this subject arises from the state of perverted sensibility resulting from the alcohol that has been imbibed. The individual will assert with great positiveness that he is warmer or stronger while under its influence than at other times, but an application of the proper tests proves hismistake. But itis this appeal to his sensibilities that has misled the world on this subject for generations. In order toa full understanding of this matter it is necessary to inquire more particularly into the effects of alcohol on the human system. If an application of alcohol be made to any part of the body and continued for sometime it will be found that the sensibility of that part has been diminished. The nerves with which the poison comes in contact are paralyzed to some extent, thus reducing their sensibility. And this leads us to inquire more fully into the real nature of alcohol. The almost universal opinion is that alcohol is a stimulant Vi—18 278 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, and the exhilaration resulting from its use is offered as a proof of this view. What is a stimulant? ‘There are three classes of medicinal agents that produce different chemical changes in the system and so sustain a different relation to the production and expenditure of vital force. One class operates to produce an increased expenditure of vital force without in any way affecting the supply of that force. ‘These are called stimulants. Of this class cayenne pepper, ammonia and guaiacum will serve as examples. A second class increases both the amount of the vital force and its expenditure; these are termed tonics. Iron, quinine, and the active principle of the barks of poplar, willow and dogwood, and of tea and coffee may be taken as samples of this class. A third class retards the chem- ical changes of the system and so reduces both the production and expenditure of vital force. Dullness, stupor, impaired sensibility and unconsciousness are the results of this class. It is evident that alcohol belongs to this last group The narcotic or aneesthetic effect of alcohol on the nerves and brain renders the individual less sensible of all outward impressions. This diminished susceptibili- ty renders the patient less sensible of heat and cold, weariness and pain. It has long been noticed as a paradox of human action that the same person will claim that the same alcoholic drink will warm him when cold, cool him when hot, rest him when weary and sooth him when afflicted. It has long been claim- ed that when a person becomes weary a portion of alcohol will renew his vigor and remove all sense of weariness. If exposed to heat or cold he feels the ef- fects of these extremes less acutely if he has imbibed a portion of alcoholic liquors. Now this sense of weariness, the pain felt in the presence of heat or cold are but sen.inels that nature has kindly placed to warn us of the vital powers by these adverse conditions. - When alcohol is taken under such circumstances it adds nothing to the strength or the resisting power of the system; simply renders it less sensible to the evil that is going on—it bribes the sentinel, so to speak, to give no farther warning while the ruin of the system is wrought. The sense of weariness is taken away but the exhaustion goes on all the same. ‘The sense of cold or heat is re- moved, but this does not prevent the individual from dying with sunstroke on the one hand or freezing on the other; but these fatal results are only hastened. ‘¢ But,” it may be asked, ‘‘if alcohol is not a stimulant why is a man often excited to great nervous and mental activity while under its influence?” This follows from the aneesthetic nature of the poison. When taken into the stornach, as stated above, the alcohol is taken up at once and conveyed unchang- ed to all parts of the system. Its first effects are felt at the extremities of the nervous system. These nerve extremities under the paralyzing effects of this narcotic poison lose their power of action and become inert. ‘The vital force that has been sent out from the great nerve-centre—the brain—to be expended at these extremities, finding the nerve fibers inactive—the wires down—is returned . toward the nerve-centre, producing increased activity in that organ, resulting in exhilaration and increased nervous activity there. As the effects of the poison move back along the nerve fibers, approaching nearer and nearer the brain, this THE WILL-O-THE-WISP. 279 exhilaration increases till in many cases it becomes uncontrollable mental excite- ment. But after a time if the dose has been sufficiently large, when all the out- posts have been taken, the enemy enters the very citadel of the mind and lays its paralyzing touch on the brain itself. This high state of mental excitement is quickly changed to one of stupidity and sottishness. ‘Thus the very symptoms relied on to prove that alcohol is a stimulant, when correctly interpreted, only prove it to be a deadly narcotic. ‘The delusions in regard to the true character of alcohol and its effects upon the system, that has prevailed not only among the common people but also among physicians and physiologists has led to errors in practice that have been fraught with unmeasured woe to our race, and has been asad commentary on the declaration of the wise man that ‘‘ Wine is a Mocker.” But with the increase of light on this subject may we not hope the evils resulting from the misuse of this powerful narcotic poison will speedily cease to afflict mankind. HuTCHISON, Kansas. THE WILL-O’-THE-WISP. Not often has ‘‘ dry ”’ Physical Science to do deal with the phenomena which figure in folk-lore. Such an exceptional case is afforded by the nocturnal occur- rence known to the learned as /ugis fatuus, and to the unlearned in different coun- tries as Jack-o’-Lantern, Will-o’-the-Wisp, Wild- (or rather World-?) fire, Friar’s- Lantern, Meu Follet, Heerwisch, &c. ‘The exception deserves the more notice as modern chemistry and physics have by no means succeeded in finding a satisfac- tory explanation of the facts. Facts they undoubtedly are. The zgnis fatuus, though by no means common, has still from time to time been observed by com- petent witnesses, and occasionally by several persons in company. Nor is such evidence disputed: let any man of sober habits and ordinary truthfulness state that he saw a Will o’-the-Wisp at such and such a time and place, and the most skeptical of our orthodox savan¢s will listen with calm interest, and, though he may question the narrator closely as tothe circumstances of the case, he will by no means proclaim it @ prior7 impossible, or throw out any insinuations concern- ing ‘‘ dominant ideas.” If we examine and compare the most recent and trustworthy records of -this phenomenon, we find it described as a light which appears in calm, mild nights, chiefly in summer or autumn. It is most commonly observed in swampy or marshy places, or where much organic matter is undergoing decomposition. Dr. Phipson! describes it as most common in England, ‘‘in the peaty districts around Port Carlisle, in Cumberland,” on the Continent ‘‘in the damp valleys between the pretty little university town of Marburg and that of Cassell, and more certain- ly still in the graveyards outside the town of Gibraltar.” The light in question is generally single, though sometimes two wisps are said to have been seen to- 1 Familar Letters onthe Mysteries of Nature. London: Sampson Low & Co. 280 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. gether. It glides or bounds along at a variable speed, sometimes maintaining the same vertical level, but at other times rising, falling, and overleaping hedges, trees, etc., and may often be tracked to a distance of a couple of hundred yards from the spot where it originates, or rather where it is first observed. It is re- corded as in many cases moving /oward a pool or swamp, and there disappearing. The light is said to be sometimes globular, spheroidally elongated, or pear-shaped, about the size of ‘‘two fists,’’ and varying in color and brilliance, being some- times visible even in the light of a full moon. So much for points authenticated by the accordant testimony of trustworthy observers. Popular tradition adds much more. The spectators are said to have sometimes received sudden blows or shocks, According to an old German story, some village children having irritated a Wisp by crying out— ‘* Heerwisch ho, ho, ho! brennst wie Hafer stroh!” it pursued them into the house, and stunned every person present by blows with its fiery wings. Folk-lore, indeed, distinctly personifies the Wisp, and ascribes to it the intention to mislead the solitary traveller and entice him into a swamp or pond.2 ‘This view or superstition is by no means extinct, as will appear from the following extract from ‘‘ Light” (June 24th, 1882, p. 296). A contributor : of that journal, who uses the om de plume ‘‘ Miror,” gives the following account as narrated to him by an old cottager:— «¢¢ When I was a ploughboy, at Purbeck, I was sent to the blacksmith, who lived some distance off, with some harness to be mended. The blacksmith was at chapel; this delayed the work, and it was not till half-past nine in the evening that I could start for home. It was pitch dark, and as I went along a Jack-o’- Lantern came hopping before me. It was not above the sizeof yourtwofists. I was quite aware that Jack-o’-Lanterns came to lead you out of your path, so I kept my foot in the rut all along the country road, till #e, the Jack-o’-Lantern, hopped over a gate where there was a pond close by, and tried to entice me there.” ‘¢ At the above very evident testimony of evil intention the boy was over- whelmed with fright, and taking to his heels rushed, he knew not where, till he came toa house. ‘There they took him in, and one of the inmates accompanied him over the fields, and put him on his way home. «¢¢] had not gone far,’ continued the old man, ‘ before another Jack-o’-Lan- tern came hopping before me, and tried to entice me to a swamp which lay on one side of my way; but I knew where I was, and went straight for home, half dead with fear. Never again would I go to that blacksmith’s of an evening.’ “‘<¢Tf he had not kept his foot in the rut,’ broke in the old woman, his wife, ‘it might have been all over with him. When a Jack-o’-Lantern gets you in the water, then he sniggers; he laughs, you know. [ve heard my father say that scores of times.’ 2 We cannot help here remarking that medieval tradition personified certain phases of the nightmare, as the terms Incubus and Succuba sufficiently testify. ; THE WILL-O-THE- WISP. | 281 ‘¢Thus we see the old woman brought forward the testimony of her father also, with respect to the traditional shady character of the Jack-o’-Lantern, or Will-o’-the-Wisp, or /gnis fatuus. “‘ You call the Jack-o’-Lantern fe,’ I said. ‘You talk as if you thought it knew what it was about; and by luring you into danger it had an object in view, and not a good one.’ ‘‘Just so,” said the old man. I said I was inclined to agree with him. ‘¢On the man’s assenting to the woman’s assertion that ‘when a Jack-o’- Lantern gets you into the water, then he laughs,’ I pressed the question, ‘Do you really mean to say that they are really heard to laugh—that they make the noise of laughter?’ ‘Yes,’ was the reply. ‘But how,’ I rejoined, ‘can people know that they laugh when those who are led by them get drowned, and do not invertor tell ite?” It is curious that ‘‘ Miror”’ speaks of this his own objection—fatal, as it ap- pears to us—as ‘‘rather lame special pleading on my part.” It must not be for- gotten that the occurrence is said to have taken place at Purbeck. Now in the counties of Dorset and Wilts the tendency to personification is very strong, and the country people speak of many things as ‘‘he” which in the Metropolitan District and the Northern Counties are always referred to as “it.” A very full and definite account of the appearance of an Jens fatuus is to be _met with in a modern work® reviewed in our current issue. Some passages of ') White’s narrative we quote. The inhabitants of Itapua, a small town in the / Plata States, situate on the River Parana, were during the author’s stay armed by ‘‘ a mysterious light that appeared almost every night in the second plaza, situated on the high river banks, but where, nevertheless, the ground was in some parts a temporary swamp, from the rains settled in the hollows. In this plaza were posted the line soldiers’ barracks; and to the guard bivouacking round their fire at night it first manifested itself. My friend Lieut. Morcillo, the officer in command, soon got to hear of it, and, scenting trickery, issued notice that he had given his soldiers orders to fire upon it whenever and wherever it became visible. The soldiers, as they became more accustomed to the /enzs fatuus, be- gan to style it the “Plazera.”’ Singular to relate, no sooner did the light burst forth than it was heralded throughout the town by a universal chorus of howls from the mangy curs in Itapua. In order to elucidate the mystery Lieut. Mor- cillo and myself visited the plaza for several nights in succession, accompanied by three or four soldiers with loaded rifles and ourselves armed with revolvers. The military were posted round the square, and we waited from ten o’clock till twelve or one in an atmosphere bathed in the brilliancy of a full moon. Only twice was it seen by me, but then very distinctly; the first time some little dis- tance off, but the second quite close. On the first occasion the light started up from the ground with the brightness and speed of a rocket, and then again de- scended to the earth with equal velocity but less splendor: on the second we 3 Cameos from the Silver Land, by E. W. White, F. Z.S. London: Van Voorst, Vol. ii., p. 447. 282 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. caught sight of it as it directly, but gently, approached along the road, upon which, running to intercept it, and stumbling at every step over rough and swampy ground, we managed to arrive within three yards of the glowing vision as it slowly glided on at a level of about five feet from the earth. It presented a globular form of bluish light, so intense that we could scarcely look at it, but emitted no rays and cast no shadows; and when about actually to grasp the in- candescent nothingness, suddenly elongating into a pear-shape tapering to the ground, it instantly vanished; but on looking round up it rose again within fifty yards, but this time we could not overtake it, as it bounded over a hedge, then over trees, and finally disappeared in an impenetrableswamp. According to the testimony of the soldiers, on another occasion, they beheld it rise from the swamp and perch for some minutes on the top of the roof of a neighboring rancho with- © out walls, after which it pierced the roof and subsided in the ground beneath; but in our case there was no deception, and moreover we noticed that it never appeared on a windy night nor after rain.” The author adds, in comment, ‘‘ Al- though the marsh-gas theory presented itself to my unwilling mind, it would have to be strained considerably to be able to account for all the attendant circum- stances.” We will now attempt an examination of the various hypotheses proposed for the explanation of the Wisp. ' Trickery may at once be set aside as out of the question. The movement of the light is totally unlike that of aman carrying a lantern. It is at times mur ~ swifter, overleaps objects which a man could not surmount, and plays often ov. water, and at heights of from twenty to fifty feet in the air. Neither can we con sider that it is produc ed by the reflection of a light thrown from some neighbor- ing house. Fire-works are equally out of the question. Not to speak of the slowly progressive movements of the Wisp sometimes observed, it is in the high- est degree improbable that any trickster would convey a quantity of pyrotechnica] appliances into solitary moorlands, woods, and peat-bogs, in order to alarm some stray traveller. Another hypothesis, advanced by certain very learned authors, such as Ray, Willoughby, Kirby, and Spence,—ascribes the Wisp to luminous insects. Dr. Dereham and Dr. Phipson combat this view on the ground that such insects ‘‘rise far higher in the air than does the Wisp, and present the appearance of hundreds of little specks of light.” This argument seems scarcely valid; lumin- ous insects are in all probability more numerous than is ordinarily supposed, and vary considerably in their habits. Not all are high flyers, nor are they all grega- — rious. ‘The apparent size of the light may be considered a fatal obstacle, since ‘no known English insect emits a light of the size of ‘‘two fists.” But a light seen on a dark night by a superstitious and terrified ploughboy will very naturally be described—and that without any conscious or intentional exaggeration—as much larger than it really was. The circumstances that the Wisp is chiefly seen in calm weather and during the summer season are in favor of this supposition. But we have some positive testimony to advance. The Rev. Dr. Sutton, of Norwich, THE WILL-O’-THE-WISP. 283 informed Dr. Kirby that when he was curate of Ickleton, in Cambridgeshire, in 1780, a farmer of that place, of the name Simpringham, brought him a mole- cricket (Grylletalpa vulgaris), and told him that one of his people, seeing a /ack- o’-Lantern, struck at it and knocked it down, when it proved to be the insect in question. Mr. Main (‘‘ Mag. of Natural History,” n. s., i., p. 549) was told by a farmer that he had encountered and knocked down the luminous object, which he described as being exactly like a ‘‘ maggy longlegs”’ (Zipula oleracea), an in- sect, we must add, especially abundant in boggy and marshy lands. Dr. Dere- ham, the opponent of the insect theory (‘‘ Phil. Trans.,” 1729, p. 204), describes an Lents fatuus which he had personally witnessed as flitting about a thistle—a very likely action for an insect, though unlikely for a volume of inflammable gas or for an evil spirit. Mr. Sheppard informed Dr. Kirby that when travelling one night from Stamford to Grantham, on the top of a stage-coach, he observed ‘‘ for more than ten minutes a very large /gmzs fatuus in the low marshy grounds, which had the same motions as a Zzfula, flying upward and downward, backward and forward, sometimes as settled, and sometimes as hovering in the air.” It is remarked that in this case the wind was very high, so that a vapor would have been carried forward in a straight line, which was not the case. We are well aware that the insect-theory is not free from difficulties. Thus the question at once arises, Why is this phenomenon so rare? It is also to be asked whether the light given off by insects is sufficiently strong to be visible at such distances as the Wisp is said to have been? The orthodox theory at the present day—that of spontaneously inflammable gases, hydrogen phosphide, marsh-gas, and possibly hydrocarbons given off by decomposing animal or vegetable matter, is open to even more formidable objec- tions. The presence of the spontaneously inflammable variety of hydrogen phos- phide has never yet, we believe, been analytically demonstrated among the gas- eous matter given off from marshes, pools, and cemeteries. In Brande’s ‘‘ Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art,” (il., p. 191), the Wisp is ascribed to ‘‘the issue of marsh-gas from the earth. This gas, being ignited either accidentally or intentionally, continues to burn with a flame suff- ciently luminous to be well seen at night.” The writer admits, at the same time, that no natural production of spontaneously inflammable gas has ever been ob- served. Dr. Phipson gets over the difficulty of ignition by assuming that the gas given off consists of marsh-gas through which a small proportion of hydrogen phosphide is diffused. But an emission of inflammable gases from the earth or the water, however ignited and however composed, will not account for the phe- nomena in the majority of cases on record. In proof of this let any one perform the simple experiment of stirring up the mud at the bottom of a dirty ditch or pond, and ignite the marsh-gas given off by means, say, of a piece of taper fixed at the end of a fishing-rod. The gas will burn immediately over the surface of the ditch or swamp, but the flame will not travel away for considerable distances, overleaping hedges, stiles, trees, or buildings, or playing over thistles. Further, it is found that the Wisp is most common in calm, fine weather, when the barom. 284 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. eter is high. But gases pent up in the soil, in marshes, etc., will be most readily evolved when the barometer is low! Rainy and windy weather is not unfre- quently foretokened by the rise of bubbles of gas from the bottom of ponds and marshes. We can readily understand, however, that a light produced by inflam- mable gas might, if the supply was large and constant, hover over an extensive marsh or graveyard. But in such cases it would not be one and the same por- tion of luminous matter flitting up and down, but a succession of fresh bubbles, jets, or puffs of gas becoming ignited in turn. This accords ill with the facts as reported by observers; they generally speak of a single continuing light. Another hypothesis refers the phenomenon to electricity. We always find that the less any person knows about electricity the more easy he finds it to ac- count for any unexplained facts by its agency. Luminous appearances of electric origin are certainly well known, such as the ‘‘ Castor and Pollux,” which appears” at the extremities of the masts of ships during stormy weather. Similar lights have been noticed, especially in mountainous regions, attaching themselves to umbrellas, lances, alpenstocks, etc. But these phenomena seem essentially dis- tinct from the true Jgnzs fatuus, which, as we have already said, is characteristic of fine weather, and moves about instead of attaching itself to pointed objects. In all probability several distinct phenomena have been confounded under the name of /gnzs fatuus, and further careful observation is required for their re- spective discrimination. Those persons who live in or visit regions where the Wisp occurs might do good service by noting all the circumstances of each case at the earliest possible opportunity. The nature of the soil, the barometric pres- sure, temperature, the wind, and in short the entire character of the weather, should be recorded, and an attempt should be made to take the spectrum of the light. It appears that the medizval and popular notion of the Wisp—a conscious and evil-disposed being—is again brought forward by persons of education. ‘¢Miror,” whom we have already quoted, whilst accepting the hydrogen phos- phide hypothesis, asks further—‘‘ May not, however, Spirits of a low and mali- cious order, bent on mischief, when they find a natural medium in the dark, un- der circumstances favorable to their malice, make use of this gas, found in marshy places, to suit their purpose? Or may not an evil Spirit, fond of marshy places, have the power to turn an /enzs fatuus, that has its rise from natural causes, into a devious course for an evil purpose?’’ We reply that there is no satisfactory evidence of purposiveness, good or evil, in the movements of the Wisp.—London Journal of Science. SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. bo (ee) or CORRESPONDENCE: SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. Paris, July 29, 1882. Laennec observed, ‘‘the curability of consumption is not above nature, but art “possesses no means as yet to arrive at that end.” It is to nature that those af- ‘flicted with tubercular consumption, or predisposed to that malady turn for relief by seeking for an air of the greatest purity. Where find that genial atmosphere ? The doctors prescribe several health stations, and though differing in respect to ‘situation, agree that the main conditions are purity and uniformity. Indeed the best means to oppose to the terrible malady, consist in a residence on the borders of the sea, in a mild climate, practicing a generous regimen, and taking every precaution against chills and coughs. At present the assistance of nature is demanded under the form of a resi- dence on high mountains; by this is not necessarily meant excessive altitudes, for immunity against phthisis can be secured at altitudes the most various. Al- titude also varies with latitude; for example:—in the Andes, consumptive pa- tients are ordered to stations 3,500 yards above the level of the sea, while at Mexico, invalids are sent to reside at similar heights. Consumption is extremely rare in the Pyrenees; in Switzerland it is never met with above an altitude of 1,100 yards; in the Hartz and the Black Forest, it is next to unknown at a height of 560 yards. Exemption is here due perhaps more to the kind of life led by the natives than to elevation. Altitude cannot alone be the cause, for phthisis is common at Andermatt and Splugen, in Switzerland, while it is unknown at Klosters, which has about the same height. Again, many consumptive patients find relief in sea voyages; now if the level of the sea and elevated health stations produce the same beneficial effects, it is due to these extremes having a common trait—great purity of the air. There is absent what exists in centres of populations so prejudicial to delicate lungs, for where phthisis is not exempt from bad sanitary influences, there its ravages will be most terrible. A pure atmosphere, dry, and protected as much as possible from winds; a dry soil and a sparse population, these are the conditions sought by the consumptive, and which exist in the Upper Engadine and in the Davos Valley. The latter is the first favorite and resembles much the health resorts in the Andes. Saint Moritz is less in request. Davos, from being a pretty village has become a leading winter residence, has about the same altitude as the Miirren so well known to Interlaken tourists—about 2,000 yards; it owes its reputation to the remarkable tranquillity of its atmosphere. The climate resembles a good 286 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, deal that of the Pontresina—in the neighboring valley; but when the mountains become covered with snow, generally in November, ‘new conditions come into play, modifying in a remarkable manner winter. Thus, the sky is cloudless, the sun’s rays powerful, though unable to melt the snow; there are no warm currents. of air, and the valley being well protected against winds, a uniform calm reigns till spring. It is being superiorly protected against sweeping winds, that gives Davos the advantage over Engadine; there are no glaciers in the vicinity as at Pontresina, and it is warmer than the valley of the Inn. At the end of Decem- ber at Davos, when the snow ceases to fall, the atmosphere becomes still, cold, dry, and tonic. In the night, when the stars shine so brightly, the temperature falls several degrees below freezing point; during the day the sun’s rays are so in- tense, that patients can remain several hours outside, but must at once return to their apartments the moment the sun commences to set. The only drawback against Davos is its drainage, that the local authorities will find it their interest to remedy. An invalid after wintering in the mountains, cannot at once, when spring arrives, descend into the plains; a residence at an intermediary station will be necessary. It is well to add, that the wintering in the mountains does not suit many cases of well-defined consumption; the remedy is admirable for in- dividuals suffering from some accidental affection of the lungs, but in other re- spects possessing a good constitution; it is also excellent for persons with heredi- tary predisposition to phthisis, but with whom the disease has not yet appeared ; for those even in the preliminary stages of the malady. But under no circum- stance ought patients to be sent to this winter station who labor under the fever, and who are of a nervous and excitable temperament. Davos suits chronic bronchitis in children, nervous asthma, anemia, and nervous fatigue generally. As further proof that altitude has not in itself anything curative, the Russians send their pulmonic patients to the Steppes. Arcachon, near Bordeaux, on the borders of the Bay of Biscay, has a well deserved reputation as a winter health resort. Uniformity of temperature even is not a safeguard, for in Ceylon, which possesses a climate remarkably uniform, consumption largely exists. _ At the present moment astronomers are much puzzled at a red spot on the disk of Jupiter, it remains fixed since the three years that it has been observed ; the spot is four times longer than the length of the earth, is of a pale brick red, upon a luminous white ground, terminating in a point east and west. Jupiter possesses a very extensive atmosphere, for thespots, very varied, that are perceived on his disk, disappear a long time before arriving at the border where the revolu- tion of the planet carries them. Spectrum analysis also confirm the presence of an atmosphere. ‘The pressure is so great on the surface of Jupiter, as to resemble what our air would be if liquified. Perhaps when the red spot in question goes away, it may reveal a little of the real aspect of Jupiter. M. Faye maintains that comets’ tails consist of matter driven from the sub- stance of the comet itself, like smoke. M. Flammarion replies that such is con- SCIENCE LETTER FROM PARIS. ° 287 trary to the observed laws of gravitation. Comets, he thinks, are bodies which become highly electrified on approaching the sun; their substance becomes dif- fused, producing the phenomenon upon space, and opposite to the sun, of great luminous excitability, so as to extend millions upon millions of leagues but with- out involving any loss of the comet’s substance. The same authority again ex- pounds his views on the habitability of planets. Our planet, remarks M. Flam- marion, resembles a cup, too small to contain life, which manifests itself in all imaginable and unimaginable conditions, even developing to its own detriment, as in the case of parasitical life. The soil, water, air, all is full of being, of em- bryos, germs, and fecundity. Life literally overflows everywhere, transforming its manifestations, following time and place, seeking ever new theatres of action. Why then ought planets not be such theatres? Mars for instance, has many analogies with the earth; it possesses an atmosphere, thick it is true, containing, as ours, watery vapor in suspension; it has polar snows, continents, seas ; seasons akin to ours, but double their duration. But the planet Mars appears to have neither great oceans nor great continents; it has rugged coasts, complicated by inland seas, islands, peninsulas, straits, capes, gulfs and canals. It may be in- ferred too, that comparatively, there is less water on Mars than the earth. M. Bonley does not deny that cold kills trichines in hams, but some acade- micians still hesitate as to using such affected meat. As a general remark, meat submitted to cold preservation is not consequently bad, and does not possess the objections incident to raw meat so much prescribed for weakly children. Re- specting this latter subject, Dr. Vulpian remarks, it is sanctioned by experience, though incapable of scientific demonstration. Pounded raw meat then, favors digestion and restores strength. Monsieur Cadet has measured the number of red and white globules in our blood; the average number in the one twenty-sixth of a cubic inch, is 5,200,000; it can reach as high as nearly 7,000,000; the number of white is 8,000 or one for every 650red globules. In the blood of adults the red globules are regular in _form and nearly equal in diameter; rarely are small globules found, as is the case with the blood of new born infants and giants; the blood of the new born is rich- er in red globules than that of adults. Eating and digestion augment the number of white globules; fasting increases the red, not in the absolute sense, but by in- ducing a greater concentration of red globules in the liquid of the blood. The Academy of Sciences has been occupied with the fractional differences existing as to the exact position of the axis of the earth, and the consequent dif- ference in position of the stars as determined by astronomers from different standpoints. Messrs. Faye and Folie consider that these problems are intimate- ly associated with the constitution of the globe. Is the latter a crust, covering a centre of liquid fire; is it a perfectly solid mass; or, has the globe a kernel of solid matter, bathed in a fluid substance, the latter in turn being surrounded by a crust P 288 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, M. Callas has examined the properties of the new drug zesorczne, proclaimed to be a sovereign remedy for rheumatism. It possesses the same properties as phenic and salycilic acids; it is less toxical than the former, and is a stimulant for the central nervous system. As an anti-rheumatic, it presents no special claims. Madam Dr. Schipiloff attributes cadaverific rigidity to the acidification of the fibre of muscles. This opinion, at one time current, is now abandoned, since alkaline injections, that ought to neutralize acids, do not prevent that rigidity. MINING AND] ENGINE E RING: ENGINEERING: PAST AND PRESENT. ADDRESS OF ASHBEL WELCH, President of the American Society of Civil Engineers, at the Annual Convention at Washington, D. C., May 716, 1882. I do not propose this evening to undertake any general survey of the eng1- neering field. For such a survey, I refer you back to Mr. Chanute’s address of two years ago. I shall not attempt to glean after him. But I shall speak of several disconnected subjects of present interest, and give some reminiscences showing the contrasts between the past and the present; and in such reminiscences I shall disinter the buried memories of some of the great engineers of the past. When we look around on the engineering works recently completed, or now in progress or in contemplation, the first thing that strikes us is their extraordinary magnitude. Prominent among them is the St. Gothard tunnel, passing for 48,900 feet, or more than nine and a quarter miles, through the base of the great Alpine chain which has hitherto been so formidable a barrier between southern and central Europe, a thousand feet below the vale of Urseren and the villages of Andermatt and Hospenthal, and 6,500 feet, or a mile and a quarter, below the eternal snows that cover the crest of the mountain. The cost was about $12,000,000, or nearly $250 per foot lineal. This tunnel is nearly 9,000 feet, or a mile and two-thirds longer than the Mt. Cenis tunnel, by far the longest previously built. Such stupendous works have been made practically possible by the com- pressed air drill, and the high explosives now used. In my active engineering days, rocks were drilled for blasting only by the power of human muscle, either by one or two men churning a hole in the rock with a heavy rod some six feet long, or by one man holding and slowly turning a short drill, and another man driving it into the rock with a sledge hammer. ‘Then came the steam rock drill, then the compressed air drill. The compressed air not only does the work, but ENGINEERING. 289 it ventilates, and its sudden expansion cools the tunnel or the mine where it is used. The first, or one of the first tunnels in this country in which the rock was drilled by compressed air, was Nesquehoning, by Mr. J. Dutton Steele. Since then many have been made by the same means, one of the most memorable of which is the Musconetcong tunnel, a mile long, made under the direction of Mr. Robert H. Sayre. This difficult work gave occasion for the valuable treatise on tunnels by Mr. Drinker, who was in immediate engineering charge of it. The Hoosac tunnel, 24,000 feet long, after a long continued struggle, was completed several years ago, and is now in use. Among the tunnels now being constructed is one half a mile long under the plateau of West Point, and another 4,000 feet long through the hard trap rock of Bergen Ridge, at Weehawken; both on the line of the road now in construction on the west shore of the Hudson. Nearly all the debris from the latter is raised through shafts. The project is now under serious consideration of making a tunnel some twenty-one miles long under the Straits of Dover. A few years ago such a pro. ject would have received only a laugh of incredulity. The admiration of the world has not yet abated for the boldest of arched bridges yet built, that over the Mississippi at St. Louis, with its steel arches of 500 feet span, its piers of heavy masonry sunk to solid rock more than a hundred and thirty feet below the high water surface of the river, through shifting sands, and during the most fearful floods. The Brooklyn bridge, 1,595 feet, or nearly a third of a mile long, over an arm of the sea more crowded with commerce than any other in America, and high enough to allow a line of battle ship to sail under it—is drawing to comple- tion, and will be (though perhaps only for a few years, ’till something more stu- pendous comes), one of the wonders of the world. Probably the boldest plan for a bridge ever proposed, is that now in contem- plation over the Forth at Edinburgh, but of which it is yet premature to speak. Many very long spans and important bridges are now in progress in this country, such as the one over the Missouri by Mr. Morrison, but time does not permit even a glance at them. We are now so familiar with the success of suspension bridges for railroads, that we can hardly realize the almost universal disbelief in that success before they were tried. The late John A. Roebling told me before his bridge was fin- ished, that Robert Stephenson had said to him, ‘‘If your bridge succeeds, mine is a magnificent blunder.” And yet, unexpectedly to the best engineers in the world, the suspension bridge over the Niagara answers the purpose quite as well as the tubular bridge over the St. Lawrence. The mention of the St. Lawrence reminds us of the great and interesting improvement of that river now going on under the direction of Mr. Kennedy. The original low water channel between Quebec and Montreal, had, in places, a depth of only eleven feet. Now they are increasing the low water depth to twen- 290 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. ty-five feet with a width of 300 feet. The work is done with bucket and chain dredges, exceedingly well adapted to the purpose. Some of the buckets are armed with great steel teeth which excavate the solid rock (geologically, Utica slate, but compact rather than slaty in its structure), detaching and bringing up blocks sometimes containing several cubic feet. If anything of the kind could astonish us in this fast moving age, it would be the rapidity with which, during the past half dozen years, the construction of elevated railroads in New York, and to some extent elsewhere, has gone on. It is of little use to find their aggregate length, for in a few weeks any such estimate must be corrected. ‘There may now be about thirty-three miles of such roads, all double track. The average cost, including stations and equipment, has been about $800,000 per mile. One of the cases in which a new contrivance effects a great revolution, is that of the elevator. This has been in use for perhaps a quarter of a century at the Continental Hotel in Philadelphia, and in a few other places, but is now coming into general use, and is revolutionizing the mode of building in our great cities, especially in New York. A block of buildings is not now extended along a street as formerly, but is set up on end, and a highway to the different houses or parts of the block, is not horizontally along the sidewalk, but vertically through the elevator shaft. Sky-room is cheaper than earth-room. It is said that a lot on the corner of Wall and Broad streets was recently sold for over $320 per square foot, or at the rate of $14,000,000 per acre! Equal to the surface covered with silver dollars five deep. These stupendous buildings will give engineers and architects much to look after in the way of foundations. This reminds us of the Holly plan, in limited use elsewhere for several years, now going into extensive use in the city of New York, of dispensing with private fires for heating, and private boilers for generating steam; and furnishing heat and steam power for a considerable district from one great central set of boilers, piled boiler over boiler, tier on tier, for 120 feet in height. This is one of the operations most characteristic of the present time. Nothing is to be done now by the individual, but everything by some institution, or corporation, or central power, or great firm. Man has ceased to be a unit, and become only an atom of a mass. With the disappearance of the things themselves, the dear old phrases ‘‘ family fireside,” and ‘‘ domestic hearth,” are rapidly disappearing. Mr. Shinn and the engineer, Mr. Emery, have kindly given me some par- ticulars respecting this transportation of heat and power, but I can only refer to one or two points. The first and most obvious necessity 1s to prevent the escape of the heat. This is done by enclosing the steam-carrying pipe in a small brick tunnel, with a flat cover on the top; and filling the space around the pipe, from the bottom of the tunnel to the flat covering above, with mineral wool, which is found to be an excellent non-conductor. It is made by blowing a jet of steam into a stream or jet of melted furnace slag. The arch and covering of the tunnel are plastered over with asphaltum, to exclude all moisture. The loss of heat is said to be very small. One of the great difficulties comes from the expansion ~ ENGINEERING. ? 291 and contraction of the pipes, the range being more than an inch in a hundred feet. This is provided for by making the end of each section, of about 80 or 100 feet, terminate in very flexible diaphragms of thin copper, the diaphragms being supported by stiff iron ribs. Among the great enterprises in contemplation, is the interoceanic canal, or the interoceanic railroad for large ships. This is not the occasion for expressing any opinion on any of the competing projects. I will only say that if the world is determined to have a sea level canal, it makes a great mistake in not getting fuller information about the San Blas route. Many things that have been done by this generation seemed beforehand far less possible than the successful working of the ship railway proposed by Captain Eads. The difficulties are certainly very great, but we can see how they may be overcome. The real question is, whether taking into account the expense of overcoming those difficulties, the construction and operation of sich railway will be more economical in the end than the construction and operation of some one of the proposed canals. The last year has been one of intense activity, particularly in railroad con- struction. A year or two ago money was so abundant, and, therefore, interest so low, and so many capitalists, great and small, were tired of letting their money lie idle, that new enterprises of many kids were started, especially new railroads, and enlargements of capacity of those already in use. As the money market has approached its normal condition, some of the new projects have been dropped. It is instructive to look back and trace the connection between the progress of railroads and the financial condition of the country. The railroads opened in the United States, January 1, 1880, aggregated 86, - 500 miles in length, being 4o per cent of all the railroad mileage of the world. Last year we had 93,600 miles, and this year we have just about 100,000 miles. But mere length is a very inadequate measure of their magnitude. ‘The terminal mile of some roads has probably cost as much as five hundred miles of some other roads. At one time, and possibly now, the cost per ton taken, on the first two miles of the road from New York to Pittsburg, was more than the cost of carry- ing that ton over the next two hundred miles. The increase in aggregate magni- tude of all the roads may be almost as much in the enlargement without increase in length of the old, as in the extension of the new. We hear in more than one case of thirty miles of additional terminal tracks being laid at one point. The diminished plethora of money, and the greater caution now apparent, will, it is to be hoped, moderate the increase of the means of aay and transportation, so as to prevent another stagnation. The investment in railroad property in the United States is set down at about $5,000,000,000, perhaps about one-eighth of the value of all the property of the country, real and personal. When we speak of the extraordinary magnitude of the engineering works of the present day, we do not forget the pyramids, temples, and fortifications of 292 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. Egypt and Chaldea. Some of them exceeded in magnitude anything that has been made since. What makes it more strange is, that the force that produced them was almost entirely human muscle, while now the work is done largely by steam directed by human brain. Two contrasts strike us as we look at the an- cient and modern: the one was executed by slaves and conscripts, with little or no compensation; the other by free men, glad to work for the compensation of- fered. The old was for the glorification of the few; the modern for the use of the many. The stagnation that followed the breakdown of 1873, and the consequent low rates of transportation, compelled the managers of railroads to reduce the cost to: a point previously thought unattainable, by increasing the power of the engines and the weight of trains, by more convenient arrangements, by more service of the machinery, by cheaper construction and repairs, by better machinery and or- ganizations of labor, and many improved appliances for handling, and by the stoppage of leaks generally. American engineers and managers have often shown that poverty is the moth- er of invention. For example, they used cross-ties as a temporary substitute be- cause too poor to buy stone blocks, and so made good roads because they were not rich enough to make bad ones. American engineers are, or at any rate, were trained on short allowance of money. As that is the best engineering which accomplishes the purpose at the least cost in the long run, American en- gineering ought to be of the best. It is doubtless the fertility of resource coming from the necessity of effecting much with little means, which has created a demand for American engineers in other parts of the world. A few years ago the Government of British India sent for an American engineer, and the first thing they asked him to do was to report. on their railroads from the American point of view. Our lamented past presi- dent, W. Milnor Roberts, was employed by the Government of Brazil, as I judge from what happened after he went there, to train their engineers, educated in Eu- ropean schools, in American modes and ideas. _Though canal engineering is a thing of the past, its history is instructive. In England it commenced 120 years ago, the first engineer being James Brindley, a millwright. He seems to have known little of what had been done before, and his plans were evidently original. When he proposed to build an aqueduct across the Irwell for the Duke of Bridgewater’s canal, his critics said they had often heard of castles in the air, but they never heard before where they were to be put. Brindley built several canals, on one of which was a tunnel a mile and a third in length. He was succeeded in canal making by such men as Telford and Smeaton and Rennie. Though uneducated, he gained the admiration of scientific as well as practical men. When he wished to study a subject thoroughly, he ‘‘ laid in bed to contrive,”’ as he expressed it. The secret of his success, therefore, evidently ENGINEERING. 293 lay in concentration of attention on the subject in hand, and he kept out of the way of anything that could distract his attention. The era of canal building in England was rather less than seventy years: between 1760 and 1830. During the last decade of the last century, several efforts were made to con- nect the detached navigable reaches of some of the rivers in this country, by means of short canals and locks. One of these was undertaken at Richmond under the inspiration of General Washington. Another was at Philadelphia, around the Falls of Schuylkill. But the one of special interest in the history of engineering, was at Little Falls on the Mohawk. The great thoroughfares between the City of New York and the west and northwest was up the Hudson and through the valley of the Mohawk. - The transportation through that valley was partly by three, five, or seven-horse teams over the Genessee Turnpike,! and partly by boats on the river. Those boats were like what on the Delaware we used to call Durham boats, which were eight feet wide and sixty feet long, drawing, when loaded, a foot or two, and carrying from ten to twenty tons. They were pushed up stream by two or four men, with setting-poles held on their course by the captain with a long steering-oar. At Little Falls the descent of river is over forty feet, and, of course, the boats could not pass, but their cargo was carried by the portage of two miles, to other boats zbove or below. To avoid this canal and locks were built. They were finished in 1794. Jedediah Morse (father of S. F. B. Morse’ of telegraphic fame) published his great standard American Gazetteer a few years later, and in it he quotes the following expression of the public sentiment of the time: ‘‘ The open- ing of this navigation is a vast acquisition to the commerce of this State.” It was conjectured that these locks (which a man could almost jump across), and similar “great works”’ west of them, might soon make the little town of Albany the capital of a great empire. The Mohawk continued to be the principal artery of commerce from New York to the interior, until the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825. Mr. Weston, ‘‘that haughty British engineer,” as an old gazetteer calls him, was brought over from England to build the locks at Little Falls and elsewhere. One of his assistants was a land surveyor of Rome, New York, named Benjamin Wright, or Judge Wright, as he was called. When, years afterward, it was de- cided to build the Erie Canal, Judge Wright, though having only the slender ex- perience he had acquired under Weston, was appointed chief engineer. The skill and good judgment which was shown by this father of American engineer- ing, the few errors into which he and his still more inexperienced assistants fell, the great effects produced by them with the means at their command, and the 1 The migration to the West, (which then meant the Genessee country) was over this turnpike in horse Or ox teams; the patriarch of the family and his wife having on their shoulders the same black and white coverlet, and the big brass kettle full of dishes hanging under the hinder axletree of the wagon. Some oftheir grandchildren now sit in the high places of the Nation. VI—19 294 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. adaptation of their works to the circumstances of the time, are absolutely won- derful. One of Judge Wright’s principal assistants was Canvass White. His skill early brought him into notice, and he was sent by the State of New York to En gland to learn what he could, especially about hydraulic cement. Despairing of getting it at any reasonable price, and of making it stand the voyage, then from four to ten weeks, he set himself on his return to finding or making a substitute for European cement. . Led partially by the geological position of the hydraulic limes in England, and partly by what was known of their composition, he explored and tested cer- tain rocks of western New York, and made the first discovery of hydraulic cement in America. The State of New York gave him $10,000 for his discovery. Subse- quently he discovered or recognized cement rock in Pennsylvania in the way till then unknown, but now so familiar, by the contact of limestone and slate. And yet how soon those men, once so widely known, are forgotten. An eminent and excellent engineer, who had paid especial attention to cement, lately told me he never heard of Canvass White. One of Judge Wright’s assistants, but much younger than Canvass White, was John B. Jervis, whose name to-day is one of the most honored on the rolls of this society. Many of the distinctive characteristics of American engineering originated with those Erie Canal engineers. We practice their methods to-day, though most of their very names are forgotten. As a class, they wrote little. There were then no engineering papers prepared, and no engineering societies to perpetuate them, if they had been prepared. They were not scientific men, but knew by in- tuition what other men knew by calculation. Judge Wright’s counsel was ‘as if a man had inquired at the oracle of God.’’ What science they had, they knew well how to apply to the best advantage. few men have ever accomplished so much with so little means. The mention of cement reminds us of quite a new use of it, lately, under the direction of Mr. Chanute. The Erie road crosses the Genesee River by a high viaduct just above a fall. The bed of the river was wearing away, and would soon destroy the viaduct. An artificial bottom of cement has stopped the wear. The Erie Canal was opened in 1825. Governor Clinton passed through ina boat on one corner of the deck of which stood a cask of water from Lake Hrie, on another corner a cask of water of the Hudson. Gov. Clinton limped from the boat to the public halls, and speeches were made by and to him; and it was a great glorification. The result justified the public expectation. It built up the City of New York, and settled the question of commercial supremacy between that city and Philadelphia. ? The success of the Erie Canal soon brought about the construction of many others. They were thought to afford the most economical means of transporta- 2 An old pilot once told me that in his younger days there were three or four ships out of Philadelphia to one out of New York. ; i ENGINEERING, 295 tion, and railroads were made, not to carry goods to the final destination, but to a canal or other navigation. After the success of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830, this opinion was seriously shaken, and in a short time canal construction mostly ceased. Its era in this country was scarcely a quarter of a century, between 1817 and 1835. Canals to be successful now must be capable of passing vessels of large ca- pacity, must not have too much lockage, and the locks must be worked by steam or water-power ; the boats must be moved by steam, either on board, when the vessels are large enough, or, when the vessels are smaller, by locomotive on the bank, or by cable at the bottom, and then the locks must be large enough to hold the fleet taken by one locomotive or cable power; there must be plenty of water, and the canal must connect harbors or navigable waters. I tried towing by locomotive on the canal bank more than forty years ago. There is, of course, no difficulty in one engine towing several boats, but if the locks are not large enough to pass the whole fleet at once, the delay of all the fleet till each boat is passed separately, counterbalances the economy of steam in- stead of horse-power. ‘The speed even for light boats cannot be increased to more than five or six miles per hour on account of the wave. Cable-towing, notwithstanding the reported failure on the Erie Canal, can, with proper boats and apparatus, and with experienced men, be easily performed on the crookedest canal in America, as it is now done in Belgium. Canal engineering does not avail itself of the engineering resources of the age. Little improvement is made in it: mainly, I suppose, because it is not con- sidered worth improving. The most remarkable early river improvement in this country was that of the Lehigh. About the year 1817, Josiah White and Erskine Hazard commenced the improvement of this river, and made other preparations to inaugurate the anthra- cite coal trade. In 1820 they sent to market 365 tons, which was the beginning of the regular anthracite coal trade of America. Now the annual amount will soon reach 30,000,000 of tons. The descending navigation they made consisted, first, in clearing the chan- nel of rocks and confining the water in the rapids, when low, to that narrow chan- nel by boulder wing dams; second, when the fall was too great for this, in build- ing dams with bear-trap locks; and third, in storing the water in pools, and let- ting it run only when the coal arks were running. The bear-traps locks have given the hint for several devices since used, and are well worthy of examination. Near each end of the lock was a pair of gates, each gate reaching across the lock and to the back of the recess on each side, which gates, when not damming back the water, lay flat on the bottom of the lock. The lower gate could be made to revolve through an arc of somewhere about 40 degrees around a horizontal axis coincident with its down-stream edge. The upper gate of the pair, when laid flat, lapped over about half of the width of the lower gate, and revolved through a similar arc around its up-stream edge. When laid flat, the water, of course, ran freely over them. They were raised by 296 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. admitting the water to them from the pool above head of the lock, through the side wall, when the pressure of the water pressed them up. ‘They were prevented from going too far by shoulders in the recesses. The gates then came within 10 or 15 degrees of being at right angles to each other, the under side of the up- stream gate resting on the upstream edge of the downstream gate. They could be held in any position, so as to hold back the water entirely, or let it run over with more or less volume, as required. ‘The arks containing the coal were com- monly shot through over the partly raised gates as over so many dams. Such locks, copied from those on the Lehigh, are now in use on the Ottawa, at the Canadian capital. Many of us at our last convention were shot through them on rafts. It is well worth inquiry whether these bear-trap gates would not be the best possible, and possibly the cheapest, for letting the water rapidly out of a reservoir for scouring purposes. A full stream could be set running in a few seconds, and the flow could be regulated with perfect ease, and stopped at any moment. In many rivers it is desirable to dam the stream back at low water, and let it run freely at high water In Belgium, on the Meuse, they use needle dams for this purpose. Another probably better adjustable dam is in use in France. The bear-trap gates, with proper appliances, on a solid platform at the bo.tom of a river, would enable a man on shore to raise a dam across that river, or if raised, to lower it to the bottom, in a few minutes. I have used this contrivance for a fish sluice in a permanent dam, by which the water ran freely through the sluices when necessary, and at other times was retained at full height. The coal, on the descending navigation of the Lehigh, was sent to market in arks consisting of six boxes, sixteen feet square and twenty inches deep, coupled by hinges, the whole carrying about too tons. * *k *K *K *k * About fifty years ago, Professor Henry made a series of brilliant discoveries in electro magnetism, one of which was, that by means of a current through a wire, a signal could be made and information given (by ringing a bell, for ex- ample), a long distance off. Years afterward, Steinheil, Morse, Wheatstone and others, applied Henry’s discovery to the actual conveyance of information; Morse’s apparatus, as it seems to us Americans, being by far the best. The wonder to us now is, why Henry himself did not apply his discovery, and why others did not sooner do so. The answer is found in a very important phase of human mind. The habit of mind into which the scientist is hable, perhaps likely, to fall, is to look at scientific result as his ultimate end. Such result arrived at, the same habit of mind is to use it only to attain further scientific result. Hence, men of science so rarely are benefited pecuniarily by their own researches. Hence, also, it frequently happens that engineers who have kept at their studies without practice till too late in life, are so often less successful than those of far less science, and, perhaps, less intellect, but who have been early trained to ap- ply to practical use what science they have. ENGINEERING. 297 Iron ship-building has had almost its entire growth within the last forty years. In the spring of 1845, I visited a small iron ship-yard, then quite a new thing, at Birkenhead, on the south side of the Mersey. The proprietor, in his green flannel roundabout, showed his modest establishment, and explained some of the processes. ‘That proprietor became afterward well known to the world as Sir John Laird, the great iron ship-builder, and especially to this country as the builder of the Alabama. ‘The operations of that enterprising craft came near in- volving us and our cousins across the water in a very serious conflict. This was averted by the moral courage and enlightened patriotism of Grant and Hamilton Fish on this side, and Gladstone and Clarendon on the other, who, not having the fear of demagogues before their eyes, agreed upon arbitration instead of war. All honor to the statesmen who took this great step in Christian civiliza- tion. They were just beginning to build the first dock wall on the red sandstone bed rock of the Mersey ; now they have 159 acres of dock-room enclosed. Then Birkenhead was a small village; now it has more than 100,000 inhabitants. America is not the only country that moves. Mr. Chanute, in his annual address, two years ago, spoke of the first pro- peller boat used in America. That propeller fell into my hands; and I towed the first fleet of boats ever towed by a propeller tug on this side of the Atlantic, from Philadelphia to Bordentown, in October, 1839. Now, our harbors are full of them. The first propellers ever built in this country, and, as far as I know, the first iron hulls, were the Anthracite and the Black Diamond, built on the plans of Captain Ericsson, and employed in carrying coal through the Delaware and Raritan Canal. The first sea-going propeller built in this country was the frigate Princeton, built on Captain Ericsson’s designs, under the direction of Captain Stockton. It was a full rigged sailing ship, the intention being to use steam only as auxiliary. It should not be forgotten that John Stevens, almost dich year ago, built a small propeller boat, with two propellers, or ‘‘circular sculls,” as he called them, and ran it about the harbor of New York. It is wonderful how near his blades approach the angle which experience has shown to be the best. He used a small locomotive boiler, as it would now be called, such as was reinvented “by Booth, a quarter of a century later, at Liverpool. The rapid progress of the country, and the activity of the age, are more strikingly shown by the records of the Post Office Department, than by the in- crease of population—from three to fifty millions since the revolution—or than by any other statistics I know of. During several years of the time that Benja- min Franklin was Postmaster-General, he personally kept the whole accounts of the department, and all in one small book, and settled with the postmasters and mail carriers. There were then about, perhaps, twenty or thirty dead letters a year, now there are four millions. It now takes eight clerks constantly employed to open them, and I remember that it takes fifty clerks to take charge of one class of them. Franklin kept one small book, which lasted three years, now there are 298 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. 150 or 200 books, each half a dozen times as large, filled each year. Then the work was done by Franklin for $600 a year, now by 700 clerks, for, perhaps, a million a year. Within my memory, some of the sciences with which engineers have spe- cially to do, have grown from infancy into at least adolescence. For example, geology was a collection of interesting but isolated facts, and unverified theories, now it isa science. It used to be considered terribly hetero- dox, and a young man who cared to stand well with good people found it safest to say nothing about it. To read geology was next to reading Tom Paine. A learned and excellent divine once confidently informed me that all the supposed plants and animals found in the rocks were merely stones that happened to come out in that shape. Now geology has an important connection with the instruc- tion in theological seminaries. Business and population depend on geology. A geological map of England enables one to locate its occupations and the denser populations. An outcrop of gneiss, extending southwest from New York, forms the limit of tide in the rivers, and fixes the location of Trenton, Philadelphia, Wilmington, Baltimore, George- town, Richmond and other cities to the southwest. When I studied chemistry at school the components of compound bodies were given in percentages. For example, limestone was 48 per cent., oxygen 12 per cent. carbon and 4o per cent. calcium. Of course, nobody could remember such proportions. Nor did it give the proximate elements of the compound. The atomic theory, as it was called, was known, but chemists were cautious. about accepting it. They had not yet learned to distinguish between the ¢heory of atoms, and the fac? of equivalents. One of the most surprising feats of modern science is seen in the daily pre- dictions we have of the morrow’s weather. ‘Time was, and many of us remember back to it, when predictions were made, and by intelligent people, too, from the phases of the moon, from weather breeders, from the weather on certain anniver- saries, and the like. More than a century ago Franklin pointed out the fact that northeast storms begin in the southwest, two or three days earlier at New Orleans than at Phila- delphia. Much information was afterward accumulated, and scientific investiga- tions were from time to time made by many able men. About forty years ago Prof. Espy, of Philadelphia, announced his theory, that rain is caused by the rarefaction and consequent upper movement of the mixed air and vapor into a colder region, where the vapor is condensed and falls into rain, and that this rarefaction produced by the heated surface of the earth, or by fire or otherwise, causes the denser air to flow in from every side, so that the wind blows toward the rain. All this has been since verified. But this sanguine philosopher did not get the credit he really deserved, but drew upon himself the ridicule of the world, by claiming for his discovery more than it could accomplish, especially by proposing to raise the Mississippi by setting fire to the woods on the Alleghany Mountains, when the hygrometer showed much moisture, and so getting the up- ENGINEERING. 299 ward current required to make it rain, just as it commonly rains after any great fire, or the eruption of a volcano, or a battle. Espy visited Princeton to confer with Prof. Henry. I was present at the interview. Henry, while he thought Espy’s main principle quite correct, got very much out of patience with him for several hasty conclusions from statements which, to Henry’s cautious, scientific mind, did not seem at all conclusive. } After he was gone, Henry chalked out the plan which he afterward, with the co- operation of Guyot and other able men, so successfully carried into execution, of simultaneous observations all over the country, and a daily chart of highest and lowest pressures, and other things about which my memory is less distinct. As everybody knows now, it is the traveling of these lines from west to east, at an average of about thirty miles an hour, that enables the weather predictions to be made. Our rapid progress involves the frequent undoing of what has only recently been done in the most costly manner. We have seen expensive buildings erected in the City of New York, and then in two or three years torn down to give way to something greater or different. The Alleghany Portage Railroad, of which my brother, Sylvester Welch, was chief engineer, W. Milnor Roberts being one of his assistants, was considered for some years one of the wonders of the world ; the improvements in the locomotive and the increased strength of the rails after- ward enabled engines to cross the Alleghany without the inclined planes used on that road, and that splendid work, on which so much thought had been expend- ed, was torn up. It is folly to build for the far future. This reminds me that in a paper written 1829, read before this society two or three years ago. Mr. Moncure Robinson estimated that the tonnage over the Al- leghany Mountains at that point might in time reach 30,000 tons per annum. I suppose that the tonnage now over the mountain, on the Pennsylvania railroad, exceeds six millions. One of the bold and remarkable works of the day is the submarine sewer at Boston, to carry the sewage under an arm of the harbor and across an island far to the seaward. They have discovered, what unfortunately many others have not, that little is gained by emptying sewage into a harbor or into a small river, and so transferring the nuisance from one point to another, or distributing it all over. Sanitary engineers have been contending each for his own favorite system of sewering and draining cities. Mr. Hering, in his paper read at the convention at Montreal, impressed upon us that no one system is absolutely good or bad, but either is good when adapted to the circumstances, and bad when it is not. Municipal corporations often think that the remedy for unhealthiness is, of course, sewerage, just as some doctors in old times gave their patients calomel without 1 My attention, was drawn to this subject by the conference between Espy and Henry, and while travel- ling in Ireland, I asked my very bright, and on the subjects within his range, intelligent car driver, which way the storms there came from? Evidently he had never thought on that subject, but, adopting on the instant a meteorological creed, answered quick asthought: ‘* The storms, sir, come from which ever way the Lord Al- mighty chooses to send them.” 300 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. regard to what was the matter with them, or what kind of constitutions they had. One of the startling propositions of the day is to bring the waters of Lake George and the upper Hudson by an open canal tosupply the City of New York. When somebody asked Brindley what rivers were made for, he said: ‘‘ To feed navigable canals.” The answer now would be: = ‘‘ To supply great cities with water.”’ Among the subjects to which the attention of the society is now especially turned are Standard Time and the Preservation of Timber. As we expect reports on these, I shall not further refer to them. One of the most remarkable of modern implements, one whose powers seem almost miraculous, is the diamond drill, which bores into the hardest quartz con- glomerate and even into chilled iron. It seems to be capable of much wider ap- plication than it has yet had. The attachment of a car to a moving wire rope, in the way proposed by Col. Paine, without injury to the rope or risk to the car, will probably revolutionize the mode of traction in very many cases. Within the last year or two the load on each wheel of a freight car has been increased from 5,000 pounds to 8,ooo pounds, an increase of 60 per cent. Ac- cording to Dr. Dudley’s observations on the Pennsylvania Railroad, an increase of 60 per cent. on a wheel made an increase in wear per million of tons of a lit- tle over 30 per cent. We may expect'that this recent increase will increase the wear at least 30 per cent.; that is, the rails on a heavy traffic road that would have lasted with the old machinery ten years, will now last 7.7 years. But with the heavier weight on a wheel, the residuary part of the rail after it is worn down to the limit of safety, must be much stronger than formerly required, in order to bear the heavier weight. Suppose the diminution of the consumable part of the rail on this account to be 20 per cent. (which would be only 4 or 5 per cent. increase on the whole rail) it reduces the duration to 6.16 years with the same traffic. But as the traffic has increased much more rapidly than was ex- pected, it is now probable that the rails on our heavy traffic roads will not last half as long as they were expected to last three or four years ago. If a rail will last a dozen years where actually used, it would not pay to add more than about 30 per cent. to its cost to make it last two dozen years, but it would pay to add 45 per cent. to its cost to prevent its duration from coming down froma dozen to half a dozen years. Steel rails were made fifteen years ago with twice the endurance of those made now. Under the new circumstances, it is probable that it will before long be economy for roads with the heaviest traffic to pay the railmakers a price that will enable them to make rails as durable as the best ever made. kK * * *K * *k The subject of tests for large members of metallic structures is now receiving our earnest attention. If I should speak of its necessity it would only be to re- peat what is said in our memorial to Congress. I will only again call attention to one point; that is, that the process of manufacture of a large piece of iron or steel may be so different from that of a small piece, and therefore the quality of the COLORADO MINES, ; 301 “two be so different, though both may be made from the same stock, that the strength of the larger cannot be inferred, but only guessed at, from the known strength of the smaller. In the larger there is more likely to be permanent op- posing strains that destroy a large percentage of its strength. A remarkable in- ‘stance of opposing strains, caused by treatment in manufacture, was pointed out some time ago by Colonel Paine. He found that wire coiled before it was set could not be even straightened without straining the sides beyond the limits of elasticity, and that such wire had nothing near the strength of that coiled straight. As the strength of a large metallic member of a structure cannot be tested by any machine within the reach of individual means, and as to obtain the best results requires the combined skill of several classes of experts, the aid of Congress is in- voked to provide a suitable machine, and to create a board of experts whose va- ried skill shall plan the best experiments. * *k *K *K * * Undoubtedly the progress of the age, which is so largely engineering prog- ress, does on the whole greatly increase the welfare of mankind. By making the forces of nature do the hard work, the labors of the toiling millions are light- ened many fold. The laboring man now works with brain and eye more than with muscle, and his business is now to apply some principle of science. This raises him intellectually. He now has time for improvement. Comfort and re- finement, and even luxury, are brought within his reach. The forces of nature having become obedient to the will of man, they are made to produce for him not only plenty, but conveniences and luxuries formerly undreamt of. By the present facilities the races of men are brought into contact with each other. Those races are being assimilated, and the prejudices and hatreds of the past are fading away. Supreme power among men is more than ever in the hands of the most enlightened, and they are sending civilization and Christianity into the re- gions most benighted. The light of Heaven is beginning to shine into the Harem and the Zenana. And the time seems to be hastening when there shall universally prevail ‘‘ peace on earth’”’ and ‘‘ good will toward man.”— Van Jostrand’s Mag- azine. COLORADO MINES. LEADVILLE SMELTERS.—The production of the Leadville smelters, during the month of July, shows 3,604 tons of base bullion, which, after deducting for dross and the precious metals contained in the same, would leave at least 3,500 tons of lead. Every month so far this year has shown a gain over the corre- sponding period of last year. During the fore part of the year, one month showed a product of 4,000 tons, the output of the Leadville reduction-works. There is now very little question but that the product for the year will aggregate between 40,000 and 43,000 tons. The shipments of lead during the first six months amounted to 21,898 tons, and up to date to 25,500 tons. There have also been 302 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, shipped to Pueblo, Kansas City, and other smelting centers more than 30,000 tons of ore to date, this year. At an average of 10 per cent of lead in these ores we have a grand total production of lead of 28,500 tons. How long this. production will be maintained, it is difficult to predict. It shows, however, the important part Colorado, and particularly Leadville and its tributary camps, occupy in the mining world, in the production of lead, at the present time. | LirtLe PirrspurG.—The official report for the week ended July 31st shows: Ore shipped, 112 tons; settled for, 719 tons; balance shipped and unsettled for, git tons. During the month of July, 522 tons of ore were shipped and 719 tons settled for. * MONARCH DISTRICT. From the Leadville Herald we take the following notes on this district: The Madonna smelter is running very successfully, and turning out a car-load of bull- ion daily. The smelter is using only the ore from the Monarch Company’s mines, which produces a moderate grade of bullion, but will increase the grade by mixing in ore from the Monarch and other high-grade mines. It is the inten- tion of General Tuttle, manager of the company, to increase the capacity of the smelter by the addition of two fifty-ton stacks in the fall. The company’s mines are looking exceedingly well. The main drift, which has been run to connect with the upper workings, shows ore all the way, and it is estimated that the ore-reserves are sufficient to furnish the smelter with a two years’ supply of ore. The Fairplay, located just above the Madonna smelter, has developed a body of high-grade sulphuret ore, the extent of which has not been defined. The Eclipse has during the past week caught ore in the tunnel which has been run to tap the ore-body about 250 feet below the upper workings, and about fifteen tons of ore have been taken out in driving the tunnel. The main shaft, now at a depth of about 185 feet, also shows good ore in the bottom. The ore-bodies pre- viously developed on the forty-five-foot level are still untouched. Several new and promising discoveries have been made on Limestone Moun- tain, to the west of the Madonna group; but as yet their extent is not definitely known. The district generally shows considerable activity, and the indications are, that it will assume a prominent place as a producer. MOSQUITO DISTRICT. Sunny SourH.—Ore of remarkable richness has been discovered since the recent reported strike. This property is developed by a tunnel which has been run in on the lead for a distance of 70 feet. At 65 feet, an inch streak of ore was cut, which rapidly widened, and on sinking on it for a depth of six feet, the pay-streak increased to two feet of solid ore. During the sinking, twenty-eight sacks of ore was taken out, which, on being tested at the London mine, the native silver being thrown out, yielded returns of 385 ounces in silver and 20 per cent in lead. ARTESIAN WELLS IN COLORADO, - 303 PITKIN COUNTY. INDEPENDENCE District.—This camp is only thirty-five miles from Leadville on the opposite side of the Continental Divide, and at about the same elevation. The discoveries already made and the geological features of the region give prom- ise of similar results. The Farwell Company has stamp mills full of ore and is making some excellent strikes on the Mt. Hope side of the gulch. The Minne- haha Company has made a very rich strike between the Farwell mines and the Hamilton Company’s lands. The Hamilton Company is still delayed by conflict- ing surveys, but as soon as these points are settled and the property actually pat- ented, active operations will be commenced and heavy work done all through the winter. PUEBLO COUNTY. CoLorRaDO CoaL AND IRon Company.—This Company is now turning out 125 tons of Bessemer steel rails per day on a contract made last year for 30,000 tons, the contract price being $70 per ton for a part and $65 a ton for heavy sec- tions. It is expected that the product will soon be increased to 150 tons per day. SUMMIT COUNTY. RosINson CONSOLIDATED.—A dispatch dated August gth says: Work was begun to-day on the Robinson Consolidated mine. ‘Three great pumps are hand- ling the water splendidly. ARTESIAN WELLS IN COLORADO. Commissioner Horace Burch, who was appointed by the Agricultural De- partment, at Washington, to select the sites for two experimental borings for ar- tesian wells in Colorado, made a trip to the prairie land in the eastern portion of the State to-day. He was accompanied by Senator Hill, the originator of the artesian well bill, and several railroad officials. The party went to the plateau divide between the headwaters of the Republican River and the South Platte, 112 miles from the city, on the line of the C., B. &. Q. Railroad. . The geologist com- missioner of last year reported this section of country as giving the most promising indications of a high-water strata. One well will be sunk about a mile from Akron, in a country heretofore dry and arid. Contracts will be immediately let for 2,500 feet. It is thought that a strong flow will be tapped within 1,000 feet. The second well will probably be located near Kit Carson, on the Kansas Pacific Road. The contracts on both wells will have been completed by snow fall. It will be remembered that the original $30,000 appropriations for artesian well explorations in Colorado was squandered under LeDuc’s management. He started a well near Fort Lyon, and paid a heavy royalty to experiment in sinking with a diamond drill. When a depth of only 800 feet had been reached by the 304 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, bore the appropriation was exhausted. It was estimated that the same result could have been had under contract for $1,500. Senator Hill obtained the last appropriation from the agricultural fund, and is confident of discovering the flowing well belt. If successful a vast expanse of country now barren and unin-’ habitable will be converted into lands for agriculture and stock raising. MISSOURI COPPER MINES. We have frequently had occasion to refer to the great mineral resources of this State, which as yet have attracted comparatively little attention abroad. For years Missouri’s iron, coal, lead and zinc mines have been worked in a quiet sort of a way, but with great profit. Three mining regions only have been brought prominently into notice since mining first assumed the proportions of an industry, namely, the Rich Hill coal fields, the Joplin lead and zinc mines, and the iron ore beds in central and southeast Missouri. But the growth of mining has been steady, if not rapid, and every new development encourages the hope that Mis- souri will finally rank head and shoulders above any other State in the Mississippi - Valley as a producer of the useful metals. Coal, zinc, lead and iron have been mined on a large scale for years, and copper, in small quantities, in different parts of the State. Now, however, appearances would seem to indicate that the mining of copper, so long neglected, will ultimately assume a magnitude that will place Missouri among the leading copper-producing States of the Union. The richest and most promising copper fields at this time are located in St. Genevieve County, south of St. Louis. In presenting a brief history and description of these mines we are indebted for data to a report of Prof. W. B. Potter, of the firm of Potter & Riggs, engineers, on the principal mine in the county—the Corn- wall—and to a paper presented by Mr. Frank Nicholson, M. E., to the Ameri- can Institute of Mining Engineers. Copper ore was first noticed in St. Genevieve County in 1863, but it was not until 1868 that explorations were begun, Mr. Harris being the leading spirit. After considerable prospecting on the section where the outcroppings had been noticed the work was abandoned without result. In 1872 Messrs. Harris, Rozier & Co. obtained a lease on the Grass mining property for twenty-five years, pay- ing 10 per cent royalty. In 1876 a Chicago firm, Hitchcock, Wilson & Co., began work on a hill opposite that on which copper was first discovered and after a year’s fruitless labor the firm failed. The Chicago company’s mine was bought in by O. D. Harris, who now owns the Grass and Chicago mines and operates them under the name of the Cornwall Copper Mines. In 1880 the Cornwall mines erected works for making raw mattes and in 188r refining works were added. From 1876 to 1879 two other mines were opened in the neighborhood of the Cornwall mines, Swansea Copper Mine and the Herzog Copper Mine. These three mines all belong to the same formation, and a study of one reveals the characteristics of all. MISSOURI COPPER MINES. 305 The Cornwall mines are located ten miles from the town of St. Genevieve, and the ore occurs in two nearly horizontal sheet deposits, in what is pronounced by Mr. Nicholson to be the second of the magnesian limestone of the Lower Si- lurian formation. The principal developments in the Cornwall have been made in the upper deposit, while the lower level is chiefly worked at the Swansea mines. Still, the limited amount of prospecting done -makes it possible that there are other levels. . Mr. Potter says: ‘‘ The upper sheet-deposit seems to follow very nearly the bedding of the limestone, and varies in thickness from a few inches to three or four feet. Though varying greatly in thickness, the ore-sheet is remarkably con- tinuous. Occasionally it is wanting in a very small area; but such barren ground is easily worked around, and may be utilized for pillars in the support of the roof. A layer of sandstone, quite thin and irregular, seems to be in most places the immediate associate of the ore, and this at times is found to be altered toa hard ferruginous quartzite, carrying more or less copper. Layers and nodules of chert occur in the limestone at times, making the ground a little hard; but as a rule the latter rock is easy to mine. It is worked out to the parting at the top of the course, which gives an easy plane to break to. This makes the drifts (vary- ing with the position of the ore-sheet in the course) from three and one-half to six and one-half feet high, the average being about five feet. ‘ THE METEOROLOGY OF SHAKESPEARXKE. 583 Is this mere imaginary descripti n? We should say that it is a most faithful picture of such a season as that of 1879, with all its distressing features. Wehave summer frosts, short fits of mild weather coming when cold would be more sea- sonable, overflowing rivers, fields swamped, sheep perishing of foot-rot and of ‘ is that of Cancer, or the Crab which the Sun enters at mid-summer. You will observe that we have now reached the part of the ecliptic highest above the equator, which is, of course, the part reached by the Sun at midsummer. The point marked 95 is at its highest in the south at noon on or about June 2rst, and is then occupied by the Sun; it is at its highest in the south at midnight on or about December zoth, and the Sun is then exactly opposite to this point, or at his lowest below the northern horizon. Those who live as far south as New Orleans, see, well raised above the hori- zon, the star Canopus, in the stern of the good ship Argo. There is presented to them, at this season, a view of more first magnitude stars than can be seen at 590 KANSAS CLL YV REVIEW SOF SCIENCE: any other time in one quarter of the heavens. For besides the splendid equal- sided triangle formed by Procyon, Betelgeux, and Sirius, they see Aldebaran, Rigel, and Canopus, the last-named surpassing every star in the heavens except Sirius alone. Next month, the great ship Argo will have come better into view ; and I de- fer till then my account of this fine constellation. The eastern and western maps for this month, when compared with those for January, show how the stars, observed at any given hour month after month, change in position just as though they were watched hour after hour on the same — night. Thus in the January eastern map the Lion is seen low down, and the ar- rows scattered over the map, which (except the arrow on the ecliptic) point the way the stars are apparently moving, show that the I.ion is passing upward and shghtly toward the right, or to’just such a position as the constellation has in the eastern map for this month. In fact, if the stars had been observed in January two hours after the time when the Lion was placed as shown in the January map, it would have been found that the Lion had reached the exact position occupied by the constellation in our present map. Two hours’ motion on any given night produces the same change of position as one month’s motion for stars seen at any given hour. This remark applies to all stars; and the young student will do well to compare together the two eastern maps and the two western maps (for January and February), following up the work by noting month after month how the star groups rise up from out of the eastern horizon, and pass down toward the western. Also he will find it interesting to notice how six months hence the stars which are now rising at any given hour in the east will be found at the same hour setting in the west ; while those which at any hour are now setting in the west will be found six months hence rising in the east. What is true of the present time, and six months from the present time, is true of any part of the year, and six months before or after that time. In the east we see that at the hours named under the map (and of course at intermediate hours on the intermediate dates) the constellation Auriga has passed overhead, leaving only two stars visible in the space covered by the map, and even those two (Leta and Theta) have passed over to the western side of the north and south line overhead. ‘The Lion is now the chief constellation of the east; and the student will do well to study it there, for this group is not so well seen at any other part of the year. When in the south, indeed, it is better placed for the astronomer, who cannot have the stars too high above the horizon. But the general student of the skies can note the shape of star gioups more conven- iently when they are at a moderate elevation. I think few can recognize in the constellation Leo, as now figured, the shape ofalion. The stars Mu, Epsilon, and Lambda now mark the place of the lion’s head, while his tail ends at the star Beta, and his forepaws reach from /2 to Omz- cron. It requires a strong imagination to see a lion among these stars. But I think a much larger lion can be readily seen, the head lying in Cancer, the mane reaching to Leo Minos, the forepaws on the stars Zeta, Epsilon, and Delta, which THE STARS FOR FEBRUARY, 591 mark the head of Hydra (the Sea-Serpent), and the hinder paws on the stars Beta and Zeta of Virgo. It seems to me likely that originally the constellations named after men, animals, and other objects, were not, as now, separated from each other ; but that if any group, large or small, seemed to resemble any object it was named after that object, whether it formed part or not of any other group already named, or whether it included part of such a group or was itself partly included in another constellation. Of Virgo, which is just beginning to rise above the horizon, I shall have more to say next month. In the west Pegasus, which was nearly in full view last month, has almost wholly set. Andromeda (still head downward) is following the Winged-Horse, but not toward the same part of the horizon. Perseus, or ‘‘the Rescuer,”’ who was overhead last month, now lies between Andromeda and the point overhead, while Auriga (the Charioteer) now occupies the highest region in the heavens. Two interesting constellations, which last month could not be seen in the western map, have now passed within its precincts, namely, Taurus (the Bull), and Cetus (the Sea Monster or whale). It is very easy to identify the Bull, first by the Pleiads, and, secondly, by the bright and somewhat ruddy Aldebaran. The famous cluster—the so called seven Pleiads—in reality contains an immense number of stars, forming a very beautiful and amazing object when examined even with a small telescope. It is fabled that there were once seven Pleiads visible to the naked eye, but that one, called the lost Pleiad, has faded from view. With good eye-sight, however, not only can the original seven Pleiads be distinctly seen, but several others. A few observers have even seen as many as fourteen Pleiads. The star (Omicron) Ceti is perhaps the most interesting star in the heavens. It is shown, in the map, of the second magnitude, but is in reality variable. At its brightest it shines as a star of the second magnitude; but it only shines thus for about two months out of ten. For about a fortnight it shines as a star of the second magnitude, then by degrees it fades away, until at the end of three months it can hardly be seen. After remaining about five months invisible, it gradually increases in brightness for about three months when it isagain asecond magnitude star. It occupies about 331 days and eight hours in going through these changes. —Easy Star Lessons. 092 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. GC COLOGN: GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF KANSAS AND MISSOURI. In the Legislatures of both of the above named States bills have been intro- duced providing for geological surveys of the respective States. We give the full text of that for Kansas, sent us by Mr. Geo. S. Chase, Chairman of the Com. mittee appointed by the Kansas Academy of Science to attend to the matter: Be wt Enacted by the Legislature of the State of Kansas : SECTION 1. That the Governor, Attorney-General, and President of the Kansas Academy of Science are hereby constituted a Board of Commissioners who are authorized and required, as early as may be, after the passage of this Act to appoint and commission a competent geologist for the purpose of organiz- ing and prosecuting a geological survey of the State. Sec. 2. Said geologist shall be authorized to appoint and associate with him a competent assistant geologist and paleontologist and an experienced analytical and experimental chemist and mineralogist, and such other collaborators and as_ sistants as the best interests of the work may from time to time demand, provid- ed the compensation for such assistance does not exceed the sum hereinafter ap- propriated for the maintenance of the survey; the appointment, direction and dismissal of assistants connected with the survey to rest in the hands of the geo- logist in charge. SEc. 3. The objects and methods of the survey are the acquisition of a cemprehensive and detail knowledge of the geological structure and mineral re- sources of the territory embraced within the limits of the State. This shall in- clude besides a careful study of the superficial reliefs of the State from such data as is or may be accessible, a thorough investigation of the stratigraphy of the va- rious geological formations occurring within its bounds with the view of ascer- taining their constitution, magnitude, and distribution, and the character, extent and value of the mineral or other products of economic importance occurring in connection with such formations. In view of the necessities for the realizations of the largest scientific and practical results in the prosecution of these investiga- tions the work of the geological survey shall be proceeded with systematically, and with as great energy and despatch as may be consistent with its efficient exe- cution. For this purpose the State shall be divided into at least three divisions, which shall correspond with the three principal hydrographic basins occurring within its limits, viz: The Missouri, Kansas and Arkansas drainage systems. These systems to receive a careful preliminary examination in order to determine ~ GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF KANSAS AND MISSOURI, 593 the salient, physical and geological features pertaining to each division and to the whole State. With the consummation of these preliminary exploration the detai\ investigation of these divisions shall be begun, commencing with the oldest geo- logical formation, and expanding the work by the detail survey of each county until the whole territory of the State shall have been thus systematically explored. For the greater expedition of this work the geologists shall further devote their in- vestigations to special formations and districts, as far as may be, thereby allowing the examinations to be carried on in all parts of the State at one and the same time. Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of said geologist in charge to make as complete a series of examinations of the superficial geological deposits as shall aid to an understanding of the origin, character, and extent of the different sorts of soils, the probability of obtaining water by means of artesian wells, especially in the western counties; also of all rock exposures, coal-beds and other mineral deposits. as practicable, and the information thus gained shall be embodied in such notes, diagrams and sections as may be necessary for the clearer elucidation of the local,. structural and stratigraphical features of the geological formations occurring in each county, and over the entire State. Said geologist shall also secure as complete collections as possible of the min_ erals, rocks, soils, fossils, salines, and mineral waters occurring in the State that in any way have a value as aids to a thorough knowledge of its geological his- tory. A complete suite of said collections to be retained in the museum of the Kansas Academy of Science at the Capitol where they shall be classified and ar- ranged, and be a permanent exhibition of the geological survey; a full series of the duplicate specimens similarly classified and authenticated to be placed at the disposition of the State University, State Agricultural College, and State Normal Schools. The geologist in charge shall also be authorized to use every means in his power, not otherwise interfering with the efficient conduct of the survey, to make accessions from abroad of geological material to the collections of the sur- vey that may in any way contribute to the value of the economic, and education- al results of the same. Sec. 5. The said geologist in charge shall cause to be submitted to the chemist all ores, minerals, rocks, soils, salines, and mineral waters the chemical investigation of which may be of economic and scientific utility ; also the chemist shall be afforded practical facilities for the prosecution of researches in the field wherever such may be essential to the interest of knowledge or of practical utili- ty : and he shall in all cases be required to report the results of his analyses and investigations to said geologist. Sec. 6. It shall be the duty of said geologist in charge to submit to the Governor on or before the first Monday in January of each year, a concise report. of progress of the field-work for the current year in which the more important economic results shall be made public. Sec. 7. At the earliest practicable date the geologist in charge shall pre) are O94 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. reports on the regional or county geology including reports of assistant geologist and chemist, each county so described to be accompanied by diagrams, sections and a map on which shall be indicated the location of all important mineral de- posits the existence of which shall have been made known, and as far as practica- ble the extent of forest and prairie, nature and distribution of soils, and such other occurrences as may be deemed of importance for the information they af- ford regarding the economic resources, and industries dependent thereon, and the general aspect of the counties of the State. Said reports shall be placed in the hands of the Governor, who shall bring them to the attention of the Legisla- ture at its earliest session thereafter with recommendation for blnet speedy publi- cation. Sec. 8. On the completion of the field-work of the survey the geologist in charge shall make and cause to be made final reports on the geology of the whole State, including reports of the assistant geologist, chemist and collaborators of the survey, which shall embrace discussions of the physical, geological and mineral ogical features of the entire area of the State, and its relations in these respects to contiguous regions; said reports shall be accompanied by charts, diagrams, and other necessary illustrations, vertical and profile sections embracing generalized presentations of the stratigraphy and valuable minerals associated with the geolog- ical formations present in various parts of the State, and a large sized map of the State on which shall be indicated by colors, and other appropriate means the ex- tent of surface occupied by the various geological formations occurring within its bounds; in fine, such reports shall present a full digest of the scientific and eco. nomic results attained during the prosecution of the survey, together with such other relevant matter relating to the more complete exposition of the geological history of the State as may be available. And on the completion of such reports the said geologist shall transmit the same to the Governor who shall cause them to be laid before the Legislature with recommendation for their suitable publica- tion. The said geologist shall have the supervision of the preparation and ue lishing of all reports emanating from the survey. Sec. 9. The salary of the geologist in charge shall $2,000 perannum. The salaries of the assistant geologist and chemist not to exceed $1,200 per annum each. For the services of specialists, local assistants and other persons tempora- rily employed on the survey the compensation shall not be greater than that ordi- narily paid for similar services. Sec. 1o. In order practically to carry out the provisions of the foregoing sections of this Act the sum of $10,000 is hereby annually appropriated for the term of two years, out of such monies remaining in the treasury as are not other- wise appropriated. : This fund shall be drawn as required for the purposes of the survey on req- uisitions signed by the geologist in charge approved by the Governor, and the warrant of the Auditor of State, and the Auditor is authorized to issue his war- rants upon the Treasurer for the sums named in such requisition. BOOK NOTICES. 595 The Bill introduced in the Missouri Legislature is similar in most respects, as the abstract below, sent us by Prof. Broadhead, will show. The Governor appoints a board of four persons, himself Ex-Officio member and President of board. They shall appoint a State Geologist, who is not con- nected with or under influence of anyschool. State Geologist to appoint his assist- ants and have power to remove them—Governor and Board may remove State Geologist. State Geologist and assistants to make surveys, maps and reports of work, and also may have power from time to time to issue bulletins of work done , also to furnish newspapers with items—provided it does not interfere with other work. State Geologist also has power to furnish duplicate sets of specimens to mu- seums within the State—provided the expense of fixing up and labelling such is paid for by the museum or persons conducting the same, and also provided such work does not interfere with the progress of the survey and that the State collection is not deprived of necessary duplicates. Bill provides for a State museum and head- quarters to be, if possible, at the Capitol of the State, otherwise to be where quarters can be best obtained. Headquarters to be at Jefferson City. Reports to be made to each General Assembly of progress, condition and expenses. Has: authority to take possession of all matter belonging to former surveys, but does not give power to take possession of any cabinet of specimens already in place. Salary of geologist $3,000 per year; assistants $1,800 and $1,500, and no others over $5 per day. Board only receive their necessary expenses, when in at- _ tendance. Gives power to employ a paleontologist if necessary ; also to negotiate for chemical work. Amendments to this give chemical work to Sch6dol of mines. $15,000 annually appropriated. BOOK NOTICES. Housr-DRAINAGE AND SANITARY PLUMBING. By Wm. Paul Gerhard; pp. 205, 18mo. D. VanNostrand, New York, 1882. 50¢. This is No. 63 of VanNostrand’s ‘‘Science Series,” and is an exceedingly well written and useful essay. A general idea of the author’s style and manner of handling the subject may be gained from the article on ‘‘Sewer Gas and its Danger to Health,” on page 571 of this issue of the Review, which is copied from the first chapter of the work. The other topics treated are mainly as follows: Defective and Good Plumbing work ; Hssential Elements of a System of Plumb- ing; Soil and Waste Pipes; Traps; Absorption of Gases; Drainage of Cellars ; System of House-Drainage; Bath and Laundry Tubs; Sinks; Water Closets ; Flushing Appliances, etc. This small volume contains much common-sense information and instruction, and might well be studied by engineers and architects as well as property owners who intend to build. 096 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, Tue Lowesr Forms oF WaTER ANIMALS. By N. D’ Anvers. Square 16mo. pp. 59. Illustrated. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1882. For sale by M. H. Dickinson, 50c. This is No. V of the Science Ladders, those preceding it being Forms of _Land and Water; A Story of Early Exploration; Vegetable Life; Flowerless Plants. The volume under consideration takes up in simple style the discussion of the subject of the lowest forms of water animals by defining what an animal is; what protoplasm is; then the successive forms of such animals; the Rhizopoda; Sponges ; some forms of Infusoria ; the life of a Hydra and a Medusa; Sea Ane- mones and how they live; Coral-Makers and how they grow; some of the Polyzoa; some tiny creatures with water-works, and closes with a series of questions to test the young reader’s memory and comprehension. Mr. Db’ Anvers aims to teach the great laws of nature in language simple enough to be intelligible to the youngest readers and to awaken in them the habit of observation and reasoning. In these objects he is sure to succeed so far as he has readers. Mititary Lire tn Iraty. By Edward De Amicis: with illustrations; 8vo., pp. 440. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1882. For sale by M. H. Dickin- ‘son, $2.co. All of De Amicis’ works are full of enthusiasm and spirit, and this one is no exception to the rule. In addition to this feature these sketches carry with them a lesson of inspiration and consolation to the soldier and of admiration and es- teem for him to the civilian. Every side of human nature is skillfuily depicted in them, the serious as well as the comic, and no reader will .regret spending a few hours in perusing the book. Among the best of the sketches are The Con- script, The Son of the Regiment, and Dead upon the Field of Battle. How to SuccEED. Edited by Lyman Abbott, D.D. Square 16mo., pp. 131. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1882. For sale by M. H. Dickinson, 5o0c. The readers of the Christian Union have already seen most of the essays in this admirable collection, but for the benefit of those who have not we will say that the book is No. XX VI of the Handy Book Series, and is made up of a num- ber of essays on ‘‘ How to Succeed” by some of the most able and practical men of this country in their several departments of labor. Hon. T. F. Bayard and Hon. Geo. F. Edwards write upon How to Succeed in Public Life; Rev. John Hall, D.D., gives advice How to Succeed as a Minis- ter; Willard Parker, M. D., tells How to Succeed as a Physician; Gen’l Wm. Sooy Smith, How to Succeed as a Civil Engineer; Wm. Hamilton Gibson, How to Succeed as an Artist ; a New York, merchant anonymously gives rules for suc- ceeding in Mercantile Life; Lawson Valentine, How to Succeed in Business BOOK NOTICES. . 597 Life ; Leopold Damrosch, How to Succeed as a Musician; Hon. Gea. B. Loring, as a Farmer; Thomas A. Hdison, as an Inventor; Rev. E. P. Roe, in Litera- ture; while Rev. Lyman Abbott gives his views upon the Christian conditions of success. Nearly all occupations are thus touched upon by men who have had practi- cal experience and who are living examples of the practice they preach, and these essays, whether read by the young or by those interested in their welfare, must have a beneficial effect. Easy Star Lessons. By R. A. Proctor. Crown octavo, pp. 239, illustrated. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1882. $2.50 The popularizing of knowledge seems to have been the special work of scientific men within the past twenty years, and of the many contributors in this direction none has done more or done it better than Mr. Proctor. Though but a comparatively young man he has achieved a world-wide reputation as profoundly skilled in more branches of science than one, although he is mainly regarded as an astronomer. The above named book is his latest production, and his publishers have evi- dently striven by the exercise of the best taste and the use of the choicest materials in the book-maker’s art to make it worthy. Paper, print and binding are superb, and the illustrations, including forty-eight star-maps and thirty other engravings, are admirable in execution and thoroughly practical. To the stars of each month in the year is devoted a chapter and four maps showing the proper position of each constellation and the prominent stars in the northern, southern, eastern and west- ern skies for that month So interesting and so unusually plain and practical are these descriptions, even without the maps, that we give on page 586 the whole chapter on ‘‘ The Stars for February.” By a careful use of it, the reader may pick out the constellations with little trouble, while by the additional use of the maps the whole sky may be read hke a printed book. : THE OpyssEy oF Homer. Done into English prose by S. H. Butcher, M. A., and A. Lang M. A. t2mo., pp. 427. Macmillan & Co., New York, 1882. Price $1.00. The translators in the preface to this work, claim that there can be no final English translation of Homer from the fact that the taste of each successive gen- eration differs regarding poetical style, whether versified or not, from all preced- ing periods. Thus, in the Elizabethan age Chapman modified the antique sim- plicity of Homer to suit its peculiar requirements, and rendered the poem in high sounding and luxurious conceits which would in no respect satisfy the more fas- tidious tastes catered to by the elegant Pope in Queen Anne’s time. Later, when the ballad collectors of Europe were forming the tastes of the people, Homer was regarded a ballad minstrel, and his poems rendered by Maginn, Gladstone, 998 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. and others with the simplicity and baldness of the verses of the minnesingers. Still Jater the romantic vein was discovered and worked with marked success by Mr. Worsley, who made an admirable translation of the Odyssey, in which ‘‘the liquid lapses of the verse, the wonderful closeness to the original, reproduce all of Homer in music and in meaning that can be rendered in English verse.” The object of this prose translation is to supply a demand now existing for simple descriptive or historical documents, without modern ornament and with . nothing added or omitted, a thing with which poetry, or, at least verse, is almost incompatible. The work of the translators, looked at from this standpoint, seems well done, and the prose form certainly gives a better opportunity than verse for a close ad- herence to the Homeric language and style.’ To those readers who wanta strictiy reliable, scholarly rendering of the story in ‘‘ unadorned English,” nothing can be more satisfactory. FRONTIER ARMY SKETCHES. By James W. Steele. 12mo., pp. 329. Jansen, McClurg & Co., Chicago, 1883. $1.50. That these ‘‘ Sketches ”’ are the work of an observant, sympathetic, cultured man who has actual and practical experience of the pleasures, hardships, excite- ments and inexpressible tedium of frontier military life is self-evident. His cor- rect and just appreciation of the West Point graduate, whom he portrays under the title of Captain Jinks, his abhorrent and overpowering disgust for and detestation of the cruel and treacherous Indian of the plains, his perfect delineations of west- ern character, good and bad; his skillful command of language, his expressive grouping of words and his forcible and graceful sentences, all betray an excellent education and cultivated tastes, as well as a military training. Every one of these sketches is a model of good literary. style, and most of them are exceedingly real, piquant, lifelike, and dramatic. They remind one of Theodore Winthrop in many respects, and are far superior in all respects to. Bret Hart. : THE Court AND Cross. By W. J. Henry. Octavo, pp. 568. Methodist Book Concern, Cincinnati, 1882. The object of this work, whose author is a lawyer of this city, is set forth in the preface as being to present the principal events of Christ’s wonderful career in their relation to the Sanhedrin or great court of the Jews; also to portray his life as it was affected by the views, actions and deliberations of that influential body, as well as to bring vividly before the mind the times, places and conditions of the Jewish nation ; also a description of the principal, political, judicial and ecclesias- tical tribunal, the council or great court of the Jews, into which the author has attempted to carry the reader in imagination and give him a probable statement of the arguments and views of its members upon the case before them. BOOK NOTICES. 599 Further it is attempted by the author to combat the views of those who doubt the Divinity of Christ, the authenticity of his miracles and the truth of his doc- trines. In carrying out this plan Judge Henry has shown great skill in bringing to- gether historical facts bearing upon the case, while his legal acumen has been of the greatest service in arranging the argumentative portion of the work. It will be found decidedly interesting to all classes of readers, not only for these reasons, but because the author has left the beaten track and taken up a line of hodeDe and argument not heretofore presented so far as we know. OTHER PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. The Wew York Medical Journal, Vol. XXXVII, Nos. 1 and 2, quarto, weekly, pp. 28, edited by Frank P. Foster, M. D., published by D. Appleton & Co., N. Y., $5.00. Zhe Electrician, Vol. 11, No. 1, quarto, Williams & Co., New York, editors and publishers, monthly, $1.00 per annum. Zhe Wheelman, Vol. I, No. 4, Jan’y, 1883, octavo, pp. 80, illustrated, edited by S. S. McClure, pub- lished by the Wheelman Co., Boston, monthly, $2.00. Carboniferous Rocks of Eastern Kansas, G. C. Broadhead, reprinted from Proceedings of St. Louis Academy of Sciences, pp. 12. Review of the Telegraph and Telephone, Vol. I, No. 22, quarto, pp. 16, edited and published by Geo. Worthington, N. Y., semi-monthly, $2.00. Bulletins of the Americun Museum of Natural History, Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 3. Fifteenth Annual Report of Peabody Museum of Ameri- can Archeology and Ethnology, Vol. III, No. 2, F. W. Putnam, Curator. New York Medical Record, Vol XXII, No. 26, octavo, pp. 28, weekly, edited by Geo. F. Shrady, M. D., and published by Wm. Wood & Co. New York, $5.00. Report of the Secretary of the Interior to June 30, 1882. Natural Science in Sec- ondary Schools, F. Miihlberg, pp. 9. Instruction in Morals and Civil Govern- ment, A. Vessiot, pp. 4. Trumbull, Reynolds & Allen’s 12th Annual Cata- logue. Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education, No. 3, 1882. The University of Bonn,—National Pedagogic Congress of Spain,—High Schools for Girls in Sweden. Thirteenth Annual Report of the American Museum of Natural History, Central Park, N. Y. Fifth Annual Announcement of the Fulton & Trueblood School of Elocution and Oratory. Constitution and By-Laws of the Iowa State Academy of Sciences. Yellows in Peach Trees, D. P. Penhallow, Boston, 1882, pp. 8. VI-38 600 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. SOQMSINIMIEIC WASCE UL NINN. LIBERTY ENLIGHTENING THE WORLD. The people at large are to have the opportunity, it is stated, to subscribe to- ward the fund for the pedestal upon which Bartholdi’s statue of ‘‘ Liberty En- lightening the World” is to be erected in New York Harbor. It is especially desirable that the ‘‘ people at large” in the United States should do this for the. reason that the present is from the ‘‘ people at large” in France; and itis thought meet that it should be received in the spirit in which it is given—namely, as a testimonial of affection from one liberty-loving people to another. It is the first time that such a substantial evidence of international amity has been furnished in the history of the world. If it were not for the carrying out of the idea that the whole people should have something to do with the reception of the gift the money for the pedestal could be readily raised in New York inaday. Sufficient indications of the truth of this proposition appeared at the great mass-meeting at the Academy of Music, in that city, held on Tuesday evening last, to set the ball in motion to prepare the base for the statue which is nearly completed. Just what arrangements have been made to collect the funds is not stated, but they doubtless will be effectual. The figure itself will be the most remarkable structure of the kind ever creat- ed. The Colossus of Rhodes was only 105 feet*high. This statue will be 155 feet, and will be mounted on a pedestal of equal height, the whole arrangement being placed on Bedloe’s Island, which is just about large enough to receive it comfortably and is situated just where it is wanted for the purpose. It will thus tower some 300 feet above the water level—a most imposing feature by day and a light-house by night whose beacon will be seen far and wide. The cost of this gift to the French people will amount to about 1,250,000 francs, and it will cost us about the same ($250,000) to furnish the pedestal. Besides its value as a testi- monial and as a light-house it will be a triumph of art. A finely built goddess of liberty holding a lighted torch 300 feet in the air and welcoming ships and peo- ple of all nations to the chief seaport of a free country and of the new world, is a fine idea from an artistic point of view, especially when it is remembered that it ~ was constructed jointly by the peoples of the two principal republics in the world. It becomes a figure full of significance and promise and will throw a little relief of poetry upon the otherwise prosy and business-like appearance of the harbor. _ The above is from the Glode- Democrat, and we quote below a very interest- ing description of the statue from Harper's Weekly of January 6, F 883 : M. Bartholdi, the ingenious and daring designer of this statue, isalready famous LIBERTY ENLIGHTENING THE WORLD, 601 for the skill with which he has handled colossal subjects; for apart from the gen- ius necessary to form a grandiose conception of such a work of art as that with which the friendship of the two great republics of the world is to be celebrated, there is required no small amount of mechanical knowledge to bring it to com- pletion. The resources of modern mechanics render this a matter of comparative certainty. The sculptor is no longer required to perform such prodigies of labor or to undergo such agony of suspense and fear as those described by Benvenuto Cellini in his letters, recently published, containing an account of the casting of his ‘‘ Perseus” and ‘‘ Medusa.” But though the artist of to-day goes about his task with confidence in its accomplishment, the erection of a statue of more than 155 feet in height—not counting the pedestal—to stand in an exposed situation, unsheltered by adjacent structures, is decidedly the most gigantic enterprise of its kind. ; : The work is now going on in the yards of Messrs. Gaget, Gauthier & Co., in Paris. The hard alone will be 5 metres (16 feet 5 inches) in length; the in- ‘dex finger will be 2.45 metres (a trifle over 8 feet) long, with a circumference at the second joint of about 7 feet 6 inches; and the nail of this finger will present a surface about 13 inches by 10. These figures will give some idea of the enor- mous dimensions of the statue. Those who have a liking for other means of calculation may be interested in knowing that the whole statue (without the ped- estal) will overtop the famous Venddme Column more than nine feet; that in the head forty persons can assemble, and in the torch at least a dozen more. The statue, as is well known, is to be hollow, and is to be literally “‘ built ” of plates of hammered copper nine-tenths of an inch in thickness. The method of construction 1s curious and interesting. ‘The first essential was, of course, the “¢sketch model” of M. Bartholdi, which was what may be called life size, being 6 feet 7 inches in height. This was the basis of the measurements, which, how- ever, were twice multiplied. It was first magnified four times, and reviewed and remodeled by the artist. It was then divided into sections, which are reproduced four times larger yet, with the greatest possible care. Models in plaster of the final and definitive size are made in the vast yards. The workmen first sketch the general form in frames of wood covered with laths and recovered with a coat of plaster. They then verify the principal measurements thus established, and finish the modeling of the surfaces and the details. When a course is finished, joiners take the forms by means of planks cut in s¢/houet¢e to fit the form of the plaster. These are then so arranged together as to form a species of imprint of the parts to which they have been applied, and make what are technically termed gabari's, or wooden moulds, into which the hammerers pressed the copper sheets. _ by the pressure of levers, or by beating with hammers. The copper is then fin- ished by beating with smaller hammers or rods, outside and inside, to conform closely to the lines of the forms desired, which have been taken in detail by means of sheets of lead pressed upon the model. The workman in doing this part of his task places himself directly tefore the plaster models, and compares 602 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. every part as he proceeds with the utmost patience and exactness. This done, the separate pieces are carried to an immense court to be placed together, and fixed upon a powerful frame-work of iron, which supports what may be called the entire envelope of the statue. When the statue is removed for transportation, it will be taken apart in more than 300 pieces. Its entire weight will be some 450,000 pounds, of which over 200,000 pounds will be copper, and the remainder the iron frame-work. The workshops and yards of Messrs. Gaget, Gauthier & Co. are thrown open to the subscribers to the statue, to witness the process of construction, on Thursdays and Sundays of each week, and the pupils of the School of Fine Arts are also admitted free. Those who are not subscribers can obtain admission by purchasing an engraving of the monument, which is sold for the benefit of the work, in all sizes and states of perfection, from those costing ten cents only to the elaborate representations of the various parts. The place is much frequented, particularly on Sundays, which is the Parisian holiday for all sorts of diversions, from sight-seeing to a revolution. The great yards are a veritable spectacle in themselves, but the motley gathering of visitors is still more of one. The work- men in their caps and blouses are a noticeable element, and occasionally an im- promptu orator will address his chance audience with a glowing eulogium of America in terms which the wandering citizen of this happy land does not always recognize as truthful, and sometimes thanks Heaven that they arenot. But the impression- able hearers drink in the praises of the ideal republic with eagerness, and reward the speaker. with cries of *‘ Vive la Liberte! ’’ ‘‘ Vive la Republique Americaine! ” The great work of M. Bartholdi has, moreover, been carefully inspected by many of the sculptors and engineers of the Continent, and has given rise to much discussion as to its probable stability, as well as its artistic merits. The verdict, ‘on the whole, has been one of approval, and there is no reasonable doubt that when it is securely placed on the pedestal which Mr. Evart’s committee is to prepare, it will be a worthy symbol of the generous sentiment to the expression and perpetuation of which it is consecrated. TREATMENT OF NATURE BY AMERICAN AND ENGLISH POETS. One of the results of my study of American poetry has been to assure myself that certain specific and well-defined causes have worked together to fix, as a characteristic of that literature, a universal tenderness toward ‘‘ the speechless world,” the creatures in fur and feathers that fulfill such great and beautiful func- tions in our world’s economy. This pitifulness, co extensive with nature, may be almost accepted as a new departure in poetry, for I do not find that sympathy with world-life is by any means an invariable rule with poets. i The causes I refer to are not far to seek. In the first place, the popular mind in America is not so familiarized with classical images and allusions as in Europe, and the American poet, therefore, does not recur so readily as his Eu- TREATMENT OF NATURE BY AMERICAN AND ENGLISH IAQ IOS, (SUS ropean congener, to the fancies and mythology of antiquity. In the next, the beasts and birds of the New World are not the same beasts and birds that play such important parts in Old-World fables, give point to Old-World proverbs, and form the object of so many Old-World prejudices and predilections, and the American poet therefore finds his creatures as yet untampered with by antique misrepresentation or popular superstitions. He has not got to rummage for his natural history among the ‘mossy roots of a reverend folk lore, or a heraldry that is sanctified by national associations. The larks, robins, and magpies of America are not the birds that are known by the same names in Europe, and so the poet of the West finds the ground still virgin soil before him. Popular superstition has not had time yet to lichen over the familiar objects of his country-side, and he has thus few temptations to the logicians’ fallacy from antiquity. Indeed, there is even noticeable sometimes a tendency toward irreverence for ‘‘the widowed ”’ turtle, and a disposition to make fun of the nightingale that ‘‘ bruised his bosom on a thorn,” as if they were antiquated favorites of an obsolete era of thought, ‘ Though still the lark-voiced matins ring The world has known so long, The wood-thrush of the West still sing Earth’s last sweet even-song! ” But this, after all, is only a very partial protection, for though some of his beasts, birds, fishes, and insects are new to poetry, the remainder—such as tke wolf and the lion, the owl and the raven—are not things of any one time or place. Thus an American raven flies with just as ‘‘ prodigious” a flight as a Scotch one or a Roman; the owl and vulture might be quite as ‘‘ obscene ” in ‘‘ Evangeline” or ‘‘ Mogg Megone”’ as they are in Wordsworth or Cowper. But I do not find Longfellow or any of his fellow-countrymen taking advantage of the license of poetical prejudice extended to them by high prescription. On the contrary, they compassionate the raven, and handsomely meet the vulture and the owl with a com- pliment. They speak ill of nothing. And I can not, for myself, help admiring this absence of cynicism. ‘They are as gentle always as Keats, while in their more general passages they show all Shelley’s appreciation of the harmonious unity in nature : ‘« Come, learn with me the fatal song Which knits the world in music strong, Whereto every bosom dances, Kindled with courageous fancies ; Come lift thine eyes to lofty rhymes, Of things with things and times with times, Primal chimes of sun and shade, Of sound and echo, man and maid, The land reflected in the flood, Body with shadow still pursued, For Nature beats in perfect tune, And rounds with rhyme her every rune!” e 694 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. Apart, therefore, from the specific causes to which I have alluded, there must be sought some larger, more national influence at work to account for this complete catholicism in kindliness. Nor somehow is it difficult, so I think, to imagine the poets of a country with some distant horizons as America, so vast in certainties, so infinite in possibilities, refusing to limit their sympathies to merely continental boundaries, or to cramp their interests within the domains of any single crown, or ‘‘hop about from perch to perch in paltry cages of dead men’s dead thoughts.” Accustomed to such large maps, they may be easily supposed to be intolerant of geographical prejudices, and priding themselves before every- thing upon independence of thought, may have carried their sympathy with an unconventional freedom into their treatment of natural objects. ‘‘ Our country hath a gospel of her own.” For myself, I am content to believe this, and to at- tribute their just recognition of the place of animal and insect life to the large- hearted tone of American intellectual thought. And I would not know where to go for a more adequate statement of the poet’s means and ends in nature than Emerson’s ‘‘ Wood Notes,” or for thoughts more fully in sympathy with nature than Longfellow’s or Whittier’s, with his ear ‘‘full of summer sounds.” Lovers of wild life will find it hard to outmatch Bret Harte’s apostrophe to the coyote and the grizzly, Emerson’s to the humble-bee, Wendell Holmes’ to the sea-fowl out- side his study window, or Aldrich’s delightfully appreciative touches of wild life. Quadrupeds, birds, insects—everything that has life is looked‘ at kindly and un- selfishly apart from human interests, and this, too, with a respectful sympathy that bespeaks something more sincere than Cowper’s lip-service or Pope’s acidu- lated praise. Our furred and feathered fellow-beings, seniors to ourselves in ex- isteace, though subjected to us, are not, as in the European poets, accepted as mere accidents of the human economy, or as secondary properties of man. They seem to remember—unless it be only my own whimsical interpretation of their tenderness—that our earth is the other creatures’ earth too, that they are a crea- tion of themselves, that each had a day set apart for itself, a morning and an evening, at the first miracle of the world’s making. —Puit Roprnson, in Harper’s Magazine for February. GOLD IN ANCIENT TIMES. Gold was in excess in ancient times, and mostly taken from the rivers in Asia. The fables of Pactolus, of the golden fleece of the Argonauts, of the gold from Ophir, the history of King Midas, etc., all point toan Eastern origin of this metal. According to Pliny, Cyrus returned with 34,000 Roman pounds of gold, (about $10,000,000). The treasures exacted from Persia by Alexander the Great amounted to 351,000 talents, or $400,000,000. Gold also came from Arabia, and upon the Nile from the interior of Africa. Pliny calls Asturias the country in which the most gold is found. A tablet bearing the following inscription was SI WUE RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MECHANIC ARTS, 605 found in Idanha Velha, Portugal: ‘‘ Claudius Rufus returns his thanks to Jupi- ter for having permitted him to find one hundred and thirty pounds of gold.” The sources of wealth have ceased to flow, and the endeavors of several Englishmen to reopen them have been unsuccessful. Bohemia, Mahren, Silesia, and Tyrol, all have produced gold, and the receding of the glaciers has caused old mines to be uncovered, while upon the Italian side, at Monte Rosa, Val Se- sina, and Val Ansaca, gold mines are still worked to-day, although with indiffer- ent success. ‘The only works of any note are those of Kremnitz, Hungary. It may, therefore, be safely asserted that Europe is completely exhausted in this respect.— From ‘* The Decrease ae Gold,” by F. Von BRIESEN, ix Popular Science Monthly for February. SOME RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MECHANIC ARTS. BY F. B. BROCK, WASHINGTON, D. C. COMBINED SaD-lRoN HEATER AND MeEat-RoastEer.—This novel invention has its base provided with a heating chamber to receive theirons. A lid or cover is hinged to the base and drops automatically over and covers the heating chamber. It is provided with slots open at their outer ends to receive the handles of the irons, and a slide is placed on the under side of the lid and is provided with a series of slots open at their outer ends and coinciding with the slots in the lid. Mechanism is provided whereby the slide may be moved laterally for the purpose of opening or closing the slots in the lid. AUTOMATIC FEED-WATER REGULATOR FOR STEAM BOILERS.—This new au- tomatic feed-water controller for steam-generators consists of an upright cylindri- cal chamber, communicating with the steam and water spaces of the boiler. The chamber has also a steam eduction port communicating with the actuating cylin- der of the feed water pump. A float is arranged to control the egress of steam from said chamber, and a horizontal disc is suspended from the float and spans the chamber to receive a direct vertical water-pressure, thereby overcoming any ‘suction that may be exerted on the float by the steam-eduction port. SteAmM PackiInG MaTErRIAL.—A late invention consists of a steam-packing material composed of granulated strips or shavings of cork, asbestos and dissolved gum, covered with a layer of asbestos and linen. METHOD OF STRETCHING BeLtTs.—An improved process for stretching belts for machinery consists of first opening the belt through its entire length, then: “stretching it over two or more rollers and connecting the ends by a suitable ‘stretching device and finally applying tensile strain to its two ends and increas- ang it from time to time, until elasticity of the belt is exhausted. 606 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE, DEVICE FOR RAISING AND LOWERING ELECTRIC Lamps.—A recent inven- tion designed for raising and lowering electric lamps, consists of supporting- cables secured at their ends to the walls of the building. A carriage is provided having pulleys adapted to travel upon the supporting cables, and insulated brack- ets secured thereto have also pulleys for the reception of the cables. A cross- beam, having at each end thereof a grooved pulley, is pivoted to the insulated bracket to adapt it to travel upon the carriage supporting cables. The cables are rigidly secured to the cross-beam and pass over the insulated pulleys upon the carriage to the lamp suspended below. Conducting wires connect the positive and negative wires of the circuit with the supporting cables and the insulated pulleys of the cross-beam, are also connected with the supporting cables. AFRICAN EXPLORATION. Foreign dispatches have lately contained frequent allusions to the controversy between the explorers, Stanley and DeBrazza, regarding the French claims on the valley of the Upper Congo. The New York Herald gives a sketch of the whole matter. DeBrazza went into the service of the French branch of the African In- ternational Society in 1875 to seek a trade route from the coast up to Stanley Pool, the point where navigable water extending goo miles into theyinterior be- gins. His first journey was along the Ogowe, following that river to the mount- ain, and then striking the Congo at Stanley Pool. Subsequently he advocated another route, starting from the west coast at Banga, and reaching the Congo at the same point. Mr. Stanley’s route was by way of the Congo all through, pass- ing the series of falls that obstruct navigation between the Lower and Upper Congo by means of roads, or eventually of canals, if ever commerce should justi- fy such extensive works. M. DeBrazza’s original route was some 500 or 600 miles longer than Stan- ley’s. His second route, from Banga, is also of much greater length than along the banks of the Congo. On the roth day of September, 1880, DeBrazza, hav- ing reached Stanley Pool and established himself with King Makoko, obtained from the latter an agreement to the celebrated treaty ceding the territory on the north side of the Pool to France. Stanley had explored the Congo in his trip to finish Livingstone’s work, and in 1879 he went back there in the service of the Belgian branch of the same society which had started DeBrazza out. When Stan- ley, proceeding up the river, had passed the last cataract and reached the navi- gable waters extending from the Pool inland, he found DeBrazza’s lieutenant, Malamine, with two seamen in possession of a station on the north bank, and the natives refused to give him the right to establish a station there, because they had given it to the French. He, however, was well received by the chief on the south bank, and there built a station of 113 houses. He then, having launched his steamers, proceeded to explore the Coango, a main tributary of the Congo. After ascending it 150 miles he found a lake 70 miles long and 6 to 30 miles: . MICHAEL ANGELO. 607° broad, which he named in honor of the King of the Belgians, Leopold II. Stan- ley says the Belgian stations, 5 in number, which he established, are commercial in a sense that they are expected to be self-supporting and that the King is inter- ested in Africa in a spirit of a philanthropical geographer, simply as a man who lives the dear old continent for which he has always felt a sort of respectful mel- ancholy. Stanley says the French have had a colony at Gaboon since 1857, and never heard of the Congo until they read of it in the Avald and London TZéle- graph. He argues nothing from DeBrazza’s occupation of the north bank at the Pool, even should the French Government ratify his treaty and persuade the na- tives to respect it. He wants a series of international posts maintained, with the river free to the traders of all nations. — American Inventor. MICHAEL ANGELO. W. W. STORY. The overthrow of the pagan religion was the deathblow to pagan art. The temples shook to their foundation and art withered in her crumbling shrine. When through the ancient world was heard the mournful cry, first echoed by the sunlit waves of the A®gean sea, ‘‘Great Pan is dead!” then the nymphs fled from the hallowed groves of Arcadia, and were seen no more. The hamadryad deserted her oak and the naiad her fountain. Of all the great tribes to which the poetic and religious instincts of Greece and Rome bowed, only Orpheus remain- ed, and he was transformed into a monkish saint. Christianity struck a death- blow not only to pagan art, but to all art, which atrophied and shrunk for cen- turies, until, driven out of the rest of the world, its sickened and diseased body found refuge in some monastery. The statues of the gods were overthrown and buried under the earth—those wonderful creations of beauty which voice the highest demands of humanity. Only bloodless saints remained. Humanity trembled in the grasp of an iron-cased bigotry. Youth and beauty and joy were suppliants, where once they were free and prince-like. Religion and art, which cannot live apart, were divorced. The long, dark night of the middle ages came on—a night without a star, and the blackness of a sordid ignorance blotted out all fair sights or scenes. Only arms remained. For music and poetry, and sculpture and science there were only the butcheries of the battlefield. But the seasons of the soul are like those of nature. After the long, cold winter of the dark ages came the springtime of the renaissance—the new birth of humanity. The church awoke. Guelfand Ghibelline began their memorable contest. Com- merce flourished, and_art, literature, science, religion itself, burst into new and vigorous life. Then flashing from the firmament of mind the brilliant stars of art and literature shone out in lambent glory—Dante, Boccaccio, Petrarch, Filo- mena, Machievelli, and all that bright galaxy of lights that cast a morning radi- ance far back even into the hideous night that had preceded it. Music took 608 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. upon herself a fairer form, art blossomed into most fragrant fruition, science it- self awoke from its sleep and began its wonderful course. The marble gods that had lain so long beneath the earth arose from their graves and reasserted their dominion over the souls as they had formerly wielded it over it the minds of men. Here lived and wrought Leonardo Da Vinci, the most versatile and comprehen- sive intellect the world has ever seen; Angelo, the greatest power that ever worked on stone; Raffaelle, the soul of beauty and grace, with his pencil dipped in the colors of Paradise; Titian, who stole from the sunset the secret of its hues ; Gallileo, Columbus, and many others. These were the men who lived with, or im- mediately preceded, Michael Angelo. It was the renaissance, the morning after the night. As Italy is above all others the land of the renaissance, so is Florence above all other places in Italy the city of its new birth. There is scarce- ly a street in that beautiful city, or a square, that has not something to say of the | brilliant glories it once shared. One walks the city guided by memory rather than by vision. The old families still give their names to the streets. The whole city is filled with ghosts, even in whose pallor we can read what was the. blush and bloom of her flowering days. j Then brilliantly and gracefully, the lecturer drew a brilliant and graceful sketch of the Tuscan capital in the days of its glory, and described the treasures of art that are heaped there—the Duomo, the Campanile, the Palazzo Vecchi, its beautiful churches, its wonderful statues, its marvelous paintings. Lingering a moment over the mighty memories of Brunelleschi, of Dante, whose statue the city jealously guards, though the justly indignant poet would not let her have his” bones; of Savanarola, of Giotto, and the hundreds of other names that have im- mortalized /a bella Florenz1, he briefly sketched the life, the works, the character of Michael Angelo Buonarotti. Poet, painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, he was supreme in each and unapproached in ali. Bornin 1474, of noble, if not of royal blood, he lived and worked incessantly for ninety years. His capacity for work was marvelous. He accomplished the impossible, and overcame the insu- perable. As asculptor, his grand and glowing genius is above the rules of the schools, having sought and found on the white steeps beyond human power the law which governs and the soul which inspires his wonderful creations. No name other than that of Phidias may be mentioned with his. As an artist he taught even Raffaelle, and the latter learned from the lesson a still more graceful touch and a still loftier, serener beauty. As an architect, the grandest fabric ever wrought by man swings in the mid air of Rome to attest his supreme genius, the dome of St. Peter’s, which is the lofty brow encasing the brain of the church. As an engineer, the stubborn defense of his native Florence is a competent wit- ness that as a soldier he could have been as great as anartist. Asa poet, though he swept no Lydian strains from his lyre, yet the clear, sweet, piercing melody of his song sweeps the eternal heights with no uncertain sounds. Asa man he was well nigh perfect. His sentiments were cast in the same mould as was his lofty intellect. Pure, high minded, magnanimous, generous, brave, just, and true, his fe unspotted by a single stain, there is nothing sordid, nothing mean, nothing . MICHAEL ANGELO. ; 609 low in his whole composition. Modlesse oblige was borne with him in his every fibre. He was impatient of everything low or mean, and his temper was, like his nature, fiery and impetuous. Yet he was always forgiving, always gentle, unless his dignity as a man was insulted. He was never peevish nor irritable. He led a lonely life. Kind to all and lavish of his slender means in the allevia- tion of want or of misery, he yet had no intimates. He had no friends but two. and yet think who were those two. Savanarola and Vittoria Colonna. It is probable that he loved the latter, but it was a love in which sense had nothing whatever to do. In the lofty, serene regions where his giant spirit lived the at- mosphere was too pure and rare for the senses to dwell. She must indeed have been a woman of the loftiest and most perfect type, this famed Vittoria di Col- lonna, to have won Michael Angelo’s love. Popularly most famous for his work in the Sistine and Pauline chapels at Rome, and for the dome of St. Peter’s, his lofty genius is best shown in the chapel of the Medici attached to the church of San Lorenzo in Florence. Here the mausoleum of the Medici commands an attention which, once given, is given always. ‘The great figures of ‘‘ Day’’ and ‘‘Sleep”’ and ‘‘ Night,” of ‘‘ Aurora” and ‘‘Crepuscule,” enchain the beholder. ‘These figures are tremendous. Look- ing at them you are brought to know what thoughts fill the human breast when the perfection of human intellect grapples with the mysterious problems of man’s origin and destiny. They are the symbols of humanity’s struggles with the tre- mendous and unseen forces of nature. A great intellect has flung itself into the marble and wrought out thoughts rather than human beings. Michael Angelo is the one man who has sculptured ideas. These statues are not Greek, and belong to a different race. The Greek sculptured beauty in repose—his gods, when they suffer, are serenely majestic, and they smile calmly even with the fox gnaw- ing at their vitals. Even in the Laocoon the suffering is subdued grace. But Michael Angelo belonged to a different race. The mysterious Etrurian, whose civilization was old and gray and heavy with the weight of his own completeness ere a stone was laid on the seven hills by the Tiber, transmitted to Michael An- gelo along with his blood, his sombre thoughts and his mystic moods. Etrurian, and not Italian, no tradition of Aryan race inspired his soul or informed his mind. He was of the old gods; he dwelt with Saturn and Hyperion beneath the dim umbrageous recesses of the woods, rather than with Jove and Apollo and the other deities of the new era. And the tremendous truths caught and known by an older and truer civilization than the world of his day knew has left their giant shadows as an incubus on his soul. The artist pictured the difficulties he labored under in his great work of painting the Sistine chapel, described the wonderful productions of his genius on those walls and ceilings, drew a beautiful comparison between him and Raffaelle, who was in most cases his antithesis; related the subsequent life of Michael An- gelo, sketched his character with a light but bold touch, and closed with a mag- nificent picture of the Medici Mausoleum, when the tombs were opened in 1857 and the bodies, many of them, were found plundered of theirornaments. ‘‘ There 610 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. lay the dishonored dust of the Medicean rulers of Florence, discrowned and plundered, not even safe in death from outrage and disgrace, while the artist that they patronized and thought beneath their rank now wears a crown of immortali- ty at which the world willingly bows down.” —WVational Republican. ‘CU VIER: As the scope of this magazine enables it to cull from all sources we gladly place before our readers an account of the early life of the great anatomist taken almost bodily from the pages of the late George Henry Lewes and which has probably met the eyes of but few of our readers.—[Ep. It was a dream of the youth Cuvier that a history of Nature might be written which would systematically display the unusual dependence of one organ of an or- ganism upon another. It wasin the Academia Carolina of Stuttgardt that in 1787 Cuvier, Pfaff (the once famous supporter of Volta), and a small circle of fel- low students, who particularly devoted themselves to Natural History, formed a society of which Cuvier drew up the statutes and became the president. They read memoirs, and discussed discoveries with all the gravity of older societies, and even published among themselves a sort of Comptes Rendus. They made botanical, entomological and geological excursions, and still further to stimulate their zeal Cuvier instituted an order of merit, painting the medallion himself; it represented a star with the portrait of Linné in the centre, and between the rays various treasures of the animal and vegetable world. At this period Cuvier’s outward appearance was as unlike M. le Baron, as the grub is unlike the butterfly. Absorbed in his multifarious studies, he was. careless about disguising the want of elegance in his aspect. His face was pale, very thin and long, covered with freckles and encircled with a shock of red hair. His physiognomy was severe and melancholy. He never played at any of the boys’ games. He was reading all day long and a great part of the night. No work was too voluminous or too heavy for him. ‘‘I remember well,” says Pfaff, ‘¢how he used to sit by my bedside going regularly through Bayle’s Dictionary.’’ It was during these years that he laid the basis of that extensive érudition which distinguished his work in after life. It was here also that he preluded to his suc- cess as a professor, astonishing his friends and colleagues by the clearness of his expositions, which he rendered still more striking by his wonderful skill with the ~ pencil. Cuvier’s facile pencil was always employed; if he had nothing to draw for his own memoirs or those of his colleagues, he amused himself with drawing insects as presents to the young ladies of his acquaintance—an entomologist’s gal- lantry which never became more sentimental. In 1788, that is in his nineteenth year, Cuvier left Stuttgardt for Normandy, where he lived till 1795 as tutor in anobleman’s family. Here he was discovered by the Abbe Tessier who sent some of his manuscripts and drawings to Paris - which, falling under the eye of Geoffroy St. Hilaire, who though younger than » CUVIER. 611 Cuvier was already a professor at the Jardin des Plantes, he at once wrote to Cuvier ‘‘Come and fill the place of Linnzus here; come and be another legislator of Natural History.”’ Cuvier came and Geoffroy stood aside to let his great rival be seen. Goethe has noticed the curious coincidence of the three great zodlogists suc- cessively opening to their rivals the path to distinction. Buffon called Dauben- ton to aid him, Daubenton called Geoffroy and Geoffroy called Cuvier. Geof- froy and Cuvier knew no jealousy then. In after years it was otherwise. Geoffroy had a position—he shared it with his friend; he had books and col- lections—they were open to his rival; he had a lodging in the Museum—it was shared between them. Daubenton, older and more worldly wise, warned Geof- froy against this zeal in fostering a formidable rival, and one day placed before him a copy of La Fontaine’s fables open at Zhe Bitch and Her Neighbor. But Geoffroy was not to be daunted, and probably felt himself strong enough to hold his own. And so these two happy active youths pursued their studies together, wrote memoirs conjointly, discussed, dissected, speculated together—and as Cuvier has said ‘‘ never sat down to breakfast without having made a fresh discov- ery.” From this time on Cuvier was famous, but the real foundations were laid in those seven years on the Normandy coast when every animal he can lay his hands on is dissected with the greatest care and every detail of interest preserved with the pencil. Every work that is published of any importance in his line was read, analyzed and commented upon. ‘The marvels of marine life, in those days so little thought of, he studied with persevering minuteness and admirable success. He dissected the cuttle fish and made his drawings with its own ink. Six years later, Pfaff on arriving at Paris, found that his old fellow student was ‘‘a Person- age,’’ yet his life was simple and wholly devoted to science. He had a lodging in the Jardin des Plantes and was waited on by an old housekeeper, like any other simple professor. On Pfaff’s subsequent visit, things were changed. Instead of the old house- keeper, the door was opened by a lackey in grand livery. Instead of asking for ‘* Citizen Cuvier ” he inquired for Monsieur Cuvier; whereupon the lackey in- quired if he wished to see Monsieur le Baron, or M. Frederic his brother. ‘‘I soon found where I was,” says Pfaff. ‘‘ It was the baron separated from me by that immense interval of thirty years and by those high dignities which an empire offers to the ambitions of men.’’ Cuvier had almost entirely exchanged science for politics and here we leave him.—Sczentific and Literary Gossip. 612 KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. DDIM Opi AN Odes: OWING to a variety of causes, inciuding illness, delay in obtaining suitable pa- per, change of business location, etc., it was impracticable to get out the January number of the REVIEW; hence we issue a double number this month, which we hope will at least come as near satisfying our subscribers as it does us, and that is not very close. It is thought that tin ore has been discov- ered in Texas. Miners have sent sample specimens to Prof. John D. Parker, of Fort McKavett, asking him to have the matter authoritatively determined. These speci- mens have been submitted for examination to three eminent chemists, and when the analyses have been made and reported, the results will be duly published in this REVIEW. Miners claim that the ores are undoubtedly those of tin, and say that the ores are rich, and that the mines can be worked with pro- fit. THE American Society of Microscopists, which held a very successful meeting at El- mira, N. Y., in August, 1882, elected Albert McCalla, A. M., of Fairfield College, lowa, President, and selected Chicago as the place for the meeting of this year and fixed upon the 7th day of August as its date. On January 15th blue-birds were seen in this city and wild geese observed flying north; on the 19th the mercury averaged 8° below zero all day. Henry N. Copp, of Washington City, has added to the list of similar books written and compiled by him, one entitled ‘‘ The Settlers’ Guide,” which contains about all that a person going into any of the new Ter- ritories to locate himself need want to know of the laws and rules applicable to locating Government lands of any kind. 25c. THE Fifteenth Annual Report of the Pea- body Museum of American Archeology is before us. enthusiastic temperament and habit are visible all through it, from the scheme for raising funds for prosecuting his favorite study to the extremely successful results of his. sum- mer’s work and the valuable additions to the Professor Putnam’s energetic and museum, as reported. WE are indebted to Dr. A. B. Stout, of San Francisco, for a copy of the several arti- ~ cles published, in the Transactions of the Cal- ifornia Academy of Sciences, upon the pecul- iar foot-prints discovered in the rock at the Nevada State Prjson. They were at first supposed by several savazs to be human foot- prints, but it is now pretty unanimously ad- mitted that they are the tracks of one of the huge lizards of that period of the earth’s hi;- tory. SINCE our last issue the list of the Jackson County Flora by Mr. Frank Bush, of Inde- pendence, then announced, has been publish- ed in a neat pamphlet and laid upon our ta- ble. It appears to be very full and complete. Mr. Bush is to be thanked for doing so la- borious and difficult a work so thoroughly. THE Historical Society of St. Louis is taking measures to raise funds for the erec- tion of a suitable building for the accumula- tion and preservation of appropriate material, which is very abundant within and in the vi- cinity of that city. The building is to cost about $75,000. Ifthe Kansas City Academy of Science, which includes among other branches a sec- tion of Local History, could raise one-fourth as much or even $10,000 for the erection ofa building, its collections and library would soon be an object of pride to every intelligent citizen. EDITORIAE NOTES. For the coming year Professor Lovewell will do his meteorological work in connection with the Board of Agriculture, having been appointed State Meteorologist of Kansas. A bill was introduced in Congress on Jan- uary 8th, by Hon. Mr. Anderson, of Kansas, for the construction of a railroad and wagon bridge over the Missouri River at Leaven- worth City. AT the meeting of the Kansas State His- torical Society the address of Hon. T. Dwight Thacher was a most important and valuable contribution to its literature. It was a full, accurate, analytical history of the four con- stitutional conventions of that State and their doings, together with brief accounts of sever- al of the prominent members thereof. As a model of condensed history it should be, as it will be, carefully preserved among the papers of the Society. Ir is certainly a great gratification and a source of no small degree of hope, that a ‘Government officer’s report can be published and distributed before the end of the year to which it pertains. We refer to Prof. C. V. Riley’s Report as Entomologist of the De- partment of Agriculture for the year ending June 30, 1882, which was issued in Decem- cember, 1882, It is, as is always the case with Prof. Riley’s published papers, full, complete, valuable and handsome in execu- tion. THE Memphis extension of the Kansas City, Ft. Scott & Gulf R. R. is now complet- ed, and regular trains running to West Plains, Howell County, Mo , 315 miles from Kansas City. The line will reach Augusta, Oregon ‘County, Mo., about February 20th, and will be completed and open for business to Memphis, Tenn., about June 1, 13883. This is a result of great importance to Kan- sas City and the west. A Kansas City and Memphis railroad was projected many years ago, and work upon several lines commenced at different times, but for many reasons none has been effectually pushed until now. 613 Pror. NIPHER’S bill for a State Weather Service in Missouri ought to be passed with- out hesitation, as it will be of the greatest service to the agricultural interests and will cost a very small sum to establish it. The bill only asks for $1,000 for the pur- chase of instruments for 114 observers, or one for every county, and it asks for the next two years a sum of $1.500 annually for the pay- ment of actual expenses, including the hire of a clerk at the central office at $700 a year. The bill provides that no money shall be paid as salary to the Director, or to any other of- The Director and trustees are to be appointed by the Goy- ernor, ard are to account to him in detail for the money expended. It is intended to use this sum in giving daily andsystematic study to our Jocal storms, the reports being sent by mail each day trom the stations. It isexpected that in two years enough wi | be known of our storms to justi- ficer or member of the service. fy the commencement of harvest warnings. Each harvest rain does damage enough to pay the expense of weather service for years. Is it to be credited to shakespeare as scien- tific foresight that at the very time, 1603, when Dr, Gilbert was groping blindly amid the simplest experiments in magnetic atrac- tion, he put into the mouth of King Lear, when apostrophizing the lightning, the pro- phetic words: ‘‘ You sulphurous and ¢hozght- executing fires”? ITEMS FROM PERIODICALS. Subscribers to the REVIEW can be furnished through thts office weth all the best magazines of the Country and Europe, at a discount of from 15 to 20 per cent off the retail price. THE Northern Indiana School Journal is now in its third year and is certainly one of the ‘best educational magazines that comes to our table. It is a monthly octavo of 48 pages, filled with wholesome and valuable matter adapted to scholars and teachers, edited and published by Prof. W.J. Bell; at Valparaiso, Ind., at $1.25 per annum, 614 Pror. Oris T. Mason, of Columbia Col- lege, Washington City, in the November American Nuiuralist, to which we have so often referred as one of the very best scienti- fic magazines published, refers with much pride to the growth of anthropology as a science. He deprecates the idea that every gatherer of old bones and arrow-heads is a scientist, but insists upon it that the subject is of the highest value scientifically and that each of its branches, named by him, respec- tively, Anthropogeny, Anthropography, An- thropology and Anthroponomy, will afford ground for the deepest researches and pro- found philosophy. The meetings of the An- thropological Section at the Montreal meet- ing of the American Association were largely attended, and most of the papers read were able, instructive and interesting. Rtv. 8S. D. Peet, editor of the American Antiquarian continues in the January number his interesting and well written articles upon ancient village architecture in America, in- cluding Indian and Mound-Builder’s villages, _also several suggestive editorials. Albert S. Gatschet a well-known anthropologist of the Smithsonian Institution, contributes a paper upon the Chumeto Language. Mr. Read’s description of the Old Pecos pueblo differs so widely from our own personal ob- servations in 1880, that if it were not for his reference to the ruin of the ancient Spanish church, we should hardly recognize it as applying to the same place. The oriental notes are a very attractive feature. The Antiquarian is the only periodical in the country wholly devoted to archeology and deserves a liberal support. THE Aflantic Monthly presents for 1883 an ariay of contributors not excelled in number or ability to instruct and entertain by any magazine in the country. Oliver Wendell. Holmes, who has resigned his professorship in Harvard University in order that he may de- vote himself more fully to literary pursuits, will write exclusively for it; Henry James, _Jr., will write essays, criticisms, etc., in addi- KANSAS CITY REVIEW OF SCIENCE. ~ tion to his dramatized version of ‘‘ Daisy Mil- ler ;” W. D. Howells will send from Europe © the results of his observations in travelling through Europe; Charles Dudley Warner will contribute several of his characteristic sketches, while both Longfellow and Haw- thorne will be represented by a dramatic poem and a novel, respectively, left by them nearly completed. Besides all this the usual variety of serial and short stories, essays, poetry and reviews of current literature will serve to keep the Azlantzc, now in its fifty- first volume, fully up to its regular standard of excellence. NUMBERS 38 and 39 of the AHwmboldt Li- brary, published by J. Fitzgerald & Co., New York, present ‘‘Geological Sketches,”’ by Prof, Archibald Geikie, LL.D. Nothing can be more interesting or instructive than these sketches, and the publishers are to be credit- ed with rare good judgment in the selection of the articles they reprint from month to month. 48 pages octavo, well printed, for 15c. THe U. S. Monthly Weather Review for No- vember, 1882, has reached us in new and im- It is now stitched and- bound Even proved form. with a neat paper cover and trimmed. the weather maps are fasteved in, so that it is some satisfaction to handle tne /evzew. If the Chief Signal Officer will now have the the numbers «nclosed inenvelopes, for mail- ing, as are those of the Oficéal Gaztte of the Patent Office, instead of folding them, it will be an additional improvement. We observe that a weekly scientific maga- zine after the style of Vature, and to be call- ed Sczence is about to be started in Cambridge, Mass., under the management of Prof, A. Graham Bell. We wish it success and feel sure from the character of the gentlemen connected with it that it will occupy a high position and maintain itself without resorting to any such dishonorable practice as its late namesake of New York has done for a very small consideration within the past year. Tue Worth American Review for February opens with a symposiuin in which six promi- nent theologians, representing as many relig- ious denominations, give expression to their views upon the question of the ‘‘ Revision of Creeds.”’? Prof. Alexander Winchell, in an article entitled «« The Experiment of Univer- sal Suffrage,” institutes a profound inquiry into the essential conditions of stable popular government, which he finds-to be, substan- tially, virtue and intelligence; but these con- ditions, he maintains, are absolutely unat- tainable under our existing political system, where an electorate either ignorant or vicious, or both, by the mere force of superior num- bers, practically nullifies the suffrages of the better and wiser portion of the people, whose right to control the government of the com- monwealth is grounded in the very nature of things. Bishop McQuaid writes of “The Decay of Protestantism,” and in essaying to prove his thesis, makes a very adroit use of conuhve Political Situation” is the joint title of two articles, the one by Horatio Seymour, the other by Geo. S. Boutwell, who offer their respective views upen the causes of therecent admissions of the protestant writers. overthrow of the Republican party. An ar- ticle by Dr. D. A. Sargent, on ‘*‘ Physical Ed- ucation in Colleges,”’ treats asubject of prime importance to the welfare of the youths in our higher educational institutions. Finally, there are two articles on ‘* The Standard Oil Company,”’ Senatcr Camden of West Virginia defending tha’ corporation against its assail- ants, and John C. Welch setting forth the reasons for condemning it as a dangerous monopoly. Published at 30 Lafayette Place, New York. Oo A\GO-, (oS aN = Yin ofornnnonhdhins WORSVERGESTA = GAERFEST-BES g Yass Grex Wio.. 3 F Spamming ANN PRie? “yy per day at home. Samples worth $5 to $20 $5 free. Address Stinson & Co., Portland, Maine. $66 a week in your own town, Terms and $3 outfit free. Address H. Hattetr & Co., Portland, Maine. A WEEK. $72 Costly Outfit free. 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