72
Sum = 3-7018121 = log. 5(53283
Therefore, T = 5032-S3 seconds
•= 83 m. 52 83 s. = 1 hr. 23 ni. 52 83 s.
If the earth rotated, then, in thi.s time, or roughly in 1 hr. 21m.,
bodies at the equator would be absolutely without weight. — Ed.
[22] — Eqcatioxs; .VsTHOxoMiCAt PROBLESts.- Can any of yonr
i-eadcra give solutions of the following equations 'f
(«)
= a + b
(li) 2.Cy/.i^ + a'+2x^x''-t-b
(i.) When is Vonus brightest
(ii.) My watch loses 5' per day. I travel eastivard at such a rate
that it keeps correct time. In what time shall I complete the
circuit ?
(iii.) A star's meridional zenith distance and north declination
arc equal (^), how long is the star above tho horizon ?
(iv.) Find the difference between the synodic periods of Jupiter
and Saturn with tho earth, assuming mean distances as 1 .' 5 : 9. —
RfEVEETE.
[15] — By a ridiculous oversight, after sending this question (see
11. 258) to the printers, we dealt only with one of the equations we
had written down. Of course, there are two, viz. ; —
.v(v-^5) = 1000
'/ (i0O-j-) = 100O
Or, 01 4 201/ = 400, whence (100-201/) (y -I- 5) = 1000. The rest is
obvious. — Ed.
0m €\)t^5 Column.
Problem Ko. 1 1.
Black.
PROBLKM No. 15.
Black.
i ±
.'4
^
3
'^
k
i
\i<'
i
White (o play niid "-cU" m«te
in two moves.
Tho two-mover is a prize pi-obleni from the Hi'dftcnfield College
Majaiinc Tourney of 1877. A remarkable fact occurred in con-
nection with this problem. The Hudderspeld College M(viazine
piililished this problem in October, 1877. as composed by W. A.
Skinkmann. Simultaneously with this, the Free /'res* published
exactly the same position as composed by Mr. (i. K. C-vrponter. It
was afterwards ascertained that Mr. Carpenter composed his
problem two years prior to Mr. Skinkmann, and it was also ad-
iiiilted that Mr. .'Skinkmann had no cognisance of Mr. Carpenter's
problem. This forms a remarkable coincidence of ideas by two
Jax. 27, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE ♦
283
eminent composers. It is now known under tlie name of the
Carpenter-Skinkmann problem. The other is from the Cheaa-
Plaiiers' Chronicle.
The following pretty ending occurred in a game played in the
m.-itoh of Liverpool v. Manclu'.ster (H. Jones, Manchester) (Kev, J.
Owen, Liverpool). We copy from the Field.
Position after Black's 28th move.
Rev. J. Owen.
!"■
'^
'•■!"- ©ri
t
• i
^ i - 1
A
L,
- :? '-^
m
Ri: -■■' ^_
White continued with
2!1. R. to Q.8.
30. Q.R. to Q.7 (").
31. Q. to R.6 (ch.) (M.
32. B. takes R. (ch.)
33. K. takes R. (ch.)
34. B. to Kt.7.
35. R. to R.8 (ch.l
36. R. to R.6 (mate).
20. K. to B. sq.
30. P. to K.4.
31. R. takes Q.
32. K. to Kt. sq.
33. K. to R.2.
31. I', to K.Kt.l.
35. K. to Kt.3.
(") The winning co'tp, which blocks out the adverse Q., and
fluvatens the decisive B. to Q.G (ch.).
C") A highly ingenious master-stroke. Mate in six more moves
is forced after this.
Game played at Mephisto's Rooms, 48a, Regent-street, between
Mr. W. Cook and Mephi-sto ; —
White.
W. Cook.
Black.
Mephisto.
Bishoi)"s Gambit.
1. P. to K.4.
2. P. to K.B.l.
3. B. to B.4.
4. B. takes P.
5. K. to B.sq.
6. P. to Q.4.
7. Kt. to Q.B.3.
8. Kt. to B.3.
9. B. toB.4(*).
10. Kt. to K.sq.
11. P. to Kt.3.
12. B. to K.3.
13. P. toQ.R.3.
14. P. to Q.Kt. 1 (■).
15. B. takes B.
16. P. to K.5 ('I.
17. B. to B.2.
18. Kt. to Q.3
19. K. to K.sq.
20. Kt. to K.4.
21. B. takes Kt.
22. Kt. to K.B.I (').
23. Kt. takes Q.
2k Kt. to B.2 {>•).
White resigns (' ) .
1. P. to K.4.
2. P. takes P.
3. P. to Q.4.
4. Q. to R.5. (ch.)
5. P. to K.Kt.4.
6. B. to Kt.2.
7. Kt. to K.2.
8. Q. to R.4.
0. P. to Kt.5. C")
10. P. to B.6.
11. B. to Q.2.
12. Kt. to Q.B.3.
13. Castles Q.R.
14. B. to K.3 (J).
15. P. takes B.
16. Kt. to B.4.
17. Q.Kt. takes Q.P
18. Q. to R.6. (ch.)
19. B. to R. 3.
20. Kt. to K.G.
21. B. takes B.
22. Q. to Kt.7 (•••)
23. P. takes Kt.
24. K.R. to. B.sq. (').
NOTES BY MEPHISTO.
(") The new edition of Jlr. Cook'.s synopsis of the openings gives
Q.P. to K.B.4, which, in our opinion, is the better move, as then
Black could not venture on capturing the Bishop, as it is part of
the plan of attack in this opening to got the Queen's Knightto Q.5.
gJC) The hasty advance of these Pawns is sometimes inadvisable,
as the White King, although apparently exposed, is nevertheless
fairly safe. A somewhat similar position of the King runs in the
Salvio Gambit. Mr. Steinitz here prefers Kt. to Q.B.3.
(') Tlii.s move lost the game. Black's intention of Castling on
the Queen's side was obviously to obtain an attack on the White
centre, which P. to Kt.4 facilitates, as, on account of the pinning
action of Black's Bishop on Kt.2, the White Queen's Pawn and
Knight are fixed in a disadvantageous manner.
('') This move forces the position. Tlie Queen's Pawn cannot be
defended.
(') I'layed, perhaps, with the intention of exchanging Rook and
piece for Queen. Ho had no good move.
(') Played with the intention of preventing Q. to Kt.7. If, now.
Black plays, B. takes Kt. followed, on Pawn retaking, by Q. to Kt. 7.
Then White plays Kt. to B.2. White's position is very bad in any
case.
(') This position is as sound as it is forcible. He threatens Q.,
takes R. (ch.), and Kt. takes P. (ch.), which compels White to take
the Queen.
(*) As good as any other move. If 24. R. to B.2, then
„- K. to K.2
Kt. to B.6 (ch.)
R. takes Q.
26.
R. takes R.
P. Qiteens.
„- R. takes Q. -lx. ■ i. j
Z7. . ^ with a piece ahead.
B. takes R. ^
(') P takes R., followed by Kt. to B.6 (ch.), would also have left
Black with a piece more.
(') To find out the precise mode of winning, whatever White may
do, might be interesting to our young readers.
The death is announced of Mr. S. G. Boden, a chess-player of
great excellence. The Field gives the following brilliant end game
as a specimen of fine play on the part of the deceased : —
Bl^ce.
Mr. Bodon.
— WB V
It was Black's turn to play on the
l)roceeded thus : —
MiicDonnell.
lOtli move, and the game
WHITK.
21. P. takes Q.
22. K. to Kt.sq.
23. Q. to B.2.
24. B. takes R.
Resigned.
BLACK.
20. Q. takes Kt.
21. B. to R.6. (ch.)
22. R. to K.3.
23. R. takes Q.P.
24. Kt. takes B.
The sacrifice of the Q. in conjunction with the ultimate giving up
of the R. belongs to the finest specimen of chess tactics in actual
play.
A. .T. JIartix and J. P.— In rmldcni 5, if 1. K. to K.3, (') B.
takes P. (ch.), then 2 R. covers, disclosing check, and Black King
goes to K.3; there is then no mate. Of course, the first move in
our solution should have been K. to K.2., not Q.2. He cannot go
to Q.2. How does J. P. make out that if K. goes to K.2, there is
no mate in three ? In Problem 11 no mate in two. — En.
Vicar. — Your treatment of Mr. Maas's end game is correct.
What seems White's obvious first move leads to defeat. Problems
10 and 11 correctly solved. — En.
Carolus. — Y'our solution of Problem 11, p. 240, is erroneous.
After the two Knights have checked, when Bi.shop checks as you
propose, what is to prevent Black from playing R. takes B. ? — Ed.
284
♦ KNOWLEDGE
[Jan. 27, 1882.
W '■ V ,ir inlntionii of No. C and Ko. 11 (llio former
roc.
(;. .. . -Your Koliitionit of tS, 7, nnil H, correct. Kp.
Ill:^i;^ Mi/ii>iit. — If, ill tlio third varintioii on pnj^o 21G,
movf yjt, Whiti' 1.I1..11M |.liiy l^- Kl. tnk.n g.It.P., iimtoinl of
IS. It. tukcK g.r.U. (cli.), tlicii lilnck would Mimply reply with
12. t^. tJikon II., winning n pirrc. — Mkimihto.
rnililcniii nunilH'riil 11 and 1^ in No. 12, «houM linvc In'cn
nunilwrod n'«|M'Ctiv('ly 12 niul 13.
Norr. Tho ChoM Kiiitomhip, which has till now hwn ilividcd
lietwcon McphiHto and tho (ioncrnl Kditor, will hciici-forth be loft
to tho former. I.cltcTti belonging to this depiirtment nhouM be
directed Chosi Editor of Knowleooi:, 7t, Urcnt (juuen-street.
(Dili- Kll)iut Column.
By " Five of Cluus."
AX OMI.SSIOX I'i:().\I OL'K LE.VDS IX PLAIX SUITS.
WE omitted to note nmong our loads four, one lead of Knave,
two of Ten. and one of Nine. Besides tho two cases
noted, Knnve in led from King, Queen, Knave, with or without
others ; and lie.«ide8 the cases noted, Ten is led from King, Queen,
Knnve, Ten, with or without others. Tho object is, in either
cn«e, to get tho Ace, even though held by partner, out of the
way, after which tho entire command is retained in the suit.
Again, Ten is led from King, Knavo, Ten, with or without others.
Lastly, Nino is led from King, Knave, Ten, Xine, with or without
others.
Wo give this week a game which, as it happens, illustrates the
lead of Knave just mentioned. It is intended, however, to illustrate
what wo said in our Inst about playing a waiting game in trumps.
It may be mentioned as rather amusing, that in the actual gamp,
one of the ]>layers, forgetting the strict rule of whist, remarked,
when the second round of trumps was played without the Ace
falling, "Well, some one must be an unmitigated - " (the rest
was left unexpressed). He was one of the losers, and slightly
changed his tone at)OUt the tenth round. It is hardly necessary to
say. however, that he should have been silent all the time, whatever
his opinion of the play.
A.
Hearts — K, Q, 7.
Spatles— K,Q,Kn,0,
Diamonds — A, Q.
Clubs— G, 4.
C.
Hearts— Ku. 9, 3.
Spades— A, 10.
Diamonds— K Kn ,0, .')
Clubs— 7, 5.
TriK Hani
Score .—A B = I i Y Z = 4.
r.
Hearts— 8, G, 2.
Spades — S, G, 5.
Diamonds— 10, 8, 3.
Clubs -Ku, 10, 9, 3.
7/cnr^-— A, 10, 5, 4.
Spades — I. 2.
Diamonds — 7, G.
Clubs— A, K, Q, 8, 2.
Note.— Tho underlined card i
A Y B Z
i
*
@
*
<9 k.sellen»
and nevTMcent?, or direct frctm the Publishers*. Should any difficultr ari^e] in
obiainiu); the paper, an apphcation to the PubLishent is reapectfullj requeated.
Subscribers wishing to complete their sets are advised to make early application
to ihe Publisfaem, as no further reprints will be ordered.
JTEB. o, looa.j
AN ILLUi&IRATED. ^
I ^ MAGAZlNEoFS^ENCE
PlJVlNUfWfORMD -EXACTllDESCRIBEa;
LOXDON : FRIDAY, FEBRUARY \ 1882.
Contents of No. 14.
FAQS.
The Air of Stove-Heatod Rooms.
Bv W. MattienWillinms ^''5
Young on Ihc Son. Ht the Mitor . 280
Found Links.— Part til. Hv Dr.
Andrew WilnOD. P.B.S.E., .(:o 38S
lotelliaenec in .Ininmb ■2S9
.Mights with a Thrco-inth Telescope.
By " A Fellow of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society." (ftiu.'tratrJ.) 290
Brain Troubles : Partial loss of
.S|)eech , 291
liKviKws : Srieneo Ladders -Science
(or All— The Science of the Stars . 293
Ibo Effects of Tolrtoco.— Part I. By
Dr. Mnir Howie 292
Professor Grant on Motoorolopy .!. 29*
PAGB.
Easy Lessons in Blowpipe Chemistry.
- -Lesson II. Bv Lieut.-Colonel
W. A. Ross, late "R.N 29S
Ellluvia and Health; The Use of
Fleas, &c. ; Fish "Sounds." By
W. Mattieu Williams 295
—Volcanic Projectiles, 4o 296-302
Star Map for Febmarv 297-300
Queries .'. 303
Replies to Queries 303
.A-nswers to Correspondents 304
Notes on Art and Science 30tt
Our Mathematical Column 3V
Our Chess Column 309
Our Whist Column 309
THE AIR OF STOVE-HEATED ROOMS.
By W. M.iTTIEU WiLLI.YMS.
%S WHATEVER opinions may be formed of the merits of
* \ the exhibits at South Kensington, one result is
unquestionable — the exhibition itself lias done much in
directing public attention to the very important subject of
economising fuel and the diminution of smoke. We sorely
need some le,ssons. Our national progress in this direction
has been simply contemptible, so far as domestic fireplaces
are concerned.
To prove this we need only turn back to the essays of
Benjamin Thompson, Count of Rumford, published in
London just eighty years ago, and find therein nearly
all that the Smoke Abatement Exhibition ought to teach
us, both in theory and practice — lessons which all our
progress since 1802, plus the best exliibits at South j^Ken-
sington, we have yet to learn.
This small progress in domestic heating is the more
remarkable when contrasted with the great strides we
have made in the construction and working of engineering
and metallurgical furnaces, the most important of which
is displayed in the Siemens regenerative furnace. A
climax t<:) this contra-st is afforded by a speech made by
Dr. Siemens himself, in which he defends our domestic
barbarisms with all the conservative inconvincibility of
a Ijom and bred Englishman, in spite of his German
nationality.
The speech to whicli I refer is reported in the "Journal
of the Society of Arts," Dec. 1', 1881, and contains some
curious fallacies, probably due to its extemporaneous
< haracter ; but as they have been (juoted and adopted not
only in political and literary journals, but also by a maga-
zine of such high scientific standing as Mature (see
<-ditorial article Jan. !), p. 219), they are likely to mislead
many.
Ha\-ing already, in my " History of Modem Invention,
ac," and in other places, expressed my great respect for
Dr. Siemens and his benefactions to British industry-, the
spirit in which the following plain-spoken criticism is made
will not, I hope, be misunderstood either by the readers of
Knowledge or by Dr. Siemens himself.
I may further add that I am animated by a deadly hatred
of our barbarous practice of wasting precious coal by burning
it in iron fire-baskets half buried in holes within brick walls,
and under shafts that carry 80 or 90 per cent of its heat
to the clouds ; that pollute the atmosphere of our towns,
and laake all their architecture hideous ; that render scien-
tific and efficient ventilation of our houses impossible ; that
promote rheumatism, neuralgia, chilblains, pulmonary di-
seases, bronchitis, and all the other " ills that flesh is hf>ir
to " when roasted on one side and cold-blasted on the other ;
that I am so rabid on this subject, that if Dr. Siemens, Sir
F. Bramwell, and all others who defend this English abomi-
nation, were giant windmills in full rotation, I would
emulate the valour of my chivalric predecessor, whatever
might be the personal consequences.
Dr. Siemens stated that the open fireplace " communi-
cates absolutely no heat to the air of the room, because air,
being a perfectly transparent medium, the rays of heat pass
clean through it."
Here is an initial mistake. It is true that air which
has been artificially deprived of all its atjueous vapour is
thus completely permeable by heat rays, but such is far
from being the case with the water it contains. This
absorbs a notable amount even of bright solar rays, and a
far greater proportion of the heat rays from a comparatively
obscure source, such as the red-hot coals and flame of a
common fire. Tyndall has proved that 8 to 10 per cent, of
all the heat radiating from such a source as a common fire
is absorbed in passing through only 5 ft. of air in its ordi-
nary condition, the variation depending upon its degree of
saturation with aqueous vapour.
Starting with the erroneous assumption that the rays of
heat pass "clean through" the air of the room. Dr. Siemens
went on to say that the open fireplace ' ' gives heat only by
heating the walls, ceiling, and furniture ; and here is the
great advantage of the open fire ; '" and, further, that " if
the air in the room were hotter than the walls, condensa-
tion would take place on tliem, and mildew and fermenta-
tion of various kinds would be engendered ; whereas, if
the air were cooler than the walls, the latter must be
absolutely dry."
Upon these assumptions, Dr. Siemens condemns steam
pipes and stoves, hot-air pipes, and all other methods of
directly heating the air of apartments, and thereby making
it warmer than were the walls, the ceiling, and furniture
when the process of warming commenced. It is quite true
that stoves, stove pipes, hot-air pipes, steam pipes, &c., do
this : they raise tho temperature of the air directly by
convection ; i.e., by warming the film of air in contact
with their surfaces, which film, thus heated and expanded,
rises towards the ceiling, and, on its way, warms the air
around it, and then is followed by other similarly-heated
ascending films. When we make a hole in the wall, and
burn our coals within such cavity, this convection proceeds
up the chimney in company with the smoke.
But is Dr. Siemens right in saying that the air of a
room, raised by convection above its original temperature,
and above that of the walls, deposits any of its moisture
on these walls .' I have no hesitation in saying very posi-
tively that he is clearly and demonstrably wrong ; that
no such condensation can possibly take place under the
circumstances.
Suppose, for illustration sake, that we started with a
room of which the air and walls were at the freezing-
point, 32° F., before artificial heating (any other tempera-
ture will do), and, to give Dr. Siemens every advantage, we
286
• KNOWLEDGE •
[Feb. 3, 1882.
vill further suppose tlmt the air was fully saturntofl with
i'|u<-ouH vnpour, !.'•., just in the conilitioo ot which NOino of
it« watt-r ini({ht Ikj coikU-iirciI. Such coiidonsation, how-
■ viT, can only take place liy cooling the air l«elow .12^ ami
iiiilesK the wiilU or ceiling or furnitiire are capable of
doing this they cannot receive any moisture due to such
condensation, or, in other words, they must fall lielow .'{"J
in order to odtoin it by cooling the lilni in contact with
them. Of course Dr. Siemens will not a.ssert tlmt the
stoves or Kteam-pipe.K (enclosing the steam, of course), or
the hot air or hot water j " .< will hm-.i- ihi' absolute tem-
per.ature of the walls by heating th<' air in the room.
I!ut if the air is heated more rapidly than are the walls,
..c,, the T'liilivc temperature of tln'se will be lower. Will
condensation of moisture l/ien follow, as L)r. Siemens
athrms 1 Let us suppose that the air of the room is raised
from .30^ to .')0° /'.'/ fotiirclio)) punli/ ; reference to tables
liascd on the researches of Regiiault, shows that at 32°
the quantity of vapour required to saturate the air is suffi-
cient to support a column of 0-182 inches of mercury, while
at riO° it amounts to U-3C1, or nearly doul^le. Thus the
air, instead of being in a condition of giving away its
moisture to the walls, has become thirsty, or in a condition
to (akf moisliirc mm;/ from them if they are at all damp.
This is the case whether the walls remain at .32° or are
raised to any higher temper.ature short of that of the air.
Thus, the action of close stoves and of hot surfaces or
pipes of any kind is exactly the opposite of that attributed
to them by Dr. Siemens. They dry the air, they dry the
walls, they dry the ceiling, they dry the furniture and
everything else in the house.
In our climate, especially in the infamous jerry-built
houses of suburban London, this is a great advantage. Dr.
Siemens states his American experience, and denounces
such heating by convection because the close stoves there
made him uncomfortable. This was due to the fact that
the winter atmosphere of the United States is very dry,
even when at zero. But air, when raised from 0° to 60°,
acquires about twelve times its original capacity for water.
The air thus simply heated is desiccated, and it desiccates
everything in contact with it, especially the human body.
The lank and shrivelled aspect of the typical Yankee is, I
believe, due to this. He is a desiccated Englishman, and
we should all grow like him if our climate were as dry as
his.* The great fires that devastate the cities of the United
States appear to me to be due to this general desiccation of
all building materials, rendering them readily inflammable
and difficult of extinction.
When an undesiccated Englishman, or a German endowed
with a wholesome .John Bull rotundity, is exposed to this
superdried air, he is subjected to an amount of bodily
evaporation that must be perceptible and unpleasant The
disagreeable sensations experienced by Dr. Siemens in the
stove-heated railway cars, itc, were probably due to this.
An English house, enveloped in a foggy atmosphere, and
encased in damp surroundings, especially requires stove-
heating, and the most inveterate worshippers of our na-
tional domestic fetish, the open grate, iinariably prefer a
stove or hot-pipe-heated room, when they are unconscious
of the source of heat, and their prejudice hoodwinked. I
have observed this continually, and have often been amused
at the inconsistency thus displayed. For example, one
evening I had a warm contest with a lady, who repeated
the usual jiraises of the cheerful blaze, ikc, itc. On calling
afterwards, on a bitter snowy morning, I found her and
her daughters sitting at work in the billiard-room, and
luked tliem why. "Because it was so warm and com-
fortable." This room was heated by an H-inch steam-pipe,
ruiming around and under the table, to prevent the undue
cooling of tin- india-rubber cushions, and thus the room
was warmed from the middle, and equally and moderately
throughout The large reception-room, with blazing fire,
wa-s scorching on C)ne side, and freezing on the other, at
that time in the morning.
The i>ermeability of ill-constructed iron stoves to poi-
sonous carbonic oxide, which riddles through red-hot iron,
is a real evil, but e.-usily obviated V^y proper lining. The
frizzling of particles of organic matter, of which we hear
so much, is — if it really does occur — highly advantageous,
seeing that it must destroy organic poison-germs. Under
some conditions, the warm air of a mom does deposit
moisture on its cooler walls. This happens in churche.s,
concert-rooms, itc, when they are but occasionally used in
winter time, and mainly wanned by animal heat, by con-
gregational emanations of breath-vapour, and perspiration
— i.e., with warm air supersaturated with vapour. Also,
when we have a sudden change from dry, frosty weather,
to warm and humid. Then our walls may be streaming
with condensed water. Such cases were probably in the
mind of Dr. Siemens when he spoke ; but they are quite
ditlerent from stove-heating, which increases the vapour
cipacity of the heated air, without supplying the demand
it creates.
• In each of my three visits to America I lost abont thirty pounds
ill wcJKht, which I rrcovorcil within a few months of my retnm to
the " home country" (of English-speaking nations).— En.
yOLTXG ON THE SUX.
Bt the Editor.
IN the beginning of my former notice, I remarked that,
although Professor Young is one of those to whom
science is very largely indebted for our present knowledge
respecting the sun, few would suppose so from the treatise
before us. It so chanced that, on the very day when that
notice was passing through the press, a review of Prof.
Young's book appeared in yalitre, of which the opening
paragraph ran as follows : —
" Since the method of artificial eclipses was introduced
in 1868, Prof. Young, the author of the book under notice,
has from time to time done good work in utilising the
capital climate of his native country, and his relatively
superior optical means, to confirm in many essential points,
and to add a little shading here and there, to the bold
outlines of the new science, for which we are indebted to
his predecessors."
I must confess I read these lines with a sense of regret
— almost of shame. It is not fitting that any student of
science in this country should be ignorant of the services
which our American fellow-workers have rendered in solar
research, as in other departments of science. It would
be something worse if, knowing what those services have
Vieen, they should seek to ignore them. But, apart from
this, the reasoning involved in the slur cast on Professor
Young's original work is ridiculous on the face of it. One
might as reason.ibly say that the Herschels, utilising
their larger telescopes, did good work by adding a little
shading here and there to the bold outline of telescopic
astronomy, for which we are indebted to their pre-
decessors ; or that Huggins, Secchi, Lockyer, and others,
employing better spectroscopes, have usefully applied the
general principles for which we are indebted to Fraun-
hofer. Jso one who considers what Young has done can f.iil
to see that while even that part of his work which de-
pended on the method of artificial eclipses is full of original
FEa 3, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
287
value (three of the most important observations by this
method were made by him), he has done most valuable
work outside this particular line of research. He was one
of those who first demonstrated the gaseity of the solar
corona ; he tirst demonstrated the existence of the atmo-
sphere of multitudinous gases existing close to the visible
solar surface ; we owe to him the recognition of nine-tenths
of the lines of the solar sierra (all of those lines which
were at all difficult to discover) ; and he invented the
method (successfully applied by Respighi and Lockyer in
1S71) of observing the corona with a slitless spectro-
scope ; these, and a number of other researches, more than
justify what I said last fortnight. It appears to me — I
speak under correction — that a rival worker in the same
iield, like the editor of Xature, one who formerly held
views opposed to those which Professor Youngs original
researches have established, should not have allowed the
above-quoted paragraph to appear in the journal which, we
must assume, he controls. Some critics might attribute
the review to his pen, and point out that while science
must always gain, both in progress and Ln tone, from emu-
lation amongst scientific fellow-workers, the same cannot
be said of the quality which is associated with " malice
and all uncharitableness," and in reference to which the
old proverb says that Qui invidet minor est. We must not
suppose, however, that the renew was written by the editor
of Xature.
In this, my second notice, promised in the last
number but one, I propose to touch on some of
the remaining subjects admirably dealt with by Pro-
fessor Young, and to show that the sole subject worth
referring to is not, as the reviewer in Nature seems to
think, that investigation of the nature of the elements, in
which Mr. Lockyer is understood to have been engaged (as
that re\-iewer, indeed, asserts) during the last thirteen
years,- — with important results hereafter, we may suppose,
to be made more fully knoi^iu (The communications to
the Eoyal Society in 1878 and 1879 are understood to be
merely preliminary.)
In the first place, there is an admirable account of the
solar spots and faculw, with absolutely the best description
we have yet seen of the various stages of the growth and
development of the larger spots. The discussion of the
proper motion of the spots, and of the theories which have
been advanced in explanation of the seemingly more rapid
rotation of the equatorial regions is admirable. Here,
though the subject does not require any difficult mathe-
matical discussion, Professor Young's familiarity -n-ith
mathematical methods of reasoning stands him in good
stead. We may note, in passing, that Professor Young
has not allowed his book to be disfigured by that ridi-
culous picture illustrating (save the mark !) the sun's
axial inclination, which first appeared, we beKeve, in
Guillemin's " Heavens," and has since done duty in so
many astronomical works (by writers who should assuredlv
know better, and doubtless do). We could have wished
he had substituted another, but it is certainly better to
have no picture at all than to admit one conveying quite
erroneous ideas.
Passing to the portions of the sun outside the photo
sphere we first note an important omission. In dealing
with the lower atmosphere of the sun, and the beautiful
observations by which it was tirst recognised in 1870,
Professor Young calmly leaves out all reference to the
name of the eminent astronomer to whom the discovery
was due — Professor Young, then of Dartmouth, now of
Princetown, N.J. We find an account of the invention of
the method of observing the prominences ^nthout an eclipse,
in which, while due credit, to say the least, is given to
Janssen and Lockyer for their success in observing the bright
lines of the prominences without an eclipse, tlie important
share which Dr. Huggins had in the work is not overlooked,
as it has been by some writers. " It seems to have been
reserved,' he says, "for Dr. Huggins to be the first to show
practically that a still simpler device would " serve to show
the whole contour and detail of a protuberance at once —
that simple device being the one actually in use, and the
only one which has ever been successful, the widening of
the slit. The account of the varf -is orders of prominences
is very full of interest, and, thougA . concisely written, it is
the best and fullest extant.
Professor Young's discussion of the corona is, naturally,
full of interest to myself. When I first made his acquaint-
ance in America, the views which I had advocated respecting
the corona were as yet but half accepted. In 1869, a certain
degree of controversial energj' had characterised the contra-
diction which Mr. Lockyer advanced against the belief
which I then asserted to be mathematically demonstrable,
that — apart from any further observations — the solar corona
is a truly solar phenomenon, and not due to our own
atmosphere. But during the eclipse of 1870, photographic
observations showed that the theory which had lieen
rashly characterised as " ridiculous," is, as a matter of fact,
true. Even then, however, a section — a very small one
truly — of solar students, maintained that only the inner
and brighter part of the corona lielongs to the sun, the
outer part being a partly optical, partly atmospheric, phe-
nomenon. The eclipse of 1871, during which two sets of
six photographs, all agreeing together, were made, enforced
a still further concession of coronal matter to the sun.
For my own part, I was content to wait, the clear evidence
of mathematics (elementary enough, too), assuring me
that scarcely any appreciable portion of the light seen out-
side the body of the eclipsing moon could come from other
than solar matter — that is, matter by the sun. It did not
seem to me worth while to arg\ie the matter ; there had
been enough, and more than enough, of argument, approach-
ing sometimes to dispute ; and I had had time to see that
science can never gain by contention, though controversy
has not always been unfruitful. At last the eclipse of
1878 disposed of aU that had been in question. And
in Professor Young's book, we find a picture of
the corona of 1878, combined fi'om various draw-
ings, showing the real solar corona extending to a distance
corresponding to some three million miles from the sun.
Referring to these later views. Professor Young remarks
that " as has been pointed out by Mr. Proctor, the observer
at the middle of an eclipse is in the centre of an enormous
shadow, general!}- from fifty to a hundred miles in diar
meter. If we grant that the air retains some sensible
density and power of light reflection, e\en at an altitude
of a hundred miles, and assume for the shadow a radius of
only twenty miles, no particle of air illuiuinated by
sunlight could, under these circumstances, be found
within eleven degrees of the sun's apparent place in
the sky. If there were no corona truly solar in its
origin, there would, therefore, be around the moon a
circle of intense darkness, twenty-three degrees at least
in diameter; at the edge of this circle a faint illumi-
nation would begin, forming a luminous ring, something
like a halo, outside of which the sky would be lighted
by rays fi-om an only partially hidden sky." I could have
wished (it is not very important, but would have served to
show the value of a little reasoning applied to observations,
even to tolerably old ones,) that Professor Young had men-
tioned that this reasoning of mine was published in my
" Treatise on the Sun," and insisted upon in papers com-
municated to the Astronomical Society several months
288
KNOWLEDGE
[Kkb. 3, 1882.
lioforo th" eclipse of 1870, when olwcrvatioiw, showing
what I hud alrindy tliniotistnitfd, liognn to be made. My
proof was not the less a proof that, if it was nut mrinrr to
tho general, it was not so readily understooy them
as tho compamtively rough phot^jgrnpliic demonstration ;
and tlie lesson needs insisting upon that very <)ftly.
I note that' Professor Young accepts without reservation
Dr. Henry Drapers important discovery of the existence
of oxygen in tho sun. I fully agree with him. His views
respecting the elementary constitution of matter he has
described in these pages. How far they agree (as the
reviewer in Xaliirr seems to suggest) with Mr. Lockyor's
theory —or ratlier tlie theory advanced (earlier) by Professor
Clarke, of Cincinnati, we leave our readers to judge.
Professor Young's account of the valuable researches
made by his fellow-countryman. Professor Langley, into
tiie question of the sun's heat and light, is full of interest.
I note that Professor Young regards 10,000° Centigrade as
an altogether more reasonable estimate of the sun's effec-
tive temperature than the monstrous numbers adopted by
Secchi, Ericsson, and others.
I would fain dwell longer on this valuable work and on
the fascinating subject of which it treats, but space will
not permit I recommend all who wish to know the
present position of solar research to take this treatise for
their guide- — a guide thoroughly honest and trustworthy.
The book is not a book to be tasted, or merely swallowed,
but " to be chewed and digested." It has one fault (I
think a somewhat serious one) : Professor Young is ex-
ceedingly unwilling to claim his own work ; as some of it
has been rather unceremoniously claimed by others, he, in
this, hardly does justice to those who in this countrj- have
urged his claims (of the justice of wliich, be it remarked,
he is fully conscious, little though he cares to assert them).
There is sucli a thing as carrying modesty too far. He also
fails sometimes in expressing with suHicient confidence
views which he is known to regard as uni|uestionably just.
These, however, are, after all, very amiable faults. Per-
haps 1 should not have noticed them if he had left me any
others to note.
FOUND LINKS.
r.v Dp. Andhew Wil.son, F li.S F,
PAUT HI.
HAVING in my previous paper tried to .show that the
Mud fishes were veritable links between the lish-
e.la-ss and the frog-class, we may now turn to the history of
the latter group itself, by way of showing how, within its
own limits, gaps and gulfs have been bridged in Nature's
own way. The history of a frog is in itself an interesting
study. It begins life as a tadpole, and lives, ns most
readers know, a perfectly lish-lifce existence. It is fish-
like in form ; its heart is two-chambered, and thus
resembles that of the fish, and it breathes at first by out-
side gills. By-and-byo a liroad fold grows over the gills,
and ultimately covers them ; whilst internal gills grow
from the gill-arches. ^leanwhile, the tadpole- has been
cropping the waterweeds by means of the horny jaws with
which it is provided, and has l>een digesting its food
within the long and spiral intestine which is the right
and heritage of tho vegetable feeder. Hoon, however,
the hind legs, which in the frogs and toads are the
first to appear, are developed ; and these are in turn
succeeded by the front limbs. Lungs l)egin also to grow,
as all lungs do, namely, in the form of two sacs or bags
from the hinder or lower wall of the gullet At this stage,
the likeness of the frog to the fish has disappeared, and it
closely resembles one of the common tailf^ "efts" or
newts, which are familiar denizens of our ponds and pools.
If it had retiiined its outside gills after its legs had become
developed, the young frog would have exactly resembled
that curious creature, the ProU^is — found only in under-
ground caves in Central Europe — or the curious AxolotI
of North America. But the ways of frog-development do
not permit it to remain in the guise and likeness of its eft-
cousins. Whilst its lungs have been undergoing develop-
ment, the heart has been approaching that of the frog-
type, which possesses a three-chambered heart, as already
observed. Then, as development is completed, the tail
shrivels. Growing " small by degrees," it is represented in
the adult frog by a mere rudiment ; and, as the obliteration
of the tail takes place, the young frog leaves the water and
assumes the habits of a land-existence ; breathing by lungs
alone in its adult state, and exchanging, moreover, the
vegetarian tastes of its infancy, for an insect dietary in
after-life.
Now, the history of a frog is beset with questions of
interest for the earnest mind that studies even its .super-
ficial features. Why, firstly, should a frog pass through
these changes at all ? is a very pertinent in(]uiry ; and if
this be capable of being answered, why, secondly, should
its development run in the lines sketched out ! If we
start with the idea that animals and plants were simply
" created " as we find them — and that view of matters is,
of course, not yet displaced in unscientific circles — then, so
far as I can see, no explanation whatever of the frog's de-
velopment can be offered. " It is so, because it is so " —
such is the logical dead wall that awaits the student who
turns to the " special creation " theory for an explanation.
There is no accounting for a supernatural creative fiat ;
we cannot give reasons for a " special creation : " in a
word, we must, on this theory of nature, simply accept
the fact of the frog's existence, and have done with it
But there exists the alternative idea of evohition and
descent. What if it be admitted that one species or
group of animals arises by natural variation and descent
from another gi-oup 1 What if in the frog's development
we are led to see a panorama — a moving picture, of the
descent of its race ? The reasonableness of evolution may
thus, I think, become very apparent ; contrariwise, I
know of no other rational explanation of the frog's tadpole-
stage, and its subsequent development.
What evolution, then, says is this : the frog is at first a
fish-like, gill-breathing tadpole, with a fish-heart, because I
its earliest ancestor was a fish ; and it is interesting to
note that the young of some well-known fishes (e.(!., dog-
fishes) breathe by outside gills. I have a beautiful spe-
cimen of two of these young fishes with their outside gills
in my museum. Furthermore, the resemblances of the
tadpole to the type of some primitive fish do not end with
its outside aspect. Mr. F. M. Balfour says the anatomy
of the tadpole points to its relations with the li%-ing
lampreys, which, as every naturalist admits, rau.st be fishes
of a very ancient type. But, secondly, the tailed tadpole
becomes four-legged, and it thus resembles, as we have
seen, a newt or eft The reason of newt^stage is evident
if we assume that the frog-stage was attained through a
newt-stage. Abbre%iate the tail of the newt, elongate
its hind legs, and with a few other modifications, we find
Feb. 3, 1882.]
♦ KNOWLEDGE
289
the higher frog to be represented. For the frog, let it be
nmembered, is the highest type of its class ; and the
i\olutionist's contention is that it has ascended to that
place and dignity by successively rising from fish to newt,
and from newt to frog. The reasons for the "meta-
morphosis " of the frog are clear enough, on the principle
that development repeals descent — not always clearly, it is
true, and with much modification, but still plainlj- enough
to reveal the ways of the " becoming " of the animal
world.
If it is asked, Why do not all animals show their descent
as clearly as does the frog '\ I reply, because their develop-
ment has been modified. But it is none the less true that
in the development of all animals we see glimpses of the
lines of their genealogy. The great diflerence between a
frog's development (or that of an insect or crustacean which
also undergoes " metamorphosis ") and that of, say, a fish
which hatches directly from the egg, consists simply in the
fact that the frog's development is mostly passed outside
the egg, whilst the lish developes within the egg.
But it is interesting to note that the frog in itself thus
serves to link together groups of its own class. Thus its
own development — not to speak of that of the newts
themselves — teaches us that the newts have arisen from
the tish-stock, and that they represent a lower phase of
amphibian life than do the frogs and toads with their
shortened tails. Indeed, the study of the frog itself not
merely proves to us its own evolution, but demonstrates
au orderly sequence in the descent of its class — a sequence
wherein the newt-type followed the tish, and wherein the
t'rog-type, in turn, was evolved from the newt.
Tliat some such explanation — or, at least, an explanation
liosed on similar grounds — is the only feasible method of
explaining the metamorphosis of a frog, may be stoutly
maintained against all comers. Evolutionists may differ
ii'garding tlie exact lines along which the descent pro-
ceeded. They do not difter regarding the main facts at
issue, namely, that fishes are linked to frogs in more ways
than one, and that the history of the frog-race, rightly
viewed, is really a cormecting-thre^ on which the various
forms of living and extinct members of its class may be
strung. In my next paper, I shall endeavour to trace the
" links " which bind birds to reptOes.
INTELLIGENCE IN ANIMALS.
KEPLER'S (the mastiflfs) claim to be looked upon as a
rea-soning dog may be regarded by some as being
better h>a,sed, perhaps, on what his master and mistress
described as actual mathematical calculations. " Kepler,'
says the latter, " like his great namesake, is an excellent
mathematician. Many distinguished men have been de-
lighted witli his performances in this direction. The mode
of procedure is this : His master tells him to sit down, and
shows him a piece of cake. He is then questioned, and
bai'ks his answers. Say he is asked what is the square root
of 16 or of 9 ; he will bark three or four times, as the
case may be. Or such a sum as '6 + 12-3 di\'ided by .5,'
he will always answer correctly : more prolonged calcula-
tions rather fatigue him. The piece of cake Ls, of course,
the meed of such cleverness. It must not 'be supposed
that in these performances any sign is consciously made by
his questioner. None whatever. We explain the per-
formance by supposing that he reads in his master's ex-
pression when he has barked rightly : certainly he never
takes his eyes from his master's face." A singxilar per-
formance, and one showing that some dogs possess not only
keen vision, but keener powers of perception than most
men. It would, however, be a mistake to regard Kepler's
performance as illustrating the possession of actual reason-
ing power by animals. ' For certainly the calculations he
seemed to conduct were conducted in reality by his master.
Tliis intelligent lUiimal showed excellent judgment when
a large photograjih of one of Landseers dogs (that is, a
photograph of a dog pictured by Landseer) was shown him.
He showed his perception of the painter's skill by at once
distinctly recognising that the photograph represented a
strange dog, of whom, by-the-way, he manifested decided
jealousy. Kepler knew the meaning of many words. He
recognised clearly when his master was ill, and showed at
such time real concern and sympathy. " He was exceed-
ingly kind and unselfish to a little English terrier, called
Tycho ' Brahe' "* (I quote again from Mrs. Huggins'
interesting little sketch ; only, as Kepler is dead, I change
the tense in these few last sentences from the present to
the past), " who often tried him, and to a very unamiable
cat, who both formed part of the household in which lie
dwelt. Altogether, there was in Kepler's every look, and
motion, and utterance, a noble and intelligent individuality
which endeared him to all who knew him. Much might
be learnt from him in many ways ; and he was indeed
worthy of a large share of an inclusive love — that love
which loveth
' All things both gieat and small.' "
The que.stion whether animals can count in any way, or
discriminate, at any rate, between different numbers, is one
about which different opinions have been expressed. We
cannot consider that the question was answered (affirma-
tively) by Kepler's achievements, though he seemed to do
more than count. On the other hand, the common opinion
that a bird, whose nest has been robbed of all the eggs but
one, is as well content with that one as with the entire set,
is not supported by evidence, and, indeed, seems to have
been devised to comfort the consciences of those who like
to go birds'-nesting, but might be troubled with regret for
the troubles of the parent birds, were it not for this
ingenious theory. We all i-emember the remonstrance of
Tom Brown, when East proposed to take all four of the
eggs in the nest robbed by ^Martin, " No, no ! leave one,
and then she won't care," said Tom. "We boys," says the
author, " had an idea that birds couldn't count, and were
quite content as long as you left one egg. I hope it is so."
However this may be with birds (and, on the whole, I
incline to think even penguins, " l)Oobies " though sailors
call them, have some idea of the number of their eggs), the
following story seems to show that dogs can count their
young. " To my friend. Dr. Velasquez Level, a respectable
physician of this city," writes M. A. Ernst, of Caracas ;
" and for several years a resident of the island of Mar-
garita, I am indebted for the following touching instance of
the sagacity of a bitch. Her owner, for some reason or
other, had destroyed all the female puppies in two suc-
cessive litters. On her having brought forth a third one, it
was found that there were but three male puppies. The bitch,
however, was observed to leave her whelps occasionally, and
to return some time after. Being followed, she was discovered
suckling three female puppies, which she had hidden under
some brushwood, undoubtedly with the intention of saving
them from the master's cruel hands." This, perhaps, is the
most striking of all the cases we have yet considered. It
would seem that when the female puppies of the first litter
were destroyed, the mother either did not recognise the
circumstance that all the male puppies were left, or else
* Tycho Brahe (the dog, not the astronomer) was commonly
called by Dr. Hnggins, Tyko Barky.
290
KNOWLEDGE
[FEa 3, l«»a.
n-giirjliMl it M iiiori'ly accidental ; for otlu-rwise slio woiild
|)rolial)lv hove tri.-d with tli« Bccoiid litter tho plan sho
iiotually tried with the third. When the female puppies
of the Hecond litt<-r were token, she recognised the rule l.y
which selection hiul l>een n)ade. Thus she hod up to this
point reasoned well and with due caution, not adopting a
conclusion until the evidence in its faM>ur havious though tho result she ohtoined may
soem to one of ourselves, capable of dealing readily with
much larger numlx-rs, yet if wo conceive a mind so far
inferior in matt4'r8 of calculation to that of a savage (and
such savages are known) who can .scarce count up to tivc,
and has to run through a process of calculation before he
can say how many children he has, as the mind of such a
savage' is to that of a .skilful mathematician, we see that to
such a mind the procHiss gono through by the animal in
this case would be what a very profound calculation would
lie to the mathematician. In other words, we here have
evidence that the dillerence between the mind of an animal
and the mind of man is but one of di'grcc, and that the
animal i.-s not more widely separated from man in this
respect, than the lowest among men is from the highest
NIGHTS WITH A THREE-INCH
TELESCOPE.
By " A Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society."
BY this time the student will have become tolerably
familiar with his instrument. We propose to em-
ploy it to-night in the examination of some of the more
striking objects in the glorious constellation of Orion (Map,
pp. 204 and 20-")). And first we will turn it upon/3 Ononis
or Rigel, fig. 9, which will furnish the young astronomer
with gooourhood of larger and more bril-
liant ones. Proliably, at first, his eye will be dazzled with
the brilliant blue coruscation surrounding Rigel itself; but
a little careful attention will show just above and to the
/-/ c./o.
ORIONIS
left of it a small bluish point, as shown in the figuie.
From Orion's foot he may proceed to his face, in which we
shall find X, a very pretty pair, tolerably close together, the
larger star being yellowish, the smaller one more of a lilac
hue. Our figure represents it as seen with a power of 120.
The lowest, or most easterly of the three stors in the Giant's
Ix'lt I, will next claim our otte intensely
heated gas !)* surrounding, and seemingly physically con-
nected with, a curious group of stors.
B vAUO 42MINEBUL/V
ORIONIS
Xo woodcut can possilily do justice to this most marvel-
lous object ; but in oui* sketch, copied above, we have
endeavoured to give some faint idea of its aspect as Wewed
• Gas ; but is it intcnselv hot ? — Ed.
Feb. 3, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE ♦
291
■> ith a power of 80. The black gap leading up to the
irajiczium of four stars is known as "the fish's mouth."
The nebulosity surrounding an isolated star, towards the
lottoni of tlie field, will be noted. The difference in
■ oli>ur of the stars forming the trapezium will be readily
cl't.vtid. There are a fifth and a sixth belonging to this
.liruup ; but they are entirely beyond the power of such an
instrument as that which we are using.
Having gazed our fill on this wonderful sight, and,
furthermore, particularly scrutinised the trapezium of stars
with the highest power at our disposal, we will lower the tele-
scope a little to t Orionis, a very pretty triple, in a fine field.
F I C . l-f- .
Its aspect, as seen with a power of 120, is shown in
fig. 14. The smallest of the three stars will require
careful looking for before the unpractised observer will see
it at all.
An even more diiEcult star is p^ Orionis, represented in
fig. 15. This will require a power of 150 at least, and, in
fact, as high an one as the oljserver possesses, to see the
companion fairly. The small star is so faint and difficult
with a three-inch aperture as to form a very fair light-tost
indeed, p' may Vie found by carrying an imaginary line
i through the three stars f, i, and c, in the belt, on which
line, at double the length of the belt from ^, it will be
found.
The last illustration we shall give is of 52 Orionis, a severe
test of the separating power of such an instrument as
we are considering. At moments of the finest vision, with
the highest power at the observer's disposal, it will be
seen as in fig. 1 6.
r / c; /e
S2 ORIONIS
Such are a few typical stars among a very mine of such
objects in which the student may well search by sweeping
for himself. Should he succeed in exhausting such a
treasury in one night's work, he may turn his telescope
down to Lepus, where, int4^r alia, he will find a pretty,
and somewhat difficult paii- in k. This is the star to the
right of X, and just beneath i, in the map on pp. 204
and 205.
BRAIN TROUBLES.
P.\RTiAL Loss OF Speech.
IT will generally be noticed that some words are more
troublesome than others when the mind is in this
special state. Each person, probably, has his own pecu-
liarities in this respect, and can (or might) recognise, from
the misplacement or misspelling of particular words, the
necessity for rest or change of occupation. It may be
noticed, e\'en in more remarkable cases of defective power
of articulation, that some words suffer more than others.
In the following case the patient had had an apoplectic fit,
from which he recovered so far that his intellect and bodily
strength were restored, but he could not speak intelligibly.
He laboured under no paralytic attection, and could articu-
late freely, only, unfortunately, the syllables which he
uttered with great apparent ease were meaningless.
" When he came to Dublin, his extraordinary jargon led
to his being treated as a foreigner in the hotel where he
stopped, and when he went to the college to see a friend,
he was unable to express his wish to the gate-porter, and
succeeded only by pointing to the apartments which his
friend had occupied " He perfectly understood every word
addressed to him. He could read and understand written
words and printed matter. " Having procured a copy of
Andral's ' Pathology ' in French, he read it with great
diligence, having lately intended to embrace the medical
profession." He expressed his ideas in writing with
considerable fluency ; and when he failed, it appeared to
arise merely from confusion, and not from inability, the
words being orthographically correct, but sometimes not in
their proper places. We pass over other details indicating
that he retained full possession of his mental faculties.
The peculiar imperfection of language which he exhibited
was thus tested by Dr. Osliorn : He selected and laid
before the patient the following sentence from the bye-laws
of the College of Pliysicians : —
" It shall he in the povwr of the College to examine or not
examine any Licentiate previous to his admissio>i to a
Fellowship, as they shall think fit."
This being set him to read, he gave (at intervals of a few
days), the two following versions : —
"(i.) " An the be ichat in the temother of the trothododoo to
majorum or that emidrate ein einkrastrai mestreit to ketra
iotombreidei to ra fromtreido as that kekritest."
(ii.) " Be mather be in the kondreit of the compestret to
samtreis amtreit emtreido and teiiitreido mestreit er so to his
eftreido turn bried rederiso of deiddaf drit des trest."
Here it will be noticed that the words " be in the " were
correctly given on both occasions, except that on the first
the word "what" is interposed between "be" and "in"
(no doulit, merely as a question,) (What ?). Again, the
words " of the " were given correctly on both occasions.
The word " to " was given correctly three times out of
four, and on the fourth was probably nearly right, though
lost in the written transcript in the word " tian " query
toom '/). Strangely enough, the words " to his," correctly
given on the second occasion, were represented by the sin-
gular combination " to ketra " on the first. The word
" examine," which occurs four times altogether, is repre-
sented by the following dissimilar combinations of syllables,
(i) "majorum," (ii) "emidrate," {iii) " samtreis," smA (\y)
" emtreido," which only resemble each other in this, that
all contain an " m" in the first syllable, and an "r" in
the second. It is noteworthy again, and seems to prove
the utter absence of method in this patient's defective arti-
culation, that, whereas on the second occasion the three
dissimilar words "examine," "licentiate," and " admis-
292
• KNOWLEDGE •
[Fkii. .», 1882.
tion " wnn« rapri««nt«d hy tho Himilar aoundii, " imlrfido"
" lemtrtitii," and " r/trrir/o," thi-v woro rppreaontcd on tho
first ooiTi'iion liy tho utterly dixsimilnr sounclg " emvlraU',"
" tinknintrai," aiul " MoinbrcUUi." This pativiit ktu-w
whon he xpok)' wrongly.
lUbi'ftosJ.
RCIEN'CE LADDEllS.*
rnmCSE little iKjoks arc i-apital. Thoy deal in the
1 ]iliiincst |)ossil)l<' words with thi'ir ri'spcctivo .sulyccts,
hut what tlipy dcsctilrt- they di-.scril)c neatly and exactly.
Tlipy arc suited for thn youngest readers, yet they contain
a uunib'i' of facts which many who are not very young will
Gad full of int«--re8t. Even those who know most of the facts
oontjiiu' rl in these lHX)ks will enjoy reading them simply
liocause of the pleasant way in which tlie facts arc i)re-
wntod. 'J'nke, for instance, the following account of the
way in which hydras arc born into the world. For a long
timo no one knew. " At last, however, a patient natu-
ralist, who had long watched a hydra in a glass case, saw
tlie growth of a tiny egg on its body, below the mouth
and arms. Three days after the discovery of the egg, it
was loosened from the body of the mother, and fell to tho
bottom of the water. When it Hrst appeared it was
cream-colour ; it had now turned a bright orange. It re-
mained at the Ijottom of the water for lifty-fivc days, and
the only changes which took place in it during that time
were that the outside skin became rough and the shape
changed from round to oval. At the end of fifty-live daj's
the egg cracked, and a baby hydra ]>ushcd out part of a
soft, transparent, crystal-like body, quite round and
nmooth. Two hours afterwards this baby began to put out
threads, and in seven days its shape was just like that of
the mother hydra, only much smaller. This baby hydra
took no food till it was more than a month old. It is now
known that hydras do not always come from eggs, but
grow out like liranches from the bodies of grown-up
creatures. From these branches spring yet younger
branches, so that sometimes quite a family tree is made."
SCIENCE FOR ALL.t
The object of this work so closely resembles that which
we have in view in K.nowledce, that it would be strange
(considering who liave bien Dr. Brown's coadjutors) if the
work itself did not meet with our approval. In the present
volume, which is the fifth of the .Kcries, we find most
interesting articles by Dr. Wilson, on Zoological subjects ;
by Prof. Duncan, on Earthquakes and Animals, old and
now ; by Dr. Mann, on Lighting, Ac. : and by other
writers on subjects with which tlicy are respectively more
or less conversant The editor, Dr. Drown, discusses ably
the question how plants were distributed over the earth.
Mid in another article considers the question, What is a
fruit t
Nearly all the articles are well written and well illus-
trat«-d— many, quite admirably. The volume, as a whole,
is a charming contribution to popular scientific literature,
well-printed on excellent paper, and handsomely bound.
• Hcioiipo Lndders. Series I. No. 1.— Forms of band and
Wiitir. 8rrio8 II. No. 1.— Vogi-tablc Life. Series III. No. 1.—
Uwost Porms of Water .\nimal«. By N. ri'Anvors. Price Cd.
iwcli. (boiidon : 8amp8uu I.mv, Marstun, i Co.)
^ t acUnct for All. Kdited l,y Uobert Hrown, M.A. (Caasell.
IVttcr, i Ualpin, London, I'aru). and Nuw York.) Price 5a.
Here and thero ore some shortcomings in stylo of treat-
ment, and occasionally, but more seldom, in scientific
accuracy. We may cit<', as instanciis of the latter kind,
Mr. Denning's stat'-ment that the Satumian rings, if solid,
may be maintained in equilibrium in the way Buggest*-d
by Laplace. Nothing can l>e more certain than that
the rings could not possibly be maintained in equi-
librium a-s I.jiplacc supposed. It i.s also not tru«
that most careful measurements .show the rings to be
slightly eccentric. Some measurements have done so on
particular occasion.s, that is all. It is clear, from Mr. Den-
ning's account of the appearance of the rings, as supposed
to be seen from the planet, that he has not given the matter
even that cursory examination which Dr. Liirdner ga\e it,
otherwise he would a.s8urcdly have seen that in the vicinity
of the poles no part at all of the rings could pos.'iibly be
seen. Nor is it true tliat at night the rings would be seen
as a vivid semicircle of light ; during the winter half of
each Saturnian year they would not bo visible.
Apart from minor defects such as these, the volume
before us is one whidi, whether regarded as part of the
" Science for All " series, or judged by its intrinsic merits,
can be warmly recommended. It is full of interesting
matter, plainly worded, and, for the most part, exactly
described.
THE SCIENCE OF THE STARS.*
We admire Mr. Pcarco's calm andarity. He sends to as for
review a work on Astrology with as much confidence as if it were
such a work as *' The Courses of the Stars," by onr esteemed corre-
spondent Mr. Bazloy, a work bearing a title which mipht cause it
to bo confounded with astrolofncal treatises (instead of being one
of the most valuable contributions made during the last few years
to the science of tho stars), while Mr. Pcarco's book, instead of
justifying its title " Tho Science of the Stars;," advances gravely all
the absurdest views of the astrological charlat.in.
Perhaps the most remarkable feature of this work is tho mixture
of literary lore and utter ignorance of science. We have references
to the sayings of a number of more than respectable writers, in
company with statements based on tho authority of such an
ignoramus (to speak charitably) as the late I^ioutcnant Morrison,
the Zadkiol of the notorious almanac bearing that name. One
specimen of the manner of reasoning adopted by modem astrologers
(the ancients had some reason for their errors) may be quoted — it
will sntEce, vfi} should imagine : —
" It may ajipear arbitrary to take the moon as general significatrix
(in mundane astrology) of the common people. Yet it would seem
to have some show of reason when we remember that the Tay-
bridge catastrophe, by which nearly one hundred lives were lost,
only one or two of the passengers ranking above the class of
'common people,' took place on the very evening (Dec. 2S, 1879) of
the partial eclipse of the moon in the sign Cancer (which mlesl
Scotland). — aye, and before the shadow had entirely papsed away
from the moon's disc. Ramsey avers that such an eclipse falling in
Cancer denotes ' the death and slaughter of obscure, common,!
plebeian kind of people.' On July 12, 1870, a total eclipse of the
moon, visible in Europe, took place. Throe days afterwards Lo'
Napoleon declared war against Prussia. The slaughter in that
was horrible."
THE EFFECTS OF TOBACCO.
By Dr. Mcib Howie.
PAET I.
THE nse of tobacco is becoming so extensive, that it is inonml
bent upon all who are interested in the health of the comj
mnnity, to devote some attention to tho effect of such increa
consumption. How does tobacco affect the human organism ?
it increase or diminish its capacity for physical or mental work (
Docs it tend to prolong life, or to bring on prenuituro decay ? Do
it make life, as a whole, more pleasant and agreeable, or are its oon
fortiug and soothing effects rendered nugatory by subseqnenl
irritability ? Many such questions naturally arise in the mind <
• " The Science of tho Stars," by Alprkd J. Prabcr.
Marshall, & Co., London.)
SimpE
Feb. 3, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
203
the inqmrcr ; bat in the present paper I intend to narrow my con-
sideration of the subject to one special point, viz., the foourposes of motion.
Every nerve and muscle in the body is a vast assemblage of
cells, and each cell is filled with explosive material, ready
to burst on the application of the slightest stimulus, and thereby to
Kberate its pent-up energy in order to conduct the vital functions
for which it is adapted. The vital processes are thus conducted by
a continued series of explosions, and so great is the heat generated
by such explosions, that unless the hum-in body were mostly com-
posed of water, it would go off in smoke like a bombshell, or quickly
disappear by spontaneous combustion. When one end of a nerve is
irritated, a series of e.xplosions runs along its entire length. If
this nerve leads to the brain, it excites thought ; if to a muscle,
it excites movement by originating a series of explosions in
■'■' brain or in the muscle. Those of you who, as boys,
.1 '■ amused youi-selves by setting fire to an end of a long train of
'1 powder, and watched with delight the glowing force gliding,
- ingly, along its course, will at once .appreciate this explanation
nervous communication. When once the cell contents have
' rated their energy by explosion, they are henceforth as useless
the washings of a gun or the spent ashes on the hearth, and
-i be swept out of the body as waste matter, to make room for a
>h snp])Iy of storcd-up energj-. It is through the medium of the
• ' r-circulating blood that a continuous supply of such material is
u'.ight within reach of every cell in the organism : and it is by means
that same current that the waste matter is carried away which
would otherwise as effectually extinguish life as an accumulation of
ashes will extinguish the kitchen-fire. This waste matter we call
poison, because of its power to interfere with vitality. I may mention,
in passing, that it is among this waste matter that alcohol is found
in the body of every man, be he the most ardent teetotaller or the
most ardent spirit-drinker in these realms. Alcohol is the ashes
which remain after the explosion of sugar in the body, and, like all
other ashes, it is rapidly thrown out of the system.
We are sometimes told that alcohol must be a food, because it is
found in the body. We might as well be told that spent ashes are
good fuel because they are found in the fire.
Now. it is not maintained by an}' scientific authority that tobacco
either assists iu building up the tissues or in supplying them with
explosive material ; but such authorities do assert that it is u.seful
in some other way. This brings us to our second consideration,
viz. : —
2. Are there no substances of advantage in nutrition, other than
those properly termed foods ? We answer that there are. Just as
the engine-driver cannot attain express speed without a liberal use
of the poker, so the human machine cannot be kept in healthy
activity without the administration of stimuli. Observe, I do not
say stimulants, because that word has been corrupted, and now
refers to a class of compounds which ought properly to be termed
alcoholic narcotics. Alcohol is almost entu-ely used for its narcotic
properties, and where thus used, cannot be admitted under the
head of a stimulus. A stimulus is an agent which makes life
more active, although it adds no energy whatever to the system ;
just as the poker will make the lire burn brighter, although it adds
no heat or brightness of its own. Stimixli may be applied exter-
nally, or administered internally, and the more stimulus the body
encounters among its surroundings, the less does it require mixed
with its food. The man who takes a cold bath every morning
before going to business does not require strong coffee to goad his
nervous system to its daily toil. Those who have abundant open-
air exercise may live entirely on vegetable diet, which contains but
little stimulus ; while those whose life is monotonous and sedentary
require a more stimulating diet. But the healthiest stimulus is
unquestionably the external. Open-air exercise, cold bathing,
and pleasurable mental excitement will give sounder and
better stimulation than the most savoury diet. Internal
stimuli must only be resorted to when the external cannot be
secured. There is one criterion by which you can always dis-
tinguish whether or not any agent is a stimulus, viz., by its power
to increase the demand for food. The more you employ your poker,
the more coal you burn ; and just as yon can extinguish your fire by
a too vigorous application of the poker, and without adding fresh
supplies of coal, so you may extinguish life by using too much
stimulus without giving, at the same time, an increased supply of
food. For example, if you feed a dog entirely on Liebig's extract
of meat, which contains the stimulating properties of beef without
much of the nutrient property, it will not live so long as if yon fed
it npon water alone. This proves that the extract of meat is a true
stimulus, because it induces a greater necessity for food. It is thus
useful for invalids with failing appetite, provided that true food be
given at the same time. Now, tobacco is not a true food, neither is
it a stimulus ; for it rather diminishes the desire for food. Indeed,
the boast of its advocates is, that it enables a man to do with less
food, and even to do without food altogether for considerable
periods.
3. How, then, does tobacco affect the animal tissues ? It is not
equivalent to the coal of the fire, nor to the poker. Where, then,
can we find an analogous agent ? Tobacco has the same effect upon
the nerve-cells that water has upon a coal fire. Apply water iu
small quantity, and your fire will burn more slowly ; apply a large-
enough bucketful, and it will cease to exist. When the cook rakes
up the ashes, and covers her fire before going to bed, she performs
the same physical experiment as her master, who soothes his nerves
with tobacco before retii'ing for the night. The cook wishes her tire
to smoulder during the night. She therefore applies an .agent which
will check combustion by partially excluding oxygen from her fuel ;
her master applies to his nervous system an agent which diminishes
oxidation, and thus seriously interferes with vital action. In both
cases there will be less material burned, less coal and less explosive
food. But is this a real advantage to the usefulness of the fire or of
the human machine ? The cook would be very late with bieakfast
if she trusted such a fire to boil the kettle, and the work accom-
plished by a brain much affected by tobacco is both small in quan-
tity and inferior in (juality. It is as difficult to send proper
messages along a nerve which is under the influence of tobacco as
it is to fire a train of damp gunpowder. " Praise God, and keep
your powder dry," said the great Oliver Cromwell ; " Praise God
and keep your brain clear," wotild have been his burning advice had
he lived in these latter days.
294
. KNOWLEDGE •
[Feb. 3, 1882.
PUoKKSaOK nilANT ON MKTEOROLOOY.
AT n iliiiii'T tOTi-'ii nt (iliuiK"'' ^y M''' J'>l>>> Uumii to Ihc prin-
ri|uil iitllrinlii i>f •rvoml (if tho ^nmt niilway compniiioii uf the
UniUxl KiDK'loni, Or. (iraiit, rrofi'iifiMr of AKtruiiomy in thii Uiii-
mnity uf (ilaa^iw, i^ivo nn int43roiitii>)f HUininnry uf tho proMent
■t*t4' uf t lii< urioiK-t' of iiiii|cferfect and liinitcil in ranpe.
Bat a moro hopoful view ])rescnts itj*elf in tho present day. During
the Inst thirty or forty years, systenmtie observations of motooro-
logirnl phenomena hove In-en carefully made in all the countries of
tho civilisoil world. In many instances those observations have
boon di<ect are
much ap|>reciated by the Council, as constituting valuable materials
for subseipient discussion. Seven observatories have been esta-
blished in connection with the Meteorological Office with a view to
the advanci'mont of tho land meteorology of the British Isles. These
art) the observatories of Valentia and Armagh, in Ireland ; Fal-
mouth, Kew, and Stonyhurst, in England ; and, linally, Glasgow and
Aberdeen, in Scotland. The observations at each of these obser-
vntoties are all obtained by means of self-recording instruments,
and the tubulated results are regularly transmitted once a week to
tho Meteorological Othce in London. Tho variations of the baro-
meter and of tho liry and wet bulb thermometers are recorded
ooDtinnously upon paper by a photographic |)rocess which goes
on night and day without intermission. The velocity of
tho wind is measured by its action upon a system of revol%-ing
hcmisphi'rical cups— an instrument invented by Dr. Robinson,
tho director of the Armagh Observatory. I was lately induced to
mako some calculations based ujion the recorded anemometer
obserrations at the sovun observatoriw, with tho view of ascertain-
ing the mean hourly velocity ef the wind at each observatory
during tho years 187^5■0. The results of my calculations were
those :— The mean hourly veloi-ity of tho wind for tho three years
in question was— for Annagh, 10 6 miles, 100 miles, and 98 miles ;
for Kow. 10-3 miles, 10 8 miles, and 108 miles ; for Stouyhurst,
10-8 miles. lOO miles, and 107 miles ; for Glasgow, 12-9 miles, 121
miles, and 12' t miles; for Aberdeen, 133 miles, 13'5 miles, and
H'2 miles; for Folmonth, 16'8 miles, 170 miles, and 171 miles;
linally, for Valentia, 182 miles, I7'7 miles, and 170 miles. It will
be iivoD from this how nearly tho annual mean rexnlla obtained
at tho some Obscrvatorj- agree with each other. It will bo
seen, further, that, while Armagh, Kow, and Stonyhunit have
tho least wind, tho lion's share of tho wind falls to Valentia
and F'almouth ; while, again, tho Scottish obsorvatories bold
an intermodiato position in this respect. These results, it
must bo admitted, speak well for the observations on which thoy
arc based, and for thu instruments with which tho observations aro
made. Thoy also afford us an interesting illustration of the pre-
sence of law as the regulator and controller of all tho phenomena
of nature, " Variable and fleeting as tho wind " is an expression
often used, and yet, when the winds at any place, which blow from
all points of tho compass, aro gathered together, their aggregate
velocity from year to year is fonnd to bo almost identical in amonnt.
It cannot be doubted that important conclusions tending to throw
light on the climate of tho British Isles will result from a discQssicn
of the observations received at the Meteorological Office from tho
outlying observatories. I have, finally, to make a brief roferencc
to weather telegraphy. In considering this matter, the important
fact must not be lost sight of, that the forecasts of the weather
which emanate daily from the Meteorological Office are not given
forth as rigorously deduced scientific conclusions by the eminent
men of science who constitute the Meteorological Council. Had
they been less fettered in the matter, they would probably have
been more cautions, but they h.ive wisely yielded to tho public
demand for such forecasts, and it must be admitted that in this
instance the public instinct was in the right direction. The success
of the forecasts, considering the diffictJtiea which meteorologists in
the British Isles engaged in such an inquiry have to contend with,
has been very decided. During tho last two or three years, as many
as 75 per cent, of the storm warnings which have emanated from
the Meteorological Office have been thoroughly snccessfol. We
may therefore confidently indulge the expectation that, with tho
progress of further researches, the percentage of successes will
continno to increase. The Americans have shovrn great enterprise
and skill in this matter. Bnt it is to be borne in mind that they
have an advantage in the inquiry which we cannot, from the nature
of things, possess. For storms that come from the west — and these
are the storms which really strike our shores — the Americans have
a whole continent at their backs upon which to plant signals for tho
purpose of informing them respecting a coming storm ; while we,
on the other hand, have only the Atlantic, where no signsUs can bo
established. The present winter will hereafter be memorable for
its storms. I may state that, in addition to Robinson's anemometer
for measuring the velocity of the wind, an instrument which
belongs to the Meteorological Office, we have also an anemometer
by Osier, for the direct measurement of wind pressure, which is the
property of the Observaton,-. During the storm of Friday, the 6th
ult., this instrument recorded a pressure of 51 lb. on the square
foot, and yet it bore the strain throughout admirably. I may
remark in tliis connection, as an interesting fact, that dtiring tho
great snowstorm which swept over London and its neighbotirhood
on Jan. 18, 1881, the Osier anemometer at the Koyal Observatory,
Greenwich, registered as high as 51 lb. on the square foot. The
tremendous storms which occasionally sweep over a country are,
no doubt, originally due to the agency of solar heat disturbing the
equilibrium of the atmosphere ; and, no doubt, the day will come
when a close physical connection will be established between those
grand phenomena and the origin of nearly all tho energy on tho
earth's surface. But it may be a long time before this conclusion
is arrived at. One of the most serious difficulties which meteor-
ologists have to contend with consists in the imperfect know-
ledge which exists respecting the climatic conditions of the upper
regions of the atmosphere. Mr. Glaisher, by hia aeronautic ascents,
did good service in this matter ; but still much remains to bo done,
and it is probable that balloon ascents, notwithstanding the dangeri
of such enterprises, of which we have had recently a sad illnsi
tion, will continue to constitute tho only practicable means fi
arriving at materials which will serve to throw light upon t!
important question. In connection with this circumstance, I shooli
not omit referring to the series of meteorological observatioi
conducted during last autumn on the summit of Ben N'evis, nndei
the auspices of the Scottish Meteorological Society. This spirii
enterprise deserves to be renewed, and it appears to mo to be one ol
those to which tho Government might wisely give some support i
conjunction with gentlemen of scientific proclivities throughout th<
country. I would finally remark on the desii'ability of establishing
meteorological observatories on the east coasts of England ant
Scotland. It ia noteworthy that from Dover to the Orkney Islei
there does not exist upon tlie coast a single meteorological obserra
tory, except the one established at Aberdeen in connection with tin
Meteorological Office. This is a state of things which ought not t
Fiiu 3, 18S2.]
• KNOV/LEDGE
295
erist, and the want of sncli an institntion was felt at the time of
the Tay-bridge accident. Liverpool has set a noble example to other
seaports in this respect, which is worthy of being imitated by the
important seaports in the North of England, and by the ports of
Leith and Dundee, in Scotland. — Tinies.
EASY LESSONS IN BLOWPIPE CHEMISTRY.
By LiKrT.-CoLONEL W. A. Boss, l.\te E.X.
Lesson n.
HAVIXG made his blowpipe, the student must now make, or
provide himself with, a lamp, in the following manner : —
The solid or closed end of an old iron gas-pipe, from 2 to 2J inches
in diameter, price about 2d., is the lamp, and a very excellent one it
makes, as shown by my pupil M. Lombaxdi, of Argyll-place, Regent-
street. The wiek, a few strands of twisted cotton, held together
and supported at one side of the gas-pipe by a piece of zinc-foil bent
into the requisite shape, is now pat in its place ; and the fnel, con-
sisting of any combustible hydrocarbon which solidities on cooling,
as pure boef or mutton fat, old " composite" or other candle-ends,
cocoa-nut oil (from which glycerine has not been extracted), or all
these together, added, and melted by heating the side of the lamp
itself before the blowpipe by blowing the flame backwards on the
iron rim ; and here I must caution the aspiring blowpiper (or, as I
prefer to call him, '' pvrologist ") against demolishing his work at
tliis stage of proceedings by allowing the blowpipe-fiame to play on
the zinc-foil which he has jost made 1 The wick, about the thick-
ness of the end of a woman's little-firger, is best trimmed and cut
with an nnlinary pair of scissors, such as the American ones now
sold for 6d. a pair.
fell tar, 1 teei sure, your working-men readers will admit that a
blo^\"pipe apparatus is by no means the expensive luxury it is thought
to be ; but the absolute necessity I am now about to mention, cer-
tainly does cost a little money, which will, I fear, somewhat strain
his liard-eamed and much-needed wages. I mean platinum wire,
for old ends of which, however, half-price is allowed by Messrs.
Johnson & Matther, Harton Garden. This should be about the
thickness of an ordinary horse-hair (I, myself, use it still thicker),
cut into lengths of 3 in., and rolled into a ring about i in. in
diameter, at one end. This is best effected by the ordinary " cage-
maker's pliers " of the ironmongers' shops ; but anyhow, this ring
must be carefally made, and as nearly a circle as possible, if only
constructed on a pencil-point ; unlike the slovenly figures recom-
mended in some books on the blowpipe ; some English works on
chemistry even advising the use of a hook ^J , which they
tell you to fuse into a glass-tube by way of handle ; to which piece
of lunacy, I can only say, " Good gracious ! " Here is a rough
figure of a " platinum wire support," the natural size and thickness.
This wire is best held between the legs of a pair of ordinary
'watchmaker's pliers," kept together, when required, by a little
bi-ass picture-wire rolled round the shank, so that this wire *' strap-
ping" may be slipped up and down ; the " slipping up " closing the
pliers tightly on the platinum wire, and enabling them to act as a
handle for it ; the " slipping down" opening the legs, and enabling
them to act as pliers again. The pyrologist has thus not only a mere
handle for liis platinum wire, like the elegant ivory German ones sold
at Freiburg, but an instrument by which he can effectually clean and
straighten the latter for use. A mathematical pen also makes a
capital holder for plarinum wires. Now for my student's chemicals.
Messrs. Herring ,i Co., the wholesale chemists, of ALdersgate-street,
City (who, 1 dare say, have never heard of me or my blowpipes,
but, for all that, I am a pleased customer of theirs), sell the exact
kind of re-agent suitable for this part of my system of blowpipe
analysis for (5d.an ounce, or less if taken in quantity ; 2 ozs. lasted
me four years. It is called " Glacial Phosphoric Acid," and cast in
sticks. It is manufactured in Germany, and, 1 believe, contains
from 15 to 20 per cent, of soda, without which it could not be cast ;
but it acts as a poweri'ul acid before the blo«"pipe.
It should be broken into small fragments and kept in a wide-
i^'juth stoppered bottle, as it is very deliquescent. To use it, shake
;t some of the smallest fragments on a white porcelain plate turned
ijiside down, or any clean smooth surface. Make your wire-ring
T'd hot before the blowpipe, and, touching the smallest pieces,
^'. 'oich will thus adhere to the ring, heat them very gently, that is,
about half an inch in front of the blue blowpipe-pyrocone, along
ivith a few specks of oxide of manganese (of which two penny-
worth will last most people a life-time). When the oxide is dis-
solved, which it is thus very rapidly, a charming amethyst-coloured
•' bead " is the result. Now plunge the bead into the middle of the
blue pyrocone, and hold it there for half a minute; when with-
drawn, it will be as colourless as a bit of pure glass. This effect
may be repeated as often as desired.
EFFLUVIA AND HEALTH.
THE query of J. Maccinslane, No. 183, page 23-1, is probably
answered by one of the quaint and wise remarks of the late
Professor Brande, who, speaking of sulphuretted-hydrogen gas, said
that " it is not the stinking gas, but the bad company it keeps that
is so mischievous."
It is well known to all who have worked at elementary analysis in
a laboratory, where this gas is much used as a general reagent, that
no mischief arises from breathing an intensity of stink that would,
probably, induce fatal disease if it came from a sewer. The same
applies to dissecting-room effluvia. In my student-days, in Edin-
burgh, we used to say that the above-named gas gave us an appe-
tite, but, if placed in a witness-box, I could not swear that this
theory may not have been invented to justify suppers at '' The
Rainbow."
Had the bullock's blood used in Mr. Maccinslane's dye-house been
left in a sewer, and sown with germs of fungi, bacteria, &c., the
results would doubtless be very different, unless the other chemicals
there used are sufficiently volatile to poison the poison.
W. Matoeu William.<.
THE USE OF FLEAS, &c.
THE query of " Amateur " reminds me of a, paper I wrote many
years ago, in which was revealed a discovery made during my
wanderings in Greece. I slept — or rather reclined — in the capa-
cious hovel of an Albanian farmer at Marathon, hard by the famous
battle-field. My bed was the clay floor of the farm-house, my bed-
fellows were my fellow tourist, our dragoman and horseboy, the
fanner, his wife and five children, besides our three horses, the farm
stock of poultrj-, and a population of the animals under considera-
tion, exceeding in number the possibilities of a census.
During the night the childrea awoke at intervals, cryingpiteously,
and the fond mother, knowing why, picked them up severally, laid
them on her lap, and scratched thom liberally all over. After this
they slept for awhile in peace. Hereby was suggested my discovery
of the use of fleas to mankind. These people were not addicted to
washing, which is also the case with a large numerical majority of
the human race. The less washing the more fleas, the more et
cateras, and the more scratching.
The unwashed majority of human beings require some substitute
for washing, in order to effect the necessary removal of the shrivelled
and effete epidermal cells. Scratching is such a substitute. But I
have shown above that scratching varies directly with the supply of
fleas and et caeteras, and inversely vrith washing. Therefore fleas
and et cateras benefit mankind as well as themselves, and the obli-
gations between the species are strictly mutual. Q. E.D.
W. Mattieu Williams.
FISH "SOUNDS."
IN Dr. Andrew Wilson's very interesting paper on " Found
Links" (Knowledge, Jan. 6, page 195), "the suAmming-
bladder, air-bladder, or sound," are described as synonymous.
There is a small mistake here, a misunderstanding of fishermen's
technology, that may mislead some readers. The same mistake
occurs in' anatomical text-books. Dr. Wilson will readily nndcr-
stand the nature of the error by simply buying some " ood sounds "
from any fishmonger. They are regular articles of separate
commerce, salted by millions in Norway, and exported in small
barrels.
He will find that the sound is not the air-bladder, but the aorta,
or chief blood-vessel of the codfish, laid open, and with some of the
larger branching vessels attached. This vessel, forming a stout
membranous bag, is attached by its edges to each side of the under
part of the spine of the fish, from which the Norse and Newfound-
land fishermen tear or rip it when they split the fish for salting.
I have a theory of my own concerning the etymology of the
word, viz., that it is of Scandinavian origin, like the commercial
article, and is derived from Sondre, to sever or rip, from which we
also derive our word asunder. W. Mattieu Williams.
296
KNOWLEDGE
[Fkii. 3, 188:,'.
Ifttrrd to tbr (Cliitor.
[Th* Khutor do0s nni koU Mm»e{f rfrponnlU/or /Mr opii
Bt mmt'f 'inji-rl li /■ (■> rrtnrrt munuscrtf'ts or to corrrtyti ._ _ ,. _.
roflinx' ! ' ' I* »\ori as fo$*ibU, cvruistenttjf with full and eUar wtate-
Ati i itiotu fMoHiJ h* a.Urettfd to fkr EJitor qf KkowlRDOK;
ii'i i/ ' i'li* to tk* PubltMhrrf, at th* OJicr, 7l, Great Qufen-
,fr*rt, M (
AU RrmiUaHt^, CkftfufB, and Po»i-Offic» Ordfr$ thotUd he mad* pawahU to
IttMTt. Wwrnan ^ Sons.
*,* All uU*r$ to tkf SJitor ttiH bf Numherfd. For eonrfmi^ne* of reffrmri'^
corr*»pon.lmts, rk^m re/erring to anj/ Utter, wiU ohligt fcy mentioning its number
and the p^i*je on trkwk it appeare.
AU L^trrt or Qm^rtfi fo tks Editor wkick r^tiire att^tttion in tke ettrrent i**H* of
K nowLBPOR. tkouSd reaek tXe Fublisking Office not later than th* Saturday preceding
the dag <^ publication,
" In knowlMl^, ilut nuD odIt i* to b^ C0Dt«mnM and do«pMc4 vho Ib not in %
«ial» nf tnuixition J^'or ia there aQything more adverse to accuraoj
than flxitT of opinion." — F'trnJay.
"Tbpr« 14 no hju-ni in making a mintakp. bat grpat harm in making none. Show
me a man who makce no mi«tako0, and I will ahow jou a man who has dona
nothing." — lAehig. ^^___
©MX Coiirgponiitnre Columns.
TELESCOPE. — VOLCANIC PROJECTILES.- THE EARTH'S
INTERIOR. — WEATHER FORECASTS. — ANCIENT MAN
(AND MODERN WORMS.)— " THE STARS IN THEIR
COURSES."
[265] — " A Country Solicitor " (letter 237, p. 27.5) is quite right
with reference to the superior hundincss of a refractor, and if ho is
willing to spend, as he says, £60 in the purchase of an instrument
which ho desires to bo able to move about with moderate facility, I
should think that a tirst-clas.s 3 J in. telescopoon a jiortable universal
equatorial mounting, surmounting a strong and heavy tripod stand,
would be the very thing for him. This would enable him, as ho
says, to go through Webb's "Celestial Objects" with profit and
advantage. He would not, of course, bo able to see all the objects
described in the fourth edition, as some of them are definitely stated
to be tests for instruments of largo aperture ; but he would lind
that a largo proportion of the double stars and nebula- included in
Webb's lists would be well within his reach. I should be tempted
to insist upon the equatorial mounting, as, apart from the ease and
comfort of following a star by a single motion, many objects arc
unrecognisable without it. On the other hand, for less money, my
querist might obtain a 6.} in. reflector, e<)natorially mounted, too,
which would give him superb views of tho moon, planets, clusters,
Ac. ; but this would be a massive affair, and there is always the
nuisance of tho mirror requiring ro-silvei-ing at longer or shorter
intervals.
Mr. lionso (letter 242, p. 276) may rest thoronghly assured that
there is not an atom of foundation for the beliof that a, stone — or
anything else— has over been projected from a terrestrial volcano
at the rate of Cy Wj miles a second, the velocity needed to carry it
into infinite space. Tho secx)nd part of this question is unanswer-
able, bccau.so tho sup])03ititious matter would never get out of tlio
sphere of tho earth's attraction until it got within that of some
other body, and your corri'spondcnt does not say what that body
is. If it be the moon, a projectile need only travel 2,ltl,;i3G miles
above the earth ! The query with which he concludes may be
answorod by saying that it has not boon " proved " by astronomy
that the earth is solid throughout, but that such solidity is rendered
probable from the faot that she resists the tide-producing action of
Uie moon exactly as a solid globe would do. Sir William Thomson
has (according to Nowcomb) shown that even were tho earth less
rigid than steel, itwoulil.so to speak, e.thibit tides itself, or bo drawn
out into an elliptical form ; and then, earth and ocean moving
together, we should have no tides at all. Moreover, the phenomenon
of precosiiioD (now l«'ing described and explained in those pages bv
the editor) conid scarcely occur were there nothing but a thin shell
of rocky crust covering the molt< n interior of tho globe, as euch
shell wonid slip round the fused nucleus, tho liquid, in course of
time, rotating in one direction, and tho crust iu another. Doubt-
less there are great cavities tilled with molten matter, but these aro
insignificant oompanxl with tho size of tho whole earth.
That " the Americans have not attempted to foretell fijie harvest
weather, or settled weather of any kind" (as stated by Mr. Don-
bavand at the conclusion i^f lctt>|)hocies ! Surely, after this, our own seers have little to
bo ashamed of !
I am not here dis])ai*aging tho American warnings, for they fulfil
to the letter my idea of what these forecasts must ever be — namely,
general outlines both in respect to area and time. Beyond this, it
is impossible at present to go, and, looking at tho nature of tho
subject, I do not think we shall ever advance much further. In the
meantime, it is to bo hoped we shall not pour the whole of our felici-
tatious upon foreigners, but accord some meiisnre of praise to our
own men, who have certainly not been less successful, and who. it
is equally certain, have a much more difficult problem to deal with.
Ar.nKRT P. HoLBBic.
KNOWI.KPOE, Ki:ii 3, 1RS2.
STAR MAP
FEBRUARV
On Januaiy 29, at 10.30 p.m.
On February 2, at 10.15 p.m.
On Fe-bruary 6, at 10 p.m.
On February 10, at 9.45 p.m.
Ou FeV)ruary 14, at 9.30 p.m.
On February 17, at 9.15 p.m.
On Fi-)iruary 21, at 9 p.m.
On Fel'ruary 25, at 8.45 p.m.
On March 1, at 8.30 p.m.
On -March 5, at 8.15 p.m.
^.7
.s ♦^
^^ •• , \
i ^^•^•-.^
ScKle of MsgDiIuilea.
* »'' W 4* t*
S^^
fcTZ^
[KNOWLErCiE, Fkb. 3, 1852.
v^-^-
^ ^
.^.^^^"^
Our Stae Map. — The circular boundary
I'f the map represents the horizon. The
map shows also the position of the equator
■nd of that portion of the Zodiac now most
iavourably situated for observation, with
;he motions of the planets Jupiter and
:\Iars upon them. — See the Zodiacal map
ni p. 225, No. 11.
i ^y.»^
^.- cov»r.
Feb,
1882.]
KNO\AALEDGE ♦
301
CHINESE CALCULATION.
[257] — In reply to yonr question respecting Chinese Calctilatiun,
let me state that in Sir John Bowring's " Tieatise on the Decimal
System in Nnmbers, Coins, and Accounts," there is a good descrip-
tion of the Chinese Kwan-pan. or abacus, nud mode of using it. lie
tells us that the following is the Chinese multiplication table, the
eimplicity of which recommends the whole scheme. Ten tens are a
hundred ; ten hundreds a thousand ; ten thous.'ind a wan = 10,000 ;
ten wans a zih = 100,000; ton zihs a chaon = l,Oa>,000. Ue
adds ; — " At early morn, one of the tirst sounds heai'd in the shops
of all the towns and cities of China is the shaking and cleaning of
the swan-pans, i>reparatory to the business of tho day. As, in
Christian lands, tho sound of the bells calls the worshippers to
Church, as, in Mahoniedan countries, the voice of tho Muezzin from
the minarets bids tho devout Mussulmans to prayers, so, in " the
middle kingdom," tho rattling of tho abacus announces that another
morning's labours are begun.
With that instrument the Chinese youth has been as familiar as
with his hermetrical classics, the first and most popular of his school
books. From it he has i-eceivcd the most correct impressions of
the relations of numbers to one another ; and he has acquired the
habit of moving the balls on the wires of his swan-pan with con-
siderable dexterity "and rapidity ; wonderful are the ease and accuracy
with which all calculations are made and recorded. In my own
person I have had to settle a great variety of accounts with various
classes of people in China, and 1 never remember to have detected
an error ; and in cases where my reckoning has disagreed with that
of the Chinese, I have invariably found that their account was
correct, and my own erroneous. In China it might almost be laid
down as an axiom, that a mistake in an account is in itself strong
evidence of fraudulent intentions. I have compared my obscrva-
tioBB with those of persons of the longest and most extensive
experience as to the general correctness of Chinese accountancy ;
and my opinion has been fully coufinned, that among Cliinamen
intending to be honest, an error in reckoning is almost unknown.
HONQ-KONG.
COMMDNICATION WITH THE MOON.
[258] — It was Gruithuisen, the continental astronomer, who
maintained that in his observations on the moon, by means of a
large achromatic telescope, he had perceived invmense cities, edifices,
and artificial structures, apparently the works of some being exist-
ing tliere ; and from these appearances he concluded that the moon
formed a home for reasonable creatures, with whom we might cor-
respond. This idea he communicated to Gauss, who replied that
correspondence might be carried on, but with signs which all
rational beings must have in common ; such as the right-angled
triangle, with the properties of which (Euc. I., 47), the Selenites
mH£t be acquainted. Tho plains of Siberia, or the Great Desert,
might be selected for the purpose ; and the requii-ed figure — a right-
angled triangle, a circle, or an ellipse — be formed by channels dug
in the plain and filled with, say naphtha. Even if the object was
not attained, the work would provide employ for the hordes which,
objectless and homeless, roam those vrilds. But, provided that tho
moon is inhabited, and that by rational beings, our intentions and
efforts would be most likely misunderstood. But why correspond
with those that are not ? Hkkbert R. Wellee.
PROBABILITIES.
[259] — Seeing an article in a recent number of Knowledge
on luck and probabilities, I venture to ask yonr opinion on the
following i>roliiem, which has occasioned animated discussion in
more than one instance ; —
A bete B an even sum of money that in three cuts of a pack of
cards he will turn up an ace, a knave, or a nine. Of course, it is
immaterial what particular cards are decided on.
I have seen this done over and over again, the stake being a
shilling, and it has raiely happened that either of tho parties has
lost or won to any extent ; in fact, so close was tho running, that
an Irish bystander came to the conclusion that the odds were even.
I should very much like to see the correct calculation of the
chances, as I have known many attempts made to solve tho
problem.
At first sight the chances appear all against^the cutter, and the bet
is usually taken with alacrity, but I imagine that the odds are
slightly in his favour, though I don't know why.
Barracks, Dundalk, Jan. It, 1882. Chaeles A. Edes.
[The solution would run somewhat as follows : — The chance that
at a single cutting one of the three cards will be out is -r^, since
52
there are four of each of the cards named (no suit being men-
tioned in the conditions), or =^ ; therefore, the chance that none of
13
10
the cords will bo cut at a given trial is — . Hence, the chance that
(by tho well-known rule for such cases),
1000
"2197
The odds are, therefore, 1107 to 1000 against A — that is, againtit
turning up one of the named cards in three trials. 'l"he betting
should have been about C to 5, or, moro exactly, £5. 19s. 8Jd. to £5
ag.-iinst A. — Ed.]
MESMERISM.
[260] — As a constant reader of your valuable paper 1 should like
to be allowed to ask a few questions about mesmerism.
My reason for so doing is because, ou Saturday evening, 1 put
one of my boys in what 1 believe is called a mesmeric trance. In
joking with him, 1 told him to keep his eyes on a white spot of
paper in tho centre of a penny. I then made a few passes in imi-
tation of those I had seen made by professional mesmerists, when
I was astonished to see hiui drojt into a trance, from which no
amount of shaking, pinching, &c., could wake him. At first, being
considerably startled, I did not know what to do, but recollecting
how I had seen mesmeric subjects awakened, 1 blew on his
forehead, tapped him on the head and said " Right." He at once
awoke, but for some time (half-an-honr) was somewhat dazed,
doing things almost unconsciously. Being rather startled at finding
1 possessed this power, 1 should like to ask a few queries, viz. : —
1. What is mesmerism ?
2. What ultimate effect has it on the subject ?
3. How is the subject restored to his senses ?
And any other information on the subject that will be useful.
A Stastled Oke.
Wigmore Schools, West Bromwich, Jan. 16, 1882.
P.S. — I may mention that I have previously been a disbeliever in
mesmerism.
[As animals can be mesmerised — to use this rather absurd term
for want of a better — it is certain that there is some physical effect
to be interpreted. Unfortunately, many professional mesmerists
mix tricks with what they can do without trickery. — Bu.]
TERRACES IN DORSET VALLEYS.
[261] — Anyone travelHug in Dorset must have observed ou tho
sides of the vaUeys a nmnber of terraces, sometimes rising on
above another like steps, varying in number and also in size. I
have noticed some as large as giant earthworks, with slope as
smooth and top as level as any garden terrace. Others, again, are
a few feet in length and about one in depth. They are a peculiar
feature of that county, but 1 have seen occasional outliers in
Yorkshire and Cornwall. What is their origin ? 1 have seen it
asserted in a newspaper article, in an otf-hand way, that they are
artificial ; but there is no conceivable end commensurate with the
immense labour the construction would have entailed. They might
be old sea-beaches, if only they were all horizontal. Can anyone
say whether there is any accepted theory about them amongst
geologists ? S. H. W.
ICE.
[262] — In your current number, p. 252 (208), " A Fellow of the
Royal Astronomical Society" appears to have made a slip. It may
be a fact, though very improbable, " that ice does not vary in
volume, as other solids do, with variation of temperature." But
this is by no means a corollary from the other fact, that water in
becoming ice undergoes a greater chango of volume than most
other substances do in the act of crystallisation.
There are other known substances — notably certain bismuth
alloys — which expand on crystallisation, and remain permanently
larger than before congelation. Does " A Fellow," Ac., apply tho
same assertion to those, and does he consider that ice remains
constant in volume at all temperatures at which it is ice, or docs
he think that it continuously expands with decrease of temperature ?
An Engineer.
SHORTENING OF THE DAY.
[263] — Laplace satisfied himself by reference to ancient astro-
nomical records (meaning, no doubt, those of Hipparchus, who
lived about 125 B.C.) that no alteration in the length of the day ha
802
KNOWLEDGE
[Feb. 3, 18Si.
takon pinco, ovon to tho amount of j^^ of a sccoml. Yet had
thoro bcfii n dimioation of tho cartli's dinmrtor, tho dny woold
havo BhurteiH'd. (Soo Whewoll'B " Hint. Ind. Sci.," 1837, vdI. a,
p. Cont 120 foot long, which dwelt
upon tho banks of a river and had tough scales.
As tho existence of such an animal seems as interesting a subject
of inquiry as that of tho sea serpent, perliapa Knowleihje may
admit inquiries on the subject. A. T. C.
FOSSILS IN METEOBITES.
[267] — In No. XI. of K.s'OWLKtioK, you give an extract from tho
Chico'jo Herald, stating that fossils of sponges, C4.»rals, ice, have
been fonnd in metooritce, which, tho extract goes on to say, are
doubtless organic remains from an exploded planet. I have no
doubt that they originally came from a planet, but the question is,
What planet i' The aforesaid tavans say the exploded planet. But
I believe it ia infinitely more probable that this meteorite from
which the fossils were obtained was originally expelle, 50, 60, 70,
80, and 90 metres. They were brought up after remaining twenty-
four hours in the water, and treated with oxalate of iron. All the
plates, without exception, were distinctly affected by the light.
Thus the chemical rays penetrate in clear water to at least 90 metres
deep. — Scietitijic American.
::u-t
♦ KNOWLEDGE
[Feb. 3, 1«82,
ogle
ianstorrs to €oiirTTi. -1. .Vo ijufttiona aikinij ^or irientijle ii\formation
ran br tiniic^ed tkrongX tkr poll, 2, Lrtlrr* $ent to the Editor for eorrrepondents
cannot be fortctirded ; nor can the namei or addrrneM ose my enteemod
correspondent, F.R.A.S., meant one who had been limited to
|)ntntorR and turnip-tops; he used u familiar mude of speech. If
I found anything in your letter whii'h was more than simply a
denial of his view, 1 would insert it. You cannot say 1 have
not given due hearing Uy the rithcr side. — Neluuho. It is abso-
lutely impossible, with our present circulation, to cut the pages.
Which would you rather have, four pages more of original
matter, or bo saved the slight trouble of catting the paper ?
.Stiiik.nt. It may be (|uite safely assumod that the total
heut r<.ceived from the stars is quite insignificant. I'ray send
account of the dog who inherited kleptomania.— M. Wvatt. The
formula) are practically identical, x being insignificant compared
with r. Tost the matter, if you doubt this. Thanks for the pro-
blem from Newton's "Universal Arithmetic," to which work, how-
over, wo have already referred readers.^.V. W. D. Will try to
find space for your suggestions about shop and study. Only know of
Bain's book against Phrenolog}'. — R. B. Rowlisson. You are right,
we should have said 2,700 u.c. not 2,700 years ago. l"he stars yon
name will be near the southern polo at different times. My
Gnomonic Star Atlas is, I think, convenient for reference in such
matters. At least, I always use it myself, and added the
longitude lines and circles to make it useful in that way.-
D. F. Barrett. Sorry it was not attended to, but the corre-
spondence both with publishers and editor has been literally
overwhelming. — iiiici/. Y'ou are right ; the question is whether
vivisection is right or wrong, first, al all ; and secondly, if under any
conditions, then what those conditions are. Opponents are called
sentimental ; advocates are called brutal. Those who occupy a
middle position are called names by both the extreme parties. Of
what use is vituperation, anyway ? — R. R. We do not know th»
work. " lie combats the views of six of our leading scientists con-
ceming evolution," does not sound promising. Good writers do
not go about combating views. — Celt. Your theory that as
the pyramid rose, the builders heaped up earth all around
to enable them to put on the next layer, and afterwards
cleared this matter away, seems only a little less ingenious
than the theory that it was built from tho tO]) downwards.
Ilave you formed an estimate of the tremendous extra labour
t he plan would have involved ? Builders' measnremcnts would
be absolutely ineffective to preserve the accuracy of the orienta-
tion. An astronomer would not be content to discontinue the obser-
vations, but would mako the orientation moro and more accurate
as the building rose higher. — Ellipse. You seem to overlook the
fact that Mr. Tlioii)'.s first instrument is meant for ellipses too; it
is only set for parjibola. — H. Moulton. Inquire how many papers
of large circulation cut their edges. The ISaturday iievieic, the
Spectator, the Illustiatcd London News, the Graphic, sixpenny
papers, do not. yunch, All the Year Hound, and a host of other
papers less cheap than ours, might be cited as not cutting their
edges. Wo never expected to continue the plan, any more than we
expected to continue the i.ssuc of specimen copies by thousands. If
your copy happened to he badly folded, the fault is unusual, so far
as we can judge from the examination of a great number of copies
taken at random. In the bound volume all irregularities will dis-
appear ; and wo beg you to notice that the edges of the cut copies
must again be cut when they are bound up. If yuu would but
consider what wo are trying to do in the way of cheapening
science, you would be a little more generous than to ask for what
is really only a luxury possible with comparatively dear papers, or
with papers having only a limited circulation. We increase the
quantity of original matter and the average size of the paper, and
with reference rather to our promised than to our (very promising)
actual circulation ; you, and in all five correspondents, wish us to
go back to tho arrangements made when wo were beginning. We
beg to assure you, that except for the question of time, which abso-
lutely prevents our accef
our space. We could not publish " at extra cost" a supplement of
star names and letters. Are not the letters and names given with
the name of each constellation in the maps themselves ?^i. N.
Leioh. No evidence that earth's axis has changed. — R. C. Al'M.
You have, wo trust, now ivceivcd Part 1. (that is, it reached yon,
we trust, before it was — as it now is — out of print). What
happened was this: Your letter, enclosing stumps, was ad-
dressed to " editor " ; it was sent to us, ond its turn
came a week or so after. I: was then forw.-irded to the
khb. 3, n
KNOWLEDGE ♦
305
pnblUiiere ; and yonr lator letter, being also addressed wrongly,
is opened probably a week after the paper reached you. —
11. KoLFE. i)o not know Richardson's Conic sections. For analy-
lical conies, Todhnnter or Salmon; for geometrical. Drew or
Tayler would snii, I thi»k. You require a book suitable for fourth
■tage, at Kensington. Perhaps some correspondent will help. —
Anontmods, Silverdalk. Darwin's works are published by Murray.
I-yell's " Student's Geology" and "Principles of Geology " would
be good works to begin with ; say, tiret, the cheap edition of the
former work published by Murray. — M. S. S. Already corrected ;
but thanks all the same. — A. Blvmenb.xch, G. .Iohnsox, H. Stei.v-
li.\N, and others. Nos. 2 and 3 are now out of print. They cannot
be reprinted ; this has already been done three times, at a serious
loss.— Feed. Cr.4Mpton-. Toll us about the monkey, by all means. —
K. Mlirhead Little. Wo did not understand F.C.S.'to mean that
carbonic oxide is non-poisonous, or a supporter of combustion.
Kveryone with the most elementary knowledge of chemistry is
aware that it is more poisonous than carbonic acid or
the carbonic dioxide, and that it is no more a sup-
porter of combustion than the latter. What we understood
him to mean was that wood gas, after the carbonic acid in it
had been converted into carbonic oxide, was changed in character,
aa described. Coal gas contains both CO and CO;. Head as
you understand it, "F. C. S.'s" communication would describe wood
gas as simply carbonic oxide, which i.«, of course, simply absurd. —
Satellite. The card of your compass must be badly suspended.
Hold the compass horizontally, and if the card evidently "sticks,"
lap the sides till the card vibrates freely, it will then swing rotmd
till the north end points to the magnetic meridian (abont 21° west
of true north. A " Knowledge Almanac " may be thought of hei-e-
after : atjpresent. KNOttXEDGE occupies all our care. — A. J. Maas.
Thanks for snake stories.— T. J. Sun extinguishing fire dealt
with in article on 'Fallacies." The common idea that sun
puts out fire is rery different from the theory yon deal
with, that a fire bums less quickly in a room whose air has
been warmed by the sun (after a certain considerable time).
Sunlight admitted into a room does not warm the air in the room
ap|>reciably for some time ; the fire is supposed to go out quite
([uickly, which certainly does not happen. — H. B. K. About tobacco
immediately. — Cl. A. Segler and F. Gaubeet. Wo knew Zares
uiade the mistake yon mention. Our answer was quite correct.
There is no need of the isolation you suggest to produce conditions
under which the least possible force will move the greatest possible
mass. But at what rate ? Zares said nothing about that. We
know perfectly well where and how he is astray; but it is more
useful to let kim find his way to the right road, than simply put
liim on it and leave him plantc lo. — J. Broadhckst. American
humour is as distinct from English humour as possible,
as are American ideas abont humour from ours ; or, I should
rathor say, from ordinary English ideas on the subject. The
actor approved by English tastes is often not liked in America; and
I'ifc-fcrsii, favourite American actors arc often regarded with little
favour here. Again, if yon go with American friends to a play in
England, you v.ill find that what the English audience like they do
not care for ; while they at once select as the best actors those who
are not regarded as absolutely in the first flight by most English
critics. I must confess it seems to mo they often show a more
refined taste than ours, — perhaps because 1 find their views in agree-
ment with my own. For instance, I have always regarded
Rutland Barrington as one of the very best of our histrionic
humorists, but his quiet humour seems very little appreciated com-
pared with the more grotesque fun of other actors on the same
boards. Now I find Americans quite at one with me in this view.
The oftenerthey see him the better they like him. It seems to me, by
way that so consummate a judge as M. Got, of the Comedie
Franijaise, was of the same opiuion, even when he saw Barrington
in a part so comparatively ungrateful as that of Captain Corcoran.
Americans say that ninety -nine Englishmen out of a hundred fail to
understand American hnmour at all. I remember an English
fellow-passenger on board an American Pacific steamer, to whom
the most ontrageous absurdities were addressed with a certain grave
calm (not solemnity), which should have been as suggestive of fun
•8 Harrington's manner in telling us of Teazing Tom j but he took
them in as confidently as he received the announcement of the
day's run and the ship's latitude and longitude, and for aught I
know, entered them in a big book about his travels which he was
writing. He was "a perfect gold-mine of fun," a Califomian said. —
Mcsicrs. You may be right. Conversation when music is going on
may set the performer .at his ease. He might be still more at his ease
■ f the audience stopped their ears with cotton wool, and still more
so if they all went out of the room. But the object in view when
any one is invited to play, is not to set him or her at ease, but to
hear sweet sounds discoursed. If a player is so inferior as not to be
at ease, common sense suggests that he should not be invited o
play. If, on the other hand, he plays well, yon may depend ho
will not be set at case, but very much the reverse, if ho is
not paid the compliment of silence. But to say the truth, no
one who knows what music is either talks when others play, or
does what you seem so to desire to do, talks when playing
himself. I have heard many musicians speak of the habit
some unmusical persons have of talking when music is in pro-
gress, and they have — one and all — denounced the practice as
an offence to the audience and an insult to the performer. — P. P. A.
Your assertion that a strong artificial light will put out a fire would
entirely dispose of C. T. B.'s explanation, which yet yon say is the
only one yon can arrive at. It is very easy to make a few experi-
ments either on the effect of sunlight, or of strong artificial light.
First get a good, steadily, blazing fire, with the shutters of a
south-facing room closed, on a sunny day. Open the shutters for a
quarter-of-an-honr, and note how during all that time the fire ap-
pears dull and languid. Close the shutter.^, and note that as soon
as the eyes have become accustomed to the change, tho fire appears
as bright as ever. As you say, it does not appear so at once ; but
that is simply becamse the effect of sunlight on the eyes does not
pass off at once. I do not mj-self agree with F.R.A.S. in
regarding the idea that sunlight puts out a fire as a mere
vulgar superstition, but rather as a very natural illusion.
Moreover, there can be no doubt that solar heat, admitted
long enough into a room to appreciably increase the tempe-
rature of the air. does, to some degree, diminish the activity
with which a fire burns. This is no more a superstition than the
perfectly correct idea that fires bum brightly in frosty weather.
But you mu.st remember that F.R.A.S.'s remark was altogether
impersonal ; it was not applied to the belief of the querist, for none
was indicated: it expressed only F.R.A.S.'s view respecting tho idea
about which N. inquired. — J. F. The earth's axis is inclined
23° 27' 1G60" from a perpendicular to the plain of her orbit. Tho
equality of action and reaction does not — exactly — mean " that if a
man in a boat pushes against another boat ten times tho weight of
his own, the heavier boat would go one tenth of the distance
of the lighter one " ; though something like this would follow
from the law : it means, more generally, that whatever pressure,
strain, or action is exerted by one body on another, excites an
exactly equal pressure, strain, or action in this other body, acting
in the opposite direction.— M. J. IIabding. I have taken tho
liberty of forwarding your suggestion to the publishers of my
" Ea.sy Star Lessons." But surely it would be rather hard if an
author were regarded as responsible for the pictures put on the
binding of his book. As to the other work, considering who
honoured the author in the way you mention, and the absurd
remark he made, I should attach no weight at all to his opinion,
liowon earth could tho writing of a scientific treatise be regarded
as equivalent to a course of education specially fitting a man for
ministerial duties ? It was the hard hitting, I should imagine (and
infer from the title of the book), which pleased tho bishop. Tho works
attacked seem to me perfect models of what scientific works should
be, presenting accumulated knowledge, attacking none, courteous to
all, even to opponents. A book attacking such works, and having for
its title what implies that those attacked arc godless and wicked men,
caiTies its own condemnation on its title-page. That it should have
run to the twelfth edition would show that there are many who
enjoy such attacks, but would prove nothing as to the scientific
value of the treatise. — E. Lee. We cannot find space for all the
titles of Mr. Dallinger's es.'ays. We fear the original query should
not have been inserted. We might till onr whole number with re-
plies, if many such questions were asked. — A. Lummer-son. Have
inserted one of your queries ; as to the other, tho person named is
considered a dreamer in his own country, and has no scientific
standing either there or here.— W. G. S. Certainly yon heard
the SOU puffs in nine seconds less time than was required to
produce them. In the case of an approaching train, you
always hear the sounds in quicker succession, and in a re-
ceding train, in slower succession, than if tho train were
at rest, or if you were a passenger by it. — S. H. W. Nay: if
a cannon-ball w"erc sent round tho earth without any initial rota-
tional motion, it would in each circuit present all parts of its
surface towards the earth — not constantly the same face. Tho
other passage seems carelessly written. If a mass of air came from
the pole, in a moment, to our latitudes, nothing could boar tho
brunt of passing through it. But north-east winds come only from
higher latitudes gradually to our own, and the deficiency of their
original rot.itional motion is gradually made up by the frictionni
action of tho surrounding air, earth's surface, Ac. T. S. V. P.
Read Wallace's book on modem miracles if you want tho sort of
faith you refer to. We cannot admit the subject here until
it has, or some part of it has, a scientific standing.— Jas.
Devlin. Yes ; we quite mean that the builders of the Great
Pyramid could not possibly have oriented it so perfectly
306
KNOWLEDGE
[Feb. 3, 1882.
iiK they ilid withont trlfucnpic nid, uiiIcbk tliey hiul employed
sucli mctlKMlB nB we lincl tlioy artnnlly did employ. The work wa«
much more diflU'ult tliiin yon seem to think. — llfriii. Every
rctlci'tiiiK Irltwdpe (uxcopt those of ihe hirgo Iternchelinn type)
hnH two roth'ctorM, which arc nut meant to bo used BOparutely.
Telling nie thnt the eye-glajiHia are hoth eolniirod red, one lighter,
the olher (ii« I might nlmont linve inferred) darker, docs not enable
me to underxtnnd wlmt in wrong. Vou Bliould get an optician to
look nt the inittrument. — Onwakh. Your lirat question out of our
line.— W. A. Saiilkr. We think not ; but if you will deRcribe any
cxperimentB showing (loif sun rays might build up a planet, we
shall exiiminc them with exteeding interest.— Rkpokter. No room
for shorthand discuBsions. — Ernest (iKorii. Much obliged. Ilavo
already, however, inserted a reply similar in effect to your own very
complete one. — (i. U. Mortimer. What can you mean ■- What i»
the substance of a light ? In a gas-flame, the light is due to
plowing carbon, tlio heat coming from tho combustion of
hydrogen.— W. E. B. F. C. S. Hid not meet Mr. Severn in Aus-
tralia; but ho was woll-remembcred there, as wore his lectures on
astronomy. Do not know his address. Probably Mr. Ellcry (Mel-
bourne) may know. — E. li. V. I considered most of tho phenomena
you refer to in an article which apjie-ired (iftecn years ago or so in tho
Intellectual Ohserier. I may deal with it shortly in these pages,
but so many subjects crowd in upon Knowlbdge, that it is hsird to
know which to take first. The apparent changes in brightness are
only subjective, not objective, phenomena — they depend on the
different brightness of different parts of the background. The
shadow of IV. ought to bo larger (including penumbra) than that of
III., IV. being so much further from the planet. — J. A. L. R. How
would your explanation apply to the moon? The enlargement
certainly is an optical illusion, as measurement shows. The climate
question will be raised in articles on I'recession. Sun's proper
motion wants an article for its ;.roper elucidation. In my
" Essays on Astronomy " it is discussed rather fully. The velocity
has not yet been measured, and cannot be. Otto Struvo's reasoning
was quite unsound. As to tho Vectors question, there is an obvious
misprint. Is it not rather unfair to ask questions of that kind,
leaving us either to occupy a portion of space for the query and
replies, besides giving trouble to readers and to us in reading their
answers, or else to send us to look up tho book, which may or may
not be ready to our hand ? If all our readers who encountered
such difficulties sent us queries, our whole space and more would be
wanted for them.— T. W. Yes ; the guillotine cutter works easily
enough when fed ; it is tho feeding takes the time. Tlie extra expense,
when we are doing our best to give as much extra matter as we can
provide for out of our scanty margin (or, rather, looking forward
for the margin we hope to have when full gro^vn) counts, of coarse,
tor nothing. The "nice little job" you have "cut out for our
readers as well as ourselves too " we beg respectfully to decline. In
an article such a matter may be discussed, not in replies to queries.
— H. Skell. Thanks. Another letter pointing oat the same mistake
is in type. — ^^ioLUs .ind Borea.s. It was your own joko about storms
being sent us out of a gun. Did you think we " took you " seriously ?
Your questions too wide for the kind of answers you want. — J. A.,
L. M. B., A Caktdusia.v, and others. Thanks for various solutions of
the four fours problem, or approximations thereto. — GriNOis. Tes,
the errors are there, but one is an obvious misprint, and neither
affects the result. — F. B. Y'ou are right ; that " was what we in-
tended to convey, officially."— W. B. Corrected already.— P. A.
MAtilAnoN, T. R., and others. The problem is not difficult with the
Dif. and Int. Cal. " No analyst " wanted a solution he could
follow. Thanks, however, for your solution. — J. Hammabd. Much
obliged for your solution of the messenger problem. We had
already sent a geometrical solution to the printer's. At present we
have scarcely room for mathematical essays ; two have been waiting
for room since the fourth number. We agree with yon about leaving
mathematical "problems " for a week, but not mathematical ques-
tions, simply because querists may be anxious for early reply. The
simultaneous equations later. — E. J. Kex.nedv. Y'our solution will
not do; the " by symmetrv' " as.sumption is unsound. Note, that
you get, besides the solution, an equation of condition. Why should
this ecpiation hold ?
The Fi-TiRE of Solar Physics.— The fundamental problems
now pressing for solution are, " first, a satisfactory explanation of
the peculiar law of rotation on the sun's surface ; second, an ex-
planation of the jieriodicity of the spots, and their distribution ;
third, a determination of the variations in the amount of the solar
radiation at different times and different points upon its surface ;
and fourth, a satisfactory explanation of the relations of the gases
and other matters above the photosphere to the sun itself— the
problem of the corona and the prominences." — The Xation.
^otfS on ^vt ant) ^rirnrf.
Thk Eablikbt Date or a London Foo. — What the earliest record
of n I/ondon fog may be I am unable to Btat« ; but since Mr. Hales
ha* mentioned Evelyn'n name in connection with a fog noticed by
him in 1C81, it will undoubtedly hove struck more than one of your
readers thot twenty-three years previous to this, the delightful old
iliarist had published his " Fumifuginm, or the InconTeniencie of
the Aer and Smoak of Ijondon dissipated, together with some
Remedies humbly proposed by J. E., Esq.," Ac. " Published by
His Majcstic'B command," m.hc.lxi. The warmth of expresirion
used in this little tractate, now vprj' scarce, would certainly
point to the long-settled existence of the fog and smoke
nuisance in the metropolis; indeed, the energy of tho attack of
this original Fellow of the Royal Society, his notice of the injury
done to the health of the inhabitants, to the public buildings of
London, and the furniture and "movables" generally, singularly
coincide with the sentiments expressed about us in the present day.
In the midst of our boasted civilisation and advance, the words of
this accomplished gentleman of the seventeenth century are as
mncl) to the point on the question of the London fog and smoke
nuisance as they were 221 years ago. Evelyn mentions ("Diary"
Dec. 15, 1670) " the thickest and darkest fogg on the Thames that
wos ever known in the memory of man." — T. Caeew Maktin. —
Athenaum.
CnLOEOFOEMlxo DCRIKG SLEEP. — The possibility of chloroforming
a person in sleep, without waking him, having been disputed in a
recent murder trial. Dr. J. V. Quimby, of Jersey City, was led to
test the question experimentally. The results were presented in a
paper before the section of Medical Jurisprudence at tho meeting of
the Medical American Association, a few days ago. Dr. Quimby
made arrangements with a gentleman to enter his room when he
was asleep and apply chloroform to him. This he did vnih
entire success, transferring the person from natural to artificial
sleep withont arousing him. He used about three di-achms of
Squibb's chloroform, and occupied about seven minutes in the
operation. The second case was a boy of thirteen, who had
refused to take ether for a minor operation. Dr. Quimby
advised the mother to give the boy a light supper and put him to
bed. She did so, and Dr. Qnimby calling when the boy was asleep,
administered the chloroform and performed the operation withont
awakening the boy. The third case was a hoy of ten years suffering
from an abscess, and the same course was pursued with ecjual
success. Two important inferences may be drawn from these cases.
Dr. Quimby said : — minor surgical operations may be done with
perfect safety and much more pleasantly than in the ordinary way ;
and, secondly, a person somewhat skilled in the use of chloroform
may enter a sleeping apartment and administer chloroform with
evil intentions while a person is asleep. Hence the use of this drug
in the hands of a criminal may become an effective instmment in
tho accomplishment of his nefarious designs. — Medical Advance.
Cri'.siaceaxs and Light. — In a recent p.iper communicated to
the Paris Academy M. de Merejkowsky describes experiments in
which he sought an answer to the question, " Do the lower cmsta-
ceans distinguish colours ? " His answer is that it is exclusively
the quantity, not the quality, of light that affects them. Larvae of
Balanus, a cirrhipede crustacean, were employed, and some of the
experiments were repeated on certain marine Copepoda. In a
vessel that is quite dark these crustaceans are dispersed in all
directions, but if daylight be admitted through a slit they collect
about the entering beam. This occurs, too, when light of only one
colour is admitted (a coloured liquid being put liefore the slit).
These crustaceans do not seem to be blind for any colour (a result
corresponding to what M. Bert observed in the case of Daphnides).
But to find out whether they perceive colours as well, the
following experiments were made : — Two slits being used for
a beam of white and of coloured light respectively, the crusta-
ceans preferred the former beam, all clustering round it if
the coloured light was deep real or violet, and a large majority if
that was of a brighter tint (yellow, green, or bright red). Com-
paring a beam of darker colour, aa violet, with one more luminons,
as yellow, the crustaceans always preferred the latter. With two
slits admitting coloured ruys of eqnal brightness, the crustaceans
divided into two equal parts, whatever the colouration (the anthor
thus compared bright red with yellow, green, and blue, yellow with
green and blue, and green with blue) : but directly the brightness
was rendered unequal the groups of crustaceans became unequal,
too. M. de Merejkowsky concludes, then, that in perception of
light there is a great difference between the lower crustaceans and
man, and even between them and ants; "while we see different
colours and their different intensities, the lower crustaceans see only
a single colour in its different variations of intensity. We pcrceiTO
colours as colours ; they only perceive them as b'ght." — Tiiiios.
Feb. 3, 1882.]
• KNOWLEDGE •
307
(9m- iilatl)tmatical Coliimm
MATHEMATICAL QUERIES.
[23] — A messenger 31 starts from A towards B (distance a) at a rate
of V miles per honr, bat before he arrives at B a shower of rain com-
mences at -4 and at all places occupying a certain distance : t.wards,
but not reaching beyond, B, and moves at the rate of u miles an
hour towards A. KM be caught in this shower, he will be obliged
to stop until it is over. He is also to receive for his errand a
number of shillings inversely proportional to the time occupied in
it, at the rate of ii shillings for one hour. Supposing the distance
: to be unkno^vn, as also the time at which the shower commenced,
but all events to be equally probable, show that the value of M's
expectation, in ahUIings, ie
71 r (f 1 « u(u + v) M + !■ ^
l2-
>
[Let the distance .4 be divided into p equal parts, each equal to c,
80 that pc — a; then
(1 -
- - time in which M passes over space «.
- = time in which shower passes over same space.
Suppose the distance Z successively equal to c, 2S, 3S . . . . pi,
and ill each ca^e suppose successively that the shower commences
0 2o 'AS pS
after a time - > — , ~, — from iTs starting, so that there
are p- cases in all to be considered. Thus JTs time is as follows in
the following cases : —
, . a
z = o; mp cases, -;
f
A*./ -fx (1-1 Ci . S
8 = 20 J in (p—1) cases, -; mlcasc,- + -
!• V U
z = 3c; in (p— 2) cases, -; inlcase, - + -; inlcase, - + -
, a (p — 2)S ■ , a (p-l)S
r u v It
of the amounts to bo received
(P P^ J_ PJ^ J^ 1
nia'*' a *a S"^ a ^a 5 + a 2
(.- - - + - - - + - - + -
Thus, the sum of the amounts to bo received, according to the
conditions, is-
1 1
r- + —.
a a I
- - + -
Ts*
'a (p-l)o!
(P(p + l)r
mj
(p-1) ^ (p-2) ^ (p-3)
aii + 2ci' au. + 3cv
(p-r) ,
*au + {p-l)Svj ( (^)
Now
au + rcv dLpu + rv_\ dv\_pu + n'J
_ lrpt+pu-(pu + rv)-\ ^pT u + v _i~\
fii'L pu + ri! J 5i'Lpu+n' J
^Elr^'it^l-Pl C since i = e\
arLp'< + 'rJ av \ o a/
Thns series (A)=n f P(P + 1)''_P'"
( 2a va
^pMu^.)r^_^_l_^ ^ 1 -|,
a \_pu-t-v pu + 2v pii+ (p— l)r J 1
I uU the series withing the square brackets S, then the general term
1
: ; or the general term of pS.is« j. J^ ,. andwe have to find
pu + rv p-
e gum of this series when r has all values from 1 to p, p being
made infinite ; or which comes to the same thing when _ varies
P
through all values from 0 to unity. Xow, supposing we know
nothing of the differential calculus, we should, probably, at once see
how this was to be done by using the well-known propertv of the
rectangular hyperbola that the rectangle having asymptotes as
sides, and a line joining centre and a point on the curve as
diagonal, is of constant area. Thus, suppose wo take OK, OB as
asjinptotes of u rectangular hyperbola Dl'C,
OA = u, AB=v = AD, and Oi=^u+ -.i, then we kuuw that
P
rect. Oi.QJ: = rect OA.AD = uv
uv
sothat Qi = „^r„
Hence, if we take lk = - and complete rectangle 01, we have
P
pii + i
■ = "I'" (general term of S)
When p is made infinite, so that such a rectangle as Ql becomes
indefinitely narrow, and the sum of all such rectangles between^/)
and BC is the area ADPCB, we have
i(v'(S) = area ADPCB = OA.AD log. 5^ = uu log. '* —
OA u
1 u + u
So that S = - log.
V ° u
Xow the value of M's expectation is the total payable on all the
possible events, divided by the number of events ; or is series (A)
divided by p" when p is made infinite.
n rp'i' + pi- p'u p'it(i( + f) u + v} ,
= - < ^ — !— + - — i log ^ when p is mfanite.
p^ I. 2a va va u j
= 'il j 1-!^ + liOillO log ^i+r )
a 1 2 v v' u )
Of course, the solution thus given depends on the principles
which underlie the differential and integral calculus. It does not
seem worth while to master in each such problem the difficulties
which result from avoiding the actual use of the calculus, except in
this respect, that before the student begins to nse the calculus he
should so far accustom himself to deal with such problems as the
above, that the real meaning, as well as the real value of the cal-
culus, may be recognised. In dealing with the above problem we
should simply get the general term of the series 5, writing x for — .
I>
and since -, when p is made infinite, is d.r, we get
s = l/'-'^ = liog.^i±^
as by the geometrical method used above. — Ed.]
[24] — 1. Who introduced the symbol tt ? 2. What is the origin
of the name " Courbe du diable," as applied to the locus y' — 96a-ir
-t-100uV-x' = 0? 3. What is the origin of the name, " Witch of
Agnesi" ?* 4. Where can one find the best discns-sion of " Fourier's
Series " ? 5. How may an angle be trisected by means of the
cissoid of Diodes ?— W. W. Bemax.
[25] — I borrow ,£100 from a Building Society, and repay prin-
cipal and interest (compound) by 120 monthly payments of
£1. 3s. 4d. AVhat rate of interest am I paying ?
• Agnesi says herself, vol. I., p. 381, " Equazione alia curva da
descriversi, ehe dicesi la Versiera."
808
• KNO^A/'LEDGE •
[Vbb. 3, 1882.
[Lol r bu rato jtor poanil per moDth, bo Ihut ul tho rnd of a month
lil bonimnK £ (1 -f r). Tlion, ut end of tirat mouth i! - in ilao ; at
end of Kuiond JC- + (l + r)JC-; at end of third, C-+ (l + r)£"
fi 6 5 5
+ (1 + r)'Jt- ; aiul. liiially. "t end of twenty months-
5
|l + (l + r) + (l + r)»+ + (1 + r)»-'] i- '
-ilfl)!l-i4.[(,.r)«-ni:«
1 T r— 1 5 Or
Now, JtlOO nt rnt.'
.L'l |>cr ninntb, compound iutenst.
Hhould bo equal in viiliio at ond of twenty months to £- paid
0, for twenty months. Thnt is
(1 + r)»£100= [(1 + r)»-l]£'
monthly, ns above, for twenty months. Thnt is —
.5r
(1 + r)" (6-500r)=lJ
Henoo 20 log. (1 + r) + log. (G - 500r) == lop. C.
Wo can find r tentatively from this equation. It is cleiU' r cannot
bo (i^oater than (i^-.'jOO. — El).]
[26]--What will .010 annually at r pur .£1 per annum compound
interest amount to to in twenty years ? — J. R. — [We presnmo this
is onr correspondent's question. Tho method applied to previous
qiiefition gives for this amount at tho end of twenty years
[(l + r)" -1] (iilO-T-r)— Ed.]
[27]--Tho value of a diamond varies as tho S(|uare of its weight.
A diamond falls and breaks into three pieces ; what proportion does
their probable value bear to that of the original diamond ? — P. A.
MacMaiion.
[28]— E(JCATION.—
a+x a—x —
i/a + '/(a. + x) \/a—^a — x
Maihematiccs Novocasteokcm.
[The Equations of "RHeverte"in our last seem to have been
made " pie " of. We very carefully corrected the second (the first
was rightly given), wi-iting out in margin the left side of the equa-
tion afresh, but now tlie right side b.is entirely disappeared, and
the first equation has gone wrong. It .should be, I think.
x' 1/' a? V
— +r =~ +~ =o + 6
a 0 X y
I cannot recollect what was on the right side of the (Jther
equation. Will " Kncvcrtc " oblige by repeating it ? Readers must
not imagine that fonnnlas which appear wrongly have been care-
lessly written or corrected. When I note that I had to corroot
several sheets of my book on Cycloids five or six times, and that
even then errors appeared, they will see how difiicult it is to secure
oorrectnese in the printing of mathematical matter. — Ed.]
©m Cbc<>5 Column.
THE following problem gained tho first prize in the late Problem
Tournament of Design and Work. It is taken from the ('/i,.«
Player^ Chronicle.
By B. G. Laws.
r,,'iV.'!i^'!! O^ KM
■;
i i /!:i
' ^^
Ih^ S O
■1
Wbitb.
White to play and mate in three mOTes.
UAME AT ODDS.
First game in n match iM'twcen McMm. ff. Hrakine and W
ut the oddn of I'awn and two moves.
WlllTK.
Black.
Mr. W. Mead.
Mr. H. Krskii.
Remove Black King's
Bishop's Pawn.
1.
P. to K.4.
li.
P. to Q.4.
P. to Q.3.
a.
B. to Q.3.
B. to K.3. (■).
4.
Kt. UiK.B.3.
B. to B. 2.
5.
Kt. to Kt,5.
Kt. to K.U.3.
C.
B. to K.3.
P. to K.4.
7.
P. toQ.B.4. (•-)
B. to K.2.
H.
P. to K.R.4.
Kt. to Q.2. (').
'J.
Kt. toQ.B.3.
B. to B.3.
10.
P. to Q.5.
P. to Q.R.3. {').
11.
Kt. to K.6. (').
B. takes Kt.
IZ.
P. takes B.
Kt. to B.sq.
13.
B. takes Kt.
P. takes B.
14.
Q. to |{.5. (ch.)
Kt. to Kt.3.
15.
P. to K.Kt.3.
P. to B.3.
10.
Castles Q.R.
Q. to K.2.
17.
P. to B.4.
CaatloeQ.B.C).
18.
P. to B.5.
Kt. to B.sq.
19.
Q. to K.2.
Kt. takes P. (').
■M.
P. takes Kt.
Q. takes P.
•21.
K. to Kt.sq.
K.R. to Kt.sq.
22.
Q. to K.3.
K. to Kt.sq.
23.
Q. to Kt.6.
R. to Q.2.
2-t.
P. to B.a.
B. to Q.8q.
25.
Q. to Kt.4.
P. takes P.
20.
B. toB..!.. ('■;.
Q. toKt.5. C).
27.
Q. Ukos B.P.
&. takes B. (ch.)
28.
R. takes R.
E. to K.8q.
29.
B. takes R.P.
P. takes B.
30.
Q. takes B.P.
Q. to Kt.3.
31.
H. to Q.6.
Q. to B.2.
32.
R. to Q.7.
Q. to B.8. (ch.)
33.
11. to Q.sq.
Q. to B.2.
34.
Q. takes R.P. and White won.
NOTES BY MEPHISTO.
(") The intention of bringing the B. to B.2. is good enough, bnt
we hardly think that Black can afford the neces.sary time for this
manoeuvre, we should prefer P. to K.3. followed by Q. to K.2., a
line of play favom-cd by Mr. Potter. We, however, freely confess
some ignorance as to this most cruel of all openings. A modem
treatise on these and other odds woirid be welcome. In a game
between Mr. Wayto and Mr. Ilooke, at Leamington, the following
occtirred : —
P. to K.4. ^toK.B.4. Kt. to K.B.3. P. to K.5.
P. to K.3. P. to Q.4; P. to y.B.4.
this line of play resulted unfavourably for the attack.
C") White's attack relaxes a little, he ought to have Ca-illcd and
then played P. to K.B.4.
(=) Black has emerged fairly from the first attack, and Castling
at once would have been his best course. For, considering the odds
given, he ought not to dread White's attack on his King's side, with
th£ King in comparative safety.
('') Sad loss of time.
I') Well played. Should Black play y. to B.sq., White would
also obtivin a strong position.
(') Black misses a good chance of somewhat equalising matters.
Ho ought to have played 17. P. takes P., followed by B takes Kt.
and Castles Q.R. ; he would then have cither remained with Bishops
of opposite colours or with Kt. against a B., and would have had a
fair chance of drawing, e.g., 17. P. takes P. 18. P. takes P. (P. to
P. takes B.
K.5. would not be good play.) jj t^^.^ jjt. ^ ^»' Castles Q.B.
P. to K.B.5. _j^ P. takes Kt. ^, Q. takes P.
CaatlesQ.R.
or if 19.
20.
21.
ith a
P. taJces P. "" B. to K.4.
,'ood game.
(K) A desperate course, but there seemed no possibility of ex-
tricating the Knight from its helpless position.
(*) White conducts his game with good judgment.
(') Black could not gain anything by playing his Queen away from
his King's side.
b'ER 3, 1882.]
* KNOWLEDGE
309
" Sj-nopsis of the Chesa Openings. " By William Cook. Third
Edition. (Ixindon : W. W. Morgan, 23, Great Qneen-street.)
The author of this treatise, who is himself a strong chess player,
presents in this book the best forms of play according to latest
practice, i;i\-inR us the benefit of games played as late as 1880.
We ninst give Mr. Cook groat credit for his laborious collection of
the be.st openings. What makes this book specially T,aluable is
its practical tabular form. Every Chess player can at a glance
see the lino of play or variation he wishes to consult.
We extract the following as specimens of style -. —
Cook's Synopsis of the Openings.
Table LXXVI.— AUgaier Gambit.
P. to K.4.
P. to K.4.
P. to K.R.4.
P. to Kt.5.
P. to Q.-t-C)
P. to Q.4.
B. takes P.
P. takes {'.{'■)
B.jto B.4.(oh.)
K. to Kt.L'.
Castles (')
Kt. toK.B..).
Q. to Q.2.
P. takes P.
Kt. to Kt.5.
Q. takes P.(ch.)
Q. takes Q.
KT takes Q.
B. to K.5.
Kt. to K.B.3.
P. toXKtr4.
Kt. takes P.
K. takes Kt.
B. to K.5.(ch.)
"^ Kt. to K.B.3.
Q. to Q.2.
Kt. to B.3.
Q. to B.4.(<)
13. to Q.3.
Kt. to B.3.
Q. to K.2.
Kt. to Q.5.
10.
17.
Kt. takes B.
Q. takes Kt.
R. to Rsq.
Kt. to K.3.
Q. to Q.3. +
(') Mr. Thorold's attack.
(-) If 8. B. to Kt.2. 0. Kt.toB.3. 9.
B.I.(ch.) 10. K. toKt.3. 11. Kt. toQ.5.
(') If 10. Kt. toB.3. 10. Kt. to K.B.3.
toQ.3. + .
(') Mr. Preeborongh's variation.
(') Mr. Potter's defence.
(') If 13. B. to K.3. 13. Kt. toQ.R.4 +
P. takes P. 10. B. to
11. Q. toQ.2. 11. B.
Ending of an actual game played by Mcphisto, illustrating the
danirers to be shunned by weaker players.
1' k'
t t 1
1^ -at
t t 1
:: 1 V
■•J
•
-
In t'jis position ■\VTiitopla.rcii.
H. takes P.
Q. takes B.P.(ch.)
R. to K.S.(ch.)
B. toQ.5.(ch.)
B. takes R. mate.
0- takes R.
R. takes Q.
R. to B.sq.
K. to R.sq.
Another specimen of the Chess skill of tho late Mr. S. S. Boden
fieleet Reprint. — Bird's '• llasU'rpiecos," 66 (originally in Honvitz
and Kling'a "Chess Player" ; atid played saon after 1851.) — From
the Chess Players' Chrnnicle.
[PUILIDOK'S
DEFENCE.]
WUITE.
Black.
Mr. Sohnlder.
Mr. S. S. Bodon.
1. P. to K.4.
1.
P. to K.4.
2. Kt. to K.B.3.
3_
P. to Q.3. (•)
3. P. to B.3.
3.
P. toK.U.4.
4. B. to B.4. C").
4.
Kt. to K.B.3.
5. P. to Q.4.
5.
P. takes K.P.
6. P. takes K.P.
6.
P. takes Kt.
7. P. takes Kt.
7.
Q. takes I'.
8. P. takes P. (')
8.
Kt. to B.3.
9. P. to B.4.
0.
B. to Q.2.
10. B. to. K.3.
10.
Castles.
11. Kt. toQ.2.
11.
R. to K.sq.
12. Q. to B.3.
12.
B. to B.4. C)
13. Castles Q.R.
13.
P. to Q.4. {-)
14. B. takes P.
14.
Q. takes P.(ch.)
15. P. takes Q.
15.
B. to R.6. mate.
Koten.
C) Mr. Boden was p.irtial to this defence. It was a characteristic
of his style that he did not mind a close position to begin with ; he
was not easily to be hemmed in.
('') White's opening, thoagh unscientific, is not without inge-
nuity. Ho intends of course, in answer to P. takes P., to sacrifice
the Kt.
(') He should have taken with Queen, and played as best he
could for a draw.
('') Not only preventing the advance of the Kt., but also. doubt-
less shrewdly divining that his opponent intends to Castle on Q.
side, and preparing a " concatenation accordingly,"
(■■) Winning a piece at least, if Wliite has by this time discovered
the danger to his King. This game has been selected as a specimen
of Mr. Boden's felicity of combination in his lighter encounters.
*,* The notes are by the Rev. W. Wavte.
A. J. Martin and J. P. — You are right; 1. K. to K.3. is the key
move to Problem 5. We answered from recollection only of the
problem, which was sent to us by Mephisto (with, of course, the
correct solution). On turning to the position, wo sec that if Black
checks with Bishop, R. covers, disclosing check ; and after King has
moved B mates, not R, as you suggest. In future, please address
Chess Editor. Wo have not had a moment to open a chess board
during the last three weeks, nor .spare brain energy to go through
games, or study positions without the boaixl. — En.
E. H. J. — All your solutions right. — En.
DUN.STABLE. — Correct. — Eu.
W. GoDDEN. — No. 12 (wrongly called 11) is correctly given. — En.
A. Macdoxnell. — All incorrect. — En.
©ur WB]n&t Column.
Bv "Five of Clubs."
IT may now be convenient to sum up the various leads, in such a
form that they can be readily studied at a glance and easily
remembered. We would invite those who have tried to retain in their
recollection the multitudinous leads given in the books heretofore pub-
lished, to note how simple the whi.st leadsare when viewed as we have
presented them. We venture to say — indeed, we knoic, haviu"
tested the matter— that a more perfect knowledge of the leads at
whist can bo gained in a week by considering when to lead Ace,
King, Queen, and so forth, than in two months at least by the usual
method of considering what card to lend from each of the nume-
rous combinations which tho cards may present. Moreover it is
found in practice that a learner who has followed our method at
once picks up the habit of interpreting the loads of others,
whereas one who followed the other method is often a long time in
passing from a knowledge of what ho should lead to the ready
recognition (instant recognition, it should be, after a little practice)
of the meaning of any given lead.
Synopsis ok the Leaps in Plain Suits.
Lead Ace, from Ace, with four or more others, not including King;
from Ace, Queen, Knave, with nur without others ; from Ace, two
others (not includint.' KineV if von have re.ison to believe that yonr
310
KNO\A/'LEDGE
[FEa 3, 1882.
iinrtncr linn slrcnfftli in tlio miit ; nnil from Aco one other, whotovor
thia other may l>o. The la»t two cnses ore, of course, forced Icadii.
After lendiiiK Ace, from Aco four or more, follow • with lowest,
(unless yon lulopt Ornvson's jilnn of i>lttyinK lowest but one if there
are more limn four others). After Iciulinft Ace from Ace, Qneon,
Knnvo, follow with Queen if you Imve not ni.ire than one sninll one
of the suit, otherwise follow with Knnve. When you lend Ace
from Aco two others (forced lend) foll.pw with highest. Lend Aco
from Ace, Kinp, nnd others, when you Imvo trumped another suit,
lest your partner should trump your Kinif, to establish a cross ruff.
Lead King, from Ace, King, nnd others ; from Kinfr, Queen,
and others (umIcsh these others, bcinR more than two, include the
Knave) ; from King two others (forced lend), if yon have reason
to believe that your partner has strength in the suit ; and from
King one other (forced lend), whatever that other may be.
After leading King from Aco, King, and others, follow with Ace,
unless yon hold Knave, in which case you may sometimes — if the
.state of the score seems to render it advisable— change suit, that you
may bo led up to .ind finesse the Knave. After leading King from
King, Queen, and others, if King m.ikcs. follow with small one,
unless vou hold Knavo alRO, when follow with Queen (not with
small one, because Ace mnv have been held up). When yon lead
King from King two others '(forced lead) follow with highest.
Lead Qncen from Queen, Knave, Ten, with or without others ;
from Queen, Knave, and one small one (forced lead) ; from Queen
two others, not including Knave (forced lead), if you have reason
to believe that your partner has strength in the suit ; and from
Queen one another (forced lead) whatever that other may be.
After leading Qiiecnfrom Queen, Knave, Ten, follow -with Knave,
unless you have five or more, when follow with lowest of the
Queen, Knave, Ten sequence. After forced lead from Queen two
others, if Queen makes, follow with highest.
Lead Knavo from King, Queen, Knave, and not less than two
otherst (not including ten) ; from Knave, ten, nine, with or without
others; from Knave .ind two others (forced lead), and from Knave
one other (forced lead).
After leading Knave from King, Queen, Knave, &c., follow with
King if yon have two small ones, with Queen if you have more.
After leading Knave from Knave, ten, nine, lead ten if there is only
one card below the nine, the nine if there are more. After leading
Knave from Knave two others, wfeatever they may be, follow with
highest.
Lead Ten from King, Queen, Knave, ten, with or without others ;
from King, Knave, ten, with or without others ; from ten two
others, or ten one other (forced leads). After leading ten from
King, Queen, Knave, ten, follow with King if you have no small
cards, other\viso with Knave. -Vfter ten from King, Knave ten,
play a small one. After forced lead of ten, play your highest.
Lead nine from King, Knave, ten, nine ; and in case of forced
lead, from nine two others.
Lead a small card from all suits not considered in the above
synopsis. Lead the lowest from four cards, [the lowest but one
from five or more (the lowest but two from six or more, if you care
to adopt Drayson's rule) ; the highest from three or two small
cards.
Note that it can scarcely ever happen that playing the lowest
but one or two for the purpose of indicating length, can be mis-
taken by your partner for a forced lead from two or three small
cards, or rice verad.
We have already considered concisely, yet fully, the distinction
between trump leads and leads from plain suits (see No. 12).
Observe that, short as the above synopsis seems, considering the
multiplicity of Whist leads as usually presented, it would be very
much shorter if it dealt only with original leads. For these one
may say that all the beginner need learn is summed up in the
following : —
Lead Ace from .A.ce and four others, following with small one ;
and from Ace, Queen, Knave, with or without others, following with
Queen, if you have not more than one small one, otherwise with
Knave. Lead King from .\ce. King and others following with Ace ;
and from King, Queen and others, following with small one. Lead
Queen from Queen, Knave, ten, following with Kn.ive, unlcss_ you
have five or more, when play lowest of head sequence. Lead Knavo
from King, Queen, Knave, and two or more, from Knave, ten, nine,
with or without small ones. Lead ten from King, Queen, Knave,
• When we thus speak of second round, wo do not wish the
reader to forget that the first round may show it to be unadvisablc
to continue the suit ; it may seem better to leave your own suit
and lead your partner's, or to lead trumps, &c.
+ In our last we inadvertently >vrote " with or without other.'',"
instead of " not less than two others."
ten, nnd from King, Knavo, ten, with or without others, l/vfkd nine
from King, Knave, ten, nine. In other ca«es lead s low one, the
lowest if you have only four card*, the lowest but ono if you have
more.
Let the learner combine with this the general mle, that if he i*
obliged to lead from a weak suit, he always plays the best card of
it, unless he has either Ace, Kiag, or Queen, with two small ones.
He now knows nearly all that he need know about leading from
plain suits. .\ll that he need at first notice about leading from
trumps, is, that ho can more safely play a waiting game in that
suit, as his good cards in it cannot be lost by trumping ; olso that
he must consider ihe trump card. The ploy in trumps is also apt
to be modified by considerations depending on the state of the score,
the position of the cards in other hands, and so forth.
WmsT PaonLEM. — For the study of advanced Whist players we
give the following from the "Westminster Papers " : —
Z tarns up Spade 7. A leads.
/■ Spadeg. — Ten, nine, six, five.
B's hand. ] Hearts.-Ace Queen, four, two.
) Diamonds. — Queen, sii.
(. Clubs. — Ace, ten, eight.
irst four rounds :-
-
A
T
B
'/.
CG
CKn
C Ace
C3
HO
H 5
H2
H 10
D 8
D Kn
DQ
D4
SKn
.S A
S 5
S7
After these four tricks, B can place every card left in the players'
hands, if they all play according to the rules usoally followed.
Show how he can do this.
NOTICES.
The Publishers beg to flnnoonce that in future MoDthlv Parts of K90Wi>El>6B
will be issued. The following can now be had :—
Pabt I.— (November, 1881.) Containing the first four numbers. Price lOd. Poet-,
free, Is.
Paht II.— (December, 3881.) Containing fire nombers. Price Is. Post-)
18. 2d.
Paet III. — (Januarr, 1883.) Containing four numbers. Price lOd. Po«t^
free. Is.
The Back Namhers of KsowxEnoB, with the eiception of No. 2 (Xov. 11, 1881),
and No. 3 (Nov. 18. I*t8l). are in print, and can be obtained from all booksellen
and newBacente, or direct from the Publishers. Should any difficulty arisej in^
obtaininf: the paper, an appUcation to the Publishers is respectfully requested.
Subscribers wishing to complete their sets are advised to make early applicstiOB
to the Publiehers, as no further reprints will be ordered.
TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTIOX.
The terms of Annual Subscription to Knowlbdgb are as foUows : —
6. d.
To any address in the Tnited Kingdom 10 10
To the Continent, Australia, New Zealand, South A^ca, Canada,
and the United Stales of America 13 0
To the East Indies, China, &c. {vid Brindisi) 15 2
All subscriptions are payable in advance.
P. O. Orders and cheques should be made parable to the Publishers, MsssBS.
WrMAN & Sons, Londou, at the High Holbom District Po8t-o65ce.
OFFICE: 74 & 75, GREAT QUEEN STREET, LONDON, W.O
Contents o/* Knowledge Xo. 13.
PI OS
Hyacinth Bulbs. By Grant Allen 2til
Brain Troubles : Partial Loss of
Speech 262
Dr. .T. W. Draper. By the Editor.
(Wiih a Portrait.) 263
The ftreat Prramid. By the Editor
{muftrated) 265
The True Story of the Moon 263
Babylonian Discoveries. BvaMom-
of the Society of " Biblical
'49
Artificial Indigo .
Science and Religion Wk
C0BBESPO]n)B7('CB : —Chinese Calcu-
lation—Mind [Doctors— Sea Ser-
pent or Seaweed ?— Marine Boilers
— Intelligence in Animals — Elec-
trical Images — Mortality from
Cancer— Arranged Squares, Ac.272-S78
Qu ■
Repliei
Archirology 268 Answers to Correspondents . _
Inteliigonce "of the House Martin. ' Notes on Art and Science 181
Bv Henry J. Slack 269 Our Mathematical Column .
Intelligence in Animals 269 Our Chess Column
Ghosts. By Andrew Wilson 269 Our Whist Column
Poyn's EiTHACT is'a certain cure for Rheumatism and Ooat.
Pond's Extract is a certain cure for Utemorrhoids.
Pond's Extract is a certain cure for Neuralgic pains.
Pond's Extract will heal Burns and Wounds.
Pond's Extract will cure Sprains and Bruises.
Sold by all Chemists. Get the gestiijie.
Feb. 10, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
311
AN ILLliSIRATED ^^ i^
MAGAZINEoFSqENCE ^
1- plainltWoriied-Exact&described^
LONDON: FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 10, 1882.
CoSTF.N'TS OF No. l-"
I>AOK
The r.ve imd the ^licro'soope. Hv
Henrv J.Slack, F.O.S.. K.R.M.S. 311
About Fallacies. By the Kdilor ... 3U
Niehta with a Three-Ineh Tele^oop.?.
Br " A Fellow of the H.jral A«!ro-
nonilcal Societv." {Jlliulr,iled\ . 312
The Electric telegraph. By W.
Lynii 313
The Croat PiTamid. By the Editor
(llUstrale'd) 313
The Crystal Palaee Electrical Ethi-
bilion. First Xoticc 319
Natural Rubbish Heaps. By .lames
Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S 31S
Dr. Carpenter 0» Vaccination ..... .. 319
The Moon's Birth by Tidal Evolu-
tion 310
The Menacing Com-t 320
CoRBBSPOlfDRTfCB ; — Our Letters,
Queries. !ind Replies— Flesh Food
— The Mi>i>n and the Weather —
Intra-Mereurial Planet, &c. ...321-32,3
Queries 323
Replies to Queries 321
.\n3wer8 to Correspondenta 3i.T
Letters R.-oeived 327
Notes on Art and Science 327
Our Mathematical Column 32S
Our Whist Column 321
Our Chess Column 330
THE EYE AND THE MICROSCOPE.
By HENRr J. Sl.\ck, F.G.S., F.R.M.S.
THERE is a notion prevalent that using the microscope
injures the eyesiglit, but this is really not the case ;
it is only the abuse of the instrument that has such an
effect. It does not hurt the eye to look at anything which
is plain and easy to see, and neither in too strong nor too
feeble a light. The art, then, of u.sing the microscope con-
sists in exhibiting small objects so that tliej- shall be seen
as larger ones are witliout any instrumental aid. To do
this the microscope must bo a good one, and a few simple
rules followed until practical skill is gained. Whether the
microscope is a binocular or not, both eyes must lie kept
open. This is of absolute necessity if the sight is not to
be damaged. Many persons find it difficult to look down a
tube with one eye without shutting the other. A remedy
for this, and one useful in other respects with a mono-
cular instrument, is to cover a piece of cardboard nine
inches long and five wide, with black cotton velvet,
cut a hole in the middle, and insert the eye - piece
through it into the tube of the microscope. With this
screen in front, everybody finds it easy to keep both
eyes open, and look at the object with either one, if they
arc both .alike, or with the best if they diflTor. Persons
whose eyes agree in focus, and othci-wise correspond, derive
the greatest benefit from binocular instruments, but the
use of one eye does not fatigue it if the object is properly
focussed and suitaljly illuminated. A common fault with
beginners is to use too high power, with which it is im-
imssiblo to see the object tliey want. For many most
interesting sights of live objects a four-inch objective is
extremely useful, and the highest power a beginner is
likely to employ with advantage is a one-inch, with a
couple of eye-pieces, the highest giving a linear magnifica-
tion of ."lO or 60, with the English length of tube. Tlie
proper use of this power should be mastered before more
magnification is attempted.
It requires considerable practice to pay attention only to
one part of an object that may be shown plainly, and take
no notice of other parts that from any reason are not clear.
With low powers, an object need not be (juite flat for the
whole to be fairly in focus at the same time ; with higher
powers, great flatness is indispensalile,"and an extremely
slight irregularity only porinits one portion at a time to be
clearl)' seen. This state of things is very uncomfortable to
a beginner, and the eye is sure to suflor from it. The size
of an object that can be viewed as a whole with any power
depends upon several conditions, which need not now be
discussed, l)ut the higher the magnification the loss it is,
and with an enlargement exceeding 200 linear it becomes
exceedingly minute.
As soon as the student has attained to some dexterity in
the use of the in.strument, he should acquire the habit of
paying exclusive attention to what he can see plaiidy, and
take no notice whatever of things out of focus, or from any
other cause not even focally visible. With some excep-
tions, it is most .agreeable to the eye that an object should
not occupy the whole field, but have a fair margin round
it, which should not be over-flooded with light. Eyes differ
very much in sensitiveness to light, and when, as in no-
ticing the actions of live objects, prolonged .attention is re-
quired, the intensity of the illumination .should be nicely
regulated to suit the individual case. Light passing through
a piece of foreign post-paper, saturated with spermaceti, is
often the most pleasant.
By attention to such directions as have been mentioned,
there need be no fear of devoting a considerable time every
day to microscopic investigation, and many obser\'ers could
be mentioned who have done this for years without any
detriment to their visual powers. On the other hand, those
who torment their eyes in attempts to see the most difficult
diatom markings, or the closest of Nobert's ruled lines, suffer
from their folly, without any compensation in the shape of
useful knowledge.
ABOUT FALLACIES.
By the Editor.
SEVERAL correspondents write about the question of
luck as wc considered it in No. 11, .some asking
whether the evidence does not show that some men really
are exceptionally lucky (so that their luck in matters of
pure cliance may be relied on); others asking whether, if a
coin had been tossed a great number of times with the
same result (head or tail) in one sot of trials, it would not
be more likely to show the other side (tail or head) oftener
in the next set of trials ; while yet others consider that the
ideas of men of science about fallacies generally are
erroneous — that, in fact, the so-called fallacies are real
truths.
Taking the last first, I may note that the rule of science
in all those eases in which specific results arc popularly
supposed to followfrom specified actions, or the like, is simply
to inquire whether there can possibly be any relation of cause
and effect in such cases. When a housemaid says, for instance,
that putting the poker acro.ss a fire makes the tire burn up,
the student of physical laws is able at once to see that the
supposed influence is antecedently most improbable. Here
in a grate are certain more or less combustible materials,
and certain qu.antities of m.atter already burning; com-
bustion is going on, though indiff'creiitly ; the air is
nourishing this slowly burning fire, but inetllciently ; on
the whole, it seems likely that the fire will go out. In
what w.ay shall I do any good if I stick a rod of iron from
the fender across the top bar? I thus add a certain
qu.antity of cold metal to the space across which the air
has to come to the fire. Do I increase the draught 1 On
ni2
KNOWLEDGE
[Fkii. 10, 1882.
the contmr)', so far as I produce any effect at all on tlic
drauj^lit, I must diminish it. For the draught dopoiids in
till' iiiuii\ (111 till- diminished density of the warmed air in tiie
nei;.;lilioiirho(id of tlie lire, and the cohl metal must t^i some
dr';;;ree iiicira.se the density of this air by cooling it. The
eflect may l>o very slight, but, sucli a.s it is, it in unfavour-
alijf. Hut liere is a correspondent who t<'lls me that
whether theoretically the poker should make the fire burn
up or not, as a matter of fact it dues. Kepeiit<-dly he ha.s
tried the experiment, and after exhausting in vain every
art he possessed to make the lii-e burn up, he found tlie
poker put across the top bar, immediately, or almost
immediately, produce the desired result. Science is bound
til listen to evidence of this kind, for science deals with
phenomena, and even when jihenomena seem to point to
something which appears utterly incredible, science has to
iiKjuire into tlie matter. Well, in this ca.se, what are the
facts 1 Someone tells us that he lias repeatedly tried in
y.iin to make a fire burn up, but when he put the poker
across it, the fire presently became clear and bright.
Multitudes of contrary cases might no doubt be cited, but
let us suppose that none could. Are we therefore to infer
that in these cases the poker drew the fire up t A new-
law of nature would be indicated, if this were so ; and a
new law of nature is worth learning. But when due
inquiry is made, it appears that there is no such law — as,
unfortunately, we might have expected. Our correspon-
dent, who found that when he jmt the poker across the tire
it drew up, is unquestionably but an unskilful fireman. He
puts on coals, and jiokes and stirs the fire, unconscious of
the fact that this is just the way to put a fire out. When
the fire is all Viut hopelessly reduced by liis unskilful
mcjisures, he puts the poker across the top bar. According
to old-fashioned superstitions, he makes the sign of the
cross across the fire-place, and the fire, in wliich until now
there seemed to have been some evil spirit (that is what
people mean when they say " the devil's in the fire "),
is purified from the unclean presence and begins to burn
up. That would have been the old-fashioned interpretation
of the change; unfortunately, science takes another view of
the matter. It sees reason to believe that the change took
jjlace simply because the disturbance to which the fire had
before been exposed was bad for it. Putting the poker
across the top bar meant letting the fire alone, and giving
it a chance to burn up.
Singularly enough, I had occasion, when the last
S"ntence was just finished, to leave my study. When I
came back, an hour later, I found that my tire, which in
the meantime must very nearly have gone out, had been
recoaled — and the houstiinaid, or whoever had attended to
it, had, after the fashion of her tribe, put the poker across
the top bar. The fire was not burning very brightly — on
the contrary, it sciemed inclined to go out. Yet, rashly
daring, I put the poker down — from scientific principles I
(ibject to seeing bright metal smoked and dulled — and went
on with my work, intending, if the fire went out, to call
Mimcone in to light it again. However, it so chanced that
lifter the poker was put down, the fire began to burn
jiretty brightly, and as I write there is every promise of a
good fire. Am I to infer that taking the poker from across
the top bar made thi^ fire burn up? Of course, the real fact
was, that when the tire .seemed dull it was really making
steady progress, and whether [ had taken down the poker,
or supplemented its salutary action by putting another
poker across tin- top bar, would have made not one particle
of difference.
That our domestic servants should consider the poker
aii-oss tlie top bar a specific for making a dull fire burn up
is vi-ry natural. Their manner of treating fires is un-
scientific ill the extreme. A Cambridge Fellow, wlio ki.- .^
very little about the fair sex, except what he might gather
from the ways of "bed-makers" and his recollections,
perhaps, of doiuestic servants at home, used to define woman
as " an inferior animal, not understanding logic, and poking
a fire from the top." Most servants do this. They also
have two utterly erroneous ideas about making up a low
fire — first, that tlie more fuel is jiut on the better;
secondly, that after putting coal on it is desirable to stir
the fire. As a matter of fact, when a tire is low, the
addition of fuel will often put it out altogether, and the
addition of much fuel is almost certain to do so ; and in
(;verj- case the time to stir the fire (when low) is before
coals are put on, not after. Generally it is well, when a
fire is low, to stir it deftlj', so as to bring together the well-
burning ]iart.s, and then to wait a little, till they begin to
glow more brightly ; then a few coals may be put on, and
after awhile the fire may again be stirred and some more
coals put on it. When a low- tire has been unwisely treated by
being coaled too freely, and the fresh fuel uselessly stirred,
it is generally the case that the only chance for the fire is
leaving it alone. Susan does this when she puts the poker
across the top bar, and unconsciously she retains the old
superstition that by thus making the sign of the cross over
the fire, she sends away the e\il beings, sprites, or whatever
they may have been, which were extinguishing it
That letting the sun shine on a tire puts it out is not,
like the other (in its real origin, at any rate), a superstition,
but simply an illusion. A correspondent writes that it is
believed in by nine persons out of ten'^ but in this it is
like all other wrong beliefs. Scientitic methods of inquiry
and reasoning arc followed by fewer than ten in a hundred ;
and although nowadays the views of science are accepted
more widely than in olden times, this is simply because
science has shown its power by material conquests.
I do not think that my friend Professor Tomlinson's
experiments on the burning of candles in sunlight and in
the dark would be regarded by all as decisively showing
that sunlight does not interfere with combustion, though,
rightly apprehended, they go near to prove this. But d
priori considerations show conclusively that though by
warming the air around a fire the sun's rays may, in some
slight degree (after a considerable time), affect the progress
of combustion, they cannot possibly put the tire out in the
sense in which they are commonly supposed to do so ; in
fact, a fire would probably burn somewhat longer in a room
well warmed by a summer sun than in a room from which
the solar rays were excluded. (The difTerence would V>e
very slight.)
NIGHTS WITH A THREE-I^'CH
TELESCOPE.
By "A Fellow of tuu Royal AsTiiosoMnj.\L Society."
r|"^0-NIUnT we will avail ourselves of the /Zodiacal Map,
.1 oil p. 22.'">, and examine some of the objects it con-
tains ^vhich have not yet been described in these papers.
Before commencing our stellar work, though, wc will have
a look at ISIars, now travelling quickly away from us. He
is apparently becoming rapidly smaller, as lie is receding
from the earth, and a good deal of the detail which would
have been visible in the instrument we are employing at the
end of last December, has now become imperceptible.
With a power of ISO or upwai-ds, though, the planet at
iiioiiients of the best definition will be seen as in Fig. 17.
What is technically called the gibbous appearance of
Mars will at once strike the observer's eye. In other
Ft£. 10, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
313
words, the outline of the planet will be seen to differ
soiisibly from that of a circle, a portion of such outlme or
" limb " being seemingly cut oft' by a curved line on the
side opposite the Sun. This gives a somewhat hump-
backed effect. (Lat (.ibbiis, humped.) Hence the
o
Fig. 17.— Mais
While in this region of the heavens, we may notice one
01 two objects in Taurus, which we omitted on p. 221, in
the absence of means for tlieir identification. They will
be found in the Zodiacal Map, which we are now em-
ploying. The first is Piazzi ^^, 20 Tauri, which will be
noticed in the second square to the left of, and a little
higher than Aldebaran ; it is marked 20". This will
prove a very severe test of the excellence of the observer's
in.strument, and will require a fine night and the highest
power at his disposal to be made out properly. 118 Tauri,
again, is a beautiful small pair ; it lies on the parallel of
declination below /J on the map. In noticing the nebula
to the N.W. of ; Tauri, we omitted to add that 4 itself
is situated in a rather pretty and curious field.
Above Taurus lies the constellation Auriga, to the
examination of which we proceed to devote ourselves. We
will begin with 14, marked T (for triple) in the map ; but wc
shall only be able to see it as a double star, the components
being of a yellowish tint, and about half as far again apart
as those of y Arietis. A very pretty pair will be found in
hi Aurigiv. This does not appear by name on the map,
but is so close to the star at the top marked 4° as to in-
cline us to believe that they are intended for the same
object. It is represented in Fig. 18.
6 Aurig;e, a."* a close and very unequal pair, will ta.x both
the instrument and the eyesight of the observer to the
Uttermost to see it properly. When best seen it will ap-
pear as in Fig. 19.
10.— 9 Auriga?.
5. Aurigie (to the north of w, or 4, just out of the map,
on p. 225), is another star in which the diversity of size of
the components and their proximity render its observation
'• . idedly difficult. The student will see both these objects
tter with a high power than with a lower one. 20 (N.E.
; /) Tauri in the map) is a pretty star, from the con-
■- .isted colours of its components, and is vei-y easy from
their distance. The coniparison is almost horizontally to
the left of the larger star, il c 72 is an equally easy pair.
It will be found just to the left of the solstitial colure
in the map. 225 P. v. Aurigie, to the N.E. of 26,
must be found by fishing, as it is invisible to the
naked eye. When in the field of the telescope, liowever,
it will be found to be a close and extremely pretty littli'
pair.
W^e may conclude to-night's work by a glance at two or
three of the most striking clusters of stars in the constel-
lation under review. And first, M. 38 (north of (p Auriga-)
forms a beautiful field, the main cluster assuming a cruci-
form aspect. The telescope may be moved about- in this
neighbourhood, which is a rich one. M. 3G (nearly due E.
of (/i) is also very line. M. 37 (N. of the double star 225,
previously described) is a glorious f^eld, even with such an
instrument as that which we are employing. In regarding
a nebula or cluster, no light should be suffered to enter
the eye for some little time befoie it is applied to the
telescope : and the observer should gaze steadily at such an
object until the eye becomes accustomed to it, after which
hitherto imperceptible detail will flash up. Another rich
field will be found in I^I VII. 33 (marked 33' at the very
top of the map).
Next week we will devote to Geuiini and the constella-
tions south of it.
Erratum. — Page 221, col. 2, line 22, t, Tauri should be
( Tauri.
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.
By W. Lyn-d.
The Battery.
BEFORE describuig the instruments used by the
Government and the Telegraph Companies for the
transmission of news and private telegrams, a brief account
of the generators of the electric current is necessary.
The simplest form of apparatus for producing electricity
by chemical action is called the Voltaic cell, named in
honour of the inventor, Professor Volta, a celebrated Italian
philosopher. The cell is easily made, and the cost of the
materials is trifling. Two strips of metal— one zinc and
the other copper— a glass cup, nearly filled with water, to
which a little dilute sulphuric acid is added, two Viits of
copper-wire, and the apparatus is complete. The wii-es
must be soldered to the metallic plates. When the metals
are immersed in the liquid and the extremities of the wires
placed in contact, chemical action begins. 'J'hc currents of
electricity are produced at the expense of the zinc and the
acid. The zinc is consumed and the water is decomposed.
The zinc has a very strong aftinity for oxygen. The
clicmical action going on in the cell when the metals are
in contact is rendered visible to a certain degree. The
liberated hydrogen may be seen collecting in bubbles on
the copper plate. The zinc is acted upon by the acid. The
oxygen, liberated upon the decomposition of the water,
combines with the zinc, forming an oxide of zinc. The
copper is not acted upon.
" The materials of an ordinary voltaic cell," Professor
Thompson says, " may be regarded as the fuels of electric
currents, just as coke and coal are the fuels of steam-
power. Like those fuels, they represent a store of energy.''
In the voltaic cell, the flow of electricity continues so long
as the wires are joined and the direction of the current is
from the zinc plate through the acidulated water to the
copper, and from tlie copper through the wire back to the
zinc. A single cell such as I have here described would
au
KNOWLEDGE •
[Kkh. 10, 1882.
1>0 of little or no use for telegraphic purposPB, b>it a series
of cells would prcMlure a current sudioiently Ktroiif; for the
working of a iipcdle or Morse instrunicnt, 'I'lic first
liattory tlint cixnie under my notice was constructtKl as
follows : —In n putta-perclia trough about 2A ft. long,
divided into compartments, were placed altcrnote j)lates of
7.inc and copper. Tlie cells were lillcd with fine sand, over
which dilute sul|>liiiric aject of transit
obser^•ations is to determine the time at which the objects
observed cross the meridian. Either the observer has to
determine at what time this happens, or, by noting when
it happens, to ascertain the time ; in one case, knowing
the time, he karns the position of the celestial object in
what is c.illed right ascension (which may bo called its
position measxired arownd the celestial sphere in the
direction of its rotation) in the other, knowing the posi-
to him but from the upper end of the Gallery \ A time-
measure of .some sort — probably a clepsydra, or water-
clock — must have been set there, and persons appointed to
mark the passage of time in some way, and to note also
the instants when the observer or observers in the Great
Gallery signalled the beginning or end of transit acres.?
the Gallery's field of view. These time-indicating persons,
with their instruments, would have occupied the space
where now are the floors of the so-called Antechainlier and
King's Chamber — then, of cour.se, not walled in (or the
walls would have obstructed the view along the Gallery).
These persons themselves would i.ot obstruct the view,
31G
KNOWLEDGE
[Feb. 10, 1882.
unless they camf t near tho mouth of the (iuWery. Or
thpy might l»- ilosi' t<« tlu; nioiitli of Uh- (Jiillrry nt its
kidcs, witliout obstriiitinj,' tlu' view.
liut now, notice tluit if tho ])laco tlioy tliux occupied -
thr future King's Clianilicr (periiaps, as Uu; region in or nrar
\vhiih all the oliservations of the heavenly host in cuhiiinn-
tiiPM had been made) werejn the centre of the S(|uar(! top
of the Pyramid as thus fur built, they would Ix- very much
in the way of other observers, who ought to be stationed
at certain special points on tli;s horizontal top, to oliservo
certain important horizontal lines, viz , the lines directed
to the cardinal f)oint3 and to points mid way between these.
j\i\ observer who had this task assigned In'ni should
(H cupy the very centre of the s«|uare top of the, n-s yet,
iucomplete Pyramid, so that the middle point of each side
would mark a cardinal point, while the angles of the square
would mark the mid-cardinal points. Also this central
I'oiiit ought not only to command direction lines to the
angles and bisections of the sides, but to be counnanded,
without obstruction, by direction lines from these points.
Thus the upper end of the Great Ascending Gallery should
not be exactly at the centre, but somewhat either to the
west or to the east of the centre of tlie great square sum-
mit of the incomplete Pyramid.
Let us sec how this matter was actually arranged : —
Fig. 1 shows the incomplete Pyramid, as supposed to
be viewed from above. The four sockets, s.iv., n.w., n.e.,
and s.e., were supposed, until quite recently, to mark the
exact position of the four base angles of the Pyramid. It
turns out, however, that they are rather below the level of
the real basal plane of the structure, which is, therefore,
somewhat smaller than had been suppo.^cd.
Fig. 1 is, however, cliiefly intended to show the nature
of the square platform, w^hich formed the top of tlie pyra-
midal frustum when the level of the floor of tlic gallery
of the King's Chamber had just been reached. We have
a horizontal section of the Pyramid, in fact, taken through
the lioor of the King's Chamber and Antechamber — that is,
through SD, in the figure at p. 266. The bottle-shaped
black space, near 0, giv(!s the section of the slanting gallery,
beginning on the southern side at its widest part, reaching
a narrower part somewhat to the north of 0, and theie-
aftcr narrowing tow^ards the north, till the section of the
uppermost or narrowest part is reached. The dotted lines
show where the Grand Gallery and the narrow ascending
passage (ascending for one passing towards the King's
Chamber) pass downwards into the structure of the Pyra-
mid : at e is the place where descending and ascending
passages meet. The position, also, of the entrance-hole,
forced in by Al Afamoun, at about tlie level of the angle e,
is indicated.
At 0 is the centre of the square surface, which then
formed the top of the structure. If posts were placed at the
angles ')i.u:, a.u:, s.e., s.tc, and also at n., e.., »., and »',, an
obierver stationed at 0 would have the cardinal and the
mid-cardinal points e.xactly indicated. Now the point 0 is
about eight and a-half paces from the middle of the southern
opening of the Grand tJallery ; so that, if there were an
assistant observer at n, he could communicate time
signals readily both to the observers in the (Jallery and to
the observer at 0. All such observations as thci easting,
southing, westing, and northing of heavenly bodies would
belong to the observer at 0, uprights of suitable height
Vicing erected at n., c, s., and v. He could also observe
when heaveidy bodies passed the mid-cardinal directions,
n.ir.j s.u\, s.e., and s.ir. It will be noticed that if we
.suppose the Grand (Jalleiy completed, which would carry it
to a height of about 28 ft. above the level of tlio floor at o,
the slant of the (iallcry would yet be such that the observer
at O, Kupj)osing him to observe by njcans of an instrum" i.
raiKetl a few feet altove the level of the floor, would !••
perfectly well able to look along the horizontal dire( ti<.i
line from 0 to s.n: (Most of his observations would, <
course, Ixr direct*;d to jioints above the horizon.)
IJut I think if I were planning such observations on tb'
squan? suiface e., n., ir., v., I sliould wish to have sever.i
observers at work in thus tiking azimutlis (directioi
refen-ed to the cardinal points) and altitudes, just as severe
transit observers were manifestly provided for in the coi
struction of tlie (!rand '^■allerv.
Fig. 2. — Vertical Section of Grand Gallery.
1 should set an observer at n., to observe in dire^tioii
ii.-n.ii\, )(,-((•., U.S. (that is, n.O.), n.-e., and u-s.u: ; anotlu ;
at ('•., another at '., and another at c, to oliserve in tli
corresponding directions belonging to their stations. Ob-
servers at n.ir, .«.;'•., s.f., and s.ir. could also do excellent
woik. In fact, they, between them, could take the hori-
zontal cardinal and mid-cardinal directions better than the
oViserver stationed at 0, though his would be the best
station for general work with the astrolabe.
Yet again, for observing heavenly bodies at considerable
altitudes, stations nearer to the uprights at s.v:, w., luv:.
Feb. 10, 1882.]
♦ KNOWLEDGE
317
vl-., would be useful. Where else could tliey be so well
placed as at the points a, b, c, d, where the lines ir.s, w.n.,
■.»'., and f.n. intersect the diagonals of the square surface
of the pyramidal structure 1 Note, also, that these
observing stations would be at convenient distances from
each other. Tlie sides of this square surface would be
roughly about 1".") paces long, so that such a distance as
Fig. 3.-
-A Perspective View of the Upper Fonrth of the
Great Gallery.
■i.ic, or a.O would only be about 62 yards (the length of
the Grand Gallery being about 5'2 yards).
Thus there wruld be thirteen observer of azimuthal
directions and altitudes, whose work would be combined
with that of at least seven transit observers along different
parts of the length of the Great Gallery with its seven
transit widths (as shown by its section, Fig. 2). Twenty
observers in all, the transit workers, provided with the
great fixed transit instruments in the Gallery itself, the
others armed, perhaps, with astrolabes, armillary spheres
for reference, direction tubes (or ring- -arrying rods) would
be able to make observations only inferior in accuracy to
those made in our own time with telescopic adjuncts.
Fig. 3 is intended to show something of the structure
of the interior of the Great Gallery. Tlie stones outside
are supposed to be seen in section, only one-fourth of the
Gallery being given. For correct perspective, six or seven
more layers of stone should have been shown below the
lowest in the picture. But this would have given to the
illustration an inconvenient shape. It will be seen that
a section of the southern sky, very convenient for ob-
ser\ ation, would be seen from the interior of the Grand
Gallery. The central vertical through this section would
(as seen from the middle of any of the cross seats) be the
true meridian. But the moment of transit might be
equally well observed by taking tlic moments when a star
was tirst seen (from the middle of a cross seat) on the
eastern edge of the vertical sky space, and when the star
disappeared : the instant midway between these would be
the true time of transit. B}' combining the observations
made by several "watchmen of the night," stationed in
tlifferent parts of the Grand ( Jallery, a very close approxi-
mation to true sidereal time could be obtained.
1 apprehend, however, that astronomers who had shown
themselves so ingenious in other respects, would not have
omitted to note the advantage of suitably-adjusted screens
for special transit observations : and it seems to me likely
that the long grooves shown in section at /i and k', Fig. 2,
might have been used in connection with such a purpose,
and not merely (though that was probably one of the
objects they were intended to subserve) to carry a hori-
zontal sliding cross-bar, by means of which the altitude
of a celestial body at the moment of transit could
be more readily determined. We must not forget
that transit observers have to determine what is called
the declination of a star (its distance from the
equator), as well as what is called the right ascension,
or distance measured parallel to the equator from a certain
assigned point on that circle. For this purpose the hori-
zontal lines a a', b b', itc, (F'ig. 2) would be useful, but not
sufficient. I incline to think that the method used to
obtain accuracy in observations for determining declina-
tion involved a very practical use of the grooves k k' .
Possibly a horizontal bar ran from k to k', carrying vertical
rods, across which, at suitable distances, horizontal lines
wf-re drawn (or, better still, horizontal rods could be slid
to any required height). The horizontal bar could be slid
to any convenient position, the vertical rods adjusted, and
at the time of transit the horizontal rods could be shifted
to such a height as just to touch a star as seen by an ob-
server in the Gallery atthe moment of mid-transit
If a telescopist in our own time will try to plan out a
method of determining the declinations and right ascen-
sions of stars (say, for the purpose of forming a trust-
worthy star chart or catalogue), w ithout using a telescope,
by using such an observing place^as the Great Gallery, he
will .see how much might be done, so far as equatorial and
zodiacal stars were concerned ; and they are altogether the
most important, even now, and were still more so in the
days when the stars in their courses were supposed to rule
the fates of men and nations.
PoiTD'a Extract is a certain
Pond's Kxtract i» a certain ci
Pond's Kxtract i.** a certain cure for .>e
Pond's Extract will heal nuras and Wc
Pond's Extract will cure Sprains and Bmisc/i.
Sold by all Chemists. Get the genu
re for Hheumatism and Gout.
for Hemorrhoids.
ralKic J>aina.
318
KNOWLEDGE
[Fta lU, 188i.
r\lE CRYSTAL PALACE ELECTllICAL
EXHIBITION'.
FlU,-iT NoTHK.
iT iM grintly to be n'tjrettcd that this cxiiibitiun, like moat otlierH,
18 8e not greater in many cases than
5 , or even 3". The d(!bris speaks not only to the action of hard
frost, but of heavy snows. It was the melting of the latter and the
satnration of the de'lris-heaps which caused the rubbish to flow
as it were outwards from the base of the cliff, and doubtless
this action was still further favoiu'cd by the alternate freezing
and thawing of the water-soaked masses. It might seem
strange to speak of snows and hard frosts in the islands
and along the borders of the Mediterranean, but the evi-
dence of former colder conditions was not by any means restricted
to ancient -heaps or breccias. In a few words Dr. Geikie
then sketched the broad results which had been aiTived at by
glaciaUsts as to the former extent of the European snow fields aud
glaciers during the Glacial Period, and he showed that these, taken
m connection with the evidence furnished by organic remains, both
animal and vegetable, abundantly confirmed the conclusions to
which the phenomena of the ancient rubbish-heaps appeared to
point. The climate of aU Europe had been greatly affected ;
not Only did an enormous ice-sheet, extending from Scandinavia
and burying the British Isles, creep southward over the plains of
Northern Germany, but aU the mountain-tracts became centres
of glaciation. The present glaciers of Switzerland were the
degenerate successors of great icefields which now meet with their
nearest analogues in the .\.rctic Ke-ii.ns. And many hilly districts
in France, Spain, and Eastern an 1 Sjuthern Europe, which were
now destitute of glaciers, were fornjcrly the seats of extensive snow-
lields and glaciers of no mean size. \Vhile in other places, such as
the low grounds of Southern England and France, and hilly regions
bordering on the Jlediterranean, where the conditions were not
favourable to the formation of gluciei^, considerable snows fell, and
hard frost ruptured and shattered the rocks. It was to this period
of cold that most of those great accumulations of rock-dt'bris be-
longed — those natural rubbish-heaps wliich had uow ceased in
many places to accumulate. They thus bore strong evidence
to the former extent and intensity of ice-action during the Glacial
Period.
BR. CAEPENTER ON VACCINATION
AT a monthly conference of the London Society for the Aboli-
tion of Com|>u!sory Vaccination, lield at the St;;inway Hall
(Dr. Andrew Clark in the chair), an address was given by Dr.
W. B. Carpenter, C.B., on the increase of small-pox mortality in
London during the year ItSO. He pointed out the inadequacy of
the objection that a system of compulsory vaccination outraged the
rights of individuals, contending that in health, as in education, it
was the paramount duty of the State to secm'e, as far as possible,
the public advantage. The State, in his opinion, was morally
bound to intervene in such a matter between the parent and tlie
child, for the good both of the child and of society at large. He
proposed to speak with special reference to the outbreak of small-
pox in ISbO, which, he understood, was specifically mentioned
in the resolution that was to be moved in the House of
Commons by Mr. P. A. Taylor. That outbreak, according to his
view of the case, afforded grounds, not for the repeal of the
Act, but rather for making its operation more complete and
stringent. It was necessary first to consider the history of small-
pox, with regard to which very important statistics existed in the
bills of mortality for tlio last 200 years. In the case of other exan-
themata—scarlatina, for instance — doubts might have been cast on
the accuracy of the earlier tigui-es ; but small-pox had always been
clearly recognised and distinguished from other diseases, and no
such doubts could therefore be entertained. Now, from 1600 to
1G78, the general mortality of the kingdom was iiO,000 in every
million of living persons, and the small-pox mortality was 4,170; in
172B-57 the general mortality was 52,000 per million, and the small-
pox mortaUty 4,260 ; in 1771-SO the general mortality was 50,000,
and the small-pox mortality 5,020 — a slight increase, which
was probably due, as Dr. Hcbcrden said long ago, to inoculation.
However, the average small-pox mortality in the period from 1660 to
18S-0 was about 4,0t)0 per million. It was noticeable that at that time
the disease periodically appeared in its worst form, and was the terror
of all classes. Thus Louis XV. died deserted by all except Madame
du Barry, and the priests who chanted mass in the Chapelle
Ardente were said to have been "condemned" to do so. And in
1750 Horace Walpole wrote, " Lord Dalkeith is dead of the small-
pox in three days." These, of course, were instances in which the
disease appeared in its greatest intensity, and attacked the rich,
who in these days would ordinjuily have little to fear from it. He
could scarcely suppose that an outbreak of small-pox— say, in
Pimlico — would deter her Majesty from visiting Buckingham
Palace. For the decade lbOl-1810 the general mortality was 29,000
per million, and the small-pox mortahty 2,010. In 1831-35 the
general moitahty was 32,0(^0 aud the small-pox mortality had fallen
to 8S0. At that time he had himself seen as many as 100 cases of
blindness from small-pox in unvaceinated persons, aud it was pro-
bable that in the last century two-thirds of the patients at the eye
hospitals were blind from the same cause, while the proportion now
was only 5 per cent. In 1810 the Legislature provided the means
of vaccination, and the result was that the mortality fell to 400 per
million. Then came compulsory vaccination in 1653, and the
small-pox mortality in the decade 1851-00 was only 278 per million.
In 1861-70 the number was 270. Ho now came to thejears 1871-80,
which period was unquestionably exceptional. The mortality in
these years among unvaceinated persons was so extraordinarily
great, and the disease itself was so violent, as to suggest the notion
that it might be indeed the Black Death of the Middle Ages. Yet,
as far as he knew, no person who bore the evidences of vaccination
had died of small-pox in the last year. In 1871 the disease waa
severe everywhere in Great Britain, but especially in Scotland,
where compulsory vaccination had not been then adopted. Since
that time, however, vaccination had been made compulsory in
Scotland, where it was now enforced more effectually than in
England, the result being that for the last five years there had not
been twelve deaths a year in that country from small-pox.
320
KNOWLEDGE
[KKik 10, 18h.
London, on Iho otIuT Imnd, OinnkR to tliu cIToriB of tlio Kooipty,
thoro wa« nn uin'iii'ciimttHl rmiilniiin wliicli kept the (lincnac iilivo.
Tlio opi'leniic hud rtntio to iiH from l''rniico, iinil hn*i arisen thpn*
from the iiii«iiiiilur_v e<>iin of Iho Krcnc-li aoldicni diirinf; the
lato wnr. Iliirin); iv^iirrt to nil tlic circiinislnncpii of tlip fpidrmir
nnd from u Htiidy ol iirth of the moon hy tidal evolution. It
occurred to us, however, when our essay was nearly com-
pleted, that our readers might like to hear Dr. Ball him-
self on the suV>ject ; and we now have much pleasure in
announcing that ne.xt week a paper from the pen of the
Astronomer lloyal for Ireland on the moon's birth by
tidal evolution will appear in these pages ; to be followed
by another on the astronomical consequences of such
evolution. The Editok.
THE MENACING COMET.
READERS of Knowledge who have followed my
remarks on the various predictions which have been
made respecting the approaching end of the world, must
have been inclined to e.xclaim : — " Is Saul also among the
prophets? " when they heard that, as the Sjyectator tells us,
I had definitely indicated the year 1897 as one in which the
world would, in all probability, come to an end. I have care-
fully read over the essay in my recently-issued " Familiar
Science Essays," to see whether it should suggest these
startling anticipations ; and I find nothing there which does
not seem in perfect accordance with observed facts and
scientific deductions therefrom. .\11 that is there said I
certainlj' adhere to still. Ifow far it can be regaided as
threatening the end of the world in 1897, I shall give the
readers of Knowledce an opportunity of inferring next
week, when a short article on the comet which is thus — •
thinks the Sjifctntor — to bring the world to catastrophic
end will appear, illustrated by a picture of that menacing
object Pos.sil)ly after reading that article, those who have
urged me to reconsider my verdict may find that some
chance is still left for our good old earth.
R. A. Proctor.
Ebr,ma. — Lines 0, 11, 12. and 13, p. 270, for "wood" road
" woad." Line 37, "tsitril" for "nitrite." Lines 39 and 40,
for "oitho-nitro phenyl -glyoxnlic" read " ortho-nitro-phcnyl-gly-
oxvlic."
Icttcig to tiK euitor.
[Thr Editor do*t not hold kimtelfirfwponnhte far thropiniona of kij rorretpont
Be cannot undrrtuke fo return manutcript* or to corrr»vond iriik ikrir ttrit**'.
eommunieatioHt §knuU be at tkori a* pottible, connstarliy k-i/A J'ult and cUar -
mrtitt of the wrifer't m fining.']
Alt Kditorial eommttuicationa »hould be addreeifd to the 'Editor of Ksowi.i ■
an Itujtinft commujiicationt to the PubUakert, at the Office^ 7\ Great (^
ttrett, 1F.C.
AH Jifmitfnncet, Chrqufr, and PoMl-Offtce Order$ nkofi/d be made paualh tn
It^nor: Wymnn ir Sons,
•,* All tfttfra to the Editor tcill be y umbered. For ronvf^nimce of rejerenee,
corrfapondrnt», when referring to any letfer^iciU ol'ige by mentioning its number
and the poijf on irkich it appear*.
AU Lrttera or Q'leriee to the Editor tckirh require .i/t*-ntion in f\e enrrenl wue c/
KsovFhKDOK, tkould reach the Publiahing Office not Uterthnn the Saturday preceding
the dag qf publication. _^___^
" In knovrlrdfre, that man onlv is to be contemneil nnd decked who is not i
state of transition >'or is there snythini; more adverse to accunox '
tlian flxity of opinion." — Faradag.
" There is no harm in makinc; a mistake, but ^'■at harm in making none. Show
me a man ^rho makea no mistakes, and I will show jou a man who has dona
nothing." — Liebig. _— ^-— -
(Bmv CoiifSpontirnrf Columns.
OUR LETTERS, QUERIES, AND REPLIES.
[268] — Letters, queries, and replies reach us in such numbers,
that not only are we unable to find room for a third of them, but
they involve a tax on our time seriously interrupting the progress
of more important matters. We are obliged, therefore, to adopt tho
following rules : —
(1.) Letters to have a chance of appearing must be concise;
they must be drawn up in the form adopted for letters here, so that
they may go untouched to the printers ; private communications,
therefore, as well as queries, or replies to queries (intended to
appear as such) should be written on separate leaves.
(II.) Queries and replies should be even more concise tboa
letters ; and drawn up in the form in which they are here pre-
sented, with brackets for number in case of queries, and the
proper query number (bracketed) in case of replies.
(III.) Letters, queries, and replies which (either because too
long, or imsuitable, or dealing with matters which others hare
discussed, or for any other reason) c.innot find place here, will
either be briefly referred to in answers to correspondents, op
acknowledged in a column reserved for the purpose.
We beg that correspondents will consider how the matter stands.
It is essential that each number should contain a certain portion
of original matter, illustrations, notes on science and art, short
extracts from homo and foreign jotimals, mathematics, and so
forth. We cannot yet enlarge Knowi.epgk more than, we have
already done ; to compress our correspondence into the space left
open for it, by abridging, e.Ktracting, and putting the matter so
arranged into proper form for the printers, would require either
the whole time of the editor, or the assistance of a staff of sub-
editors. Om- correspondents nrast, therefore, do the work of
abridgment and arrangement themselves ; at any rate, they must
not be annoyed if, failing this, their communications arc wasted.
To ninety-hundredths of our readers no apology for this notiio
need be given. On the contrary, some explanation may lie due i >
them for the way in which correspondence has threatened to intii
fere with the proper work of Knowledge. The Editok.
FLESH FOOD.
[269] — I trust you will allow me to point out in your columns the
extreme unfairness of the comparison you suggest between vege-
tarians and flesh-eaters. You ask vegetarians to pnxluce a list of
famous men of their persuasion eqnal to that which can be made
out by their opponents. Now this would bo an excellent and per-
feclly fair test, if exactly half the civilised world had always been
vegetarians; but as matters actually stand, it is grossly unfair. You
might as well ask tho Quakers to make out such a list, or the
Albinos, and the test would be just as valuable. Tho list of famons
men, if it is to be of any use, must be made out with due regard to
the projiortion between vegetarian nnd carnivorous candidates for
fame, and from this test the vegetarians have no cause to shrink.
Feb. 10, 1882.J
KNOWLEDGE
Your instance of Newton is not altogether a good one, as he
lived on vegetarian principles while he wrote the " Principia,"
from the desire to keep his mental faculties unobsciued.
J. L. JOYXES.
[Our correspondent does not seem to notice that we were saving
jestingly what lie himself gravely (and of course correctly) points
out. — Ed.]
THE MOON AND THE WEATHER.-INTRA-MERCURIAL
PLANET.— THE ICE-AGE IN BRITAIN.— ACTION OF
THUNDERSTORMS.
[270] — Mr. BuUcy (p. 247) seems to me to be one of that
numerous body who mistake assertion for proof. I will deal very
shortly first with his science, and next with his facts. Now, im-
primis, he repeats a very old fallacy indeed, when he says that '' it
must be clear to every tyro in natural science, that if it be rational,
and in accordance with the verilication of science, to assert that
the moon's influence acts upon the waters of the ocean, it cannot
be foolish and irrational to hold that the same influence affects the
waters of the clouds and the air in which they float — both ponder-
able bodies, equally subject to the laws of gravitation." Just so.
The late Professor Daniel conducted an elaborate series of baro-
metrical experiments on the summit of Box Hill, in Surrey, and
showed conclusively that there is aciually a semi-diurnal tide in the
atmosphere. But what then? If the gravitational action of the
moon on our atmosphere affected terrestrial meteorology, the
weather ought to change twice a day ! Does it ? We are told,
though, that atmospheric changes occur when the moon either
crosses the equator or attains her greatest north or south decli-
nation. Let us try this theory for the last three months. Writing
with my own daily Meteorological Register and tlie Xautical
Almanac open before me, I will see how far Mr. Bulley's theory
holds for this part of England. On Nov. 22, 1S81 , at two a.m., the
moon was on the equator. The cold cloud and damp of the previous
day continued; from nine a.m. to nine p.m. the barometer rose
exactly 0'002 inch ; and, I may add, precisely the same weather
(with, however, a rise in temperature) prevailed for about a week.
The moon was again on the equator on the 29th, and, once more,
nothing happened. Nov. 8 (when she attained her greatest north
declination) was foggy. I am ignorant whether, according to
Seleno-meteorology, great north declination of the moon should
bring fog. On Nov. 22, when she attained her greatest south de-
clination, the wretched wet weather from which we suffered, both
before and after that date, persisted without change ; and one of
several gales which visited us towards the end of the month, blew
in some parts of the country.
In December the moon reached her greatest declination north at
1 a.m. on the 6th ; and here again the wet weather which had per-
sisted (and subsequently persisted) from the beginning of the
month, underwent no alteration whatever. On the 13th, however,
when the moon was on the equator at noon, it actually ceased
raining, or practically so, tor twenty-four hours. The moon
reached the most southerly point of her orbit at 10 a.m. on
December 20 ; but the wet which distinguished the month con-
tinned. At 1.30 in the afternoon of December 26, the moon was
once more on the equator, and here again nothing whatever was
noticeable save the great height of the barometer, though this
endured from the 23rd to the 29th. On the 18th there was a
mendous gale, and an almost equally heavy one on the 20th.
the occasion of the former and fiercer storm of the two, the
ij"ii was at some considerable distance from her ** stitial colure."
if we turn now to 1882, the moon attained her greatest north de-
clination at 8 a.m. on the 2nd, and again we had a heavy gale with
rain. At 8 p.m., on the 9th, she was in the equator, and again it
blew, as it had done on the 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th. At 9 p.m., on
the 16th, the moon reached her greatest south declination, but not
the slightest change took place in the fog and calm, which begun
on the 11th, and lasted eleven or twelve days. Lastly, our satellite
was on the equator once more at 10 o'clock last night (22nd), the
high barometer of the last twelve days persisting, and one or two
temporary peeps of clear sky being vouchsafed ; otherwise, no
change whatever occnrred. Now, what are wo to say to all this?
Here we find all sorts of weather occurring when the moon has
great north declination, great south declination, and no declination
at all. Mr. Bulley makes certain assertions, but assertion is not
proof ; and the crucial test of any such theory as his is for every
meteorological observer to institute stich a comparison as I have
attempted here. His concluding paragraph about " the chemical
rays" of bodies whose diameters subtend angles of 40", 30", 16",
and 80 on, scarcely merits any serious reference.
Mr. Jones (query 188, p. 255) may possibly be thinking of the
utterance of Le Terrier, in the Comptes Rendus, for Dec. 21, 1874,
■has oddly translated in the R.A.S. Mnnihhi Noticex, vol. xxxv., p.
155: — " There exists in the neighbourhood of Mercury, doubtless
between the planet and the sun, a matter (sic) as yet unknown.
Does it consist in one or more planets or in more minute asteroids,
or even in cosmic dust ? The theory tells us nothing on this point.
On numerous occasions trustworthy observers linvo declared that
they have witnessed ilie passage of a .small planet over the sun, but
nothing has been established on the subject [' on n'est parvenu ii
rien coordonner ik ce sujet ']."
Referring "Amchnida" (query 192, p. 255) to that most inte-
resting book, Geikie's " Great Ice Age," for full details, I may say
here, that the stones frozen into icebergs and glaciers are polished
and striated in a most striking and unmistakable way, as they are
pushed over the rocks by the motion of the masses of ice in which
they are imbcdiled, and that such polished and striated stones aro
found over nearly every part of the United Kingdom. Moreover,
where the beds belonging to their geological horis^on are fossili-
ferous, their contained fauna is arctic.
I think that what " F.A.S." (query 193, p. 255) apparently
regards as a fact is at least ciuestionable. The great heat and
approximate saturation of the atmosphere which generally precede
summer thunderstorms supply the most favourable possible con-
ditions for acetons fermentation ; and both beer and milk not
infrequently turn sour during very hot weather without any thunder
at all. Acetous fermentation is, though, a process of oxygenation,
and the abundance of free ozone in the aii* during a tlmnderstonn
may proximately or remotely affect liquid organic compounds,
although, if this were the case, it is hard to see why no acidiUcaliun
takes place during winter thunderstorms. I am inclined myself to
regaixl the belief that lightning turns beer sour because it does not
know how to conduct itself as a popular delusion.
A Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.
INTELLIOENCK IX ANIMALS.
[271] — Some years ago, a small terrier belonging to a neighbour,
having shown a propensity to como and chase my cats about my
orchard, I repelled his visits with a stick, in flinging which I cal-
ciilated the distance he would have run by the time that the missile
reached the grormd. I thought lie had learned the lesson that I
intended to teach him. Instead of which, he had thought of a
dodge. I saw him one evening approaching the house, when my
weapon flew as before. To my surprise, instead of bolting right
away, he rushed towards me several yards, and then turned sharply
round, and was off. The stick, therefore, instead of dropping ob-
jectionably near to his heels, flew high over his head, as he had
calculated that it would. Thus was I outwitted by a dog — to my
great delight.
Bards are often set down as but a nonsensical, visionary sort of
people ; but the following lines are among the many that might be
quoted from the writings of poets, to show that they often display
evidence of the possession of more common sense than can bo
boasted of by some of those who think themselves to be scientific
philosophers : —
" Then vainly the philosopher avers
That reason guides our deeds, and instinct theirs.
How can wc justly different causes frame,
When the effects entirely arc the same ?
Instinct and reason how can we divide ?
'Tis the fool's ignorance and pedant's pride." — Prior.
As an illustration of a dog's capacity to distinguish between the
characters of man and woman, I may mention that once, when a
farm-labourer was telling me that a certain big, vagabond dog made
himself a nuisance in the neighbourhood by entering the cottagei'.i'
rooms as he pleased, on my asking why they did not order him out
again, he replied, " Ay, but he won't go out for a woman." Which
feminine trait gave him this boldness to please himself in the matter ?
F. Ram.
INFLUENCE OF SEX UPON MIND.
IV. — Daily Experienxe.
[272] — The common opinion founded on observation, that woman's
reasoning and reflective powers do not equal man's, is not confined
to physiologists deciding from head-forms and organic structure ;
but is held by the vast majority without theory, judging solely from
experience and practical knowledge. Whately* defines woman as
" a creature incapable of the exercise of reason, and that pokes tlio
fire from the top." It is a colloquial axiom that you cannot agree
with a woman. I have heard many lady-lecturers ; not one argued
consecutively ; from beginning to end it was declamation ! "They
* Whately, was it ? Like most other stories, it has been told of
others ; and in my college term it was told of one of our mos
profoundly logical dons. — Ed.
322
♦ KNOWLEDGE •
[FEa 10, 1882.
bof(aii liy lM, and sophigtry to confuU', (icr-
■uudo, or nbaah ailvi-nuiricii ; but distinct rcoxonin); tlioy neither
oso nor coinpreliend " (Mias Eil^'i'wonh'ij "Loiters for I.iti-rary
Ladies"). Woman's \(iH, is cei tain ly not argument; as null ox-
|)0ct her to cliop nood as logic. (1 have seen American nouicu
chop wood!) In gencnilisatiou, orrungomont, and concrntratiouof
ideas, |shu cannot compete with man. "They never sec, whether
for good or bad, more than one side of any question, and always
the one which first presents itself " (" Oliver Twist ").
Inability to argue is no murk of woman's absolute inferiority or
non-developnieut. .Sexual eciuality advocates admit woman's lack
of reasoning faculty compared with man. Hut (deceived by their
hypothesis) they dcclaro the power exists latent, and could be deve-
loped tu the same c^vtent as in man by a masculine education. They
miglit OS well argue that tho power to ci|ual man in size and
strength exists latent in woman. On their assumption, inability
to argue is a defect in woman. I maintain it is the result of natural
organisation ; therefore, no more a defect than woman's lack of
manly size, strength, sha|ie, beard, and complexion. Plato wished
to submit the sexes to tho same physical training, but even he
declared wcjman in every respect weaker than man. Her mind
corresponds with her body. Some men grow impatient with female
relatives for inability to ai-gue. Some despise the sex for this pecu-
liarity. The " strong-minded " libel the ." weak-minded" sister-
hood as poor, stunted, distorted, mentally-arrested creatures ! (I'tt-
loria Maijazine, May, 1870.) All are wrong who adduce absence of
reasoning power as a. defect in woman. The obvious error is to
gauge woman's mind by a masculine standard, and to expect the
astoundiug absurditj' that woman can, and should, possess all
man's mental qualities in addition to her owti ! Wiseacres blurt
out that woman is stupid, that her education has been neglected,
because she cannot write like Locke, Bacon, Newton, Shakespeare,
and Milton. Inability to argue — which would be a defect in man —
is a charactcnstic and valuable quality in woman !
It is a most irrational conclusion that woman is mentally un-
developed, and claims our pity, and masculine, mental, and physical
culture, to enable her to hold her own. Docs man's pre-eminence
in reasoning power give him an unfair advantage over woman ? It
would do so, if woman were — what sexual equality advocates mis-
represent her — man's disappointed rival, an undeveloped younger
brother, with a long lee-way to make up. " Woman is not undeve-
loped man, but diverse " (Tennyson). Two sexes constitute humanity.
To tell women to copy man is a gross insult. She was no more
intended to argue with, than to fight with, man. Very serious con-
sequences would result from the sexes having minds constituted
alike. Suppose that woman could generalise like man, could ascend
to principles, could think as profoundly, and reason as correctly ;
and that man had woman's intuitive powers, and capacity for
details. Woman would then become njan's rival, instead of his
help-meet. Each sex being able to dispense with the other's mental
qualities, man and woman would live in porijctual discord. But at
present, in spite of woman's alleged mental defects, harmony reigns
between the sexes. There is constant reciprocal need of the male
and female mind sui)plemeutiug one another. All tends to mutual
inter-dependence and happinees. Kacli sex, in turn, follows the
other's impulse, listens to the other's advice ; each influences in his
or her respective province ; each obeys, and both i-ule.
J. McGkigok Alla.n.
[273]— At the beginning of his letter of the 13th, Mr. McGrigor
Allan makes an assertion which, although true in the abstract,
cannot logically be advanced as an argument for the mental in-
feriority of women. It may be that in the past men have prac-
tically monopolised tho control of human thought and human
institutions ; but this cii'cumstance is no more a voucher for their
intellectual superiority than the defeat of the Komans was proof
of the mental supremacy of the Uuns. It lias been largely a ques-
tion of physical force, the assertion of which is proportionate in
despotism to the ignorance or degradation of the mule community.
What authorities can Mr. Allan cite for his stalen.ent that savage
life shows the nearest approach to physical equality of the sexes 'i
Tho hardships to which savage womeu arc accustomed from their
infancy ore certainly such as could not safely bo imposed upon
civilised females. But are we to suppose that savage life has not
increased male robustness in an etiual proportion 't
Mr. Allan incidentally remarks that 'among savages woman is a
slave." This is a fatal admission ; for savages do but give physical
scope to tho spirit of overbearing which animates scoffers at women.
Name u nation wliore women ore debarred from social influence, and
you have named ono which is proi>ortionutely back ward in liberty
and knowledge. But, tu bu consistent, Mr. Allan should ag\laUi
against the |iosc, the
higher education of women, always seeks to make an argument of
their small achievements in invention and philosophy.
Mr. Allan hath it that " the eternal subordination of woman is
conclusively oxemplilied in her exaggerated admiration for the male
prerogatives — strength and intellect." Vour readers must judge
as to tho soundness of the proposition that admiration — whether
exaggerated or not — for strength and intellect is evidence of in-
feriority ; but 1 have always heard that a profound appreciation of
talent was the special characteristic of the world's greatest men.
For the rest, Mr. Allan's letter makes a series of pompous and
sweeping assertions, sup|>urtcd by an extract from a novel, and so
spiced with illiberal flipjmney as to contrast strangely with his
complaint of female injustice. K. Bl'BKk.
[274] — As " Only a Woman " considers the philosophy of Sl.iif.i ■
speare conclusive on the subject of "womeu possessing justii.' .
may I call her attention to a few things that tho subtle under-
standing of the immortal bard has given forth to tho world. lie
says, " Frailty, thy name is woman!" "Be it lying, note it, the
woman's i flattering hers, deceiving hers ; " "Women are frail as
tho glasses where they view themselves ; " " Even to vice they are
not constant." About their logic, he says, " 1 have no other but a
woman's reason." Satirical view of their constancy: "Constant
you are, but yet a woman ; and for secresy, no lady closer j " " Hon
hard it is for women to keep counsel."
So it will ajipear that Shakespeare does not represent woman as
" infallibly faithful ; " and I think it is only just to bring forward
his opinions, since they have been courted. Some of his female
characters are actuated by the most selfish and vicious motives
that can pos.'iibly be conceived. B. C. Fkaseb.
[To say that Shakespeare makes certain of his characters express
these views, would be nearer the mark. What Shakespeare him>
self thought cannot be judged in this way. — Ed.]
ASBESTOS PAINT AXD THE SAFETY-LAMP.
[275] — Upon reading tho very interesting description in K.NOW-
LEDGE of the successful experiments recently carried out at the
Crystal Palace with the asbestos paint, I was ltd to infer that
another important ai>plication of it — namely, to the wire-gause of
the ordinary safety-lamp— might be adopted. For, if this gau/e
were so protected, it would not, I conceive, even under the most
unfavourable circumstances, be raised ahova incandescence, and,
therefore, could never, while entire, give rise to an explosion. Sir
Uumplirey Davy, in his treatise on the safety-lamp, having declai > I
"that even red-hot gauze of the proper degree of fineness wii
abstract sufficient heat from the flame of carburetted hydrogen ;■>
extinguish it." In fact, on account of the very low conducting.'
property of asbestos, and the consequent ditEculty of ra'sing it .<•
a high tempcratiu-e, I ventured to propose, somo years since, the
substitution of an asbestos gauze or netting for the iron-g.iu.:e
cylinder of the "Davy," but do not know whether the suggisti.n
was ever experimental!}' realised.
.Should you deem this brief commuiucation worthy a place u
your valuable pages, I shall feel gratified. — Yours, SiC,
W. H. (.1.
VEGETARIANISM.
[27G] — Permit me a few lines of comment on part of a letter
relating to the above subject, published in your last number, and
signed " A Fellow of tho Royal Astronomical Society."
If stories bo really valuable in controversy, I can produce scores,
the moral of which is exactly contrary to that cited by your oorre-
spondcut. But my experience of " stories " is this, that they are
seldom related with scientific exactness, and that minute investiga-
tion generally reveals some detail which has been cither wilfully or
ignorantly suppressed in narration, and which invalidates the whole
point it is sought to establish. Personal observation of facts in
one's own immediate sphere, constitute, in my opinion, the most
valuable kind of statistics. Some five years ago I had very eeverei
symptoms of tubercular phthisis, a disease hereditary in my familyJ
The physicians whom I consulted recommended mo cod-liver oilj
Feb. 10, 1882.]
KNOV/LEDGE
323
raw meat, and what is commonly calloil " good " living. They
were, however, of opinion tliat these means would but ameliorate
my condition temporarily, my fate being sealed. As 1 was
a vegetarian, and had begun to s'.udy medicine, I did not
put into practice the advice given me. Instead of the
raw meat, I took cold porridge made of oatmeal and milk,
maccaroni, and other farinaceous foods, w itli as much fruit as 1 could
get. I used hygienic means also, with the details of which it ia
unnecessary to trouble you. But I took no drugs, and no lish-oil.
Instead of dying, I recovered my health, and shortly afterwards
returned to my hospital course in Paris. Four years afterwards, 1
took my degree, and it is now my custom to recommeud to my
patients the dietary which saved me from death. I have found
several of my patients greatly improved in health by following my
eiample, and I have never found one the worse for it.
As I am " fanatic " enough to be ([uito sure I am right, I can
afford to meet objections to my mode of life with equanimity,
i knowing that they proceed only from insulRciont consideration or
Sardonable ignorance of the true bearings of the question. — Yours,
C. AXSA KiKGSlOKP, M.D.
[277] — Having inserted a letter (207, p. 251) in which an alto-
gether wrong construction is put upon the principles of vege-
tarianism, I hope you will allow the other side a little space for
reply. Vegetarians arc not such fools as to say that those living
on a moderate amount of animal food, and temperate in other
lespccts, cannot have health, though we think that a, total
exclusion of flesh, with the substitution of suitable vegetable
products, would give yet better health and greater lon-
gevity. Wc can point to hundreds of cases where weakness
and constant sickness has, after the adoption of a proper
Tegetable diet, given place to comparative health and perfect
freedom from sickness. " A Fellow of the Iloyal Astronomical
Society " gives an instance of greatly-increased mortality and
iOness resulting to some prisoners who were fed " principally on
white and grey peas and lentils with bread." This is not vege-
tarianism : these results are only to be e.\pected from such a con-
centrated highly nitrogenous diet, particularly as thej- were
prisoners and, 1 presume, not doing any hard work. Many, upon
making up their minds to try vegetarianism, think they must eat
twice as much (many old vegetarians, however, only have two
meals a day), and that, too, of the richest and most concentrated
-iDod — peas, beans, &c. As a natural consetjuence, they find them-
■dves gradually getting worse. They and their friends, therefore,
decry the system as a delusion. I could name some of the greatest
thinkers and hardest workers who have been vegetarians.
A Fellow of tub Chemical Society.
ANIMAL LANGUAGE.
[278] — From what I have read and seen, I have always taken it
for granted that animals have languages of their own. But
Arachnida evidently thiuks that proofs are wanting to show that
such is really the case.
Thoreau says that the language of birds may even, to a certain
extent, be underttood by man. His passage of the birds trying to
fill up the hole in the roof (the chimney, wasn't it ?) is very amusing,
and at the same time full of interest to the reader.
I Sir Samuel Baker, speaking of the monkeys on the banks of the
j Nile, says, that by watching them constantly he, by degrees, began
; to understand the meaning of some of their noises and signs, i.e.,
• I'lde," or " luntis yield" collected by church-
wardens from the parishioners in 1505 ? — Philo.
[241] — "Fairk Accumulator." — (1) Are all the tongues to point
one way ? (2) Which are joined together ? (3) How is one cell
connected with another ? (4) Is there any limit to the amount a
cell can hold; if so, whati- (5) Ought the cells to be open or
closed; if the latter, how ? (0) Would five small Bunsen's cells be
enough to charge it ? (7) Should the lead be lifted out of the acid
while not in action ? (8) Is the force of the battery equal to that
of the cells by which it ia charged? — EccENTRic-CnutK.
32-i
KNOWLEDGE
[FKa 10, 18S2.
[242]— I'liOHK CoHi'OidTloN. — Will yon kindly «Io mo the fuvoiir
of miyin^ wlto^** wurk yoti conaidor to bo tho hcHt r>n Engliiili proso
comjiositioii ? — Stanislas.
[213] — Aiii-Pi'Mp. — (1.) I Imvo II Hmnll nir-piini)) with one Imrri'l.
1 hnvo liioil 111 filter morcnr)- thioiiKh ii little rnno filter sold fur
the piir|>os(', 'lilt without Hiicicss. Would Homo reader of Ksow-
LRnOK kindly give mo ii reason for this ? Does the experiment
require n stronger pump ? (2). Would some render mention a book
containing pxpcriments with the nir-pnmp ? — X. X.
[2i4]— LrcniiKs. -I wish to give a few Hcientific leetures to
young people, and should be grateful if some one would suggest
good subjects, telling ine where to get information, and how to
nmko Bimjde instruments for experiments ? Where ran I got
information for a lecture on " The Atmosphere," and what oxperi-
monts could be made by ono who is nnabic to buy costly apparatus ?
—X. X.
[215] — Moon's Brightness. — The sun's light striking moon more
obliquely, when near new moon, one would expect brightness per
unit of surface to be greater. Is this so?— C. T. B. [Onr corre-
spondent surely means less, not greater. It is theoretically less,
and actually less. — Ed.]
[246] — Uarometer. — What is the mean height to mercury
barometer at the equator ? — C. T. B. [29'853 inches ; though I
should, for my own part, be disposed to doubt about the last decimal
figure. — Kn.]
[2i7] — Warmth at Night. — I am a slight sufferer from chronic
asthma, accompanied, chiefly at night, with a few attacks of
coughing ; and friends have urged the use of gas, conveyed through
tubing to a stove filled with " asbestos," to warm the apartment.
Is it conducive, or not, to one's health to maintain the warm
temperature all night ? — J. M. J.
ixfplteis to pears to me that it is erroneous to
call the Faure cell an accumulator. The Faure cell is, when charged,
a mere Voltaic cell ; and the action that goes on in the cell, when
discharging, is similar in its nature to that which takes place in an
ordinary Voltaic coll. The same remark applies to all secondary
batteries. — U. B. T. Strangwavs.
[188] — Longevity of the Tortoise. — The late Professor G.
Pryme, of Cambridge, mentions having paid a visit at the palace of
the Bishop of (I think) Peterborough, and being there introduced
to a tortoise, said, by tradition, to be then 200 years old. Going
to the same i)Iaco some ton or twenty years later, he found that the
patriarch was defunct. The jiassage occurs in a very interesting
biography of the Professor, written by his daughter. — E. D. G.
[191] — Animal LAKcrAGE. — Probably animals possess means by
which they express their feelings one to another, be those means
movement, looks, or even artifv.lation. Hut considering their social
state, we have no reason to expect that the Almighty endowed them
with powers of speech as the human race. The members of the
brute creation, living lives almost independent of each other, while the
very existence of the human race depends on the mutual help, and
therefore on the mutual intercourse of its members, what language
may exist between animals is of a kind vastly inferior to that
between man and man. But one finds, on studying the animal
world, that this language is more perfect in the higher than the
lower orders, some of the latter being entirely mute; the neighing
of horses and ponies, the cawing of rooks, the greeting of dogs,
and the language of birds being illustrative of the former, and the
lowing of kine and the silence of fishes of the latter. Apart from
the language which /Esop and La Fontaine put in the mouths of
animals, and the whistle which some other individual placed in the
mouth or the shell of the "Oyster of Drury-lane," we may conclude
that some inferior means of intercourse exist, and that to a greater
extent of perfection in the higher than the lower orders. — Herbert
H. Welt.er.
[192]— Ice Aoe in Britain.— That an ico age or glacial epoch
haa existed in Great Britain, we may infer from the facts : that in
some parts the eminences are alK precipitous towai-ds the west, the
rasult of some powerful agent wearing away that side ; that in the
intervening v.alleys, boulder clay|(a blue clay, in which rounded and
waterworn iichblps are imbedded) is found ; that deep furrows
across the country, and sirintions (acratchos) on the rocks, ar" i.li.
Her\'al'l'>, the Hiriationsand furrows being all parallel to theinf' '
that all the eminences are rounded at their sumniita, the rr^i.
some powerful agent passing over thom. — Ukriikbt K. Wem.i
[102] — IcR Age in Britain. — In answer to " Arnchnida," |. -
as lo what proofs exi.st, showing that there ever exintcd an i •
in Britain, reference to any geological work of any pretotj-
would have showed him the country fairly teems with proofs, from
the Thames to Cape Wrath. The three great witnesses of glacial
work are (I) the transportation of erratic blocks ; (2) the smiv.ili-
ing and scnitching of the valleys through which the gl
travelled"; and (3) the presence of arctic fossils in glacial di i
As typical instances, Staffordshire contains erratic blocks •
ported from the Cambrian group ; rocks from the Grampians :.ri.'
found GO and 100 miles south of those mountains; while in Wicklow
an immense block of granite is ]>crchcd up G50 ft. above sea- level,
and ten miles from tho nearest granite. Valley scratchings aro
typically cxliibited in the neighbourhood of Snowdon. .Vmong tho
arctic fossils are Trophon Clathratum, Aslarte horealig, end J'cctcn
Islundicus. — W. G. Rolfe.
[195]— QiuK.siLVEB .vox-Poisonous. — It may interest "F.C.S."
to know that in former times liquid racrcnry was given in largo
quantities, even pounds, for obstruction of tho bowels. As to its
efficacy, I cannot speak. The fact is, that ordinary liquid mercury
passes tlirough the digestive tract without being absorbed, and,
therefore, without producing any effect upon the system. If. hr.w-
evcr, it be reduced to a state of very fine division (as is really the
case in grey powder, blue pill, and some other preparations of
mercury), it is absorbed, probably because its fine state of division
enables it to be easily converted into o.xide. — F. W. G. — [In parts of'
Ireland in former years a dose of small shot used to be given for a,
similar purpose. — Ed.]
[105]— Quicksilver non-Poisonous.— For tho sake of F.C.S., I
quote the following words from " Taylor on Poisons " : — " Although
liquid mercurj- is not in itself poisonous, it is liable to be converted-
into poisonous compounds in the body," p. 360, 3rd Edition. — 1
Robert Macphekson. ^
[197] — Messrs. .1. & E. Hall's last designs are by far the best in,
the market, not only for efficiency, but on account of their simpU-,
city and the small space they occupy. — G.ay. ,
[200] — Le.ases. — " J.imes Gregg" should consult an actuary, orj
study Sii- Isaac Xewton's " Tables on the Value of Leases," or.
the modern " Tables " of Inwood, or both of these authorities. '
[200] — Leases. — To determine the value of a loose, evea'
when the conditions arc specified, is not always an easy matter.
To the following seemingly simple problem, I have received a,
score of answers, all varying. I would be glad of an authoritative;
solution. A. paj's for a fourteen years' lease, £1,050 ; the rent for
tho first ten years is to be £250, and £300 for the last four. At th«
end of ten years he agrees to sell the lease to B. at a proportionate
price to what it cost him. What is the amount B. must pay A. ? — ••
W. Cahill.
G. M. T.
[201] — Minima of Algol.-
Feb.
h. m.
16, 4 33 a.m.
19, 1 22 a.m.
21, 10 10 p.m.
•M, 6 59 p.m.
March 11. 3 la.m.
., 13, 11 53 p.m.
„ IG, 8 42 p.m.
April 3,
23,
28, 8
H. M.
1 13 a.m;
10 24p.mj
3 17 a.m.
0 6a.iai<
55p.i
Professor Pickering's observations, however, at Cambridge, U.85'
show that in 1880 the true time of minimum preceded that of tlw
cphemcris by about 37 minntes. " L." would do well, therefore, to
look out for the minima about three-quarters of an hour before tli6
times given above. Algol begins to diniinish about 1 hours hefoiB
tho actual minimum, and does not regain its full lustre till 5| honif
after the epoch of faintest light. Curiously enough, Algol has ft
companion at about 82" distance, which is also variable, but in soma
long period. It would take up too much space to answer " L.'a*
second ([ucry adequately. An east wind has sometimes a veljf
cvu'ious effect, rendering the discs of bright stars triangular, Mr
causing them to be apparently accompanied by a faint, close coM-
panitm. 1 found the latter effect very markedly visible on two
occasions in the early part of 1874. Webb had noticed the
thing. Perhaps the Editor would say if he has ever heard of t$t
" triangular " effect having been noticed in .\merica. — H. SadlsI^
[206] — Opium. — In chronic lead poisoning, the constipation, whiflll
is u.'snally very obstinate, is duo to a tonic, e.g., a continued COD'
traction of the muscular coats of the small intestine. If opium were
administered in such a case, it would act as a purgative, by c
coming this spasm. — RonERT Macphekson.
[207] — Heat. — The hand can bo put into molten iron. Til
perspiration induced by fear provides a cushion of vapour, as il
spheroidal state. If tried too often tho experimenter has goJ
Keb. 10, 1882.]
• KNOWLEDGE
325
1 Wetting with ammoniii acts better. A ling worn lias
.1 burning.— C. T. B.
- 1 0] — HoMKR. — Both the " Iliad " and the " Odyssey " are pub-
I in prose in Bohn's Classical Library, price 5r. each. — C. J. C.
-13] — Organic Compounds. — "Siquis" should road Borthelot's
iiiiic Organique fondee sar la Synthase," Paris, 1860. Sec also
ii;;o," &c., in last number of Knowleugk. Alizarin (cliief
r ing matter of madder) got by Gnebe and Liebermann from
leenc. This can be built up from its elements. If " S." will
, will gladly show how.— C. T. B.
-Is] — Tennyson. — " In Mcmoriani," pecm S7 : —
" And over those ethereal eyei!
The bar of Michael Angelo,"
1-0 brow was straight and prominent, the .si^;!! of intelleelual
■ r. I6i(f, poem 91 : —
" The sea-blue bird of March,"
kingfisher, which like other birds, puts on its best plumage in
spring. — Vide " Key " to " In Memoriam," by Alfred Gatty,
-I'.B.F.
IS] -"The bar of Michael Angolo" refers to the peculiar
■let ion of the forehead, forming a wrinkle, seen in the old
:!its of Michael .^ngelo. Arthur Uenry Ilallam, referred to in
iiDtation, had this same mark on his brow. — JonN Ckaig, JfX.
-!s] — " Se.\-bli'f. bird of March." — Kingfisher (C. Karen no).
" These fields made golden with the flower of March,
The throstle singing in the feathered larch.
* • • * •
And down the river, like a flame of blue,
Keen as an arrow flies the water-king." — Ouijk.is.
-I'l] — The Atomic Theory. — Daubeny's "Introfluction to the
.-.c. Theory," O.\ford, 1850, is the best English work. There
ilicory to explain insolubility ; bodies of similar chemical con-
' ion dissolve each other. — C. T. B.
-JO] — Chemical Analysls.— The most complete book on Quali-
' .\nalysis is by C. R. Frescnius, translated into English, and
-lied by Churchill, at 12s. Cd. The methods, however, are
I', and take up more time than most students can spare, but
are the best and most trustworthy. A very good book on the
subject is " Practical Chemistry," by Jones (Macmillan,
' ;.). In " Quantitative Analysis" (inorganic), by far the best
most complete is Fresenius's (Churchill, ISs.); the large
' -r of methods and quantity of matter is, however, confusing
'• beginner, unless under the guidance of a teacher. On the same
t, Thorpe's is very good (Longmans, 4s. 6d.). If agricultural
istry is wanted, there is Church's Laboratory Guide (Van Voorst,
' 1.) ; the first part is qualitative, the second quantitative. The
1 ird work on Volumetric Analysis is Sutton's (Churchill, 15s.).
I ' immercial Organic Analysis we have Allen's, of which only
I rst vol. is published (Churehili, about 15s.). " Practical
Mistr)'," by Blyth, is an excellent work on foods, drinks, and
ilogy (Griflin, about 12s.). "Wanklyn has written separate
I treatises on the analysis of water, milk, tea, coffee, and
1 (Triibner) ; " Water Analysis " — Frankland (Van Voorst);
rrable Water" — Ekiu (Churchill); "Butter" — Hehner
inhill, 3s. Cd.); "Commercial Handbook of Chemical .\nalysis,"
N ' rmandy, is in dictionary form (Lockwood); "Select Metliods
iiialysis, by Crookes (Longmans, 12s. Cd.); "On Microscopic
ysis of Foods," Hassell's is the best (about 21s.). There
: number of important articles on food analysis in the Analii>.t,
lithly magazine (Bailliere), which every food analyst should
Do not confine your attention to any one book on water
-is ; it is necessary to read Wanklyn's, but analysts do not
vv it throughout. , There are so many works on qualitative
sis that it is difficult to say what are the best. — A Fellow of
Chemical Society.
-lili] — Mortality from Cancer. — 11. A. Everest will find in
land's work on "The Geographical Distribution of Heart
i-e. Cancer, and Phthisis, in England and Wales," illustrated
jlourcd maps, the facts proving that cancer is influenced by
)iy. The above work was published in folio in 1875. It is
ut of print, but can be obtained at second-hand booksellers,
-een at the Library of the British Museum.
i.''tter 220] — The Health of Navvies. — In Xo. 12 of Know-
F, I find bctel-nnt chewing given as a specific against fevers,
■'avanesc and Snndanese are inveterate betel chewers, and yet
have been dying literally by thousands during the past few
i - from fever. When I left Samarang, Java, in September last.
I ativcs were dying by hundreds of fever. My experience,
■cling over nearly four years in various parts of Asia, has been,
the natives who universally chew betel (with lime, and the
' ■if the sirih-pepper-plant) , are much more easily affected by
!■ than are Europeans. — Ei>win Sachs.
gns;U)ri£( to Coiiteponlifnts!.
bffo.
tncreasing t
HlNT8T<
I be a:i
attons for the Editor requiring early attention rhoitlJ reach the
the SiiturJai/ preceding the current iuite qf KkowikdoB, the
rculutioti oftchich compete im to go to preee early in the Keek.
ConnisrONDKNTS.— 1. A'o queilioua ailcing for Icienlijic iriformalioa
red through the poet. 2. Lettert tent to the Editor for corretpondentx
cannot be fonearded ; nor can the naniee or addrcngee qf correspondents he given in
aneteer to private inquiries. 3. No qnertes or replies savouring qf the nature of
advertisements can be inserted. 4. Letters, queries, and replies are inserted, unless
contrary to Rule 3, free of charge. 6. Correspondents should Krite on tme side
only of the paper, and put drawings on a separate tet\f. 6. Each letter, query, or
reply should have a title, and in replying to letters or queries, reference should be
nade to the number of letter or query, the page on which it appears, and its title.
S. S. G. See Dr. Ball's paper in our next.--C. Ichabod W.
Kindly put query in concise form. — Walter W. It would save
much trouble if you would either put your queries in form, with
heading, Ac, or head your letter properly. Does moonlight really
make the planets and their satellites more distinct ? That three-inch
IS a splendid telescope. Having .seen Kigel, as described in " Half-
hours with Telescope," know that it can bo so seen. Possibly the
objects you refer to were observed under unfavourable conditions.
A new edition of Webb's "Celestial Objects for Common Tele-
scopes " has been published lately. — Joseph Davidson. There is
Rodwell's " Science Dictionary," Moxon's, price 10s. 6d., I
believe.- E. Vf. Propose to re-write the articles on the
" Differential Calculus," with sundry improvements which have
occurred to me. — Zares. When did we say that a tangeutially
(horizontally) moving mass has no energy ? If a fly pushed against
a mass a ton in weight so sus])cndcd as to be perfectly free to move
in the direction in whic:li the lly pushed, he would communicate to
the mass just so much momentum as corresponded with the force
wherewith he had pushed it. Or conceive half a ton of matter
connected with another half ton by a strong but weightless cord
passing without friction over a jiulley, and lot a fly light on one of
them. Let his weight be one-ten-millionth of a ton. Then the
weight on which he lighted would immediately bcgiu to descend,
the accelerating force being one-ten-millionth part of gravity. In
10,000,000 seconds, or 115"days, 17 hours, C§ minutes, the velocity
communicated would be 32 feet per second — that is, the same
velocity which gravity communicates to a falling body in one
second. It would take rather more than 34 days to communicate a
velocity of one foot per second. As to your offer of £o prize to
determine what force would overcome the inertia of a pound of
iron, we are much obliged to you, but must decline. Wo repeat
your other query ; we might safely offer a prize ourselves to any
correspondent virho can understand what you mean. You require
" the summation of the infinite number of infinitesimal difi'erences
between 0 and 1, of which 0-5 is the intermediary or I." The sum
of the differences would simply be 1. You do not mean that, how-
ever, for your original query asked for the sum of tho series 0 to 1,
when the number of terras is infinite. That sum, if there were such
a series, would be infinite. You say I " dare not say " two ships
unequal in mass, moving with equal velocity, could both be
stopped with the same resistance : I dare say not. — F. Blake.
Your method already given. But for the jiresent we have
done with magic squares.— Granville Sharp. You are more sharp
than generous or reasonable. Before you spoke of my "foolish
utterances" in the Spectator, you should have made sure they were
mine. As it chances, they are not, nor do they in the slightest
degree represent my views. Seeing how rashly you rush to con-
clusions, I am almost pained to think you ever thought well of my
work. How sad to think that your past liking may have been as
ill-founded as your present disfavour ! — H. A. B. Statement in-
sufficiently exact; you say nothing of size of building and height;
you do not define your " very near."— G. E. R. Science knows of
no wav of inflicting pain on persons at a distance, " notwithstand-
ing such obstacles as closed doors and windows, without any visible
means." The stories about such action at a distance are
generally thought to illustrate tho influence of imagination. —
F. E. B. The writer of " Brain Troubles " has some singular
experiences to relate respecting music in the ears ; the pheno-
menon is unquestionably subjective.— O. Dawson. Pray define
inferiority (in the Man versus Woman question), man (in the
Descent debate), true (in the Phrenologj' discussion), and justice—
in your own w.iy. If you had any conception of the value
of time, yon would" understand what our definition of injustice might
be. We have no time for hair-splitting, and it is unjust to expect us
to follow yon in yours. We could find space for a short letter
giving your definitions, and commenting (at reasonable length only)
upon what you regard as the inexactness of others. — Clericls. Wo
receive letters from .\merica which are printed by somo new form
of ty])e-writer, probably the one to which you refer. Perhaps some
of our readers can give us information about tho new, cheap
J26
♦ KNOWLEDGE •
[KKa 10, 1882.
(boptinnprs") type-writer recently bronf;)it ont in America. — E. 8.
Dr. Ball (whom wr have invited to write for uii on ttio irah-
jerl, and who hns kindly dono fo) in <|nitp ri^tit ; the enerjfy
of a Ixxly in rfti»inK tidnl wnves vnricB directly IIB tli'o
mnsa, and inversely a.i the rnbo iif th" dixtnnec ; thnt in why
the hinnr tide errecdn thnt mined by the Hnn (which, wero the
mtio thnt of the inverno Rqnnre, would ho the (freator). W. I'.
Thank* ; wo hnvo toncliod on the point in our nrticlo on " Fnlln-
cien," now in type.— EnMitvp Hint. Ilofore we ro to the expense
of engraving yonr diiigmm, we mnst Imvc snme idc.i of the nature
of the relations you propose to doni witli. As it utands, it looka
like " n lionst." We p'vp it without a nprnre, nnd in our own words,
in the Mathcmnticnl Column ; but we should not cnre to nttack it
nnlesa we saw onr way to some nseful rrsnll.— H. A. Htllkv. Ik-I
ng rest, ftft^^r mapic squares, before wo begin on magic circles. —
W. 11. Many thanks ; your alRebraiciil solntion very neat. — A. N.
SoMEB.xcALES. Thanks; but the projection not likely to interest many,
and Bpnco rnns short. The polar aspert of the heavens appears.—
A. T. C. When we wrote "any rectanslo," we meant, as nsu.il. that
the solution mnst be applicable to any nclaufjleof whatever dimen-
sions, not that you might take a rectangle of any particular dimen-
sions which seemed most convenient. The question related to
I.H.S., pat on tombstones now, not to the ancient inscription in
Oreok letter.'!, I.H.S.— C. J. C. May shortly describe a very simple
instniment, by which the place of Venus "in the day-time may be
found.— E. D. a. Quite nnabie to find place for what you rightly
describe as a flood of notes. Broun-Seqnard was the name of tho
physiologist yon refer to j but ho did not ^vrite tho .article ; ho was
qnoted in it among other authorities. I wrote the article myself.
Tho difficulty about recommending liooks is that tho practice
is open to abuse. — J. WniTr.KV. Depends what size field
you require. It is impossible to answer questions so vagiic.— R.
Stavely. Thanks. But yon get tho vrrong cqnation to escribed
circle. Tlie negative sign under the first radical is incorrect.—
W. G. RoLFE. Astronomers are not at issue with geologists as to
the earth's interior volcanic ashes carried by winds. In my article
on OArth-bom meteors, I have shown how meteors .sent beyond the
earth's control would still travel on paths intersecting the earth's
orbit.- A. M. K. T. Ton are quite right. I have written repeatedly
to show that the only danger was for the comet, which, in such
»B encounter, would be like the " coo " of tho elder Stephenson.
—A. Jellitax. Never heard of any astronomer so named, bnt
Prof. Pntchard may bo writing about the stars.— R. E. J. Tlint is
just what I did take into account. If facing a windmill, the
left arm aluaing knowledge we eat of that fruit." Will adverse critics, if
!i there are, remember? — J. II. TI. I can answer from my own
..i,.servati(m that all the objects you mention can be seen with the
smaller apertures, powers, &c. Probably the faintness of green or
blue stars m.ay be due to the quality of j'our glass. The diffraction
rings not being complete circles does not indicate very serious defect.
Wish your letter were a little more compact, or your queries put
separately, in proper query form. — B.M., F.R.C.S. You write under
evident misapprehension as to space at our command. But thanks all
the'same. Surely the Osborne sca-ser]ient case did not occur so many
as "eight or nine years" ago. Which questions would better suit
the Lancet. We do not at all want medical questions; but unless
yon call the quicksilver question medical, nonesuch have appeared,
— Arthur Twobt. Light from each point in the small triangular
space gives circular image of stin, and these overlapping, combine
into a single circnlar image, in which the triangularity of small
aperture is lost. — A. J. Mabtix. It was a slip of the pen on the
part of " Five of Clubs," which he corrected in the next number. —
E. J. Wilson. Do not know any better work on trigonometry than
Todhunter's. — J. A. Ceawlev. Thanks for quotation from Tacitus,
showing that Tiberius was of the same mind as author of " Brain
Troubles " : " Politusqne eludere medicomm artes atque cos
qui post tricesimum £ctatis annum ad internoscenda corporl
suo utilia vel noxia alieni consilii indigerent." — E. D. G.
1 Thanks for numerous replies and notes. If Knowledge
1 could liut be expanded weekly to 48 pp. or so ! Replies not
I mentioning number of quen,- are useless to us. — J. 11. Garfit.
1 Fear I can only say the ai-ticle was too long. When any circum-
', stance assures us that an article will not suit, our attention is
i naturally turned at once fo "the next article."— J. Bae. Who-
t erer reaches the Pole will probably have to winter there. For him
■ there are many tvays. — J. .T. Henderson- wants titles of books on
chemical analysis of alcoholic stimulants. — J. W. C. That would
he right, if tou have correctiv determined focal length of the two
glasses. Bat a 2-inch aperture would not readily bear suoli a
power.— W. Baxter. Ferguson's tables no longer of any value.
Trj- Johnson's book on eclipses. — Graoatim. The paradox comes
in before the Pole is reached. The time is finite, but the number
of convolutions infinite; how, then, can tho particle bo said to
reach the Pole (along what course, I mean) ? Thanks for
other matter, but no space except for qnerj'. — It. W. Dr.
Brewer's explanations amusing. " Why does sun put out fire?
Because the chemical action of sun's mys is detrimental to com-
bustion ! Wliy does a poker across a fire revive it ? Because the
poker concentrates the heat ! " Just so. This sort of science -teaching
might go on for ever. As thus, why do the planets travel in ellipses?
Because the tendencies of planetary motion are elliptical. Why do
comets bring disaster to nations ? Because of the disastrous ten-
dencies of comotic apparitions.— A Stuiiknt No. 1. Vouaskusto
reconcile a statement made by Dr. Ball with another made by the
Astronomer Royal for Ireland. Dr. Ball says in one lecture, there
is no water in the moon ; the Astronomer Royal for Ireland, in
another, says tidal waves checked the moon's rotation. But Dr.
Ball said in the latter lecture that such waves would exist whether
there was water or not in the mosu ; and in the former lecture tho
Astronomer Royal for Ireland said that formerly there may have
been water in tho moon ; while finally yon are not to sujiposo that
Dr. Ball says one thing as Dr. Ball and another as Astronomer
Roval for Ireland. This you will have opportunity of rocoprnising
shortly in an article which ho has written at our request for Know-
leoce. — A STtroENT No. 2. Stimulants certainly not good ; the
other matters depend on the health, strength, and constitution of tho
student. — B. Your vernier reads mrro closely by being so divided ;
.adding the extra divisions is equivalent to bisecting thcdivisionson'.the
limb.— G. G. D. Measured from true noon, tho change is equal on
either side, but mean noon slightly differs from truenoon. Read any
text-book account of equation of time. Fully answered in ordinary
explanations of the calendar.— F. II. R. Edinburgh is so often
pronounced Edinburg, that custom may be regarded as at least
justifying the practice. In Scotland I have seldom heard it, but
always Edinbro', among tho less educated often Kmbro'. — W.
Wilson. Cannot see how a scientific theory can depend on tho
merely verbal questions you raise. I would rather, for my own
part, say, " I see the house," than, as you suggest, "I see the
vibrating ether ; or, I have received on my consciousness, through
the retina, tho optic nerves, and tho brain, an impression by
vibrating ether," indicating tho existence of a house, &c.— Gkralo
Massey.— The motion of the apsides does not affect the preccssional
period. It shortens the interv.al between the epochs when spring,
or any other fixed seasonal point, coincides with perihelion or
aphelion, but tho spring equinox makes the circuit of the ecliptic lu
the period of about 25,870 years mentioned in books on astronomy.
—J. A. Dobson mentions that Drew's Geometrical Conies is suffi-
cient for a first clas^ in fourth stage at Kensington.— M. II. P. Tho
dream theory of your lecturer has no scientific basis.
ILfttn*^ lUrcibtli.
T. V. II., A. Ailkcn, Acacv, S. de M.. .1. B. Diml.leby, E. M.,
J. C. II., F. W. Beckett, J.'R. U., J. J. M., Isaac Isaacs, Cosmos,
Charles Gray, X., Amicus, G. A. L., J. A. Miles, Magic Squares,
Student, (not A Student), Vega.
^ottsi on art anil ^ricnrf.
Ax Electbical Stati-be Alarm.— .\ curious application of elec-
tricity is described in La Ltiinicre £lectrique. It consists in a
device to prevent military conscripts practising frauds as to their
stature by bending their knees. When the youth stands erect
against the measuring post, the hind parts of the knees press on
electric contacts, causing two bells to ring; the ringing ceases when
there is the least bendintr. The sliding bar which furnishes the
mea.sure has also a contact^ which is pressed by the head, whereby
a third electric bell is affected. For a correct measurement, the
three bells should ring simultaneously. This system, tho invention
of M. Cozala, is now employed in the Spanish army.
Capacities op Lungs. — Dr. Nagorsky, having measured tho
capacities of lungs of 630 boys and 314 giris in tho schools
of, the district of St. Petersburg, now publishes tho results of
his investigation in a Russian medical paper, the Hnrr/ron. lie
has found that the rapacity of lungs, in relation to the weight of
the body, is 65 cubic centimetres for each kilogramme of weight in
boys, and 57 cubic centimetres for giris. The law of Quetelet being
that, with children below fifteen years of age, the weight of the
body is proportionate to the square of the height. Dr. Nagorsky has
323
KNOWL-EDGE
[Feu. 10, 1882.
foand tlint it is jiroportionni to 2-16 of tho name ; whilo tho capacity
iif liinKB iH iircii><)rtioiinl to 2 -l of tlie lioiRlil for boys, nnd to tlic
Hiiuiiro of tlu> lu-i(flit for K'fl"- •'■'• NuKi)rBky'n ronoarelioH will noon
lir publiMhcd in ii Bcparati' work. .\8 to tlio r»'lntion between the
wrii^lit of nmii unci tlie capacity of lun^". it is tolerably iiormnnent,
iiud iui viiriutioiiH are inontly due to dillurenccB in llie amount oi
flit in tlie bodied of different men.
K.IPLOSIO.N OK Aqi'a Ammoni i:.--Tlie I'hariiiareulical Joiir.tnl
iiionlH a recent ea«o of on expUwion of ordinary liquor ainmoniie,
followed by serious resnItH. A Ilelfast woman, subject toheadacli'',
Bent her daughter to the drii(;iti»l to purchase a small quantity of
"head salt.s," for which he guve her liquor animoniu', or " Hpirit of
hartshorn," inslead of tho wilt, carbonate of ammonia. The rial
was jiut on a shi'lf and not used for n few days. Ilavinif a head-
ache, tho woman lifted tho romody t > apply it, and had it inh- '
hand for a few minutes only when the vial suddenly cxjiloded,
NcatterinK the contents over her face. Her eye was destroyed, and
her month and throat burned, the skin of both having been torn off.
Tho vial had been put on the mantelpiece previous to the time it
was used, and when about to apply the contents the woman was
sitting near the tiro.
A NEW work, by Jlr. Richard Ifcado, Assistant Keeper of Mining
Uocords, entitled '"Tlio Coal and Iron Industries of the United
Kingdom," will be issued about the loth inst., by Messrs. Crosby,
Lockwood, & Co. Besides a description of the coal-fields and the
)irincipal scams of coal, Mr. Meade's book will include an account of
the occurrence of iron ores in veins and seams, and a history of the
rise and progress of pig-iron manufacture since tho year 1740.
.Maps illustrating the position of coal-lields and iron-stone deposits
throughout the kingdom will accompany the work. Messrs. Crosby,
l.ockwood, & Co., will also issue, during the month of February, a
new work, by Mr. Lowis D'A. Jackson, author of " Hydraulic
.Manual and Statistics," entitled '• Modern Metrology." This
manual will treat of the metrical units and systems of the present
century, and will include an ap()cndix containing a proposed English
system. The book will, we understand, be dedicated, by permission,
to the Risrht Uou. W. E. Gladstone.
0\iv i*latl)fmatical Column.
MATHEMATICAL QUERIES.
[29]— An ellipse has semi-diameters DB, DF (DB = 2DF) . From D,
/)C is drawn, making an angle cot" '2 with DIS (on the same side
as DF), and DA making angle .4r»C = angIe CDB. Make DA = DB,
and draw ACB. From AD cut off 4E = one-fourth AD. With
centre E describe circle AGH, cutting elliptic quadrant AF in H and
(.' ((t nearer to F). Draw GI perp. to BD. Let A/ cut DC in J.
With centre B and radius CJ describe circle cutting CD in A', and
with centre C describe circular arc KL, cutting KB in L. It is
required to determine geometrically the ratio of the arc KL to the
[Straight line CB. — Edmv.n'd Hunt.
[30] — Simultaneous Equations. —
x' + y = 11
y^ + X = 7. — Thomas Fawcett.
[ This equation can readily be solved, so far as finding the obvious
roots is concerned ; on the other hand, if a and b be written for 11
and 7, the equation cannot be reduced to a quadratic. We leave
the equation in the above form, as an exercise for the young
reader.— Ed.]
[31]— Equation. —
a;' + 4x' = 27. — W. H. B.
[32] — How TO Analyse a Cukve ? — A curved object has to be
reproduced in different sizes. A tracing of its curve has been made
on paper. How can an analysis and definition of the curve most
easily be arrived at ? A base line has been drawn on the convex
side of the cnr\'e and offsets taken to the curve as noted below : —
Baseline 0 -15 '25 -35 '6 -7 -85
Offsets 2-3 1-7 1-5 13 1- '9 8
Base Hue 10 12 1-15 1-75 1-95 21
Oftaets 7 0 o -1 35 '35
Baseline 2.1 2G5 30 3-5 41
Offsets 2-25 2 15 1 05
The measurements being in inches and decimals, can the law or
laws of the course of the curve be deduced from these figm-es ? If
yes, how ? — Fred. W. Foster.
[33] — Bisect a triangle by a line drawn from a given point out-
side the triangle. — J. A. Dodson.
|3t] — Eleven school-girls went for a walk every day, and were
each offered a bouquet every day so long as a different six presented
themselves to the giver, and provided also that no ^ire girls ever
found themselves in the same grojp twije. Ou how inoi,y dayi
could they so arrange them«c!vc«? — G. H. T. Bates.
[22] — Tiic equations are —
(")
b X y
(x — a, v — b, obvijusly siiuuii. loitt.)
(li) 2x^/i'»a'■^2x^'x'+ b'-o'-b'
May I suggest another astronomical problem ? A lunation
2953059 days, and jieriod of the sideral revolution of the moou'a
node is C79U 5 days ; show th:it after 1 155b doys eclipses may be
expected to recur in an invariable order. — Klevebte.
[22u] — Con-ecting tho obrious migprintj, we have
•'.:+f-a■^b (i)
a b
?M:'-«-f6 (ii)
j; !/
One solution is obviously i — a, i/ — b. But proceeding secundum
arlem, i.e., finding value of .t from (ii), substituting in (i), and
reducing, we get
{a + b)y*--2bh/-3abh/ + 2b'{a + h)ij-b'=0
As !/ = b is a known root, it follows that y — b is a factor of i
equation. Diriding, then, by ;/ — b,
(o■^b) y'-^(a^-b») ./-(2a(<'-^ b') ,j-tb* = 0.
On trial, ij — b is found to be a factor of the new equation, and we
get (« + '') y' ■*■ 2aby — h' = 0, a qnadj-at ic,
whence
y^a + b^'"^"^"'*'^^'*''''^'
besides the previously obtsiined values b, and b.
Then, by symmetry, the values of x are
a, and a, and r( -1+ ^a'l-ab + b')
a-¥ b^ '
V. .). Birr.
I should be glad of a better solution of the following than 1 have
been able to devise.
y X
,^42 13
X y
Science and Art Department, May, 1881.
In my hands it becomes, by substitution, from ^i) in (ii)
.,"_tvkr''-Hl623.c" — 21 952:=0, which, treated as a cnbic, and solved
bv Caidan's rule, gives x = 4, and !/ = 2, besides imjigi nary values.
But 1 think there must be a shorter cut. — F. J. Butt.
[.v"-e3y'= -" ; Zt'+y-= — ; whence (x -f y)^ = 21C, x-hy = 6.
Then 3 (6-y)*-h !/2=---i 3(6-!/)'y -f i/' = 104, giving (y-3)'=-l;
i/ = 2; .T = 4, with imaginary roots. — Ed.]
" [28]
a^ X g-Hx —
^a + >/a + x Va— v/o— X
rationalise denom., and we get
(o -H x) = + (o - .r) - - 3x v/a
square (a-)-.r)'-t (a -j)^-i-2 (a=— x') = =9o x'
i.e. 2a'-3ax»=-2(a»-x»)^
square 4 a' -r 9 a-x* — 12 a*i?
= 4 one's partner in the usual game may be no information at all to
'■ "• adversaries. I
If anything I said at page 42 means in effect that thtre is -no
limit to the principle " that it is more important to inform vour
partner than to deceive your adversary," then I certainly said what
was entirely and egregiously wrong. It is often absolutely essential
to success in the closing rounds of a hand to deceive the adversarj-,
whether partner be at the same time deceived or not.
Turning now to the game at ]i. 28-1, I note first that I entirely
differ from " Mogul " as to Z'a policy in playing five of trumps anil
holding up four (the turn-up card). 'l had not expressed approval—
timply noted why Z had done this. But tho reason which
" Mogul " urges against Z's play does not exist. The adverse lead
of trumps is not such as to indicate more strength than Z possesses
himself. .4 has led trumps when his o>vn suit is exhausted from
one of his adversaries' hands as well as from his partner's. Z can
be certain that A has not more than four trumps one honour, or
three trumps two honours, for if he had had more he would have led
trumps earlier, with such strength as he had (and has already
shown) in spades and diamonds. Now Z has himself four trumps,
headed by Ace, ten. He has a long suit headed by Ace, King'
Queen. His only chance is in i>laying as with strength in
trumps J and his policy is therefore to show his partner all
he can of his tramp suit. The game is gone anyway if
Z's strength in trumps shall prove insufficient to bring in the
long suit, and he simply plays as if he knew for certain that he had
sufficient strength. If the score were " love all," the case would be
different ; Z's policy would then have been to play a backward game,
so as to lose as few by tricks as i)ossibIe. But playing a backward
game as the score stood would have been the same thing as throw-
ing up the cards.
Similar remarks apply to Y's play at trick 9, which was rather
warmly canvassed after the evening's play. Consider what 1'
knows, what Z knows, and (which is quite another question, and
very often overlooked) what Y knows that Z knows. 1' knows that
the Diamond King cannot be with Z, or Z would have played it as
soon as trumps were out. He knows that Z cannot credit 1' wrongly
with the Diamond King, for at trick 2 1' would have put it on A'b
Queen, if he had had it. Z knows his partner has no more spades
(this is clear from A'a play in leading trumps at trick a,
which he would not have done if there were two Spades outside his
own hand — knowing his pai-tner with none). Z, then, can put three
Spades in A's hands, three Diamonds at least (from penultimate
lead, and four if he has noticed that the lead was really from the
ante-penultimate) in B's hand, headed by Diamond King. Also
from B's discard of Club five, when only one trick was wanting
to win, Y knows that if Z has not the Queen himself he will
certainly not place it in h's hand. Thus Y knows that if Z has
not Ace, King, and three Clubs, he would throw up the
cards, for in that case one trick munt go to AB. He
knows that Z is certain to draw the Queen if it lies
with A. And he sees that among the various cards, including
Queen, with which Z mitjht credit 1', there is only one which would
justify the lead of a small card ; viz., it 1' held ten. Knave, Queen,
and no other Club. But as Z ought to know A with only two
Clubs, and B with only one (it is not l''s fault if Z has not noticed
B's ante-i)cnultiinate lead— tricks 2 and 3), Y must have four Clubs.
By playing as liedoes, then Y does, not run the risk Mogul suggests ;
while if Z has Ace, King, and draws the Queen from .1 (who, so far as
r knows, may hold it), Z will know from l"s play in the second round
of Clubs that Knavo must lie with him, his attention being in the most
marked manner called to this by the unusual play of 10 before 9.
As I said in the notes, this was not essential to t^e success of Z Y,
for if Z played according to the fall of the cards, he could not fail
to draw Vs Knave with a small card (if not holding Queen), but it
was well to call his attention to the point. Note that if Z had
been inattentive to the earlier play, and supposed Y to have
held originally either Queen, Knave, ten, and a small one, or
Queen, ten, and a small one (we are considering the matter from
Y point of view, who does not know that Z holds tho Queen), it
would be unnecessary to lead a small one, for Vs small one could
be used, after Queen and Knave were played in one case, or Queen
in the other, to put the lead again in Z's hands. If Z thought
that Y held Queen and ten only, originally, playing a small one
would be fatal, as, after winning with Queen, Y would have no
Club left. With only one hand out of four |)ossiblc ones, would
lead of small one be right — viz., if 1' had Queen, Knave, ten, in
which case if Z played the Ace before the small one, Y winning
third trick in Clubs, would have no Club to return with. Only
one chance in four suggesting lead of small one, Z would, of course,
play the King. As a matter of fact, he ought to know that )'
could not hold that particular hand. I am disposed to think )'
displayed unnecessary ingenuity — which, as I chanced to be his
partner — was perhaps, natural, for partners seldom criticise without
prejudice.
Five of Clubs.
330
KNOWLEDGE •
[Fxa 10, 1882.
(Pur Cl)r5s Column.
Knd !;nnic itmly, hy tlio vptomn itn
II. ir- IV llorwit/
WHITE.
Wtite to play and ^
Mr. GrimsKaw has amended his prolilcm in a vory Ingenious
manner, adopting the position by the addition of simply a I'awn to
both the solutions that his original problem admitted. He has
thereby madi- two problems out of one, which, although looking
almost exactly alike, nevei'thcloss piii'""ly lifTorcnt ideas.
Xo. 18.
By W. Grimshaw.
Br.icK.
No. 19.
By W. Grimshaw.
Bi,.icic.
%•
Il./J t '^
1
<»
"m
t
^J
m ^
W^."^ -^
t
It ^1
'i#
, t<
t VJ
it •# 5 -. ■
Wnur.
lite to play aiul mate in three moT«
Solution.
Q. to Kt..5. P. takes Q.
Kt. to Kt.5. and mates
nc.^t move.
WniTr.
White to play and mate in three move?.
Solution.
Kt. to B.5. B. takes Kt.
Q. to K.6. and mates
neit move.
It will be seen that the addition of a WTiite Pawn in the first
problem on Kt.3 renders Q. to Kt. 5 useless, as White now does not
threaten mate by Q. from Kt..") to Kt.sq. Then again, in the second
problem, the addition of a Black Pawn on I!. 2 prevcnt.s the first
solution, as. after Kt. to H.5, B. takes Kt., the Q., of course, cannot
now go to I^.G. We are glad to see that our remarks on the original
problem, published in the lUnslrated London News, have had such
a satistactor}' result, llio twin-problem, as it nny bo called, is a
perfect Chess cariosity.
C0I?1?KCTU")N.
S'llution of Problem in No. 8, page 171.
White.
1. K. to K.3.
2. R. to Q.Kt.7.
3. R. to K.7, mate.
Br,.\CK.
1. K. takes Kt.
2. K. takes I!.
2. Any other move.
3. Rook dincovern chork nc-
conlingly, and mates,
2. n. to Q.I.. .Ii«. ch.
3. R. to n.O. mat*.
2. Q.R. Inkrs B.. din. eh.
3. Q.R. to U.O. mate.
1. n. token P.(ch.)
2. K. to K.3.
1. n. ton.5.(ci. )
2. K. to K.3.
AX,'?WKR,S TO CORRK.SPONDENTB.
*,• rlcane adtlrma Chfu-Kiliior.
W. Goddcn. — Solution of Problem No. 14 correct. You are right ;
it is a beantiful composition.
A. J. Martin. — If you assert anything most emphatically, and
especially if yon are right, as you were in this case, yon need never
feiir nor tremble ! See correction. .Self-mate in where While
compels Black to mate him.
J. P. — Yon were right ; see correction. No. li right.
B. Pierce. — In the Evans Gambit, against corrert defence the first
player loses less than a Pawn, as he has some attack for the
abandoned Pawn. You can safely decline the Gambit by playing
4. B. to Q.Kt.3. We, however, prefer to accept it. i
G. Woodcock. — No. 9, incorrect — P. to B.6. is the move ; 10|
correct ; II, incorrect ; 12, correct. In note (*), read P. to K.R.4.;
in note ('), R. to B.sq.
Mahnie. — No. 14, incorrect — B. lo R.4. is the move ; 15, correct.
A. C. Skinner. — Solution of No. 14 correct and neat.
Vicar. — Solution of No. 1.5, correct; 11, B. to R.4.
W. Thurman. — Solutions correct. Thanks for problem.
Salford. — -Solution of No. 11 incorrect. i
S. L. P. — Solution of No. 14 correct, only you hare reversed thi
board. •
Geo. O'Donnell. — Solution of No. 14 incorrect — try B. to B.ft
In No. 15, White compels Black to mate him in two moves.
G. M.— Solution of No. 14 incorrect— try B. to R.4.
Arthur Black. — Received with thanks.
F. H. I.— Solutions correct.
Contents of Knowledge iTo. 14.
^
PIOX.
The Air of Stove-TTeated Koom».
Bv W. MattieuWilliama 2Si
Tmi'ng on the Sun. By the Editor. 286
Found Linki.— Part III. By Dr.
Andrew Wilson, F.R.S,E.,ic 2v Tidal Evolu-
tion. Bv Pr. Ball, Aitronomor-
Rovnl for Ireland. Part 1 331
Microscopic Vision and Minute Life.
Bt H. J. Slack, F.G.S., F.R.M.S. 332
The Last Tratisit of Venus. By the
E.liior 333
TheCrrstal Palace Electrical Eilii-
bition. Second Xoticc. (Illiul.) ... 335
Popular Astronomy bv the Chief
of a Great National Ohssrratory . 336
EsviEWS; Sir Edmund Be;'kett on
the Laws of Nature— The Food we
Eat— Land.auer's Blowpipe .\na-
iTsis— Science for All 339
Night Slioima of Algol. 18Si 339
FAGS.
The Jfenaeing: Comet. Bv the
Editor. {lUa'Iraleil) '. 3W
The Effects of Tobacco.— Part II.
Bv Dr. Muir Howie »J2
How Spiders Fly 343
Intelligence of Dogs 3i4
CoBRESFONDBXCB: Optical Illusion.
-Cat's Eve Timepiece— 'Weather
Forecast, 'ic 3M
Queries 346
Replicii to Queries 346
Answers to Correspondents 847
Notes on .Art and Science 34.9
Our Mathematical Column 34S
Our Whist Column 3J9
Our Chess Column 350
BIRTH OF THE MOON
By Tidal Evolution.
Bv Dii. Ball, Astronomer-Rotal for Ireland.
PART I.
THE daily rise and fall of the sea, which we call the
tide, has long been known to be connected with tlie
moon. The discovery of the law of gravitation enabled
Newton to explain how the tides were caused. Newton
showed that the tides were partly due to the attraction of
the sun, but chietly to the attraction of the moon.
In the present paper we shall principally consider the
tides which are produced Ijy the moon, and the reader will
please understand that this is the tide to which we refer,
except otherwise stated. The tides are of the utmost im-
portance in our seaports. They are not, perhaps, very often
employed to do useful work, in the sense of driving ma-
chinery, but on work of one kind or another the tides are
unceasingly busy. No one who has watched the rise and
fall of the tide on the beach, or the currents of the tide in
a river, can doubt that the tides do work. We need not here
atten-.pt to enumerate all the varieties of tidal work. Let
'■* bo sufficient to mention one kind, as an ilhistration.
iho waters of a strong tidal river like the Avon, at Bristol,
ii- heavily charged with mud in suspension. The tides are
carrying that mud, and in doing so, they accomplish work,
at an expenditure of energy which could be expressed by an
equivalent amount of horse-power.
The steam-engine will only yield an appropriate horse-
power when the boilers are heated by a proportionate
quantity of fuel. So also the tides can only accomplish
their gigantic work all over the world because they are
bountifully fed with energy. Whence do the tides obtain
their energy- ? They draw it from a certain store which is
being steadily squandered and never replaced. The supply
in the store may be great, but it is not inexhaustible. It
is easy to discover the store when we consider the circum-
stances of the case. Fixing our attention solely upon the
earth and the moon, we can enumerate the different forms
of energy wliich may conceivably be available. The case
can be very simply stated ; there is a store of energy in the
earth due to the fact that the earth is rotating on its axis.
There is a similar store of energy due to the rotation of the
moon on its axis. The latter is, however, very small, and may
be left out of sight for the jjreseut. A third source of energy is
due to the fact that the moon is separated from the earth,
and that, as it would reijuire energy to force the earth and
the moon asunder, so, if the earth and the moon were
allowed to draw together, energy would be given out. To
this must be added the energy due to the motion of the
moon in its path around the earth. To put the matter
brieflv, we may say that the a^•ailable soiirces of energy
for the tidal work must be sought either in the rotation of
the earth on its axis, or in the distance of the moon, in-
cluding in the latter case the energy duo to the velocity of
the moon in its path, which is intimately connected with
the distance of the moon from the earth. As the tides are
incessantly drawing on this store, it is imperatively neces-
sary that one or both of these sources of energy be decreas-
ing ; we are therefore forced to admit tliat the velocity of
the earth's rotation on its axis must be diminishing, or that
the distance of the moon is decreasing, or that both
velocit}' and distance are decreasing. There can be no
doubt as to wliich is the true explanation, for the question
is determined by a well-known dynamical principle. This
principle assures us that the supply of energy required by
the tides must be drawn from the rotation of the earth.
Indeed, we may go further than this. It is most curious
to observe that a second draft is made upon the reserve
energy stored up in the earth's rotation ; this second draft
is actually expended in pushing the moon away from the
earth.
We have, then, two very remarkable astronomical con-
sequences of the tides. These consequences are founded
on dynamic principles, but in a manner not very easy to
explain without going into technical matters. The first
consequence is that the velocity with which the earth
rotates must be abating— in other words, that the tides on
the earth are increasing the length of the day. The other
consequence is not a little remarkable. It states that the
moon must be describing an orbit around the earth, which,
in the course of ages, is gradually liecoming larger and
larger. It must be remembered that these two conse-
quences of the tides are not mere speculations. They are
as true as the laws of dynamics, which have been conllrmcd
by universal experience. The propositions just stated will
not be questioned for a moment by anyone who is acquainted
with mechanical principles. Let us take first the impoi-tant
fact that the length of the day is gradually increasing. It
must be admitted that the change in the length of the day
is excessively slow. Even in centuries, the change is but
a fraction of a second ; but the change is always in one
direction, and, consequently, ever since the earth and the
moon commenced to have a separate existence, the length
of the day has been getting steadily greater and gi'eater,
until it has at present attained the well-known 24 hours.
We are now to look back into the history of the earth and
the moon in verj' remote antiquity. Our ordinary chrono-
logies of thousands of years are here quite inadetiuate. The
unit of time adapted for the earth-moon hi.story is one
million of years. A million years ago the length of the
day was appreciably shorter than it is at present.
There was a time when the day, instead of being
24 hours, was only 23 hours ; earlier still, we find the
day still less and less, but we shall not halt at any
intermediate stage ; let us at once project our view back to
the earliest and the most interesting epoch in the liistory
of the earth-moon system. At the very remote epoch to
332
• KNOWLEDGE
[Feu. 17, 1882.
whicli I refer, the day was very mach shorter than oar
present day. It was, indeed, only a small fraction of 24
hours. We cannot bo sure of the precise numlicr of hours
in the day at that time ; it sfN^nis to have l)ee.n more than
two hours luid less than five liours. For simplicity, w-e
may spexik of the Iciigtli of the ancient day as al>out
three hours, but it must Ik- carefully remcnilx-red that this
estimate is to be regarded merely as provisional, though
perhaps approximately correct
It had long l>eeji known that the tides were increasing
the length of the day, but the very remarkable researches
now to be de-scril)ed have only l)een made quite rec-ently.
They arc the work of Mr. G. H. Darwin, Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge Mr. Darwin's labours are contained
in a series of memoirs of a very abstruse nature, and we
here propose to give a general sketch of the principal
results to which he has \>ecn conducted, so far as the earth-
moon system is concerned. We shall endeavour a.s clearly
as possible to indicate what portions of tJie theory are to
be regarded as absolutely established and what portions are
still more or le.ss speculative. We have halted in our
retrospect at a day of 3 hours. Why is it that we caimot
look much earlier — to a day of one hour, for instance 1 There
is a very good reason why we cannot do so. In those
exceedingly early times, our earth was not the hard rigid
body with which we are familiar. It was in those days so
heated as to be quite soft, even if not actually molten. A
body like our earth in a molten state will not remain in a
spherical form when it is rotating on its axis. It will bulge
out at the equator ; it will become llattened at the poles.
The greater the velocity, the greater will be the protuber-
ance at the equator. If, indeed, a certain critical velocity
be attained, it will be impossible for the body to hold
together ; the centrifugal force would be too great, and a
rupture of the body must ensue. It is not practicable to
calculate what that critical velocity may be. The critical
velocity depends upon circumstances not within our present
knowledge, but it can be shown that the \elocity does not
differ, perhaps, very much from a rotation once every 3
hours. We thus see that a rotation of this amount is
about the greatest that our earth could ever have had in
the present order of things. What occurred prior to this
is not to be discussed at present.
We now turn our attention to the moon, which, in con-
sequence of the tides, must be describing an orbit of
gradually-increasing dimensions. It may be well to remind
the reader that the orbit of the moon is at any moment a
nearly circular ellipse, and that this ellipse is subject to
many disturbing influences well known to astronomers.
But these disturbances are all periodic. They increase and
they decrease. They may, in the course of ages, be
entirely overlooked in comparison with the tidal changes,
which constantly act in the same direction. In very
ancient days, the moon must, therefore, have been nearer
to the earth than it is at present The further we look
back, the nearer must the moon be. There is no reason
why we should not look back to an excessively remote
time, when the moon was as near as possible to the earth.
'I'he most extreme case would arise when the moon was so
near the earth that the two bodies were almost touching,
and we are bound to believe that, at some inconceivably
remote epoch, this did actually happen. It is easy to cal-
culate what must then have been tlu; length of the month,
or the time which the moon occupied in completing one
revolution around the earth. Kepler's law shows tliat when
the moon complet<>d one revolution around the earth in three
hours, the two bodies must have been veiy close together.
There was thus a certain very critical epoch in the eartli-
moon history. At that time the earth and the moon were
close together ; the earth was spinning round on its axis in
three hours, and the moon was revolving around the earth
in the same time. The three hours is, as already remarked,
open to some uncertainty ; but there can be no doubt that
at this critical epoch the earth was turning round in the
same time as the moon, whether that time l)e three hours
or some otlier amount of alxjut the same magnitude. At
tliis interesting epoch the earth kept the same face directed
towards the moon, and the moon kept the .same face
towards the earth. In fact, the two IxKlies revolved just
OS if they were bound to each other by invisible bands.
MICROSCOPIC VISION AND MINUTE
LIFE.
By Henry J. Slack, F.G.S., F.R.M.S.
IN the early days of the microscope, wonderful reports
were made of its revelations, and in 174") Baker com-
plained that "some people made false pretences and ridi-
culous boasts of seeing by their gla.sses the atoms of
Epicurus, the subtle matter of De« Cartes, the effluvium
of bodies, the emanations of stars, and such-like impossi-
bilities."
One doctor declared that he had seen the eflluvium of
magnets as a mist Probably he mistook a misty view
for a view of a mist. As the instrument improved, and
more knowledge was gained, the sham wonders ceased to
appear, and although little was known of the molecular
construction of matter, it was no longer imagined that its
minutest or ultimate particles would be seen with the
powers employed. We are not yet in a position to say
e.xactly where the limits of \nsion must necessarily end.
Dr. Pigott reduces the image of a spider's web to
less than one-millionth of an in.:h in diameter, and
then shows it by remagnificatiou. His process is
like diminishing an object by looking at it through an
inverted telescope, and magnifying the small image thus
obtained. After proving that " spider lines, miniatured
down to the fourteenth part of the hundred-thousandth of
an inch, could be made visible to ordinarily good eyesight,
under proper* microscopical manipulation," he sought for
actual objects comparable in minuteness with these optical
images, and succeeded in showing them. One plan he
adopted was to smash, with a watch-spring, very small
globules of mercury in a minute drop of petroleum, inserted
under a thin cover on a slide. Many of these mercurial
particles thus obtained were exceedingly minute, some
round, and others iri'egular. Upon some of the irregu-
lars he found minute Ijlack points, visible with a power of
1,000 diameter, and comparing them with the thinnest
spider line, he found one, in particidar, less than one
millionth of an inch in diameter.
The visibility of extremely minute objects depends much
upon tlieir optical properties, and how they ai-e situated
in reference to neighbouring bodies. In his remarkable
investigation into the life-history of certain small objects,
called monads, Mr. Dallinger employed a magnitication of
live thousand linear, and could not with this great power,
see the minutest germs capaV>le of development into active
organisms. In tlie course of the spontaneous germination
controversy, the extreme minuteness of these germs was
not dreamt of by advocates of that theory, and Pouchet
thought the " pansperniists," as he called those who adhered
to the doctrine of omiie invrim ex ovo in the sense of regard- |
• " Proc. Roy. Soc.,'" p. 208. 1S80.
Feb. 17, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
533
ing every living thing as the offspriiig of a previous living
thiiJg, quite overthrown by considerations of tlie dinsity
air must have if it were as full of gmnis as they -eujiposecl.
Pasteur, Pallinger, and Tyndall have coniplett^ly de-
stroyed tliis argument, and shown that g6rn)S in vast
numbers can exist tloating in the air witliout any
appreciable addition to its weight, or obvious diminu-
tion of its transparency, though, as we slmll see, tliat
is easily aflected. Germs of various kinds are most
numerous in the air of towns and iuliabited rural districts.
They Ivcome fewer as mountainous lieiglit-s are ascended, and
in well-selected situations disapp.ar mtirely. All ordinary
air will cause life to appear in appropriate fluids that have
been previously rendered sterile ; b\it if a bottle containing
such a fluid is opened with due precautions on a jnoiuitain
peak, and then hermetically sealed, no life is developed.
In such experiments Pasteur used glass vessels with their
necks drawn out, and sealed up by melting them in a
spirit lamp, or witli a blow-pipe. To ensure against acci-
dentally introducing any germs lie might have carried with
him up tlie mount;iin, he broke the tips of the vessels'
necks with pliers made hot in a spirit lamp, and, after air
had been admitted, instantly closed them by reuieltiiig. He
thus found pure air to be free from any life-producing
particles. Tjnidal's experiments were made by imitating
the well-known motes in a sunbeam. He found that a
beam of electric light gave evidence of amazingly minute
particles floating in the air, and that when this effect
entirely ceased, the air contained no gemis. We can
seldom form an accurate idea of the real size of the
minutest objects we can just discern -with the microscope.
They often look a good deal bigger than they are, through
the optical defects of the instrument and the eye, though
Dr. Pigott found that when all the conditions can be
rendered favourable, the error is very small. The smallest
floating particles lit up by Tyndall's artificial sunbeam are
too minute for individual recognition bv the microscope.
It is only when they are numerous enough to form a delicate
cloud that tlieir presence can be made manifest. Objects
while floating in the air could not possibly be seen witli
high powers. It is necessary to collect tlicm, and keep
them either still, or onlj' moving in some fluid with mode-
rate velocity. If they are very nearly of the same refrac-
tive power and colour as the fluid in which they are
immersed, they can only with great difficulty be dis-
tinguished at all. Naturalists and physiologi-sts can
seldom arrange all the circumstances in the way
r-iost favourable for attaining to the extreme limits of
-ion, and their researches are u.sually made within much
irrower limits. If, however, the utmost possible power of
the microscope could always be employed, it would not
bring us near the prob.able limits of organic life. The
minute organisms capable of inducing changes analogous
to the fermentation caused by yeast have received great
attention of late years, and several important diseases are
distinctly traced to them. Bechamp estimated that eight
thousand millions of germs of one micro-ferment only
occupied one cubic ■2.')th of an inch. Not one of these
minute bodies could develope except by carrying on com-
plicated processes of a chemical nature, involving very
active movements of its atoms and molecules.
The mathematicians have made calculations founded upon
the pressure exerted by gases, and other considerations, which
( show that a particle of the sort of matter, such as albumen
and protoplasm, chiefly concerned in life processes, contains
in a space of one cubic thousandth of an inch more
molecules than any one could possibly form any conception
ot Sorby, taking a probable mean of such calculations,
supposes one cubic thousandth of an inch of water to
contain 3,700,000,000,000,000 molecules. A sheet of
ordinary note paper is about one hundredth of an inch
thick. One tenth of this w ould, of course, be one-thousandth
of an iucli, and a little 6 addrpssod anotlior com-
munication to tlic saino body, advocating for tin' ohsrrrn-
lion <;/' tlin transit of iHM'i ouli/ — a rfconnninmt nrr of
Antarctic stations. In 18C8 he made yet another communi-
cation, advocating tlie same views, and an active discussion
followed, in wliicli tlie Ilydrographer of tlie Adminiity,
Captain (now Sir (!.) Richards took part, and in wliicli it
was generally agreed liy the naval oflicials present tliat
Antarctic stations could, and should, be occupied, as sug-
gested, for observing the lat<'r transit.
It chanced to be my duty at that time to write the
repoila of a.stroiiomie
occupied.
Government, of course, followed the customary official
course, — inviting the officials who.se judgment was oppugned
to say whether they were mistaken. Equally of coui-se,
those officials .said they had made no mistake, implying
even, by their tone, that officials never do, or can, make
mistakes.
Sir G. Airy tried the same line with the Astronomical
Society. He pooh-poohed the notion that Siberian and
north Chinese stations could possibly be occupied — and a
fortnight later news came that American, Russian, and
German astronomers were to occupy these very regions.
He ridiculed the North Indian region, which he had over-
looked— and ^•ery soon after he had to provide for extra
stations in that very region. But he specially ridiculed
the suggested Antarctic expeditions (one of the islands —
St. Paul's — which I had recommended, was eventually
occupied by the French, and good work done there), as if
I had ever had any reason but his own advocacy of such
stations (ridiculous advocacy, he now asserted) for believing
that they could lie occupied. And of course, the very
officials who, when he had wanted the stations for 1882,
had urged no objections, now swallowed all they had before
said, and — greatly daring — said the very opposite.
Just here, v:here I had gone icrong in foUoiring him and
believing in official utterances, u-a^ the one point ichere irhat
I had advocated was not carried out in every detail : and
just this point is all that Sir G. Airij chooses to notice h[
the introduction to the volume be/ore us. He describes my
paper in the Spectator, and Sir E. Beckett's, in the llmei
(three columns), urging most important changes, which had
eventually to be adopted, as papers " strongly urging th«
adoption of Enderby Land (which, after careful considers
tion, I had rejected) for a southern station." As a mattei
of fact, Sir G. Airy never had rejected Enderby Land for
1874 : he had never thought of it ; lie had urged Antarctic
stations for 1882, and had only given them up after I had
shown that such stations, useful enough astronomically
in 1874, would be of no adequate value in 1882.
He gave up Antarctic stations simply because, if thej
had been occupied at all, they must (after what I had
shown) have been occupied for a purpose which he hac
himself overlooked. / have not a shadow of a doubt, a/lei
care/'ullt/ studying u-hat teas said by Airy, Richards.
Ommanney, Davis, and Stone, on Dec. 11, 1868, thai but
for my demonstration of the astronomical uselessness oj
Antarctic stations in 1882, we should have had, be/or* nofj
Feb. 17, 1882. J
• KNOWLEDGE •
335
In pay for c.rpedilions to Possession Island and other
ji'a-es in the dangerous Antarctic seas, and to provide /or
stations to be occitpied there diiriii;/ the tran.'rit of next
December. It was this pot plan of his which Sir George
Airy was really giving up, when ho explained to the
Government that Antantic stations were " geographically
unsuitable," and so forth.
It is a fa\ourite argument of the junior officials who
tried to earn approval from their chief by attacks on extra-
officials like Sir E. Beckett and myself, that Sir 0. Airy
never did yield as to the stations for observing the whole
transit. It is not quite true. He yielded in the case of
the Indian stations, which astronomers of other countries
were not likely to occupy. 1 think too highlj' of his real
zeal for science to suppose he would not have yielded in
the case of Siberian and North Chinese stations, if
America, llussia, Germany, and France, by occupying the
stations he had overlooked and later stigmatised as useless,
Jiad not saved him from the concession.
Like all that Sir George Airy has ever done in this way,
the record of the observations made by the various parties
is exceedingly well arranged. His labours here would have
served to very much more than retrieve what, after all, was
in its inception but an unlucky mistake (which might
easily have been corrected, and the world none the wiser, if
he had not been so needlessly impatient of extra-official
suggestions). Sir George Airy shows himself in the body of
this work what he has shown himself during his whole
tenure of office, the most energetic and laborious of our
Astronomers Royal. If he had left out all reference to
the discussion of 1809-187.'^, or if, referring to it, he had
told the whole story, this would have l)een all I need have
said ; but I ha\c not thought it Just, either to myself or
those who by their aid ensured the adoption of proper
measures for observing the transit of 1^71, to allow an
imperfect and entirely misleading account of the matter to
remain uncorrected — though I know very well that for one
who might be misled by Sir (A. Airy's inexact account,
thousands (including himself) know how the matter really
^tat\ds. It seems almost incredible that the writer of this
I' -ount should bo the same man who so frankly and
ol)ly acknowledged his error in the Adams-Leverrier
introversy.
THE CRYSTAL PALACE ELECTRICAL
EXHIBITION.
Second Xotick.
I^IIOSE who can look beneath the surface will see that
during the past week some considerable progress has
been made towards completing the exhibits. To a cursory
examiner, however, but little improvement can be apparent.
A few Jabloehkofl" lamps (Compaffuie Ginerah; d'Electricite)
*re lighted, Init present a poor appearance when compared
with the other systems. The four Cromptons which light
the space in front of the stage are also far from satis-
factory. We may hope to see something better in the
telephone section during the next week or so.
We will now give a description of
The Brvsii System
of electric lighting. In the machine room, as mentioned
last week, arc a number of generating machines, which,
when all in work, will be driven by five steam-engines, two
of them of 20-horse-power, two of .30-horse-power, and one
of 25-horsp power. The latter is the only one at present
fitted up. It is working up to about 45-horse-power, and
drives three of the generating machines, two of which
maintain between them thirty-two arc light.s, and the other-
about fifty incandescent lamps. The third machine i.s,
however, capable of supplying the current for as many as
150, or perhaps 200 lamps.
The lamps are very simple in construction, requiring no
adjustment aft«r being once put in ord -r. Fig. 1 is one
of the ordinary forms which will burn uninterruptedly for
eight hours. The carbons are made in 1 2-in. lengths, and
when the lamps are required for more than eight hours
together, they are furnished with a double or even treble
supply of carbons, the current passing from one pair to
another automatically. Fig. 2 is a somewhat rough
D^-=Q
diagram ilhustrating the principles and action of the lamp.
The current enters at X, and at )' splits into two sections,
each of which passes through a small coil of thick wire
////', and on leaving the coils the currents combine again
and pass to the upper carbon rod ; thence through the arc
to the lower rod, and out at Y. From X there also passes
a thin wire which is coiled many times round // //' outside
the thick wire. These thin coils are wound in series, and
on both bobbins they arc in opposition to the thicker coils.
The thin wire then passes several times round another
bobbin T, carrying a small coil of thick wire wound in
the satnt direction. The circuit is completed by a wire
to r.
The lever, A B, is in metallic connection with the positive
pole, and carries a small button, M', over which, but not
33G
KNOWLEDGE
[FEa 17, 1882.
nortimlly toucliing it, is another button, M, in connection
with the tliick win; attached to tlic wire leading to Y. W
is a waslier or dutch, consisting of a. small circular disc of
l>riis8 fitting loosely on to tlu; cnrhon-holdcr, so that, if
slightlj- tilted, it takes a grip on the holder on both sides,
ond prevents the carbon-rod falling. When the current
cnt<'rs, the rods being in contact, a circuit is formed. The
current divides between the thick and thin wires on ////',
only 1 per cent, however, going through the thin wire, its
resistance being ■150 ohms, wliile that of the thick wire i.s
only 1 ■.") ohms. The current going through the thick wire
draws up the soft iron plungers, .W, and with them the
washer, 11', which pulls the carbon-holder up a .sliort
distance, and so creates an arc. When the arc gets too
long, the resistance of the thick wire circuit is con-
siderably increased, while that of the thin wire cir-
cuit is relatively deci-eased. Consequently, the upward
tendency imparted by the thick wire is count<'racted
by the greater amount of current passing through
the thin coils, and the holder falls until it is again
restrained by tlie clutch, t^hould it so happen that the
carbon becomes broken, or that by any means an arc
cannot be formed, the whole of the current passes through
the thin circuity and in passing through T is sufficiently-
powerful to attract A, thereby putting .1/and J/' in contact.
The current then flows from X along lever BA through
M' to M, through the small, thick wire, and away to )',
thus cutting the carbon-rod completely out of the circuit.
This " cut out " allows the lamps to be joined up in one
circuit, without the risk of all of them going out in the
event of one being faulty, a feature belonging only to this
and one other form of lujup.
Preparations for further lighting are being made on a
magnificent scale; a 30-horse-power engine is to drive one
of the largestrsized machines, which, it is said, wiU main-
tain one light of 1.50,000 candle-power, and from another
machine a light of 50,000 candle-power is to be directed
towards the llouses of Parliament.
A magnificent display is being rapidly prepared in the
Alhanibra Com-t, wliich promises to outdo everything else
in the Exhibition. We must, however, defer any further
remarks on this company's exhibit until a future occasion.
POPULAR ASTRONOMY
Bv TUB Chjsb 05 AQ^xire ,J;ifAXKHJAL. Observatoky.*
SEVERAL coiTespondents, in the course of their
inquiries as to books on astronomy, have asked us
whether we can recommend the treatise written by Pro-
fessor Simon Newcomb. Although the book has been
more than two years before the public in this counti-y, as
well as in America, we deem it well, in response to these
•lueries, to give an account of it, as manifestly many in
England are unaware of its merits.
We do not, as a rule, much admire the way in which
soi-disanU professional astronomers treat the wonders of the
heavens and the grand problems presented by the move-
ments of the celestial orbs. Too often they discuss these
as a mere land surveyor might discuss the teachings of the
earth's crust Methods and instruments of observation
are of much more interest in their eyes tlian the
lessons to be learned from observations after these have
been carefully made. Tliey seem, at times, even disposed
to be angry, as Flarasteed was with Newton, when the raw
•"Popular Astronoiny." By Simoq Newcomb, LL.D., United
States Naval Obscn-alory. (London : Macmillan & Co.)
mat^'Hals which they have gathered together are worked
into the manufactured article — Knowledge.
It is a plea-Hant di.-iappointment, then, to find that Pro-
fessor Newcomb, the chief official astronomer of the United
Htat<'s, does not take so limited a view of popular astronomy.
In his "Popular Astronomy," he deals more or less fully
w ith every part of the .science which could pos.sibly be of
intcrtat to tht; general reader. He gives a full, though
condensed, view of the histoiy, principles, methods, and
results of astronomical research. The lii.storic and philo-
sophic side the work of Copemicns,
Kepler, and Newton, in establishing, step Viy step, the true
system of the universe. These three chaptei-s form the
first part of th(t work. The second part deals with prac-
tical astronomy. The picture of Bianchini's monstrous
tube, as mounted in the grounds of the Barberini Palace
at Rome in the sevent<;enth century, gives a good idea of
the difficulties with which the earlier observers had to con-
tend. A telescope that a child could handle would, in
our day, give better views of the heavenly liodies than
this unwieldy instrument, the moving of which required
the eflTorts of several men. After a description of
the modem achromatic telescopes and reflectore, there
follows a section on the magnifying powers of telescopes,
wliich we would recommend to the especial study, iiot only
of obser\-ers, but of those Nvho have occasion to discuss
observations. In particular, this section will serve to
correct the, common error that large telescopes increase
the apparent brightness of objects which present a visible
surface, as distinguished from olijeots like the stais, which
even under the highest te!escopi<^ powers appear as mere
points. We could have wished, however, tbot this error
had not been corrected mei'«ly by an €^: cathedrd state-
ment, but that the reasoning establishing the time relations
between magnifying and illuminating power had been
gi\en in full. The second part includes ulso an account
of the application of the telescope to celestial measure!
ment":, a most interesting and valuable chapter on measur-
ing the distances of the heavenly Viodies. and chapters on
the motion of light and on the s]>ectroseope.
The third and fourth parts of the work are devoted <»
descriptive astronomy. In the former, after a chapter on
the general structure of the solar system, we have a long
and very interesting chapter on the sun, and chapters OB
the inner group of planets (including the earth and moon),
on the outer group or family of giant planets and on
comets and meteors. The fourth part deals with the stars
— first, as they are seen witli the naked eye and with the
telescope : secondly, as they are probably arranged in
space ; and, thirdly, as each lias probably been formed
The third chapter discusses questions of extreme interest,
such as the sources of our sun's heat, the secular cooling of
the earth, the plurality of worlds, and tlie nebular hypo-
thesis. Lastly, we have lists of the principal telescopes of
the world, and catiilogues of doul>le stars, nebula*, star
clustei*s, and comets ; tlie usual tables of elements (but
greatly improved in many respects), a useful glossary, and
a set of star maps.
One general characteristic of these \arious chaptei-s may
be broadly indicated. There is scarcely one statement,
properly so called, in the whole work which is not strictly '
accurate, or rather, which does not present with strict j
Feb. 17, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
337
accuracy the present views of astronomers in relation to
the subject matter. This remark is not intended to include
expressions of opinion on the one hand, or, on the other,
such statements as are subsidiary to explanations or illus-
trations, but only deHnite statements respecting astrono-
mical matters. With regard to all, or very nearly all of
these, the reader may trust our author with perfect con-
fidence. In this sense the work deserves the high praise
accorded to it, of being thoroughly trustworthy.
Tlie arrangement of the work throughout is admirable,
and the treatment of individual subjects is at once lucid
and attractive. Here and there the style is rather common-
place, but it is never confused. Every sentence has one
meaning and one only. Moreover, the meaning of every
sentence lies on the surface. In these respects, too, many
who write on scientific subjects have failed to consider the
requirements of the general reader. To the mental etibrt
which the study of such subjects requires, they add the
effort required to determine the meaning of ambiguous
phrases. Moreover, Professor Newcomb commonly avoids
the mistake of using technical terms where ordinary terms
would serve equally well.
The treatment of the subject is simple in another sense,
perhaps not quite so satisfactory. Professor Newcomb
leaves many matters unexplained which are commonly
explained with more or less fulness in treatises on general
astronomy. For instance, in nearly all such treatises we
find some explanation of those disturbances of Uranus by
Neptune which led to the discovery of the latter planet.
The explanation is usually incorrect, but that is a detail.
It always requires more or less mental effort either to follow
the explanation, or to discover that the e.xplanation is, as
usual, all wrong. No such effort is required in reading what
ProfessorNewcombsays respecting thediscoveryof Neptune,
simply because he contents himself with a mere statement
of facts. Possibly this was the wisest course in the case of
a treatise intended for general reading. It may be doubted
whether the true e.xplanation given by Sir J. Herschel, for
instance, has been followed by a tenth of his readers, or
whether one-tenth of the readers of Lardner's, Chambers's,
and other such works, detect the error underlying incorrect
explanations of this subject It is necessary, however, to
remind the reader of the work before us that the ease with
with which he follows the author here and elsewhere is
due to the circumstance that difficulties are avoided — they
are not overcome. This is even the case with Professor
Newcomb's treatment of the subject of the sun's distance,
which few have mastered more thoroughly than he has.
His statements respecting the various methods available
for determining the distance of the sun are thoroughly
trustworthy, and his opinion respecting the result to which
observations point may be accepted as the one which
accords best with the evidence. But the matter is not
explained. We are able, indeed, without making too long
an extract, to quote all that he says in the way of explana-
tion, which is simply this : —
" In consequence of the parallax of Venus, two observers
at distant points of the earth's surface, watching her course
over the solar disc, will see her describe a slightly different
path, as shown in Fig. 50. It is by the distance between
these paths that tlie parallax has hitherto been deter-
mined."
The general nature of parallax has been already ex-
plained, and the distinction between Halley's and Delisle's
methods for determining this distance is briefly indicated
further on. But the principle underlying both those
methods, as well as the photographic and heliometric
methods, is explained no further than in the sentence quoted
above. It is not too much to say that it is not explained
at alL
An important and, in our opinion, a valuable feature of
this work is the discussion of ideas more or less speculative
with regard to the heavenly bodies. There are some
astronomers who object strongly to the introduction of
ideas of this sort into treatises on astronomy. But the
objection seems unwise, not to say peevish. The chief
charm of the study of astronomy lies in reality in the
mystery which enshrouds the orbs of space. What we
know respecting these bodies is little ; the unknown is
infinite. Now, uncjuestionably, mere idle speculations,
not even suggested by observation, are profitless. But
speculations based on the results of observation and phy-
sical research are not only interesting, but fruitful. In
such speculations have originat<;d nearly all the hypo
theses from among which the established theories of
the science have been evolved. It is noteworthy that
the greatest astronomers have indulged freely in specula-
tions I'especting the unknown. Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler,
Newton, the Herschels, and a host of those to whom as-
tronomy owes the noblest of its ti-iumphs, have discussed
speculations and hypotheses, of which some have been for-
gotten, others are remembered only because of the theories
which they suggested, while some few have become them-
selves the theories of the science. It may, indeed, be truly
said that no astronomer who has been unwilling to allow
his thoughts to pass beyond the boundaries of the known
has ever made great discoveries. We are glad to see
that Professor Newcomb, while he has shown himself
an exact and careful observer, and while, in certain
departments of mathematical re.search, he has held
his own with the greatest mathematicians of our time,
is i-eady to consider subjects which belong as yet to
the region of speculation. He presents, for example,
the various theories respecting the sun's condition which
have been advanced by Secchi, Faye, Langley, and Young,
though three of these are certainly, and all four possibly,
erroneous. He adopts, with apparent approval, several
opinions respecting the condition of the larger planets whicli
have been advocated in recent years in this country. Ho
accepts the conclusions of the Bonds, Peirce, and Clerk
Maxwell respecting the condition of Saturn's rings. And
speaking generally, he presents astronomy, not as a subject
respecting which certain facts and statements have to be
committed to memory, but as a living science, full of
promise, though also full of mystery, presenting a grand
array of achievements in the past, but offering also a ^ast
number of noble problems for attack, and possibly for
solution, in the future.
The present woik, it will be inferred, is a very valuable
contribution to astronomical literature. It is especially
characterised by originality of tone and treatment through-
out It is remarkable also for the care with which details
have been attended to, quotations verified, tables corrected,
and so forth — matters respecting which scientific writers
of eminence are not always so careful as they might be.
{To he continued.)
TNTEl.r.iGEN'CE IX AxiMils. — J. H. sonds the following: — "An
amusinp; account of a pet baboon, in a letter from a friend at Zan-
zibar is communicated to Nature this week by Miss Julia VVedg-nood.
An interestin}^ statement (in relation to the contention that laughter
is one of the distinguishing attributes of man) is, that ' Judy,' the
baboon in question, nsed, when she romped with her mistress, ' to
open her mouth, show all her white teeth, and regularly laugh like
a child, especially when she was tickled.' She never laughed at a
joke, and nothing made her so savage as being langhod at." —
[Darwin gives similar instances in his work on the " Expression of
the Emotions."— Ed.]
338
KNO\A/'LEDGE
[Fea 17, 1881
silt KDMiND I'.iX'Kirrr on Tin: laws ok
>ATUUE
SIR EDMUND r.ECKETT'S writings arc always
ilcliglitful, wliatfvir liis subject, and wlii-tlicr one
ugrcH's with iiini or not. His sulijci-t in tlic l)ook l)i-forc us
(which has liccn some time licforo tlu; public, but the new
edition has not), is recondite, and Sir Edmund's views arc
strongly opposed to those wliich ar(! geiu;rally held by men
of science in these days. But from the (irst pag(! to the
last, the book is attractive, if only through the clearness of
the reasoning and the strength of the style. There is not a
writer living who has a style more markedly his own than
Sir Edmund Beckett, and though Carlyle, among writers
■who have passed away, had a style more marked than Sir
Edmund's, the peculiarities of the author of " Sartor
Resartus " were assumed, whereas those of Sir E. Beckett
are the result of true mental idiosyncrasies.
In the present work. Sir E. Beckett has very plainly —
and, on the whole, very fairly — presented the issue between
the belic\ers in special creative, and as it were legislative,
acts on the one hand, and in evolution pure 'and simple on
the other. He has shown well the insufliciency of evolu-
tion as at present understood as regards explanation of the
mysteries of the universe, and he has pointed out very
definitely the sufficiency of the theory of an omniscient all-
powerful Being to account for all the phenomena, including
the existence of uniform laws existing so far as can be seen
throughout all space and operating during all time. An
evolutionist might with equal clearness, we conceive, point
out the utt^'rly iuconcci\able nature of such a Being on the
one hand, and the sulliciency of laws of evolution within
tlie range over which scientific research can extend to account
for those observed relations which, referred to an absolute
beginning, seem only cxjilicable on the hypothesis of special
creation. After all, what is science now doing Ijut some-
what extending the i-ange ovci- which uniform law may be
si-en to extend its influence (not the range over which it
actually does so) ? What an overwhelming thoiight it would
seem to an ephemeron that a giant tree whicli, during the
brief lives of millions of his race, had seemed scarcely to
change except in its leaves or blossoms, had been developed
to be what it has been during the continuance of generation
after generation of his kind ! Nothing in the widening of
the domain of law which lias been seen during the last
century can be compared to the tremendous nature of siich
a revelation to a being who had regarded the pushing of a
bud or leaflet as the limit of the operation of natural laws.
And yet how little such a revelation compared to the con-
ception that a whole forest had grown, and that the verv
earth in which it grew contained the remains of past
generations of trees. Science is widening somewhat like
this our conception of the extension of law. But the man
who thinks that this widening of the domain of law means
the rejection of a Law-giver ; or that, by carrying back
the operation of dependent causes a few steps — or even
(were that possible) a few millions of steps — we get rid of
the necessity of recognising a First Cause, must be strangely-
minded indeed. For such a one, the book before us will
be useful ; to those who view aright the operations of
nature, it cannot fail to be interesting.
Two points have occurred to us as open to exception in
this book. One is the reference to Tyndall's work on the
• " Oripin of the Laws of Xature." By Sir K. Bockott, Bart.,
LL.D., F.K.A.S., eecoiul edition. (London: Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge, 1880.)
subji'ct of .spontaneous generation, as a "curious retribu-
tion" (though Sir E. Beckett frankly admits it i.s creditable
t'J the honesty of the? most eloquent prophet of the doctrine
of evolution). If there is one feeling wliich Tyndall haii
shown more strongly than another, it is the desire to
come at the truth, and surely another dcscrijition might
be found for one of the most interesting of Tyndall's
labours in the search for truth. Tyndall has found, indeed,
that in a particular direction the Ijeginning of life cannot
be found. Darwin has shown that, in his opinion, no re-
searches men can make will take them to the beginning
of life, any more than the study of second causes
will lead men to the First Cause. All this is in per-
fect harmony with the views of evolutionists — it is no
retribution, but a confirmation of their views. The
other point to which we would take exception is the remark
thrown in more than once, that natural selection acts " for
no cause, so far as we can see.'' The cause has beeu
repeatedly indicated by evolutionists — this, namely, that
those who have not the qualities iji question die out :
surely the death of those who have not such qualities is a
tolerably good reason for the selection of those who possess
them. We may note again that our author somewhat too
confidently assumes that certain qualities could be of no
use till fully developed ; that, for instance, until or uidess
spiders made perfect webs, they might as well make none
at all. We know that imperfect cell-making by certain
orders of bees is better than utterly bad cell-making or no
cell-making at all. Why should it not have been so in the
past w ith spiders 1 A few lines of web might have been
useful — even a single line, however short— in the earlier
stages of the struggles for existence through which the
Arachnida have passed.
THE FOOD WE EAT.
Tins is a useful book, though Dr. Fothergill's instruc-
tions are not always so definite as they might be. He
tells us roast mutton has a baneful history ; but there is
nothing in the chapter on flesh meat to suggest that we are
too carnivorous ; on the contrary, we realaces, into anything like what he has said. For instance,
at page 10, Landauer says of mj' aluminium plate reactions : "The
I best substitute for charcoal is the aluminium plate introduced by
Boss";+ which plain sentence and note, the Manchester trans-
mntntlnnists have replaced by the following ingenious rendering.
"As another kind of substitute for charcoal, aluminium plate may
be advantageously employed." Many other instances might be
I pointed out, if space permitted.
It must be admitted that Landauer, With considerable reference to
the American writers Eklerhorst and Egleston, to his celebrated
countryman Bunsen, and to myself, has contrived a " strictly
I chemical " system of blowpipe analysis, so far as a persistence in
I the use of the stupid reagents borax and microcosniic (or, as it is
now called, "phosphor") salt, permitted. But such a system with
I these reagents is simply impossible ; and Sorby, Wiinder. Rose, and
I others have long ago shown that it is equally impossible to obtain
1 dtjinite pyrological crystallisations from the fusion of oxides, Ac, in
I borax before the blowpipe. The plain fact is, as I pointed out ten
years ago in my paper (vol. x.";. " Proceedings Royal Society") that
boric acid will separate the constituents of most minerals and
inorganic chemical combinations before the blowpipe ; whilst boraj:,
or any other reagent, will nrt. Landauer's book is tlividcd into four
chapters and a reprint of I'lattner'a well-known blowpipe tables. In
the lirst cliapter (of fifteen jiages) a description of apparatus and
reagents is given. In the second (forty-six pages), an excellent
account of the necessary operations, inclnding my " Aluminium
Plate Reactions" (ten pages). An " Appendix" to this chapter ia
devoted entirely (eighteen pages) to " Bunsen's flame-reactions,"
tho connection of which, by the way, with the blowpipe, it is difficult
to perceive, but it is placed in the book and ''table of contents"
as the third chapter, though called an "appendix." The so-called
third is headed— after the arrangement in Schcerer's and Blan-
ford's little book — " Special Examination for certain Combined
Substances," whereby the reader is left to infer that all the other
examinations, in many cases the best and most careful, are not
* " Die Lothrohranalyse, Anleitnng zu qualitativen chemischen
Untersnchnngen auf trockenem VTege, bearbeitet von J. Landauer.
' Zweite vermehrte Anflage." (Berlin: Verlag von Julius Springer,
1881. London agents : Triibner & Co.)
t Rose, " PjTology, or Fire Chemistry." London : 1875.
" special." The fourth chapter describes the author's and Egles-
ton's " Systematischo Gango " (very good Scotch as well as
German) or ciirricuia; which are both excellent in their way.
At page 3 is given a beautiful woodcut, with a remark that " it
is to be specially recommended," of what is called "Rub's
StaudlOthrohr " (Unb's stand blowjiipc), which is not figured in the
JIanchester translation (lb7!l)i because it was not invented by mo
till 1S80, in September of which year a description, w ith drawings,
appeared in the Knglish Mechanic. It is, in fact, a month-blow-
pipe with elastic air-reservoir and valve attached, precisely tho same
as that recently described by me in Kxowlkdge, vol. i., page 137 :
only the uncomfortable addition of a huge metallic dish-cover kind
of protection to the indiarubber balloon is made, by which all por-
tability and simplicity are ingeniously destroyed. This seems to
nie too great a sacrifice to make for the sake of elastic bags, which
ought not to cost more than a farthing each. I feel snro that if
M. Landauer sees this notice, he will at once repudiate all know-
ledge of my invention when he inserttul Uab's ilrawing and descrip-
tion in his book, whicli I can cordially recommend to your readers
as the best extant on the old system of blowiiipe analysis.
SCIENCE FOR ALL.
Messks. C.\ssELt,, Petter, & Galpin call attention to a misprint
in the footnote to the review of the last volume of their " Science
for All." The price of the volume is not 5s., but 9s. We note that
no price is mentioned, bat thought we remembered seeing the
work advertised for the price named ; also, the book sent us was, it
appears, the fourth, not the fifth, volume. We took it for granted
the latest had been sent. Our remarks ap|)ly to Volume IV., not to
Volume V. The volumes are unnumbered. Mr. Denning writes
(unfortunately at much too great length for insertion), noting that
many of the highest authorities — Sir J. llerschel, Webb, Ac. — accept
the eccentricity of the ring-system as an established fact. That
the rings have at times been eccentrically situated is well known ;
at other times there has been no recognisable eccentricity. Mr.
Denning seems to think that saying the Satumian rings " will be
seen at night as a vivid semicircle of light" needed no correction,
although the rings are absolutely invisible from large portions of
them, not visible as a vivid semicircle at any time from any part of
Saturn except the equator, and not visible from the northern
hemisphere during one half of the Satumian year, or from the
southern hemisphere during the other half. We venture to say
that every reader would suppose Jlr. Denning's statement to mean
that if you were placed anywhere on Saturn, you would at night see
tlie rings as a vivid semicircle of light. We submit that the state-
ment is as incorrect as the following would be:— On the earth,
the sun is visible for twelve hours out of the twenty-four. Wo are
sorry if Mr. Denning objects to being set right in a matter about
which there are no two opinions among jjersons competent to form
an opinion at all — that is, in this case, among mathematicians (for
the question is purely mathematical).
T
NIGHT MINIMA OF ALGOL. 18«2.
HE following list of night minima of Algol, by the eminent
observer of Variable Stars, Mr. Jos. Baxendell, will be much
valued by many readers. — Ed.
Gbeexwicu Mean Time.
Feb.
March
April
Jui'y
Aug.
Sept.
IS 13 22
il
10 10
24
10
13
7 0
15 4
11 53
IG
2
8 42
13 35
10 24
8
.... 7 13
23
25 ......
28
0
20
9
15 7
12 e
8 55
10 51
12 33
14 15
12
11 4
29
15 5C
1
12 40
Sept.
4 ...
21 ...
24 ...
27 ...
11
9 35
14 29
11 17
8 6
16 il
It . .
13 0
17 ...
3 ...
6 ...
9 ...
23 ...
9 49
14 42
11 31
8 20
16 24
26 . 13 13
29 ..
2 ...
13 ...
16 ...
19
10 2
6 51
18 7
14 55
11 4t
22 ...
.... 8 33
Jo. Baxindell.
340
KNO\A^LEDGE
[Psa 17, 1882.
THE MENACING COMET.
By the Editok.*
SUPPOSING Mr. Proctor's farts to Ijc corroctly staUnl,"
snys the Sprctalnr, " tlit'ro dors socm a roniarkalily
good cliancc tlint in 1H'J7 the sim may sudrriblo prediction comes so soon to be frightening
fearful folk from their customary quietude. If it were
not that his Right Reverend Lordship the Bishop of Man-
chester had been chiefly instrumental in calling general
attention to i\w. prediction, the world might well imagine
that the scare was a well-designed puft' for my new volume,
in which case I might be an.vious to e.xplain that, accord-
ing to the terms between myself and Messrs. Chatto it
Windu.s, I could not possilily gain, and might conceivably
lose, by the i-apid sale of the work at this present time.
• I should OHloom it a favour (though I think I might almost
claim it as a right) if those newspajjors who liave spread tho news
of my supposed prediction, would be good enough to cxfiMn that I
believe the world is more likely to last fifteen millions of years than
to be destroyed in fifteen. — R. A. Pboctou.
I^go on to ilnw that the path of the comet of 1880
carried it singularly near to the sun. This, of course, is
simply a scientific fact I next e.xplain that the observed
part of the track of the comet of 1880 coincided, or nearly
so, with that of the comet of 1843 ; but that whereas the
most trustworthy calculations of the orbit of the comet of
1843 assigned a period of about 17.') years, the observed
period of its last circuit — if that object and the comet of
1880 are really identical — was only 37 years. This
part of the inquiry is more theoretical than the former.
Still, tho evidence is such as to make it highly probable
that the comet of 1S80 really is one and the same a.s the
comet of 1843, and that there really has been a diminution
of the period of revolution from more than a hundred to
less than forty years.
It is towards the close of this part of the inquiry that
the anticipation of the comet's return in 1897 is referred
to. As presented by the Spii-lator and the Bishop of
Manchester, this might be supj)osetl to be such a prediction
Feb. 17, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
341
us, for instance, I made in 1868 of the epochs of the
lic'jjinnings and endings of the transits of Venus in 1S7 t
and 18Sl' for different parts of the eartli's surface. As a
matter of fact, the prediction is not mine, but Herr ilartli's
(quoted, and, as a qnotation, given in .smaller type than
the rest) ; it is not advanced definitely, but in tlie fol-
lowing terms : — " I should not be at all surprised," says
Herr Marth, " if it should turn out that this comet of ISSO
is the same as the comet of 1843 and that of 1668, and
that its revolution has been so much affected that possibly
it may return in, say, seventeen years." (This was M-ritten
in 1880.)
I go on to show that if this is so, the comet must befon^
long be absorbed by the sun^— still not naming 1897 or anv
other year, but .speaking with due scientific caution —
"after only a few cii'cuit.': — possibly one or two."'
had gone the wron
I then note the only way in which the absorption of r-
comet might do harm — that is, not as Newton thought, h}
adding fuel to the solar tires, l>ut by the conversion of th'
momentum of the meteoric masses forming or followin;:
the head, into heat I mention, in passing, my own belief
that the sudden incre^ise of splendour observed in the sta'
T Coronw (not r, as has been mistakenly asserted) was
due to the fall of a large comet, followed by a train o'
closely-aggregated meteors upon that distant sun. This 1
fully believe to be the most probable, if not the onl_<
available interpretation of that and similar phenomena
"Without saying," I proceed, and this seems to me tin
only passage in my essay which could have suggested am
anxiety about the earth's future, " without saying that I
consider there is absolute danger of a similar outburst in
the case of our own sun, when the comet of 184;i shall be
absorbed by him (a result which will, in my opinion,
most certainly take place), I will go so far as to e.xprcs.s
my belief that if ever the day is to come when ' tie
heavens shall dissolve with fervent heat,' the cause of the
catastrophe will be the downfall of some great comet on the
sun." ^\ hat I here consider as certain may, perhaps, have
been misunderstood as the coming of such a cat^xstrophir
end; but it should be manifest tliat I only regard thr
absorption of the comet of 184.3 as most certain — regarding
the time as quite uncertain, and the effects as extremely
problematical. I have, indeed, shown elsewhere (see "Suns
in Flames," in my "Myths and Marvels of Astronomy")
that there is every reason for believing that all comets cf
the destructive sort have long since been eliminated from
the solar system. So that, as in the essay referred to by the
Spectator, I refer back to an essay in my " Pleasant Ways in
Science," in which essay I refer back to the other in " Myths
and Marvels," wthout in either case indicating any rhange
J^iL. a. — A cornel wluih nnglit injure a solar sysium, tliuu;,'li
uot ours.
of view, I might fairly claim to have very definite views as
to the perfect safety of the solar system, even if I had not
recently pointed out, with special reference to the comet of
1843, our probable complete immunity from danger. In
the Cornhill Mat/atine for December last, there is a paper,
bearing my initials, on " Dangers from Comets," in which
it is sho\\ni — as sundry newspaper articles have l}een good
enough to explain in turn to myself — that if there were
any real danger, .save for the comet itself, we should have
known it by great increase in the solar emission of heat in
18+3, when the comet was checked so importantly in
its career, and again in 1880, when it was subjected
to another equally severe interruption of its onward
course.
The article finally points out the kind of danger which
in all proliability would ensue if a comet of the larger
sort fell into the sun. If there is anything remarkable
in this part of my essay, which seems to have been re-
garded as thp most sensational, it is its extremely cautious
wording. I may go so far as to poke a little fun at myself
342
• KNOWLEDGE •
[Fbb. 17, 188:
by saying that it is almost alisurdly cuutious. I ]iiiiiit
out tlint if there are ]iluncts circling around the sun which
bla/.od out in C'oronn in May, 18GG, to eight hundred times
its former lustre, and if there were living creatures on
them at all resembling ourselves, those creatures must
most i-ertaiidy have l)een destniyed. It takes no wizard to
know this. I tlien go on to suy that " if at any time a
great comet falling directly upon the sun " (which the
comet of 1813 and 1880 most certainly will ncrer do)
" should, by the swift rusli of its meteoric components,
excite the frame of the sun to a lustre far exceeding that
with which he at pi-eseut shines, the sudden access of
lustre and of heat would prove destructive to every
living creature, or, at any rate, to all the higher forms
of life, upon this earth." Ajid though 1 knew when I
wrote this that 1 was making no rash j)rediction, I protest
I never noticed until the rash predictions assigned to mo
by the Spectator and the Bishop of ^lanchester set me
reading over my own essay, that this amounted only to an
announcement of the following highly-impressive nature : —
If such a comet as we have no reason to suppose actually
existent (nay, every reason to consider cei-tainly non-
existent in the sun's case), should produce a degree of
solar heat (which such a comet may, or may not, be
capable of producing), exceeding hundreds of times tlu-
sun's present heat, and if that heat lasted but a few days,
the earth's inhabitants must all perish. This very cautious
announcement does not mean, I venture to point out, that
fifteen years hence the comet of 1843 falling into the sun
will so raise his heat that all of us will be destroyed.
I may remark that the newspaper announcement has
elicited various expressions of opinion, showing the great
ignorance which prevails even in these days of cheap scien-
tilic literature respecting scientific matters. Thus it has
been carefully explained by some that comets are entirely
vaporous, evidently in ignorance of what has been learned
respecting the meteoric nature of comets ; by other writers,
that Lexell's comet was absorbed by Jupiter or by his
satellites (which Leverrier entirely disproved) ; while
another writer (in the C/irisliaii World, and followed by
the Globe) propounds the amazing statement that the sun's
hi'at does not travel so quickly as his light, so that even
though vfe saw a great outburst, due to the destruction of
a comet, some ninety or a hundred years would have to
pass before the earth would receive the heat then gene-
rated ! It would be interesting to ascertain whence this
singular idea was ol>tained — by what strange misapprehen-
sions of some statement in a scientific work. Of course,
there is not the slightest foundation for it. The sun's heat
comes to us with his light, not only travelling at the same
rate, but being a part of the \ cry same undulatory disturb-
ance, and a considerable portion being derived from the
very same waves. Some of the waves, indeed, which aflect
us as light affect us very little as heat, and some of the
■waves which affect us as heat, jiroduce no ertect which
the eye can appreciate as light. But the orange and red
light-waves are very active as heat-waves too, and there is
not the slightest reason for supposing that the so-called
dark heat-waves, which, with these, make up tlie total
supply of solar heat, would lag many seconds behind them
on the journey earthwards.
However, there is not the slightest reason to fear that
the comet of 1843 and 1880 (assuming they are the same)
will do any harm to the solar system when finally absorbed.
It would be quite otherwise, I believe, if such a comet as
that of the year ISll, Fig. 3, were to fall directly upon
the sun. This, the most remarkable (in reality, though
not in appearance) of all known comets (see Kxowlf.dge,
No. 5, p. 8G), was fortunately some 100 million miles from
tlie sun at the time of it« nearest approach to him, and can
never liring the slightest trouble to the solar system. But
if its course had chanced to be directed full upon the sun,
the meteoric ma.s.se3 doubtless forming its liead and train
(not tail), falling in countless millions upon him at the rate
of more than 300 miles per second, when they crossed his
visible surface, and jirobably passing tleep below that
surface with ever and most rapidly-increasing velocity to
reach his real nucleus, would ha\e generated an intensity
of heat far exceeding that which he constantly emits. The
incrca.sed emission might not ha\e lasted a mouth, or even
a week, but it would have sufficed.
So, again, what we now know of conietic structure leads
us to believe that the comet of 1858, called Donati's, whose
head is shown in Fig. 2, would have proved a very
dangerous visitor had its course led it directly towards the
nucleus of the sun. Fortunately, the chance of any comet
visiting our system from interstellar space, travelling
directly towards the sun, is so small, that it may be
reckoned " almost at naked nothing." As to comets
already belonging to our system, if any such liave orbits
passing very close to the sun, so as to be checked in their
career at every perihelion passage, it is clear (from the
continuance of life during many hundreds of thousands of
past years on the earth) that the mischief must long since
have been taken out of them — unless we suppose (which is
incredible) that the last perihelion passage of such a
comet preceded the beginning of life on the earth.
THE EFFECTS OF TOBACCO.
By Dr. Mem Howie.
PART II.
IN the present day, wo can calculate vrith precision i. i^^ liiitt
time, to a nmiute fraction of a second, wliicli is recjuired to
transmit a message from the brain to the hand or any other portion
of the body ; and it has been distinctly shown that it takes mncb
longer to send such a message after the person experimented upon has
taken even a small dose of a narcotic. A message which could be
sent in OlOOJof a second, required 0'2970 of a second for its perform-
ance after two glasses of hock had been administered to the subject
of e-tperinient, thus showing how much even a slight narcotic in-'
terferes with the rital action of nervous tissue. The same effect is
produced by tobacco. Tobacco prevents waste of tissue, and thns
enables a man who smokes to live on loss food. This is con-
sidered a very strong argument in favour of the pipe; and
if good food could not be obtained, it might have very great
force. But plain, wholesome diet is cheap and easily proeared.
Moreover, " waste of tissue" is an expression which conveys an
utterly false imiiression. There is no such thing as waste of tissue,
unless the body is wearing away more rapidly than new substance
can be reproduced, as in certain fevers, consumption, ic. Tho '
tissues of the body arc not a fixed quantity, like the framework of
a steam-engine ; they are ever changing, the old wearing away
to be replaced by the new. Life is a constant series of changesj
and the healtliier the man the more rapid, within certain Umito,
will be his change of tissue. You can only preserve the tissue of a
healthy man by lowering his vitality; the tissues thus preserved
cannot bear tho strain which can be borne by those of recent
manufacture, and thus the workiag power is diminished. An em-
ployer of labour in Liverpool, anxious for the elevation of his
workmen, suggested that they might with advantage give up the
use of beer and tobacco. They informed him, however, that in such
a contingency their wages would not support them, so great would
be their increase of appetite. But there is another side to this
(ju St ion, and it is, that such men would be able to do more work,
and conse((uently earn larger wages, by discontinuing the narcotic.
Men of all classes are very slow to learn that sound bodily health
is the best possible investment. The human machine is very easily
kept in order, but onco let it get out of repair, and it is mo6t
diliicult to set right. And it can only be kept in thorough repair
when every joint, muscle, and nerve is maintained in a condition of
persistent activity. I do not mean that a man should always
be engaged in exercising his various tissues and orgjins in order
to preserve health ; but 1 do n\aintain that every tissue should bo
80 actively exercised that it will be compelled to employ its entire
FEa 17, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
343
time of so-called rest in laying np fresh stores of explosive material,
and in healing up those rents which have taken place in their actual
anbstance. In the region of nerve and muscle a man ought always
to live up to his income. He can save nothing by si)aring exertion,
BO long as he docs not go beyond his income. Give your brain
sufficient food and an abimdani supply of oxygen, and theu give it
a fair amount of good hard work e»crv day, if you wish to maintain
it in a high state of healthy activity. Barristers and clergymen,
who use their brains mtich, are the longest-lived men in the country,
showing plainly that regular brain work is good for the general
health as well as for the efficiency of the nervous system in
vticular. The muscular system must be treated in a similar
liner, if yon do not wish it to become subject to fatty degenera-
r. An unused muscle shrinks, and becomes soft and flabby,
-onting an appearance of marked contrast to the brawny arm
the blacksmith. Instances of the feebleness of tissues thus
-crved freiiuently present themselves to the notice of the
_'eon. A muscle is called upon to perform a vigorous contrac-
::. but it snaps in the effort. The heart itself is sometimes toni
uder in attempting to send an extra supply of blood to some
ily limb. Xo man can afford to lower Iiis general vitality
the sake of mere idle gratification. He never knows
11 he may reiinire all the energy which can be stored up
his tissues. A railway accident, a runaway horse, a rim
catch a train, a fall on the ice, or even a fit of cutighing,
y bring a life of miser)- or an early death to one who would have
-ed unscathed through them all, had he allowed his nerves and
-cles to wear away in vigorous activity, instead of carefully
-erviug them, like smoked bacon, in the fumes of tobacco. I do
'. attempt to deny that all narcotics possess the power to prolong
in the absence of food. I have elsewhere referred to the case
:iu old woman who lived for two years on opium and gin-and-
lor, without any food whatever, but she might as well have been
•'.cr grave. Hers was, I would not say a living death, but rather
lud life. Some may be inclined to doubt the accuracy of this
ly, but such -n-ill discern a possibility of its truth when I say that
.;ircotic seems to produce a condition of the nervous system
- -ly resembling that of hybemating animals. The dormouse
jis for many weeks without any food whatever. Its tissues are
-nin the condition of the cook's fire when covered ivith ashes,
1 if you can produce a similar condition in the^hnman tissues, you
y attain the same result of prolonged fasting. We are apt to
-ider the winter sleep of the dormouse as a great waste of exist-
.1 . ; but what can we think of a reasonable man who artificially
roduces liimself to a similar condition during a considerable portion
of tlie prime of life.
Tobacco soothes the exhausted and irritable nervous system after
a hard day's work, and prevents the brain worrying about difficulties
that may never come.
The advocates of tobacco maintain that in this manner it gives
rest to the nervons system, and thus enables it to throw off work
for the time, and resume it again with renewed energy. Xow the
mistake which our opponents make here is, that they ignore the
necessity for anything but rest. What would you think of the
fanner who allowed his men an hour's rest at various ititervals
daring the day, but who, at the same time, forbade them
to take footl at such times, lest the muscular movements in-
volved in carving and mastication should interfere with their
complete and absolute repose ? Every cell in the body is a
counterpart of the whole organism. Just as the man cannot work
without eating, so the cell cannot carry on its explosive action
without fresh supplies of explosive material. Now, tobacco and
other narcotics not only prevent the nervous matter exhibiting
energv", they also prevent it absorbing its proper food; so that the
rest which it obtains by means of narcotism does not enable it to
~ n twig or stick, ubnorbK lu'iit more rapidly than tho nir,
bocomoH warmer than thi' nir, nml thiin rirts lik'- nii indi'|M)ndi>nt
■ourco of hcnt in gciioraling nn nrn'mding rurront, no thiit whi-n
tho spider lets go her hold, she and her thrond are carried up partly
by tho action of this cnrrent.
But thii* in not all : nnlcsn I am mnch mistaken, tht aeiion of the
«un'« rat kuU him»e{/'rtrp9ntit!r/,jr tk« opinionm of hi* eorrtKpondniM,
B« Ciinnot tindrrt'ikf to rttu^n monutcrtptd vr to rorreMpond rUk tkeir tpritm, AU
communu^atiotu gkotlJ be a* akorl om posnble, contisttntlf rt/A /uil and clear tlat0'
menU of Ike tcritrr't m*anirttj.'\
AH JCdiforuii romMumi^ld be c\Qn more ct-ncUe llutn letlors ; and drsvB
up in tbo form in which Iher are here prc>fni*'
not find place here, will either be briefly rt-ferred toinaaswerstocorretipoDdeDta, or
acknowledged in u column reserv'ed for thepurpofle.
(I.) Letters to have a chance of apnciirin^ mn^t
p in the form adopted for lellen* liere, bo that
s to be contemned and deiapised who is not in •
there anything more adversA to accoraoj
" In knowledfje, that man (
st&to of transition iSo
lUan fixity of opinion,** — Faraday.
" There is no narm in making a mistAke, but ^Oftt barm in making none. Bhow
me a man who makes no mistakes, and I will show you s man who b«s don*
nothing." — lAebic.
" GoJ'h Orthodoxy Is Truth."— C»«W« King'^Uy.
©MX Corrrspontifnrt Columns.
OPTICAL ILLUSION.— CAT'S EYE TIMEPIECE.
[279] — In the long string of optical illasions which have appeared
from week to week in yoar esteemed paper, I am surprised the
followin^T bas not been mentioned : — Fix an ordinary fork in the
wall, and on the handle balance a small cork. Having shut the
rijrht eye, walk towards the cork and endearour to knock it off with
the little finger. It is very seldom that the cork is displaced upon
first trial.
Your account of the remarkable ingenuity of the Chinese in cal-
culation reminds me of the peculiar manner in which they are able
to approximately tell the time, no matter whether tho day is clondy
or dull. They will run to the nearest cat, open her eyes, if they
are not already open, and will at once inform you, with a certAin
amount of accuracy, what time it may be ; all depending, of conrset
upon the contraction of the iris or the size of the aperture of the pupil
of the eye. Wha.t 1 cannot understand in connection with thiti process
is, why the clouds in interrupting the sun's light have no effect upon
the cat's eye ? But I suppose the Celestial land knows not what
fogs and mists are, and therefore we should not be able to avail
ourselves of the advantage of feline clocks here. Even if it were
so. I question whether pussy would submit with such grace as the
rats in the land of the pigtail seem to, to an operation which mast
of nocossity be far from agreeable to her. — Yours, A'c,
EBNEST J. WERVHAlf.
fADTT
WEATHER FORECAST.
[280] — I noticed in one of the numl>ers of your most valuable
publication, viz., Knowledge, some remarks anent the conntant
inaccuracies in tho weather forecasts of our Meteorological OflBoe,
and impugning the utility of them and the cost to the nation, out of
all proportion to tho benefit derived. As regards our o>vn district,
viz., North Wales, we are coupled with Lancashire and N.W.
England, some ninety miles off. notably one of the wettest districts
in England, and not one in twenty of the forocafits is correct as
applied to us. I tested them for fourteen days, and not one was
correct, which I forwarded, in a tabulated form, to the office, giving
on one side their own forecasts and on the other the actual weather
we had experienced, and stated my o{)ini<»n of the uselessness of
such forecasts and the injustice of tacking as on to a district so
far away; in due course I received a reply from the secretary.
which 1 am sorry I destroyed, otherwise you should have aeon
•EB. 17, 1882.]
• KNOWLEDGE
345
tlir lame excuses he made for the inaccuracies complained of;
bnt it amounted to this : — " That if I could tell them how to cast
i the weather for every subdivision of the Kingdom, I should be very
' ik ver, as of course the climate varied in different districts from
1 causes, such as mountains, &c., and it was left to each district
dify the forecasts so as to suit their different localities" ; but
. of what earthly use arc they for reference? We all know the
lor we are having in our own particular district, but vcrj- often
ant to see what kind of weather it is where we want to go to ;
r, I said to the secretary, leave us out altogether, or in justice
■ district let ns be classed in a district to ourselves, say " Holy-
i and North Wales." The secretary, 1 forgot to say, took the
Me to send me a tabulated statement of what the weather had
during the fortnight alloded to at Barrow-in-Furness, and which
uited some 130 miles due north of ns, and wliich I considered
u bearing at all upon what 1 had complained of, and was begging
uc'Stion entirely. As you say, these daily forecasts are not to
ponded upon, and are apparently only a matter of guess work,
-1 had better be drop^ied, as for reference and utility they are
I'd to be utterly useless.
A CONST.ANT Re.xpkr, .^np .\ RksII'ENT IX TlIK Prixciialitv.
DREAMS.
281] — The following incident would seem to corroborate a view
h I hold — namely, that some dreams have turned out, and do
ut, to be foretcllings,'iSc. ; and that science cannot possibly —
ust, for the present — give any satisfactorj- explanation of them.
-cntleman friend of mine, whom 1 shall call A., knows a young
1!., whose house is situated in a crescent, about three miles
V.'s dwelUng ; he is pretty well acquainted with the neigh-
;ring district, bnt is at a loss to make out where tliis orescent
I would not for one moment doubt the veracity of his statements,
' 'his is what he relates: —
: lireamt that I was walking up some road, of which I have a
recollection; it seemed about eventirae. As I was going along,
ic to a bye-road, where I saw B. walking on the right-hand
and then enter into the third or fourth house. As soon as B
iisappeared indoors, 1 seemed to run up to the house to have a
: at it." .... And then he continues, " I suddenly awoke,
iMund myself on a chair sketching a house." A, on writing to
-. oung lady the following day, told her his dream, and sent her
-ketch at the same time.
■ av, it turns out that what he dreamt really did happen, for on
; ruvious evening B was just returning to her house, which, by-
ye, is the fourth in the crescent (the bye-road would corrc-
• i to the crescent), and what is more strange, the sketch is such,
any one who has seen the house would immediately recognise
" uu the paper, and besides, there is a characteristic tree just biefore
the house, w-hich is reproduced in the sketch.
It is true that this bears the testimony of one man only ; for no
one but himself can tell whether he had ever seen the house before
or not ; he denies having seen it.
For myself, I consider the thing possible ; bat nevertheless
wcnderful and nnaccountable. Perhaps one of jour readers may
famish a cine to the eiplanatiou of a fact which puts mein mind
I of the story of Bach, the musician. — Yours, Ac, ReVElR.
ICE AGE IX BRITAIN.
;.'S2] — There are many proofs of the existence of an ice age
(yuery 102) over northern Europe, England as far sonth as the
Thames, Scotland, and Ireland. The undulating outlines of the
smaller hills, and the lower parts of the great ones, show the
smoothing action of vast sheets of ice moving slowly over the land,
and grinding down minor irregnlarities and abrupt eminences
which came in their way, out of the it'hris of which was formed
the thick tenacious clay usually found a few feet below the surfaco
in the valleys and plains. Wlien examined, this clay is seen to con-
tain stones varying in weight from a few ounces to several tons.
Most of these stones are subangular, i.e., have their sharp edges
and angles worn down and blunted, while upon their surfaces,
which are more or less roughly polished and worn by friction, are
scratches, some so fine as to be seen only with a magnifjnng glass,
others being deep grooves. When such stones are oblong, the
scratches are mostly in the direction of greatest length.
This rubbing down and scratching has been produced by the
finding which went on between the ice and the rock-surfaces over
which it moved. The rock-surfaces in many places are scratched
by the stones which have been dragged over them, and these marks
show thsfc line in which the ice moved when they were made. Tlie
direction towards which the ice moved can often be ascertained by
observing glaciated stones of a different formation to that on which
they are found, so that if a glaciated piece of granite is seen in a
limestone district, one looks for the nearest granite beds, and if the
majority of scratches on the limestone rock point in that direction,
it is nearlv sure to be the source whence the granite fragment was
taken by the ice. These are only some of the signs of ice w6rk.
The great basins in which lie the lakes of Cumberland and West-
moreland have been, at least partially, excavated by glaciers. This
drawing is from a glaciated limestone pebble, and gives a good
idea of what " Arachnida " should look for. E. C U.
AT THE NORTH POLE.
[3S3] — What is the aspect of the heavens, when the sky is cle^,
to an observer situated at the North Pole ? ' .
Assume the epoch to be noon at Greenwich on Februai-j- 3, the
date of the last number but one of K.vowledck. The sun will be
16J° below the polar lioriton ; there will, therefore, be a dim twilight.
The moon will be 10° above the horiion, and just past the full.
Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars will hold their relative positions as with
us, bnt wiU maintain day after day a nearly constant attitude
equal to their declinations (Jupiter 16°, Saturn Hi", liars 27 J.,
The constellations, together with the planets and the moon, will
appear to sweep round the horizon in then- daily course, the mgon^
alone showing any appeararce of sotting. Her altitude will de-
crease about 10', or one-third of her apparent dianieler, every hohr!
and after two or three diurnal revolutions, she will set below the
polar horizon somewhere over the mountains of Greenland, if such
are in view. The monotony of such a scene would be excessive.
It would probably convince the most sceptical that the earth does
really turn upon its at>3. > ' '
Celestial observations for the verification of the position could
be t«ken with the same, if not with greater facility, than in
required size, and stiiDing it with hor.whair ; then rub or -
sodium amalgam. It is not necos-sary to varnish the ( ;. , i
though it is an advantage, in so far as it helps to keep moisture f n .
condensing on it. — Amateur.
[22t]— Electricity.-" A Greenock Student" will find the din-'
tionshe requires in Chambers's "KIcetricity," published at Is^nnd •
bo obtnincd from any bookseller), whicli would l» much bet!, r •!
a reply through the Query column of your paper, aa it give- :: ,
ings. It is not necessarj- that the cylinder be covered with .i.i.;...
varnish. Indeed, I never heard of that being done bi-fore. — J.M. (
[233] — Biological — Physically, the difference between ape an
man is much greater than that between man and man. Bu
mentally, not. The range of variation in the capacity of the brain-
case of man (healthy adult) is between 50 and 110 cubic in. ; th-
difference between the gorilla brain-case and the lowest hnma'
is only 13 cubic in., i.e., between 37 and 50 cubic in. (2.) T!
thyroid gland in the higher vertebrates has, by the research' < <■:
Mr. Balfour, been recognised as the rudiment of an organ r ,'!c :
the cndostyle, whicli occurs in the lowest group of the vert' ! :a!
the Tunicata. (See p. 597, " Huxley's Invcrtebrata.") Tlii< ■ ■ _•:
takes the form of a longitudinal groove lying on the floor''; t
pharynx. Its function appears to be to secrete a kind of niucw-
whieh assists the process of swallowing food, though this latti :
point is open to qne«tion. In the floor of the month of vertebral'
embryos, there appears a similar groove, which ultimately developc-
iuto the thyroid gland. (3.) Darwin in the " Descent of Man.
quotes several in.'itances of human beings with projecting caud:/
vertebra?, and I may say fiu-ther that I know an indivi^oa!
now living who has such a tail. There have Ijeen many account -
published of races of men so adorned existing in regions sufficiently
remote to prevent speedy refutation; but, so far as I know, ther
all lack corroboration. Herodotus mentions a tribe of Centr.il
Africans with tails, but not having access to his work just now, 1
cannot give details. I am indisposed to accept any of these state-
ments, as it would be directly contrary to the theory of evolution
to suppose that a useless structure should reappear and ix'rsif'
in a race after it had once been lost, and man's nearest allie»
among the apes have no tails. (1.) The Neanderthal skall
(n.) 'The brain capacity cannot bo definitely ascertained, a-
only the roof of the cranium is preserved ; but it is very small,
probably below 40 cubic inches, (b.) The fragment of skull
is remarkable for immense bony ridges projecting over th«
eye-orbits, of apparently nearly half an inch, and snggostini;
at once a comjiarison with those of our " poor relations," th''
gorillas. The facial angle cannot be ascertained. The back par:
of the human head where the muscles of tho neck are attached,
is marked by a slight ridge, called the '' Lambdoidal crest." Xow.
the back of the head will be found to i)roject considerably behimi
this point in the skull of an European, while in the lowest modem
type (the Australian) it ascends perpendicularly to some height,
but in the Neanderthal skull it slopes directly upwards and fonvards.
thus greatly diminishing its capacity. In addition to this, the brain-
case is very shallow, as the following measurements will show : — A
line drawn from the " Lambdoidal crest" to the front of the brow
ridge gives a length of 7J in., against an extreme length of 7| in. in
an average European skull. The height of the Neanderthal skull
above the line indicat"d is 3 J in., while that of tho European is -t-J in.
Extreme width of Neanderthal skull 53 in., European 5Jin. Thi'
length of the Neanderthal skull is apt to mislead, as the great brow
ridges are not excavated to receive the brain. Professor HuiIpt
remarks that this is the lowest type of human skull that has been
discovered. The skull was found in what is called a Cave Breeoit".
and belongs to the so-called " Palaeolithic ]>criod," which, however,
is so ill-defined as to giro a verj- indifferent idea of its exact ajfc.
though we must certainly regard it as being tens of thousands ef
years old. — Old Fos,. and askeil thnt the followerB of
OopornicUH Khoulill>C;;fri hy .•ifi.i.( the t)ook " to lie unlnie." Fresont to their readers. Geological
matters will soon have their turn. Do you not think the quicksilver
storj- — instructive though it doubtless is- -better suited for a more
medical journal than ours ? — W. MinDi,ET0.\ suggests that the sea-
blue bird of March may be the fieldfare (see Goldsmith's " Animated
Nature," vol. ii., p. 1 10). — J. P. Sandl.\ni).s. Nay, the article on
Found Links simply presents a certain part of the evidence for what
it is worth ; the evidence for the development of one form of creature
from another form is one thing, the indication of such links as
the development theory requires is another. Dr. Wilson's argu-
ment is complete, so far as it goes ; but one and the same
argument cannot answer all objections. I can only inf^r from
your remarks about luck in its relation to religion, that I should
not discuss the mathematical theory of probabilities, because it
hurts your religions feelings to be told that, so far as observation
extends, the laws of probabilities and of averages are never departed
from. That would be as unreasonable as to urge that the scientific
discussion of the laws of chance does not take into account the
possible iuHucnce of earnest prayer on the observed result in
the case of any particular person. A and B draw tickets
in a lottery, prize £1,000, number of tickets 1,000 ; and
science says the chance of each is worth just £1. But
J. P. Sandlands interferes. " Do not trespass on forbidden
ground," ho says : " wliethcr yon mean iter not, the inference from
that statement is against religious truth. If you make a state-
ment, and say this is all wc know, and apeak as an authority, does
it not follow that there is nothing more ? If you examine the state-
ment you will find it ignores the interaction of scientific and
religious truth." A, you imply, may be favoured for reasons which
religion suggests and can explain, and science, in making no men-
tion of this, to all intents and purposes suggests that there is no
such influence from without. It may seem so to you. I cannot
take your view. As I have already said, the mathematical discussion
of chance seems to me to have no more to do with religion than
religion has to do with ex]>erimente in chemistry or physics. —
Q. Many thanks. The mistake was di.scovered sooii after the book
was published. Many errors in the treatise were such as I could
not possibly have avoided— accents not showing which had shown
in proof, and the like. The work was very laboriously corrected,
but was unfortunately in the hands of printers of very fittle mathe-
matical experience.— F. W. F. Problem later.— F. S. The distance
you require— the sagitta (say s)—ia given in terms of the chord (2c),
and the railius (r) by the following formula:— s = r - ^'r-' - r '.
When r is very large compared with r, we have approximately
2rs = c=, or s = c'-!-2r.-C. H. Wingfield. Thanks: but the experi-
ments to be found in elementary treatises on pneumatics and
chemistry. We must not occupy space telling readers what so
many know. — F. G. Bakk.vs. As to my supposed prediction— not
([uite. I would be glad to see the article you mention. There
would be nothing to prevent its appearance here, if the reasoning
seemed valid. I think it very unlikely I could lecture at ^■ewca^tlo,
or anywhere, next season. Thanks, equally.
II. Mt W., It. IJavchy, Gl. Trcv.iyan. W A. C, A Fellow of the
Gheniical Society, N.. T. W., A. K. S.. Argr), J. Acrington, BHrljun,
J. Twaite, L. I'urmontcr, A. K. J^., Bronte, J. Unrineii«, L. Tulbuil,
M. Amb. K.., Eccc Signum, J. llurvcy. M. N. S., F. K. f; , L.
Purtntjas (}), E. E. 0. S. (No, 1), Hokluyt, A. I, . T. P. R .
P. U. G. S. (No. 2), (UirmnighttiD.)
^otrsi on 9rt anlj ^ricnrr.
We are informed that Messrs. Farraud A Lunds, the patcriiic-,.
of tlie System of Time Signalling and Clock Synchronizing no
largely adopted in IjOndon, have applied to the Postal Telegraph
Department for an extension of their Time Exchange to Telephone
purposes. For some time they liave been experimenting with the
object of utilising their existing system for telephted by them ; a gentle-
man was specially sent over to England to the jiatentees, negotia-
tions were at once opened, communications cabled, and the whole
concession concluded in a few days. The arrangements inclutle the
whole of the An.erican Continent, as well as the Unitese,
(2) hyperbola, (3) parabola, and ^vill give these next week, with
a demonstration which seems to ns of interest, as probably the
simplest proof connecting the fundamental property of the ellipse,
1 parabola, and hyperbola (relation between distances from focus and
I directrix), and the fact that the curves possessing tliat property
are sections of the cone. — Ed.
MATHEMATICAL QUERIES.
[35] — Value of Lease. — Given, H} years repairing lease ;
rent, £15 ; ground-rent, £i ; present rental value, £32. Kequired,
present worth of lease to make 5 per cent, interest. — James Gbegg.
[36] — Can you, or any of your readers, tell me how to obtain the
general term in the expansion of (Oj -^ a., +a^+ &c.)', n being whole
or fractional, positive or negative ?— Cartesian.
[We should deal with the problem somewhat on this wise: — Let
any expression of the form a,„ + a,„+j -^ a„^.; + Ac., = am : also in the
expansion of (o„, -^ a,.+i) ' take the (r,„ + 1) th term for general
term, and put p — / „ — r„. Then
. ^ , X rn(n-l)...(n—r,+l) "l
(o,-f«t,-K73 + &c.)" = (a,-iao)" =S [-^ ^g3_ ^ ' a/ia/. J
|r,
finally (a, -i- «„ + a, + &c.)"
^j, p„(,v-l)...(„-,.,+l) .^ ^^
Where r., i-j, >■_,, &c., are positive whole numbers, and
n = r, -h r„ + )-3 + r^ + &c.,
If n is a positive whole number, we may conveniently interchange
and Tj in the first part of the process (the distinction being only
ntroduced because if n is not a positive integer, neither is r,).
Ve thus obtain the convenient formula
, , ^m (n-1) .. (n-r, -t-l)
(aj'. = (a3-^a,)'
(a,)'3=(njH-ai)'
ic,
lis.
3'3a/3J
ic,
!'■>
#iu- SMbiSt Column.
WUIST PROBLEM, No. 1.
In this problem B holds the following hand ; —
Spades. — Ten, nine, six, five. (Tramps.)
Hearts. — Ace, Queen, four, two.
Diamonds. — Queen, six.
Clubs. — Ace, ten, eight,
ad the four first tricks are as follows, the underlined card winnin"
■ick, and card below leading next : —
A
Y
B
Z
1.
CG
C Kn
C A
C3
2.
no
n 5
H2
H 10
3.
D8
D Kn
DQ
D4
4.
SKn
S A
S 5
S7
After these four tricks have been played B is able to place every
card, supposing tliat all the players have followed the usual roles
for play.
No one has solved this problem correctly. Fifteen solutions sent.
We note that what we have hitherto said about whist leads does
not quite suffice for the solution of this problem, though it help
towards it. It is necessary to supplement the rules for lead,
however, with only two general rules, one for second, the other for
third player, to give the solution. These are first that second
player, if he has a sequence of two high cards and one small one,
plays the lowest of the sequence second hand on a small card led ;
secondly, that third in hand plays highest if he has any card higher
than (and not in sequence with) his partner's lead, and no sound
finesse open to him, but otherwise plays his lowest.
First Ti-ick.—A has led the lowest from four at least (it should
have been noticed that the inventor of this hand did not accept the
rule for penultimate lead). Since two is not in .-I's hand, nor in
Z'b, for Z's lead third hand shows he was not signalling for trumps
and B has it not himself, it must lie with }'. Hut no other small
card can be in i'shand, who would only play Knave, having the two
if he held Queen, Knave, two, ajid no more. Hence four and five lie
with Z, and no more, for A must have four Clnbs. Thus the Clubs
were originally distributed as follows :— With Y, Queen, Knave
two ; withZ, five, four, three ; with B, Ace. ten, eight ; and the rest,'
viz.. King, nine, seven, and six with A.
Second Trick.~A has no Hearts above ten, and his play of nine
shows he has none lower. Hence, A only holds Hearts nine. As T
plays the five, he does not hold the three (he had not begun a signal
m first round, as B knows, holding Clubs U-d in his own hand).
Hence, Hearts three must be held by Z, and as he played ten, having
the three, he must have the Knave, but no others. Hence, the
Hearts lay originally as follows : —
With A, the nine; with Z, Knave, ten, three; with B, Ace,
Queen, four, two ; and the rest, viz., King, eight, seven, six, and five'
with Y.
Third Jrick. Diamonds four is the lowest of four at least. A has no
card below the eight, hence the two and three must be with I" as^
IS certainly not signalling. We know also that A has not five trumps,
or he would have begun with one ; hence, as he had originally four
Clubs, one Heart, and fewer than five trumps, he must have more
than three Diamonds. Since eight is his lowest and Z has led from
four at least, B having Queen, six, and Y Knave, tlu-ee, two, it follows
that Z must have held seven, five, four, and either Ace or King,
showing that A must have had eight, nine, ten, and either Ace or
King.^ But A' a first lead shows that A must have the Ace and not
the King, for he would not have led Clubs from six, seven, nine
King, if he had had eight, nine, ten. King of Diamonds ; thou'^h'
foUowing Clay's rule, he would have led a Club if holdins eight,'
nine, ten, Ace of Diamonds, reserving the Ace-headed long'suit to
get in with later. Thus the Diamonds lay originally as follow :
With y, Knave, tlu-ee, two ; with A, eight, nine, ten, Ace ; with
B, Queen, six ; and the rest, viz., King, seven, five, four, with Z
Fourth Trick. —B knows already that A holds four Spades- Y
two Spades ; and Z, three. As Z plays the seven, tlio onlv card^
left which can make up his remaining two are the eight, the"Queen,
and the Kmg. He cannot have both Queen and King, or he would
have played the Queen. He must have, then, either eight Queen or
eight King. But if he had the Queen, King would lie with A, and
A would not have finessed the Knave holding King, Knave, and two
others. Therefore Z held King, eight, seven. }''s other card
must be a small one, and Spades were originallv distributed as
follows : —
Z,— King, eight, seven; B,— ten, nine, six, five; F,— Ace, two (or
three, or four) ; and the rest, viz., Queen, Knave, four, three (or four
two, or three, two) with A. '
The doubt as to the actual value of the small spade in Y's hand
can hardly be said to affect the statement that Z knows the position
of every card in the pack, for the two, three, and four, are in this
case of practically equal value.
We would now leave our whist readers to explain why B led
trumps fourth round, when, with his knowledge of the position of
cards he might, one would say, lead his only remaining diamond,
through Z'.< King, enabling A to make the trick with the nine.
G. Thompson-. B's lead second trick is correct. It is unfortn-
iinte having to load from a tcnace suit; but it is better than
decemng partn.r. Returning partner's suit at once means, "I
have no strong suit."— H. P. YARMouxn. Your method of dealing
with the problem discussed by the Editor at p. 301 (letter 259) is
incorrect. Do you not see that in five cuttings, according to your
method, A would possess fifteen chances out of thirteen, which is
absurd?— Gr-ii.atio.v. The lead of King followed by Queen from
Ace, King, Queen, Ac, should certainly have been added (it is indi-
cated at p. 259) ; but not " Ace followed by ten from Ace, Queen
850
• KNOWLEDGE ♦
[Fbr 17, 1882.
KnnvK, ton " ; bcrnimo tlint is not correct. " Ace, foUowcil liy
ninp (instcnd of lowest or noxt lo lowodt) from Ace, Qncon, ton,
nine, niitl oiln-rs, or from Arc, Kiinvc, ton, ninf, and ollier«" is
correct in Kcnonil ; liut liithorto, tliouf^'li wo linvc touclicrt on the
piny second ronnil, wo hnvo not intended wliot is snid about that
ronnd to lio exlinuntive. Special ronHidcrntions coino in for second
round, wliicli render special treatment necessary in its case. One
wonld Imvo to mention exceptions in tlie Inst two cases; for if
Kinp and Knnve fell first round in tlie former, or Kinp and (Jiiecn
in the latter, the liighost of the Bcquonco would bo the proper
cni-d to load secimd round. Our loads nro complete, and the
learner would make the few necessary exceptions for second round
if ho possessed average intelligence, just as he would not, merely
becnuRo of the general rule " third in hand play your highest," put
his King on his partner's Queen. As to tho trump loads, we should
hnvo said that from Ace, King, not more tlian four others, and from
King, Qncon, not more than four, flinnllost is led. Wo believe we
wrote four in both cases, but, as yon note, it is printed " five."
Thanks. The chance problems later. Some of your solutions look
too simple, but they maybe right. May perhaps ask Editor to give
these as matlicmatical problems. Five of Clibs.
(9uv COfEfs Column.
Problem No. 20.
By J. A. Miles.
H...„„S ...M........SJ.,.I
"White to play and mate in four movc^.
SOLUTIONS.
No. 9.— End Game, by A. J. Maas, ]>. 239.
K. to K.sq. or A.
K. to B.6.
P. to Kt. 6.
P. to K.7.
A.l
4.
P. to Kt.5.
K. to Kt.4
P. to Kt.5.
P. to K.5.
P. to Kt.7.
P. to Kt.6.
K. to Kt.5.
K. to B.2.
3. F- to B.y.(ch.)
K. to B.sq.
r P. to K.6.
P. Queens.
K. takes P.
P. to K.4.
K. to B.5.
K. to K.3.
and wins.
If White plays 1. P. takes P.(eh.), Black obtains a draw In-
correct play.
End Game, No. 10., p. 210.
, Q. to B.G.(ch.) „ Q. takes P.(ch.) ,,,-,• . , ,
1- ^ . n -r 2. g-— —i and White is stale-
K. to B.sq. or A. P takes Q.
mated.
A. — If Queen interposes perpetual ch. on R.8. and B.C.
No. 11. — Problem by Hcrr Gunsberg, p. 240.
J Q. to K.R. 2. 2 Kt. to K.8.(ch.) g Kt. to K.C.
R. takes Q. best. ' Kt. takes Kt. ' mate.
Most of our correspondents gave 1. Q. to Kt.3. ; but if Black
replies with 1. H. to B.4.(ch.), there is no mate in two moves.
Kt. to B.5.(ch.)
K. toQ.5or^.
Problem No. 11, p. 259.
J, D^to K.3,(cjli.) ,
■ if K. takes B.^
3 Q. to Q.Kt.3. .,
mate.
Q. to Q.7.
K. to D.3.
Q. to K.O.
Problem No. 12, p. 2G0.
As pointed out by us, this haa two solutions, viz. : —
J Q. takes R.
B. takes Q. (best)
B. to Q.3.
mate.
Q. takes P.
Q. to K.sq. or .1.
Kt. to B.3.
Kt. takes R.P.
y. to K.4.
Q. takes B.(ch.)
Q. takes Q.
P. to Q.4.
and mates accordingly.
Kt. takes R.P. g P. to Q.4.
ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS.
*,* Please ttddress Chess-Edilor.
Edward Sargnnt (Problem No. 11, p. 240).— It Kt. to K.6.ch..
then Kt. takes Kt. with a check, and there is no mate.
Kt. to B.5.
J. P. — In Problem No. 18 or No.
Q. to K.O. ^, „ B. takes P.
^ then 3. mate.
6, it 1.
B. takes Kt
"B. toQ.6."
Squire. — Solution of No. 14 correct. We agree with you as i^
its merits.
J. H. Wootton. — There is no modem treatise on odds ; we hope
.soon to publish some articles on these openings. If yon give .'i
Pawn, you' must give your K.B.P.
E. C. H. — 1. Ton can have as many Queens for as many Pawn-
as you can advance to the eighth row ; 2. In Castling on the Qaeen'-
side, the King is put on B.sq. and the Book on Q.sq. ; 3. " Stale "
mate is a draw.
F. W. B. — Solution of No. 14 correct. It is convenient foi
writing down a game that is being played that the first playe:
should play with White; but it is not compulsory.
G. Woodcock. — Tour joke, directed against ua at " fall cock," i
good ; but vou are an adept in the art of firing. Remove Pawn ('t
black Q.R.2.
M. J. Harding. — We willingly grant your i-oquost, fi-ce of cbaig'"
Ilenry Planck. — Solutions correct.
F. Edmonds. — Thinks for games, which shall appear. " Mcphisto '
and Chess Editor of Knowledge are " one" in the flesh ! bat "two'
in the spirit.
Notice. — A gentleman would be glad to hear of another willini
to play a game by correspondence. — Address, Chess Ei>rroi>'
Knowledoe.
Contents of Knowledge A^o. 15.
PAGB
The Eve and the Microscope. Bv
UcnI-r .1. Slack, F.G.S., F.R.M.S. 311
.^boiil Fallaeies. Bt the Editor ... 311
Nichts with a Three-Inch Telescope.
Bv " .\ Fellow of theRoval .Vslro-
ical Societv." (lUiitlraltd) . 312
Telegraph. Bt 'W.
riG
The Elect
Lmd
The 9reat Prramid. By the Editor !
{IltHftrate'd) 315
The Crvstal Palace Electrical Eihi- \
bilion. First Notice 31S
Natural Rubbish Ueaps. Bv Jamoa '
Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S. ...,". 319 1
Dr. Carpenter on Vaccination 319 i
The Moon's Birth br Tidal EtoIo-
lion .' 3-
The Menacing Comet Si
CoRBBSPOxsKifcB : — Onr Lett«n.
Queries, and Replica— Flnh Food
—The MooM and the Wealhw—
Intra- Mercurial Planet, 4o. ...3»W:
Queries ^i
Kcpliea to Queries S2
Answers to Correspondenta «-... 3i
Letters Received 3^
Notes on .\rt and Science 3?
Our Mathematical Column ». 3:%
Onr ■Whist Column ST
Our Chess Column S;
i'EB. 24, 1882.]
♦ KNOWLEDGE •
351
^MACi^ZlNE Of SCIENCE
^lAlNIlTI^ORDED-EXACrrfPESCRIBED
LONDON: FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 24, 1882.
Contents op No. 17.
Our Ancestors. — I. The Stone Age
M,!i Bt Grant Allen 331
: the Moon bv Tiorder, is also allowed to be inhabited by a mainly Welsh
ace. Furthermore, it is pretty generally granted by our
toutest Teutonic champions themselves, that the people
of Dorset, Somerset, and Devon ; of Lancashire, Cheshire,
Shropshire, Herefordshire, and Worcestershire ; are all
largely mingled with Celtic blood. Thus, in the end, it
appears that only the native inliabitants of the Lothians
and the Eastern and Southern coast of England are
claimed as pure Teutons, oven by those who most loudly
assert the essentially Teutonic origin of the English people.
We may possiljly tind that this little Teutonic belt, or
border itself, is not without a fair sprinkling of earlier
blood.
Perhaps the best way to clear up this question will be to
glance briefly at the various races which have inliabited
these islands, one after another, and then to inquire how
far their descendants still exist in our midst, how large a
proportion of our blood they have contributed, and where-
abouts their representatives are now mainly to be found.
Of course, in such an inquiry we can only arrive at \ ery
approximate results, for in our present advanced stage of
intermixture, it is almost impossible for any man to say
exactly what are the proportions of various races, even in
his own person. Each of us is descended from two parents,
four grand-parents, eight grand-grand-parents, and so forth ;
so that, unless we could hunt up our pedigrees in every
direction for ten generations, involving a knowledge of no
less than 1,02-1 ditlercnt persons at the tenth stage back-
ward, we could not even say how far we ourselves were
descended from Irish, Scotch, Welsh, or English ancestors
respectively. As a matter of fact, everyone of us is now,
probably, a very mixed product indeed of Teutonic, Celtic,
and still earlier elements, which we cannot practically
unravel : and, perhaps, all we can really do is to point out
that here one kind of blood is predominant, there another,
and yonder again a third.
The very eai4iest race of men who ever lived in England
are probably not in any sense our ancestors. They were
those black fellows of the palaeolithic or older stone age,
whose flint implements and other remains we tind buried
in the loose earth of the river-drift or under the concreted
floors of caves, and who dwelt in Britain while it was yet
a part of the mainland, with a cold climate like that of
modern Siberia. These people seem to have lived before
and between the recurrent cold cycles of the great glacial
period ; and they were probably all swept away by the last
of those long chilly spells, when almost the whole of
England was covered by a vast sheet of glaciers, like
Greenland in our own time. Since their days, Britain has
been submerged beneath several hundred feet of sea, raised
again, joined to the continent, and once more finally
separated from it by the English Channel and the Straits
of Dover. Meanwhile, our own original ancestors — the
people from whom Ijy long moditication we ourselves are at
last descended — were probably living away in the warmer
south, and there developing the 'higher physical and intel-
lectual powers by which thej' were ultimately enabled to
overrun the whole northern part of the old world.
Accordingly, interesting as these older stone age savages
undoubtedly are — low-browed, fierce-jawed, crouching
creatures, inferior even to the existing Australians or
Andaman Islanders — they have yet no proper place in a
pedigree of the modern English people. They were the
aboriginal inhabitants of Britain ; but their blood is
probably quite unrepresented among the Englishmen of
the present day.
Long after these black fellows, however, and long after
the glaciers of the ice age had cleared ofl" the face of the
country, a second race occupied Britain, some of whose
descendants almost undoubtedly exist in our midst at the
present day. These were the neolithic, or later stone-age
men, who have been identified, with great probability, as a
352
KNOWLEDGE
[Fku. 24, 1882.
branch of tho Banio isolated Basque or EuRtrarian race
wliich now lives oniony tlif valli-ys of tho WesU-ni
Pyrcni'i's and tin- Astiirias mountains. 'I'licy .si-oin to havr
crossotl over into liritniii whili- it wiis still (•orincct<'cl witli
tlio Coiitiiirnt liy a liroad istlimu.s, or, perhaps, even l>y n
lonj; strclvh of land occupyinf; the entire lieds of the
Channel and the Oernian Ocean. Our knowledge of them
is mainly derived from their tonilis or harrows — jjreat
heaps of earth which they ]iiled up almve the liodies of
their dead chieftains. Krom these have lieen taken their
skeletons, their wi-apons, their domestic utensils, and their
ornaments, all the latter objects huvinj; heen buried with
tlie corpse, for the use of the gho.st in the other world.
From an examination of these remains, we are able largely
to recon.struct tho life of the Eustrarian peojih — the
earliest inhabitants of LJritiin whose blood is still largely
represented in the existing ]iopulation.
In stature, the neolithic men were short and thick-set,
not often exceeding five feet four inches. In com-
plexion, they were probably white, but swarthy, like the
darkest Italians and Spaniards, or even the Moors. Their
skulls were very long and narrow ; and they form the best
distinguishing mark of the race, as well as the best test of
its survival at the present day. Tho neoliths were un-
aci|uainted with tho use of metal, but they employed
weapons and implements of stone, not rudely chipped, like
those of the older stone age, but carefully ground and
polished. They made pottery, too, and wove cloth ; they
domesticated pigs and cattle ; and they cultivated coarse
cereals in the little plots which they cleared out of the
forest with their stone hatchets or tomahawks. In general
culture, they were about at the same level as the more
advanced Polynesian tribes, when they first came into
contact with European civilisation. The \)arrows which
they raised over their dead chieftains were long and rather
narrow, not round, like those of the later Celtic conquerors.
They appear to have lived for the most part in little
stockaded villages, each occupying a small clearing in the
river valleys, and ruled over by a single chief : and the
barrows usually cap the summit of the boundary hills which
overlook the little dales. Inside them are long-chambered
galleries of large, rough-hewn stones ; and when these
primitive erections are laid bare by the decay or removal
of the barrow, they form the so-called " Druidical monu-
ments " of old-fashioiu'd antitiuaries, a few of which are
Celtic, but the greater part Eustrarian.
At some future period I hope to lay before the readers
of Knowledcie a fuller account of these neolithic people
and their existing remains. At i)rcsoiit, the points to
which I wish to call attention arc, firstly, the fact of their
existence in early days in Britain ; and, secondly, tho fact
that many of their descendants still remain among us to
the present day. Nor do I propose in this paper to esti-
mate the numerical strength of the Eustrarian element in
the population of the British islands as it now stands. It
will be best to consider that part of the question at
a later point in this series, when we have seen what
were the subsequent races which overcame, and, in fact,
displaced, the aboriginal Eustrarian folk. For the
moment, it will suffice to point out that before the
arrival of the Celts and other Aryan tribes in
Britain, the^e Eustrarians spread over the whole of our
islands, and were apparently the only people then inhaliit-
ing them. At least, the ninuuments of this date — perhaps
from ."i,000 to '.'0,000 years old —seem to be similar in
type wherever they occur in Britain, and to contain tho
remains of an essentially identical race. I shall also add
liere, by antici]iation, what I hope to show more in detail
hereafter, that their descendants exist almost unmixed at
the present day as the so-called Black Celts in certain
part-s of WeBt«Tn Ireland and Scotland, and in a few placeit
in South Wales ; whihf thi'ir blood may be still traced in
a more mixed condition in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, East
.\nglia, the Scotch Highlands, and many other districts
of England and Scotland. How they have managed to
survive and to outlivi' the various later Celtic and Teutonic
c()n<|uest.s, we shall have to inabl» of all events in this cose, as in tho last,
is that thorc will lie 2 more heads than tails, or vicn vktsA ;
mid wluTi-as in tliu former case it was an even chance that
there would lie just this discrepancy, tho odds in the
present ca.se are 9 to 7 against it. But tho chanci; that
thei-e will he this discrepancy at leaol, is greater with thi-
greater iiuiiilier of trials. For in the former ca.so tho odds
were hut •"> to .'J, or 17."> to lO.'), against ahsolutt; ciiuality, in
the present case they are 9.'{ to .'55, or 27'J to lO."} against
it. And it can lie shown that it becomes less and less
likely the greater the (even) number of tossings, that there
will 1)6 absolute equality. Yet, on the other hand, in the
oases considered, the chance that heads will exceed tails, or
tails heads, not liy a given amount, Ijut in a given degree,
diminishes as the number of tossings is increased. Thus
with 4 tossings, the chance that heads mil be to tails as
•'5 to 1 (or vice versA) is, as we have seen, one half ; with 8
tossings the chance of this relation holding (G of one kind,
two of the other) is only 7-32nds. Again, the chance that
heads will be to tails, or vice versd, in a ratio of not less
than 3 to 1 is S-Sths in the former case ; in the latter
(adding together l-128th, l-16th, and 7-32nds), we find it
to be only 37-128tlis ; in one case the odds are 5 to 3 in
favour of that amount of discrepancy at least, in the other
they are 91 to 37 against there being a discrepancy so
great.
But some correspondents ask whether, even in matters
of pure chance, there may not be something more than
mere accident, — whether some men may not have a certain
degree of good fortune given to them, — whether, in line,
what is called luck may not in some degree depend on
Providence This takes us a little outside the domain of
science ; but as it does not bi-ing us upon any of the vexed
(juestions of dogmatic religion, I will venture to make a
remark or two on this (in reality) unscientific aspect of the
question. To the student of science it appears as absurd
to imagine that the laws of nature would be set on one side
in matters of pure chance (for even in coin tossing nothing
short of a miracle can cause the law of averages to be
departed from — in the long run — either in favour of any-
one or against him) as it would be to conceive that an
experimenter favoiu-ed l)y Providence might get a mi.xture
of carbonic acid gas* and nitrogen to behave like a mixture
of oxygen and hydrog(!n, or as it would be to suppose that
during Darwin's researches into the work of earth-worms,
these creatures, siiadente diaholo, acted in a way not
natural to their kind. If in the case of so-called lucky
gamblers, a supernatural power, good, bad, or indillcrent,
has been at work, science has no power of dealing with
the phenomena. All science can say is, that the observed
and recorded phenomena agree precisely with those which
can be shown to be necessary con.sequences of the laws of
probabilities : all she can do is to go on dealing with the
matter precisely as a Pasteur would go on dealing with the
observed phenomena of disease germs, uninfluenced by any
suggestions that diseases wore produced by supernatural
agencies.
• I nm perfectly awaro that what waa called carbonic acid gaa
twenty years ago now goes by another name; and I am equally
•iw.'iro that a (echnical moaninp is given to the word " mixture "
other than its ordinary significaiico. But I am not addressing
chemists just now.
So far, i have simply considered what science necessarily
does in such cases, 'i'he student of science can do no
otherwise. But I may iiot<', in passing, that just as there
K«!ems to be something irrtrverent in the suggestion of
I'rovidence arranging for the " breaking of the bank " by a
(larcia or any other unprincipled gambler, so the general
suggestion that Provid(;iice, and not the laws which have;
been assigned to the universe (how or why wo know not),
is to be cr(-dit<'d or discredited with all the chances or
coincidences which seem surprising to us, appears to me
singularly dangerous to the faith of tho weaker minded.
Because, while many of these coincidences have Ijeen satis-
factory enough in their results, at least as many have been
very much the reverse, and not a few utterly deplorable.
Take for instance the following ca.se : —
In the winter and early spring of 1881, in America,
railway accidents were very common (231 happened in the
first two months of that year), and any one who had (as I
had) much railway travelling to do at that time had a very
fair chance of coming in for wounds and contusions, if not
worse.* Now it so chances that at the end of February, a
train was wrecked in Missouri, in which two persons were
killed and many injured. Another train was sent, carr3riiig
several medical men, and a number of appliances for the
relief of tlie wounded. By a most unfortunate chance, this
train, thus forwarded to help many suffering persons, was
itself wrecked ; seven persons were killed, including several
of the doctors. If we are not to consider this strange and
sad coincidence as belonging to the chapter of accidents, as
due to the chances which always affect events depending
on natural causes (as the weakening of embankments by
frost and thaw, the action of winds, rain, snow-drifts, ic),
must we regard it as due to special intervention of Provi-
dence t Science tells us, and experience confinus her
teaching, that in the game man plays (or his contest, if you
will) with nature, the laws of nature are as laws of the
Medes and Persians, that he must not expect to have his
moves back, or any help outside the laws assigned (inex-
plicably so far as we are concerned) to nature : if he does
expect this, he will most assuredly be disappointed.
THE CRYSTAL PALACE ELECTRICAL
EXHIBITION.
Third Notice.
THE most casual observer can discern some improve-
ment during the past week, although there still
remains a great deal to be done before anything like com-
pleteness can be said to be attained. Some of the exhibits
exist only in the catalogue, and it seems apparent that no
attempt will be made to proceed any further than a dis-
play of advertisements. It has occurred to us that some
* For my own part, I thought it exceedingly likely that befora
tlie leeture season came to an end, my lecturing miglit be inter-
rupted. As week passed after week without an accident, I neither
judged that the next journey was more likely or that it was less
likely to be disastrous. At last, towards the end of February, my
turn came. The train I was in was pitched over an embankment,
not far from Kichmoud, Missouri, falling some twenty or thirty
feet, and a stove drove its way tliroiigh a stout plank within two
inches of the place where my head lay. Was I lucky or unlucky ?
unlucky in going by that particular train; or, being in it, lucky in
escaping with no injuries worse than a nearly fractured skull and a
nearly broken leg. As I and the other passengers looked at tho
shattered interior of the car, wo thought ourselves lucky to be alive j
as we considered the various damages which our persons and
property had sustained, we took a different view. (The accident
turned out afterwards to have been singularly fortunate for me, but
that is a detail.)
FEa 24, 1882.]
♦ KNOWLEDGE
355
advantage would be gained by the directors prohibiting
the fixing of any advertisements whatever, until the ex-
Iiil)its they refer to are duly placed in position, or some-
thing approaching thereto. The most notable advances
are in electric lighting. The Brush Company, to which
reference was made last week, have got all their live engines
in ifitii, and three of them running.
The visit of the Lord ^layor two or three weeks since
has caused considerable delay in the general preparations,
some of the now unprepared firms ha\ing had (in order to
contribute towards making a display suitable to the occa-
sion), to start their engines before the concrete foundations
had dried ; consequently, these foundations were pulled to
pieces and had to be re-laid. In the Italian Court is one
of the prettiest exhibits conceivable. It consists of a brass
chandelier of delicately chaste design, decked with forty-
two incandescent lamps of the British Electric Light
Company. They are very regular, and appear to have
been carefully selected. Although the light from them
thoroughly illuminates the court, still greater eflect is to
be produced, as the Company is at present using only one
.'^-horse-power engine to maintain seven Brockie (arc) lamps,
in addition to the forty-two incandescent lamps. When all
is in working order, there will be two more engines at work,
each of lO-horse-power.
Consequent, presumably, upon the serious railway acci-
dents which have so alarmed Londoners lately, great
attention is centred on the various exhibits for improving
our systems of signalling, Ac. In the Eastern Gallery, far
away from the general bustle, is a working model of a system
invented by Mr. King, of Paixton, Derbyshire, exhibited
by the Electric Railway Signal Company. The model
illustrates the working of three signal posts controlling a
main line and a branch line connected with it. There is a
treadle between the rails opposite each signal post and in
connection wth it. A train in passing over the treadle
connected to, say signal-post A, puts that signal, by a me-
chanical contrivance, to danger — that is to say, the line is
automatically blocked to a following train. The signal cannot
be lowered until train No. 1 passes signal-post B, in passing
which, by pressing on the treadle, it puts post B to danger
by mechanical means, and, simultaneously, by completing
an electrical circuit, lowers the signal at post A. Train
No. 2 is therefore at liberty to pass post A, but cannot pass
post B until train No. 1 has passed post C, and so on
throughout the line. If the train has to go on to a branch
line, the lever operating the points interlocks with the
signals, in this case V)locking the main line and clearing the
Iwanch. These signals can be reversed (that is to say, the
main-line signal cleared and the branch line signal blocked)
only by altering the lever. It is evident, then, that by this
system there cannot be two trains in any one section of the
line at the same time, unless the driver of one of the trains
ignores or fails to see his signal.
An arrangement is also shown by which a train, in
passing a signal box, puts the minute-hand of a clock back
to zero. The hand then travels on for fifteen minutes, or
until the following train puts it again to zero. In this
way, the driver, as well as the signalman, can see how long
a time (up to fifteen minutes) has elapsed since the jiassing
of the preceding train. Another arrangement (not shown
in the model) is to indicate the numlier of trains passing
daring the twenty-four hours, and the time at which
each passed. While, however, several high autho-
rities express a wish for a good automatic system,
some of the railway officials appear to desire an
proved system of hand-signalling. The King patent
1 '•adily adaptable to this form, and it is to be hoped
"iiat before long we may see such a system as this in
general use. The application of tliis or any other new-
form must be a process of time, considering the radical
change that would be necessary in existing apparatus, and
the large outlay involved. Until the system is tried, it is
somewhat difficult to form an opiiiion of its practicability,
although to all appearance it is as perfect for clear-
weather signalling as can possibly be desired. It does
not attempt to overcome the difficulties accompanying
foggy weather ; and here is apparently its weakest point.
In the North Nave, however, is a model of apj^aratus
designed for this purpose, and exhibited by the Biitish
and Irish Telephone and Electric Works Conipau}-. The
model is designed by Mr. Radclifle, of Birmingham.
He makes some use of electricity. Near the signal-post is
an electro-magnet (51 Fig. 1), over tliis is a ])iece of soft
iron (A), which, when a current of electricity passes
through the electro-magnet, is drawn downwards. When
the current ceases, a spring (S) draws A up again.
Attached to A is a short rod, carrying a block of iron,
brass, or any durable substance (B). When the signalman
pulls his lever over to drop the signal-arm, the electrical
circuit is completed; so that A, and with it, B, are drawn
down. Attached to the side of the engine is a lever, or
simple rod of iron (represented in section by E),
which, if drawn down, acts by means of a spiral spring
upon a miniature signal-arm on the driver's platform,
within a few inches of his eyes, actuating at the same
time his whistle. If the signal is " down " when the
engine approaches the magnet, B only touches E, which, in
passing under B, simply shakes the miniature arm. If,
however, the signal is to " danger," A is drawn do^vn by
the current, and B presses the rod E down, and so puts
the miniature arm to danger, and by simultaneously blow-
ing the whistle, draws the attention of the driver to the
position of the signal and the attention of the signalman
to the position of the train.
This, then, if found practicable, is an efficient substitute
for fog-signals. It is very simple and ingenious, and it is
to be hoped it will prove effective, at least in crowded
districts, where the trains, although frequent, do not travel
at a very high speed. It is more than possible, we fear,
that there may be difficiUties in the way of applying
the system to fast trains.
Revolution i.\ a Ueed of Df.er. — For years an old buck, tlio
leader of the deer herd on the Boston Common, has maintained an
absolute and malicious tyranny over the younger member.^ of his
own sex. His treatment rankled, and the other day, wlien he shed
his horns, tiiey inadea combined attack upon liim, which only ceased
upon the death of the tyi'ant. The Superintendent and his
assistants attempted to interfere, but were driven nut of the in-
closore by the infuriated animaKs, which became docile again when
their enemy wivs dispo.i^ed of. They still prcseri-e. however, a sort
of sic /temper tyranniit air, and thus far, no one of their number lias
laid claim to the primacy. — Scientific American.
366
KNOWLEDGE
[Fkh. 24, 1»82.
THE RAINBAND.*
EVEHYONK who notes a baromctiT's indications, uixl
I'lircfiilly coinjiuii's tlicni with tlic woathfr, knows
that thr liuroniftcr is liut an unsutisfuctory wrathi-r
^uiih'. There in pitiniiKe, however, that witli an ally
apiMirently in.si^niticant (t-ertainly insi^^iilicant in si/.e and
ex|K>nso), wc may lie aMe to jiredirt tlm eoniing of wet
weatlr r with i()nsi.
seujie, directed to any part of the sky, not too near the
huri/.on, will show the jiresence or absence of the rain-
Imnd (which Prof. Piazzi Smyth may he said to have dis-
covered, since he first directed attention to its im-
jiortunce) ; t and so will often tell us of the approadi of
rainy weather not indicated liy the liuromcter, or that
when the barometer jwiints to rainy tlie weather will in
reality be dry. The strength or faintness of this liaiid
in the spectrum indicates, in fact, the excess or deficiency
of atpieous vapour in the air as compared with the average.
AVith a little jnactice in the use of one of the rain-
Iwind spectroscopes advertised in our columns, assisted by
study of the little panipldet before us (which ilr. i5rowning
supplies v.ith his pocket spectroscopes for rainbow study),
an Englishman may bi>conie so independent of his umbrella,
when it is not going to rain, that his best Continental or
American frienils would not recotfiiise him.
THE GREAT PYRAMID.
liv THE Editor.
I HAVE prepared two views of the Pyramid regarded as
a structure for observation, but as there is great pres-
sure this week on our space, and these views will occupy
nearly a full page, it has seemed well to defer that part of
iny subject to the week after next. I take tlie opportunity
to discuss, as I promised several weeks ago, the curious
coincidences -which many have regarded as demonstrating
wliat may be called the divine-inspiration theory of the
Pyramid.
With the discovery that the base of the Pyramid is
several feet shorter than had been supposed, a number of
relations supposed to connect the Great Pyramid with
astronomy go overboard at a single stroke. I had written
a paper showing how singular these relations are, but at
the same time how obviously they result from mere coin-
cidence ; and now, alas .' (another strange coincidence ?)
the relations themselves disappear, and my remarks upon
them have no longer any weight. Still, the coincidences
are there. Indeed, it only requires that the Pyramid inch
should be slightly altered for the relations to be all once
more perfectly fulfilled. What will lie done with the
arguments showing the true Pyramid inch to be almost
e.\actly the same as the British inch, and the true cubit to
be twenty five of these inches, I do not know ; but past
• " A Plea for tho Rainband." By J. Rand Capron.
t Mr. Capron, in mentioninf; that Prof. Smyth has made himself
owner of three parts of the rainband, falls into a somewhat amusinp
mistake about certain lines which may belong, possibly, to the
nursirj- rhymes of the future, and, therefore, must be carefully
Kimnled from change. He says that in university rhymes. Mr.
UK-kyer is said to have " made himself owner of Iml'f the corona j "
whereas, in the original rhymes, written along with mnny others
during the eclipse expedition of 1H70- at which time Mr. Lockyer
Nnpposed the now abandoned theory of the corona to be unqucslion-
nbly sound— the words were, " ' Of the solar corona,' soys he (I,.),
'I'm the owner.'" This will lie of use to antii|U.irians of the
future ; just an those of our own day are enlightened by the reionl
showing tho real liistorj- of little .luck Horner, and the real nature
of the plum he so deftly ab.«tractcd.
experience shows that whatever the precise value of the
I'yramid inch, a.s deduced from these new measures, may
prove to lie, will be shown to U- just the value which
corresponds most perfectly with what may tie called the
Pyramid religion. So, aft<-r all, my article may come in
well enough. However, I am not so jiarticularly fond of
demolishing giants of straw that, when the straw stulfing
has been ruthlessly jiulled out, I should persist in my
attack. So I will here pre-sent now very briefly what I
had before advamed at some length :-
We find that while the Pyramid fulfils closely the rela-
tion which Jlerodotus says it was intended to fulfil, each
slant face being ei|ual in area to the square of the height,
it al.so very nearly fidfils what Taylor tells us was the
real puqwse of the Viuilder, the height being nearly equal
.to the radius of a circle having a circumference equal to
the perimeter of the s<|uare base ; and again, it almost as
closely fulfils another relation, in having the slant at the
edge very nearly as y vertically to 10 horizontally. Now, to
the ignorant, it seems as though the close approximation of
the building's proportions to these three relations, proves
demonstrably the mathematical skill of the builders, if not
their divine inspiration. As a matter of fact, however, we
see from the co-ex i-stence of these three relations, any one
of which might as well as another be the real one which
the builders had in view (were it not certain from what
Herodotus tells us, that the first only was their
building rule), how easy it is to find such relations if we
only look carefully for them, for two out of the three are
certainly accidental. So that apart from the evidence of
Herodotus, we should be free to reject all three, on the
sound plea that since coincidence can so readily be detected,
no reliance can be placed upon any argument from infrr
coincidence.
Then, again, according to the measurements just nega-
tived, there were exactly as many cubits of L'-'i inches in each
side as there are days in the year, or '.iGJy2i inches in the
circuit of the base. One would have said that if this were
really proved, and if the height were determined by any
one of the three geometrical rules just indicated, all the
dimensions of the Great Pyramid, as a whole, were deter-
mined once for all. But even in the early days of the
Pyramid religion, the Pyramidalists were not content with
this. They found that the two diagonals of the square
base together contained as many inches as there are years in
the Great Precessional Period, and that the height contained
as many inches as there are in the one thousand millionth
part of the sun's distance ; though, of course, if these
relations really hold, they indicate coincidences, and very
singular ones too, entirely outside of the Pyramid. As
thus : Take one-fourth the number of days in the yeai', and
double the square of this number ; the stiuare root of the
product equals half the number of years in the Great Pre-
cessional Period. And again, take 100 times the number
of days in the year, and reduce the number thus
obtained in the same ratio that the radius is less
than the circumference of a circle ; you will then
have a number equal to the number of inches which
there are in one thousand millionth part of the sun's
distance. These two relations exist quite independently
of the Pyramid, and, so seen, even Pyramidalists must
admit that they are but singular numerical coincidences.
They have not a particle of real significance, anj' more thau
this one, which I make Pyramidal (by a very transparent
device) merely to show how easy it is to work such tilings :
— Take the s(|uare base of the Pyramid, and divide each
side into as many parts as the Pyramid has faces. Join
the corresponding divisions of opposite sides of the base so
that the base is divided into sixteen si>n(loii stre<-t in nif{ht attire wax, for the tinx-
l>oiiig, at any rate, jniiane.
I*rol>al>ly, few ]HT8ong who havn had occasion to tax
thi'ir iiientiil [mwers at times to the iitninst, hav<' failed to
notice this tendency tt> \Aay idly with words, anionj^ other
symptoms of want of rest. When noticed under such
eircumstaiiees, the peculiarity need not ho r('{;arded as
alarming. If, however, it remains aft4-r rest has iteen
olitiiined, it indicat<>8 the nucussity for relaxation of a more
i'llective kind.
And here we feel called on to object strongly to a remedy
su;;;,'est«'d in a little Imok on "Common Mind TrouMes,'
for the errors in speech characteristic of impaired mental
vigour, namely, " readin;; aloud in one langua-je from a
work writU'n in another, for example, a French hook to an
English audience." It would he o-s rcasonahle to recom-
mend persons who showed symptoms of bodily weariness to
try the efl'ect of an hour's exercise with Indian clubs or
heavy dumb-hells. The proper course is to take rest as
soon as possible, and alnDve all things to avoid the mistake
of seeking in distraction of the thouglits (which is only
another form of " worry ") for the good ctiects which can
only be expected from relaxation. Some of the most
melancholy cases of mental break-down have been caused
far more by social worries sought as remedies, than by the
excessive brain work to which they have been too hastily
attributed.
lUbictue.
CELESTIAL OBJECTS FOR COMMON
TELESCOPES.*
THE first edition of this work seemed to us one of the
most charming little books on astronbmy ever
written ; the second scarce less so : the third still endeared
to us by recollections of its simpler predecessors ; the
fourth is the firet which seems overweighted by details and
minutia'. Perhaps, if we had seen the fourth lirst, we
should have liked it as well as we did the first ; yet it
cannot be denied that many pages of the work before us
are calculated to alarm, rather than attract, the young
student of astronomy, for whom the book is specially
intended.
The charm of the earlier edition lay, perhaps, a good deal
in a certain insoucifinri- of style, a neglect of nouns sub-
stantive, and of too strict rules of syntax, which was
suggestive of enthusiasm. The subject seemed to run
away with the writer. Take, for instance, the opening
sentences of the chapter on Venus. " The most beautiful
of heavenly bodies to the unaided eye is often a source of
disappointment in the telescope." (We know somehow — we
cannot tell how — that this is not a general proposition.)
" for the most part it resists all questioning beyond that
of Cialileo, to whom its phases revealed the confirmation
of the Copemican theory — an important discoverj' " (not
the theory, nor the confirmation) "which he involved
for a season in the following ingenious Latin trans-
position," itc, the well-known anagram aliout the
phases of Venus. Then the work much bi-tter deserves
to !« called Astronomy without ilathematics — and, there-
fore, to lie widely popular— than Sir Edmund Beckett's
really profound and mosU-rly treatise, so-called. Take, for
• CtUntial Objects for Common Teleseopes. By Kev. T. W. Webb.
Fourth Edition. (LongtnanH. Cimn. A Co., London.) Price lOs.
instance, the following recipe for drawing the disc of
Jupiter:- " Make a niotangle 15 high, 16 wide, on any
convenient scale of eipial parts ; find its centre by inter-
secting diagonals : from this descrilx- a circle touching the
top and l>ottom, and then pitlf out, as it were, the sides of
the circle to touch the ends of the rectangle, altering the
curves liy eye and hand till a tolerable ellipsis is protluced."
Could anything be less formal or less trammelled by mathe-
matical phraseology than this ? The absence of those
provoking attempts at explanation to be found in some
astronomical books is another charming feature of the work
before us. We liave, in.stf^ad, such expressions as, — " Here
explanation is set at defiance ! " " What could it have
been 1 " and so forth ; nothing to weary the learner, or
unduly tox his reflective faculties.
If Afr. Webb is unwilling to weary his readers, he has
evidently not spared his own labours. The book is crowded
with information, notes, references, por-s^onal e.xperience,
strange out-of-the-way facts : it is, in fact, a storehouse of
astronomic lore. There is nothing like it in its own line ;
and though the fourth edition goes far to establish old
Hesiod's saying, that the half may be better than the
whole, it is a work without which no astronomical library
(not possessing an earlier edition) would be complete. We
could have wished Green's Map of Mars had been repro-
duced here, instead of the one Mr. Webb has given, which
is unlike anything in the heavens above, or elsewhere. But
such faults are few.
A Hoese's Pastime. — A few years ago, wliilc in North Stafford-
shire, I saw a horse amusing himself in a ratlior original manner.
On one of the trees at the side of his field, next the road, wtis a
branch about a yard from the ground. The horse stood on this
branch with liis hind legs, and, planting his fore-feet firmly on the
ground, as a fHlcrum, gravely see-sawed up and down by swaying-
the bough, getting on again when he slipped oft. He appeared to
derive a sort of solemn pleasure from the'procecding. — Titteswoeth.
A Generous Bulldog. — My children went out for a walk — girl
12, boy 10 years — taking my dog, a cress-bred bull and terrier,
also a retriever dog, belonging to a relative. This latter entered a
large reseiToir, on being told to do so, and paddled about for some
time, amusing the children. By-and-bye he swam amongst some
rnslie.s, and they appeared too strong for him to fight his way out.
He was called, but seemed exhausting himself and unable to obey.
The children called louder, and were, in fact, gc^iting frightened,
when our dog, who was on the bank, jumped into the water, swam
up to the retriever, seized him by one ear, and, being a strong,
muscular animal, he dragged the retriever to land. On getting «
oat, instead of fighting on account of the punishment the retriever *
had received, they fell to licking each other in a most affectionate
manner. Was this instinct ? — J. DA\^DSON.
CoD-SoCNn.— The meaning of this word "sound" for the aorta,
or chief blood-vessel, of the cod-fish goes deeper than sotidre, to
sever, or sunder, suggested by Mr. W. SI. Williams (p. 295). The .
root-word is common to several of the chief groups of languages, f
.S'on, or .«oiia, in Sanskrit, is rod, blood-coloured ; snnita is blood.
In the Dravidian dialects, sen is red, or blood. Sen is blood in
Egyptian, whence the derivation senn.t denotes that foundation which
in biology is blood. So, in Chinese nen is foundation; the heart
itself, as well as heart figturatively, the inward and essential basis of
being. The .Assyrian siina also denotes fulcrum and foundation.
Tliese meanings all meet in the fish-sound, as that which contains
the blood, the basis of life, and the name shows how much signifi-
caHCo may be concentrated in a single word. — Gerald Masset.
Fox Story. — I can hardly distinguish the action of the foi in the
following case from reason. It happened in it-( "Johnson i Mather." (2) Frciberg is
wrongly spelled with a «, not by me !
I hope some of my sharper pupils, having tried the experi-
ment with oxide of manganese, detailed in Lesson II., will
find out that I have omitted to mention a very remarkable
" reaction " (which is the chemical term for a phenomenon
depending npon tho application of any particular operation).
It is thus : — On first heating the manganese (brown) oxide*
with the phosphoric acid, great effervescence, or bubbling,
takes place, and the bubbles are tinged a deep crimson colour.
This extremely delicate reaction will detect 005 of manganese in
minerals or compounds. The phenomenon described in the tinal
paragraph of Lesson II. is evidently the result of holding the bead
(on platinum \vire) in two different positions as regards tho blue,
blo\vpipe-pjTocone. In any position (o) in front of the " tip or
point of the blue," as it is called, the manganiferous bead assumes
an "amethyst," or bluish-violet colour; in any position within the
blue, the bead becomes colourless (b).
Position (a) is called in most blowpipe books " the oxidating
flame," or briefly, OF. Position (b) " the reducing flame," or RP.
I have altered these names in my books, because they do not cor-
rectly describe the resulting reactions. In the first place, there is
no '■ flame" at all, but, instead, a cone of non-luminous, blue fire ;
secondly, many beads (an auriferous, or gold-bearing bead, for
instance), so far from being oxidised just in front of the blue tij),
suffer a deoxidising or " reducing" process, whilst the position (h)
does not invariably reduce all substances dissolved in these beads —
oxide of chromium, for instance — and produces many phenomena
besides reduction, as that of "colouration," " precipitation," &c.t
1 have therefore, thought it better to describe these important
situations of the subject of analysis by symbols expressing the
na(i!/eof the fire which, in that position, attacks it, thus: — HP
(instead of RF) for hydrocarbonous J pyrocone; OP (instead of
OF) for oxjhydrogen pyrocone, and PP (no old name), for
peroxidising pyrocone. This last position extends from i in. to
2 in., or even 3 in. — if the blast is sufficiently strong — in front of
the " blue tip." Let us now revert to our phosphoric, mangani-
ferous § bead (these are rather long words, but necessarj-, and
easily learned and remembered by the r^al student). Chemists
have ascertained that the common or brown oxide of manganese
contains two proportions or parts of oxygen to one of the metal
manganese. Tlieir symbol for manganese is Mn, and they, there-
fore, symbolise this compound thus : MnOj. They have also found
that the " red," or violet oxide contains the proportion three of
metal to four of oxygen, and have thus S}TnboIised it lln304.
The chemical action of the different parts of the blowpipe pyro-
cone, therefore, is admirably illustrated by the Mn. bead ; for, as wo
have seen, the relative proportions of metal and oxygen of the com-
pound dissolved in it are actiiallj- and materially altered by a simple
movement of the hand '. The lowest — that is, the nearest metal —
known oxide of manganese, is what chemists call the " monoxide," ||
MnO (obtained by heating the common carbonate in a gun-barrel,
through which hydrogen gas is pa.=sed), and is a green powder;
what oxide, therefore, tho cohurless bead after treatment in HP,
contains, is not yet, apparently, known.
* Oxygen (acid generating). — A gas discovered by an Englishman
(Priestley) in Birmingham in 1772. It is a component of almost
all natural inorganic substances.
+ Precipitation (a falUng down) is the condition when a bead
becomes "muddy" or opalescent, which before was transparent,
or " clear." The oxide, or substance which before was dissolved
in the clear bead, has, by some act, become insoluble, and is
"precipitated."
J Hydrogen (water generator), a gas ; with oxygen forms water,
and in that form is a constituent of almost all substances, organic
and inorganic. It is also with carbon, a component of oils, fats,
4c., which arc called " hydro-carbons," and therefore, of the ignited
gases proceeding from them when burned.
§ Manganiferous. — Bearing (or containing) manganese.
II Honoxide. — Greek Monos one, and oxide.
One of the greatest chemists that ever lived, in days when great
chemists did not despise the blowpipe, discovered this curious re-
action of manganese in borax. His name was Scheelo. He was at
first only an apothecary at Koping, in Sweden.
I am now going to ask my student to make another " bead," still
prettier than the last, by means of a substance almost as cheap as
manganese, and he shotild go to the same place for it — viz., to the
glass-works ; I mean oxide of cobalt. The minerals in which cobalt
was first found in Germany were so like silver, that when the miners
found they did not contain silver, they said they must have been
silver changed in character, or be-devilled by some demon, and
Kobold is the German for demon.
The phosphoric acid, or, in brief, P. acid-bead, is tinged with
cobalt oxide, or CoO, in the same manner as the former one was
with MnO.. (see Lesson II.), but see what a different result we have
got ! This bead is blue hot, but in cooling assumes a magnificent
\noIet colour. It is not altered in appeai'ance by holding it in ttie
positions OP, or HP, or PP — all cause it to be bine hot and \-iolct
cold. In all blowpipe tables and books (except mine), yon will see
" blue " only set against cobalt; but in 18C9 I discovered that P.
acid gives this beautiful colour with cobalt, and thought that by
adding a weighed quantity of soda to the bead before the blowpipe
(or briefly, BB) until it remains blue cold, I should obtain a kind of
measure for the soda added ; and, as the bead is thus made blue by
any alkaU — an alkalimeter,* or alkali-measurer ; and this is the
fact. You can also measure the quantity of cobalt in minerals, Ac,
in this way, and in my little book, " An Alphabetical Manual of
Blowpipe Analysis," pp. 45 to 18, is given " A Blowpipe Assay of
Ores, Furnace Products, &c., for Cobalt."
Now, we must try another substance with, or in, our little chemist
P. Acid, and the student need not be alarmed at my extravagance
when I teU him it is to bo— gold. A tiny little bit of gold-leaf
(which should be quite pure, or he will get colour reactions for
copper, &c.) about t^^■ice the size of a pin's head, cut off with the
point of a pen-knife, is taken np at the bottom of a red-hot P. Acid
bead, and iept there, or it will fly up and alloy the platinum wire, in
which event another piece of gold is to bo added, under a powerful
OP, when the gold will be rapidly dissolved (no other single
known acid is sufliciently powerful to do this), and its oxide, as I
have before stated, precipitated in this position, making the bead
" muddy." The student is now to take up a small fragment of
P. Acid at bottom of the hot bead, and hold it steadily in a good
PP, just over half-an-inch from the tip of tho blue. When the
proper amount of oxidation has been applied to the bead in this
position, which occupies a time, varying with the blower's capa-
bilities and the perfectness or otherwise of the pyrocone, the auri-
ferous bead will be observed to be a brilliant topaz-yellow when
very hot ; then, in cooling, to become green ; then greenish-blue ;
and lastly, when nearly quite cold, a beautiful blue-violet colour,
called, when otherwise obtained, " the purple of Cassius."
Colonel Ross begs to inform Major James Cummings (Quciy,
page 347) and other intending pyrologists, that he wiU be happy to
reply to any private queries on the subject, briefly but concisely
put, if sent to him with an enclosed stamped envelope to the
following address : — Acton House, Acton, London, W.
THE BRAIN AND SKULL.
SOME correspondence has taken place in Knowiedge relating to
the human brain and its outer envelope, the skull. It has,
therefore, seemed to me that a few notes upon facts well known to
anthropologists and craniologists would probably be acceptable to
readers of Knowledge.
There exists among numerous barbarous and semi-civilised
peoples, scattered over the world, a very curious custom, perhaps
it may rather be called fashion, of deforming the skull in infancy.
This custom has existed from the most remote period, so that in
some localities it is very difiicult to obtain a sknll, the measurements
of which can be relied upon as distinctive of race, from the ancient
graves. The ancient Pemvi.ans were particularly addicted to
the deformation of the sknll, and the practice still exists among
the American Indians ; but the most curious of all these arti-
ficially-deformed skulls are those brought from the island of
Mallicolo, in the new Hebrides group, a tracing of one of which I
*All:ali (Arabic, Al-kali), the reverse of acid ; alkalies turn red,
moistened litmus-papers blue ; acids turn blue htmns-papers red.
Two of the three alkaline metals, potassium and sodium, were dis-
covered by a Comishman (Davy) in London in 1805 by means of
the " Voltaic pile." Alkalimeter — alkali and meter (Greek) — a
measure.
3G0
KNOWLEDGE'
[Feb. 24, 1882.
Ijoto (fire from n |Hipiiioril>i>linK t'liit of ft
humnn Ix'iiiR. iinil thin Imii Ix'cn rviili-ntly rITcctcil in infftnc-y by
mcani of n IikI'I hnnilnnc hnnml ronnd nnil ruiiml the hpml, ami
only allowinif iif'i'xjmniiliin in one iliri-rtion. A ilifforrnt mmln in
nilo)it<< Ainrricnn Irilx-K, n« tlie Flat llrjulu, whonllix
n iMinnl nt ritrlil nnnli'H to that ii|Min wliii'li tlio infant i« cnrrii-d, which,
iH'inK »lrap|io(l down tightly over thi- forohcad, caum-B it to bcconip
drpronuMl. whilo tho iikull bultroc ftt the Bidi'H. A drnwing of this
criiol nu'lhod of priMlnrinK " fanbionnbly-iilmiK'd head may l>o found
in Cntlin'M niirk on the Anicrit-an IndinnB; and these two modes,
thetiKht ImnilaitP roiMul the heail anil the Hal boards, scorn to Imj
thoiie chifllv iidnptcd fur prodncinn the dosind form. Tho first of
Ihcso. that' of rompri'ssion by ti^ht bandn(,'es wound round and
ronnd the infant's head, nuiy have originntcd in the 8iipi>oaed nccps-
nity for aiding nature in unilinx the liones of the Hkiill. open, as wo
know, nt birth, and lon^ after ; in fact bandages for this purpoBO
Room to have been used in our own country and France up to quite
n recent period, and, <.f .•...,,,... ■■ Uttl.. i.yri:i liL'htnoss would soon
that when the volamo of tho brain remains intact, tho form ia
immaterial, eren though thnt form may bo artificially produced
with tfreat pain. It would appear that the iloformatlim among tho
Mallicolr'Bc is not ronlinisl to the chiefK, but id practised by all
alike, without distinction of class or sex, and is produced by a tight
bandage applied to tho hencl shortly after birth, extending from the
eyebrows to the hair, and only taken off occasionolly, until the
child is six months or o year old. , . „. .
Certoinly, inferior races in modem times think little of inflicting
pain, in which, probably, they reseniblo tho ancients ; for singular
instunces of a surgical operation performciigc*R, comlH, unci
other fimiii) of /iioph} tli' life in MctcoritcH liiivc, IIioiikIi, Ikmih Hliown
conclunivoly to lie bnni-li-HH, (■xiitninntiuiiK of tlio muteoritcii nndor
tho miiu-roHcopo liuvin^' ili'moimtrntird tlio pnroly cryntallini'
ohnmi-tor of tho nllnKud orKimii' ninrkinKii. It in, on the wholv,
jUHt iiH well to Imvo ouu'h fiK*tii ri^lit boforo bediming to thf*ori/.o.
I'robnbly Wnrtz's " Atomic Tlioory " (Vol. XXX. of the " Inter-
nntioniil Srionlilir SoricR") would be tho bi'Ht IkjoIc for " Krnodt
li. I.." ((picry 21!), p. 3(Ki) to obtnin ; it is tlio moHt recent one on
the Hiibjert.
Mr. Siininierson (query 221, p. 303) scoms to bo uniiware that
there is nn exceedingly great tochnicnl difference between " Philo-
sophy " and " Natunil philosophy." Tho latter ia only another
word for what is now known as " Physics." Tho former has refer-
ence wholly to mental philosophy or metaphysics. With this pre-
liminary warning, I may say that Whowell's " History of the
Inilwctivo Sciences" is the mo.^t exhaustive work that I am ac-
quainted with on the subject. I believe that Miss Arabella Buckley
has comparatively recently written a more compendious book on the
History of Physical Science ; but I have at this instant forgotten
its exact title. Anything she docs is sure to be good. There is a
History of Science, too, by Mr. Rontledge, which I have seen, and
which, as far as I conid detcminc from dipping into it, seemed very
well dono.
I presume that " G. R. W." (in query 227, p. 303), on the subject
of Harometric Oscillations, refers to a phenomenon with which I —
and I presume numy others— have long been familiar. The effect
to me of the oscillation of the mercury during a storm is irresistibly
suggestive of lirealhiiig. I have watched it on many occasions, and
the rhythmical rise and fall of its surface puts one at once in mind
of tho measured movement of the chest of a sleeping person. The
Editor's explanation of this is obviously the correct one.
Doctress Kingsford (letter 276 p. 322), and some of her confreres
appear to misinterpret tho position which I have assumed towards
vegetarianism. I have never denied or disputed, for example, that
a severe course of City-feeding might Avith great advantage be fol-
lowed by a purely vegetable regimen, until the effects of over-eating
had passed away. Nor am I concerned to contest that individuals
may be so constituted as to thrive fairly well without eating meat
at all. What however I protest, and shall continue to protest
against, is the tone assumed by the " whole-hog" vegetarians. " I
wish," said an eminent statesman of the late Lord Macaulay, " I
wish that I were as cock-sure of anything, as Tom Macaulay is of
everything." It is this." cock-sure " demcanom- of tho phytophagists,
this blatant assertion that they m iiitt be right, and all the rest of tho
universe wrong, which is as irritating as it is unconvincing. As
a class, they are in reality as weak numerically as they are
intellectually ; but to read their publislied utterances one
would think that in mental capacity as in numbers they
infinitely surpassed tho remainder of their fellow mes (and
women). How (letter 277) a total exclusion of iiesh,
with the substitution of suitable vegetable products would
give me " yet better health " than, I am thankful to say, I in-
variably enjoy, 1 wholly fail to perceive. Moreover, when I regard
the potato-fed li-ishman, and see what his diet has brought him to,
or study the rice-eating Hijidoo, and note his slavishness and utter
pusillanimity, 1 do not derive much practical encouragement to
eschew fish and meat henceforth and for ever. One question I
should, in conclusion, like to have answered. I perpetually see the
names of Dr. B. W. Richardson and Sir Henry Thompson quoted
as strong advocates of vegetarianism. Now, my question is this.
Does either of these gentlemen restrict himself to vegetable food ?
Araprohat artijicem. " The proof of tho pudding is in tho eating."
It is useless to repeat with the clergyman of old tho anecdote, " Do
as 1 say, not as I do." If the two eminent men whom I have
named do not themselves practise what they preach, the pub-
lication of their testimony must, I venture to think, have a pre-
cisely opposite tendency to that hoped for, and intended by, those
who cite it.
A few elementary considerations will enable R. W. I. (([uery 230,
p. 323), to answer his own questions. Actually at the North Polo
the diurnal circle of any heavenly body — assuming such body to
remain stationarj- in tho sky — is rigidly parallel to the horizon ;
the horizon in turn coinciding with tho celestial equator ("Tho
Equinoctial " of the maps and globes). Very well, then, neglect-
ing tho effect of refraction, it is quite obvious that as long as the
sun is south of tho equator, or has south declination, he must be
invisible from the pole ; but that, as soon as his upper limb touches
the equator, ho will begin to rise. In these latitudes sunrise and
sunset are phenomena referable to the axial rotation of tho earth,
but this quite evidently cannot he the case at the Pole, where, as 1
have said above, tho diurnal circle of a star is parallel to tho horizon.
The sun, then, at the North Pole will only rise at the same
rate as ho increases in north declination. Lot us take March 21,
when he has Ix-on invisible there for six months. We find from ihc
SautinU Atnuinar, that between tho 20th and 2lHt the sun is
moving northward at a mean rale of 5023° jxirhour. At this date his
diameter is 32' 10 1", or 1030 1". If, then, wo divide 1030 1" by
.V.f23", wo shall obtain 32'5SC5, the number of hours the sun will
occupy in rising. During 2-t out of these 32'58C5 hours, tho earth
will iiavo turned once on her axis, so that the rising sun will have
travelknl through 300° [more nearly 361°. — Ei>.] of the horizon.
There ore, however, yet 85HG.5 hours to elapse ere he will bo wholly
above the horizon ; and during this perifxl the arc ho describes may
be approximately found by the ,'proportion 2-t : 8'58(i5::3G0° : the
arc re()uired [with a slight correction for refraction. — En. J.
I should think that "X. X." (query 214) woald find Mayer ami
Barnard's little book on " Light," and Mayer on " Sound," both in
tho Wo (u re series, the very things for him. Tomlinson'a "Pneu-
matics," in Woale's series, will furnish him with numorous in-
teresting facts about the atmosphere ; and Tyndall's " Lessons in
Electricity," published by Longmans, will supply him with all he
needs for a lecture or lectures on the subject on which it treats.
A Fellow of the Koval AsrEoNouicAL SociEn'.
FLEXURE IN PLANES.
[28C] — There has been a bad epidemic of flexure among planes
lately. From all directions I have heard that their sufferings have
been severe ; I have also suffered with them. W^ill you allow mo
to state through your columns, without encroaching unduly upon
your valuable space, that in every case I have traced the flexure to
ill-treatment on tho part of the possessors of tho i)lane8. They
ha\'e been subjected to torture ; they have been firmly wedged into
cells too small for them ; they have had pieces of card jammed in
behind them ; they have had screws and clips binding them ; but,
above and beyond all, they have been cemented on to wooden
blocks and metal plates with h.ard cement, the cooling or setting of
which has entirely altered their figure. 1 wish, then, to take
advantage of your kindness to inform all those who are interested
in the subject, that planes will not give accurate definition under
high powers if they arc subject to • restraint in any way. A glass
plane 4-in. thick, if attached to a block by a wafer, which is allowed
to get hard, will show, as a result, flexure, and give a bad definition.
John Bbow.m.ng.
INTERIOR HEAT OF THE EARTH.
[287] — This ia a subject in which I have always taken a deep
interest, and have followed attentively all that has been published
in connection vrith it for many years. I have, therefore, been
much surprised at meeting with no alltision in any of our English
scientific works or periodicals to a book ])ublished in Germany so
long ago as 1875 (I give the title of the book below), and which, I
understand, met with considerable support from geologists in that
country.*
The author (since dead) was Professor of Chemistry and Physios
at Bonn, and professes to found his theories on chemical and
physical principles, as ascertained by the latest researches.
He entirely rejects Laplace's " Nebular Theory of tho Formation
of the Earth," denies on chemical and physical grounds its interior
heat, and adduces, among other proofs, the results of a great boring
undertaken by the Prussian G^ivenimont in 1S70-71, at a place near
Berlin, which was carried to a depth of 4,517 ft., mostly through a
continuous stratum of rock salt. The heat at first increased at the
rate of 1° for 60 ft., but after reaching the depth of 2,000 ft., this
increment gradually diminished, so that instead of being IW at
the bottom of the boring, it was only 113°.
He has a now theory to account for earthquakes and volcanoes,
the former, ho thinks, being principally caused by the hollowing
out of cavities on tho superficial strata by the action of water, and
the consequent collapse of these cavities.
He denies the igneous origin of what are called eruptive rocks,
and, among other proofs, adduces the fact of his having found, on
an analysis of a very hard piece of granite, some of the nodules of
hornblende, surroimded by pure asjihalt. nnchiuiged, which, he
observes, would not have remained there if the rock had been
subjected to the action of groat heat.
The coal measures, he maintains, were formed entirely by marine
plants, of wliich, he says, there were (and now are) immense forests
in tho sea.
These and many other theories, entirely opposed to the opinions
usually hold by geologists in general, he maintains with con-
• Geschichte der Erde ; ein Lelirbuch der Goologie auf nener
Grundlage. Von Friedrich Mohr, Professor zu Bonn. Verlag von
Cohen und Sohn, Bonn, 1875.
Feb. M, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
363
siilorable show of reason, and adduces some striking facts in sup-
|i(jrt of them.
Ueintr myself a mere sciolist in geolog)-, or, indeed, on any scien-
ill,. ~"l.j>ct, I can offer no opinion as to the validity of his reasoning
1, but I am anxious to know whether any of your readers
■ with the work, and how far it is considered worth atten-
. ;; 1. , English scientitic men. B.
Edinburgh, Jan., 1882.
HOG PUZZLE.
[288] — Here is a new hog puzzle, by Lieut. -Col. W. U. Oakes, of
iirithmetical renown. Some of your readers might like to solve it.
Vou shall, ne-tt week, have his solution of it, and also one of the
original |)nzzle in short and simple arithmetical form.
Four married couples went to buy hogs. Kach individual bought
as many hogs as he or she gave shillings for each hog. Also each
husband laid out the same number of guineas more than his wife,
and tliis number of guineas was the smallest consistent with the
condition that the numbers of hogs purchased by the respective
husbands in excess of the numbers purchased by their respective
wives form four consecutive terms of an increasing arithmetical
series. How much did each husband expend more than his wife ?
Herbert Rees PniLiprs.
PL.\TING— ASTRONOMICAL— CHEMICAL.
[2S1I] — I have to thank " C. T. B " for his reminder. He might
try the solution described, for iron, but I am of oi)inion that he
will find the only way for iron to bo with a battery and alkaline
solution. But, surely, "Watts' Dictionary" should help him
through.
On page 211, Professor Young says, in effect, that the sun's
pull on the earth could only be sustained, or replaced, by a
bar of steel many sipiare miles in section. Sir E. Beckett, in
" Astronomy without Mathematics," (page 312) tells us : — " The
tractive force on a fast railway train of 400 tons, on the level, is
found to be about four tons But if the eartli were such a
train, it would e.'sert a centrifugal strain of less than five hundred-
weight on the rope which held it to the sun." These two views are
opposed to one another, and therefore one must be incorrect.
[Pardon me ; the two views are quite consistent with each other.
Sir Edmund Beckett says, if the earth were such a train, that is,
if her mass were only 'tOO tons. — Ed.]
Tho account of the mannfacture of gas from wood, page 246,
also requires elucidation. Carbon monoxide is rather " com-
bustible " than supporting combustion. The finished article is said
to be free from " dangerous, obnoxious, and otherivise objectionable
products." It would be better worth while to caution one against
the exceedingly poisonous properties of this gas : besides which,
coal gas is harndess. Unlike the case of carbon dioxide (which is
not poisonous, and which has an odour, whatever our text-books
may copy one into another), fresh air does not revive one from
suffocation by carbon monoxide. This gas, as is well known, bums
with a pale-blue flame (the blue flame often seen over a sluggish fire
is CO) of feeble luminosity. How, then, can it confer on "an
inferior coal gas " a " great candle power .' " Lastly, tho CO.i
takes up carbon, from the heated charcoal according to the
equation —
C0; + C=2C0,
80 that eventually the charcoal disappears, except an ashy residue.
Where, then, is the danger of " too great an accumulation of
charcoal ? " and why withdraw from the retort the substance that
is also put into it ? Lewis Aruxpel.
[The account was not quite clearly written. It seemed obvious,
however, that P.C.S. referred to wood gas itself, when burning in
the usual way, as innocuous, not to carbonic oxide. — Ed.]
ELECTRO-PLATING.
[290] — Letter 119 has evidently escaped the notice of your
readers. If I were W. Vaneys, I should throw down the Cu from
the solution by meuns of the battciy. Cu m an Ag solution, being
thrown down before the Ag. He will understand me, without my
taking up any more of your valuable space. F.C.S.
HORSERADISH— INTELLIGENCE OF A CAT— SCENT—
" KNOWLEDGE."
[291] — With respect to horseradish, Mr. Henerman must know
that it, in common with garlic (Allium ursinum and A. satirum),
onion, leek, eschalot, Ac, yields on distiUation a fetid-smelling com-
pound oil called allyle, from the genus that it characterises. The
astringency of mustard and horseradish (probably also cress,
radish, and such like) is due to sulphuret of allyle in combination
with cyanogen, I mention the fact that there are other plants
having those properties which we value in horseradish to remind
Mr. Henerman of tho extraordinary proclivity of all nations to use
them as condiments. I cannot call to mind ,a single nation that
rejects them ; in fact, some people will not bo satisfied with any-
thing weaker than /eru/a as.sii/ffifida. I do not suppose that horse-
radish "acts" in any way upon the stomach, although so general a
use betokens some effect beneficial, or at least pleasing, to the
system. While " warming " the appetite, and, as a condiment,
grateful to the taste, it probably has no undesirable effect.
There lives, near where 1 write, a cat that can -without fail open
tho back-door by siiringing from the ground to| the latch-handle,
and, while holding with one paw, can raise the latch with the
other, finally swinging the door forward by means of a push
with the hind leg. We might almost expect, as a last step to
so great reason, a certain amount of culture. But tho house-
wife complains that, having taught itself, to gain its own end,
admission, it will not consider further, and close the door again.
" Prestcr W." himself states about all that is kno\vn of the
nature of a scent (No. 11, query 170). It is questionable, how-
ever, that he is able to recognise a perceptible decrease of weight
in scent-giving substances. I was under the impression tliat there
was no measurable decrease in weight, but having paid iio attention
to the subject I await a correction. Dr. Carpenter (in "Com-
parative Physiology") remarks that "a grain of musk has been
kept freely exposed to the air of a room, of which the door and
wiudows were constantly open, for a period of ten years, during all
which time the air, though constantly changed, was completely
impregnated with tho odour of musk ; and at tho end of that time
the particle was not found to have sensibly diminished in weight."
Here is an illustration of the extreme minuteness of a molecule !
I express my regret, sir, that you (whose leadership my " set,"
at least, fully trust) should have been thus far so troubled with
Dugaestions. Knowledge assuredly needs no such small patronising
ways, and judgiug from its rapid spread in this district, it will be
the magazine of the future of its sort. Connerhugel.
THE WEATHER OF JANUARY 12-24, 1882.
[292] — Some notes on the weather in tho South of Ireland during
the past exceptionally mild month may be interesting, as enabling
your readers to make comparisons with the weather of more
northern and eastern districts. It is not common to observe in
winter a high barometer and a high thermometer together, but we
have here observed a remarkably high mean of both instruments
during a considerable part of the period. During the fortnight
Jan. ll-24th, the mean height of the barometer reduced to 32°, and
mean sea-level was 30-5 in. The mean of maximum thermometer,
was 51*7° of minimum, 43"6°, mean for fortnight, 47'65°. The mean
daily temperature was 50° or above, on the 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th,
15th, and 16th, and fell short of it by about half a degree on the-
23rd and 24th. The highest temperature in tho sun was 80° {not
by a black bulb in vacuo) on the 24th. The .iverage daily tempera-
ture for the above-mentioned fortnight (mean of 50 years at Green-
wich), is 30-3', showing the prodigious excess of 11-35° above the
mean this year.
As might be expected, the effect upon vegetation has been
striking. On Ross Island, Killarney, horse-chestnut had opened,
and several boughs in full leaf were gathered Jan. 22. On that
date the following plants had been found in flower, tho first-named
three or four having been in bloom a fortnight : —
Ulex spinosa Prunus spinosa (once)
Senecis vulgaris Nepeta glechonea
BeUis peronnis Crocus (yeUow)
Veronica hederofolia Galanthus nivalis
Capsella bursa-pastoris Potentilla fragariastrum
Viola tricolor Lanristinus
Lamium intermedium Laurel (coming in flower)
Leontodon taraxacum Primula vulgaris (beginning of
Erauthus hyemalis month)
Petasites vulgaris Poa annua
Ranunculus ficaria Veronica chamasdrys
,, repens (once) Cardamino hirsuta
Coryllus avellana
No rain has been registered between the 15th and 25th. The mean
force of wind has been only 1'7. During tho height of the anti-
cyclone (when for three days the barometer stood above 30" 7 in.),
the sky was thickly covered with stradus cloud. Sunshine accom-
panied the reduction of pressure. On the 18th tho barometer
reached 30° 94 in. G. R. Wynnk, F.M.S.
364
• KNOWLEDGE
[Fsa 24, 1882.
©urrifd.
[267] — NKnixr. — An- iiclmlm external to our clustor? If po,
whiit n'lUioiiH lire ^fivori for believiii(f tlieiii to bo ? — A Dkrhy StI'dkxt.
[Nebulie nn< |iriivi'il, I think, by the renHoniiiff of Herbert Speneer
anil ntherH, tu lH>hing to our own 8tellnr syHtcin. I believe not n
tmco of nujfht externni to our cluster him ever been Hcen with th(>
teleiR'ope. Hut llio renxoniuK in not readily (f'^'i'" '" " sentonce.
In my " Tniverid'of Stars," it occupies two or three hundred pajjes,
nnd reriuiresa number of illustrated maps. — En.]
[258] — Dnvixf! Wii.i) Fi.o«eb.s. — lam about to visit Ejrypt niid
Palestine, nnd wiHli to brinjf back some Hpeoimens of wild flowers.
Will you kindly inform nie how to dry them, so that they may
retain their natunil colour nnd form ? — 11. U. S.
[259]— Ventiui.oquism.— Could nny render of KxowLEiMiK kindly
cxplnin to mo how ventriloquism is proo
Seutter sac: Ca>s : Majest : Geogr : Augusta- Vindelicorum." It
contains some sixty maps, fifty by Seutter, and about ten by Lotter,
which are splendidly printed and coloured, and is of very large size.
— S. P. Q. E.
[263]— Vegetable Food.— Will Mrs. Dr. Kingford kindly inform
the writer where he will find guiding information to enable him
with safety to enter on a course of vegetarianism ? Ho should like
for himself to test the truth of her statements. — Provost P.
[261-]— Strata.— In travelling from London to Exeter (G.W.R.),
what formations are pa.s.5ed through •• I noted the following rocks
on the way down, but do not know to what age, &c., they belong ;—
London to Heading, gravel ; chalk nearly as far as Goring ; then,
through miles of grey clay to Didcot ; then red clay, light-yellow and
grey rock, to Corsham ; layers of rock and red earth outside Bristol ;
limestone beyond Weston Junction ; red soil opposite the Wellington
monument ; and slate at Exeter. Any information will greatly
oblige — Carus.
[265] — Pigments. — Wanted a list of colours soluble in alcohol or
wood naphtha; especially what blues and blacks are soluble;
or name of books giving this information. — Arthl-b.
[266]— SULPHI-B Cast.— I should be obliged by information how
a sulphur cast (which seems to give more perfect details than one
in any other substance) can be made a sufficiently good conductor
to electrotyi)e upon. I have tried rubbing it over with plumbago,
but it would not take the deposit of copper. — C. J. W.
[267]— Thoracic I.nteckity. — I have been taught to regard the
chest as an air-tight cavity, any opening into which would cause
speedy death. In " Science for All," vol. ii., p. 305, it is related
that, through an opening in the chest, the heart has been handled.
Have 1 been misled, or has some unauthenticated statement found
its way into tho publication named f — C. M.
[268]— PnoTocRAPHV. — Car. any person, through the medium of
these columns, give me informntion concerning photography ?
1 , where to get the cheapest articles required for photography ?' 2,
how to go about it ? and 3, whnt nre the chemicnis required ? —
Anon.
TnE Magic Wheel. — If those of your renders who posses.s an
induction coil nnd n small vacuum tube will revolve their magic
wheel by tho light of their " tube," they will find it has the same
effect as the looking-glass, if a certain speed is maintained. The
revolutions, of course, should = number of breaks at contact
breaker -^ slits in disc— G. E. V.
lUplifS to ©urn'fs.
[195] — QflCK.siLVEB. — Your little note at the end of reply to
query 105, p. 321, regjiecting a dose of small shot, reminds me of
a custom here in Lincolnshire, which still provails amongat the
labouring class, of taking a few " shot corns " to cure ** the rising
of the lights." What this means I have never been able satis-
factorily to rliscover. I once know a well-to-do tradesman who
frequently took a dose. — C. J. C.
[210] —The Iliad. — Newman's " Iliad " is much better than dry
Bohn's. — .Jaciebat.
[228] — MiCBopnoNE. — Dry pile not at all suitable. The most
simple galvanic pair far better ; or a strip of carbon 1 in. x 3 in.,
and zinc tho same size, separated by a pad of blotting-paper mois-
tened with weak sulphuric acid would be strong enough, and would
work ns long as moist. — G. E. F.
[229] — Haib. — I do not believe there is a single authenticated
instance of " a person's hair turning white instantaneously from fear,
or other causes." On the other hand, it is well known that a
person's hair has become white in a short time, such as a single
night. Some years ago it was often stated, and as often contra-
dicted, that the hair of one of our most eminent statesmen was
the subject of this remarkable change. This case I can set
at rest, for the gentleman to whom I refer told a friend of
mine in this city (Manchester) that, when on a visit in Ireland,
he went to bed one night with dark hair, and rose next
morning with it exceptionally white. It is generally under-
stood that this only takes place when the person is soScring
from extreme mental an.xiety, intense grief, or bodily suffering ; but
these causes were excluded from the case of the statesman to whom
I refer. The medical man whom he consulted told him there was
no cause for alarm, and he thought no more of the matter. A
short time ago I heard him address an audience in this city, and I
am of opinion that his hair has become a shade or two darker, and
less snow-like in colour. I am not aware that the sudden change of
colour in human hair has been scientifically explained. — Wm.
Hobsfall.
[229] — Hair. — The sudden change of the hair from dark to grey
which sometimes happens has never been satisfactorily explained.
It appears in some instances to be due to the development of air
between and among the cells composing the air. — Quain's" Anatomy,"
vol. ii., page 226., Eighth edition. It is a fair explanation to say
that the change is probably due to an impression upon the nerves of
the scalp, in common with the rest of the skin, causing a contrac-
tion of the capillary blood-vessels, and a consequent with-holding of
pigment. — Robert M-vcphebson.
[230] — Telescope. — The paint used for the insideof the telescope
was common, dry, black paint, mixed wth water, a quantity of thin
flour-paste being added by way of size. Diaphragms are placed in
the eve-piece tube ; there are none, however, in the principal tube.
—A. "p. M.
[231] — Chemical Problem. — Let the required equation be
aCu + bHXOj = xCu(N03) + yjH»0 + zNO.
Then the multiples of Ca on the two sides must be equal ; »
b
a=x; so b=2y; b = 2i-Hz = 2a-f z ; and 3b = 6x + v-(-2 = 6a+ 5- + s
b 3b
- "5" -H b — 2a = 4a -H — :
whence b=-
Sa la 2a.
— T. J. P.
[232] — Chemist. — " W. A. Fyson " shoald apply to the Registrar
of the Pharmaceutical Society, 17, Bloomsbury-square, W.C, for a
copy of " Regulations of the Board of E.xaminer3 " and " Uints to
Students. Both would bo sent on application with stamped
envelope. The fees are: — Preliminary (as apprentice), .i'2. 2s.;
minor (chemist and druggist), £3. 3s. ; major (pharmaceutical
chemist), .^5. 5s. The two former are compulsory-, the latter
optional. Certificates of having spent three years with a duly
qualified pharmacist, and of attaining the full age of twenty-one
years, are demanded before the candidate c,nn enter for the minor.
There is at present no compulsory curriculum at a school of
pharmacy, although such is the usual course, and costs from £15 to
£150. A few. however, with " severe study," pass without such aid.
The premiums for apprenticeship vary from nil. in hea\-y country
businesses, to £200 in first-class town pharmacies ; .£100 being near
the average in fair dispensing establishments. Before commencing
pharmaceutical studies, the preliminary or classical examination
must be psissed. After this the spare time of two years may be
well spent in studying with " Attfield's Manual of Chemistry'"
Feb. 24, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
365
(price los.) ; then, during the last year, ''Bcntley's Botany" (148.),
"Pereira: Materia Medica" (25s.), and " Fownes' Chemistry"
(188. 6d.). The least pcssible expense (exclusive of living: and
books) is £3s. 5s. ; the least time, three years — both expense and
time beinj^ generally very much exceeded. Capital required for
business, from ,£500 to iiJ.UUO. .\t present the game is not worth
the candle, but what the future of pharmacy in this country is, dolb
not yet appear. — Pharmacisi'.
[233] — Biological. — John Hanipson will find the relative brain
capacity of the Neanderthal skull with man, with " illustrations,"
also the geological formation in which it was found, in Lyell's
"Antiquity of Man." He will also sec, by reference to Dr. Morton,
Professor Uuxley, and others, what is, indeed, very easy of demon-
stration, that the difference between the brain powers of the higher
apes and the lowest savage is very much less than the difference
between the brain powers of the lowest savage and the cultivated
European. — F. Selby.
[236] — The Polar Sun. — Neglecting the eUipticity of the earth,
it takes the same time as to decrease in polar distance by its dia-
meter (including + ) the effect of refraction, that is —
90° -Href. =90° 34' 54"
89° 27' 50" + ref.'-89° 5G' 33"
38' 21" at -99" per min. =2,280 minutes,
and in 2,280' the sun's movement along the horizon + his own motion
(apparent, of conrse) ■= say 572°. — Tria.
[236] — The Polar Su.n. — To an observer at the North Pole, the
rational horizon is coincident with the celestial equator ; the sun
will, therefore, rise above the jiolar horizon at the same instant as
he crosses the equinoctial at the vernal equinox. At this epoch
the change of declination (or angular distance from the equinoctial)
is at the rate of 59'27" per hour, and the apparent diameter of the
sun's disc at the same epoch is 32' 11"; hence the time occupied by
the rising of the sun's disc is found by division to be 3257 hours,
or 1,954 minutes, and the arc of the horizon moved over during
this time will be at the rate of 360 degrees per 24 hours, which is
488| degrees. A more rigorous method of arriving at the above
result (which is only approximate) is to calculate the exact instant
of Greenwich time when the sun's upper limb is on the horizon,
and then to repeat the calculation for the lower limb on the horizon.
The difference of the two times is the exact interval required.
Nothing, however, is to be gained by entering more minutely into
such purely technical calculations. The above result is probably
correct to a few seconds of time. — A. N. Somer.^cales.
[247] — Warmth at Night. — Unless J. M. J. proposes to confine
himself entirely to the house, and unless he keeps his sitting-room
at the same temperature as his bedroom, a tire all night would cer-
tainly be injurious. The advice, however, that can be given in
this column will not be of much use to him. He should consult his
medical adviser, who can make himself conversant with every
symptom. Advice is best, as a matter of course, when it is based
tipon accurate knowledge. — Robert Macphekson.
[248] — Lepidodendro.v. — To prevent the decay of fossil shells,
&c. : — Steep them in a weak solution of gum-arabic for several days.
All fossils taken from an exposed sea cliff of loose soil — as, for
instance, the drift shells of Blackpool — must be soaked in fresh
water for two months and then treated as above. The metallic
nodules you mention are concretions of iron-pvrites, the so-called
" Thunderbolts " of the Isle of Wight. No doubt the apparent
casts of vegetable remains are due to the crystallization of this sub-
stance. It is almost useless to carry home any fossils, however
fine, which contain a trace of this substance, for, though they may
be as hard as steel when first obtained, they will, sooner or later,
come to grief . If the "brick earth" of West Drayton be glacial
clay, the chances of finding any fossils are very remote. To
decide this question, look for ice marked boulders, such as that
figured and described in Knowledge, p. 345. Be particularly care-
ful to keep all fossils in a perfectly dry place ; I have seen many
valaable specimens completely spoiled by the neglect of this pre-
caution.— J. H.
Goats to Protect Sheep. — The fanners of Hunterdon and
Somerset counties. New Jersey, use goats to protect their sheep
from dogs. Two goats can drive away a dozen dogs, and two are
about all each farmer puts in with his sheep. As soon as a dog
enters the field at night, the goats attack him, and their butting
propensities are too much for the canine, who soon finds himself
rolling over and over. A few repetitions of this treatment causes
the dog to quit the field, limping and yelling. Formerly, when a
dog entered a sheep-field at night, the sheep would run wildly around
and cr\' piteouslj-. Since the goats have been used to guard them,
they form in line behind the goats and seem to enjoy the fun. The
idea of utilising goats in this way came from the West, where they
are put in sheep-pens to drive away wolves. — A'. )'. Sun.
an^n'6 to CoiTfsfponlicnts.
*,* Ml eomrn'mtciifioiu for the Editor requiriug farty attention ehouUI reach the
Office on or Itefure the S^ilurdaii preceding the current i»ne of Ksowlkdqb, the
increating circittatioii ofKhich compel* us to go to preea early in the tceek.
HiSTS TO CoBHEsPOSDmcTS.— 1. No quettiont atking for tdentiflc information
can be ansKrred through the poet. 3. Letters eent to the Editor for correspondents
cannot be fortcarded ; nor can the names or addresses tf correspondents he given in
aneieer to private inquiries. 3. No queries or replies savouring of the nature of
advertisements can be inserted. 4. Letters, queries, and replies are inserted, unless
contrary to Rule i, free of charge. 6. Correspondents should vrite on one side
onlv of the paper, and put drawings on a separate leu/. **• Each letter, query, or
reply should have a title, and in replying to letters or queries, reference should be
rtade to the number of letter or query, ihe page on tchich it appears, and its title.
A. Arthur Reade. — I should be glad to give my experience of
the effects of smoking, but I smoke so little that 1 may practically
be said to have no experience in the matter. 1 never smoke unless
the presence of a great number of smokers renders it unpleasant
not to. As for alcohol, when 1 work hard, wliich is most of the
time, I find the less alc»hol I take the greater my working energies.
For eighteen months (some years ago) I took no alcohol, and
my work never went more easily. At present, even when
I work hardest, I do not go down to absolute abstinence ;
still, my working allowance is too small to make much dif-
ference one way or the other. — W. J. Collins. We quoted Dr.
Carpenter's address because of its intrinsic merits, not as
part of a discussion. For the discussion of a medical ques-
tion you should go to medical journals. — J. A. Miles. Many
thanks for the table ; but fear there is no space. The algebraist
can get any of the tabulated relations at once when he wants them,
others would not look at the table. Will try to find room for pro-
blems 1 and 2, as they are general. — J. (Ifkord. Many thanks.
There may be delay in appearance of your interesting communica-
tions ; but they will appear. The paper you wi-ite on quite suitable
for printers.— H. P. Cooper. Thanks; "willtry to find space for
new form of electrical accumulator. — G. E. Sutcliffe. Reference
to the key, after sufiicient attempts to solve problem, perhaps the
best course ; you should notice how the difficulties which had
foiled you are mastered. The best promise of proficiency in
your letter is your eWdent anxiety to become proficient. With
a little practice you -will probably succeed. — Wm. Datey wants
to know how he may soften animal hair without destroying
it or injuring its colour ; he would have been among the Queries
if he had put his question in proper query form. — T. J. P. Thanks ;
but why not follow rule and put title of query ? When we get
such a' reply as yours, we have to hunt up the query through
back numbers to get the proper heading, and our work is heavy
without this. It would be easy for you, with the iiuery before you,
to write its title. — J. McGrigor Allan. No space for articles or any
but very concise letters about mutilation of animals. Section V.
on other subject later if can find room. — S. S. S. S. wants best
book of Mechanical Philosophy for C.S. examination. Both the
French writers you name good popularisers of science, but without
mathematical kiaowlcdge, so that they are only to be trusted when
quoting the opinions of others. Lardner's " Museum " partlj' ob-
solete, but in part still tnistworthy. Impossible to answer more
definitely in space at our command. Magnetism cannot be inter-
rupted, as electricity, by non-conducting bodies. We use your
words, but they are inappropriate. — W. P. Wantage. Already
answered. — W. H. Sand. A. R. Molli.son. Answered. — Name-
LE.SS. 49, Victoria-road. Solution correct.— R. G., J. N. P.,
A Le.arner, Phrensy, Eque.s, Ron. E. Ali.son, B. G. Morris,
and others. Dear sirs, how can we find time to work out such
sums as you send ? If we could hire a culculating boy, who
could tell "us in 2 gee. how long a wire -jVith of an inch in diameter
could be made out of a cubic foot of brass, or in 3 sec. how
often a cart-wheel 3 feet in diameter would turn if rolled a distance
equal to the sun's from the earth, &c., we would tell you all about these
things. One of you has taken an appropriate name. — Charles
Burns, noting that the Goat and Compasses = God encompasseth
us, desires to have corresjionding equations for the Pig and Whistle,
the Magpie and Stump, and the Bear and Ragged Staff.— Thos. Sid-
dall. Will insert queries if you will make them suitable. — B. M.,
F.R.C.S. Thanks, suggestions noted. — A. M. Somerscales.
Thanks, will wait till C. T. B. explains what was really meant. Of
course, oblique is less than full illumination. In case of still
water, the brightness you mention is due to reflection, not to
surface illumination. But this was not C. T. B.'s difiiculty. —
A. J. P. Know of only one kind of aneroid, in which the box
is completely exhausted of air, the elasticity of covering
balancing the atmospheric pressure. — A. Ok.msby. Would give
vour problem (Napoleon's) for solution : but it is necessary to
reserve mathematical column for other matter. You will find
no difficulty in solving it if you go to work as follows : — Pay no
36G
• KNOWLEDGE •
[FEa 24, 1882.
iitUintioii to tho oquiluloral triangloN, wliieli load you nwity frnm
t nip Molii lion. NoUi only that tho cmtri'ii of thoHi- lire ccntn'H of
iirra on IrianKlc'H hulon contaiiiinK |i'u<'li an iin^^li' of tlO ili'i^nn-H.
Throu)(h untie A of (riiiiiKlu ilmw, to nii-pt urcH on AH, AC, line
I'AQ piuikllol to lino joining; .>.ion sound definitions arc very important.
Vo8, Professors King and Rownoy woro the opponents of Eozdon
Cauadcnso. Twas thny of whom the poet (that good follow
Hroutrh) wrote in 18C9:—
And through tho list.i a cry has flown —
A daring chullongo for a fight —
" Eozoon, bo it known,
Has structure like the nunimulitc ;"
And on bi-uvo Dawson's gauntlet warm
Is dimly traced in mystic line,
"Outline of film aabestiform.
And chambers all acervniine."
But hark ! a loud, defiant shout
Resounds from Connaught's distant strand :
The King of Galway has sot out,
All niail'd in ophite, pen in hand ;
And to the field he hies him straight.
With gentlo Uowne_v, knight rcnown'd,
Whose prowess none will underrate
On Chemistry's broad fighting-ground, &c.
— M. M. The size of the moon'.s image formed at focus of object-
glass having -t2 inches foeal Icn<;th, will be about o7-75 inches, as
you can readily prove by directing the telescope to moon, removing
oye-piecc (and, if necessary, eye-tube also), and receiving tho image
on a piece of card or paper. But the magnifying power depends
ou the eye-piece, and you cannot say the image will have an
apparent diameter of so many inches, but subtending such and such
an angle. With a power of 100, for example, the moon's apparent
diameter would subtend an angle of about 3,100', or nearly 52°. —
Eloa reciuiros information as to management of gold fish in glass
globe, average duration of their lives, &c. Captive balloons (this
refers to a different subject, let me explain) might certainly be
sent up with minimum thermometers, to determine temperature
of upper regions of air. — Simplex. Quite so: but now if you
would compare some of the symbols. Is'early every stenographer
knows Pitman's; I use it myself, though not for reporting.
Could yon not give us ocular demonstration of the supe-
riority of Bell's system.— Sir T. W. Letter sent at once
to publishers.— C. Lloyd E. Pardon me, but I was thinking
of another correspondent. Your evidence about the poker is
balanced by an eipially wide experience the other way. But why
should 1 bo prejudiced against tho poker-across-fire theory ? If a
theory so remarkable could be established by the rough kind of
evidence you adduce, it would be a delightful subject for Know-
LKUGE. As it is, it only illustrates what men can believe, and
Herbert Spencer has already used it in that way. — R. C. Your
difficulty is a natural one. Yet notice that every part of an
ellipse is concave towards centre, or towards either focus, despite
the increase and diminution of more distance. If you draw the
moon's path to scale, you will see that it is concave towards the
sun all the time. Describe two concentric circles rather loss than
a quarter of an inch apart (''H inch), and baring radii of 92 and
92i inches respectively, and divide their circuit into twenty-fivo
equal parts. Then tho moon's path would be represented by a curve
passing from the outermost to the innermost, and then to the outer-
most again, and so on, the successive contacts occurring at the suc-
cessive divisions along the outer and inner circles alternately. — Tita.
Will try to find space shortly both for letter and extract ; meantime,
lot mo note that you seem to me to bo quite right. There seems to
be as much scientific accuracy in tho account as in tho blind man's
statement that rod was like the sound of a trumpet, or in the
association most of us have had as children (and, perhaps, still
have) between the days of the week anil particular colours. For
instance, with me Sunday is yellow, Mondav rich red, Tucsdav
olive green, Wednesday bright green. Thursday dark grey, Friday
orange, and Saturday light grey. The months have .-ilso their
colours. — J. Rak. If you had dmnced to read my accounts of
Arctic travel, you would know 1 did not need to be informed of
what you kindly (ell mo. It will be time enough when tho
Poll! ia reached to loam how long the oxplorerH will have to
Hi ay there. You «ee, I give you nnollier opjiortunity for
contradiction, which seems your Htnmg suit; but you ah'iuld
try to make out what you arc contradicting. — B. We have
not used an instrument haring a vernier divided as you descrilw;
but it Hocms obvious that it would serve to divide to one-
half the arc to which tho older form of vernier will divide. Thus,
when you have the vernier divided into OOths of 59', you take tho
division nearest to one on the limb, and so got the reading true to
a second of arc. Now with tho vernier divided into GOths of IW,
you can either take tho division nearest to one on the limb, or
noting that two divisions on the vernier are appreciably equidistant
from the divisions (alternate) on the limb, you regard the bisection
of tho space between those two divisions on the vernier aa
coincident with the division midway between the two on the
limb. You read this just as easily as yon would if tho
hisection woro marked on tho vernier. Uenco it is as though
the vernier were divided into 120th8 of US', enabling yon
to read to half seconds of arc, instead of to seconds only. —
Etai'h. No truth in the report, but thanks. — A Subsckibeb. Odd*
in favour, as you say. It seemed too obvious to need correcting.
East and west in star maps right. Yon look down at earth, up at
sky. Uenco tho difference. Evidence about pink tinge of oahes, in
fire gone out in sun would be interesting. — Why ? oh, why will not
" A Subscriber " follow rule, and give number and page of letters ?
— Farmkk Will. Your queries will not go under any heading wo
can invent. If you do not tliink them worth heading, can you think
them worth inserting ? You say, in the midst of your queries, that
if the doctrine of evolution is true, the doctrine of fate is also true.
What is the dotftrine of fate ? Why not say, as you may with equal
reason, that supposing trees and animals really grow, and are not
changed from state to state by special acts of creation or change, the
doctrine of fate must be accepted ? — T. A. " I do not know how it is,
but at present 1 like my hypothesis the best, it seems to my poor judg-
ment the nearest the truth." Most of us feel that way. But, as you
very truly say. Who can thoroughly understand these things ? If
we had not so much to insert about things we can to some degree
understand, wo might take up these inconceivablos. — Hakbd was
dazed three days " by Magnetism ? Astroism ? Divine Effluence ? "
We do not know ; but infer, it was on one of those days that he sent
us advertisement of " The Magnetic Pilgrim" who " tarries top of
IJunyan Street." — Jonx T. Page. The practice of collecting auto-
graphs is not childish, far from it : nor is a toothache a joy for ever,
very much the reverse. — Hox. Sec, Civtl, and M. Engixeeb's
Society. Mr. Love's paper was marked for insertion, but crowded
out by press of matter requiring more immediate attention, — and
more concisely written. — J. Kirkmax, M.A. Questions now
answered. But would it not have been an inaccuracy to have, in
first act of Harold, a reference to " Arcturus dancing so
brightly, almost through the nucleus of Donati's comet in
1858 ? " not that Arcturus danced, or seemed to dance, at
that time — to my eyes any way. — • T. J. H. Matter too
complex to be adequately treated in short notes, and no
room for long ones. — Hygeia. Fear the ill-effects of tight-lacing
and high heels are as well known to the tight-lacers and high-heelers
as to the rest of the world. Articles on the subject would be thrown
away on those, and are not needed by these. — Alpha. There is no
reason for supposing that there has been, within the last few
centuries, any perceptible change in our northern climate; but, if
there had been, the displacement of the Polo Star by precession has
nothing to do with it. The inclination of tho earth's axis to the
jilane of her path does not vary in any such way as to aSect
climate. — Axti-Kreopihgist. I do not think any flesh-caters so
ignorant as not to know of the wide range of food materials open to
vegetarians. I am not myself a vegetarian, but at a time (three
years ago) when I did a great deal of mental and bodily work
(rowing every morning two hours at my hardest, and often in heavy
rain) I used frequently, for several days in succession, to take no food
but fruits and vegetables — not on principle, but from sheer careless-
ness : and I cannot say I ever felt the least failing of strength. I never
had better health. My tastes, however, are of the carnivorous kind,
or rather, they are for our customary mixed diet. An Abernethy
biscuit and a bnnch of grapes will servo mo for a dinner, on occasion,
very well ; but I do not " hanker" for such food. 1 mention this,
not as of any interest in itself, but to show that if fruit and vege-
tables agreed with mo so well, it w.as not because I liked them (so
that the evidence in their favour is so much the stronger). — A. H. E.
Nos. 2 and 3 are not out of print. They might be picked up,
perhaps, after a little inquiry ; but 1 know of no place where they
could bo obtained. A few copies remain of Part I., in which aro
those numbers, and a limited number havo been kept for our
volumes. It would be useless to reprint them, as many others of
the earlier numbers aro nearly sold out too ; so that if reprints
wore ordered at all, at least eight uumbers would havo to be ro-
Feb. 24, 1882.]
• KNOWL-EDGE
367
1 iiitod, which, of coarse, cannot be thought of. — C. C. C. The
;v Tou advance was originally suggested by one Isaac
■on; but calculation has since shown that the ])henomena
comets' tails are irreconcilable therewith. We shall
again to comets by and by, if correspondents will give
ave. — A. J. Maetin and C. J. C. It would indeed be interesting
-tronomers if the sun's elevation ^•aried in the way described by
1 Resident in Glengloy, Upper Lochabor, N.B." But too good a
li is kept on the sun at Greenwich, Paris, Washington, &c.,
him to play such tricks without our knowing it. // the sun
Iv shone over a hill this year, at a time of year when formerly
lid not top the hill, the hill has changed, or the level of the
und where the house stood from which the obseiTation
|_ was made. — R. H. Thanks. Solutions neat, but no space. —
G. S. E. How if he declines to be "relegated ? " — Hr. Ceeagh — C.
Sorry, but in fairness to other sqaarers must regard all magic
squares as now done with. — MiCROCRiin. There may be some slight
difference in the friction, but otherwise can be none. — W. G. Parriss.
When a gas-flame is blown, the already ignited gas is driven away
tnm that which in the ordinary course would bo ignited ne.'it ; thus
(his gas remains unignited, and the other part bums out. The wind or
breath does not cause combustion to cease ; it prevents combustion.
Combustion in a steadily-burning flame is beginning and ceasing all
the time. — W. G. Woolcombe. I cannot reconcile observed facts
with the jKistulatod law, " a force acting in a direction at right
angles to direction of motion of a body has no effect in altering the
direction of motion." That law will be postulated a long while
before it is established. Write " no effect in altering the velocity
of motion," and you have less trouble. " That 's how the error has
arisen." Your geological difficulty suggests that those subjects do
not greatly attract you ; but with determination it will vanish — Ex-
PKBTO Cbede. Do not know of any one who sells very extensive series
of rocks ; but think a letter addressed to Prof. Tennant, of King's
College, would bring you information on the subject. — J. W. C.
lioomis's book gives all necessary information for projecting an eclipse
from the data in Nautical Almanack. Johnson's does not. Believe
Bogne publisher of latter work. — W. N. W. says second volume of
Allen's work on "Commercial Organic Analysis" is now issued;
price, 10s. 6d. — Edm. Hc.vt. We are content to wait. Do not think
the construction we gave can possibly be misunderstood. — Zares.
Galileo, no; Xewton did, though. Tou confound inertia and
momentiun. Every force, however small, affects the inertia, but
only an equal momentum can match the momenttun of a moving
mass. I not only "seem to imagine," I know that I am dealing
with a well-known and well-understood subject. You might with
advantage study some good text-book of dynamics ; or, for the history
of the matter, look up Whewell's " History of the Inductive Sciences,"
Vol. II., pp. 45-52. "Thanks for hints how to manage correspondence,
bnt we see the matter from another point of view. — J. H. M. Such
mesmeric experiments would do something to establish the claims of
phrenology, if one were sure the subject knew nothing about the
bmnps. Your "young man of the name of Walker" (H. ?) may
have knovm a good deal. — C. T. W. The " equation of time "
varies slightly from year to year, as the position of the earth's
perihelion changes. Bnt very slightly. The equation of your
old dial would, if exact, indicate roughly the time when dial was
' made. — W.C. My "sub" and I have quite enough to do without the
classification you suggest. Xow, about your question : I did not
mean to snub yon, as you say I did ; when you asked how the star-
p? were to be used in the dark, it seemed an all-sufficient reply
ly they were not meant to be so used. — W. F. Dexning. I also
uld have preferred publishing yotir letter. But it could not
with space at command. — J. Haeborp. I cannot, at this
nent, recall any earlier references to Mephistopheles in English
1 ratnre than those in ilsirlowe's " Faustus."
%ttttv^ lAfCfibrli.
Bdina, M. K. Fothergill, J. Harloch, G. E. V., Marplot, Per-
tinent (read it Pertneus). Cara.s, W. C, G. C. E., J. Harvey, X — Z,
Weary, K. Hardy, M. Brant, X. L., Jansen, A. Martins, Halloween,
Cardinal Point, J. Easterbrook, L. Murrill, J. S. T.. Curious,
J. Tordinham M., X. Eastman, T. Elliott, J. Pearsall, Manchester,
IL Pewtress, A Woman, Philalethes. M. B. Q., R. B., Jas. Atherill,
F. Brown, J. T. S-m, Post-Prandial (so we should imajrine), C.
Carteret. S. Y. Ellis. Porter, A Constant Reader, B. S. S.,
M. Peewitt, Jas. C. Christie (try Cockle's).
PoiTD's ErraiCT is a certain t
Pond's Eitnw't is a certain cw
Pond's Extract is a certain cw
Pond's Ertract will heal Bam
Pond's Eitract will c
ire for Bhemnstism and Goat.
( for Hlemorrhoida.
) for Xeuralgic pains,
and Wounds.
) and Bmises.
Sold by all Chemists. Get the genuine.
J>pfcial i^oticc.
Exchange Coli'Mx. — In No. 18 we shall open an Exchange
Column, similar to that which has for several years formed a feature
in our excellent con*.em|)orary, the English Mechanic. The charge
for Exchange notices will be 3d. for the first twenty-four words, and
3d. for everj' succeeding eight wortls.
Sixpenny Sale Column. — We shall also open a Sixpenny Sale
Column, in which advertisements will be inserted at the rate of 6d.
for the first sixteen words, and 6d. for every succeeding eight words.
Enlakced Ncmbeks. — We propose, from henceforth, to extend
Knowledge to 32 pp. twice, at least, in each month ; and we hope
that our growing circulation w^ill enable us to enlarge Knowledge
permanently to 32 pp. weekly. If all our readers would help in
extending our circulation, which some (whom we hereby warmly
thank) have done so effectually, we should very soon adopt a
weekly 32 pp. number.
^otfd on git anti ^cinirr.
Stove Heat. — Those of your readers who have seen Mr.
Williams's article on the " Air of Stove-heated Rooms," and who
find stove-heating both comfortable and convenient, may be glad
to know that the "Crown Jewel Base Burning" Stove does not
diffuse its heat " through red-hot iron ; " it cannot injure, but
tends greatly to promote health. I have used one for years. — R. F.
Inhaling Sulphcretted Uvokogen. — I was surprised to read in
Xo. 14, page 203, the remarks of Mr. Mattieu Williams on the
inhalation of sulphuretted hydrogen. I was rather careless about
the inhalation of this gas until, after suffering six successive and
unaccountable attacks of illness, I traced them to this cause. The
attacks consisted of violent pains in the stomach, and in each case
they occtirred about three days after the inhalation of the gas.
I may mention that, finally, in order to make quite sure in the
matter, I purposely inhaled a small quantity of the gas, with the
result of a slight attack of the pains after the usual interval. It
appears to me that it is a gas which produces different effects on
various people. In Roscoe and Schorlemmer's new work it is
described as " a powerful poison, producing insensibility and
asphyxia." This may be true, but it is not the effect it had on me
— nor, it appears, on Mr. Williams. — HnS.
Science Teaching. — At the annual general meeting of the
Teachers' Training and Registration Society, and of the Bishops-
gate Training College, the other day. Prof. Goldwin Smith took
laudable advantage of the opportunity to impress on those present
■what science teaching really means. " In resiMct of the teaching
of science," he said, " he had constantly brought before him the
wide gulf fixed between the two different kinds of what persons
call knowledge. The one was a mere learning to repeat a verbal
proposition, and the other was knoT\-ing the subject at first hand — a
knowledge based upon a knowledge of the facts. That which they
had constantly to contend against in the teaching of science in this
country was that teachers had no conception of that distinction, for
they thought it quite sufficient to be able to repeat a number of
scientific propositions and to get their pupils to repeat them as
accurately as they themselves did. If he might offer one suggestion
to the governing body of the college, it was that so far as they
taught science at all they should aim at giving real and practical
scientific instruction ; that it should be confined to those things
about which there was no dispute ; and that the teacher should be
instructed that his business in teaching was to convey clear and
vivid impressions of the body of facts upon which the conclusions
drawn from those facts were based."
Biting. — A Serpent, if surprised suddenly, or brought to bay at
close quarters, may be too terror-stricken to attempt flight ; then
it bites, following a curious general rule which seems to obtain
throughout nearly the whole animal world, from a passionate child
downward, no matter what the natural weapons of offence may be.
Young Felidce will keep their talons sheathed until they have
exerted all possible force with their soft milk-teeth, and a lizard
will seize the hand which restrains it with its insignificant little
jaws, when its tail or claws might inflict far more injury. The
Boidee never use their constrictive powers in self-defence (unless
they are gripped), and it seems probable that if a venomous snake's
fangs lay in its tail, it would use its teeth Jirst when attacked before
bringing them into play. Indeed, it must be remembered that very
few animals are provided with exclusively defensive weapons, and
that the python's enormous strength in constriction, the viper's
poison apparatus, the lion's teeth and claws, and the electric dis-
charge of the gymnotus are given them primarily for the purpose
of securing their food. — Arthur Stradling, in Nature.
3G8
KNOWLEDGE
[Feb. 24, 1882.
0UV i%lati)rmatiral Column.
PKUPOSITION IN CONIC SECTIONS.
Let KVK' (Figs. 1, 2, 3) be o cone, touched by the spliere aSa'
ill a circle &ca! , Joreshortened into a straight line in the Jig.; and
let ASN he a plane section of the cone, also foreshortened into a
straight line, touching the sphere tn S. Let a'a and KA produced
meet in X (they m-ust mett unless AN is parallel to a»' or the section
AA' a circle). Suppose the section AS rotated around the straight
li7ie AN until the conic sectio/i occupies the plane of the paper, as
shown by the curve PAF', the points tchich icere at N being brought
to V and P. Join SP, draiv Fil parallel to NX, XM perp. to NX, to
meet in M. It is requirtd to show that the ratio of SP to PMis
constant.
Draw MKNK' throngh N parallel to a'a. Now, in the conic
section AN we see SP (foreshortened) as NS, a tangent from N to
the sphere aSa', and N» is another tangent to the same sphere.
But tangents from the same point to a sphere are equal. Hence
NS (foreshortened) or SP = N)i (foreshortened), which obviously
= uK, and PM = NX. Hence
SP : PJI = aK : NX = aA : AX, a constant ratio. Q.E.D.
If Z S.VK > Z KVK', fig. 1, so that AN produced cuts VK'
(say in A'), the ratio aA : AX is less than unity, and the section is
the ellipse.
If ^ SAK = Z KVK', fig. 2, so that AN
is parallel to VK', the ratio aX : AX is unity,
and the section is the parabola.
If Z SAK <- Z KVK', fig. 3, so that NAf'
produced cuts K' V produced (say in A'), the,
ratio (lA : AX is greater than unity, and the
curve is the hyperbola.
Fig. 3.
In the cases of the ellipse and hyperbola,
we can take another sphere tH6' touching
the cone circularly and the plane of section
in H. For the ellipse, the second sphere
touches the cone on the same side as the other
sphere, and the plane of section on the other
Feb. i.'4, 1882.J
KNOWLEDGE
369
side ; for the hyperbola, the second sphere touches the cone on the
oilier side and the plane of section on the same side.
The reader will tind no difficulty in extending the proof to the
liriis IfP, PM', drawn from a point P on the curve to the other
torus U and perpendicular to the other directrix X'M'. The con-
struction is given for each case.
Note also that the relations HP+SP = AA' for the ellipse, and
HP-SP = AA' for the hyperbola follow at once.
For, rotating the curves back to the foreshortened view, we have
SP foreshortened into tang. XS = tang. X/i = aK
HP foreshortened into tang. NH = tang. Nii'=bK
Wherefore HP + SP = ab in case of ellipse (Fig. 1)
and UP - SP = ab in case of hyperbola (Fig. 3).
— EriTOR.
The geometrical student will find a good deal more that is worth
studying in the relations here indicated. We have added several
lines (latus rectum, minor axis, &c.) to the figures for this purpose.
MATHEMATICAL QUERIES.
[37] — Given any two lines meeting in a point, and some point
out of the lines ; required to draw from this point to the str. lines
two equal str. lines which include a given angle. — Amicus Mathk-
MiTIC.E.
[38]— Rolling Disc. — Given the radius, weight, velocity, and
angle of inclination sideways from the vertical of a circular disc
rolling freely on a level piace; find the radius of its track. —
F. W. F.
[31]— a'' + 4r3 = 27
put i' = 3!/, then 3!(' + 4i/'' = l
and y = -, then 3 + 4: = ;*
Make a perfect square on each side —
(a) :* + 2p2' + p' = 2p:^ + 4c+i)' + 3
The right hand side will be a perfect square if —
i=2pip' + 3)
i.e., a p^ + 3p = 2
puti) = i' — -, then p^ = V — 3p
V V
taking the upper sign v' = v'2 + 1
and — =v'2-l
Let p have this value, then, from equation (o) —
A quadratic with two roots corresponding to each sign, thus giving
four values for ;, and, therefore, four values for x (ic= _ , as might
have been anticipated. — W. G.
[Equation, p. 328, No. 15]. — " W. B." points out that in our
solution of equations
, 39 14 , J 42 13
x- = — — — and i/= _— —
y X X 1/ _
after getting (x + i/)' = 216 by addition, we might have got by
subtraction (x — y)' — 8. It is obviously the simpler course. — Ed.
22!). — " Yarletonian," F. J. Butt, and others solve this equation ;
it needs only transposing, squaring, and simplifying, then squaring
again and simplifying.
[Mr. McGowan's solution to 25, p. 307, to hand, correcting obvious
blunders (20 for 120, and £,- for £-). It shall appear in our next.
5 6
—Ed.] ,
Messrs. J, & A. CnUBCHiiiL have recently published two interesting
tables ; one, showing the average weights of the human body and
brain, and of several of the internal organs at eighteen jicriods of
life in both sexes ; the other sho«ing the same (at decennial periods
of life) in the insane, the forms of insanity being specified.
©ur Cfjrsss Column.
Xo. 21.
By I. G.
No. 22.
By W. Thurman.
'SB m
nmjm
D
W L
0
k \.
^
1
'01
: ...:^
1
[AYliite to play and mate iutwo moves. White to play and iimtf in two moves.
SOLUTIONS.
Problem No. 14, p. 282.
1. B. to R.4. 1. K. takes Kt.
2. B. to Kt.3. mate.
If P. to K. 5, then Q. takes P. mate. If P. to Q.3 : Q.Kt. to B.7.
mate. If P. to B.3.' K.Kt. to B.7. mate. Finally, if P. to B.4. then
Q. to Kt.8. mate.
Problem Xo. 15, p. 282.
1. Q. toQ.6. 1. K. to K.6.
2. R. to Kt.3.ch. 2. B. takes K. mate.
If K. to B.6. then R. to B.3.ch.
Problem Xo. 16, p. 308.
1. Kt. takes P. 1. K. to K.5, or a, b, c.
2. Q. to K.G.ch. 2. K. to Q.6, or B.C.
Kt. mates accordingly either on Q.Kt.4. or K.R.4.
(•) If 1. K. to Kt.7., 2. Q. to K.2.ch., 2. K. to K.6., 3. Kt. to B.4.
mate, or 2. K. to Kt.8., 3. Q. to B.2. mate.
('') If 1. K. to Kt.5., 2. Q. to Kt.6.ch.,2. K. to B.6., 3. Kt. to Q.4.
mate, or 2. K. to R.6., 3. Q. to Kt.3. mate.
(■) If 1. B. to Kt.7., 2. Q. to Q.B.4. anything, 3. Kt. to E.4. mate.
AXSWERS to CORRESPONDENTS.
*,* Please address Chess-Editor.
Edward Sargent.— Nos. 18 and 19. If 1. Q. takes B.P., then 1. Q.
to Q.R.sq.
H. S. Standen. — Solution of No. 15 correct.
C. H. F. — Solution of No. 17 correct.
H. .\. L. S.— Solution of No. 17 correct.
J. P.— Remove Pawn on Black Q.R.2.
F. H. Jones. — Solutions correct.
Received offers to play by correspondence from-
M. J. Harding
H. C. Angell
E. A. Dillon
F. H. Jones
A. C. Skinner
J. N. Siclebotham
Edw. P. Westlake
D. Cudmore.
We have paired them in tiie order named above.
It is necessary the first players should play White. Two games
mav be carried on simultaneously, each jilayer having the move.
Answers should be sent nest day after receipt of move, at latest.
To avoid mistakes, the last move should always be repeated. For
P. to B.3. P. to. K.5.
example : — 12. „ t. o 13. In case of any misun-
derstanding arising, players may refer to us.
A SOCIETY to be called the North Middlesex Natural Histor\'
Association has recently been established. Address, 26, Ingleby-
road, Grove-road, Holloway, N. Its objects are the formation of a
X'atural Historj' Museum and Library of reference and circulation;
also the diffusion of natural history knowledge by means of lectures,
papers, ic, and (in the summer) field excursions.
370
KNOWLEDGE
[Feb. 24, 1882,
0ur WBliiit Column.
\'.\ •■ FlVK OK ClA ll.-<."
DEAH " l''IVK," — The piicloBpil letter from our ontocmod Wliiiit
(•orri-|K)nace, ynn will nee thnt it in cjuito im-
poMible to lind roon) for it (it would take more than n column).
But it iH not c|uite fair to nnHwer a letter wliirh Inm not ajipearod.
I aliould l>e ),'lad if you conid write a fihort note, putting thingn
right, without unfoirnoss tu our corrc8]iondont. — Yours faithrully,
KniTOK.
Deab Kiutob,— (1.) '■ JlofrnI" is rifihl in roKnrdin;? ns " ]>roven "
ray approval of Z's play from strength in the driit round of tnmips
(game No. 13). There was little chance of V utilising the informa-
tion ; but it was bettor, I think, to give it. I hasten to correct
impression, which ho thinks readers might entertain, that' dealer
should aluatis give information in tliis way. (2.) " Mognl " is in
doubt how far 1 think the principle of playing a straightforward
game should he carried, saying that apparently J admit of no excep-
tion but in the "closing rounds." That was rather an illustration
than an exception. I may say that I do not go farther than that
groat whist •master. Clay ; scarce so far. Clay's abhorrence of false
cards was, 1 think, tant soil peu exaggerated. Clay, Cavendish,
and Polo are all pretty much nt one, however. (.3.) When I speak
of modern scientific whist, I do not mean that the older method
was unscientific, but (as the grammar of the phrase implies)
I distinguish the modern from the older scientific games.
Rules have come into vogue now which were not formerly
adopted ; and whether they ore good or bad, running counter
to them means more than declining to give partner information;
it means deceiving him. (I.) As to the game in Xo. 13, I gave it as
actually played, faults included. " Mogul," in his published letter,
pointed out objections to Y's play, and I showed theti, what seemed
to me unnecessary before, how 1' could tell that Z (i) must have five
Clubs, and (ii) must know that he, Y, hud four. " The length of vay
explanation is," Mogul says, " its condemnation." I am disposed
to agree with him. All that is there explained at length should
have been obvious : but " Mogul " did not seem to find it so. I
agree with '" Mogul" that Z should have led the Queen instead of
the King; (as you know, I am not in this harder on Z than Z would
think fair). 5. With all that " Mogul " saj's in his concluding para-
graph I thoroughly agree, except, of course, in his persistent
mistake that I am of a contraiy opinion. If you will allow me I
will quote what I take to be most excellent in this part of " Mogul's "
letter. [We i)refer not ; " Mogul " would probably not think it fair to
quote tho excellent rules he gives without those passages in which he
implies that '' Five of Clubs " teaches the opposite ; for when these
passages are omitted, "Mogul" seems to teach precisely what
"Five of Clubs" has been teaching. — Ed.] There is only
ono small addition I would make to his rule, " When strong, tell
your partner ; when weak, don't tell your adversaries," viz., this,
even when weak, do not unnecessarily deceive your partner, — Yours
truly. Five of Cubs.
Pr,AV Second Haxd.
There are few points which distinguish more thoroughly the good
from the inferior whist player, than the play second hand. Wo are
not, of course, referring to players so inexperienced as to know-
no other rule than " second hand play low." Nor are the
rules for play second hand, at least in the opening rounds of a
game, less definite than those for leading. But somehow it
happens that many players who veiy seldom lead unwisely, who
know well when to play highest and when to finesse third in hand,
and when it is essential to success to win partner's trick fourth
hand, are apt to trust, second hand, to chances which are de-
monstrably against them. Given, for instance, an original lead
of a small card (plain suit), second player with Queen and a
small one (and no special reason for risking something to get a
lead), how often do we see tho Queen played, though it is known
that, in tho greater number of cases, the card is thus thrown away.
Of course, the play often steals a trick. I'erhaps in five cases out
of eleven it may do so, but it is bad, because in a greater number
of cases it fails ; and in every case it suggests for a while to partner
that you held either the Queen alone, or King, Queen, and a small
one. So in other cases which might be cited.
The rules for play second hand are in reality sufficiently simple,
though here, as in tho case of the lead, they seem multitudinous.
Wo note, first, that in general a low card is to be ployed second
hand ; for, in the first jilaco, the suit is presumably your adverisaries',
and it is well to keep the commanding cards of their suit; and, in the
second place, yonr partner lies at an advantage over third player,
who ordinarily must play his highest, lest the trick should fall an
easy proy to your purtuor. By playing high ««oond hand you waato
n good card, whether third hand take* tho trick or your partner;
you are rather worse off, loo, if, though you tuko tho trick, |Mirtner
could have won it halayer is he who plays the game in the
simplest and most intelligible way. — Clay.
G. TiiOMPso.v. — Whist iirobleni correctly solved in your second
letter. B played according to custom in such cases. Cavendish
(p. 50 of latest edition) and others touch on the question whether
it is well to lead from a long suit headed by Ace, Queen, and agree
that it pays better in the long run to do so than to wait for the
chance of being led up to. There is a good chance either of draw-
ing the King, or, if second player has it, of partner winning the
first trick. By waiting in such a c.ise, you deceive yonr partner as
to the chief constituent of your hand.
Problem I. — " Mogul " and " Vacnol " point out that this
problem from the " Westminster Papers" is unsound, as Z may have
Heart King. The objection seems valid, as certainly with Ein^
Knave, ten, three, second hand, ten would be the right card to play.
As third ])laycr holds only one Heart, the nine, there is a somewhat
greater probability that Z is strong in the suit, than that he is
weak, although it is A's long suit. The WTiter in the " Westminster
Papers" may have had some reason for considering that Z cannot
hold the King ; but we can detect none, certainly none which would
occur to B in ordinary play. " Mogid " adds that }' might have
been signalling for trumps holding Knave, two, for anght B can
know. This, however, appears to us incorrect. Playing Knave
second hand from Knave, two, would not be signalling for trumps,
but an attempt to take the trick. Clay, in his chapter on the sigiiali
discusses this point, and, as it seems to us, his opinion that then
would be no signal is correct. — Five of Clubs.
JfOTICES.
The Puhlisherfl beg to announce that in future Monthly Parta of EjsowlsdqM
will be issued. The foUovrins can n^vr be had : —
Pabt II.— (December, 1981.) Containing five numbers. Price la. Fo6t-fre%
Is. 2d.
Part III. — (January, 18S2.) Containing four numbers. Price lOd. PoaU
free. Is.
Part r\'. — (Febniar)-, I832.) Containing foor numbers. Price lOd. Pov^
free, Is.
The Back Numbers of Kwowi,kdgk, with the exception of No. 2 (Xor. 11. 1891),
and No. 3 (Nov. 18, 1881), are iu print, and can be obtained from all bookeellen
and newsaeents, or direct from the Publishers. Should any difiiculty arise
obtaining; the paper, an application to tho PubUsher? is respectfully requested.
TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
The terms of Annual Subscription to KifOWLBDOB are as foUoTrs:—
8. d.
To any address in the United Kingdom 10 10
To the Continent. AustraUa, New Zealand, South Africa, Canada,
and the United Stale* of America 13 0
To the East Indies, China, Ac. {via Brindisi) 15 2
All subscriptions are payable in adranec.
P. O. Orders and cheques should be made payable to the Publishers,
WvMAX Si. Sozrs, LoqJou, at the High Ilolhom District Post-office.
OFFICE: 74 & 75, CHEAT QUEEN STREET, LONDON. W.C.
March 3, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
371
MAGAZINE OF SCIENCE
PLAJNLrWORDED -EXACTLY DESCRIBED
LONDON: FRIDAY, MARCH 3, 1882.
Contexts
PJIGB.
A SluJvin Minute Lif.>. Bv Henn-
J. Slick. F.G.S , F R.M.S :. 371
ThpCnr9t»l Pslacp Elpitriciil Eihi-
liilion. Fourth Nolice. (IHutt.) . 372
Venlilation bv On»n Fireplacei. Bv
\V. Mallieii WiUiami f. 373
The Klectrii- Telegraph. ByW. Lynd 374
Nighu with n Three-Inch Telescope
(lUuttrol-J) 376
A Spinninii-Top 376
Rbtisits : Electricitv and Mag-
neli^m— Spelling and Punctuation
—Geometrical Eiercises for Be-
Cianara — Dr. Luys on the Brain—
(3anofs Physics 377
Were the Ancient Etryptians ac-
quainted with the Movement of
the Earth? 379
Malarial Organisms in the Blood ... 379
OF No 18.
PAOV.
The "Sound" of Fishes 38i)
The Pvramid of Mevdoom. Bv Miss
Amelia B. Edwards ' 380
A Pretty Geometrical Problem 380
j Intelligence iti Animals 380
A Cnruivorous Parrot 331
I Jacko: A Baboon's Biography 331
I Changes on the Surface of Jupiter.
' BvProf.C.W.Pritchett, Glasgow,
, Mo. r.S.A 392
I Star-Map for March S34-M5
' COBRE:>P0XDEXCX 337-3.S9
' Qneries 839
I Replies to Queries 39i)
Answers to Correspondents 391
Notes on Art and Science 393
, Our Muthematical Column 391
; Onr Whist Column 394
I Our Chess Column 3%
A STUDY IX MIXUTE LIFE.
By Henry J. Slack. RC.S., F.R.M.S.
^pHE interest to lie derived from the use of the microscope
X soon passes away unless it is accompanied with some
scientific tlunking about wliat is seen. With the help of
such thinking, there is no end to the combinations of amuse-
ment and instruction that was pre\-iously gained. Suppo.se,
foi' cxaniple, one of the oldest experiments is made, that
of putting a little wisp of liay into a vessel of water, and
noticing what happens. In a toleralily warm place, many
hours will not pass before a sort of skin forms on the
surface of the water, and after thi.s soon appear a swarm of
moving creatures, il. Pouchet called tliis skin a proli-
ferous pellicle, and ascribed to it a kind of maternal power
in generating the animalcules that come after it. This
notion he connected with a theory of creation in which at
some imaginary periods of great cataclysms and catastrophes,
prodigious putrefactions and decompositions occurred, and
out of the seething mass arose monstrous forms.
Gorgons, hydras, aiitl clumeras diiv.
The fact, however, is, that the quantity of the decomposing
material has no direct action upon the kind of life that
appears, and that a gi-eat many creatures neither want
putrefaction or its products, liut are injured by the pro-
cess. The chemical changes that occur in fermentations,
like that of sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid, or in
decompositions that by no means charm the nose with
pleasant smells, are caused or promoted by living organisms :
in the cas > of yeast-cells, resembling little bladders, and in
other cases, minute rods or wriggling spirals. It is not,
however, with these micro-ferments that we are now con-
cerned, but with liigher forms that are sure to be found
injuriou.s, but which can be well developed in water that
contains their appropriate nutriment, but remains sweet.
It is best, when varieties of minute life are required, to
operate on a tolerablj- large scale, sa}' a good handful of
hay in a gallon of water, but a pinch of it in a tumbler
is sure to yield a good harvest, and germs of various
organisms are so widely ant! commonly distributed that
SUCCOS.S may be obtained with a grain of chopped hay in a
quarter of an ounce of water. In such small experiments
a two-drachm vial answers ^'ery well In a shallow vessel
the water dries up too quickly. The student need not at
first trouble himself with the particle or with any object
not big enough to be easih' seen with an inch power, or at
most a half-incli. An accurate stock of general ideas
and broad principles should be acquired before atten-
tion is directed to the most minute structures. Before
taking much trouble to identify the various objects
and learn their names, it will lie well to notice certain
peculiarities of structure. A crowd of little restless
creatures is sure to be seen in the infusion mentioned,
and their movements are produced by hair-like projections,
called cilia, no other external instrument being visible.
Their runnings to and fro ari- incessant. Whenever they
are looked at, by day or night, their acti\'itv is striking, and
until they liecome weak or dying their pace is maintained.
While the cilia are in quick movement, it is impossible to
see exactly what they are and what they do. If, however,
a g(X)d-sized specimen of any ciliated object is allowed to
get nearly dry, and consequently enfeebled, the motion of
the organ can be plainly discerned. For our purpose a little
drop of water containing some of the creatures should
be placed on a glass slide, covered with thin glass,
and the object watched under the microscope until, from
vigorous movements wliile there is plenty of water, they
grow languid and slow as e% aporation from the edges of
the covering glass lessens the supply. A cilian is then
observed to move much in the way we can imitate with an
elastic stick about a yard long, and ha\'ing an impulse
given to it by sharp turns of the wrist. There is a wave
motion from the bottom to the top of the cilian like that
wliich can be made to agitate the ttexible stick. As cilia
are usually very numerous and close together in the sort of
olijects under our notice, it is eWdent that if they did not
move rhythmically and in a thoroughly orderly way, they
would be in frequent collision. This would be very
awkward if the purpose to be served were only, as with
many species, the production of water currents to bring
them food, and it would be quite inconsistent with
the rowing action required for locomotion. A common
species is very conspicuous in the Paramecium aurelia, an
ol)long little creature ranging in size from a little more or
less than 1 -100th of an inch in length. It possesses
longitudinal rows of cilia ; Ebrenberg found some fine
specimens with as many as fifty-two of these rows, each
containing from sixty to seventy cilia, making 3,610 in
in all. Each cilian rises from a minute knol>, which,
though not containing positive muscular structure, acts
like a nicely-arranged combination of muscles. Tliere is
again no nerve cell, but the whole group of organs is made
to work harmoniously by some undiscovcrable, but no
doubt most methodicaUy-arranged, groups of molecules,
which receive impressions from their surroundings, and
stimulate the contractions and expansionsbj'which the move-
ments are produced. If we were furnished \\ith three or four
thousand limbs whose use and movements had to be divided
by our intelligence and our will, we might be a long time
learning how to get on without grievous mistakes. In the
case of the infusoria, we cannot imagine anything like
human volition or purpose, but one as high in the ranks
of life as a Paramecium has to use its army of external
organs for these purposes, to produce currents of water
so that fresh streams continually reach its surface and pro-
vide amply for its respiration, so that the minute objects
that serve for its food may come within reach of its mouth
and be swallowed, and that the cilia particularly engaged
372
KNOWLEDGE •
[March -i, 1882.
in inovinjr it about hIihII not be hindpred by other cilia
imllin;; in wroii^ ilirci-tionH.
Till- t<'n(li-iuv i>f miitlcr in motion to become rhythmical
is wpII known t<;> all physicists. Air readily vibrates in
musical pulsations ; the waterfall makes its musical chord,
and the pendulums (if adjacent clocks are said to conform
their beats. All such considerotions are very int/'restinj;,
and they enable us to find resemblances of analysis between
tiie action of our ciliated infusoria and a host of other
ihythmical and orderly processes. Our explanations, how-
ever, soon come to an end, and wonder cngulphs us where
actual knowled;.;e fails.
In another paper we will endeavour to obtain some more
ideas of natural history and physiology from our hay
infusion. Now, we will only add that cilia are found in
all the vertebrate animals, and in most of the invertebrates,
though not in crabs, spiders, and insects. Man has them
in many places si)ringing from epithelium cells, in such
living membranes as those of the laryn.x, trachea, and
bronchial tubes. They do much in their situations to keep
back dirt particles, but their success is far from perfect.
Town ail-, especially foggy days, makes the human being
too much of a dirt-bin to be consistent with health.
THE CRYSTAL PALACE ELECTRICAL
EXHIBITION.
Fourth Notice.
VERY pfreat progress has been made during the past
week in all departments, more especially in that
(if electric lighting. Siemens, Swan, Hawkes, Gerard,
.Jablochkofl", (.tc, are all at work.
The Palace has never before looked so attractive, and
even the gallery, with its quota of light, is very pleasant,
lioth to the visitor and the exhibitor. One of the collec-
tions which visitors should not fail to inspect is that
in the north nave, exhibited by the War Office. The most
attractive feature of the exhibits is the destructive appa-
ratus, torpedoes, (tc, technically termed " mines," a name
which is perhaps more innocent or less startling to tender
nerves, than that by which they are more generally known.
Tliey arc exhibited in various forms and sizes, but, of
course, none of them are charged. One, made to contain
100 lb. of gun-cotton, is suspended from the roof, and
represents the manner in which it would be moored so as
to float near the surface of the water. Mines, however, are
generally of a larger size, and arc placed on the river-lied
or seu luiftom, where the depth do<-s not exceed CO feet
In deeper wat4'r they are suspended by a buoy (containing
the circuit-closing apparatus, to lie described further on)
at a depth of .'iO feet. Some of the specimens exhibiu-d
are constructed to hold a charge of .lOOlb. of gun-cotton,
which, on exploding, aut^jmatically or otherwise, %t the
above-mentioned depth, sends into the air a column of
water HO feet in diameter and 1 ."iO feet high.
Fig. 1 illustrates what is known as the " circuit-closing
apparatus." S K' is a steel rod rigidly fixed at the Ixittom.
and weighted at the thin upper end, which is free. A small
collar of brass (K) is attached to the rod at aVxjut the middle
of its length. Round K is a ring of ebonite (E), to insu-
late another Vira.ss ring (B) from the rest of the apparatus.
The brass ring (F) is a portion of the framework, and is
metallically connected to the flat brass spring P. The
wire from one end of the battery (alx)ut four Leclanche
cells) on shore is connected to the brass ring B. When a
vessel strikes the buoy or mine, as the case may Vje, the
steel rod oscillates sufficiently to make contact between the
ring 1! and the spring P. The current will then pass fronv
B into P, and thence through the framework — the electrical
circuit being completed through the water and earth. So far,
however, no more damage is done than to ring a bell on
0"
G
I ft
0
Fig. 2.
shore. Fig. 2 shows how this is done. MM' arc exten-
sions (known as pole pieces) of the soft iron core of am
electro-magnet The current which is produced by the
impact of a vessel on the buoy passes through the electro-
magnet, and in consequence II and il' attract the piece of
soft iron, A A', which is pivottcd at C, so that both M and
M' tend to draw AA in the same direction. 1) is a pin on
AA', RR' is a lever, with the hammer, H, at one end, and
pivoted at C, so that when AA' is drawn away, D allows
H to fall, and strike the bell, L. This gives notice to the
officer of the approach of a vessel, which he may then blow-
up. The blowing-up, however, is very easily made auto-
matic. NN' (tig. 2) is a piece of brass, with a slit wide
enough to allow the hammer-lever in falling to enter and
make contact at O. This completes the electricad circuit for
firing the mine. Of course, all tliis is but the work of an
instant.
The fuze is represented in fig. 3. B is the beechwood
cup, and W W are the extremities of a piece of line
March 3, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
373
platinum wire stretched across the cup. When the firing
circuit is completed, the current enters by means of a wire
joined to W, and, passing this, the platinum leaves by
another wire joined to W. Fifty to sixty Leclanche cells
are used, and make the platinum red-hot, thereby igniting
a small quantity of gun-cotton wrapped round it, the flame
from which, consuming a thin paper cover P P', enters the
detonating tube T T, containing fulminating mercury.
The e.xplosion of this is followed by the explosion of the
mine. When the mine is fired by hand, a key, somewhat
similar to a Morse telegraph key, is used. Normally there
is a piece of ebonite switched into the space between the
contact points, so that the mine may not be accidentally
fired. The whole collection displays the state of perfec-
tion to which we have attained in the art of wholesale
homicide.
" Field Telegraph Equipment," "Signalling Apparatus,"
and "R.K Field Company Equipment," are all well repre-
sented, but our space will not permit a description this
week. We can only say that everything gives one an
impression of extreme compactness and efficiency, reflecting
great credit on the War Oflice.
A new feature in the Exhibition is the delivery of a
course of lectures by Professor Sylvanus Thompson. In
the first he essayed to demonstrate what electricity is, and,
after describing its production and effects, he said that the
late Professor Clerk Maxwell regarded electricity as the
motion of the ether of space, and that it was most proliably
in that direction we should have to look to discover the
nature of electricity.
VENTILATION BY OPEN FIRE-
PLACES.
By W. Mattieu Willi.uis.
THE most stubborn of all errors are those which have
been acquired l>y a sort of inheritance, which have
passed dogmatically from father to son, or, still worse,
from mother to daughter. Tliey may become superstitions
without having any theological character. The idea that
the weather changes with the moon, that wind " keeps ott'
the rain," are physical superstitions in all cases where they
are blindly accepted and promulgated without any exami-
nation of evidence.
The idea that our open fireplaces are necessary for ven-
tilation is one of these physical superstitions, which is
producing an incalculable amount of physical mischief
throughout Britain. A little rational reflection on the
natural and necessary movements of our household atmo-
spheres demonstrates at once that this dogma is not only
baseless, but actually expresses the opposite of the truth.
I think I shall be able to show in what follows that,
1st, they do no useful ventilation ; and, 2nd, that they
render systematic and really efleetive ventilation practically
inipo-ssible.
Everybody knows that when air is heated it expands
largely, becomes lighter, bulk for bulk, than other air of
lower temperature ; and, therefore, if two portions of air of
unequal temperatures and free to move are in contact with
each other, the colder will flow under the warmer, and
push it upwards. This latter postulate must be kept
distinctly in view, for the rising of warm air is too
commonly regarded as due to some direct uprising activity
or skyward affinity of its own, instead of being understood
as an indirect result of gravitation. It is the downfalling
of the cooler air that causes the uprising of the warmer.
Now, let us see what, in actordante with the above-
stated simple laws, must happen in an ordinary English
apartment that is supplied, as usual, with one or more
windows more or less leaky, and one or more doors in like
condition, and a hole in the wall in which coal is burning
in an iron cage immediately beneath a shaft that rises to
the top of the house, the tire-hole itself having an extreme
height of only 24 to 30 inches above the floor, all the
chimney above this height being entirely closed. (I find
by measurement that 24 inches is the usual height of the
upper edge of the chimney opening of an ordinary " re-
gister" stove. Old farm-house tire-places are open to the
mantel-piece. )
Now, what happens when a heap of coal is burning in
this hole ? Some of the heat — from 10 to 20 per cent,
according to the construction of the grate — is radiated into
the room, the rest is conveyed by an ascending current of
air up the chimney. As this ascending current is rendered
visible by the smoke entangled with it, no further demon-
stration of its existence is needed.
But how is it pushed up the chimney 1. Evidently by
cooler air, that flows into the room from somewhere, and
which cooler air must get under it in order to lift it. In
ordinary rooms this supply of air is entirely dependent
upon their defective construction — bad joinery : it enters
only by the crevices surrounding the ill-fitting windows
*nd doors, no specially-designed opening being made for it
Usually the chief inlet is the space under the door, through
which pours a ri\ ulet of cold air, that spreads out as a lake
upon the floor. This may easily I* proved by holding a
lighted taper in front of the bottom door-chink when the
windows and other door — if any — are closed, and the fire
is burning briskly. At the same time more cold air is
poured in at the "top and the side spaces of the door and
through the window chinks. The proportion of air entering
by these depends upon the capacity of the bottom door-
chink. If this is large enough it will do nearly all the
work, otherwise every other possible leakage, including the
key -hole, contributes.
But what is the path of the air which enters by these
higher level openings 1 The answer to this is supplied at
once by the fact that such air being colder than that of the
room, it must fall immediately it enters. The rivulet
under the door is thus supplemented by cascades pouring
down from the top and sides of the door and the top and
sides of the windows, all being tributaries to the lake of
cold air covering the floor. The next question to be con-
sidered is, what is the depth of tliis lake 1 In this, as in
every other such accumulation of either air or water, the
level of the uppi-r surface of the lake is determined by that
of its outlet. The outlet in this case is the cliimney hole,
through which all the overflow pours upwards : and there-
fore, the surface of the flowing stratum of cold air corre-
sponds with upper part of the chimney hole, or of the
register, where register stoves are used.
Below this level there is abundant ventilation, above it
374
• KNOWLEDGE •
[Mabcii 3, 1882.
there is noiK*. Tlio cat that sits on the hoarthrug lia« an
abundant .su|i)>ly of frcsli air, niul if we liud tracliual
lircathinj; aiicrturcs all down the sides of our tiodii's, as
oat<'rpillai-s have, those on our lower extremities niij?lit
onjoy the ventilation. If we squatted on th(! f^ound like
savages something miglit lie said of the (ire-hole ventilator.
But as we are addicted to sitting on chairs that rai.se our
hroothing apparatus eonsideralily aliove the level of the top
of the register, tlie maximum eHiciency of the How of cold
air in the lake holow is expressed hy tlie prevalence of
chilblains and rheiunutism.*
The atmosphere in which our heads are imn\ersed is j)rac-
tically stagnant; the radiations from the lire, plus the animal
heat from our bodies, just warm it sufficiently to enable the
cool entering air to push it upwards aliove the chimney
outlet and the surface of ^tlie lower moving stratum, and to
keep it there in a condition of stagnation.
If anybody doubts the correctness of this description, he
has only to sit in an ordinary English room where a good
tire is burning — the doors and windows closed, as usual —
and then to blow a cloud by means of pipe, cigar, or by
burning brown paper or othci-wise, when the movements
below and the stagnation above, which I liave described,
will be rend'Ted visible. If there is noborly nio\ing about
to stir the air, and the experiment is fairly made, the level
of the cool lake below will be distinctly shown by the
clearing away of the smoke up to the Ie\el of the top of
the regist<'r opening, towards which it may be seen to sweep.
.Vbove thi.s, the smoke-wreaths will remain merely waving
about, with slight movements due to the small ineiiualities
of temperatures caused by the fraction of heat radiated
into the room from the fi-ont of the fire. These move-
ments are chiefly de\eloped near the door and windows,
where the above-mentioned cascades are falling, and against
the walls and furniture where feeble convection currents
are rising, due to the radiant heat alisorbed by their sur-
faces. The stagnation is the most complete about the
middle of the room wliere there is the greatest bulk of
vacant air space.
When the inlet under the door is of considerable dimen-
sions, there may be some escape of warmer upper air at
the top of the windows, if their fitting is correspondingly
defective. These, however, are mere accidents : they are
not a part of the \aunted chimney-hole ventilation, but
interferences with it.
There is another experiment that illustrates the absence
of ventilation in such rooms where gas is burning. It is
that of suspending a canary in a cage near tlie roof. But
this is cruel ; it kills the l)ird. It would be a more
satisfactory experiment to substitute for the canary-bird
any wingless biped who, after reading the above, still
maintains that our fire-holes are effective ventilators.
Not only are the tire-holes worthless and mischie\ous
ventilators themselves, but they render efficient venti-
lation by other means practically impossil)le. The
" Arnott's ventilator " that we sometimes see applied to
the upper part of chimneys is marred in its action by the
greedy " draught " below.
The tall chimney-shaft with a (ire burning immediately
below it dominates all the atmospheric movement in the
house, unless anotlxT and more powerful upcast-shaft lie
somewhere else in comnuniication with the apartments.
But in this ca.se the original or ordinai-y chimney would
be converted into a downcast-sliaft pouring air downwards
into the room, instead of carrying it away upwards. I
• Sinco tho above was writton, a correspondent in Paria tells me
that a cnricaturp exists, roprosenting a Frenchman enjoying an
open lire by stnndiiiirnn iua hc:nl in tho middle of the room.
need not descriU- the sort of ventilation thus obtainable
whih' the tire is burning and smoking.
Ktl'ective sanitary ventilation should supply gentle and
unifurmly-diU'used cuiTcnts of air of moderate and equal
temperature throughout the house. We talk a great deal
about the climate here and the climate there, and when
we grow old and can atlbrd it we move to liournemouth,
Torquay, Mentone, Nice, Algiers, ic, for lK;tter climates,
forgetting all the while that the climate in which we prac-
tically live is not that out-of-doors, but the indoor climate
of our dwellings, the which, in a properly-constructed
house, may be regulated to correspond to that of any
latitude we may choose. I maintain that the very first
step towards the best approximation to this which is
attainable in our existing houses, is to brick up, cement up,
or otherwise completely stop up, all our existing fire-holes
and abolish all our exi.sting fires.
But what next 1 The reply to this will demand the
whole of another short essay.
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.
Bv W. Lyxd.
THE WIRES AND INSULATORS.
THE manner in which a telegraph line is carried from
station to station must be familiar to all. The
conducting wires are passed through a bath of liquid zinc,
by which process they receive a coat of that metal. Zinc
being easily oxidised, is by the action of the atmosphere
converted into o.xide of zinc, and protects the iron from
the influence of moisture. The wires are suspended by
earthenware or glass supports called insulators, fixed upon
wooden posts, at intervals of about sixty yards. As
electricity has always a tendency to pass by the shortest
route possible to the earth, it will easily be understood
that if the wires were allowed to rest upon the wooden
poles, the current would make its escape before it reached
the receiving station. Wood, when seasoned with tar, is
a very poor insulator. Tliere must be some good non-
conducting substance between the wire and the post. There
are many forms of insulators. Glass ofl'ers the greatest
resistance to an electric current of any known material,
but electricians oliject to it on account of its hygroscopic
properties — a film of moisture collects upon glass in nearly
all states of the w-eatlier. On some lines ebonite is used,
but there are objections even to that excellent non-
conducting substance ; rain wets it easily, and its surface
soon becomes dirty and spong}-. Browni earthenware insu-
lators are the most common in this country : the glaze does
not craek, and although they have not so great a resistance
as glass, they are, on account of their cheapness and dura-
bility, used in preference to any other kind of non-con-
ducting supports. In spite of all precautions, however,
electricity finds a means of escape from the best insulated
lines. In wet weather the leakage is sometimes so
great that the signals on the recording instruments at
receiving stations are almost unintelligible. The steel in-
dicator of a single needle telegi-aph apparatus should strike
against two ivory pivots on the dial plate, in order that the
beats may be distinctly understood, but I ha\ e had to read off
messages in bad weather when the current was so weak
that the needle did not touch the pivots at all, and half
the letters had to be guessed. In rainy weather, coats of
moisture collect upon the wire, insulator, and post, and as
a natural result the electricity flows to earth. If there is
only a little loss at each post, the cuirent on a long line is
March 3, 1882.]
KNCWI.EDGE
375
soon weakened, and it is not unusual in stormy ■weather to
put on additional battery power to compensate for the loss.
The electric conductivity of moist air has been a subject of
dispute ; some electricians liave held that humid air acts as
a conductor of electricity ; and others have maintaLaed that
it does not. Recent experiments of M. Marangoni support
the latter theory very decidedly, for he finds that a Leydcn
jar, heated so as to prevent condensation of moisture on
its glass walls, and thus arrest surface conduction, gives
a long spark as in the driest air. When, however, the
precaution of heating the walls of the jar is not taken, the
moisture condenses on the latter, and, forming a thin film
of water, causes a silent discharge, which might be mis-
taken for a slow discharge through the conducting air. It
follows from these experiments that the loss of electricity
on telegraph lines is wholly due to surface conduction over
the wet and dirty insulators, or leakage along entangled
threads and branches of trees, at particular points, and not
to a general discharge into the saturated air.
Lightning, or atmospheric electricity, is occasionally
attracted to the wires, and passes along them, disturbing the
indications of the instruments. Telegraphists are always
exposed to danger during a thunderstorm. In the summer
of 1859, a youth employed in the telegraph department
of one of our principal railways was seriously injured
by the physiological effects of an electric shock, received
while he was sending a message on the double-needle
instrument. A storm was raging at the time, and the clerk
did not take the precaution to avoid touching the metallic
parts of the instrument. At that period, the many
ingenious contrivances for diverting the lightning now in use
had not been thouglit of. I ha\e known the fine silk-covered
wires used in certain parts of the needle telegraphs fused into
an amoi-phous mass. When the currents of atmospheric
electricity were not so intense, they usually demagnetised
the needles, causing them to deflect the reverse way.
The Aurora Borealis or Northern Lights will some-
times cause a disturbance in telegraphic communica-
tion. The long lines and cables are more liable to be
affected by the Aurora. There was a disturbance of this
kind from Aug. 11 to 14, 1880. According to the report
of Privy Councillor Ludewig, of the Central Telegraph
Department, Berlin, it seems to have manifested itself
throughout the greater portion of the northern section of
the Eastern hemisphere, sending off, however, a southerly
stream in the direction of Mozambique, which reached to
Natal. It does not appear that the western continent
was affected. The general features of the disturbance
consisted of manifestations of the presence of strange
currents (earth currents as they are called) of fluctuating
intensity, the durations and fluctuations varying in
different localities, and the direction of the currents
changing frequently. This last feature would seem to
indicate a movement of revolution, or at least of approach
and recess, with regard to some line or point. These dis-
turbances were traceable alike in underground lines and
in lines carried through the open air. In Germany all the
longer lines were very much disturbed, in the ways men-
tioned, on Aug. 1 2, from noon till late at night The inter-
ruptions frequently involved the omission of several
signs, or even words, and in the Morse apparatus,
continuous strokes appeared on the paper.
There are other causes of disturbance to which
telegraph lines are liable. Kite-tails entangled in the
■wires will, if a shower of rain comes on, cause con-
tact : the electricity will flow from one wire to the
other, so that a message, say, from London to Birmingham,
may pass through three or four different circuits, and give
rise to provoking confusion and delay. I have seen the
dead body of a large bird lying across the wires of a railway
telegraph line.
Aproj/oa of the feathered tribe, some interesting
facts were recently brought out in a paper by M. C.
Nielsen, of Christiania, on the impression produced
upon animals by the resonance of the vibration of tele-
graph wires. It is found that the black - and - green
woodpeckers, for example, which hunt for insects in the
bark and in the heart of decaying trees, often peck
inside the circular hole made transversely through tele-
graph posts, generally near the top. The phenomenon is
attribxited to the resonance produced in the post by
the vibration of the wire, which the bird mistakes als
the results of the operations of worms and insects
in the interior of the post. Everyone knows the
fondness of bears for honey. It has been noticed that
in mountainous districts they seem to mistake the
vibratory sound of the telegraph wires for the grateful
humming of bees, and, rushing to the posts, look about
for the hive-s. Not finding it on the post, they scatter the
stones at its base, which help to support it, and, dis-
appointed in their search, give the post a parting pat
with their paw, thus showing their det<'rmiiiation, at
least, to kill any bees that may be about. Indisputable
traces of bears about prostrate posts and scattered stones
prove that this really happens. With regard to wolves,
again, M. Nielsen states that when a vote was asked
for the first great telegraph lines, a member of the
Storthing said that, although his district had no direct
interest in the line proposed, he would give his vote in
its favour, because he knew the lines would drive the
wolves from the districts through which they passed. It
is well known that to keep off the ravages of hungry
wolves, in winter, the farmers of Norway set up poles con-
nected together liy a line or rope, under which the wolves
would not dare to pass. " And it is a fact," M. Nielsen
states, "that when, twenty or more years ago, telegrajih lines
■were carried over the mountains and along the valleys, the
wolves totally disappeared, and a specimen is now a rarity."
Water-careyi.ng Tobtoises. — At a recent meeting of the San
Francisco Academy of Sciences a tine specimen of the desert lanil
tortoise, captured at Cajon Pass, San Bernardino County, was
sliown, and Professor E. T. Cox related some curious circumstances
in connection with it. This tortoise, wliich is aslarge as a good-sized
bucket, is a native of the arid regions of Caiifornia and Arizona.
On one being dissected, it was found that it carried on each eido a
membrane, attaclied to the inner portiijn of tiie sliell, in wliich was
about a pint of clear water, the whole amount being about a quart.
Professor Cox was of opinion that the water was derived from the
secretions of the giant barrel cactus, on which the tortoise feeds.
This cactus contains a great deal of water. The tortoise is found
in sections of the country where there is no water, and -where there
is no vegetation but the cactus. A traveller siifi'i'ring from thirst
could, in an emergency, supply himself with water by killing a
tortoise. They are highly prized by Jlexicams, who make from
thera a delicious soup. They are oftentimes attacked by foes,
both for their water and also for their flesh. They arc overcome
by the foxes, and killed by being dragged for miles over the country
at a pretty rapid pace. Mr. Bedding afterwards stated that he was
on the Gallapagos Islands in 18i9, wlien he assisted in capturing
92 land tortoises, varying in weight from 450 lb. to 6001b. each.
These they brought to San Francisco, where they sold them for
more money than the whole of the ship's cargo of lumber made.
They were two months on board, yet they neither ato nor drank
anything, though food and water were offered them. When killed,
however, considerable quantities of water were found in each of
them. They lived on the high lava rocks of the islands, where there
are no springs or streams, and the only dependence of animal life
for water is necessarily upon the irregular and uncertain rain
showers. These were of a different species from the one shown.
It was generally admitted that it would be useful if the habits and
peculiarities of these animals could be noted, and some trustworthy
information as to how they collect and secrete their water obtained.
376
KNOWLEDGE
[Mabch 3, 1882.
NIGHTS WITH A THREE-INCH
TELESCOPE.
Uv "A F.-:i,i,(iw OK Tin: Hoval Asthokomical Sociktv."
OUR first oliji'ct to-night shall lie that bnautifui aiici
familiar doiilile-star « Ciominoruiii, or Castor (Map,
p. 298). This, with tho instruriiont wo aro oniploying, we
shall (iiul to Ix- a pei-fcctly pasy olijcct ; in fact, wore th<'
young oliscrviT furnished with the means of accurately
directing his telescope, Castor nn'ght lie seen double in hriglit
twilight — or even in liroad daylight. Its telescopic a.spect,
with a power of TJO, is shown in Fig. 20.
Fig> M. — Castor.
0 Geminorum is another star which will repay examina-
tion. It will be found in the Map on p. 298. The small,
purplish companion will be found abo\ c the principal star,
and just to the left of the lower circle passing through it
1. (below Pollux in the same map) is a ditticult and delicate
pair, requiring a tirst-class instrument and acute vision to
see the comes at all. 38 in this constellation (bottom square
but one in the left-hand corner of Zodiacal Map, p. 225),
though ditHcult, is a decidedly easier ol)jectthan ».•. In both
these stars the contrasted colours of the companions are
very fine. Many other oljjects will be found marked D and
B in the map ; but, being invisible to the naked eye, they
are by no means easy to pick uj) without an equatorial
mounting.
Cancri is not a constellation containing man}- objects of
interest witliin the power of a three-inch telescope. Never-
theless the studwit will see ^ as a double star (it is really
triple), ifi" is another object, approximately as easy to see
as . p. 298), which, with a
power of 100. should present the appearance indicated in
Fi-. 22.
A more diflicult object, and one which will severely tax
till- powers, both optical and visual, of the observer, is
1 Ijeonis (Map, p. 298). r»4 I^eonis is a charming object
There are a very great many small pairs in Leo ; but the
remarks which we have made al>ove in connection with
t<;lescopic .stars in Gemini are equally applicable here. If
the .student will fish about the apex of an equilateral
triangle, whereof a and y lyonis form the (jxtremities of
the base (to the left, or ea.st, of the line joining them) with
the lowest power at his dis]iosaI, he will find himself in a
region rich in nebula;.
y Leonis.
Underneath Leo in the maps will be found the foolish
modern constellation of the Sextant 35 Sextantis is
worth looking at, as a curious disagreement exists as to
the colour of the comes. There is a bright nebula, too,
worth examination, in Sextan.s. It is 163 of Sir William
lierschel's 1st Catalogue.
Hydra, straggling across the sky beneath Cancer, Sex-
tans, Crater, Corvus, Virgo, and Libra contains a consider-
able number of interesting objects, though but few of them
are susceptible of exsy recognition, e Hydra- is a fine pair,
but difficult with such an instrument as we are employing,
on account of the proximity of its components, and of their
disparity in size. Of the objects in Crater and Cor\-us
(two figures perched by the map-makers on Hydra's back),
we need here only allude to 17 Crateris, an easy double
star, wnth prettily-contrasted colours ; and to c Corvi, wider
apart still, but exhibiting even more prominent tints in its
components. About three-quarters of the way upon an
imaginary line drawn from aek to the enunciation. Tliere
is no reason wliy this roundabout course should be fol-
lowed. Instead of l)(!ginning, for instance: "If two
triangles have two sides of the one e(|ual to two sides of
tlie other, each to each, and if the angle contained by tlie
two sides of the one l)e equal to the angle contained by
the two sides, ejunctive, instead
of being told that such a st^ntence as " If it rains "
is correct when you mean " if it is raining now," and in-
correct when you mean " if it should rain to-morrow." Of
course, the principle of these general propositions is sound
enough, if we are writing for logicians, just as it is sound
enough to define a piano superficies as one " in whicli any
two points being taken, the straight line between them lies
wholly in that superficies." But definitions and enuncia-
tions of logical precision are not for beginners. We wonder
what Euclid would Iiave said if he had been told his treatist;
■would be used for learnii\g first' lessons in geometry ? It
is a pity, we think, that Mr. Coiistable did not simplify his
l)Ook a little in this direction, having no enunciation
distinct from the explanation of the figure. Even for
more advanced mathematicians, enunciations are emphatic
nuisances ; the time given to interpret the roundabout
phrases, necessary when a figure is not referred to, is just
so much time wa-sted. So is the time wasted which is given
to the wording of such enunciations. Often, despite the
time thus wasted, the enunciation is not intelligible till a
figure is drawn illustrating it Thus " if from two dia-
metrically opposite points on the circumference of a circle
perpendiculars be drawn to a straight line outside the
circle, the sum of these perpendiculars is constant." How
are we to intorprert; this 1 Constant wherever the line may
be, or whatever the size of the circle 1 or in whatever
direction the diameter is drawn ? or may any two of these
vary ? or all three ? Still, this happens seldom in the book
before us, and the use of enunciations is common to a great
many treatises on geometry. The propositions are clearly
and simply dealt with, and the work is very carefully
printed and illustrated. In proposition 18, p. 13-5, it
.should be noticed that the construction fails if triangle
SPR is less than one-jitli part of the quadrilateral. There
are, however, very few mistakes in the book.
DR. LUYS ON THE BRAIN.*
Dr. Livs has adoijted a method of cerebral research
which he regards as of extreme value. He makes regu-
larly stratified sections of the cerebral tissue, and has these
faithfully reproduced by means of photography ; he then
• " The- Brain nnd its Piinctions." By J. Leys, Physician to the
Hospice (ic la Snlputrit^ro. (London.)
employs successively-graduated magnifying powers for the
represi-ntation of certain details. By these new methods
he has been al)le, he considers, " to ))enetratc further into
the- still unexplored regions of the nervous centres, and,
like tt traveller returneil from distant lands, to l)ring back
correct views and faithful representations of certain terri-
tories of which our predecessors caught scarcely a glimpse."
After carefully surveying the elementary properties of the
n(Tvou8 elements, he arrives at the conclusion that it is by
means of their combination, and by the harmonious co-ordi-
nation of all their truly .specific energies, that the brain
feels, i-emembers, and reacts ; and that, in fact, they are
the oidy living forces present, always imderlying the infi-
nite series of operations which the brain everj' moment
accomplishes ; and that, in fact, without them, that admir-
able and complex apparatus, at once so delicate and so
siniple, would be as absolutely without life and without
movement as the earth would be, without the sun.
The present work, in which Dr. Luys thus endeavours
to carry the data of contemporary physiology into the
hitherto uninvaded domain of speculative psychology, is
full of interest, despite its occasional too technical ter-
minology. The Iiook is in part suitable only for medical
men, but in greater part it is easily to be understood by
the general reader. We may not accept Dr. Luys' opinion
that " from this time forth a true physiology of the brain
has been established as legitimately as the physiology of
the heart, lungs, or muscular system," but he has done
much to show that we are fairly on our way towards this
result, "a consummation devoutly to be wished. '
Some of the facts used by our author to illustrate his
views are very interesting when thus viewed. Such, for
instance, are the familiar phenomena of association. " It
is sufficient," as he says, " to see an object or a person — to
hear a name pronounced accidentally, to smell an odour —
in oi'der to feel arising within us a series of ideas which
arose at the moment when this impression was at first per-
ceived by us. We all know how frequently in current
conversation a word — a simple sound — causes the primitive
direction of our ideas to diverge." This curious property,
which sensorial impressions, received at the same time,
possess, and which constitutes, as it were, natural families
among them, is a gi-eat resource in the education of the
intellect, and the methodic cultivation of the faculties.
Among the singular facts referred to in this work may
be mentioned the experiments of Charles RoViin, on the
corpse of a decapitated indi\-idual (Ch. Robin, '' Journal de
I'Anatomie, Paris 1869, p. 90). They showed that the
automatic activities of the spinal cord in man may continue
to exhil>it undiminished energy, and power of co-ordinatious
in the form of regularly-associated movements with a
definite object (such as movements of defence made bj" the
hand after a cutaneous excitation), these being performed
with as much regularity as though the brain had directed
them.
GANOT'S PHYSICS.*
A BOOK SO well known and so widely valued as Ganot's
Physics, scarcely requires the evidence which the issue of
a tenth edition atibrds, to show that it is thoroughly
sound and ti'ustworthy. It is a text-book which fidtils the
purpose which we have set before us in Kxowledce, being
clearly worded, yet exactly described. It is very well
illustrated, and the various physical subjects dealt with in
• " Elementary- Treati.ie on Physics. Experimental and Applied."
For tlie Use of Colleges and Schools. Translated and edited from
Oanot's " £l6ments de Physique.'* By E. Atkinson, Ph.D., F.C.S.
Tenth edition. (Longmans A Co., London.)
March 3, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
379
its pages — the properties of matter, hydrostatics, pneu-
matics, acoustics, heat, light, magnetism, and electricity —
are thus rendered as clear as they can be -without actual
experiment. But no student of science can read these
pages without wisiiiug to make, or to witness, some, at
least, among the many experiments -which are here illus-
trated and described. The tenth edition is enlarged by
nearly 2.5 pages, and includes 24 additional illustrations.
A very valuable feature of the work is the great number
of numerical proVilenis and examples in Physics. The
student should not consider that he understands any sec-
tion until he is able readily to work out for himself the
problems illustrating that section.
n
\ WERE THE A2sCIENT EGYPTIANS
^____\^ ACQUAINTED WITH THE
MOVEMENT OF THE EARTH 1
IN the Zeitschrift fur SgyptUche Sprache for 1864, the eminent
Egyptologist, M. Chabas, published an essay to prove the
Egyptians considered that the earth travelled in the heavens in a
similar way to the sun and stars. The texts which showed this
interesting fact arc contained in two duplicate papyri at Berlin,
numbered 2 and i of that collection, and as we believe no descrip-
tion of the narrative they contain lias appeared in England, and it
will assist students in arri\-ing at a doe appreciation of the scientific
knowledge of ancient Egypt on the subject, it will be worth while
to give a short account of its chief features, especially as we shall
see in the sequel another text has been deciphered which corrobo-
rates M. Chabas' translation.*
The chief facts detailed in the Papyri are as follows : — The agent
of a high Eirypti.in functionary, of the name of Meruiteus, had
assaulted and robbed an agricultural labourer, who thereupon
appealed to him for redress. Meruiteus referred the matter to the
king ; his majesty, however, considering that he could best decide
the question for himself, ordered him to make a proper inquiry and
adjudicate on the spot. What the result -svas we do not know, be-
cause the Papyri are incomplete. The nccessai-y evidence seems
to have taken a long time to collect (perhaps Meruiteus pnirposely
postponed judgment), and during all this period the poor man was
kept apart from his family, notivithstanding his continual appeals
to the functionary to permit him to have access to his wife and
children. Xearly all the papyri are occupied with the pleadings of
the peasant and replies of Meruiteus. and they are often so lengthy,
and contain so many references to those high principles of justice
and hximanity, the maintenance of which were always the boast of
the good Egyptian, that it seems likely the mere legal account
of the case had been utilised by some scribe, who, by greatly
amplifying all the arguments, contrived to inculcate many
precepts of morality. It certainly seems very improbable that
such interminable speeches, couched in excellent language, and
touching upon subjects of great theological and scientific importance
could proceed from the lips of a simple peasant. As might be
expected, the suppliant endeavoiu-s by fulsome praises to soften the
heart of the man who was to pronounce on liis case, and among some
of his hyjierbolieal encomiums occur the words which are of so much
importanie to us ; — " The peasant came to supplicate the seventh
time, saying " — " Great governor, my lord, thou art the helm of the
(entire) earth, the earth navigates — according to thy will : Thou
art the second brother of Tlioth."
In order to properly appreciate this sentence, it must be re-
membered that in the Nile valley, where the river formed the gi'eat
artery of communication, the idea of travelling or movement had
from the first been associated with navigation. Hence we tind that
as determinatives of verbs signifying a jeumey, the figure of a boat.
or two legs walking, are used indiscriminately. M. Chabas shows
conclusively that the hieroglyphs here translated to navigate are
precisely similar to those employed in speaking of the journey of
the sun d.aily through the sky. and, among many other texts cited,
quotes some referring to the motion of Mars and the apparent
movement of Orion. The Egyptians, it should be remembered,
■ always alluded to the heavens as an -ocean (see also Genesis, i., 7),
and spoke, in their figni-ative way. of the stars as personages, who
sailed upon this celestial sea in sacred barks.
• Maspcro says that, according to a Berlin papyms, the sun
liiteelf was considered to obey the law of universal motion, and to
rtravel in space like the wandering .stars. See " Hist. Ancienne."
The title which the poetic countryman gives Meruiteus, of helm —
viz., guide of the earth — refers to the imaginary rudder which steers
the course of the barque of the earth in space. The words "' second
brother of Thotli,"(aro also noteworthy, ho being a form of the
deity, with two jiartly distinct phases. In one case he was the god
of letters, and the primordial intelligence and order which esta-
blished the harmony of the heavens, and made all the earth con-
tained, and he it was who caused light to shine in the primieval
gloom before the creation of the sun, and for ever guides the stars
in space as Meruiteus was said to steer the earth. In the other,
he was a lunar deity, and pre-eminently the brother of the earth
from an astronomical point of view. In concluding this account
of M. Chabas' paper, it may be mentioned that the Pharaoh to
whom Meruiteus referred is named Xebka-ra. This King is the
forty-fifth on the Sakkara tablet, replaced seventh in the third
dynasty by Maspero. He is, therefore, a monarch who flourished
before the erection of the Great Pyramids. From this and the
very ancient character of the writing of the papyri, it is evident
that the texts are of extreme antiquity. For how many centuries
previous to their being penned the Egyptians knew of the move-
ment of the eanh, cannot, of course, be decided.
A Member of the Society of Biblical Aech.eology.
(To be continued.)
MALARIAL ORGANISMS IN THE BLOOD.
IX the blood of patients suffering from malarial poisoning M. A.
Laveran has found parasitic organisms, very definite in form
and most remarkable in character. Some were cylindrical, curved
bodies, pointed at the extremities, with a delicate outline and a
transparent body, colourless except for a blackish spot in the
middle, due to pigment gi-anules. On the concave side a fine line
could often be traced, which seemed to unite the extremities of the
crescent. These bodies presented no movement. Spherical
organisms were also seen, transparent, of about the diameter of
a red blood corpuscle, containing pigment grains, which, in a state
of rest, were often arranged in a definite circle, but sometimes pre-
sented rapid movements, and then lost their regular arrangement.
On the borders of the spherules very fine filaments could often be per-
ceived in rapid movement. These fUaments were in length three or
four times the diameter of a red corpuscle. Their number varied.
Sometimes three or four were seen round a spherule, to which they
communicated an oscillatoi-y movement, displacing the adjacent red
coi-puscles. The free extremities of the filaments were slightly
reflexed. When at rest, the filaments were invisible on account of
their tenuity and perfect transparence. These mobile filaments ap-
peared final'lv by becoming detached from the pigmented spherules,
continuing, however, to move freely amidst the corpuscles. There
were also bodies of spherical or irregular form, transparent or finely
oranular, about the hundredth of a micro-millimetre in diameter,
containing dark red, rounded pigment grains, either regularly ai--
ranced at the periphery, or aggregated at some part of the spherule.
The bodies and granules were both motionless. These appear to be
the ultimate or " cadaveric ' stage of tho.'se last described. They
have no nuclei, and do not tint with carmine, a distinction from the
pigmented leucocytes with which they have hitherto been con-
founded. Lastly, spherical elements were met with similar to those
already described, but much smaller in size, and apparently repre-
sentino- a stage in their development. The animated nature of the
mobile pigmented spherule, furnished with filaments, appears indis-
putable. M. Laveran regards it as a form of animalcule, which
exists at first in an encysted state, and in the perfect condition
becomes free in the form of mobile filaments, a mode of develop-
ment not uncommon among the lower organisms. Besides these
organisms, the blood of patients suffering from malarial fever
contains (1) red corpuscles, which appeal- to be vacuolated at one or
two spots, and contain pigment granules ; (2) pigmented lenco-
cytes ; (3) free pigment granules, possibly proceeding from the
destruction of the parasitical organisms.
These elements were first discovered by M. Laveran a year ago,
and since then he has examined the blood in 192 patients affected
with various symptoms of malarial poisoning, intermittent and con-
tinned fever, and palnstral cachexia, and found the organisms in
180. The disease had been contracted for the most part in
different regions of Algeria and Tunis. He convinced himself, by
numerous and repeated observations, that these organisms are not
to be found in the blood of persons suffering from diseases that are
not of malarial origin. In most of the cases of malaria in which
the examination yielded a negative result the patient had under-
gone a course of treatment with quinine, and te this fact the
absence of the organisms from the blood was probably due. The
addition of a minute quantity of a dilute solution of sulphate
380
• KNOWLEDGE •
[Mauch 3. 1882.
i»f i|uiiiinc< to a cinip of blood wnii fotinci at once to (loiitroy
III" or);uniHinH. In nil llii> ciuminntionii ((roat care was
lakon In |irocliido tlio ontruncii of any ottraiitriuii objoctg
into tho limp i>f ljlooV(unor is tent-
shaped — that is to say, the walls incline inward toward the roof,
so aa to reduce tho span, and better enable it (the roof) to bear the
enormous superincumbent weight. There were found in this
rtiamber some jiiocos of timljor, which seem to have been used
to remove some heavy weight, perhaps the sarcophagus. It is,
however, possible that, as iu tlie casclling of Monlc (being tho sign
Men without tho Bupp](?mentary n) is very archaic. Tho inscrip-
tion was probably cut during Sonofonxi's lifetime. Tho reason why
I faU'.'d to observe this imfiortant and intercflting inscription on
previous visits is that it is very high up ; bat tho tomb of Nofre-
Moat is now nearly filled with rubbish, which enabled mo to
mount closo ap to tho hieroglyphs, and to examine them
thoroughly. I sow tho oval before, ond figured it in ' Nile Glean-
ings ' (p. 33), but not having an opera-glass with me, I over-
looked the context. I have written to Prof. Maspero to tell him
about it."
" Tho inscription," proceeds Miss Edwards, " copied in hiero-
glyphs by Mr. Villiers Stuart, consists of Seneferoo's name in a
royal oval, nndcr which, placed vertically, occur the ideographic
sign. Men. a battlemented wall, and tho phonetic sign (.an inverted
basket. But in order to complete the word oh given by Birch,
Brugsch, and Pierret, not merely the supplementary n (a zigzag) is
wanting, but also tho dctenninativo hieroglyph, a funereal couch, or
bior. I regret to hove to add that, at the time of writing the
foregoing letter, Mr. Villiers Stuart informs me that ho was
suffering severely from a fall down a shaft 20 ft. in depth. He has,
however, escaped without serious injury."
E
A PRETTY GEOMETRICAL PROBLEM.
{Pay e 220, Jan. 13.)
XCEPT tho propounder of the question, none of our readers have
.li correctly solved cither this problem, or Mogul's (" Given any
rectangle, divide it by the fewest possible straight cuts, so that the
parts can bo jmt together to form a square "). J. Home and ATC
have given solutions of Student's problem, which at a first view
seemed correct and neat. But they were not in reality sound.
Student's solution is as follows : —
A
1 /
/3
K
L
4
/ '2
B I
i C
a 4
Pig. 1.
Pig-
Taking AM = AE, join DM, and take AG -DM. Produce DE to
H and in EH take EL = GB. Draw KL parallel to BH. Number
tho parts as shown in Fig. 1, and fit them together as shown in
Fig. 2. It is easily shown that they fit into a perfect square.
The problem cannot be solved with fewer cuts, but there are
several other ways in which it can be solved with as few cuts, and an
infinite number of ways in which it can be solved with five cuts.
Mogul's problem is so excellent that, supposing readers may have
overlooked it, we leave it for another fortnight aa an exercise.
Editob.
INTELLIGENCE IN ANI>L\LS.
MANY years ago, when a boy, I was at a country market with
two friends, who each had a gig, and it wos arranged that
they would both drive home in one gig, while I drove the other.
After journeying some four miles, I had got a considerable distance
in advance, and arrived at the gate of a private avenue, towards
which the horse turned, and then stopped, refusing to move another
foot, although I tugged at the reins, whipped him, and even got
out and tried to lead him on to the high road again, for I was
quite familiar with his usual route, and had driven him on previous
occisions, but move he would not. \Mien my friends came up I
was told that the horse had been accustomed of late to go through
this avenue, it being a short cut.
In the year 1867 I got several monkeys at Auger Point (Java),
and among them were t^vo males, which wo named Smilor and Tad-
polo, the former so colled because when anyone went near him ho
showed his teeth in such a way that he appeared to be smiling,
the latter because he had an unusually large head, while his body
was small and woakly. Whenever tht*»e monkeys were fed, Smiler
always managed to dispose of his food before Tadpole had com-
menced upon his reserve pouches in his cheeks. Smilor would
then seize Tadpola, got him on his back, strike him under the jaw
March 3, 1882.]
• KNOWLEDGE
331
1 1 throw the food from the pouch into the* mouth, then thrust hi8
iKir.'l into Tadpole's mouth, and take out the half-chewed food,
» liiL-li he at once transferred to his own.
One day, while off the Cape of Good Hope in a prale, with a heavy
sea running, our ship was close hauled under the lower topsails and
fore-topmast staysail, when Smiler escaped from his house and ran
aloft, perching himself on the fore-topmast cross-trees. Fearing lest
he might be blown overboard, I sent a man aloft to catch him.
When Smiler saw the man coming after him, he slipped down the
jib halliards just beyond reach. The man shook the halliards, with
a view of making him slip down to the jib-boom end, where another
man was stationed to catch him, but Smiler losing hia hold was
blown far to leeward, and for the time disappeared.
We were all anxiously looking to leeward for him, but he was
nowhere to be seen, when the cook rushed to windward, and putting
his head over the rail saw him abreast the fore-rigging, and within
(leaving distance. An iron bolt was bent to the log-line and thrown
to the little fellow, who immediately seized hold and waa success-
fully hauled on board, smiling grimly.
Again, in the year 1869 I got a retriever pup in Yokohama, which
I used to drill during the dog-watches at sea, by throwing articles
;iIong the deck for him to fetch back. Among other things ^vns a
'"ft felt hat, with a rather tall crown. At first this hat perplexed
him much, as he usually seized it by the rim, and in running along
he deck with it, tripped himself up by catching his fore-paws in
■lie crown. After repeated trials with the same result, he laid the
I It duw, and with his fore-paws and mouth rolled it up, and carried
:t in that manner. OcR.\.\.
A CARNIVOROUS PARROT.
THE remarkable bird, the Nestor nofabili', or Mountain Kea, of
Xew Zealand, is a parrot of strong frame and powerful bill
and claws, which were used, like those of all parrots, for obtaining
a vegetable diet, until the colonists introduced sheep and pigs, .\^s
soon as this was done, the Kea seems to have abandoned vegetable
food, and to have taken entirely to flesh eating. He attacks sick,
or dying, or disabled sheep, and, with his powerful cutting boak,
opens a passage through the back, and eats the intestines. Even
healthy animals are sometimes assailed by the Xestor notahilis, and
there are sheep-runs in New Zealand where considerable losses
have been incurred through these strange birds. The specimen in
the Zoological Gardens gave as much trouble to capture a.8 an
eagle, tearing the clothes of the shepherd, who knocked it down
while pouncing on a lamb, and lacerating his hands. The
Kea scorns cooked meat, biscuits, fruit, or seeds, and likes raw
mutton better than any food. He will tear the skin and flesh
from a sheep's head after the furious fashion of a vulture — ■
leaving nothing but the bare skull. He at one time holds the
morscla in hia lifted claw, after the style of parrots, and at another
grips them under his feet while rending with his feet like a hawk.
This is a curious example of change of habit, for there is every
reason to believe that before sheep and pigs were introduced into
New Zealand the kea was as frugiverous in its meals as most, if
not all other, parrots. He will now eat pork and beef as well aa
mutton, and has become, in fact, utterly and hopelessly carnivorous.
It is to be feared, after this example, that temptation is often fatal
to birds and beasts, as well as man. Had it not been for Captain
Cook and the English sheep flocks, the Awtor notahilif would have
lived and died innocent of crime; but now its bloml -stained carcase
u suspended outside many a sheepfold near Otago, — From the
Daily Telegraph.
t I 1.
JACKO : A BABOON'S BIOGRAPHY.
MANY years ago, when stationed at an outpost on the Great
Fish River, in the eastern frontier of South Africa, I was
presented by the oflicer I relieved with a youcg baboon, which,
when captured, was so young that it had to be brought up by hand.
From the first, I took a great deal of notice of it, and it became
»ery much attached to me. It made great progress and grew up a
healthy, strong animal.
Jacko waa mischievotis beyond expression, and the first time that
I discovered that he had a temper of his own waa on the following
occasion ; —
I had given him a saucer of bread and milk, and my wife, seeing
that he had emptied the saucer, stooped, and put out her hand to
remove it. He immediately flew at her, and tore her collar, making
a hideoQs noise. I said, "This will never do, Master Jacko, you
must be taught manners," upon which I handed my wife her riding
whip, and desired her to whip him, holding him, myself, firmly. Ho
howled and screamed loudly, lottking round the while in search of
something to fly at, but never attempted to touch either myself or
my wife.
Jacko was always secured by a leather strap round his loins, to
which was attached a strong steel chain, the end of which was
secured by a strong padlock, which clasped an iron ring. This
ring traversed freely up and down a pole, some seven feet in height,
on the top of which a board was nailed, which, of course, kept the
iron ring safely on the pole. This board was Jacko's favourite
seat and post of observation. He was perfectly aware that the
padlock and the board were his detainers ; for he was constantly
either picking at the padlock or working at the boanl, to trj- and
loosen it, and, incredible as it may seem, he actually succeeded in
disengaging the iron plate from the padlocks, compelling me to
renew them frequently,
Jacko's pole was always erected close to my quarters, and I
could watch his procoeourhood. Jacko
was seated upon his high perch, apparently taking no notice of
what was going on. Presently I saw the pioneer di.sappear to
sweep round a comer. Jacko was down like lightning, capsized
the barrow, and with his long and powerful arms scattered the
contents in everj- dii'cction, and when the pioneer appeared,
was up on his perch again with wonderful celerity, looking in quite
a different direction, with a face of the most ludicrous innocence.
One morning, from my look-out window, seeing Jacko come
down from his jjerch very demurely to the ground, and slacken hi.s
chain, and then lie down, as if innocently basking in the sun, I felt
fully aware that mischief was brewing. Presently 1 saw a fat little
puppy appear on the scene, and Master Jacko's sleepy-looking eye
fixed upon it most intently. When the puppy had strayed within
reach, Jacko's chain was quietly tightened, and with his hind leg ho
seized it ; and immediately clasping it in his arms, he clambered
with it to the top of his high perch. For a short time the puppy
was nursed and dangled in his arms, just as a woman would nurse
a baby; then he began a careful search tor fleas, with which tho
poor little thing was tormented. All at once a bright idea seemed
to strike him, for, grasping the puppy by the tail, and holding it
out at arm's length, and, looking, with an expression of most inno-
cent demureness, in the opposite direction, he quietly opened his
hand, and down fell the poor little animal, with a "thud," to the
ground. I ran out to succour the poor little brute, and scolded
Jacko vigorously for his cruelty, which, however, was perfectly
useless, for he instantly assumed a pre-occupied air, and was appa-
rently intensely interested in some imaginary object in the
distance.
One morning I perceived that Jacko had loosened hia perch, and
witnessed his triumphant lixik when ho had succeeded in throwing
it to the ground. He now had nothing but the small top of his polo
to stand on, and thus standing, he pulled up the chain, and brought
the ring close to the top, but found his feet in the way. This
puzzled him for some little time. At last a happy thought struck
him, and seizing the ring with both hands, he jumped into the air,
and the next minute waa scouring the barrack stjuare.
The rattle of Jacko's chain, and the crj- of " Jacko's loose," was
always the forerunner of a race for refuge and a slamming of doors
among the female members of our community.
It was perfectly useless to provide him with any place of refuge
or shelter, as his energies wore at once at work to destroy it, in
which he succeeded uncommonly well ; so, at night, a sack waa
suspended from the top of his pole, into which he nestled himself
with great comfort ; and it is a singular fact, that at night I could
go up to his pole and touch his sack, and he nevor attempted to
move, but would give me an affectionate grunt of glail welcome, but
if any other individual approached within a yard of his pole, Jacko
was out of hia nest in an instant, screaming, and prepared for
battle.
On a cold, wet, rainy niglit I used often to take him a bowl full
of hot coffee, and knowing there was sugar at the bottom of tho
bowl, he could not resist the temptation of plunging his hand into
it to search for the sugar, although the coffee was so hot that he was
obliged to cry out with the pain.
Had I not witnessed what I am about to relate, I could not have
believed it, I have stood within thirty yards of his pole with my
bow and arrow, and taking deliberate aim, have launched an arrow
at him. Jacko would invariably catch the arrow in his hand,
holding it until I went up and claimed it, when he always gave it
np readily. But it ia nuist remarkable tliat if any other person took
the bow and fired at him, Jacko, on catching tho arrow, always
broke it in pieces. I need not say that on these ooooa-ona I inva-
riably gave my woret arrows to my friends.
382
KNOWLEDGE
[March 3, 1882.
Dno Wet aftornwin I lino Corps
Hlnl>li< Tor hIicIIit, ami wIlcm (In' iiirii lind litiJHhod ifrouiiiiii); tlicir
lionn'O, I lii'urd itii iiiiiikiiiiI liiililiiil) in lliitt iliircliun, niirl on KK
■ lt>wn tfi UHcrrtiiiii llif oiiiitic, 1 futiiul that Muster Jnokti hud iiioiuf-
poliiii'il II jiu'krt b('lc>iii;inK to olio of tlio men, uikI liiid ruvorod
iiiiiiiu'lf hiiukIv with it, poHitivoly ri-fnsin^ to give it up, and nobixly
dnrvd to luki- it fi-oiii liim nnlil I c-uniu to ri'tiirn it to ito owner.
.laeko'a polo nan, of roiii-Hc, tlio i-ciitro of attraction to nil the
Kolilii'm. Tlioy wero alwuyii feeding him, er playing him trickti,
whirli InHt ho repaid with a will.
He Wiiuld catch anything that was thrown at him, thoroughly
iuvpKtigating the natui-e of the article ho had caught, lie was very
partial to eggH, whether boiled or riiW, and it was most uiiiUKing to
SCO him tossing n hot egg from hand to hand, scrcaniiog the while,
hnt never letting it go.
He was fond of his grog, weak wine and water, which was given to
him occasionally in a buttU*. tightly corked, and it was one of the pet
amusements to sec him pick out the cork, bit by bit, with his very
strong nail ; but to show how perfectly well he understood the use
of the cork, when he had jiicked away as much as he could reach
with his fingers, and still found himself unable to get at the con-
tents, he would take up the bottle and crack the neck off against
his pole.
To give one instance of Jocko's deep cunning, my coin])aiiy was
on the lino of march to an outpost. My wife and I were riding a few
hundred yards in rear of the men, Jacko, as usual, loose and follow-
ing us like a dog. We observed a Fingoe sitting on an ant-heap,
about thirty yards from the roadside, witli his wife standing within
a few feet of him, holding in her hand a tine cob of Indian corn. All
at once wo saw Jacko walk ii|) to the Fingoo and make friends with
him (a most unusual thing, as he never look to the natives), and even
sitting on the Fingoe's knee. Then we saw him make a sjn'ing, and,
in the jump seize the Indian corn, and, running for his life, he
caught hold of my stirrup and was on the pommel of my saddle like
lightning. The Fingoe was much enraged, and threw his " knob-
kerie " at him, so I pacified the man, much to liis delight, by giving
him a bit of tobacco.
I have already said that the soldiers were very fond of Jacko,
and, in the evening especially, they would surround his pole,
playing with him ; but if he suddenly caught sight of me coming
into the barrack square, ho would immediately go round the circle,
biting every one of the men, dash up on liis perch, and scream
frantically, as if trying to persuade mo that he was the injured
party appealing to my protection.
Although brought up by hand, his intuitive perception of danger
and recognition of liis enemies were remarkable. If I wished to
keep him up on his pole, I had only to coil a dead snake at the
bottom of it, and no dainty would induce him to come down ; and
when I was absent from my post, and the alarm cry of "Jacko is
loose " sounded, my wife had only to put a leopard's skin, with the
bead stuffed, in the doorway, and the quarters were perfectly safe
from Master Jacko's intrusion.
On my being ordered home from the Cape, I left poor Jacko in
charge of the men of my company, who said : " Never fear, yoiu-
honour, we 'II take the best of care of Jacko ; he 'II be our captain
now." But soon after I left for England, the Kaffir War broke out,
and in the confusion of war preparations Jacko's further fate was
buried in oblivion. LiEt;T.-CoLONEL T. Percival Toczei,.
CHANGES ON THE SURFACE OF JUPITER.
By Pkof. C. W. Pkitchett, Gl.^sgow, Mo., U.S.A.
THE changes which liave taken place, within the last three years,
on the apjiarcnt surface of the planet Jujiiter, are really
wonderful. To one who has seen the giant jilanet but a few times
in his life, and even to an astronomer, who has not noted from week
to week the markings on his surface, a detailed account of their
changes would be almost incredible. Perhaps the phenomenon of
the great red spot, which became so conspicuous in July, 1878, and
which still persistently holds its jilace, has awakened an unusual
interest in the study of his surface; but certain it is, that never
before has his disc been so closely watched, and never have so many
phenomena been noted in so short a time as within the last three
and a-half years.
In this note, my object is not to describe these changes, but
specially to mention an instance observed here on the night of
December 23. It chanced to be one of the finest nights of the
whole year. The surface of the great jilanct was rarely ever seen
under better conditions of altitude and atmosphere. Kvcry line
and marking came out with a distinctness which was a wonder even
to an experienced observer. I'ho great red spot, by the Jovian
rotation, woa approaching tho central meridian of the disc ; and I
had begun my usual observation of the transit of the preceding eud,
when my attention was called to a condensed white nucleus situated
in the north margin of the most iioiithem of the equatorial bell*.
The threads of thi- Kihir Micrometer, had been adju8tj;d to the
rotatiim axis of the planet, by the ephomeris of Mr. A. Marth.
(Month. Not. K.A.S., vol. tl, No. 7.) One fixed thread
wiis [ihiced on one extremity of major axis of spot, and tho
movable thread was placed on the other extremity of that axia,
and the.Hc threads were kept to this position by tho driving clock
and an adjusting screw. At 7 h. 7 m. of local mean lime, the
following end of red spot and the bright nucleus were on the same
thread, or the bright spot wa.i on tlie same Jovian mcridion directly
north of tho following end of red spot. As it rec:k. Makcii :i. i»a
On Manh 1, at 10.
Oil March 4, at 10.
On ]March 1^, at 10
On March 12, at 9.
On March 16, at 9.
On Marcli 20, at 9
On March 23, at 9
On March 26, at 8
On March 30, at 8
On Ajirjl 2, at 8.1
30 p.m.
l.'i p.m.
p.m.
45 p.m.
30 p.m.
.15 p.m.
p.m.
•45 p.m.
.30 p.m.
'> p.m.
[KNOWLEDGE, March 3, 1882.
Oun Star Map. — The circular boundary
of the map represents the horizon. The
map shows also the position of the equator
and of that portion of the Zodiac now most
favourably situated for obserAation. For
the motions of the planet Mars, now fa-
vourably situated for observation, see the
Zodiacal map No. 11. In No. 19 (next
number) the path of Uranus from January
■26 to July is shown. Uranus is at his
brightest on March 6, and would then be
\isible to the naked eye were it not that
the moon, being nearly full, will obliteratf^
him from view.
Makcu 3, 1882.]
♦ KNOWLEDGE '•
387
irttcisf to t!)c eiJitor,
TTk* Editor dots not \old himself re*po}i*iUe for the opinions of his eorrenpondentt.
H' ■ 'innol undfrtake to return uinnuscriptit »r to correxpotid vith their tcritem. Atl
, -mytinitioHg ahoulJ be as whort a* po$s\blet conrisfeniljf Kith full and clear ttate-
>» of the writer's meaning.']
{■I Editorial communication* should be addretsed to the Editor o/* EnowledCiB;
JiMuxera communicalione to the Publithert, at the OJice, 74, Great Queen-
'. W.C.
: Bemittances, Chequer^ and Tott-Office Order* should he made payahU to
ri. Wwmun 4* Son*.
•/All lettera to the Editor iciU be XHinbered. For convenience of reference,
corrftpondenttf irhen r^erring to any letter, tcill oblige by mentioning itt number
and the p-igt on which it appears.
All Lftier* or Queriej> to the Editor ichich require attention in the current intue of
K50WLBDGB,«AoH/il reach the Publishing Office not later than the Saturday preceding
the day qf publication,
(I) Letters to have ftchance of appearing must be concise; they must be drawn
up in thi* form adopted for letters here, so that thev may go untouched to the
printers ; private communications, therefore, as well as queries, or replies to
queries (intended to appear as such) should be written on separate leaxes.
(11.) Queries and replies should be e^en more concise than letters ; and drawn
op in the form in which they are here presented, with brackets for number in case
of queries, and the proper query number (bracketed) incase of replies.
(III.) Letters, queries, and replies which (either because too long, or unsuitable,
or dealing mth matters which otners have discussed, or for any other reason) can-
not 6nd place here, will either be briefly referred to in answers to correspondents, or
ackBonledged in a column reser\'ed for the purpose.
"In knowledge, that man only is to be contemned and despked who is not in a
gUte of transition Sot is there anything more adverse to accuracy
vhiD fiiity of opinion.'* — Faraday.
**There is no harm in making a mistake, but great harm in making none. Show
B6 a man who makes no mistakes, and I will show you a man who has done
nothing." — Lieb ier oolite ;
from Wootton Bassett to Chippenham in the middle oolite ; and
from Chippenham to Corsliam on the lower oolite. Thence to Bath
is tlu'oiigli the lias stratification, which continues to Bristol. The
triassic strata are next met with between Bristol and Yatton,
whence a run over alluvium brings us to the mountain limestone.
After this, the country is covered with alluvium, until we get to
Bridgewater, between which to«ni and Taunton our journey is
mainly over the triassic dei)osits again. Finally, from Taunton to
Exeter we practically traverse the new red sandstone for the entire
distance. " Cams " should look up the account of these various
formations in any elementary work on (ieology.
X Fellow of the Rov.vi, .\stroxomical Society.
GREAT COMET OF 1861.
[294] — I ought to have asked admission before, but perhaps it
may not be too late now, for an observation of mine on the tail of
the Great Comet of 1861. I was fortunate enough to see it on the
night of June 31, when its magnificence was at its height, and I
obtained a very interesting sketch, mth a 5i inch object-glass, of
the unsymmetrical stnicture of the head, which seems so frequently
to characterise the larger comets. But what I wish particularly
to mention was the appearance of the tail, which, as represented
in the graphic sketch in KxowLEnGE, No. 5, p. 87, was spread
out like a fan. The eastern edge of this, owing perhaps
to trees or a rising moon, escaped my notice ; but the
central ray I traced for at least 90°., first curved to the left,
and then straightened near Polaris. Abont midnight my wife
pointed out to me a great separate beam, some 3' or 3^° broad,
lying far W. under the square of Ursa Major, having)// Urs» in
the lower edge, and Cor Caroli about 1° above its upper, traceable
about half-way from the latter star to Arcturus, and pointing with
its other extremity to the head of the comet, though, owing to the
summer twilight, no connection could be made out. In about 20m.
I found that it had risen higher, so as to stand midway between ^
and 7 Ursae, and its termination, now much more distinct, was
plainly visible near f Bocitis; but some times afterwards the beam
was no longer visible. This unexpected change of position, contrary
to the general motion of the comet, led me at the time to think
that, notwithstanding its similarity to the rest of the train, it might
be only a cirrus cloud lighted by the risen moon, and coming up
with the breeze ; but subsequent comparison with a drawing
kindly sent me by George Williams, Est|., of Liverpool — much
resembling the sketch in Kxowledge — led mc to the conviction
that it was part of the outspread tail, and that the observed move-
ment was the effect of perspective, this long streamer having passed
so swiftly and closely over the earth, that the .apparent closing up
of the great fan from increasing distance had been distinctly per-
ceptible. ~ T. W. Webb.
IS SPACE BOUNDLESS?
[295]— In Clifford's Essays and Helmholtz's Lectures (Second
series) are considerations on flat, spherical, and pseudo-spherical
surfaces, which seem to destroy the certainty of Euclid's postulates
and Kant's intuitions. Clifford is fragmentary, but his conclusion
is evident ; he prefers to believe that space is limited and spherical.
Helmholtz's lecture is obscure, perhaps owing to the translation.
I know his first series suffered grievously in translation, but I can
gather that the idea of limited space involves the idea of bodies
and movements diminishing as they near the circumference of such
space. Now, could Clifford entertain a belief involving such a con-
dition ? Helraholtz seems to hold that pseudo-spherical surfaces
may be infinite, and may be imagined so. 1 cannot imagine them
so, and it seems to me that a surface consisting of two opposite
curves must come to an end by the curves re-entering themselves,
just as a spherical surface does.
Could you do anything to make an ordinary intellect grasp these
new and revolutionary views ? Considering the transcendent im-
portance of the subject, and that Gauss and|Lobachewski are not
to be attempted lightly, might you not give us a paper ?
A word of congratulation on your journal. Its weekly appearance
is quite an event here ; it more than fulfils the high expectations
which those who were familiar with your writings entertained on
hearing of its being projected. J. S. T.
PURPLE OF THE ANCIENTS.
[296] — Mny I ask, in reference to your article on "The Purjile
of the Ancients," what cnlour this ancient purple was r I once
attended a lecture in which the lecturer proved, to his own satisfac-
tion at least, that the ancient purple was red — a sort of vermilion
383
• K NOW 1^ EDGE »
[Mahch 3, lW»i
Voar article, altbouKh tcllinfr aa a lot about the dye, doe* not itato
the nctaal colour. Wn« not the Imporial |iur|ileof the Cu-mn red ?
1 hare neon it so depicted in many jHiintinf^. A. J. Mabti^c.
TOBACCO AXD SCIENCE.
[207] — J. I'- Grail [199] makes some inquiry under this head.
1 will maku some others. When smoking a cigarette (with a mouth-
piece), if, after inhaling the smoke, you remorc the cigarette,
holding it horizontally, you will sec that a little smoke e8ca|>e8 from
the mouthpiece and ascends ; the smoke which remains in the
mouthpiece does not ascend, bat falls to the lower part and there
remains. Why ?
When smoking, no matter whether pipe, cigar, or cigarette, after
inhaling puff it out immediately, and the smoke which comes out of
the mouth, as well as that which gently rises from the pipe or the
lighted end of cigar or cigarette is of a delicate pale blue ; but if,
after inhaling, you retain the smoke in your mouth for two or three
seconds before exhaling it, it will be of a pale dirty-brown colour.
Why should it be so ? , A. T. C.
THE HADIUMETEK.
[298] — On exposing a radiometer to direct rays of coloured light,
obtained by a sciopticon lantern and coloured gelatine sheets, I got
the following results ; the vanes of the radiometer in each case
starting from a state of rest.
Bed light : garc 39 revolutions in 1 minate.
Green „ : „ 30 ,, „ „
Blue „ : ,.33 „ „
Dii turning up the light a little —
Red light : gave 40 revolutions in 1 minute.
Green „ : „ 43 „ ,,
Blue „ : ,,40
On turning down the light — •
Bed light : gave 43 revolutions of the vanes in 1 minute.
Green „ ; ,.40 „ „ „ „ „
Blue „ : „ 37 „ „ „ „ ,,
These proportions appear constant, and would they not show that
the red rays in the spectrum of solar light have most energy, and
blue and violet the least ? When I tried yellow light, produced in
the same way, I got neerly as many revolutions of the vanes as
with white light ; I suppose this was owing to the yellow sheet
allowing other rays to pass through. Can you advise any book on
the subject? J. S. Gla'dstosh.
STOTE-WAKMED HOUSES.
[299] — I have read in your issue of the 3rd instant an article on
the heat from American stoves. Now, sir, I trust that you will
permit me to give my very long experience of these invaluable houee-
warmers. I lived in Canada and the United States from 1832 to
1878, in houses wholly heated by stoves. In 1834 a coal stove was
Jirought out in Troy. State of New York, to bnm anthracite coal.
1 procured one of these stoves and placed it in the entrance-hall of
my house. That house was 6-t by 38 feet, and this stove, althengh
far inferior to the "Crown Jewel" stoves, manufactured by the
Detroit Stove Company, now on view at Kensington, heated every
part of my large honse, which was situated on the bank of the St.
Lawrence, on a bay nine miles wide, whore the outside tempe-
rature was frequently 38° below zero. We kept a tin evaporator
en the stove to throw o6E sufficient moistnre, and, daring the whole
time this stove was in nse, we never had one case of sickness. I
never had one day's illness in America, and I may say that since
my return to England I have been half the time sick ; this I
attribute entirely to the absurd way in which the English attempt
to heat their houses. With the best coal fire, in an ordinary room,
we are roasted on the side next the fire and cold on the opposite.
Every passage and room we enter has a different temperature. We
need not, therefore, be astonished at the enormous number of
bronchial, long, and rheamatic diseases so prevalent in England.
JCSIICB.
[.100^ — May I ask Mr. W. Mattieu Williams one question through
the median] of your paper Y It is not for the sake of contrtDversy,
but to satisfy my own mind on the matter of " Stove Heating!"
Supposing the atmosphere inside a stove-heated room to be 50°
(u*ing Mr. Williams' fignrea), the amount of vapour required to
saturate air of this hoat is sufficient to support a column of 0 361
inches of merctiry, and this is easily supplied, " for an English house
IB enveloped in a foggy atmosphere, and encased in damp surround-
ings." In the open air the temperature is 32 ; therefore, if the fire
were allowed to go out, would it not follow that because the quantity
of vapour in the room would be double the amount of that in tb^
open air, condeDsation of the excess uf rapoor would take place?—
Your^ Ac., G. G. D.
FOSSILS IN METEORS.
rSOl] — Referring to the articles "Meteoric f>rganisnu," and
" No Organic Matter in Meteors," in No. 12 of Knuwledce, I beg
leave to point out, in order to prevent erroneous notions aboat
German men of science to arise among English students, especiaDj
among the readers of your truly excellent journal, that the start-
ling discoveries of Dr. Uahn, and the extravagant theories based
thereon, were, immediately after their first api>carance before the
public, very ably discussed and thoroughly refuted by the eminent
geologist. Professor Zittel, of Munich, in a paper which appeared^
if I am not mistaken, a twelvemonth ago in the AwjshHrg'r AUgt-
meine 'Leiiung. Dr. Hahn is, I am given to understand, not at all
a geologist, bat a medical man ; I may be further permitted to state
that he is neither half insane nor a fool, but an eager amatear,
whom it would be more charitable and just to describe as possessed
by a rather ludicrous illusion concerning the real valne of tba
strange results his cherished "scientific" obser\'ation8 have led
hjm to. — Yours, Ac, Gkbjian Fbiexd or Ksowlkoge. j
MANUFACTURE OF GAS FROM WOOD— ARRANGED
SQUARES.
[302]. — To make it intelligible how wood-gas (p. 346) can take
place of coal-gas for illnminating, F. C. S. should have added : foif
every l.CJO feet of commercial gas, 4t gallons of naphtha are osed^
This being rich in carbon makes a bright, of an otherwise dull light*
The numbers in the Villa Alboni inscription, I take the Latin to
?ay, add up horizont.illy, vertically, and diagonally (the maximum
number of ways) to 369. This is found to be the case, and the total
to be 3,321.— Yours. Ac. C. T. B.
6, Prince's-terrace, Brighton.
EYESIGHT OF DOGS.
[303] — In an article on " Intelligence in .\nimals," in Kxow-
LBDGE, No. 2, page 29, there is the following remark, which I am
surprised no one has already commented on, in alluding to dogs
being near-sighted : — This writer says " We believe that there
could not be quoted a single instance tending to show that a do^
has been able to see aa well as a very near-sighted man." My
experiences with dogs leads me to quite a different conclusion. 1
had a retriever bitch which certainly saw better than a near-
sighted man. To give one instance. Out shooting one day I hit a
partridge very hard, which flew over a gate across a field, and fell
into a cover some 200 yards off ; the retriever, with its fore paws on
the top of the gate, watched the bird. As soon as it fell she jumped
over the gate, and ran straight to where the bird had fallen, and in
a few minutes returned with it. Surely she was not near-sighted ?
I have often seen dogs notice game some distance off when they
could have neither smelt nor heard them. A gentleman much inte-
rested in conrsing tells me that he believes that many, if not most,
dogs see remarkably well. Of course, dogs like Skye terriers,
whose eyes are much covered with hair, cannot see so well aa
those which have shorter hair. One reason which may make dogs
at times appear near-sighted is, that their eyes are so near the
the ground that long grass, or any other obstacle, will prevent them
from seeing an object which to a person of ordinary height is dis-
tinctly visible. — Yours. Ac, G. S. S.
COMPARISON OP THE SEXES.
[304] — According to Huxley, the blood of men contains a larger
proportion of " solid constituents" (these include the "corpuscles")
than that of women; although, he odds (instructively), "the
difference of sex is hardly at all exhibited by persons of flabby, or
what is called lymphatic, constitution." (Physiology. Lesson lii..
Sec. 17.) According to McKendrick, whereas the diameter of a
single muscle-fibre is -j^th of an inch in an adult male, in an adult
female it is only rxis^^ °' *° ''"^'' ( ' Outlines of Physiology, ' p 79)
The same author, on p. 82, remarks that smallness in the si^e o1
fibres, and fineness in the distribution of capillaries, and greatness
of contractility, are concomitant circumstances. Thurman, a write*
quoted in Bastian's " The Brain as an Organ of Mind," says. " Mv
own observations fully confirm those of preceding writers as to thi
average weight of the adult male brain being about 10 per cent
greater than that of the female. i.(i.,about 49oi. to44oz." 'Thesami
writer adds (see Bastian, p. 356), " For this purpose I haveexaminei
^nd oompared the average brain weight fur men and women at tbi
March 3, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
389
decennial periods from twenty to sixty. . . . Whilst the brain-
weight ia nearly 10 per cent, less in the female than in the male,
the statirre is only 8 per cent, less ; " [and, therefore, the weight
about 23 per cent.'less.— Ed.]— E. D. G.
CATS AND DOGS.— SCIENCE AND RELIGION.
[305] — A kitten, just weaned, was presented, a few years ago, to
« near relative of mine, who already had in his house a little
Maltese terrier bitch which had never had any puppies, and was
not in the way to have any. Well, imagine our surprise when this
little bitch at once began to suckle the kitten, and continued to do
ao, to my knowledge, for weeks, showing all the time an affection
amounting to jealousy for the kitten. The suckling repeatedly
went on upon my own lap, so in this case 1 will venture to state the
fact positively.
Mav I support your own admirable resolves and dicta on this
subject by the following e.tcerpt from the " Life of C. Kingsley."
ii.iar the end of vol. ii. ; — " When a friend remarked that Darwin's
il:ination of certain geological phenomena would hardly be con-
red orthorlox,' Charles Kingsley observed; — ' My friend,
I, lis orthodoxy is Truth; if Darwin speaks the truth, he is
jrlliodox.' " E. D. G.
PARTIAL LOSS OF SPEECH.
306]— Reading your article in No. 14 of Knowledge on
Brain Troubles," has brought to my mind a very interesting
instance of the total loss of speech under mental excitement, men-
tioned by Darwin in his '• Expression of the Emotions," lic, (chap,
liii., p. 324) : — •• A small dinner-party was given in honour of an
extremely shy man, who, when he rose to return thanks, rehearsed
the speech, which he had evidently learnt by heart, in absolute
silence, and did not utter a single word, but he acted as if he were
speaking with much emphasis. His friends, perceiving how the
case stood, loudly applauded the imaginary bursts of eloquence
whenever his gestures indicated a pause, and the man never dis-
covered that he had remained the whole time completely silent. On
the contrary, he afterwards remarked to my friend, with much satis-
biotion, that he thought he had succeeded uncommonly well."
AETHrR Reeve.
OPTICAL ILLUSIONS.
.307] — The following is an illusion which, I think, has not yet
i;ii)eared in Knowledge :
ABO
The distance from 4 to B appears to be greater than that from
B to C, although thev sire in reality both exactly equal. — Yours. Ac,
F. W. G.
[308] — Take a sheet of penny stamps (one stamp vrill show it,
bat not so plainly as many), and look at the elUpse enclosing the
Queen's head, on which are written the words " Postage and Inland
Eevenuc." This ellipse appears of the form of a slightly elongated
octagon. I see it plainer by averted vision. — Yours, Ac,
R. A. Law.
DURATION OF LIFE.
[309] — How does Mr. Allison mean that it " depends on our-
selves, in a great measure, whether we die at 35 or 75 years," when
•peaking of such fatal diseases as cancer, in his article under the
above heading in Knowledge, page 228 ? S.
OPIUM— BACILLI— MICROSCOPICAL.
[310] — If " Young Pill-Box" will study the peristaltic action of
the intestines in some standard physiological text-book, he will
f rrily find the explanation he seeks. In lead-poisoning, one of the
prominent symptoms is colic, i.e., spasmodic contraction of different
parts of the digestive canal. Opium (and, better still, belladonna),
by removing contraction, relieves the constipation. Opium is
also of great service in constipation from obstruction for a similar
reason.
Would any of your readers kindly inform me where to find the
most recent information anent Bacilli and their kindred ? I mean
from a natural history point of view. Most of the Botanical text-
books pass very Ughtly over this group. I wish to study the subject
from every point of view. As your readers are well aware, these
micro-organisms are of the very highest interest just now (vide
Pasteur's researches, Ac.) 1 have Cohn's papers.
Also, will some practical micro.scopist kindly inform me whether
the P objective of Zeiss ( = 1-14 in. nearly), is sulBciently powerful
with a low eye-piece for the investigation (of Bacilli, io.) ? The
stage appliances I possess are of the simplest, and will not permit
me to use a higher power.
I, and I feel sure, many others, would rejoice very heartily if the
Editor of Knowledge would arrange for the appearance of micro-
scopical papers similar to those on the practical use of the tele-
scope now appearing. There does not happen to be any journal
which gives poor beginners in microscope technology the aid which
Mr. Proctor affords to beginners in telescope work. Will he listen
to the cry of A Medic.il Well-wisheb ?
[Our correspondent will find microscopy was introduced last
week. — Ed.]
TELESCOPE.
[311] — I should certainly advise "Country Solicitor" (237,
p. 275) to invest his money in a silvered glass reflector. He can get
one by the first maker in England, of 8i inches aperture and 6i feet
focus (the largest size he could conveniently move about), well and
firmly mounted, with a battery of nine or ten eyepieces, for £40. A
refractor of equal power, i.e. about 7J-inch aperture, would be some
10 feet long, would be almost necessarily a fixture, necessitating the
erection of an observatory to put it in, and the object-glass alone,
without tube, stand, or any accessories, would cost him at least
twice as much as the reflector. The latter would certainly be the
handier instrument of the two. He would be able to take it out of
the house, and set it up in five minutes ; and the silver film would
certainly last, if decent care were taken of the mirror, at least two
years, and, if tarnished then, would be renewed by the maker for
iialf-aguiuea. Either the reflector or refractor would exhibit to him
most of the objects in the new edition of Mr. Webb's book ; though,
of course, he could not expect to see the inner saiellites of Uranus,
or separate the close pairs in such stars as o Equulei or J Sagittae
with such an instrument. H. Sadleb.
VEGETARIANISM.
[312"' — From letter 207, p. 251, it would appear that there are
fanatics to be found amongst the opponents of vegetarianism.
The case quoted of the prisoners at Waltenburg proves simply
nothing. The " theoretically nutritious" food was adopted only on
the failure of the potato crop, and was certainly a poor bill of fare,
even for a vegetarian. The more generous course which followed,
and which created such a marked improvement in the condition of
the prisoners, consisted of five articles of diet. Of these, three, at
the least, enter largely into the menu of those who advocate the
vegetarian system, and would probably have effected the same
beneficial results without the aid of either meat or coffee.
One Open to Conviction.
CHINESE COUNTING.
[313"' — The Chinese have a method of reckoning by the aid of
the fingers, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division, from 1 up to 100,000. Every finger on the left hand
represents nine figures — viz., the little finger units, the ring finger
tens, the middle finger hundreds, the forefinger thousands, the
thumb tens of thousands. When the three joints of each finger
are touched from the palm towards the tip, they count 1, 2, and 3
of each of the denominations aforesaid ; 4, 5, and 6 are counted on
the back of the finger-joints. In the same way, 7, 8, and 9 are
counted on the right side of the joints from the palm to the tip.
The forefinger of the right hand is used as a pointer. — Yours, 4c.,
PSCCATI.
(©ufrirs.
[269] — RcsT.^Why does salt water rust iron more than fresh
wate. — G. W. J.
[270] — Blowi-ipe Chemistkv. — Could any reader of Knowledge
give me the undermentioned information with reference to the
blowpipe described in Vol. I., No. 7, page 137 of Knowlbdoe, viz. :
How and where the piece of brass is soldered on ? also where the
brass nozzle is to go ; also the air balloon and the trumpet mouth-
piece ; and for what purpose the hole is bored through tube between
A and B of drawiag r as I have tried to form one and failed. —
AM-ttKI^K.
3<.Ki
• KNOVv^LEDGE
[Mabcii 3, 1882,
[271] — The KLiu-rKofiioTE. — Somo two yonrn ago, an invcntiun
cnlli'd tlin flectriiphn(<< wiiH niiiiniinroil, tlio nniiio imliuitijiK. of
courKo, ttinl rnvM »f lif-lit. roiild lio tniimniittoil nlnii)^ tlic clcotric
wip', n-prixlucinu at cmo cml of it tliu iiiiiiKO of olijcrtB visible at
the otlicT. roiild you, nr »omi> rontribiitur, (five your rondorK hoiiu-
infomintioii r<inliiiK thin wonderful but obncuro invention, or Hliitr
when' Hurli t-ould be found ? -HoUKAS. | Tliero mny bftvu l>ecn mime
inatrumenl by which ii liBht-roronl of Home Rort wuaconiiuunicatod;
but nolliin^ anob nH "IJorcns" doacrilH>H I'ould hnvo been nceoni-
pliahoii ill thiH wnr. Tlio aclonium vicctrophoto Ntory ia probnbly
rpforrod to. — Ko.J
[272] — The Mkami'Iieh of Time and TKMPKRATrRE. — Will yon
kindly inform mo how wo know that two port ions oftimo arc 0(|ual,
and how wo know that the difTerence of temperature of. for instance,
(iO°t' and 70°C ia the same ns the ilifTeronco of 70''C and KO'C ': —
Fkank Miller. [Wo may nicasnro time by any movements wo
have reason to consider uniform. Aa to heat mcnaurca, our detcreca
are arbitrarj-, and we know, us a matter of fact, that the expansion
of mercury is not absolutely uniform for uniform increase of tem-
perature, ihon^h very nearly so between certain limits. — Ed.]
[273] — Strenoth ok Materials. — On page 217 of Anderson's
"Strennib of Materials" (IjOnpman'a " Text Books of Science")
the equilibrium of a 30*ton crane ia under consideration, and it
appears that tlie Ijalanco of tho vertical downward pressure upon
the guide-rail (108 tons) and tho vertical upward pressure upon the
centre pillar (72) exceeds tho total load upon the structure (30
tons). Is this according to mechanical principles V and if not,
where is tho fallacy in the reasoning which leads up to it ? —
Libra.
[274] — Miscellaneous. — Will any reader briefly inform me (1)
how to sort out the foraminifera of chalk for the microscope ? (2)
where to find a >-aaoning ; I am inclined, therefore, to
doubt if auch a distinction ia generally recogniaed. Again, Mr. W.
L. Abbot aaka for a " definition of nbatract reaaoning." I auppoM
Riich a term might mean either («) reasoning about abatract nib-
jocta. auch aa mathematical problcma ; and (6) reasoning uboot aiy
anbjecta, abstract or otherwixe, according to the laws of pure iogit,
aa diatinguiahcd from analog}', and perhaps, too, "inductive"
logic. — E. IJ. G.
[259] — Ventriloquism. — My qualification in offering explani^
tions in this regard conaiata in tho fact lliat I have long boon «
student of, and am the author of papers on, the subject of apoocl^
production. The word ventriloijuism means, strictly, '" beU]^
speaking," a phrase which is really most inapt. Ventrilixjuism. UL
essentially, semi-speech. The tongue, which is the chief agent of
speech, may be said to possess, practically, an interior or vertio^)
root, and one of a posterior or horizontal character. Wlien th^
tongue is drawn back abnormally upon these baizes, the lower jaw
and lip will be found to protrude, and to assume a tixity of con-
dition by reason of the correlation of the muscular powers centred
near the laiynx. In producing speech under the above conditions
the main secret of the ventriloquist's art ia readily discovered.
Imitation of natural sonnds is effected in modulating the voice,
either by contraction of the larynx or by disposition of the nasal
cavities. The only real difficulty lies in mastering or modifying the
lip consonants. As in all other matters, perfection is only to be
gained by continual practice. — H. W. — [Answered by several
others. — Ed.]
[260] — Lightning. — " Secretary " appears to have had a very
good illustration of the effect of a "return stroke." When a charged
body is brought near a neutral one, it has the power of polarising it.
Thus, the ground immediately under a heavily-charged thtindeig-
cloud becomes highly polarised. When the lightning passes, tl^
neutral condition is suddenly restored, sometimes doing mow
mischief than the lightning. Suppose the cloud, A, to be chargH
+ \y, then, of course, the surface of the earth under it i^
become — the -H electricity being repelled as far as possible frWi
the inducing body (the cloud). Wlien the charge in A is too gittt,
the insulating air is pierced, and the flash passes, say to B. Tbit
cottages, C, being above the general surface, are more — ly charged
than the ground, and feel the " return stroke." Tjmdall's "' LessoM
in Electricity" will help " Secretary." — Euclid.
[268] — Photography. — Will "Anon" say what purpose he
in view, whether portrait or landscape photography, or the
cation of photography to some special pnrjiose, when, as an ama
of experience, I shall be most happy to advise him. Eti pnfsaiU,A
is as well to remark that the practice of photography has
completely revolutionised during the last two or three years, and m
is almost impossible to name any work on the subject suitab'
for a beginner, since the information he would need still ren
squandered through the various technical publications of the'
few years, not having been as vet condensed into handbook form^
E. T. W.
[347] — Wild Flowers. — The nearest approach to E. Tayk
requirements is Rev. C.Johns' " Flowers of the Field," 5s. (S.P.C.Ki)i|
containing a number of illustrations, as well as descriptii
EUPTERIS.
Brewing. — To add to list of books on brewing : — " Bren
Practical and Scientific." by E. R. Sonthby. M.R.C.S., F.C.S., pn
lishcd by us {Country Breiirr.'i' Gazette) ; •■ Brew^ing," by J. Her
Burton-on-Trent ; and "The An of Brewing" (Cornish, Uolbora);j
— C. Dewston.
March :5, 1882.]
♦ KNOWLEDGE •
391
!3[nstotr6 to Coriedpoulifnts,
* ^* AU communxcationa for the Editor rrquirituj early attention tkould retuh the
Office on or bi^fore the StUurda) preceding (*« current iiene of KkowlBDOK, the
increatini -irrulution of which compete tit to go to prete early in the veek.
HlXT;; TO CoBBKSPOXOBirrs. — 1. Xo guettiont aiking for ecientijtc information
eanhe anirrred through the poet. 2. Letter! ernt to the Editor for correepondente
cannot be forwarded ; nor can the namet or addrettet qf correepondentt be gicen in
tmewer to pricatc inquiriet. 3. iVo queries or replies savouring qf the nature qf
adcertitemcnts can be inserted, i. Letters^ queries^ and replies are inserted^ unless
contrary to Sale 3, free of charge. 5. Correspondents should write on one side
onh of the paper, and put drawings on a separate leqf. 8. Each Utter, query, or
rtply should have a title, and in replying to letters or queries, r^erence should be
made to the number qf letter or query^ the page on which it appears, and its title.
- S. Question answered at p. 94, No. 5. — R. Mortimkb. Xot
:>«. Other matter (about probable explosions) suitable for
papers — next time you think they are likely to occur. — TvRo
: ■NOMicfS. Subject of earth measurement not so simple as you
to think.— Science and Akt. Fear most of our readers do
- this : — Earth's equatorial radius (or say, 3,960 miles), at
aun's distance, sustends 8"'88. Hence the full ciicumference of a
circle having sun's distance as radius
= 3,960 miles x 360 x 60 x 60^888,
•nd earth's mean distance is equal to this distance, di\'ided by
2x314159265. — A. Rischgitz. Fear the geometrical proof is
fiuniliar to most mathematicians. — T. J. Potter. Thanks. — T. R.
Allinson. Thanks for vegetarian great men. But wait till list of
carnivorous great men is published. Why do you include the
notorious "eccentric" Sir Richard Phillips ? Two-thirds of the names
you give are of such a class that we might fill ten numbers of
Knowlepge with the like, if once we began.— T. Wolstenholme.
Thanks ; but instances of animals nursing young of other species
now sufficient in number. — Wer.nek. I'Uere is " no plane of
oscillation of the earth." Cannot understand question 2. —
H. M. You will have noticed the misprint 37/5 inches for
. Ur. Bull ouplit truly
to bo ashnnu'd of himself, " falling into the same egregious blunder
■u Sir Isaac Newton," and I, too (being " in my senses, and espe-
cially OS a mathematician "), for allowing him to fall " into tlio old
jog trot nursery error." But my " own paper on the ' Menacing
Comet ' is almost as absurd ns Dr. Ball's discourse on the moon."
One step further, and I suppose I shall bo "as great an idiot" as
Sir Isaac Newton himself. But, my dear sir, if we are so foolish
as you say, do please notice how generous wo are ; wo miglit, by
aspersing Nowton and trying to detract from his great reputation,
seem to assert our own superiority, and get people to say of us,
with Bunthome, —
If that will not suit then, which would very well suit me,
Why, what very, very sapient men those sapient men must be !
Instead of this, we are content to follow in Newton's footsteps as
far as our feebler forces will take )is. How happy it must make you
to be able to say, " Until astronomers adopt my thooiy of polarity,
the science of astrononij-, or rather its exposition, must swarm with
fallacies, contradictions, crudities, and nonsense." — Rev. H. H.
HiGGiNS. Many thanks. We have forwarded business part of your
letter to publishers. Tlio "absurd mistake" is, as yon say, very
amusing. Wallenstein was singularly fortunate ; for astronomers
have not hitherto seen Jupiter in Cassiopeia. Napoleon's referring
to Venus, seen in the daj'time, as his star, was scarcely less absurd,
though in another way. — M. S. Ripley. The book was reviewed in
an early number of Knowlepge. — W. C. Because the stars are so
far away. On the other point— emphatically, No ; we will net discard
the motto beginning, ''There is no harm in making a mistake." It
was one of the finest things ever said. Of course, if yon choose to mis-
nnderstand it to mean that there is no harm in a mistake, left uncor-
rected, that is not our fault. Read it in conjunction with Faraday's
remark on fixity of opinion, and yon wiU find it contains a most
useful lesson. Of course, a mistake is in itself unfortunate ; but
as no man can ever reach the truth without making mistakes,
Liebig's saying remains true, even in its baldest scnRe. But
equally of course, what he means is, that we should all be ready
frankly to admit our mistakes. I believe, for my own part, there
is no more useful scientific rule. Nay, I will go so far as to say
that a mistake made by a well-known student of science, and
frankly acknowledged, does at least as much to advance science
as the discovery of a truth. But these short, pithy sayings,
" jewels, ten words long, that on the strctclied forefinger
of all time sparkle for ever," are not for the prosaic mind.
What do you suppose the old Greek philosopher would have
said, if, in response to his " Know thyself," some one had answered,
" I don't want to know^ myself ; I would rather know somebody
bettor worth knowing?" — Sia Fb. B. Letter forwarded to
publishers ; there may bo a day or two of delay. Letters addressed
to editor are not opened at the office, and, in some cases, are kept
a week before being opened at all. — H. A. Bulley. Fogs like the
dense London fogs are never seen where there is little smoke, so
that there must be some connection between smoke and fogs of
this sort. We did not notice the paragraph in the Lancet, but as
you report it, it seems decidedly opposed to all the evidence. —
W. H. H. SoAMEs. I think, if you consider the matter care-
fully, you will see that whatever unfairness there may seem
in my reply arose from your own departure from a rule
which has been laid down, after very careful consideration, for
the guidance of contributors and correspondents. You must know
well that a very largo proportion of the men of science of our time
regard the account to which you refer us only a well-meant but
utterly erroneous attempt to explain some of the mysteries of the
universe. An astnmomer like Sir George Airy says the geology
may do pretty well, but " the astronomy is quite wrong" ; a great
geologist thinks the astronomy may be right, but the writer cer-
tainly knew little about the earth's' crust ; and so in every single
branch of science which can be named. Again, it is certain that
while they think that way, many estimable persons, and some of
them scientific, too, think differently. The former may be qnite
wrong, and these latter right. Or you may be right in the
extreme view you take, that not oul'y i* tlie ax-eonnt oorrett,
but that it WBK intended to enlighten men as to siienliSc
nuilters, and thai we ought, therefore, to take the apparentlj
plain Htntemcnti in the wcount as port of our working material.
But whoevi-r may Ije right or wrong, or whethsr all arc rigbt
in some degre*', and all in some degree wrong, has really nothing tt
do with na. We simply decline to have inconsipt^-nciea asserted
here, or attempts at harmoniaing made here. We want tu get at
scientific truth, by scientific reaearch, obatTvation, and cip<'rimeDt|
and in no other way. If you are right, and the account which jroB
deem plain (but many do not) is correct, it is absolutely ccrtiili
that the viewa to which we shall be \ed by the, perhaps mor*
roundabout, perhapa more direct, route of scientific inquiry, wiD
agree with that account in the long-run. If the way really if
longer, the exercise will do na all good. — A Remo.nstuant. When
you wTote aaying we had nothing but astronomy, you must have
been trjing some of the things which writers on Brain TroublM
describe as causing mental hallucinations. We have befon
us the contents of Part IV., and we find, besides correspondenoi,
notes, mathematics, whist, and chess, no less than thirty-two nali>
astronomical subjects. What can yon mean ? — J. Uakkinhoit.
You tell mc (I fancy I have heard it before) as bearing on the
inferiority question, that " a woman may not be able to sharpen a
pencil or throw a stone at a hen, but she can pack more articlei
into a tmnk than a man can." Do yon refer, in a roundabout way,
to tight-lacing ?—MoBEiT. More fit for others than for us. VTbtt
is new is not strictly true. You incorrectly define-clouds as a col-
lection of watery particles in the state of vaj)Our, then correctly
defining vapour.— P. A. Fotbeegiil. iThanks for very pleasant
letter. The Petersburg problem is one of the most perplexing
problems known. I believe I took the logically correct view in the
old discussion ; but if I were asked what I would pay for the
chance, yon may depend I would not offer what may be provt, C ' =
2
we have then, when a- =0 (that is, neglecting the slight difference
of time between the earth's reaching the centre and the surface
of the sun)
/ D Dr
V 2G 2
If you put in this the correct values for D, G, and v, yon will
get a result very near Young's. Y'on have D = 02,885,000 milee,
(; =324,000 :;. (Earth's radius)' (roughly), where = terrestrial
gravity at Earth's surface ; and we must reduce all the distances to
feet, put 3 = 322, and then t will be given in seconds. — Haliyakd. I
received your long paper, and preserved it, proposing to return
when stamps should be sent. Because, it really was too long " f
any use," even if my " plan were that of the E. M.. so that I mi^tj
be glad of " a humble paradoxer or two to pad." Y'ou certainly
(lid not in any way offend by discussion in 1877. By yOB
own account I was the offender. If, indeed, I snubbed
" in a way no nndcrgrad would stand from a don," 1
assure you it was quite unintentional. Perhaps in those days
did not so well know the proper course to pursue. What I meant!
for good-humoured fun was mistaken for sarcasm, which is, in]
truth, quite out of my line. 1 agree with what Dickens says i
of his letters (1 think), that it will not do to adopt a tone wh
might even be mistaken to signify. See how clever I am, and wh
fun everyone else. Thanks for note about the zodiacal light!
1 have never seen it well in England. 1 saw it very well ill
Bloomington, Indiana, in the spring of 18S0. The atmospherfl
could not under any circumstances act as a telescope to enable yo»
to see Venns as a crescent. More probably some atmospberi<
[lecnliaxity distorted Venus into apparent crescent form. — H. B
SuAW. Many tbaoks. Your suggestions seem excellent. — B
W11.XKUI.H. Sorry any papur rc^Duuned umicknowledged. W<
March 3, 1882.]
• KNOWLEDGE ♦
393
sort your reply, rather shortened. — Toteist. Question why
I'll outside cars are so peculiar to Ireland, and when they
0 invented, scarcely scientific. It is noteworthy, by the
1 , how definitely national tastes seem often to determine
. iirite forms of vehicle. The outside car seems singularly
.propriate to Irishmen (still more, perhaps, to Irish girls). — Ei>.
. ToUNE. In their present form your theories would hardly suit
H' pages of Knowledge. — Chables Gro\'EB. Thanks, but except
.. orreater distinctness of satellite II. 's shadow (as compared
■ !i I.'s) your note scarcely warrants insertion, now that interesting
::L'i:ration is passed. We shall be glad to hear further from you,
with reference to the groat markings on Jupiter. — A.
vY. Your queries are for a general litcrarj* paper, not
■ liose chief object is science. Think you will have some
:iiculty in finding biography of Lady Austen (Cowper's
lend). Biographies of Poe numerous ; good sketches of George
liot's life, &c., in the Kineteenlh Century (last November, I think).
■G. C. D. M. Astronomers know very little about the origin
rotatory motion in nebulous masses ; but the general idea is that
:irose somewhat as eddies arise in a stream. If two nebulous
;i8ses met under their mutual attraction, there would be ,a whirl-
Mjl motion, unless they met precisely full, which would be very
ilikely. It is pleasant to be asked for more astronomy ; but you
n understand not only why I do not bring it to the front, but why
prefer to invite others to write astronomical articles. As you
isli me to answer, myself, your question about variable length of
V, I ask you to allow me to reserve it, hoping very soon to givff
iiiswer, illustrated as you suggest. If I insert it now as a query,
i :ill have a number of answers, some excellent, others, perhaps,
luite so well, and correspondents who have been at the pains
; irmulate a reply may not bo very well i>leased to see their
•;r wasted. The moon does not "lie on her back" at every
nation ; she only does so when her path — soon after " new " —
carrying her north of the equator ; for then, when a crescent, she
on the western sky as nearly above the place of the sun below
e horizon as she can be in our latitudes. The configuration is
ctured in my book on the " Moon." — Volcano. We really must
>t insert queries relating to medical matters in Knowledge. We
. '■ many medical men among our readers, and correspondents
1 would, no doubt, reply to them; but others might reply with-
' the necessary information. Then your question is too vague ;
It spots on the forehead, and why (you ask) on the forehead ?
they are heat spots, cooling medicines ought, one would say, to
■ LTood. — W. Gr.\ndv. See answer above to G. C. D. JI. — Sir
li. Phrenology would never have been suggested, I apprehend,
rl.cre were not reason for associating particular confirmation of the
ill (apart from external influences) with particular mental or
nil qualities. A "phrenologiasana" such as thatwe mayadmit. It
<■ theory that beneath the *' bump " places are the cerebral organs
I ose affections or qualities, which is rejected by anatomists. I
jit quite agree with you that " if a single man in the world can
■ true judgments of character from heads, all the anatomists in the
I cannot prove phrenology wrong." A hundred correct judg-
: 3 would not do so much to establish phrenology (in the fcrm
iiich Gall and Spnrzheim advanced it) as a single failure would
' 1 1 negative it. The way in which failures (you admit that
-: of the phrenologists failed sometimes) are explained by the
•ates of that system belongs simply, as Wendell Holmes well
- it, to the system "heads I win, tails you lose." — Bishop. Like
'■rt's "dancing man," I would answer you, " right reverend
II halfa-crack," if it were altogether fair ; but with Browning,
"ud, Wray. and other thoroughly excellent opticians, to choose
Men, I could not recommend any as the bei't maker you could
lo for a 3-inch telescope. — C.'S. Bentley. Thanks. Will
■w if space permit. You attribute to Isaac Walton the saying
.[ strawberries (page 338 Knowledge), referred to Cotton
•')pr (W.ilton's " Complete Angler," chap. 5, page 109, Chatto's
: n,p.ll4; Simpkins). They tell the story in America of Mather.
I'm CI columns of Answers to Correspondents crowded out. — P.D.]
Notice. — For " Kos. 2 and 3 are no/ out of print," in Answers to
Correspondents, Xo. 17, read " Nos. 2 and 3 are nov: out of print."
Part I. is now entirely out of print. Those who wish to complete
the series would do well to get the Parts which are still in print,
and to add their names to the list of applicants for Part I., so that,
should any copies be returned, they may be distributed in due
order.
Poiro's Extract is a certain
Pond's Extract is a certain c»
Pond's Eitract is a certain ci
Pood's Rxtract will heal Bums and Wounds
Pond's Extract will cure Sprains and Bruises.
Sold by all Chemists. Get the gtmuiRe:
re for Rhenm&tism and Oont.
for Haemorrhoids,
for Xeuralgic painj.
J. Rae, Lepidodendron, answered. Also by P., H. Courtenay,
W. B. K., J. M. Carr, W. D. C, Geo. Biddell, J. S. Thome, Harvard,
Colonial, J. W. Emery, T. K. Snood (•'), L. Empson, J. E. T., M.
Prang, E. R. T n, Ellicott, Pcter.shurg, Ante-Prandial,
Jorkins, L. M. S., Fraulein, A. Accrington, Emeritus, Peter Parley,
g. Pritchard, M. Hosking, L. Hoare, Surbiton, Tricycle, Medicus,
N. Hatherley, General Lambert, M. Soper, Pro-di-gious (very),
Duncan D., Professor, Baptist, L. S. P., Half-Sprung.
^otfsi on art anD ^ritnce.
The language of the Seychelles is a curiously cormpt French,
in some respects similar to anjot. Thus a common expression
among the natives is Moi ne cont pas, for Je ne connais pas ; simi-
larly, they frequently interpolate a medial vowel, and say gelisxer
for gliaser, belouse for hlouse, and so on. These singular linguistic
peculiarities deserve the attention of philologists, for no explanation
of them has yet been given, except the purely negative one that
no mixed race ever retains purity of tongue ; but although this
axiom accounts for the existence of many mixed languages —
notably our own— it does not explain how the pure French of the
original aristocratic exiles became degenerated into a tongue
similar to that which is popularly supposed to be spoken only at
young ladies' academies and by English tourists on the Continent.
— Graphic.
A Fog Bow before Sunrise. — The phenomenon of the ordinary
rainbow is familiar to every observer of nature. White fog bows,
or " fog eaters," as they are called by sailors, are frequently
visible in localities favourable for their formation ; and they ore
generally regarded as indications of clearing weather. A fog bow
was observed, writes Mr. H. C. Hovcy, on the morning of Jan. 8,
from my residence on Fair Haven Heights, near the estuary of the
Quinnipiac River, and about 100 ft. above the sea level. No rain
was noticeable in anv quarter, but the valleys were filled with fog,
above which the hill tops stood like islands. At exactly ten minutes
before sunrise (due at 7.26 a.m.), on looking north-west I saw a
brilliant arch of prismatic colours spanning the East Rock Bange,
the highest point of which is 350 ft. above the sea. As the sun arose,
the arch diminished in height and vividness, and by the time the
orb |was visible in the morning sky, the fog bow had vanished. —
Scientific Avierican.
Warmi.n'g Rooms. — "S. S. " asks me how to warm a room
13 X 13 ft., which has no chimney or any outlet for stove-pipe. I
cannot tell how to do this satisfactorily. If obliged to occupy such
a room, I should economise my own animal heat by wearing a thick
top-coat, double woollen socks, &c. I have warmed a small con-
servatory, requiring merely protection from night frosts, by burning
a few common, cheap paraffin lamps, distributed so as to equalise
the temperature. A gas-stove would have killed the more delicate
plants ; the difference is due to the fact that the mineral oil is so
pure a hydro-carbon that it produces only water and carbonic acid
by its combustion, while the gas contains bisulphide of carbon and
other impurities, which, by their combustion, produce irritant or
actively poisonous compounds, to which the plants are more sensi-
tive than we are. If " S. S." uses such lamps, or one of the paraffin
stoves sold for the purpose, he should jilace them on the floor, or as
low as possible, in order to economise their heat. Each ordinary
lamp will give him about as much heat and carbonic acid as a
human companion. — W. Mattieo Williams.
Novel Heliometers. — At a recent meeting of the Royal Dublin
Society, Mr. Howard Grubb, F.R.AS., described some novel helio-
meters which are at present in process of construction in Dublin for
the Belgian Government, to be used at the coming transit of Venus,
the design of Professor Uouzeau, the Belgian Astronomer-Royal.
A heliometer is generally made from a single objective cut in two,
with mechanical arrangements for traversing one-half with respect
to the other. In Professor Houzeau's arrangement the two half-
objectives are of verj- different foci — one of about] 14 feet, the other
6 inches only, but so placed that both form their image on the same
plane. As the apparent diameter of Venus and the sun are about
as 28 to 1, it follows that the image of Venus, as formed by the
large objective, will be about the same size as that of the sun
formed by the small objective, and, consequently, coincidences can
be made, not by bringing the limb of Venus to touch that of the
sun, or a micrometer line, but by superposing the image of the sun
as formed by the small objective on the very slightly larger image
of Venus, as formed by the large objective, and thus it is hoped
that all the inconvenient and perplexing phenomena of irradiation,
" black drop," &c., will be completely eliminated. Mr. Grubb exhi-
394
KNONA^LEDGE •
[Maucii .;, 1882,
bilnd iiPTornI portionii of tho inHtrnmonl,ilnd raontioned tlio variiniH
iliflimiltii'ii likiily to Iw oncoiintorod. and tho moniiii proviiltMi fur
dcaliiiK with thoin.
STHrNOTii or Matbkui.i. — At tho hito fair of tho Mus»achii»illH
Charitable Moohuiiic A«Horintion, at Uowlmi, oxiimploH won- Hhuwu
of tostii of nmtvrialB inndo by tho machino lately orertcd in l\f
United Slates (lovorninont Arsenal, at Watortown, for the provini;
of BtnicturoH of full working dimcnnionM. A stool wiro cable. 1 i|
inehos diameter, was shown, which had withstood a pull of 7o tons,
when the fasteninj.'s by which it was hold (fnve way, allhouKh t ho
cable itself remained sound. A hammered iron bar, 5 inchi-s in
diameter, was shown to have concealed a crystalline formation of
tho fibres, and it conseipicntly parted with a loud report under a
strain of nearly 723.01H) lb., or 3t;.900lb. to the 8re8-
siblo wedge. Another column was a spar 1 a feet long, 7J inch
butt, and Gl inch top. This stick was a perfect sample, and gave
way by splintering at its smaller end. A seasoned hard pine
ginior, 11 inches scpiare and 10 feet long, bore a load of 751,000 lb.
— Scientific American.
(!^ur iWatbcmatiral Column.
Find the area intercepted between n litjperholu, an asijiniitotf, n;in
tiuo ordinates parallel to the other aS'jMptote.
M^FT
Let OAB, OHK be the .isymptotcs ; AD, BC^bawu parallel to t)K
to meet the curve in D,C. In OAB take OR greater than OA, bnt
so that AR is very small ; take points S,T L,M . . . Ac, so that
OA: OR::OR : OS::OS : OT OL : OM ,and let B'be the
nearest of such points : to B, so that B'B is small' Suppose that
OB' is thus divided into n parte AR, RS, ST, &c , and let
LMbethe (r + l)thsueh part. Draw LP, MQ parallel to OK to
meet the hyperbola in P and Q, and draw DH, PQ. Q/F, C'E parallel
to OB, QF meeting PL in /. Then, since OA : OR : : OR : OS : :0S :
OT, &c , and that LM is the (r + l)th of the parts AR, RS, ST,
&c., i.e., M is the (r+ l)th of the points : of division R,S,T, &c.
OA : OM::OA'+' .-OR-^-' (i)
and sinularly OA : OL : : O A' : OR'
::0A'+' : OA.OR'.
Hence OA : LM : lOA'*' : OR'.AR
But DA:MQ::0M OA sincelOA . AD = OM.MQ
::0R'^-' : OA-^' from (i)
Thus OA . AD : LM . MQ : : OR : AR
or parallelogram OD : parallelogram LA:: OR : AR
t.e, all the parallclognims inscribed as LQ is are equal : thus paral-
lelogram OD : sum of inscribed parallelograms:: OB : ;i AR
But sum of ])arallelogram8 = ADC'B' = ADCB ultimately, when AR
is taken indefinitely small.
llcnco ADCB : parallelogram 0D::7i. AR : OR (ii)
But ultimately OA" ; OR" : :0A : OB, i.c./2By=|2| or » log. ^
, OB
= log. —
• •* OA
, OB , OB , OB
log. log. log.
f)A OA " OA
! TiTt "1 t 1 + AR "> " AR
l.'i.'. — log. • — ; ~
OA '. OA> OA
OA
OB
ultimately log.
\R ' OA
f)B
ADCB : parallelogram OD::OA log. LIU ; oK or (lA
_ since OA- OK ultimately
Kditok.
[25, p. 307] — There ap|)earB to I)e an error in your solution of this
question. You have taken the number of months as 20, instead ot
120, £- for &L-
5 6
The following appears to be a solution : — If r=-the rate of
interest per cent, per month, then r has to bo found from the
equation —
1-a + r)-"
110 = 100.
1-(1 + .)-
It will be found by logarithms that •005918 is a very near value of r
in this equation. Hence £'5918, or lis. lOd. per cent, per month is
the rate of interest realised. — J. McGowAX.
[Query No. 200, p. 278]— Leases. — W. Cahill's query in No. 15,
in connection with James Gregg's previous query :■ —
Assuming the interest to be 5 per cent., the <; P'Hmsl"
premium of £1,050 paid at commencement ' "
would amount at the end of 14 years to 2 I'T-
An annuitv of £250 would amount at the end of
10 years to 3,\H 17:5
The interest on same for 4 years (to end of
the 14) C77 657
An annuity of £300 would amount at the end of
4 years to 1,293 038
Total value of all at end of 14 years 7,194 096
The present value of this amount being 3.633 5
Which would buy an annuity or the lease at a
pc]ipercorn rent of 367 07-5
Deducting the £300 rent paid each of the last 4
years, the premium to bo paid at the end of
lU years is the present value of 4 years'
riimuity of £67075, which amounts to 237 845
— .] . W. The Answer.
©ur ©abi'St Column.
By " Five of Clubs. '
AN ILLUSTRATIVE GAME.
CLAY, in his chamiing little treatise on " Short Whist," givot
the following interesting instance of the danger of continning
a forward game, when early indications show that the promise of i
great score w^as fallacious. (In passing, one may note that in cases
such as this information of weakness may prove exceedingly nsefol
to tho stronger partner, by showing him the necessity of caution ; it
is in this respect that tho ordinary game differs from dummy play,,
when the danger is indicated at once. Some dummy players an*;
apt to overlook this negative advantage of intimation of weakness'
in jiartnor's linnd, and to consider only the more obvious positive
.idvantage which necessarily accrues to the adversaries): —
" I dealt," says Clay, " and tm-ned up a Queen, along with which I
held two small trumps. My partner — nor was he a bad player —
held tho Ace and four of the smallest trumps, and. so to speak, the
whole of another suit. With this strength, assisted by my Queen,
lie promised himself, reasonably enough, a great .score, if not the
whole game. Bnt the first two tricks showed him that he would he
overt nimped. He should have submitted to this, and as it happened
he could have made a good score, but he was unable to dismiss the
idea of a strong attack. He trumped the second trick with his Ace,
led a tnimp, — and we made no other trick. Thus with Ace, Qneen,
March 3, 1882.]
♦ KNOWLEDGE ♦
395
lit tramps, five of which were in one hand, between ns, we lost
Kf tricks out of the thirteen."
. follomng game is made np to show liow this might happen : —
A.
-K, 10, 9, 8.
-A, K, 10,0, \.-Z
s— 10, 3, 2.
londs — none.
.— Kn.
res— Kn.
i[ Spades — A, Q, 8, 7, 5. 1
Diamonds — 5, 4, 3, 2.
0
^ V
4-
1
0
9
♦4.*
4-
4.
0
0
0
4. 4.
+ 4-
♦a*
* 4-
4. 4.
4- 4-
♦ 01
0 <>
4. 4.
4. 4-
4-. 4.
4-
4-
0 0
9
^
4- 4-
4.*4.
4.
4-
4-
4-
0
0 0
7
<7
0 0
0 0
0 0
<7 ^
<5> ^
♦ 0
0%
=7 <:>
^
* ♦
10 ^0
0
0 0
0
« ♦
♦ 4
0 0
ji-B mako
doace of Hearts
r.
C; libs— A, G, 4,3,2.
Hearts— Q.
Spades — K.
Diamonds- A,K,Q,Kn,
8,6
Z.
CUibs—Q, 7, 5.
Hearts— 8, 7, U, 5, 3.
Spades — Kn, 0.
Diamonds — 10, 9, 7.
> trick, and card below it leads next.
REMARKS AXD INFERENCES.
1. — I'knows that -B is not play-
ing a false card in his (B'x) partner's
salt, so that B will be able (pro-
bably) to over-trump second round.
2. — A, of course, continues his
suit. If he did not know that B
can trump the suit, he would not
force the adversai-y, being himself
strong in trumps. His play should
suggest to T that A is strong in
trumps, and he should give up the
line of play he had intended to
follow. He must peld to the force ;
if he declines, he will be forced
again next round, and must either
yield then under less favourable
conditions, or let Z ruff, who must
be weak in trumps. It is betterto
throw the lead at once into Z's
hand. If he had done this, Z would
have made the second trick with
trump, have played the Ace of
Spades, and then forced I'mththe
Queen. 1' might then have led
Diamonds, in order to force A
(which, as it happens, would come
off in the first round) leaving A
either to lead trumps under un-
favourable conditions, or to force
F, which i'could accept, being able
to force back with his Diamonds,
when Z would be left with length
in trumps. As it is, T, after throw-
ing away the commanding card in
trumps, is absolutely powerless.
3. — The rest of the hand plays
itself. Y's discard of the Diamond
Ace at trick 9 is intended to show
his partner that Y has entire com-
mand of the Diamond suit, but 1'
gets no chanoe of leading Diamonds
or any other suit.
He that will not whe.n" he may,
&(.-. — The follomng singular combi-
nation of cards is worth recording,
as it may be made to point a moral.
It came under my observation at the
Portland, Clay and my father being
partners. The game was four-all.
The dealer turned up a small
heart. Clay led a Diamond. The
second hand had Ace, King, Queen,
Knave, ten, nine, and two, of
trumps. With these cards, the
problem is how to lose the odd
trick.
The second hand contrived it in
this way. He had no Diamond,
and trumped the card led, with the
(third hand) also had no Diamond, and
only one trump, the three with which he overtrumped. In the end,
the holder of the sixieme major only made his six trumps, his
adversaries having six winning cards in the uuplayed suits, which
neither of the opponents coulil trum]i. They therefore lost the odd
trick and the game. Had the second player ( B) trumped with the
nine originally, he must have won the game, however the cards lay.
For, his partner being dealer, held the trump card, and consequently
B, by then leading trumps, must make seven tricks, even if all the
remaining trumps are in one hand against him. No doubt B re-
garded the chance of the third hand's having none of the suit in
which he himself was void as practically nil. Nevertheless, he
might have made the game practically sure.
The moral is : Never throw a chance away.
" Card Table Talk," " Cavendlsh."
All the Tbcmps ix one Hand. — A correspondent (J. Heaton,
Stirrey) asks what are the odds against all the trumps falling in the
dealer's hands, and whether it has ever happened. Two cases were
recorded a few years ago in the 'IVestminster Papers (we will look
the case up), and the editor made the remark that this showed
mathematicians to be wrong in stating that the odds were, in round
numbers, 159 thousand millions to one against such an occurrence.
^Ve cannot see it. It would not be very much out of the way to
suppose that among all the wliist-plaj-ing nations of the earth a
million whist-partics play per diem ; and, say that in each case there
are twenty deals. Then it would require only 7,950 days, or not
much more than 20 years, to give 159,000,000,000 trials, wliich, of
course, would give an even chance that any particular hand would
be turned up once at least. [This is not quite correct, there are
two possible results in tossing a coin, but it does not require two
trials to give an even chance of tossing head once at least. Evi-
dently my papers on chance should soon be started. Let me note
that the exact odds against the dealer having thii-teen trumps are
158,753,389,899 to 1.
Pretty long odds. — Ed.] The odds against the occurrence must, we
should think, be diminished by the cii'cumstance that when a ruffing
game has been played, there are several cards of the same suit
arranged one in each of several sets of four cards, after tricks are
gathered. Supposing them to occupy the same position in each
set, which might readily happen, that there is verj' little shuffling,
and that the same suit is trumps in the next hand, it will easily be
seen that four or five trumps might be ah-eady en train to fall to
dealer, so that the chance of the remaining trumps falling to him
alone would have to be considered. [Say the chance of this hap-
pening in the case of five trumps, besides the turn-up card were
only 1-1,000. There are thus 20 cards disposed of in the five tricks
supposed to have come together, in this special manner, in dealing.
There remain 32 cards, one of which is the turn-up. Out of the 31
cards, 7 are trumps, and form one set of 7 out of
31 ■ 30 ■ 29 ■ 28 • 27 ■ 26 ■ 25
1-2-3-4-5-6-7
possible sets of 7, or 2,629,575. Hence the chance of both events
coming off and all 13 trumps falling into one hand is one-
2,629.575,000th, or the odds only 2,629,574,999 to 1 against the
event. — Ed.] Five of Clubs.
A CoERESPONiiENT (' Why ') asks whether certain whist rules
presented in doggrel rhyme are sound as far as they go. " They
appeared in London Society, he says, some time ago, and were said
to have been copied from some provincial club wall." They are
Pole's, and are sound as general rules. But scarce one of them may
not on special occasions be departed from ivith advantage. Sup-
posing, for example, you want the odd trick to win, and have five
small trumps, viz., one four-card weak suit and two suits of two
cards each. It would be absurd in this case to follow Pole's rule
respecting trumps — " When you hold five " 'tis always right to lead
them. Five of Clubs.
J. ToMLiNSON.— Surely by not leading trumps when he gets the
chance, Z shows unmistakably that he has not been wanting trumps
led. and therefore he has not signalled.
Geadatim. — Yes ; from Ace, six others in tramps lead Ace. The
lead of Queen from Queen, Knave, nine, and others (three others
vou specify) is now generally rejected. Hoyle advised it, with the
object of finessing the nine, on the return of the lead. This might
do in long whist, but not in the game as now played.
Five of Clubs.
W. F. — In Problem I. B leads trumps fourth round, because his
jiartncr, not knowing what B knows, would be at a loss how to play
after making the successful finesse in Diamonds. If he continued
the Diamond lead, B would have to lead from his tenace in Hearts.
The lead of trumps manifestly puts T at a disadvantage. He must
396
KNOWLEDGE ♦
[March '\ 18b2.
IcimI either throuKh B'« tcnnro in llenrtB, or up to A't tonnco in CInba.
Ili« aUo, nil you miy, rcquiro infornmlinn iilniut lioiioii™.
A Stbanck UitTfKN Leah.— V WmU n Kumll cnrd, wliicli B (ncrond
Imiid wild Arc, KinR, Kniivc) wind with Knnvc, nnil iinmrfliiitcly
rutiiniH Kintf, wlitrli A (/)'» imrtiicr) triiiiipR. At tlio cnil of thr
linml II liiiH thi' rffrontt-rv li> link A irhij lio triim|>i-(l hi« KinK-_ MiK'i'
nut A have rctortuii witli iiiort' rt-iiBon, why did yon pnt on Kimvc !'
— \V. K. With nuicli better rcimon. II snid, n« plninly lis whiBt
Inngungo con »ponk,"l hold the Kinif only, nnd jdiiy it ko thnt, if yon
Imvp the Are, you niny iinvc it." But wliy did you hciid your letter
" nn omitted cnno where Ace nhould bo led before King " — this is n
return lend, and 1 have considered no return lends at present.
FiVK OK Cl.lBS.
#ur €l)tiB Column.
Endinjis from actual games played by Mephisto : —
No. 23. No. 24.
Amatf.I'R. Amateuk.
WniTK. ■\VnrTB.
1 J5
li^v
':is ■ ■ 1
im. Wi w^
w t
k
t
i -^ t t
®
I I
f^i ^ Wfi
: , 1.1
■ , k .
t
k t
Blacc.
Mephisto.
Mephisto won as follows
Ji. to Kt.5(ch.).
r. to B.3 (•). Q.R. to Q.sq.
Kt. toK.2 (>>). Q. toQ.G.
Kt. to Q.-t. K. takes Kt.
Resigns.
(•) If K. to 3.sq., then
Q. takes B.
B. to K.6(ch).
Q.R. takes B.P.
R. to Kt.sq.
Q.R. to Q.sq. Now, if Kt. to Q.3.,
Q. to K.t> wins ; or, K. to K.sq..
Q. to Kt.4(ch)., Kt. to Q.3.
R. takes Kt., wins.
('') Black threatens —
K. to B.sq.
Q. takes Q. (*)
K. to Q.sq.
P. takes R. C")
Resigns.
(") Had Araatenr seen his
danger, and not taken the
Qneen, then Mephisto would
vfin by being a piece aheaion, ns we do not know the xtrcngth of our coire-
H|>ondentK. Should, however, two Lions meet, and a good game or
|Kjaition result, we shall be happy to publish the Hamo.
We make a l)Cginning this week, and publish tho moveii of two
games between Chief Editor and Chess Editor.
liemrivc Blaek'n Kin-j'H Ilishnp't I'ann. I'awn and two moiet,
GAME I.
CniF.F EniToB.
1. P. to K.4.
2. P. to Q.l.
3. P. to K.B. t.
1. P. to K. I.
2. P. to K.B.I.
3. P. to Q.Kt.3.
Chess EniToR.
ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS.
•»• rieane address Chens-Editor.
Postcard. — We know Staunton's "Companion, 1849," but yoa
cannot call that a " modern treatise " ; some of its merits have
been " improved away."
.1. F. B. — You must not move yonr King into check. The prin-
ciple is, that the player who captures his opponent's King first haa
won the game.
G. W. — Remark about ending correct.
H. Percival. — The games in the Berlin Tournament have not
■' all " been published.
Henry Planck. — Solution of No, 20 correct.
K. S. Standen. — Solution of No. 14 correct.
L. E. Whitelv. — Problem 20. The first move is not 1. R. takes
R.P., but 1. B.'to R.4(ch.).
A. B. Palmer. — Solutions correct.
Leauard P. Rees. — Solutions correct. Problems received with
thanks, and will receive our attention.
G. Priestman. — Problem No. 21 incorrect. 1. B. to R.4 (ch.).
D. Cndmore. — Solutions correct.
Age
the
332
Contents of Knowledge N'o. 17.
TASt
EasT Lest^ons in Blowpipe C^e-
nustrv.— Lesson III. By Lieut.-
Col, W. A. Ross, late H,A :
The Brain and Skull (lUiutrattd) . . :
Intelligence in Animals :
COBBBSPONDENCB : — Erratum—
Fleiure in Planet*— Interior Heat
of the Earth-Hog Pnule, &c. 361-343
Queries 3M'
Replies to Queries
Answers to Correspondente
Notes on Art and Science
Our Mathematical Column 38B
Our Chess Column
Our Whist Column 37»
Our Ancestors.- 1. The 1
Men. Bv Grant Allen
Birth of the Moon bv Tidal Evolu
tion— Part II. By Dr. BaU
Astronomer Royal for Ireland ..
Fallacies about Luck. By
Edit.
The Crsstal Palace Electrical Exhi-
bition, Third Notice. (Itlng-
Irated) 354
The Eainband 356
The »reat Pvramid. By the Editor 358
Brain Troubles, Punning 357
Review : Celestial Objects for
[Telescopes 358
^''OTICES.
The Back Numbers of Kkowibdgb, with the exception of N'o. 2 (Not. 11. 1881)^.
and No. 3 (Nor. 18, 1881), are in print, and can bo obtained from all bookeellav'
and newsagents, or direct from the Pul>lisher8. Should any difficulty ari^e
obiaiuinp the paper, an application to the Publishers is respectfully requested.
The followiDfr Monthly Parts of Knowibdgb are now lu be had (Part I. V-einif
out of print) : —
Part II.— (December, l&Sl.) Containing five numbers. Price Is. Post-fn
Is. 2d.
Part III. — (January, 1882.) Contaiuini; four numbers. Price lOd. Poft>;
free. Is.
Part r\'.— (February, 18>2.) Containing four numbers. Price lOd. I
free, Is.
Subscribers wishing to complete their Sets are advised to make early application
to the Publishers, as no further reprints will be ordered.
TEBMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
The terms of Annual Subscription to Knowlrdgb are as follows ; —
t. i.
To any address in the United Kingdom 10 10
To the Continent, .\ustralia. New Zealand, South Africa, Canad*,
and the rnited States of America 13 0
To the East Indies, China, &c, (ria Brindisi) IS 1
All subscriptions are payable in advance.
P. 0. Orders and cheques should be made payable to the PubUahcrs, MiasU.
Wymam 4 Sons, London, at the High Holbom District Post-office.
OFFICK : 74 & 75, GREAT QUEEN STREET, LONDON, W.C.
March 10, 1882.]
KNO\VLEDGE
397
MAGAZINE OF SCIENCE
Pi, A I N mf ORJED -EXACTrf DESCRIBED
-_-j
LONDON: FRIDAY, MARCH 10, 1882.
COXTEKTS OF No. 19.
PAGV
Tricycles in 1882. By JohnBroiniing 397
The «reat Prramid". By tho Editor 398
Photographv for Amateure. By A.
Brothere.'F.E.A.S 400
The Crystal Palace Electrical Eihi-
bition. Fiflh yolice 401
Our Ancestors.— II. The Celts. By
Grsnt .\llcn 402
Notes on Rowing. By an old Club
Captain 403
The Sp«^/.i/or'» Comet 404
Newton's Views as to a Menacing
Comet. Bt a. C. Ranrard 4^eit Week 405
Meteorological Reports 405
Omissions and Corrections 405
Zodiacal Map 406
CoBBBspO!rDSxcB : — Vegetarianism
— Intelligence in theDo^ — Elec-
trical Images — Darwinism —
Arranged Squares — Ghosts — Tele-
phone, Ac 407-409
Qneries 410
Replies to Queries 410
,\n9wers to Correspondents 411
Our Mathematical Column 413
Our Chess Column 415
Our Whist Column 416
TRICYCLES IN 1882.
By John Beownisg
(Vice-President ot the Tricycle Association).
ABOUT five years since the first modern tricycle was
built on the lines of the spider bicycle. This new
build, known as the Lever Coventry, was regarded with
amused curiosity by the general public, and with utter
contempt by most bicyclists ; yet it ^^'anted only a strap-
brake — that is, a band working on a drum — to make it a
thoroughly safe and efficient tricycle.
Soon after this, Starley, the Stephenson of the tricycle,
who contrived the Lever Coventry, produced the Salvo.
This machine had a rotary motion obtained by means of
cranks, as in the bicycle, which was communicated by
means of a chain to the driving wheels.
But the great peculiarity of the Salvo was that both
wheels were driven so long as the machine was moving in
a straight line, while either wheel was free to stand still,
or even run backwards, when the machine was turning.
There are now at least 150 tricycles, or rather machines
known by that number of different names, but these are
principally of three or four types, and all those belonging
to the largest and possibly the best type, are modifications,
sometimes only in name, of the " Salvo."
Less than two and a half years ago the two principal
tricycle clubs of the metropolis, the London and the Finchley,
arranged a fifty-mile ride for the Tricycle Championship.
. This was ridden over the liilliest road out of London
in four hours fourteen minutes. The rider, Mr. Lacy
Hillier, is the amateur champion of the bicycle and
tricycle. The machine he rode is known as the Humber,
and it was brought out for tliis ride. Looked at sideways,
it has the appearance of a bicycle ; but it may be described
as a bicycle with two front wheels. The rider sits on a
saddle between them, and steers by means of a cross-bar
which turns them both. This is probably still the fastest
tricycle, but it requires some practice to ride it at all
well. It is not a good luggage carrier, it will not turn
easily or in a small circle, and it requires careful riding,
particularly down hill. For these reasons it is not so
generally adopted as its good qualities deserve it
should be.
About twenty or thirty novel tricycles have been intro-
duced this year. Of these about a dozen possess great
originality, and three or four considerable merit. The
llucker, the National Arms Company's National Trl \ c'..,
tlio Improved Omnicycle, the Improved Devon, the New
Kotary Coventry, and tho Monarch, are, in my opinion,
the best machines, the Slonarch being the mo.'^t original
brought out this season. The whole of the machines I
have named, with the exception of the Cmentry, are
double-drivers. Of these the Ruckcr and the Monarch
have the small steering wheel behind, and thus are per-
fectly open in front. I do not say that such machines
are by any means less liable to accidents than those
which have the steering wheel in front, but if accidents
should occur, they are not likely to have such serious results,
as the rider may jump out or fall out of the machine with-
out falling on to or being caught by the steering gear
or front wheel.
About two years since, most of the tricycles which were
driven by means of a chain were geared-up — that is, the
driving wheels were made to go round faster than the
pedals. In some letters I then wrote to the Cyclist, I
asserted that this was a mistake. Now, most of the best
riders agree that tricycles should be geared down — that is, .
the pedals should go round faster than the wheels. In
such an arrangement, of course, power is gained and speed
is lost. When the gearing down is carried to a great extent,
the pedals make two revolutions for one revolution of the
driving-wheels. A macliine so geared can be ridden up a
steep hill easier than a bicycle. The chain is a source
of trouble in a tricycle, though it has been improved of
late. It is liable to stretch and so slip over the cogs, and
I believe, occasionally it has brought a machine to a dead
standstill for an instant, by not passing round with the
cogs freely. The result of this has been that the rider has
been thrown out of the machine. Some tricycles have two
chains — one to each of the driving-wheels ; these, with the
exception of the Monarch, are the only true double-drivers,
and are the best for mounting hills. The machines which
profess to be double-drivers, through the inter- mediation of
what is called a balance action, are double-drivers only so
long as the resistance to both wheels is the same. As soon
as one wheel experiences more resistance than the other, it
ceases to drive, just when its driving power is the most
wanted to overcome an oljstruction.
Probably the best size for the driving-wheels of a tricycle
is from iS in. to 50 in. diameter. If smaller than this they
rise with difficulty over any small inequalities in a rough
road. If larger, unless very stoutly made, they are weak,
and if strong they make the machine unnecessarily
heavy. The weight of tricycles with from 48 in. to 50 in.
wheels varies from 75 lb. to 120 lb., but very few are
less than from 95 lb. to 98 lb. This weight is more than it
should be for machines intended for riders weighing from 8
to 10 stone.
^Manufacturers ought to make machines of difierent
degrees of strength and weight. At present, all machines
are, as a rule, strong enough to carry a man who weighs
16 stone. There are, however, two new machines this season
which are excellent in this respect. The National Tricycle
Co.'s machine weighs only 701b., and the Monarch only
631b. Until the Humber Tricycle was produced, tricycles
were of very inferior workmanship to bicycles ; but that
machine, the Cheylesmore, the Coventry Rotary, and the
Premier are now of first-rate excellence.
Generally speaking, the worst points of a tricycle, both
as regards contrivance and workmanship, are the pedals, and
393
KNOWLEDGE
[Makch 10, 1882.
those rc(iuiro to bo tlio host. The wholo \v(>iglit of tin-
ridor is thrown on those in liilinf^ up liill, and the friction
of Imdly Miailo bearings is very groat. 1 have soon such
liatl workmanship in the pedals of otherwise fairly-well-
inadu ninehines, that an ironmonger would have been
ashamed of such work in a set of the commonest kitchen
(ire-irons.
At presi-nt there is only one good brake. Tiiis is a
riroular or semi-circular band of steel, whicli, by means
of a lever, can be made to clasp a drum. It is in a few-
instances, and should always be, applied by means of
two straps and drums and to botii wlieels. If one band
or drum were to give way in descending a hill, the other
would then suffice to prevent an accident.
Great improvements have been made recently in double
tricycles, or, as they are generally called, Sociables. Last
TIIK (IIJK.XT I'VKA.MID.
JJy tiik Kditoii.
WE have seen that the Great Pyramid is so perfectly
oriented as to show that astronomical observation!
of great accuracy were made by its archit<;cts. No
ostronomer can doubt this, for the simple reason that every
astronomer knows the e.xceeding difficulty of the task
which the architects solved so satisfactorily, and tliat
nothing short of the most careful obsi-rvation would have
enabled the builders to secure anything like the accuracy
which, as a matter of fact, they did secure. Many, not
acquainted with the nature of the problem, imagine that
all the builders had to do was to use some of those
methods of taking shadows, as, for instance, at solar noon
(which has to be first determined, be it noticed), or before
The Pyinmiil Observatory, showing the object-end of the great observing tube.
year the Sociable Salvo was the best machine of the kind,
but now the Premier Sociable is both lighter and a far higher
class of work. Machines of this kind, to c.irry two riders side
by side, need not weigh nearly double the weight of two
single machines of the same make. From being much wider,
they are safer than .-jingle machines, and they run lighter
than single machines when they are driven by two practised
riders. A better speed can be obtained on theui than on
a single machine. A good rider can carry a lady on the
seat beside him with very little assistance from his fair
companion. Indeed a problem has been proposed ; Given a
l.ady and gentleman driving a Sociable, to find the amount
of the pressure the lady puts on the pedals?
But either with a lady or a gentleman, riding on a
Sociable is by most experts admitted to be the most en-
joyable form of this the most enjoyalilo of all sports.
and after noon, noting when shadows are equal (which!
is not an e.xact method, and requires considerablel
care even to give what it can give — imperfect orientarl
tion), and so forth. But to give the accurtMjyl
which the builders obtained, not only in the orienta-l
tiou, but in getting the Pyramid very close to lati-l
tudo 30° (which was evidently what they wanted), only!
very exact obser\ations would serve. Indeed, if a moder
astronomer, knowing nothing about the Pyramid, were!
asked how the thing could be done without telescopic aid.I
he would be apt to say that no greater accuracy tlnxn (forO
instance) Tycho Bralie obtained with his great quadrant atl
Uranicnburg could have been secured. Now, the orienta-f
tion of the Great Pyramid approaches much closer toj
exactness than the best observations by Tycho Bralie with|
that justly-celeVirated instrument.
March 10, 1882.]
• KNOWLEDGE
399
SeeiiiLj tliis, and observing that the ascending and de-
scending passages are just such as the astronomer would
make to secure such a result, we may accept, without a
particle of doubt, the belief that they were made for that
pwrfos-*.
Then we saw that the features of the Great Ascending
Gallery were not such as would he essential, or even de-
sirable, to increase or maintain the accuracy of the orienta-
tion, as layer after layer was added to the Pyramid, but
are precisely such as would be essential if tlie Pyramid was
meant to subserve (as one, at least, of its objects) the
puq>ose of an observatory.
But persons unfamiliar with astronomy will say (several
have said so in letters addressed to me). This great ascending
gallery would only enable astronomers to observe stars
when due south, or nearly so, and only those which, when
due south, were witliin a certain distance above or below
the point towards wliicli the axis of the Great Galler}' is
imagines that to be the chief observing instrument The
comparatively unobtrusive transit circle seems far less im-
portant. But the time observations, which are far and away
the most important oltservatious made at Greenwich, are all
made, or at least, all regulated, by the transit observations.
So are tlie observations for determining the positions of
stars.
When the equatorial is used to make a time or posi-
tion observation, it is used as a diflerential instrument, it
is employed to determine how far east or west a star may
be (theoretically, how much it differs in right ascension
nieasured by time) from another ; and again, to show how
far north or south a star may be (theoretically how much
it differs in declination) from another, whose right ascen-
sion and declination have already been determined by re-
peated oViservations with the transit circle. Similarly, the
altitude and azimuth instrument is used in direct subor-
dination to the transit circle.
Vertical Section of the Pyramid Observatory throagh the plane of the passages and gallery, showing the range cf view of the
great observing tnbe.
directed. Were all the other stars left unobserved 1 Asid
again, we know that the Egyptians, like all ancient astro-
nomers, paid great attention to the rising and setting of
the heavenly bodies, and especially to what was called the
heliacal rising and setting of the stars. In what way
would the Great Gallery help them here 1
Now, with regard to the first point, we note that the
chief instrument of exact observation in modern observa-
tories, the one which, as it were, governs all the othere, has
1 precisely this quality — it iaahrai/s directed to the meridian,
and has, indeed, a very much narrower range of view on
! either side of the meridian than the Great Gallery had.
I And though it is indeed free to range over the whole arc of
I the meridian from the south horizon point through the point
i overhead to the north horizon point, it is mainly employed
1 over about that range north and south of the celestial
: equator which was commanded by the Great Gallery.
The visitor at Greenwich sees the great equatorial, and
The astronomers who observed from the Great Pyramid
doubtless made many more observations off the meridian
than on it. They made multitudinous observations of the
rising and setting of stars, and especially of their heliacal
risings and settings (which last, however, though we hear
so much of them, belonged ex necessitate to but a ^ery
rough class of observations). They no doubt often used
astrolaV)es and similar instruments to determine the posi-
tions of stars, planets, comets, &c., when off the meridian,
with reference to stars whose places were already deter-
mined by the use of their great meridional instrument.
But all those observations were regulated by, and derived
their value from, the work done in the Great Ascending
Gallery. The modern astronomer sees that this was the
only way in which exact observations of the heavenly
bodies all over the star-sphere could possibly have been
made ; and seeing the extreme care, the most marvellous
pains, which the astronomers of the Great Pyramid took to
400
♦ KNOWLEDGE ♦
[March 10, 1882L
securo f,'oo(I inoriilioiml work, tlio astronoinor recognises in
him 11 ffllow-workcr. Ho says, with tho poet : —
I nni na olil na G^rypt to niysolf,
llrutlior to tlioin tlint Kiuarod tlio Pyrnniida :
Uy tlio same sturs I watcli.
And now consider whnt was tliis great ohscrvntory of
ancient l-^ypt — tho most perfect ever made till telescopic
art revealed a way of exact observation without those
massive structures. A iniglity mass, having a Imse larger
than the siiuarc of Lincoln's Inn, rising l>y just (ifty layers
to a height of about 112 feet, and presenting towards the
south the appearance shown in Fig. 1, where the mouth of
the (Jreat Gallery is seen opening southwards, and the lines
are shown which have been already indicated as "observing
directions" in the picture on p. .'il"). The Pyramid ob.serva-
tory is shown in section ii\ Fig. 2. It will be noticed that
the successive layers are not of equal thickness. There
arc just fifty between the base and plane of the floor of the
Kings Chamber. The direction lines for the mid-day sun
at midsummer, midwinter, and the equinoxes are shown ;
also the lines to the two stars, Alj)ha Draconis and Alpha
Centauri, are given at the subpolar meridional passage of
the former and the meridional passage of the latter, at the
date when the descending and ascending passages thus com-
manded both these stars. Within fifty years or so on either
side of this date, tho Pyramid must, I should think, have
been built. The later date when Alpha Draconis was at
the right distance from the Pole, 2170 d.c.,* is absolutely
rejected by Egyptologists — not one being ready to admit
that tlie date of the Pyramid King can have been any-
where near so lat?.
PHOTOGRAPHY FOR AMATEURS.
By A. BuoTUERs, F.RA.S.
AMONGST the readers of Knowledge must be a large
number to wliora the production of a photograph
is a mystery, and there must be many who desire informa-
tion which would eiialjle them with little trouble and
expense to become so far expert, that although in some
respects the mystery will be as great as ever, they may
practice the art with some success.
Less than fifty years ago, the only means we had for
recording the appearance of natural objects was by draw-
ing by hand, assisted in some cases by the camera hicida,
an instrument which cnabUxl the artist to have a correct
outline of the object, whether portrait or landscape, but
all detail of light and shade had to be filled in by hand in
the ordinary waj'. The black piofilo portrait, or siUwuclle,
is an example of what the photographer has superseded.
It is proposed, in a series of short papers, to give an
outline of the history of photography, and details of some
of the processes which will be sufficient to enable anyone
• Some may bo disposed to reject a cliann:o wliich they may
imagine displaces the Pleiades from the position wlucli Professor
Piuzzi Smyth assigned to that interesting group at tho date when
ho snpposcd tho Pyramid was built. But there never was the least
real significnnco in that position. If the mistaken idea entertained
by many, and repeated by Flammarion, Haliburton, and others,
tliat the Pleiades at their meridian shone down tho Great Gallery at
the Very time when the Pole Star of 2170 n.c. shone down the
descending Gallery, had been con-ect, there might have been some
reason to bo struck by tho coincidence. But it should hardly be
necessary to tell tho reader what every astronomer knows, that the
Pleiades never did or could shino dmvn tho Great Gallery, and in
tlio year 2170 B.C. were thirty-eight degrees (!) north of that posi-
tion.
to take negatives and to print from them. It must bo
remembered, however, tliot, although the processes aro
not dirticult to master, some care and skill are required if
tho results an; to be of any artistic value.
Without going dci'ply into the hi.story of the subject, it
will be suflicient to say thot one of the clicmical substances
now commonly used in photography was known in the
sixteenth century, and an alchemi.st, named Fabricius,
found that luna rorneti, as chloride of silver wa.s then
called, was so aff"ccted by light that an image produced by
a lens bi^came improved in light and shade on the surface
prepared with the iuna corwu. This must be considered
as the first discovery of photography, but the discoverer
failed to see the importance of it, and it was not until nearly
two centuries had elapsed that the curious effect caused by
light on the chloride of silver was re-discovered by Scheele
in 1777. This cliemist also failed to see the value of what
he had observed, and it was not until 1 802 that experi-
ments were made at all analagoi:s to what we now call
photography. In the year last-named, Tliomas Wedgwood,
assisted l>y Sir H. Davy, produced pictures on white
leather and paper, but, as no means were known by which
the images could be fixed, none of these early photographs
exist.
The process of photographic printing now in universal
use, is based on these early experiments of Wedgwood and
Davy, and it may be interesting to repeat an experiment,
to show what kind of pictures they produced. Take a
piece of smooth writing-paper, float it in a solution of
common table salt (sodium chloride) for a minute or two,
then hang it up to dry, or dry it by tlie fire. When dry,
float the paper on a solution of silver nitrate, say 30
grains to the ounce of water (rain or distilled water sliould
be used), or the silver solution may be evenly bru.shed over
the surface with a large camers-hair brush, or by means of^^
a glass rod, so as to avoid using a large quantity of silver
solution to float the paper upon. The prepared paperl
may be dried by the tire, or liung up in a darkene
room or cupboard. When quite dry, a leaf, piece of
lace, or any other suitable object may be placed on I
the paper, then covered with a piece of glass to)
keep paper and object in close contact, and then]
placed in sunlight. As soon as the paper is com-i
pletely blackened it will be found that the picture ofl
the leaf or other object will be printed on the paper as
negative — that is, the dark parts will be white, and rice]
versa. The paper still remains sensitive to light, and, of I
course, must be viewed only by weak daylight or byl
artificial light. This, then, is the reason why the earliest!
pihotogi-aphs are not now in existence. Later, those pholo-l
gallic Jraviiu/s, as they were termed, were immersed in|
plain water, by which the silver salt was partially remov.d.i
but the pictures were not properly fixed, and th» i
were not permanent. In a future paper we shall ser i
perfect fixation is efTected.
We have no record of advance in photography until 1814,
when J. Niccphose, or Niepce, succeeded in producing per-
manent figures in bitumen of Juda?a ; the time required
rendered this process impracticable. About this time, and
leading up to 1839, Daguerre was engaged in researches
which resulted in the discovery of the process which bears
his name ; and this process for many years was most ex-
tensi\ely used, and the pictures produced remain to attest
the beauty and value of tho method. Daguerrotypes are
permanent if protected from the atmosphere, which tar-
nishes the silver surface on which the pictures are pro-
duced. This tarnish, however, can be removed by chemical
means, and the picture remains on the surface as perfect V\
ever. '
March 10, 1882.]
♦ KNO\VLEDGE
401
THE CRYSTAL PALACE ELECTRICAL
EXHIBITION.
Fifth Notice.
THE Exhibition may now be considered practically com-
plete. Marvellous progress has been made during
the last few days, and the Palace is crowded with visitors.
^ van's exhibit is niagnilicent, but as it is our purpose to
nsider next the various systems of incandescent lighting,
..c refrain from making any further reference to it this
week.
Telegraphy is well represented, the lead being naturally
I ken by the British Postal Telegraph department. It is
!iiewhat remarkable that this is the only branch of
.^'i'lied electricity in which any serious eflbrt is made to
exhibit a chain-like series of historic relics. The display,
however, lacks many interesting objects, in consequence of
the foreign Administrations not having loaned any of their
apparatus.
The Post-office exhibits may be divided into two classes
— historic and modern. In the modern collection, interest
is chiefly centred in the Wheatstone Automatic Instru-
ment, by which messages may be transmitted at the rate
of 200 to 250 words per minute. It is used on circuits
which are required to carry a large amount of work, but
it is being gi-adually superseded on ordinarj- commercial
wires by duplex and quadruplex apparatus. Its applica-
bility to news work, that is, the transmission of long
messages for newspapers, is unequalled by any other form
of apparatus, and as this kind of work frequently amounts
to about 500,000 words forwarded from the Central Tele-
graph office during a single night, there is little prospect
of its Vicing relegated to the " historic " collection.
Various other forms of telegraph apparatus are exhibited,
including duplex apparatus, by which messages may be trans-
mitted simultaneously in opposite directions ; but the quad-
ruple apparatus, by which four messages may be sent at a
time (two each way), is not exhibited by the Post-office.
The familiar single-needle instrument is shown, as well as
more the complicated fast-repeater apparatus, for both single
and duplex working. These latter sets are used where it is
drsired to increase the working capacity of long lines.
Practically, the repeater halves the length of the line. For
instance, suppose we have a wire from London to Glasgow,
and find that through certain causes, due to our uncertain
climate, we can only work at the rate of, say, sixty
words per minute. A station about mid-way, such as
Leeds, is asked to insert his repeater apparatus in the wire.
He does so, and, by an automatic arrangement, the current
which leaves, say, London, only goes to Leeds, where, by
moWngthe soft-iron armature of an electro-magnet, another
circuit is completed, and a current from the Leeds battery
goes on to Glasgow.
The historic collection is very interesting, even to the
least curious of ^■isitors. It includes the oldest kno'mi
piece of telegraph apparatus, viz., Ronald's electric tele-
graph, which was laid as an experiment in Sir Francis
Ronald's garden at Hammersmith, in 1816. There are
also specimens of the Morse type, cast in 1832, when it
■was supposed to be impossible for human fingers to mani-
pulate the apparatus in such a way as to be able to
distinguish between long and short signals.
One of the most interesting objects is the " Fossil "
underground telegraph (1837). Fig. 1 is a diagram re-
presenting a section of this line ; it consisted of a kind of
triangular wooden rod, with five grooves, into each of
which a copper wire, covered with cotton and pitch
(tor insulating purposes), was laid. The grooves were
then filled up by strips of wood. When thus finished,
it was laid underground. Such a line contrasts most
remai-kably with modem wires. It, however, serves
its purpose here, and takes the mind back really
a few years,'; but, apparently, many a century. The
Fig. 1.
line was laid in connection with Cooke and "Wheatstone's
five-needle telegraph, which was used at Paddington and
West Drayton in 1838. Fig. 2 represents the dial, or
reading portion, of the apparatus. There were five magnetic
needles, under the influence of as many coils of wire, each
coil being in a separate circuit, including one of the ■wires
represented in Fig. 1. The sending portion of the apparatus
allowed of the current being sent from the galvanic battery
in either direction, so that each needle could be deflected
to the right or left. The letters of the alphabet (omitting
those which were deemed of least importance or necessity)
were marked on the dial as shoT\'n in the diagram. When
it was required to telegraph a letter, two needles were
deflected in such a way as to make both point to that
particular letter. In the diagram the letter " B " is thus
pointed out or telegraphed.
In 1810 the five needles were reduced to four, but two
years later a most important change was effected. The
instrument only had two needles, and instead of their being
made to point out the letter, a code was arranged by which
movements of either or both needles to the right or left a
given number of times indicated the letter desired.
Another interesting and important relic is Bain's
Chemical Telegraph (1850), in which the ordinary green
ribbon used in the Morse inker is replaced by wliite paper,
402
KNOWLEDGE •
[Mabch 10. 1882.
prnpare" t'"' piipor as it pnsst^d over a revolving
mcUil wheel, decomposed the coinpoiiiid, and left a mark
on the paper. There are very many other relics, far too
numerous ovon to mention, including .specimens of the
earliest laid calile.s, insulators, etc.
What may he. regarded as an interesting curiosity is a
specimen of a Norwegian telegraph pole, which has heen
pierced through by woodpeckers in search of insects. The
liirds are supposed to have been deceived l>y the humming
of the wires, a sound which may generally be heard near
the poles, more particularly in still, calm weather.
OUR ANCESTORS.
By Gr.\nt Allkn.
II. — THE CELTS.
WHILE the dark -haired and dark-skinned little
Euskarians were living unmolested in the western
coasts anil islands of Europe hewing patches out of the
forest with their stone hatchets, building great burrows
over their dead chieftains, and fighting among themselves
from valley to valley, like the North American Indians of
later days — a fairer and taller race was growing up un-
noticed away to the east, among the great central table-
lands of the Asiatic plateau. This fair-skinned, yellow-
haired, and blue-eyed folk is known to us by the somewhat
fanciful name of Aryans ; and from it the chief conquering
peoples of the whole Eastern hemisphere are derived. The
Aryans spoke a language whose nature we can infer from
the numerous modern dialects derived from it ; and this
language enables us in part to form some conception of the
state of culture attained by the people who used it. In their
earliest known condition, while they still all lived together
among the high plains of Asia, they were hardly, if at all,
superior in the arts of life to th(; Euskarians of Britain.
They were ignorant of the use of metals, and armed only
with weapons of polished stone. They fed their flocks like the
semi-nomad tribes which still inhabit the same regions,
and they tilled a little grain of some coarse cereal kind.
Altogether, if we regard them with calmly impartial eyes,
and not with the excessive filial piety of some German
thinkers, we shall probably be forced to admit that the
primitive Aryans were, on the whole, about as good and
as bad as most other barbaric peoples at the same period
of the world's history. Stronger than the neighbouring
nations they certainly showed themselves to be, but wiser
or better there is no sufficient reason to suppose thatthey
were.
From their original Central Asian home, these warlike
Aryans began to disperse themselves as fighting colonists
on every side, probably some five or six thousand years
since. One great branch, now speaking the Celtic variety
of the common language, moved westward across the face
of Central Europe ; and its men\bers spread themselves,
long l>efore the beginning of w ritten history, over all the
western coa.sts of the continent as a conquering and supe-
rior race. Though at first they were only armed, like the
Euskarians amongst whom they came, with stone hatchets
and flint-tipped arrows, yet, as they were tall, big-limbed,
powerful men, while the I'^uskarians were comparatively
short, squat, defenceless folk, they seem easily to have
oven-un almost the whole of wh.at is now France, Spain,
and the Low Countries, and to have established themselves,
at least, as a rough aristocracy of chieftains among the con-
quered and servile Euskarian population. But in some places
the Euskarians, and their kinsfolk the Ligurians and Aqui-
tanians, oppear to have maintained their inde[j<;ndencc ;
while in others, though the Celts were mast<;rs, the dark-
skinned aboriginal jjeople yet survived in vast numlicrg.
It was oidy in the most thoroughly conquered parts of the
continent that the pure-blooded Celts themselves formed
the princij)al ma.ss of the population. The independent
dark tribes of the extreme west retained their native
languagi", which lives on to our own time as the Basque
tongue ; but the vanquished and enslaved Euskarians of
the central French and Spanish regions learned to speak
the dialect of their Celtic lords, as they afterwards learned
to speak that of their Roman conquerors.
As yet the Celts had not attempted to attack Britain,
which had long since been isolated from the continent,
and could now only be invaded by a fleet of boats crossing
the silver streak of sea. Before they took that last step
in the conquest of Western Europe, they had learned the
use of bronze, from which they manufactured beautiful
axes, speai-s, and shields, besides producing many tools
for more peaceable purposes. The employment of bronze
enabled the Celts to make such improvements in sliip-build-
ing that tluy could cross the Channel to Britain, which
they found inhabited only by the small dark Euskarians,
who were now at a still greater disadvantage, seeing that
they were only armed with stone tomahawks, while their
big assailants were armed with " weapons of precision," in
the shape of bronze battle-axes, lances, and spears. The
consequence was that the Celts soon overran nearly
the whole island, and quickly subdued the better part
of it to their own dominion. In the south-eastern
plains, near the Continent, they apparently settled in
great numbers, so that when the Romans came they
found that part of Britain mainly inhabited by a tall,
fair-haired, light>skimied Aryan Celtic race. But in
the west, the Celts only settled in comparatively small
numbers, as lords of the soil, holding in suVijection a large
servile population of dark Euskarians ; while in South
Wales, and apparently in parts of the Scotch Highlands,
the dark people remained wholly independent, as the in-
habitants of those regions long afterwards did at the time
of the English settlement. The South Welsh tribe of
Euskarians were known as Silures, and they preserved
their nationality intact down to the period of the Roman
Conquest. ;
Now, what sort of people were the pure-blooded Celts i
who first came to Britain 1 No doubt it may be a shock |
to many readers to be told so, but they were undoubtedly 1
a light-skinned, fair-haired, blue-eyed, and round-headed j
race — in fact, typical Aryans of the same sort as the
modem Germans, and possessed of exactly those peculiari- '
ties which we ordinarily speak of as .Anglo-Saxon. About ,
this there can be no manner of mistake. Their barrows, j
known both by their shape and by their bronze im- i
plements, contain round skulls, quite diflerent from
the long skulls of the Euskarians ; and the universal
testimony of the Roman writers, whose knowledge
of the Celts was obtained while tliey still lived in
comparative purity in Gaul and South-eastern Britain,
makes it quite certain that they had lis^ht hair, white skin,
and blue eyes. How, then, comes it that most of us think
of the Celtic type as essentially dark and black -haired 1
The reason is simply this. When the Celts conquered
Britain, they left largo numbers of Euskarians alive, in the
northern and western part of the island, at least ; and it
is the mixed Celtic and Euskarian descendants of these
people who now form the so-called Celts of the Higlilands,
Lancashire, North Wales, and Cornwall. Sloreover, it is
March 10, 1882.]
• KNOV/LEDGE
403
ain that the Euskarians of the conquered districts soon
; lined to speak Celtic alone, just as the Irish are now fast
learning to speak English alone : and so after a short time
they became as indistinguishaVile from the true Celts, as
Normans and Danes in England have become indistinguish-
able from the rest of the community. Even the 8ilures,
who maintained their position as an independent Eiiskarian
tribe in South Wales, seem to have acquired the use of the
Celtic Welsh tongue before the date of the Roman invasion.
When contrasted with the Teutonic English, all these
C.^ltic-spcaking peoples came naturally at a later period to
be regarded as Celts.
Thus, at the date when Britain first became known to
the civUised southern world by the Mediterranean, and
before any Englishmen had yet settled in the land, its
ethnical arrangement was something of this sort : — Along
the southern and eastern plains, from Hampshire, by
Sussex and Kent to East Anglia, Lincolnshire, and the
vale of Yorkshire, there lived a light Aryan Celtic race,
with more or less of subject or enslaved Euskarians —
doubtless, a good deal intermixed, as negroes, mulattoes,
quadroons, and whites, still are in the Southern States
aiid the West Indies, though the light Celtic aris-
toiiacy probably kept up the purity of its own
blood in the female line, as also happens in the
analogous modern case. Further west and further
north, among the hills of the Devonian peninsula, the
West Riding, Cumberland, and the Highlands, the number
of pure Celts was comparatively smaller, while the number
of dark Eviskarians was comparatively greater. And in
Wales itself, the Silures remained as unmixed Euskarians,
without a single drop of Aryan Celtic blood; while another
small Euskarian principality seems also to have held out in
the Athol district of Scotland. It is this compound mass
of pure Celts, mixed Celt-Euskarians, and pure Euskarians,
all speaking various Celtic dialects, that we ordinarily
L -tribe as Celtic, in contradistinction to the Teutonic
_Hsh, who came to the country at a later date. As to
md, the primitive Celtic immigration there was very
/.t ; and the mass of the population, though it acquired
' iaelic dialect of Celtic as its langu.-xge, remained almost
■ !ely Euskarian in blood up to the date of the Danish
in\ahero. In the " Prijcipia," Book IIL
(I quote from Davis's translation, published in 1803, at Vol. II,
p. 307), he says : " The comet which appeared inthe year 16S0 was
in its perihelion less distant from the sun thar by a sixth part of
the sun's diameter, and because of its extrime velocity in that
• Several dia.vings were made of the corca observed during this
eclipse — woodcuts from two of them are givu in Edleston's corre-
spondence of Cotoa and Newton. From the ccount of the eclipse in
the 3[e>noir.i dc VAcadi'mic, it is evident th-t sovoral drawings were
made by French observers. Newton himolf no doubt observed this
eclipse, though he does not appear to ha* done so in comjiany with
his friend Halley and other membersof the Royal Society, who
observed it from the roof of tho Soci^y's House in Crane-court,
out of Fleet-street. From a letter f -Cotes, it is evident that
Nowton was not at Cambridge at tho'imo of tho eclipse.
March 10, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE «
405
proximity to the sun, and some density of the sun's atmosphere, it
mnst have sufifered some resistaBce and retardation ; and therefore,
being attracted something nearer to the sun in eveiy revolution, will
at last fall down upon the body of the sun."
Another fact with respect to Sir Isaac Newton's correct judg-
ment as to the internal heat of the son is worthy of being mentioned,
especially as a contrarj' theory with regard to a cool dark body
within the photosphere survived down to the tirao of Sir John
Herschel. In a letter dated IGth April, 1681, Sir Isaac Newton
says, '' Now though the inward part of the sun wore an earthy
gross substance, yet, if the liquid shining substance, which Mr.
Flamstced supposes to swim upon it, be then hot, it will heat the
matter within as certainly as melted lead would heat an iron bullet
immersed in it. Nor is it material whether the liquid matter on
the suR be of any considerable thickness. An iron bullet would
heat as fast in a quart as in an ocean of melted lead, this difference
only excepted, that the bullet would cool a small quantity of lead
more than a great one. If, then, the liquid matter swimming on
the sun be but so thick as not to be cooled by the central parts (as
it must be), it will certainly heat the central parts, for it imparts
heat to the contiguous matter as fast as if it were thicker, and
keeps all ceol environing mediums (the instrument of cooling
things) from coming near the central parts to cool them. By which
means the central parts must become so hot, as if the hot fluid
matter surrounding it equalled the whole vortex. The whole body
of the sun, therefore, must be red hot," &c.
A. C. R.\NY.\RD.
INTELLIGENCE IN CATS.
CORRESPONDENTS of Knowledge, in treating of cats, do not
seem to have remarked some acts of intelligence which may
be observed daily in the streets of London. At the cry of the cat's-
meat man all the cats are in commotion, but all are not excited by
the cry of the same man. A dozen men may walk up and down a
street with the tempting morsels, calling "meat, meat I " but only
at those houses which they are accustomed to servo will the cats
be ronsed by the call. No sooner does the proper man arrive in a
street than every cat he is accustomed to serve rushes frantically
to the door, or, if allowed, into the street, running mewing towards
him, rubbing against his legs, or sometimes sitting in a begging
attitude before him, but never, as far as I have observed, attempting
to steal from the open basket.
One day I noticed a cat whose man had either forgotten her
portion or had been unable to make her mistress hear, and so had
passed on. The cat, however, insisted upon being attended to ; she
ran after him, mewing piteously, and when at last she made him
understand, she ran back to the house before him, where by that
time the mistress was ready to take the delicacy so much prized by
all London cats, however well fed. I have often watched this act
of discrimination in our own cat. Tom would sit quietly dozing
whilst man after man went by with the famDiar cry of " Meat,
meat," but presently he would jump up, rush to the window, and
remain in a state of great excitement, and soon after a distant cry
of " Meat " might be heard, and we knew that Tom had recognised
his own man long before we had heard him. As the cry drew
Bearer, Tom's excitement increased, and he would almost fly to the
door. A singular fact remains to be told. On Saturdays the man woidd
leave two portions, as he did not go his rounds on Sundays. These
were often th^o^vn into the area, to which Tom had access. He
would always greedily devour the one portion, but never touch the
other, although they lay side by side. This cat would also open the
latch of the kitchen-door, as observed by several of your corre-
spondents, :\nd would also open the shutters in the drawing-room
(closed but not fastened), in order to look out of mndow. I have,
however, been told of a cat who would open not only a latch, but
an ordinary drawing-room doer, rather loose, by taking the round
knob between her paws and twisting it round and round till it
opened.
The fact of cats distinguishing between one meat man and
another seems tc me to disprove the oft-repeated assertion that cats
attach themselves only to places, and not to persons j tor here we
see them able to pick out a certain man by his voice alone, even at
a great distance. A. W. Buckland.
WOOD-GAS.
IF I may be permitt'.d to do so, I should like to say a few words
in reply to Lewis AjTindel's '' elucidation" of my ab.«tract on
"Wood-gas," not " Carbon Monoxide," as he construes my meaning.
If, on line 12 of the abstract, page 216, the word can between the
words "we obtain" had been inserted, Lewis Arundel might have
been saved the trouble of elucidating my description (or — more
strictly speaking — my informing the readers of Knowledge that
there was such a thing) of " Wood-gas." I am sorry I did not make
my meaning clearer.
The "dangerous, obnoxious, and otherwise objectionable pro-
ducts" referred to are N : S : U^S : CS„ and tar. N in the form
of ammonia, which is ^artually absent. Little sulphur can exist in
any form, while there is but a trace of sulphuretted hydi-ogen or of
carbon bisulphide, and there is not a trace of tar.
I did not previously enumerate these for fear of taking up,
needlessly, too much space in your paper.
Lewis Arundel evidently mistakes the acid taste (or, perhaps,
the tingling in the nose, when inhaled through that organ), of COj
for an odour ; that is to say, if ho is dealing with C02inaj)«r8
state when he perceives the odour about which he is so certain.
Ho might as well say that hydrogen had an odour, because he
himself had never obtained it odourless. I cannot think he could
be in earnest when he said (re CO;), " whatoverour text-books may
copy from one another." Is it likely that the leading chemists of
the day, in writing theii- text-books, simply " copy from one
another" without beiBg themselves thoroughly conversant with the
peculiar properties of the subject under their notice ?
What would Lewis Arundel say to the man who told him that
the snow they were looking at was green, because ho (the man)
was unaware that he was looking at the snow through green glasses ?
This is not a bit more ridiculous than to say that chemists " copy
from one another," re the odour of COo.
The blue flame of CO is hardly observable over a sluggish fire ;
on the contrary, it is seen on the top of a " glowing " fire, mth a
background of red-hot bricks. Lewis Arundel would see how the
CO is formed by referring to my text-book.
He now asks, " How, then, can it confer on ' an inferior coal-gas '
a ' great candle-power ' ? " This, I own, is not quite clear, my
mistake being that, in trying to be concise, I was too concise —
when I say that the coal and wood-gas are mixed with naphtha
vapour, Lewis Arundel wiU see how "the great candle-power" is
conferred. I may say, before concluding, that '" after the first
charge of wood has been carbonised, the charcoal, instead of being
dra^vn, as with coke, is pushed back into the retort," &c., A/'LEDGE
[March 10, 1882.
l-H
P
o
&
t«.te 5^
t •= E.
^ O ^
B "H h-; *»■
? -s -e ^
March 10, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
407
W?^i&
lLfttn-5 to i[)t eiiitor.
T\e Editor doe» not hoMhimtelfrei-poiifihUfor the opinions of hit correfpondentt.
{■- . ig4ey.
(9\\x CorifSpontifnrf £oIumn£{.
VEGETARIAXISM.
314] — In tho last number of your interesting joiu-nal, I observe
it F.R.A.S. desires a qnestion answered relating to myself
i •' hom he has referred to by name as a reputed advocat-e of vege-
tarianism) ; to wit — Am I also a vegetarian by practice ?
Most unwilling as I am to obtrude unnecessarily any opinions of
'lino, still more to speak publicly of my personal habits, I cannot
1 tnit any sncli misapprehension respecting them to pass current,
- tlie foregoing inquiry implies.
First, as to my opiuions respecting an exclusively vegetarian
liift for man : these have been already so distinctly stated in a
little work, entitled '"Food and Feeding," which has had a wide
circulation, that I am astonished to learn that any one can describe
me as a vegetarian ; supposing that term to denote one who desires
to restrict himself or others to food composed of cereals and vege-
tables. If the term does not mean that, it is wrongly used ; for no
consumer of eggs, milk, cheese, or butter has the slightest claim to
tlic title — a remark which ought to be quite unnecessary, but is
not so.
To this little book permit me to make the briefest possible refe-
i-re. At page 21, I give my reasons why man should bo regarded
- :in " omnivorous animal," and why there is no a priori ground
for " limiting his diet to products o2 either kingdom exclusively."
1 go on to show that the relative amounts of animal and vegetable
constituents in diet v.ary according to the climates, hot or cold, in
■■'lii'h man lives. But at page 27, I express a belief that English-
n generally eat more animal food than is desirable for health;
1' meat, fish, eggs, and milk are generally essential for those who
form much mechanical labour; while tish and lighter flesh are
tier adapted to brain-workers, &c.
lit this I need add nothing here.
Secondly, as to pr.actice. It is quite time that I think it worth
while to devote some attention to the growth of vegetables, and to
furnish from my garden an ample supply of fresh produce, such as
I can obtain nowhere eli'o. But although thus enabled to enjoy the
luxury of fresh green food in variety dailj- throughout the whole of
our long winter, I am glad to consume fish and flesh of all kinds in
addition, although, probably, in smaller proportion than most
people believe to be necessary. Let this suffice in reply.
But now, let me further add that nothing can in my opinion be
more unwise than to debar ourselves from the light to utilise food
of any and every kind. Human stomachs differ so widely — why not
as widely as facial physiognomy ? — that an unlimited dietary is
really the last thing a man who has so much to do with digestive
laws and tastes (my own and others) can afford to di.spcnsc with.
For diet, to bo wholesome, should be varied for all ; but it must also
differ for each, in relation to his habits, fcdcntary or active, whether
he is occupied with muscle work or bruin work, &c. Diet, too,
must differ, not merely for the young and old, but has to be changed
for different epochs of life, as any one who has observed the subject
closely, or himself has lived a good many years, must of necessity
have learned. How much might be said on this head. And, in
presence of various ailments of the body, how complex becomes the
subject sometimes ! How little all this seems to be taken into
account by people who would limit our resources in the matter of
food. It follows from all this, also, that I should bo the last to deny
that some constitutions thrive better on vegetables and cereals
alone, than by admixture with animal food, since this is one of tho
many variations which nature produces. And I think I might add
that an exclusively animal diet would jirobably (in our temperate
zone, observe) be still more rarely found the best for any man,
although it might, perhaps, be so for a very few.
So many persons hastily conclude that what is best for them is
necessarily best for all the rest. There is no greater error, and none
of us can be too watchful against its influence.
35, Wimpole-street. He.nrv Tiiomp.so.n.
[315] — I am much surprised that "A Fellow of tiik Royal
Astronomical Society" (letter 215, page 362) should consider that
the idiosyncrasies, or some of the idiosyncrasies, of the Irish are due
to their feeding on potatoes. This seems to me a very absurd
statement to make, but I can put no other construction on his
words. I am sorry that he is not more definite, and docs not say
exactly in what way this diet can influence Irish character. If this
statement were worth consideration, I should ask him to show that
the Irish character has changed since the introduction of this tuber.
I believe that whether you feed a man on potatoes or on beef, if an
Irishman he remains an Irishman, and if an Englishman he has still
the characteristics of an Englishman.
Supposing the charges made against potatoes and rice were sub-
stantiated, it would not militate against vegetarianism. I consider
that they are very unsuitable articles of food to live almost entirely
on, and one reason is this : AVe require a certain amount of nitro-
genous food (of which albumen may be taken as the type). Dr.
Lyon Playfair prescribes 18 parts of carbo-hydrates to 4 of nitro-
genons and 1 of fatty matter. This, in percentages, is 78, 172, ^i
respectively. Now, I do not tliink fat necessary, as the carbo-
hydrates can and are converted info it in the body. This makes
&2i of carbo-hydi-ates and fat, to 17i of nitrogenous matter. Neg-
lecting the water, indigestible fibre, and mineral matter, the propor-
tion of these two in a few foods are — Potato, 88 to 12 ; Patna rice,
92 to 8; fine Scotch oatmeal, 82 to IS; wheat flour, 86 to 1-1;
lentils and haricots, 70 to 30. It will be seen that potatoes and rice
are deficient in nitrogen, so that, to supply a sufliciency of this, a
superabundancy of other matter has to be taken.
A Fellow of the Chejik al Societs'.
INTELLIGENCE IN THE DOG.
[316] — I have a very fine, large dog — a cross between a Newfound-
land and a retriever — that really at times astonishes me by his
intelligence. I have also — to make the story complete — a Skye
terrier, that is not over kind with his mate. Last summer, during
hay-time, a neighbour came to assist me one day in carting hay,
bringing with him a sheep-dog. This dog, whenever the cart
stopped in gathering up the hay, went and lay down under it. The
Skye terrier thought it might do the same, but this was too great
an intrusion to be endured by the sheep-dog, so a furious fight
ensued nnder the cart, the sheep-dog eventually dragging the Skye
into the open field. Standing about fifty yards from the cart, and
thinking the little rascal about to be badly used, I began to run for
the scene of danger. The large dog, who was near me, saw the
danger in which his mate was involved as well as 1 did, bounded off
at full speed, up with his right fore leg, and hit the cur such a
stroke over the side as sent him rolling twice over. The Skye
flew to me, evidcntlj- thankful to his powerful friend. The cur
retired beneath the cart.
The same dog, only a few days ago, showed to my mind a
wonderful amount of sense. Two curs were fighting furiously, the
blood flying in\all directions. Two men were trying to separate
them, each seizing one by the tail. No sooner, however, were they
let go, than they at it again. This dog was at tho distance of a
hundred yards at least, with a hedge between him and the com-
batants, but so placed that he coukl see them. Ue looked for a
408
• KNOWLEDGE •
[Mabob 10. 1882.
while, bnl BOi'itiK Dip effort of tho mon incffrrluftl, ho bounded off
at full hjhhmI, mill l>y mcimii of liia iwrni-rfiil forrlcKd ho Hoiit <>no
dog fljiuK to tlir left iiiid thi> other to tho rijjht in wild confusion.
There ho htiHKl. with the dogs at a distance, iia much an to nay —
Daro to come n>,'nin, oitlier of you ! No further attempt at FightlnK
occurred. He in a %-cry |)owerful do(f, about 7 Htono weight, and
i* excellent in clearing the road of cattle and Bhcep before tho trap.
He rarely uses liia teeth, unless attacked, his forelegs being his
chief weapons. Thomas Fawcett.
[317] — lict mo add to the instance given on page 209 that n dog
Uring at a boarding-house, at 61, Sussex-gardens (whore I used to
live), laughs in tho most human fashion, showing all his teeth.
This, with him, is a greater sign of ]>leasuro than wagging his
tail.
P.S. — Is it not worth your while to correct the impression that
your correspondents have, that Darwin is to be accredited with being
the first biological evolutionist ? Cannot yon put Uorbert .Spencer's
position in this regard right ? J. li. U.
[318] — I have a little black dog, which, if put out of tho room,
the door nhut, and a ball, or even a stone, hidden, will, when let in,
make a thorough search for it, first making a circuit of tho room,
smelling and looking the while, until he finds it, which ho accom-
plishes in a very short space of time, being as " prond as Punch "
when he has recovered it. The second time he comes in ho will
immediately go to the place where the stone was last hidden. Will
he not reason that as the stone was there last time it will be there
now also ? The other day I hid it in my pocket, which he found
in due time. Two days after I hid it again ; as soon as he was let
in he put his nose right into my pocket. One can imagine him finding
a ball by its smell, but how is it that he can find a stone sooner
than a human being could :•■ Gertrude A. Fryer.
(i)
ELECTEICAL IMAGES (228).
[319]— We have
Pb {q'ai-q^, qn,'] = E^ 1 ^""^
and again
L c (■(c--a-)J L c'J
Hence
Ic c(c'-a')J -L c'J
c Li) c'(c'— a')J
which is the required result.
(iv.)
K. Statelet.
DARWINISM.
[320] — If tho opponents of Darwin's theory will consider
with care the following, from the pen of Prof. Fiske, of Harvard
College, they may, perhaps, be convinced. Ho says, in " Cosmic
Philosophy," that the Darwinian theory, when analysed, resolves
itself into eleven propositions, nine of which are demonstrated
tmths ; tho tenth a corollary to the nine predecessors; the eleventh
a perfectly legitimate postulate.
1. More organisms perish than survive.
2. No two individuals are exactly alike.
3. Individual pcculi.iritios are transmissible.
4. Those individuals whose peculiarities bring them into close
adaptation with the environment, survive and trausmit their off-
spring.
5. The nur^'ival of the fittest thus tends to maintain an eqailibriam
betweon organisms and their environnient.
0, Tho environment of every group of orguuisma is steadil/,
though slowly, changing.
7. Every group of organisms mn«t, therefore, change in average
character, under penalty of extinction.
8. Changes due to individual variation are complicated by the
law that changes set up in one part initiate changes in another.
9. These arc further complicated by the law that structures are
nourished in proportion to thoir use.
10. Tho corollary follows :— That tho changes thus sot up and
romplicatcd muat alter tho specific character of any group of
organisms,
11. [Tho only postalate] Let it bo granted that, since the first
appearance of life, time enongh has elapsed to prodace all the
variation of species now seen. C. T. B.
AURANGED SQLAKK.S.
[321]— Your correspondent, E. V. R. (letter 231, page 273),
says : — " I believe these squares may bo arranged by placing the
diagonal numbers in what I may call their nn/»ral squares in the
first instance, and working up to them ; but I have only succeeded
with the square of 4."
As I have succeeded with tho squares of 5 and C, I send my eola-
tions, which, I believe, will be found correct.
A number in any place, added to the nambcrin the corresponding
place on the opposite side of the square, will make 26.
1 20 1 16
23 5
15 7 1 12 1 9 22
24 18 13 8 2
4 17 1 14 19 11
21 3 1 10 6 25
The perpendicular, horizontal, and diagonal lines will make G5.
A number in any place, added to the number in the corresponding
place on the opposite side of the square, will make 37.
. 1
32
20
8
33
30
34
7
17
11
6
23
24
35
15
16
2
19
18
10
21
22
27
13
5
26
9
28
29
"
31
12
3
4
25
36
The perpendicular, horizontal, and diagonal lines will make 111.
Emma C. Hootox.
GHOSTS.
[322] — Perhaps some of yonr readers may ^be able to supply
details as to the War Office ghost. All I now remember is the fact
which gave the case its n.ame and notoriety, viz., that as there waa
a discrepancy between the date of the apparition and that of the
official rctnrn of the death, further inquiry was made, at the
instance of tho relatives, by the War Office authorities, with the
result that the actual date of death coincided with the time of the
apparition, and that the former official return was incorrect.
I do not see that instances of mistaken identity, and so on, hare
much bearing on a case like this. Of course, it is the strong and
not the weak cases with which science has to do. T. D.
TELEPHONE.
[323] — There is no great skill, or extensive apparatus required,
in tho construction of the ordinary Bell telephone ; and I can pro-
mise Mr. Mortimer (Query 222, p. 303) complete success, if ho will
carefully work out the following instructions. The telephone con-
sists of a small permanent magnet, a coil of fine silk-covered copper
wire, a diaphragm of very thin iron, and a case for containing and
fixing the whole.
March 10, 1882.]
♦ KNOVV^LEDGE ♦
409
The magnets may be from 4 to 6 in. long, and j to i in. in
diameter, and ^rill cost per pair from 2s. to 2b. 6d. The coils of
fine wire, the same as magnets, and the iron, which is known as
ferrotype, about 4d. per pair. The cases, if bought ready turned,
will cost about 6s. the pair. Now, as this is the n\ost expensive item,
I will show that ^vith a little ingenuity this may be overcome at about
one-tenth the above price. At any chemist's procure a couple
of empty violet-powder boxes, at the outside fourpence, and see
that the lids fit tightly. Then, in the centre of the lid, bore a hole
i of an inch in diameter, then pare away carefully all around the
kole until you get a shallow, funnel-shaped mouthpiece. Finish off
with a piece of glass-paper. Now cut a ring of cardboard, J of an
inch wide, that will just lit inside the lid of your box. Take one of
the pieces of iron, and, with a pair of scissors, cut a disc that will
also fit inside the lid of box, ilrop in the ring of cardboard, and
next the iron disc, and see that the cardboard is thick enough
to prevent the disc from touching the lid anywhere but at the
edges, the middle being free to vibrate. In the bottom of the
box, bore a hole just large enough to take the magnet easily. You
now want some sort of a support for the rest of the magnet, and
also to form a handle. This can bo formed from a round piece of
wood about 3 in. long and 1 in. in diameter, with a hole through the
centre lengthwise to take the magnet. This must be glued to the
bottom of the box, the holes corresponding ; or, should you find any
difficulty in shaping the stem, take a large cotton reel, the end of
which will form a sort of flange, and will bo better for glueing.
You are now ready for putting the various parts together. Push
the magnet up through the reel until the end projects
within the box, and stands almost level with the edges of
the box without the lid ; slip the bobbin of wire over end of
magnet in box, and fix it so that about -f^ of an inch of the
magnet is above the reel or bobbin. Pass the two ends of the fine
wire through bottom of box, and solder to two brass binding screws
fixed somewhere on the case, tlie proper place being at the end of
them. Put the lid (with diaphragm and ring in place) on the box.
The diaphragm will now be firmly pinched between the lid and box,
and should be just clear of the end ot magnet. Your telephone is
now complete, and can be polished, or varnished with a spirit
varnish, and when dry is ready for nse. To connect, simply
take a wire from each binding-screw on one telephone, and
connect to each binding-screw on the other, and the instruments
will speak. But beware of a very common error, and don't try
to speak into one and hear your o^vn voice in the other. This is
impossible. Have at least a dozen yards in each screw, and leave
one instnunent with a frienji while you take the other into another
room. Speak distinctly into the mouthpiece, and when hearing keep
the mouthpiece tight up to your car. For connecting, use cotton-
covered copper about No. 20.
Should the voice seem very distant, move the magnet nearer the
diajiliragm. If no voice is heard, you vrill most likely find the
magnet sticking to the diaphragm, the proper distance being about
the thickness of a piece of stout paper.
As now used and sent out by the different telephone companies,
the telephone is never used both as a receiver and transmitter.
The transmitting instrument being a microphone of peculiar con-
struction, this adds greatly to the utility of the instrument, as you
are able to carry on conversation without removing the receiving
telephone from your ear, all the speaking being dono at the
microphone.
I shall be most happy to send a description of the microphone,
both simple and as a transmitter, as made by G. E. T.
PROBABILITIES IN CARD DRAWING.
[324] — Chas. A. Edes writes, with reference to the problem in
probabilities at p. 301, that the cards are not shuffled between the
cuts, so that the cutter, if he fails the fii-st time, has a rather better
chance next time, because ho will not cut in the same place again,
and similarly for the third trial. To solve the problem in this
form, treat it as though the card cut were removed from the pack
at each failure. The solution would then run thus : —
The chance that a winning card will not bo cut the first time ia
— . In that case there remain 51 cstrds, of which 12 are winning
ones. Thus, the chance that there will be a second trial, and that a
winning card will then not be drawn, is — x — There then remain
13 51
50 cards, of which 12 are winning ones ; and the chance that there
will be a third trial, and yet again a winning card not be drawn, ia —
lu 39 ,38
is'^'sT^so"
^38
85
The odds in favour of drawing one of the winning cards at one of
the three trials are therefore 47 to 38, instead of the smaller odds
1,197 to 1,000. It is obvious, of course, that in the closing sen-
tences of the examination of the problem at page 301, I should have
written " in favour of A " instead of " against A." Editor.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE AND AN OPTICAL ILLUSION.
[325]. — When a piece of twine is attached at one end to a ring,
and the other end, held between finger and thumb, twisted and
untwisted rapidly, the ring, when it has acquired sufficient velocity,
spins horizontally in either direction, according to the twist given
to the tAvine, and the eye is deceived by the appearance of a second
string attajhed to the opposite side of the ring, the ring and two
strings forming a perfect cone, whose apex touches the finger and
thumb. A gutta-percha ring, about 2 in. in diameter, shows this
simple exiieriment to advantage. E. C.
[This is a very pretty illusion. If the weight of ring is small,
we see a nodal chord, generally a third of the wny up. The
apparent cone is not perfect. It is easily seen why the cone seems
bounded by two distinct strings. — Ed.]
Sign of " Beas and Ragged Stafp." — Shakespeare refers to
this as the crest of Warwick, " the king-maker," in 2 Henry VI.,
act v., sc. 1, where Warwick is made to say :
" Now, by my father's badge, old Nevil's crest,
The rampant bear chain'd to the ragged staff."
— W. MiDDLETOX BOTTER.S.
I.NTELLiGEN-CE !:< ANIMALS. — About twelve years since, when I
was living at Richmond, I had a fine black retriever. She was an
exceedingly docile, tractable animal with people, but always
shunned animals, even those of her o^vn species. One day, walking
with her through the streets of the town, she was i)ersecnted by a
large, coarse, ill-bred, bull-dog ; she snapped at him several times.
Presently I turned down to the water-side ; to my surprise, here she
began playing with the dog, and soon after she gambolled about in
shallow water with him, occasionally swimming. All at once ha
got out of his depth, and, to my astonishment and dismay, she got
him by the nape of the neck and kept his head under water. I
shouted *' Down, Prin, down ! " but ot" this she took no notice, until
she had almost suffocated him ; then she let him go, and ho dragged
himself out of the water, and slunk away with his tail between hia
legs, and went his way, a sadder, and I hope a wiser, dog. — J.
Bbownino.
410
KNOWLEDGE
[March 10, 1862.
(J?llfrif5.
[2S7] — Fbhrikii'ii Infi.I'knza Vowder. — Cnn niiyoiio give mv Dr.
Forrioi^i prcnoriplimi for iiiOuriizn, mndu up of biHiiiulli, nrncia
|iow(I<-r, anil niorpliiii, to bv takvii in tlio form of anulT ? — ArrLUTKU
KnisciiiiiEU.
[a^iKj — ri.A.VTK IN Hkc'Roous. — Are growinj^ plants unhcnltliv in
the bi-, xlmuUI bi- i^hid to know tlio reason. — J. C. I..
[2H'.t] — TiiK BiKiAi. OF Mosfx — Wlicro cnn 1 obtain the piHin
cntitlod "The Huriiil of Moses," or where does it ocenr? — .1. C. L.
['i'.'O] — Tkiitiaky ?'os8I|,«. —Can any of your renders exphiin liow
it iK pyritous fussils from tertiary beds are so apt to fall to pieces,
while those from secondary strata remain unaffi'cted by oxpONure to
the air? I have ctamples of ammonites, Ae., iu my cabinet that
have been there for years, and, althouRli quit« " brassy " in ajipear-
nnee from pyrites, yet remain entirely unchnn(;ed. — W. D. C.
[2!ll] — IlAZOK. — Why does a ra/.or cut better after it has been
dipped in hot water ? This query answered on philosophical prin-
ciples will oblige.- H. Jo.-iK.i'ii Hoim.tox.
[:i02] — Sil\t:r. — How can I molt the residue of old silver baths
80 as to obtain pure silver ? Can it be done in any way without
using a crucible ? IIow much can I obtain a crucible for ? —
F. A. B.
[203] — Shelling Salts. — Is tho use of smelling salts beneficial
or otherwiiie ? Why are they resorted to profusely by women, but
not by men P — F. M.
[294]. — Exceptional Season.s. — IIow is tho exceptionally severe
winter of 1880-81, and the contnist in the exceptionally mild winter
of 1881-82, to be acconnted for ? — F. M.
[2il5] — AiTAKE.VT Parapo.k IN I'lioiiABiLiTiE.s. — A bag contains
an indefinitely great number of marked tickets, the nature of the
marks being unknown. One liundrod tickets are drawn. These all
bear letters of the alphabet, viz., 50 bear A, 30 B, and 20 C. Then
(r. I.ubbock and Urinkwater Bethuno's "Probability," p. 27),
the chance that the next ticket drawn wnll bear a letter of the
101
103
lul'
That is to say, tlie chance of the next mark being one of
the 3 letters A, B, C, >e greater than the chance of its being one of
the 20 letters A to Z. Where is the fallacy in the reasoning? —
Gkaiutim. — [In the former case wo have the probability that an
event will be either of one kind shown to be prevalent in a certain
degree, or will not be of that one kind. In the latter wc have the
probability that it will be one of three kinds shown to be i)re-
valent in certain degrees, or will not be of those three. The evidence
for three distinct kinds of marking gives stronger reason to believe
that the next will be one of those, than the evidence of one sort
of marking gives in favour of the next belonging to that one kind.
The paradox seems to arise from this, that in calculating the chance
of the next being a letter, we do not take into account the evidence
ten ling to show that there are three prevalent letters in the bag.
See aljo De Morgan on " Probabilities." — Eu.]
[290] — PiioTOGRAriiic STi'nio. — I wish to construct a reasonably
inexi)ensive glass-house, and shall feel obliged by a few hints as to
(a) dimensions, (b) material for walls and roof, and (c) arrangement
of light, having regard to the fact tlicit the studio will have to join
the back of my house, which has a S.W. aspect. A reference to
any work on the subject will also oblige. — Am.\teur.
[297] — LiMF.-LiGirr Appakatl's. — Where could I best obtain one
cheap, suitable for illustrating lectures to workmen with, and what
wonll be about the probable cost of the instrument complete? —
W. R, 1..
[29S] — Odb Axcestors. — We are told that the p.ateolithic man
who inhabited Britain was black in Mr. Grant Allen's interesting
article. How is this known to be so ? There is no evidence offered
in the article, and I should be glad to know how this can be proved.
— HOMO PAL.i:OLITIIICfS.
[299] — Magic Lantern. — Is it possible to make a magic lantern
in wood suitable for an ordinary room ? If so, could you kindly
give direction?, or mention some book (with price) on the subject ?—
Amateiu Carpenter.
[300] — Does the learning by heart of prose or poetry iniin-ovc or
impair tho faculties ?— A. C.
[301]— Magic Lantern. — I want to make a lantern for scientific
illustration. Can any reader tell me the size, focal length, and
distance apart of the glasses to bo nsed in making one to take
photographic slides ? — P. D. H.
[302]— Vegetarianism.— Can you tell mo of a good book hercoK ?
I know not what vegetables to "eat, or how to cook them.— John
Alkx. OLLAKn.
[3v>3] — Destruction of Souo.m and Gomorrah. — A clcrgvmnn
preaching on thi( aabjcct stated that it had l»ecn olmoiit conclusively
proved, on scientific grounds, that these towns were deslroyed by a
iihower of mcteon* on July 31, 1^98 n.i'. Is there any proof of
(his ; and, if so, what is the yirixil ? A. X.
[301] — (iEouHjv. — Can any geologirnl reader recommend a good
work on the carboniferous liinesionc formation, which contains re-
liable information as to fossils ; more especially as regards the
North Wales and iShropshire rocks ?— A. N.
[305] — The Calcilis. — What books should be rend on the
c.ilculus after Todhunter and Willinmson ? Is Price's " Infinitesimal
Calculus" a good book ? — Mathematici's.
[306] — Scholarships at Camiibidge. — Arc any open to candi-
dates over twenty yiars who have not already entered ? — Mathf-
MATICt'S.
[307] — Descriptive Geometry. — Bcqiiircd, a work on this subject,
Nufliciont for a first class in fourth stage mathematics, that is,
fulfilling the following syllabus : — Representation of points, straight
lines, and planes, by projections and traces on two orthogonal
planes. The use of auxiliary projections and rabatments. Graphic
soIuti(fns of problems concerning straight lines and planes, their
intersections, inclinations, 4c. Problems on trihedrsil angles.
Your paper supjilies a want in educational literature. — Self-Tal'oht.
[308] — Quicksands. — Why do persons sink in quicksands deeper
than they would in water, and why can they not float as in water ?
Does the sand in a qnicksand float in the water, and how is that
compatible with the relative specific gravities of water and sand ?
If not, why does not the sand sink in the water? — John R. West.
[309] — Effects of Tobacco. — Will Dr. Muir Howie kindly explain
why persons suffering from asthma are sometimes recommended to
smoke tobacco ? I gather from his interesting paper that the use
of the narcotic would tend to lessen the resen-e of vitality so
necessary to resist the effects of violent attacks of coughing. —
J. W. Brookes.
[310] — Quartz in Coal. — I have in my possession a specimen of
coal to which a piece of quartz is closely attached, several layers
of the same rock also running through the coal. How can this be
explained!' — J. W. Bkookej.
lAfpIir£i to (Surrifsf,
[220] — Chemical Analysis. — Might I say that before buying the
new editions of Fresenins on Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis
— which, as one of your readers has rightly observed, are rather t«o
descriptive to be of use to a beginner — he should try and obtain
the previous edition, which the translator cut down to about half
its original volume, thereby making it as valuable to the novice as
it is to the chemist. Your correspondent must not be surprised if the
second-hand books should be as expensive as the new books. —
r. C. S.
[258] — Drying Wild Flowers. — " H. R. S." should take to
Egypt and Palestine with him a quantity of botanical drying
pajier (to be had, of any scientific dealer), and two or more strong
wooden boards of same size as paper ; also strong leather straps.
Tlie plants should be spread out as naturally as possible between
the sheets of paper. Then lay all between the boards, and put one
or two large and heavy stones (to be had at most places) on the
top. Try to keep some of the paper not in use, so that it may be
changed for that in use, which becomes damp from the moisture in
the plants. This changing should be made every second day, if
possible. When travelling from place to place, strap the whole
firmly together. — F. W. G.
[25S] — Drying Wild Flowers — page 861. — I should recommend
" H. R. S." to got a small 5s. book by J. L. English, entitled "A
Manual on the Preservation of the larger Fungi and Wild Flowers,"
just published by A. B. Davis, of Epping. There is a small collec-
tion of wild flowers in the Norwich Museum preserved by this
process, in which both colour and form are beautifully retained. —
R. S. Standen.
[20 1] — Letts's " Popular Atlas Geographical Map of England and
Wales" (with leading railways), will give "Strata" the informa-
tion he asks for. Also Professor John Phillip's "Geography of
Oxford and the Valley of the Thames" will be of great assistance.
A very bright and clear geographical map (of England and Walea)
is prefixed to Mr. 11. B. Woodward's "Geology of England and
Wales." Letts's map is a very cheap one, and is tho work of Mr.
Bristow ; it is founded on Murchison's map. Should be gl.ad to help
" Strata " in any way I can. — Jaciebat.
[207] — Thoracic Integrity. — The statement in " Science for
All " is perfectly authentic. It is really not correct to regard the
chest cavity as being air-tight, as, of course, can at once bo under-
March 10, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
411
stdod when we think of the ease mth which air can be drawn into
:iTiil oxiu'lled from it. The lunjfs are to bo rei^arded as elastic baf^s
wliich :ii'i' not connected with the walla of the chest, both they and
th" walls being covered with a smooth membrane called the pleural
mlrane (wh ch, when inflamed, produces pleurisy). Now, the
ice (or rather separation, for they aro nominally in contact),
'i tween the two layers of pleural membrane, is air~ii'jht, so that
u lien the chest cavity enlari^es (by movement of ribs and descent
c'f midriff, or diaphra^^m), the elastic lanp;3 follow its walls, and so
ail' mshcs in through the wind-pipe to fill the largar space so pro-
tiuced, and we are said to inspire. If, however, a hole be made
into the space (or separation) between the lungs and chest wall,
then, of coarse, when the chest cavity enlarges, the lungs will not
|iand, but air will simply rush in at the hole that has been made.
It the space between one lung and the chest-wall is quite distinct
1 tn that between the other lung and the chest-wall, so that if only
• ■:ie be opened into, the man still lives and breathes with his other
IiiHg; but if both spaces be opened into death must at once occur.
Now, the heart is, as it were, quite distinct from these air-tight
ices, so that if a hole exist (as has been known in certaiii cases)
1 'Ugh the chcst-wall opposite that organ, it will not open into
I Nor of tlie spaces, and so will not interfere with breathing. —
I . VV. G.
,268] — PnoTOGB.iPHY.— " Anon " has need to be careful in
meddling vnth photography. It is an expensive pastime. For
r.eral work (landscape and portrait) consult Abney's " Instruc-
M3 in Photography" (2s. 6d., Piper & Carter), or Hughes'
l'liotogra])hy " (Is., Simpkin). If only for portraits, Heigliway's
I 'tactical Portrait Photograph" (Is., Piper & Carter) will best
:: him. Full instructions and chemicals required are given in
vo works, and the advertisements will indicate where to get
lintn. The "cheapest articles" are not to be advised. Failure
and disgust are sure to follow the use of cheap and necessarily
nasty articles. Better give a higher price and get a good article.
I f it is intended to use dry plates, Eder's ' Modern Dry Pltites " (.3s.,
I tliink, published by Piper A- Carter) will be useful. — F. M.
260] — Carbonic acid was shown by Calvert to be necessary to
• rusting of iron, besides oxygen. Sea-water contains more car-
ric acid than average fresh water. — C. T. B.
277] — Balmain's luminous paint is calcium or barium sulphide,
1 le by heating either gypsum or heavy-spar with coal. — C. T. B.
285]— SciK.NTiFic Terms. — " Prestcr W." will find Dunnian's
Mossary" (Griffiths & Farran), a useful book for "Biological,
Anatomical, and Physiological Terms." — Chas. W. Duckwokth.
:W0].— The question of " G. G. D.," Xo. 300, p. 388, is a very
* ir one. Assuming that the evaporation from the damp surround-
-s have saturated the warm air inside the room, a condensation
naif its vapour would certainly take place if it were reduced from
to 32° without any interchange with the outer air, i.e., if the
ni were air-tight and cooled exclusively by conduction through
walls. The damp surrounding would then simply recover all
• moisture they had previously supplied to the warm air. If, on
■ other hand, the doors and windows were thro^vn open, and the
ni were rajiidly cooled by an exchange of cold air from outside,
• walls would continne for some time warmer than the incoming
■. and therefore would receive no deposition of moisture from it ;
t on the contrary, would communicate some heat to it, and thus
!'. e a drying action. I have imagined these opposite extremes as
exaggerated illustrations displaying the principles. Practically,
however, a mixed action occurs. Conduction takes place through
the thinnest element of partition, the -window glass, and there wo
■ an abundant formation of what I may venture to call domestic
V. Besides this, an interchange of atmosphere slowly takes
" e ; but not more slowly than the cooling of the walls. Under
th 'se conditions, the condensation of excess of vapour is limited to
til" window panes, and the brick or stone walls, Ac, remain dry. —
\V. Mattif.c Williams.
fyetter 220] — Health of Navvies. — Edwin Sachs (p. 325), in
' ly to my letter on the above (p. 254), says that the "natives"
lying by thousands in Java, Ac, from fever " though inveterate
['■I chewers." It would have been more satisfactory if Edwin
Sachs had informed the readers of Knowledge whether the fever
was indigenous or not, as this would, of course, make all the dif-
ference, and would account tor the, at present, remarkable fact of
the " natives being more easily affected by fever than aro Euro-
peans." If Edwin Sachs will read my letter again, he will see that
I was alluding to fevers, &c., incidental to marsh life. Mr. A. H.
Church, in his edition of " Johnson's Chemistry of Common Life,"
never intended the betel nut to be used as a preventive against
fevers which contact with foreigners may have introduced. —
F. C. S.
Sliistorrd to CorrtJ^pontentsJ.
Office <
•All I
mmiim.aliaiit fur Ihr Editor rrqiiiriii} ear!) al/riilion ihould reach I' e
li^ore the Saturday preceding the curreitt ueue of Kxowlbdob, tJ.e
rculatton of vhwh LOmpeh ua to go to preta early in the week.
Hints to Cohhf.shosdkxts.— 1. No qiieatioxt atkirtii fur icienlific in/ormitioi
can be anaic^eil through the pout. "i. heltcre aeni to the Editor for correapondentt
cannot be foncnrded ; nor can the namea or addreiiea of correapjndenta be given in
anewer to private inijniriea. 3. No queriea or repliea aacouring of the nature of
adcrrtiaementa can be inserted. 4. Lettcra, queriei, and rciiliea are inaerted, unleaa
contrary to Itnle 3, />.■« of charge. 5. Correapondeala ahould vrile on oiK tide
only of the poper, and p'lt dravinga on a aepara/e teaj. 6. Each Utter, query, or
reply ahontd have a title, and in replying to leltera or queriea, r^erence ahottld be
rt-ide to the number of letter or query, the page on which it appeara, and ita title.
Wo
but
Mark H. Jidge. Thanks for report of Sanitary Association,
but readers would not allow us to insert so much in way of
report. — E. Luxmoobe. Many thanks for description of compound
pendulum, which shall shortly ajjpcar. The curves are very inte-
resting. Is there no ink, either black, scarlet, or orange, which
could be used? If there were, the curves could be photozinco-
graphed. — Cogito. When, in No. 11, I spoke of the ecliptic or
plane of earth's path as unchanging, I meant that if an observer
were supposed to watch the earth from the sun's centre, her
apparent course among the stars would be unchanging. Tlte
earth's polar axis remains inclined at almost an unchanging
angle to the plane in which the e.-irth travels, just as the
axis of a spinning top is inclined at almost an unchanging angle to
the horizon plane, but this axis varies in direction (also as the axis
of a reeling top varies) and the plane of the equator, which is
always at right angles to the earth's axis, of course varies with it.
Refer to the same figure p. 219, Xo. 11 ; here EE conosponds with
the earth's equator. It remains always inclined at the same angle
to the vertical, but reels round as the globe spins. I have not jet
done with precession, but every week I get some such message as
this : " We have forty-seven columns of over -matter, and two,
three, or four more pages of advertisements than we can get in
without displacing something. What aro we to do ? " and I have to
reply. Keep out my article on comets, or on precession, or on the
Pyramid, or Foster's articles on illusion, or articles by some
one else who is willing (I know) to wait. — J. K. Campbell.
should have liked to use your paper on the Slide Eule,
what can we do ? A wants more about microscope ; B more
about chemistry, C botany, D entomology, B says turn out whist,
and have in mineralogy, F says we want no chess, but would like
something about pottery, G would like more biology, H palaeontology,
J says " All work and so little play makes Knowledge dull to day.
Why cut down whist and chess to a column each ? " and so on, to Z.
You catch the idea ? — M. Hill. Neither drawing represents the real
changes of the moon's apparent position. If you attach a circular
disc to a celestial globe, set to latitude of London, and caiTy the
disc round from horizon to horizon, you will see the real changes,
and also why they occur. A gas is said to be in the critical state
when the pressure and temperature are such that, if the latter
were in any degree lowered, the gas would liquefy. — F. W. B.
Bouvekie. Fear we could scarcely find room in Knowledge just
now for papers on philological subjects. — J. H. Fallon. Know
nothing about the Society for the Promotion of Scientific In-
dustry.— W. B. Are not — 3 and — 2 as obviously roots of
the modified equation ? — S. Stanier. Power cannot be 200, if
Jupiter had at the time of observation ajiparent diameter 45".
Three days before date of your letter, Jupiter's diameter was only
36". — Private Student. Your examples aro rather too common-
place to be dealt with in Mathematical Column. (1.) The equa-
tions to lines parallel to i/ =m .t -I- b, and at distance a from origin
(rectangular co-ordinates), are y=-mx±.a^ i + m'. (2.) If AB is
parallel to x cos. a + y sin. a=p, and OA.UB = c', equation to AB is
,T cos. a + y sin. a = '^ ^'°1°. (3.) If -iU be parallel to y = mx + J>
•^^tan a
and 0.4 + 0B = <-the equation to .IRis ;/ = )».■ -(-
1+7,..
really must not ask such questions as those ; you mistake the
purpose of Knowledge in doing so. — Historian. Your questions
hardly suited to a journal of popular science. Considering how
those two historians have denounced each other, it would be un-
wise of us to pretend to decide between them. — W. A. S. Your
reply states the matter clearly, but does not explain. Mesmerism
may be " nerve force producing artificial somnambulism on a suscep-
tible subject." But why ? or (if we cannot have Why) how ?— J. W.
Wood. Your reply scarcely explains much. — H. W. B. Thanks;
but fear the merely verbal contest you invite would be of small
benefit.— Geo. St."Clair. The star Alpha Centauri ; moreover,
this is the only first magtjitude star which ever has shone in the
direction of the Southern passage. The Great Bear was regarded
But vou
412
KNOWLEDGE
[Mabcu 10, 1882.
cTcn in iiiiicli liitpr tiinoH tliaii tlidHi- ynu mptition, no tlie poliir
coniitcllutioii, oxoi'i't liy llio I*li(piiii-iiiiiH, wli<> tCHik tlio Hiiiallcr
circling of tlio Cyiiomiro for tlipir {piiilo. Thr> mution of
tho npHiiics in no wrv nffi'cis tlio ]iri'ccB8ionnl period. — T. Vf.
Hope one dny to ffivo such an ftrtido. — W. St. C. Hok-
CAWKN. A pnppr on Clinldpnn Fcstivnia only delayed. "Omit-
tanro i» no (piittance." — SrFri-i.vM. \Vc cnn, however, live in nir
mrofled onou);l> to support coniliiistion so ill that a bnd lire
would go out in it.— C. T. II. Nay, they do not neutralise onrh
other; the parts illuminated on tho slant look less hrif^ht, eniis.^inn
diniiuifiliinf; as cosino of onglu with normnl to surface. Taking
shot for mcdieine must, wo agree with you, bo a dangerous practice,
though not nccpssorily rery dangerous. Luckily, tho ra-rntti does
not get all it might get, or scnrccly a child would grow^ tu maturity.
•^Unsatis'FIKD. The pres.sure upwards is ecpiivftlent to weight of a
column of air as largo as mouth of glass, and 100 miles or so high
(reaching, in fact, to tho limits, if such there be, of tho ntrao-
sphere) ; tho downward prossure is that of the wine-glass fnll
of water. A column of water about UD feet high can bo sup-
ported in this way, a column of mercury about 29 inches
high : 8o that yon might fill your wineglass with mercury, if suitable
snbstanco were placed over it. — Ji'mbo. Tho fancy is a queer one.
I can SCO that it might prove very useful in keeping account of
nmnbers. Like you, 1 have the numbers in sets from 1 to 12, then
to 20, then tu 30, then to 50, but after that I do not go straight to
100 but stop at 80. They do not, however, go in a bent line, as
with yon, but in a set of verticals. — W. A. F. Have never heard
that tlio Jordan was for a time stopped up by masses of rock falling
down, but as half Niagara was once for a wliile stopped (so they
say), it seems conceivable that the same might happen to another
river. Hojio your question is not meant to infringe our rule about
science and religion. — F. IlErBOCRX. You conld only now obtain
Button's " Recreations" at a secondhand bookshop (unless, perhaps,
our exchange or si-tpcnny sale column might help you. — Excelsior.
Oouff ! here comes a long one ! First, you are quite right. The
objection was first advanced by Tycho Brahe : the answer is that
the orbit of the earth is so utterly insignificant compared with the
distance of tho fixed stars, that no such effect can be recognised,
except in the case of the very nearest stars, and then only with tho
most powerful and closely-measuring telescopes. Thus, Alpha
Centauri, being only at the trifling distance of 20,000,000,000,000
miles, describes an ellipse having a major axis nearly 2 seconds of
arc in length, one-93(3th of the moon's apparent diameter. 2.
Twinkling of fixed stars duo to moisture in our air. 3. Do not
know why expeditions are not made now to South Pole; conditions
there probably not similar to those at North Pole ■ — more ice,
Maury says more land. It is also a longer journey, except
from places in southern hemisphere. Uranus is now very
favourably situated for observation, and visible to naked
eye. 4. The satellites of Mars arc utterly beyond the range
of a 3-inch achromatic. 5. Spots oftener seen than not, except
at the time of minimum, when sometimes for months together
none are seen. 6. Cannot show planet's paths now the whole sky
shown in a single map. For reasons we are obliged to keep the
block free from anything not belonging to the stellar heavens. The
zodiacal map does better in every way. To see Uranus or Nepttme
to tho least advantage, a good telescope is wanted, and if a map is
trusted to show where tho planet is, it must be on a much larger
scale than our star map. This applies also to tlie nebulse, except
those visible to the naked eye. Am glad to hear you have been so
thoroughly well pleased with tho telescope yon obtained from Mr.
Bateman for the small price of £5. 15s., "being and doing all
that is stated of it in the advertisement, and more too." — Anxious
OxE. If there is the danger you fear, it is far too serious a matter
to bo trifled with. Wo should bo wronging you if wo inserted
your letter for casual reply, and we have no right to ask
medical men, especially mind doctors, to discuss the matter.
Indeed, we know they would not do so (because they know they
could not properly do so) without careful study of the case. Pray
believe that if wo could do anj-thing, rightly, by which your anxiety
might be relieved, we would most willingly do so. One thing we
can say — the symptom you describe should either lead you to seek
medical advice, or you ought not to allow it to worry you at all. A
doctor would probably tell you how much you should notice it, and
with what object. But merely noticing it, ami being worried by it,
can do nothing but harm. — J. 0. Lindsay. Thanks for extract.
The publishers will probably issue covers for binding. A yearly
volume would be too thick. Taking twenty-two pages per number,
without advertisements, there would be l,ll-4 pages ; far too many
forasingle volume. — James Ukkinsox. Thanks forthe microcrosm ;
but the article on Sound is written by one who understands not. —
J. V. M. Yon seem to misunderstand my remark, that one of
OUT contributors was "not writing for" a correspondent (who
objected te his reasoning). No sneer as to that correspondent's
capacity was intended. 1 trust I am incapable of such rudoncaa.
I meant aimply what I said, that Ur. Wilson'R rcaitoning waa not
direct<-d to miet the particular objection urged by that objector.
You think scientific men lieland each other too much. Is nut that
better than belittling each other? Would yon havo them likn^tho
I'rofcHsor of Greek, who wished an opponent " 'confounded '(for
his theory of the irregular verba"? I cannot admit that Dr.
Draper did not orguo honestly. Ho woa a hard hitter, but honirty
itself. Tho cago you cite i» not very «eriou«. Draper aaya I'lli'-
was not answered, and Ilacon said I'ilato would not stay for mi
answer ; do you know which opinion was right ? You go on to
object to stories about animals. You say. What would acientific m. n
say to evidences of religion consisting of stories of f>ious men. * 'ur
stories of animals are not meant as evidences of science. Then y.ii
think ourarticles too short, iiut others want variety. Your litter
does seem rather wandering, but doubtless " the gaps arc causal ny
suppression before birth of much that you wished to say." —
K. W. P. Both papers received. Thanks. Great pressure ' f
matter only has prevented our using them yet. — U. W. J. .Staf-
mcnt about tides in Chrislian Ol«be utterly wrong. .Scientilio
authorities differ as to details, of course ; but none sujiport tho
ridiculous statement you quote about "geological time approaching
tho limits," &c. — M. H. JinoK. Sorry ; but letter reached us only
when No. 18 was already in type. — SiBlfs. Statement in Times
])robably near the truth. From best estimates, Sirius gives out
about 300 times as much light as sun (at samo distance), which
would give surface 300 times as great (if of same intrinsic lustre) ;
diameter about fourteen times as great. Of course, this is but
an estimate. — F. Matin. Thanks. — A. A. Feegcsox. Smoke and
fog best seen where light was, in cases cited ; not attracted by
light. The theory impossible. — C. A. C. Theory not reconcilable
with evidence of former existence both of water and air on moon. —
CoxsTAX.s. In such a subject. Dr. Ball was obliged to assume either
that readers were acquainted with those laws, or would take them
for granted. Your questions chiefly relate to the more doubtful and
perplexing matters. You may see from my article in Contemporary
Review, and hereafter more fully in Gentleman's ilayazine, that there
is room for considerable variety of opinions as to details. — G. S.
Thanks ; but answer about lightning too vague. — W. Ceisp does not
consider tho evidence of Mallicolese skull so decisive against
phrenology as Miss Buckland suggests (in passing) that it is ; con-
volutions not stunted in growth, but forced in other directions. He
notes that capacity of Neanderthal skull cannot be estimated, as it
is a mere skull cap. — J. F. Lawrence. Should advise you not to use
copper bowl for lemon-squeezer until thoroughly retinned. — F. NoiB,
Hope you will occasionally send translated extracts from Al Muktataf.
Of course, I understand Arabic perfectly, but " faitcs commo si je ne
le savois pas," as M. Jourdain says. — An Engineer writes plea-
santly-worded note explaining that "F.K.A.S.'s" remarks about
ice had seemed to him insufficiently clear. — A. R. Senxett. Do not
know ; cannot answer correspondents per letter. — Tabanaki. Wo
may hereafter publish some southern star-maps, but at present our
hands are full. You see we italicise words in question, at your
suggestion, and may hereafter adopt the system, if printers do not
object. — F. F. PoERELL. Red Sea was once thought to bo higher
than Mediterranean ; disproved first by measurement, then em-
phaticallyi by canal. — H. L. MAcquARP. Nos. 2 and 3 quite out of
print ; Nos. 1, 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 not very far from it, or might
reprint 2 and 3 ; as it is, it would be useless. — F. C. S. Will
try soon to find room for " Wood Gas," but " Beet " is waiting.
In fact, wo are choked with matter at present. — Alei. F.
If you read Sir J. Herschel's essay on "Light" ("Familiar
Science Essays)," you will see what a very diflScult question yours
is. — A. W. Buckland gives for benefit of " Experto Crcde " address
Professor Rudler, Jennyn-street Museum, for information about
mineralogical objects. — A. J. D. saw cat on sill of fanlight over
door, who presently lowered his hind legs, and, lifting knocker, let
it fall, walking in when door was opened. — Daleth, T. A. Prestok,
R. MAcriiEEsoN, and others. Thanks, but query already answered
when yonr reply came. — W. Middleton Butters says in " Pig and
Whistio"apig == a cup or bowl, and whistle = wassail ;" Bear and
Ragged Stump," crest of Warwick, the King-maker; in "Magpie
and Stump," mag = large coin, guinea ; pie = pay; and stump -■
be off.- — J. T. B. Ere long electrical matter will be dealt with aa
fully as possible. — Leo. U. Walker. Afraid to publish your sug-
gestion, lost some mother should be tempted to squeeze "baby's"
brain to make a chief of him ; what a terrible thing if a father
should find mamma or "nurse" >vith copy of Knowledge before
her carefully trying to squeeze baby's head into semblance
of young Mallicolese chieftain ! — Asiatech Botaxist. Questions
about preparing colours for magic -lantern slides and plant
collection require articles to themselves. — Miss J. Yorjio.
Thanks, but we havo a surplus of original stories. — ARTnCB E.
Paluek. Thanks. I ought to have added that when I am pressed.
March 10, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
413
;iik1 have to work my very hardest, I always go withont stimntants
(f any sort. In ordinary working time I am a very moderate
.Iriiikcr; in holiday time, like Mr. Foker, I " take my whack " with
•'M'rest; but then I do not believe in holiday-making ; it means,
[li me, "getting out of working order." — F. A. B. Your first
• rv a statement — namely, that coronal ring was perfect round
,,,.»>n at first quarter. Other query inserted; letter (abstract) also.
1 hanks. — StR U. Thompson-. I take some blame to myself, for I
l;:ul read your book, and remembered well that there was therein no
jlvocacy of vegetarianism. — M. S. Thanks. — E. G. D. Your
! ioro than thirty notes, criticisms, and suggestions" came
■n us all "loo too" much at once, and many related to
tiers already, as wo hoped, disposed of. Others have had
ro to complain of than yourself; but if what you wished done
you were done for all, we should want si.xty pages weekly, and
paper alone would cost much more than oiu' weekly price. What
uld we do.' Advise proprietors to raise price? Thanks; we
iL-r not, if by any possibility we can avoid it. But, as you will
. 0 it so, we reply, " Farewell." Try to be a little more reason-
' with the next periodical you take. — E. V. II. Fear you cannot
a really good account of the comet of 1813 ; the best that was
: itten about it lies buried h\ proceedings of astronomical societies.
'' "meteoric theory of comets" (scarcely a theory now) has
■n dealt with fully by several writers, myself among others. It
t. be considered shortly in these pages. — E. BfRKE. The version
_-iv(n in the work you mention long since disposed of by Leverrier.
— ,T. H. CoBBETT. I think both Parallax and Mr. Xewton Cros-
!;uicl would feel insulted at the suggestion that they are one and the
■nt'. If eitlier could destroy accepted astronomy, the other would
! upon him. In the theory of Pai-allax (who is by no means the same
' ur too livelj- Hampden) the earth is not compared to a Stilton
ese more than to a Dutch cheese. The earth has only one side —
lop ; the north pole is the centre ; there is no south pole, but in
- !iiead we have the circumference. Dimensions I do not know.
Hampden" tells me one thing; "Parallax" used to .assert another.
If you quote cither, the advocate of the other — whether " Hamp-
'!i ii" or "Paralla.'c" — tells you you know nothing of the Zetetic
If that advocate chances to be " Hampden," he calls
l; coward, or a lily-livered, perjured villain, or something
rt. It is a way he has. "Parallax" is very different.
li'- is not only gentlemanly, but he is "like Cerberus, three gentle-
iiK-u at once." At least, to my certain knowledge, "Parallax"
v,:s Mr. Rowbotham in 1864; De Morgan savs of him (" Para-
:ms," p. 30t>,) that at Trowbridge, in 1849, he was S. Gonlden ;
1 now he is Dr. Burley. — J. Mukrat. Y'es ; other notes and
Ljrams (gracious goodness!) received. Sorry "the Ptolemaic
lesceado system will not allow any spots on the sun," only
wing them to pass in the same way asA'enus. Astronomers are
kinder. — J. A. M. Solutions 1,2, 3 received; hope with you, the
:k is tlioroughly cooked now. — E. P. T. Gregory's Electrical
■ory plausible as you say, but, as you also say, quite irreconcil-
■ with Dr. Ball's views; equally irreconcilable with laws of
namics. — Carus. The more hydrogen in a balloon — the hydrogen
ii;^' enclosed in elastic case, so that it is nearly at same pressure
~urrounding atmosjphere — the greater the lifting power; other-
■, the reverse. If an air-tight case is so made as to be of cou-
nt dimensions, the more hydrogen you force into it the less will
! he raising power. As to the other query, please specify the
1 of work you require on palaeontology — technical, popular, or
it? — Eli Wailis. If you want to see what stars lie towards,
the south west, hold the map so that the words south-western
i i/.on are vertically below the map's centre, then between the
li-westem boundary and that centre, which represents the point
(head, yon will see in the map the stars you want. — Fakmku. Letter
rked for insertion. — J. A. Ollarf. Xot a tenth of the space you
■ It is available. — 3ehald Massey. Thanks; but question of
-'s descent is rather a biological than a pliilological one.
?Ltttn-£i lAfrribrlj.
H. Muirhead, W. H. Morgan, Aspiring Artist, J. Hartington,
L. M. N., K. Mongar (?), M. Emerson, P. T. L., Aud.ix, Peter
Parley, Sucking Uerschel (must not suck brains), E. F., Mater-
familias, Petcrkin, Excelsior, J. North, M. Weatherwit, St. Pancras,
Q. E. D., F. v., Formosa, Empty Noddle (tr\- to fill), James
LogersoU, Amorj', N. C, Philip St. John, Northern Lad, Calais-
Donvres, Amplitude, N. Tressingham, . Ccelebs, Shingly Beach, M.
Peterson, J. Short, &c., &c.
PoxD's Extract is a certain core for Bhemnatism and Gout.
Pond'a Extract is a corlain cure for Hemorrhoids.
Pond's Extract is a certain cure for Neural^c paina.
Pond's Extract will heal Bums and Wounds,
bond's Extract will cure Sprains and Bruises.
Sold by all Chemists. Get the gennine. [Adtt.
©Ill- iBatftrmntiral Column,
THE LAWS OF PROBABILITY.
By inB Editor.
THE mathematical discussion of the laws of chance is regarded
by many mth suspicion, because they observe that while
the matters discussed are admitted by the very inquirer to be doubt-
ful, the conclusions arrived at are presented as matters of mathema-
tical certainty. But in reality this arises from a misapprehension
of the nature of the inquiry made by mathematicians into questions
relating to chance. A mathematician assigns a definite value, as if
it were certain, to the chance of winning a prize in a lottery (where
one prize only, let us say, can bo won) under given conditions ; but
ho does not assert that the event will confirm his opinions ; on the
contrary, he knows that whatever hajipens, the sum he names will
not be gained. He sav.s" tJtat, certainly, is the value of the chance,
but lie knows that either the prize will bo won, in which case more
than the sum he named will bo won, or lost, in which case the
drawer of the blank will win nothing. Ho cannot even say that in
any given number of trials the average amount won will be what
ho has named; he can only say that the greater the number
of trials, the nearer will the average amount won be to the amount
ho has named. On this point only he is certain, and not only can
his view be shown by logical reasoning to be sound, but multiplied
experience confirms it. The reasoning may not admit of being
grasped veiy easily, or, at any rate, very quickly. In particular
cases the mathematical determination of the value of a chance
may be so difficult that only advanced mathematicians can
master the demonstration. But even in such cases, experi-
ments can often be made quite easily, by which, with a,
little patience, the mathematical solution may be shown to
be correct. Take, for instance, one of the "chance methods"
of squaring the cii'cle. A straight rod of given length, and of
given square section, is tossed at random on to a grating of equi-
distant bars, and after gyrating in the air a number of times, falls
either athwart the bars or between them, according, one would say,
to pure chance (or bare chance, or mere chance, as you may choose
to call it). A mathematician says that the chance of the rod
falling through — the spaces between the bars being, of course,
wider than the rod — depends (in what seems an occult fashion) on
the relation between the circumference and the diameter of a
circle. The proof is not simple, and perhaps you fail to under-
stand it. But set some one to toss the rod (from a place where he
cannot see the cross-bars, and without any knowledge of their
position) a few thousands, or tens of thousands of times, and note
how often it falls tlirough, and how often it fails to fall through ;
you then find that the ratio of the two numbers approaches very
nearly, the more nearly the oftener the rod is thrown, to the ratio
assigned by the mathematician. The experiment maybe tried any
number of times, and always the result is the same.
The science of probabilities is shown by such inst.ances as these
to be a science which can predict, even in matters of pure chance.
It is not a science which authoritatively lays down certain dicta, but
one which itself indicates ways in which it may be put to the test.
But then, say objectors, ' probability is dealt with by mathe-
maticians in so artificial a manner, that these methods cannot
possibly have any ap)]licatiou to real events. At the very outset
there are conventional rules, which, so far as we can judge, might
just as well have been entirely different.
In reality, however, the rules by which mathematicians deal with
probabilites are only conventional in the same sense that it is con-
ventional to measure lines by inches or by feet, to measure angles
by circular arcs, or to measure surfaces, solids, time intervals (what
you please, in fine, that mathematics can deal with) as mathema-
ticians do measure these quantities.
Let us see what these conventions are : —
In the first place, it is agreed that absolute certainty shall be
represented by unitv, absolute impossibility by 0, and therefore
(necessarily) different degrees of probability by different proper
fractions. "We can thus never have a chance greater than 1, for
nothing can be surer than the sure ; nor can we have a chance less
than 0, that is negative, for nothing can be more impossible than
the impossible. These are pure conventions. Wo might have
called certainty 10 or 100, or 59Jj. or anything we pleased; we
might equally have represented imiiossibility by any quantity,
positive or negative, or either certainty or improbability by a letter.
It is found convenient, however, to adoi>t the particular convention
mentioned, and so long as, having once adopted it, we uniformly
follow it, we shall no moro be likely to go astray tli.au when we
represent the number " three " by the figure three throughout an
arithmetical sum.
'11 J.
KNOWLEDGE
[March 10, 1882.
ThPKC ronrontioni ore in ronlity nil which tho iitudont of proba-
bilitioii hng
of those.
Lot us now consider sonip simple illnstrations of the rennlts of
these conventions.
Sii|>|i(i5 a hog containing seven black
3
nnd three white balls is T^y
Since the above reasoning is npp'iculde, whotevcr the total
nninber of balls, and whatever the numlier of white balls, wo bar*
this general result, that the chanco of drawing a white ball from •
r
bag containing n balls, of which r are white, is -.
Further, since tho reasoning is as np]>licable to the black balli M
to the white, it is obvious that the chance of drawing a black ball
out of a bag containing seven black and three white balls ''tj;'
This ii the chance of /ui'.inij to draw a white ball. And, generally,
the chance of failing to draw a white ball from a bag containing •
balls, of which r are white, is ~ .
Nor is the reasoning affected if the balls which arc not white ore
of more than one colour ; while the same reasoning applies to the
balls of divers colours. So that wc clearly get this general mle,
including all that wo have thus far attained to: -If there are H
balls (all equal in size) in a bag, of which v are white, I black,
r red, ;; green, and so on, till all the colonrs and balls in the bag ara
reckoned, then —
The chance of drawin
v.hitc ball is
failing to draw a white ball is
drawing a black ball is
failing to draw a black ball is -
drawing a i-ed ball is
,, failing to draw a red ball is... — -
n
and so on through all the colours, and we may also combine any
of the colours together in such statements as the following: —
The chance of di-awing either a white or a black ^ 6 + ir
ball is ) ~,
The chance of failing to draw either a white or i n—{b + tv)
a black ball ) JJ
and so on
This general law is applicable to any case where the chance is
required that one of a certain set of events will happen out of a
larger number of events whose chances are equal. Thus, the
chance that either ace or deuce will be thro^vn with a single die
2
is-
The chance that a court card will be drawii out of a picquet
12
pack of cards is
32
the corresponding chance in the case of a
whist pack being -— .
52
[Solutions of problems, by T. R. and others, in our next. — Ed.]
A Substitute Foa Water ix Foot-W.\kmess. — People who
travel much in winter, either in railway carriages or in any of the
other modes of conveyance, are continually annoyed and incon-
venienced by the fact that the hot water in their tins gets cold very
soon ; in fact, if tho tins are to be of any comfort to the traveller,
they must bo changed every two hours. Who, amongst all those
who havo felt starved and miserable through the water in the foot-
wanner having become cold, will not hail with delight the fact that
the science of chemistry promises speedily to bring a fresh boon
to the traveller in all parts of the world, in the form of a foot-
w;iriiier whicli will keep hot for a period of ten hours, at the same
time giving out four times as much nsiful heat as water ? The name
of the chemist who is bringing about this gi-ent and useful change
is M. .\ngolin, who purposes using crystallised sodium acetate
instea 1 of water. When once the tins are filled, the stoppers well
soUlertd, and the warmer perfectly air-tight, all trouble ceases
o.Tcopt wai-ming them up when required for use. Tho tins can be
used over and over again, the salt being perfectly stable. Experi-
ments are now being tried on tho London nnd North-Wcstem
Railwav, also on various foreign railwavs, with a view to its adop-
tion.—F.C.S.
I
March 10, 1882.]
• KNOWLEDGE
415
C^ur €i)t^5 Column.
Games between Mephisto, and a strong Amateur.
AUgaiei
Gambit.
Wbiik.
BuiCK.
White.
Bljlck.
Mephi.sto.
Mk. M.
JIepuisto.
Mk. M.
1. P to K i
P to Ki
14. P takes P
Q takes P
2. P to KB4
P t.ikes P
15. B to Q3 (ch)
K to Kt2
3. Kt to K H3
P to KKt4
16. Castles KK
R takes B(')
4. PtoKlU
P to Kt5
17. P takes R
Q toBl(cl.)
6. Kt to Kt5
I' to KR3
18. R to B2(')
Kt takes P(8)
6. Kt takes 1'
K takes Kt
19. K to Pisq
B to K3
7. PtoQi
P toQ4
20. R to B6
Kt takes Rii")
8. B takes V
Kt to KB3
21. P tks Kt(ch)
K takes Pi')
9. Kt to QBS
B to KtoC)
22. Q takes P(ch)
K to K2
10. B to Ko
B tks Kt ch(i')
23. R to Ksq
Q toQ4
11. P takes B
K to Ksq
24. P to B4
Q toQ3
12. Q to Q2 (')
K to Kt3('')
25. B to Bo
resigns
13. P to K5 (cl.)
K toR2
(*) The best defence is to employ the Bishop on K2 in com-
bination with R to KBsq and K to Kt2
C") The tempting move Kt takes KP wonld not be good play.
(<^) Or B to K2
('') Black might have defended with 12 Kt to QB3, 13 Q takes
B P, 13 Kt takes B, 14 P takes Kt, 14 R takes P.
(') A powerful resource, which threatens to break up White's
game.
O A desperate move, but if K to R2 or Rsq, then by Q takes
KP Black would completely domineer over White's game. Of
course, White cannot afford to exchange Queens by interposing her
on B2. R to B2, besides proving an effective defence, also keeps
the attack in hand, for it would not be quite so good now for Black
to play, Q takes KP, for White would then reply with B to Ksq,
and Black could not then take the RP with a check, which would
hare been the case had the King gone to Rsq or R2. The wiunin"
of the time of one move won the game for White.
(s) Black dare not plaj- P to Kt6, for then White would reply
with P takes Kt ch, and dissolution would speedily follow.
C) White not only threatens R takes B, but also Q takes R P,
Black has no alternative but to take the proffered Rook. The
sacrifice is perfectly sound.
We give a diagram of the position.
Position after White's 20th move : —
(J) K to B2 instead of K takes P looks better, but it would also
loae, e.g. : —
K to B2
Q takes P
-2^ or
Kt toQ2
B to Kt6 (ch)
K takes P
B to B5 (ch)
K takes B (•)
25 R to Esq (ch)
K to K4
2« R to Ksq (ch)
and wins
24.
(•) 24.
K to K2
K to Ksq
R to Qsq
5_i or
B to B2
B to Kta (ch)
Pto B3
Q to R8 (ch) ■
Q to Bsq
R to K8 (ch)
aad wins
Q takes B ch
K to Bsq
Kt to Q2
B to Kt6 (ch)
K to Qsq
Q to R8 (ch)
and mates in
two moves
Q takes Kt
and wins
GAMES BY CORRESPONDEXCE.— (Con«n«c;econd hand, and playing ten or
Knavo on a small one, would be an unnecessarily high card, and
that is the test. Cavendish's language on this point is not liable to
tho same misinterpretation as Clay's. Ho says, "It is important
to distinguish between covering second hand and discarding an un-
necessarily high card. For example, with Knave, ten, and a small one,
it is usual to play tho ten second hand on a small card. When the
small card is played tho second round, it is not a signal for trumps,
unless your partner can infer that you do not hold the Knavo." So
equally and by parity of reasoning, a player holding Knavo and
a small ono can by ploying the Knavo second hand, when a small
one is led, ask for trumps, but it will not be a signal to his partner
unless his partner himself holds tho Queen, or can infer that it
is in the hands of either adversary. And this, accordiag to my
experience, is the view adopted in play by Cavendish aue"paid by the Pnb-
blishcra for copies of Nos. 2, 3, and 6. Apply or address; Wynian i .Songfti,
Great Queen Street, London, W.C.
OFFICE: 74 & 75, GUEAT QUEEN STREET, LONDON, W.C.
March 17, 1882.]
• KNOWLEDGE ♦
417
V AN ILLiL&IRATED ^^' /^
MAG^ZlNEo?SC;iENCE^ I
PLAINLrVfORDED -EXACTlVDESCRIBED \
LONDON.- FRIDAY, MARCH 17, 1882.
Contents of No. 20.
Ou the Conscrration of Solar Euergj-.
Bv Dr. \V. B. Carpralcr '... -417
Xoles on Koiving. By an Old Club
Captain ; 418
Future of tho Earth and Moon. By
Dr. Ball, Astronomer-Royal for
Ireland. Part III 420
Illusions of Motion and Strobic
Circles. By Thomas Foster.
mimtrattil) 121
Sewconib's Popular .^stronorav 423
The Crystal Palace Elcctrieal feihj.
bili.iii. Sixth Notice. (Illiisl.) ... 12.5
Brain Troubles. The Echo Sign ... 427
Easv LcHsons in Blovrpipe Chomislrr.
BV Lieut .-Colonel W. A. Ross,
late K.A. (IllH,tru/„l) -laS
•,* Our Exchange and Sixpenny Sale
advertising col
The l%e of the Tricvcle. Bv Dr. B.
W. Kiohardson, P.R.S
Change of Habit in .Animals
The "Sound" of Fishes
Electro-Magnetic Theory of Light...
Our Ancestors
CoBRESPONDKKCE ; — Vegetariiint*m
— Plants in Bedrooms — Tele-
scopes—The Potato, 4c 431
Special Notice
Queries
Replies to Queries
Answers to Correspondents
Notes on Art and Science
I Our Mathematical Column
Our Whist Column
1 Our Chess Column
Columns appear on Page IV.— in our
imns this week.
ON THE CONSERVATIOX OF 80LAR
ENERGY.
By Dh. W. B. Carpenter.
rpHE met^ting of the Royal Society on Jlarch l-'iicl was
.L rendered unusually interesting, tirist, by the admission
of H. R H. the Prince of Wales, as a Fellow of the Society ;
second, by a communication given by Prof. Huxley on the
fungous origin of the " Salmon Disease," which is destroying
large numbers of fish in the rivers of the South of Scotland
and the North of England, from the Tay to the Conway ;
and last, but by no means least, by the exposition given by
Dr. Siemens of an " idea " regarding the mode of main-
tenance of the Solar energy, which he lias been for some
time maturing, and has at last determined to submit to the
criticism of the scientific world. Of this most ingenious
and suggestive speculation, the following sketch will, I
hope, prove as interesting to the readers of Knowledge,
as Dr. Siemens's own admirable and more detailed statement
of it was to the members of the large scientific gathering
to which it was addressed.
In the first place, he reminded us of the enormous
amount of heat which is constantly radiating from the Sun
into space ; thi.s, according to the best measurements that
have been made, being such as would be maintained for
only thirty-six hours by the complete combustion (as in
the most perfectly-constructed furnace) of a mass of the
best coal equal to the Earth in bulk. Now, if the sun were
surrounded by a solid sphere of a radius equal to the mean
distance of the earth, the whole of this heat would be inter-
cepted by it ; but since the diameter of the earth, as seen
from the sun, is only seventeen seconds, so that its surface
is only 1-2, ■250,000,000th part of the whole area of such a
sphere, only that proportion of the entire heat radiated
from the sun will fall upon the earth. Supposing the
aggregate of all the Planetary bodies to intercept ten times
as much as the earth, the total amount of solar heat thus
utilised will be only one part in 225,000,000 of the total
radiated from tlie sun ; the other 224,1199,999 parts to all
appearance going to waste — in other words, doing no work.
Now the mode in which this enormous supply is kept
up has been in all ages a question of great interest ; but
only in modern times could any scientific solution of it be
even attempted. Of course, Chemical action would be the
first source tliat would occur to almost every one — radia-
tion of heat from a fire being the nearest thing within our
cxpirience to the heating effect of the solar beams. But,
putting aside other diliicultics arLsing out of the revela-
tions of the spectroscope, the ordinary chemical hypothesis
is met by the objection, that the accumulation of the pro-
ducts of combustion on the surface of the sun would in
time form a barrier against further action. And, sup-
posing this barrier disposed of, it is obvious that the
nuiintenance of this combustion must bo attended with a
continual ii-asting-airaii of the sun, at a rate which would
make itself perceptible in the disturbant e of planetiiry equili-
brium, wlien the loss is estimated for long pt-riods of time.
An opposite idea was suggcstid some years ago by Sir
William Thomson : that of a continual rain of Meteorites
upon the sun — the velocity they would acquire from its
attraction causing them to impinge upon its surface with
such force, as to generate a large amount of heat when their
motion is checked. But hert^ we are met Viy two diffi-
culties : first, that of conceiving of any supply of meteorites
that would be competent thus to keep up the amount of
heat which we know to be always radiating from the sun ;
and secondly, the progressive increase in the bulk of tlie
sun that would be produced by any ad(;quate supply, dis-
turbing the planetary equilibrium in the contrary sense to
the preceding.
It has been supposed by llelmholtz, and accepted by
many physicists on his authority, that tht; radiant energy
of the sun is the result of a progressive sliriuktujc of his
bulk and condensation of his substance. But tlie giving-
out from his surface of the heat thus generated in his
interior, could only be accomplished through some medium
of much gi-eater conductivity than is possessed by any
material known to us ; and on this process, again, a limit is
oliviously imposed, since a time would come when (as seems
now the case with the Moon, and nearly so with the Earth,
Venus, and Mars) the limit of consolidation would be
reached.
Dr. Siemens, as every one knows, is the inventor of
the regenerative furnace now coining into general use ; in
which a large proportion of the heat that ordinarily goes
up the furnace-chimney, and runs to waste, is recovered
from the products of combustion, carried back into the
furnace, and made to do its proper work - thus obtaining
an enormous advantage in economy of fuel. IMentally
projecting this terrestrial experience into the realms of
space, he was led to the conviction " that the prodigious and
seemingly wanton dissipation of solar heat is unnecessary
to satisfy accepted principles regarding the conservation of
energy ; but that it may be arrested and returned over
and over again to the sun, in a manner somewhat
analogous to the action of the hea1>recuperator in the
regenerative gas-furnace." The fundamental conditions of
his hypothesis are three.
I. Everyone who has followed the recent progress of
Celestial Physics, is aware of the increasing reasons which
there are for regarding not only planetary, but stellar
space as occupied by matter in a very attenuated condition ;
and Dr. Siemens starts with the assumption that this matter
chiefly consists of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and
their compounds (especially aqueous vapour and carbonic
acid), besides solid material in the form of dust. The
existence of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon he considers
to be indicated by the presence of those elements in our
own atmosphere, to which (according to the molecular theory
of gases) no such limit as was formerly assigned to it can
now be admitted. We get a clue to the gaseous components
•IS
♦ KNOWLEDGE ♦
[Maboh 17, 1882.
>f what may bo called tho " atraosphcro of spacn," from
Analysis of tlic gnsrs loi-kodup in froshlyfalloii mot<'orites,
which sonictiinrs " oicliidt" kIx times their own hulk. A
recent aniilysis l>y Dr. Klij^ht guve nearly 4C per cent of
tho Uiia\ as consistinj; of hydrogen, .''."J pr>r cent, of carbonic
oxide, and IH per cent of nitrogen ; and it soenis clear
that the liyclrogea and carbonic oxide could not have been
absorbed during tho pas.sagc of the niet<'orite througii our own
atmosphere, but must have betm lirought in from the out-
side. Further proof that .stellar s]iace is lilled with gaseous
matter is furnished by spectrum analysis ; and the recent
invojitigutions of Dr. II\iggins and others into the compo-
sition of the last groat Comet showed it to contain very
much the same gases with tho.se contained in meteorites.
II. It was long since shown by Sir William Grove
that water can be decomposed — or, in modern chemical
language, that oxygon and hydrogen can be "dissociated"
— by heat alone ; and wo know that the dissociation
of tho oxygen and carbon in carbonic acid, is effected
\>y light, acting through certain vegetable substances.
Now, according to the law of dissociation developed
by Bunson and Saint Claire Deville, the point of dis-
sociation of dill'erent compounds depends upon tempera-
ture on tlie one hand and pressure on the other ; so that it
is quite conceivable that when aqueous vapour is reduced
to extreme tenuity, its dissociation may be effected by solar
radiation at a coniimratively low temperature. Some years
ago Dr. Siemens tried some experiments on this point,
the results of which were (so far as they went) con-
tirmatory of this view. And his recent well-known ex-
periments on the growth of plants under the electric light
have satisfied liim that, provided the source of the light
give it off in sufficient inti'iisih/, the quantil)/ required is
very small. And he is thus led to suggest that all the
i-adiant energy which is seemingly running to waste, is
really doing work in dissociating the aqueous vapour and
I'arbonic acid of the " sjiace atmosphere," the carbon being
thus made ready to unite with the nascent hydrogen into
combustible hydrocarbons.
III. The third basis of Dr. Siemens's doctrine is the
effect that will be produced by the rotation of the Sun
around its axis, on the distribution of gases and vapours in
its atmosphere. The tangential velocity of the sun at its
equator being nearly four times that of our earth, an ex-
tension of the solar atmosphere must take place in the
equatorial plane, to which (revi\ ing an old hypothesis, and
explaining away the objection raised to it by Laplace) Dr.
Siemens attributes the "zodiacal light." Pressures being
balanced all round, Dr. Siemens shows that the sun would
be continually di-awing hydrogen, hydrocarbons, and oxygen
from the " space atmosphere " towards its polar surfaces,
and be continually projecting outwards the products of
their reunion, from the equatorial extension of its own
atmosphere. During their gradual approach, they will pass
from their condition of extreme attenuation and extreme
cold to that of compression, accompanied with rise of tem-
perature ; until, on approaching the photosphere, they
liurst into flame, giving rise to a great development of heat,
and themseUes acquiring a temperature proportionate to the
pressure they are sustaining. The result of their com-
Im.stion will be aqueous vapour and carbonic oxide or
lyirbonic acid, according to the sufficiency or insufficiency
of tlie oxygen present to complete the combustion : and
these products of combustion, yielding to the influence of
. entrifugal force, will flow towards the solar equator, and
he thence projected into space.
In this manner a continual interchange of matter will be
taking place between the sun and its " environment ;" and as
the Sun is constantly and rapidly moving through space, it
will be continually traversing now portions of the "space-
atmosphere," wliich, it is conceivable, may be so differently
charged with the supplies of material, as to be more or less
potent in maintaining tlie solar energy.
Such is a general outline of Dr. Siemens's most ingenious
spectdation, which, whatever may be its ultiniatf- issue,
must bo accounted one of the highe.'.t and most brilliant
flights that the " .scientilic imagination ' has ever made.
Such as desire a more detailed exposition of it — especially
as to tho changes which Dr. Siemens supposes to be always
taking place on the surface of the sun itself — will find it in
his papiT, which will speedily appear in the " Proceedings
of the Royal Society." Its publication will douV)tless give
rise to mucli discussion : and, whatever may be tho ultimate
fate of the doctrine as a physical theory, there can be no
doubt that in the new direction which it will give to
investigation, its promulgation will contribute in no small
measure to tho advance of science.
NOTES ON ROWING.
By .\n Old Club Captain.
LET us, in the first place, consider the conditions under
which an ordinary lap-streaked inrigged (or half out-
rigged) boat should be rowed in order to get the best
racing speed for a boat of that sort. I, of course, ossurue
the rower to have mastered all the initial difficulties of his
art, so as to be able to give his attention to tho question of
style. Well, in the first place we find that for racing
purposes the great object is to adopt a style by which we
may niaiiilaiii, as far as possible, the velocity which can be
readily enough communicated by a great short-lasting effort,
and to do this with as little o^erwork as possible. Racing
necessarily involves overwork, for no one who meant to
row for two or three hours, or even for a single hour,
would adojjt a racing stroke, even for tivt? minutes of the
time. But tho overwork in a race has to last over a good
many minutes, and must be so distributed as to be most
effective. The rower has, therefore, in racing to avoid,
above all things, whatever would invohe waste of power ;
and he very quickly finds that the most mischievous waste
of power results if he suffer the extra speed communicated
by his efforts to be lost more than of necessity it mtut be
lost between the strokes. In other words, a given average
of velocity is obtained with greater or less expenditure of
force, according as the necessarily varying velocity of the
lioat ranges more or less above and below that average.
Or we may put the matter this way (it is not without a
purpose that we put it in both ways) : The more uniform
the velocity, the less the total expenditure of power to
attain a given average rate of speed.
When we say that a rower soon finds this out, we mean
that if he is attentive and apt he does so. As a matter of
tact, the most successful oarsmen (in races) are those who,
whether they know it or not, have practically found this
out, and the rules for a good rowing style are based — as
will presently appear — on this important principle. But
we know that, apart froui training and example, numbers
of stout oarsmen would never attain a good rowing style,
or at any rate a good racing style. So that we might
probably have said more truly that nine-tenths of our
rowing men would not of themsehos discover this law,
which comes out very gradually in rowing practice, even
to till' acuter rower, and is theoretically only to bo
established by somewhat difficult reasoning, based on
recondite jirinciples, partly dynamical, partly physical,
and partly physiological.
March 17, 1882.J
• KNOWLEDGE
419
But now notice how in the rules for rowing in the old-
fashioned racing boats this principle shows itself.
Oarsmen were told in those days, and very soundly, to
row in the following way : — A good reach forward was to
be taken, and tlic water cauglit squarely Ijy tlie oar, not by
a pulling action of tlie arms, but by the action of the body
and legs ; the arms were to remain perfectly straight, acting
only as " stretchers " until the body was a little past the
perpendicular ; then the stroke was to be finished by the
conil>ined action of the arms, body, and legs — the body
slanting back, tlie hands drawn well in to the chest. The
" recovery" followed, the body being thrown rapidly forward
from the hips, the arms being at the same time extended,
so that, the liandle of the oar being thrust forward by both
motions simultaneously, the blade passed with exceeding
rapidity to the proper position for beginning the ne.\t
stroke.
If we consider the dynamical eflects of this action, we
shall see how admirably suited they were to produce a
motion as uniform as possible in the racing boats of those
days. (Such directions are gi\en in " Principles of Rowing
by Oarsmen," somewhere about 18-10, by Bob Coombes,
who became champion in 1816, and by other excellent
authorities of that time.) First, the strength was applied
with gradually increasing effect from tlie beginning to the
end of the stroke, so that there was no undue strain in
increasing the motion of the boat from the velocity to
which it had fallen during the '" recovery " to its maxi-
mum just before the "feather."' Then the work was care-
fully distributed between arms, legs, and body, the body
and legs doing the work first, then tlie arms joining them
to give that extra lift at the finish which was meant
to counteract as much as possible the tendency to lag
between the strokes, — so marked a characteristic of the
old-fashioned racing boat. Lastly, that this tendency
might have as little chance as possible to give the oarsmen
extra or waste work, there was a very rapid recovery, so
that the next stroke might begin under as favourable
conditions as possible.
All these rules are admirable for the heavier class of
boats, or for tliosc which in old times were called racing
boats. They served to obviate what, from our present
point of view, may be called the great defects of those
lix)ats, their breadth of beam, and the (relative) clumsiness
of their structure.
These rules were carefully enjoined at both the Uni-
versities ; but they were more perfectly carried out at
Cambridge than at Oxford. The sway back of the Cam-
bridge crews and their rapid " recovery, " were things to be
marvelled at in some of the great races which preceded
the introduction of light, outrigged racing boats. And
those who adopted this system had their reward. Of six
races rowed on the Thames in the old-fashioned craft,
Cambridge won five. Not only did they win as a rule, but
they often won in that hollow fashion which means that
superior style has won the race, and not mere superiority
of strength, or even of pluck (in both which. University
crews are likely to be pretty evenly matched.) Cambridge
won by a full minute in 1836, by a minute and three-
quarters in 1839, by more than a minute in 1841, by half
a minute in 1815, the last race rowed in the old-fashioned
inrigged boats.
From 1846 to 1856 the University race was rowed in
lioftts which had a sort of intermediate position between the
heavy lap-streaked inrigged boat and the present light keel-
less outrigged craft. We should consider the boats used
during those ten years quite unsuitable for racing purposes
in our time. The old style of rowing suited them well
enough — perhaps as well as the modern style : a style
between the two would probably have suited them better
than either. In the seven races between Oxford and Cam-
bridge rowed in these earlier specimens of the outrigged
racing boat, success was pretty equally divided between
Oxford and Cambridge — counting one race won by Oxford
on a foul as a real win (which it certainly would have
been, Oxford showing the better speed), each University
won three. But the Oxford wins were better, especially
in the latter years. Cambridge won bv two lengths in
184G, by four in 1849, by half-a-length in 1856 (when
Cambridge liad an exceptionally powerful crew). Oxford
won by eight lengths* in 1852, bj- about five in 1854, and
would probably have won the race of 1849 by many
lengths, apart from the foul. However, si.x years are not
enough to judge by.
So soon, however, as we turn to the races rowed since
the introduction of the modern racing-boat in its present
form (except as to sliding-seats), we find the University
which had been almost always successful in long races with
the heavy craft, and which had seemed able, very fairly, to
hold its own in the keeled outiiggers, beaten, not only in
the great majority of races, but also by much the greater
distances. Let us consider the twenty-five races which
have been rowed between Oxford and Cambridge since
1857:—
Of these twenty-five races, fifteen have been won by
Oxford, nine by Cambridge, and one was a dead heat If
we count the race of 1859 as one which Cambridge would
have won had not the Cambridge boat been half full of
water at starting, we niaj' put fourteen races to Oxford and
ten to Cambridge ; but then, in fairness, the dead heat of
1877 should be counted as an Oxford win.t The mishap
to Thorley's outrigger in the Oxford boat in 1858 may lie
regarded as fairly matched by the accident to Dick's
stretcher in the Cambridge boat in 1875. This dispro-
portion is too great to be probably due to mere cliance.
But when we examine the circumstances under which the
various races were lost and won, we find the existence of a
determining cause still more clearly indicated. Take for
this purpose the following table, in which, to eliminate as
much as possible the effect of mere chance, all the races
since the introduction of outrigged craft are considered : —
Oxford won Cambridge won
In 1846 by 2 lengilis
1849 5
In 1852 by 8 lengths
1S54 5
1857
11
1861
It
1862
8
1863
13
1864
0
1865
4
1866
4
1867
186.S
I
1869
3
1873
10
1878
10
1880
3
1881
3
1856 i
1858 7
1860 1
1870 li
1871 1
1872 2
1873 3
1874 2>
187G 8
1870 24
107 lcr{,'llii.. Total
36 lengths.
Average per race ... 7-fTj lengths. Average per race... 3 lengths
* The number of lengths corresponding to any given number of
seconds by which the race was won, may be obtained by regarding
6J lengtlm as equivalent to as many seconds as the race itself lasted
minutes.
t The reader will underetand that we are only regarding either
race as .afferting our opinion of Oxford and Cambridge style. The
race of 18");) was unquestionably an Oxford win, though every one
who knows the circumstances is aware that Cambridge never had a
chance from the beginning; and, in like manner, the race heat of
1877 must be regarded as a dead heat, though it is certain Oxford
would liavo won but for an accident.
420
• KNOWLEDGE •
[Maiicu 17, Ifct:;.
Add to this tlic coiisidnrntion that aftor Oxford hod won
njiio successive races, from ISOl to M*C>0 iiiclusivo, one of
tl>o best oarsmen Oxford has over produced, Mr. CSnorgo
Morrison, ;{ave nnich time nnd care to couchinfj tho Cam-
bridge crew into a bett<'r style tlmn tlii'V Iiad before
followed, so that there is ;;oiid reason for l)plicvin',' that
in some of the races which followed (from 1870 to 1H73,
p«?rhaps) tho inlluenct- of Oxford training was at work in
the Caniliridfjo crews.
These points considered suggest a strong probability
tliat there has been a radical difference for matiy years
between the Cambridge and tlie Oxford style, the latter being
the better. As it is well known that for many years since
the old-fashioned racing-boats went out of use, the olil-
fiushioned principles of rowing have been in vogue at Cain-
bridge, we miglit fairly assume, apart from all dynamical
evidence, that thi- old-fashioned stroke does not suit racing-
lioats of the present fashion.
Let us see what theory suggests as likely to be the best
kind of stroke (for racing purposes) in these light boats,
and then let us intpiirc what evidence we have to show
that such a stroke really is rowed by the most successful
crews.
(To be coiilinned.)
FUTURE OF THE ICAUTU AND MOON.
By Dr. Hall, AsTuoxoMEii-PtOYAL for Ireland.
IT^VERYONE knows that the moon always turas the
\i same face towards the earth ; this has been shown to
be a consequence of the tides which were anciently raised
in the moon. The tides in the moon were produced by the
attraction of the earth, just as the tides on the earth arc
produced by the attraction of the moon. There is, how-
ever, an important diHerence ; the earth is so much heavier
than the moon, that the tides which the earth raised on the
moon must have been much greater than the tides which
the moon can raise on the earth. It matters not that the
moon now contains no li([uid ocean. All that is necessary
is that the moon shall once have been soft enough to admit
of being distorted by tidal inllucnce. It must be remem-
bered that it is not the mere presence of a high tide or a low-
tide that does the work. It is the rising and falling of the
tide which produces the currents, and it is the tidal currents
whicli do the work. The mighty tides which once acted on
the moon have long si:ice ceased, but they have forced the
moon always to turn the same face to the earth, as this is
the only attitude in which tides do no work on the moon.
In the distant future the small mass of the moon will
.achieve the sitmc result on the earth. At the final stage
the earth and moon will move as if they were fixed rigidly
together by movable bars, and were revolving around their
common centre of gravity in 1,400 hours.
If the earth and the moon could be isolated from all
external interference, there is no reason why this state of
things should not continue indefinitely, but there is another
disturbing cause with which we must reckon. We have
seen tli.it it was probably the sun which originally broke
off the moon as a fragment from the earth. It seems, also,
that the sun is destined to derange the harmonious compact
in which the earth and the moon would have otherwise
agreed. Once the 1,400 hour day and the 1,400 hour
month have been reached, the earth will no longer be affected
by tides ])roduced by the moon. No doubt there will be a
liigh tide on the earth and there will lie a low tide, but as
the earth will then always regard the mooii with the same
aspect, thego tides will not rise or fall, they will noteViband
flow. There can then be no lunar tidal currents, and the
tide.t will always remain at the same height at each point
on our coasts. The sun, however, will still continue to
produce tides on the earth. These tiiles will no doubt V
small, us the solar tides are small at present ; they will also
ris(! and fall with extreme slowness. At present one high
tide follows another in a little over six hours. At the
final stage one solar high tide will follow another solar high
tide only after an interval of about five weeks. These tides
are small, and the currents they produce are very wt^ak,
but by incessant perseverance even these small tides cannot
fail of producing an appreciable effect. The solar tidal
currents act always in one direction, they always ten lind our author on his guard again-st miKtakes.
Tharadox of
Jellinger Symons (earlier jiropounded by Beitley), that
one cannot but wonder how he failed to notice the mistake
which underlies his reasoning.
The account of the llarton Colliery expriment for
determining the mass of the earth is incorret, and the
princij)les on which tJie experiment depends a-e not pro-
perly stated. Professor Newcomb says that if lie density
of the earth increases as we approach the <-ntre, the
diminution of the force of gravity will be less rf)id as we
descend. But in reality the actual increase )f density
towards the earth's centre causes gravity to incrase as the
depth I lelow the surface increases. This increase continues
to a depth hundreds of times greater than can b reached
by man. Our author goes on to say that " a detfmination
of the density of the earth by the diminution of jravity in
a mine was made by Professor Airy at the Harto Colliery
in 18.t5." But in this experiment Airy fourl gravity-
greater at the bottom of the mine than at the toj Owing
to this increase in the force of gravity, the periulum at
a depth of 1,260 ft. gained 2| seconds per da; as com-
pared with its indications at the mouth of the nine. It
is, by the way, worth noticing, though so far aswe know
the point is not mentioned in any of our tratises on
astronomy, that even if the density of the erth were
uniform, gravity at the bottom of a deep openinpvould be
greater or less than at the surface, according tcthe sliape
of the opening. It can be shown that if the earn were at
uniform density, the action of gravity on a bdy at the
bottom of an opening would be equal to the ittraction
which a mass equal in all respects to the remoed matter
would exert on that body (only this attractio must be
regarded as acting towards the earth's centre), ided to the
attraction due to the body's distance fronj le centre.
The latter portion is less than gravity at theurface, in
just the same degree that the distance of th^iody from
the earth's centre is less than the earth's radis ; but the
* Some one in America, criticising the a.stronomic articles in
the "American Cyc!opa;tlia" (Applcton), which wcrcovised, and
in {;rcat pai-t re-written, by me, was kind cnoiigli to jut ont that
my cxjilaiiation of the precession of the equinoxes waiot new. It
was not mine, but was left by nic almost untonch, being well
written, and correct. I left, for a like reason, the itter relating:
to ]>recossion in the " KncycIopa;dia Britannicn " alrst untouched
when the article on astronomy was entrusted to » for revision
and rc-writing. Possibly, if I had endeavoured to :d an entirely
new explanation, 1 might, like Professor Xewcomb, Vc come upon
one which, tliough new, was not true. At any rate, icre so skilful
a mathematician went astray, none need be ashned to err. 1
believe that in a later edition of Professor Newcib's book, the
errors jiointed out above, and in my earlier revv in the Coh-
lempnyartj, have been corrcded. Tlicy wore, at an;ate, corrected
in American journals. Professor Xewcomb is one ithosc who are
strong enough to be able and willing frankly to aJit and correct
such niistakos as all active thinkers are bound to iko from time
to time. — Ed.]
ilAEcn 17, 1882.]
♦ KNOWLEDGE -
425
other portion may more than make up for the tletieiency,
if the opening is wide enough. The mine method of deter-
mining the earth's mean density is, in any case, suKject to
great uncertainty ; and few astronomers now attacli much
weight to the result iews when he
finds that there is strong evidence in their favour. Here
and there, as where he ascribes the darkness of certain
zones of Satu:-n's rings rather to the blackness of their
component satellites than to sparseness of distribution, we
are unalile to agree with him. But it is refreshing to find
an official astronomer, and especially one in Newcomb's
high position, prepared to analyse and weigh evidence,
instead of merely recording what has been observed. In
fine, though we have thought it our duty to point out some
errors w-hich might mislead the general reader, we can
cordially recommend Professor Newcomb's " Popular As-
tronomy " as the finest general treatise on the subject since
Sir J. Herschel published his celebrated " Outlines of
Astronomy."
THE CRYSTAL PALACE ELECTRICAL
EXHIBITION.
Sixth Nctice.
"TTTE commence this week a description of the various
Vt systems of incandescent lighting now being ex-
hibited at the Crystal Palace. Before describing the
difl'erent lamps, a word or two on their general principles
may not be out of place. In. the first instance, we must
understand that a current of electricity, in passing through
a substance, tends to heat it in exact proportion to
the difiiculty experienced by the current in so passing,
just as a flow of water in traversing a pipe brings
about a greater or less exaltation of temperature.
This arises from a never-failing law that, where motive
power or force is hindered or opposed, that force
is converted into another force which wo know as
heat. Theoretically, no substance allows electricity to
pass through it unimpeded, any more than water can pass
through a pipe without having more or less friction to
overcome. In practice, we allow a pipe large enough to
carry the water, without having to resort to any undue
pressure ; so also in sending an electric current from place
to place, we provide a good conductor of electricity for the
purpose. Furthermore, suppose, in the case of the water-
flow, that the pipe is not uniformly wide or smooth, or
that here and there quantities of sand, A-c, have accunm-
lated, then at these particular places the flow will
be impeded, and heat produced, while the general
rate of progress can only be maintained by applying
extra force to push the water forward. Could we
measure the heat produced, we should find that it
just equals the extra force necessitated by the oppo-
sition. This has also its analogy in electricity. Let
our large smooth pipe be represented by the good con-
ductor of comparatively thick copper wire, and let the
obstacle in the pipe ha\e its counterpart in the electrical
circuit V)y inserting a very thin piece of conducting sub-
42G
* KNOWLEDGE
[March 17, 18fc:
stance, Ruch as finn platinum wire, then, on passing the
current, heut is producinl in the thin conductor, because of
the o]>positioii or r'ulnlmicr its thinness j)rcsctits to thf
current Tiiis liciit ncciimuliiti's, so to spcuk, with the
current, and, idtiiiiat^'ly, the tliin conductor (?iiiits n pure
whit«' lif;ht. Our renders must please understand that
liglit is l>ut the manifestation of a considerable exaltation
of t»'m]i('raturp.
We have mentioned platinum as the thin conductor ; the
reason for this is that nil metals, A-c, even when of the
same size, do not conduct with the same readiness or
facility, copper V)einf; about the best, and platinum the
poorest of metals. It then follows that a thin platinum
wire (resembling the small pifie with sand in it) will offer
more resistance than a copper wire of the same gauge, and,
accordingly, will get hotter, and so give out more light.
Even, however, if the copper were equal in its resistance,
its physical features would, in this instance, preclude its
use. It would, in fact, melt, or even volatilise.
Such was the lirst form of incandescent lighting. It
did not, however, prove very satisfactory. Bodies offer-
ing more resistance than jilatinum were required, and it
is only natural that carbon in some form or another should
be re.sorted ty adding, mentally, after each set of six chords, a series
of others, as follows* : — ■
-mbi-endo, ^
Sli^SiS.
-^
"¥3-
• It is probably not necessary for the writer to explain to
mnsicians that he knows nothing whatever of harmony. Perliaps
the above arrangements of chords is full of mistakes, eo far as the
laws of harmony are concerned, but it represents exactly, first, the
chords which trcnbled the writer, and secondly, those which he
I added to put the former ont of his head.
He noticed that the interval before the paired chords began
to be mentally heard again, gradually increased, after the
above plan had been followed, until the intervals of silence
became so long that the mind could, as it were, forget that
it was troubled by these haunting notes.
The " echo " or repetition sign, as we have said, is com-
monly indicative of serious cerebral mischief. Dr. Winslow
was of opinion that it arose, to some extent, from that
sluggish and abstracted state of thought, amounting to
reverie, which is so often seen in cases of long-existing and
sometimes undetected affections of the brain. ''The mind
seems incapable," he says, " of apprehending, under these
circumstances, the most simple questions, and, parrot-like,
repeats them. I have noticed this symptom in other con-
ditions of depressed vital and nervous power, but it more
particularly accompanies softening of some portion of the
brain." It can scarcely V)e doubted that the monotonous
mental repetition of words or sounds is indicative of mental
trouble ; yet not necessarily or proliably of any really serious
mischief. Rest or change of occupation will in general prove
a sufficient remedy. If not, it is time to seek for advice,
though rather from a sensible general practitioner (pre-
ferably a family doctor) than from those who have directed
special attention to cerebral diseases ; for the latter are
apt to alarm patients by stiggesting the possibility, or even
the probability, of approaching mental derangement.
As an illustration at once of the morbid phenomena of
speech, and of the tendency among certain students of mental
disease to exaggerate the significance of such phenomena, we
may take the following passage from Dr. Forbes Winslow's
book : — " It will not be out of place," he says, ''to direct
attention to a precursory symptom, not only of approaching
paralysis, but of insanity. I allude to the practice of many
patients suffering from incipient brain and mind disease,
of talking aloud when alone. A distinguished physician
observed this .symptom to precede an attack of paralysis,
in the case of a nobleman who for many years was Prime
Minister of this country. In many cases of irritation of
the brain, as well as of structural disease, the patient is
observed to talk to himself, and the commencement of
insanity is often detected by this symptom " True, Dr.
Winslow goes on to say that this eccentric habit is con-
sistent with a perfect state of health of body and mind ;
but these few words suggesting comfort to those who
occasionally talk to themselves, are likely to be overlooked
in a long passage indicating this common habit as one of
the signs of approaching insanity.
Science ano Religion. — The coiTuption of philosophy, by the
mixing of it up with theology, is of wide extent, and is most
injm-ious to it, both as a whole and iu parts This folly
is the more to be prevented and restrained, because not only
fantastical philosophy, but heretical religion spring from the
absurd mixture of matters divine and human. It is wise, therefore,
to render unto faith the things that are faith's.— Bacon's " Novum
Organum."
EvEsicnT OF Dogs. — Kindly allow me to add my testimony to
that of " G. S. S.," under above heading in your issue of March 3.
Having been present at many sheep-dog trials in Merionethshire.
Montgomeryshire, and Cardiganshire, I am able to assert that sheep-
dogs at least have better sight than the average man. I have seen
these remarkable dogs, notably at Machynlleth Park, when the
signal has been given, run straight to where two sheep had been
let loose about half a mile distant, up a hill, covered in places with
gorse. Oftentimes the sheep have been out of sight to the spec-
tators when they have been seen by the sheep-dogs, and brought to
the bottom of the hill. My experience of dogs leads me to the
belief that they are anything but near-sighted. When in the Isle
of Wight, I had in my possession a large retriever bitch, that would
see me coming along the Whippingham-road long before I was able
to recognise the animal. — Veritas.
428
KNOWLEDGE
[March 17, 1882.
EASY LESSONS IN BLOWPIPE CHEMISTRY.
Bv LiKiT..Coi.oNt:L W. A. l{l)^.H, i.atk U.A.
LtMox IV.— OOKD, SILVKR, 1R0.\, AM) MANGANESE—
SILICA TIX-MAf;XETKAI, TUEKS.
THE imrplf niirifcroiiH, or f;<>l<-&riiiK IhmkI, if now kept Ntoiulily
for Home tinir in IIP, hIidwh. through n Imm, niinuU' ii|innt.'li'8
of (folil iit'iiin, mill tlipno rc-nrtionH ran Iw n'|M>ntriI by n (fo liavr
V iioid doinK BH what no otlicr known ocid in clioniislrj- is capable
of doinp— dissolving pure gold. We tlien liavo this diasolvod gold
canned by the blowpipe to exist in three stales of oxidation in its
bead : (ri) ns a tmnsparont, colourless, solution, after n long PI' (a
pyroxide which, as wo shall see afterwards, can also bo obtained by
trontment on aluniinium plate) ; (b) ns a purple solution, after a
half-inch PP ; and (r) as a brownish-" muddy " solution (blue by
transniitied light), after OP. Yet wc find it stated in standard
works on chemistry Jind metallurgy, that gold is incapable of pvro-
logicnl oxidation ! Let ns now trj- in our bead that other desirable
metal, ylrrr. If you 8cra|>c, with n penknife, the rim of a sixpence
or shilling over n gteet of paper, you get a few specks of silver,
nioru tltun sufficient for our purpose; and, perhaps,' her Majesty's
Mint will not consider it worth their while to prosecute me for
rccuni....nding such an illegal process in the pursuit, or rather
sssistsnce, of Knowi.kdoe. These specks are taken up at bottom of
the hot P. acid bead, precisely as the piece of gold leaf was ; but a very
diilorent result is the con8oeck of cobalt oxide in my P acid bead, which makes it pink. 1
then treat in it the finely.jiowderoil mineral, whir'h I suspect con-
tains nilicn, and, perhaps, an alkali, as s'lda or potash. 'Tlie silica
remains undissolved; the alkali diHsolving, turns the pink bead
blue ; alumina in considerable quantity dissolving in absence of
alkali, turns the Ixwl mauve colour. Two great lilowpiiie-chemiitj
or Pyrologista — Ber/elius (a .Swede) and Plattner (a German) —
used the substance called " microcosmic salt," which is practically
a phosphate of Sfxlinm, in this way, but the soda of this bead so
rapidly dissolves silica as to make its non-solution scarcely any test
at all. The whole thing depends npowcrfiil
blast with my blowpipe.
Natural oxide of tin(Cs. too large,
but not so when practically tested)
enable the operator, by holding the
very tip of a straight platinum wire,
held firmly between them from below
at the part marked '25, and gently
turning the pliers round with his right
hand towards his left, which holds the
wire, to make a good round ring "25
or quarter of an inch in diameter,
such as that figured in Lesson II. The
Arire is straightened and cleaned (as
explained in Lesson II.) by squeezing
and dra\ving it gently tluxiogh the
broad, fiat part of the legs at A. and
I this process is mnch more effectual
I than that generally recommendcnictice had set him at liberty from
Bad to foot with such effect that in walking and riding — for he
ivariably walked up steep hills, pushing the machine before him —
h coald average his five to six miles an hour for five or six hours
^d«y, and think nothing of tlie task.
[It would seem, at first sight, that men who are fat and cumbrous
IBnot quite the persons to mount the tricycle ; but, if such men are
i fair health, they are, after a little careful and judicious training,
1 oefited by it more than any others. It constantly happens
lat men of this build, while they leel the need for exercise more
I an the sligliter-built sort, are unable to take a proper amount of
" ercise, because of the great weariness which they experience soon
! ter they have walked even a short distance. The natural result
' this easy sense of fatigue is that exercise is given up almost
■ together in a great number of cases, while in other cases it is a
lere pretence ; so that practically a habit is developed which pro-
lotcs an objection to exercise, and a steady increase of all the
uigers which follow upon prolongetl muscular inactivity. In this
»te, they who are ijfected are apt to follow one of two courses,
oth of which are bad. They either settle completely down to
ipose, and attain a form of clironic feebleness, which requires to
a provided against by avoicbng every, kind of lively effort ; or,
iking sudden alarm it some sensation they have experienced, or
)me observation they have listened to, they rush into forms of
iolent exercise, such as climbing mountains, or volunteering, or
>aldng forced walks, or such-like efforts. I believe I have seen
more mischief induced in the class of persons whom I am now de-
scribing, by their attempts to get into condition through the means
of excessive exercise and physical strain, than in any other class.
They who court this mode of recovery from their helplessness are
of all less fitted to bear sudden strain. In them the muscles are
feeble and out of play; in them the muscles, including that most
important of all the muscles, the heart, are overloaded with fat; in
them the blood-vessels aie often weakened, and have lost their
natural resilience, if they have not undergone actual change of
structure; and in them the breathing organs are in such bad form
for extra work, f hat breathlessness is produced by very little extra
exertion. They are, in short, unfit for walking, and they are equally
nntit for those extremer measures which arc commonly designated
as training, or as athletic exercises. To this class of persons, then,
if they are not subject to actual disease, organic affection of the
heart, the lungs, or the brain, the exercise that may bo got from
the tricycle is exceedingly useful.
The exercise sought in this manner should not be violent; it
should not include attempts to go against ttmo ; it should not
include attempts to climb steep hills or to run down .steep hills at a
rattling pace ; but it should be taken for some time on level ground,
it should be carried on to a point just short of fatigue, and it should
be increased little by little each day, until the labour of working
accommodates itself to easy habit.
•From "Tricycling in Relation to Health," bv Dr. Richardson,
I Good Words for M*rch.
CHANGE OF HABIT IN ANIMALS.
A S an instance of change of habit in animals, as noticed in your
j\. issue of the 3rd inst., with regard to the carnivorous parrot,
I may mention that within the last five or six years the baboons of
a certain region in the colony of the Cape of Good Hope have
developed a flesh-eating taste.
I do not bear that this has become general among the baboons of
the colony, but 1 know that some farmers in the mountaiuous parts
skirting "the Karroo plains towards GraafT-Reinet have suffered
severely through their depredations among their flocks. Formerlj-
these animals were satisfied with prickly pears and other kinds of
fruit, birds'-eggs, locusts, and, as a rare treat, scorpions, which I
have seen them busily turning over huge stones to obtain. I have
never been near enough to see the process of killing the scorpion,
but my husband told me that they most cleverly divested the little
reptileof its sting before trusting it between their teeth ; but never
till of late were they kno^vn to kill a sheep or a lamb for food. I
have also been told by one farmer that the baboons on his place
had killed many quite young lambs, and torn them open, merely to
obtain the milk contained in the stomach. Is this preliminary to,.
or a farther development of, the carnivorous propensity ?
As a more pleasing change of habit and adaptation to circum-
stances in the same part of the world is the fact that a small bird,
called by the natives " Tink-tinky," on account of its notes, and by
the Dutch colonists, " Kapock (frost) vogel," from its .snow-white
nest, which, before the introduction of sheep, made use of the silky
fibre of the wild cotton as material, now uses the wool which it
gathers in sufficient quantities from the Nimosa and Euphorbia
thorns, finding probably that it is more easily woven into the thick
felt of which the beautiful little bottle-shaped nest is composed,
merely placing a little of the silky fibre in the bottom of the nest as
a linin". M. Cauev-Hobson.
THE "SOUND" OF FISHES.
I OBSERVED some few weeks back (Knowlkoge, p. 295) that
Mr. Mattieu Williams objected to my naming the "air-
bladder " of a fish the " sound," Mr. Williams's contention being
that this latter name should more properly be applied to the aorta
or chief artery of the fish. With all deference to Mr. Williams
(who is not a biologist, as " Old Fossil," in your last issue, remarks),
I maintain that he is confusing, not two names merely, but two
distinct systems of terminologj'. It is perfectly immaterial to me,
as a naturalist, what fishmongers or fishermen call the " sound."
As a zoologist, I have no concern with the terminology of
lisher-folk or of fish-dealers. What does concern my readers and
myself, is that I should use names which are in common use
in natural history science. Tlie name "sound," as a popular
name for the " air bladder," has been in use in natural history
class-rooms for many years back, and whatever be the justification
for its use, I maintain I was entitled to employ it, for the reason
just mentioned. The question raised by Mr. Williams amounts to
this : — Whether a scientific or a fisherman's use of a i.articular
name is to be held as correct. Personally, I prefer to call the sac
in question the "air-bladder"; but I cannot, at the .same time,
permit Mr. Williams to suggest that my nsage of the name is an
eiToneous practice. " Sound," in fact, is a scientific as well as a
popular term. It is not my fault if the meanings attached to it are
of varied nature. " A.vdrew Wilson.,
430
KNOWLEDGE •
[March 17, 1882.
ELECTROMAGNETIC TFIEOKY OF LIGHT.
IN n ri'cciit iminln'riif Km>wi.ki>cik you wrotci : — " A rorrodponclcnt
who fpvt'K 114 III) imin<\ tiHkH uk to oxplniii the* nlfctro-miif^ntir
thoorv of li^fhl. Wc know of no Hiich llioory. The writor, who
BAyN tho iMuluhitory thoory in font l>om(? Hwullowi'ii up piocomonl
by tin' clortro-niuj^ic'tic, knowH vnry httUi iihoiit tho tnnttor. Thn
oviiK'noi' for tho iindiiliitory thoory ih niinply ovorwholniinjf."
Most will (iffroo in your two hiHt ronohiHionH ; hut H8 there in nn
el««ctroinn(^nptir theory of lijfht, po»»ilily iffnornuco of itn oxislenco
on tho pftrt of tlie moat nnmixoinnt man I know ("Oh Lord, «ir !
Why there 't (ii'r%'oii well ngain." — Kn.J, may justify complinnco
with your namolesH corri'Hponilent'd reiiuent fornn explanation of
it. It ig. in fnrt, an undulatory theory, and only a mmiiticntion in
detail of the theorj' of lluyKhonH. Clork Maxwell supt'osted the
electro-mafrnetif theory a« a mounn of doterniininp the relation
Ijotweeu the jdienomena of elertro-magnotism and tlioso of tight,
hasod upon the asHumption that each of tJiese is due to certain
modes of motion in tho all-pervading "ether" of space, tho
phenomeiui of electric currents and magnets being due to streams
and whorls, or other bodily movements in tho substance of the
other ; while light is duo to vibrations to and fro in it. Dr. Thomp-
son writes on this subject as follows : — " Hero is evidence for think-
ing that mngnotism is a phenomenon of rotation, there being a
rotation of linmelhiufi around an axis lying in tho direction of the
magnetisation. Such a thoory would explain the rotation of the plane
of polarisation of a ray passing through a magnetic field. For a ray
of plane-polarised light may be conceived of as consisting of a pair
of (oppositely) circularly-polari.sed waves, in which the right-handed
rotation in one ray is periodicallycounteracted by an equal left-handed
rotation in the other ray, and if such a motion were imparted to a
medium in which thero were superposed a rotation (such as we
conceive to take place in every magnetic field) about the same
direction, one of these circularly-polarised rays would be accelerated
and the other retarded, so that, when they were again compounded
into a single plane-polarised ray, this plane would not coincide with
the original plane of polarisation, but would be apparently turned
round through an angle proportional to the superposed rotation.
An electric (iisi)lacement produces a magnetic force at right angles
to itself ; it also produces (by the peculiar action known as induction)
an electric force which is propagated at right angles, both to the
electric displacement and to the magnetic force. Now it is known
that in the propagation of light, the actual displacements or vibra-
tions which constitute the so-called ray of light are executed in
directious at right angles to the direction of propagation. Tliis
analogy is an important point in the theory, and immediately
suggests the question whether the respective rates of propagation
are the same. Now, the velocity of propagation of electro-magnetic
induction is that velocity " v," which represento the ratio between
the electrostatic and the electro-magnetic units, and which (in air)
is believed to be 2'9857 x 10'" centimetres per second. And the
velocity of light (in air) has been repeatedly measured (by Fizeau,
Cornu, ilichelson, and others), giving as the approximate value
2-9992 X 10" centimetres per second. The close agreement of these
figures is at least remarkable. Amongst other mathematical de-
ductions from the theory may be mentioned the following : — (1.) all
true conductors of electricity must be opaque * to light ; (II.) for
transparent media, the spceilic inductive capacity ought to be equal
to tho square of the index of refraction. Kxperiments by Gordon,
Boltzmann, and others, show this to be approximately true for
waves of very great wave-length. The values are shown below.
For gases tho agreement is even closei
K.
Flint Glass .3162
Bisulphide of Carbon... 1-812
Sulphur (mean) 4151
Paraffin 2-32
2796
2-606
4-02t
2-33
A. K. EoLi.iT.
OUR ANCESTORS.
ME. GRANT ALLEN, at p. 351 of Know-ledok, in describing
Palu'olitliic men, says their flint implements are found buried
under tho concreted floors of caves. This no doubt is true, but ho
goes on to say that, " since tho days of Palaeolithic men, Britain has
• In some crystalline bodies which conduct electricity better in
one direction than in another, the opacity to light differs corre-
spondingly. Coloured crystals of Tourmaline conduct electricity
hotter across tho long axis of the crystal than along that axis.
Such crystals are much more opaque to light passing along the axis
than to light passing acros.s it. And, in the case of rays traversing
the crystal across the axis, tho vibrations across the axis are more
completely absorbed than those parallel to tho axis : whence it
follows thai the transmitted light will bo polarised."
Iioen Kubmergeil beneath Roveral hundred feet of noo." Surely Mr.
Grant Allen can hardly expect your readers to acce|it this stat4.-mcDt.
That (ircat Britain may have been submerged Kinco the eurlior
Paluyilithic men lived upon what in now Britain is, perhaps, possible,
but tliat Britain has been under the sea siDco tho Palu.-ulithio
men of tlio caves lived here is, I think, a stretch uf the writer's
imagination. Close to where I live iu London, implemcntiferoua
gravels and sands are common, in one groat de^iosit of loam and
sand at Stoko Newington, Palu,'olithic implements arc only four
feet or less beneath tho surface, and tho surface is loam or sand
full of fresh water shells, with no trace whatever of the sea in any
part. These Palu'olithic deposits have never been under the ses.
Mr. Allen thero describes the mon as low-browed, fierco-jawcd,
crouching creatures, inferior to the existing Australians or Andamail
islanders, Ac, rather a complete and sweeping description, when il
is remembered that no complete skeleton of any individoal o),
Paheolithic times has yet been seen, and not enough scattered boneij
aro known sufTicient to build up a slngli' skeleton. ■
I should feel inclined to question the correctness of the greater par)
of the paragraph in which the above statements occur, but howeveij
low-browed and fierce-jawed these " black fellows " may have been!
1 can make one statement about the works of the Palaeolithic mecj
who lived where north-east London now is, that few people will b as welcome as it was unexpected. In a discussion on
-m that has been recently going on in the Echo evening
! his name, and that of Dr. Richardson, have been definitely
■iiong tliose of a number of obscurities) as advocates of a
t ly vcu'L'table diet. Now it can matter little to the public, and
iredly need not influence it, to learn that Mr. Smith, of Hoxton,
- lirought up a large family on French beans and cabbages, or that
Mr. Brown, of Soho, consumes (and believes in) "The Nutriment of
Longevity," which he himself sells; but the case is very different
w! Ml it i? definitely predicated by men of world-wise eminence, like
( ompson and Dr. Richardson, that they are, in effect,
I may say that before penning the letter (285,
- i -h has elicited Sir Henry Thompson's valuable rejoinder,
1 learned privately that both himself and Dr. Richardson did,
I matter of fact, employ a nii.'ied diet themselves. This being
I thoaght that a j)roclamation of the truth %vould enable all
rested in the food question to estimate the hond (or mali) ndes
e vegetarians who quote two distinguished physiologists as con-
I s to, or advopates of, their system, and to appraise the e.\act
!'h of the argument which they profess to derive from such
'ority.
win'telt " A Fellow of the Chemical Society " (letter 315, p. 40)
• way in which I believe the wretched potato diet does " influence
-li character." It may be gathered from the reports of the
us outrages which unhappily reach us daily from Ireland, the
' Ills of which show, beyond cavil, tliat their perj^etrators are the
■t arrant curs upon the face of the earth. Firing from safe
'■ foalment behind stone walls, and running like hares the moment
t heir barrels are emptied ; breaking, in overwhelming force, dis-
guised, and with blackened faces, into lonely houses, and shooting and
maiming solitary and defenceless men and women ; skulking away
at the mere sight and sound of resistance, and never daring to face
a human being who is in a position effectually to nppo.=p them, these
people present an example of an arrant cowardice whidi happily
disgraces but few (so-called) " civilised " races in the world. Now,
enlist these men, give them their daily ration of good, wholesome
meat, and what do we find ? Simply, that there is no braver
soldier in existence than the Irishman. Where are there finer
regiments to bo found than those mainly recruited from
Ireland ? VVhy, I have myself known an Irish private,
totally unarmed, go in and seize a comrade half frantic with
drink and armed with a bayonet with which ho had previously
kept several men at bay. As an example of cool courage, uninflamed
by the excitement of action, this seemed very striking to me, and
certainly in odd contrast to the pusillaniuiity of his vegetable-fed
confrere. Finally, I would say that I am by no means convinced
that the chemical hypothesis of nutrition is invariably sustained by
experience. I can remember when Liebig's theory was regarded as
being as tmassailable in its entirety as the Apostles' Creed. Is this
the case now ? Growing plants, I may tell " J. C. L." (query 288,
p. 410), are unhealthy in bedrooms from the fact that at night they
give out carbonic acid. In sunlight, on the other hand, they exhale
oxygen and keep the air of a room pure. In reply to his next query
(28y, same page), I fancy that he will find the poem he inquires
for in " Maundcr's Class-book," also in the " National Reading
Book," Book v., published by the National Society, Westminster.
" A. N." ((luery 303, p. 410), may rest assiu'ed that no scientific
proof whatever exists that Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed
on July 31, 1898 B.C., either by aerolites or in any otlicr way.
A Fellbw ok the Royal Astronomic.\l Society.
TELESCOPES.
[327] — While fully endorsing the opinion given by U. Sadler in
Knowlepge, p. 389, as to the advantage of a silvered glass reflector,
I beg permission to add that by means of a tin cap, with a handle
like the lid of a saucepan, fitting closely on the cell of the speculum,
the film may be preserved, if not in its original beauty, yet in a
perfectly serviceable condition for so long a time, that the expense
of renewal will become a matter of comparatively little importance.
It nmst be remembered, however, that this involves either an
opening in the side of the tube large enough to admit the hand with
the lid (which might be jointed for the purpose) on the removal of
the mirror when not in constant use. Circumstances have obliged
me to follow the latter plan ; but I find no great inconvenience in
it, and am convinced that a little ingenuity would supply a mode of
effecting it readily, and at a trifling expense. With due precaution,
the adjustment need not suffer. T. W. Webb.
NIGHTS WITH A THREE-INCH TELESCOPE.
[328] — Could you at the end of these articles give the constella-
tion and letters of the stars which will be described in the following
article P I m.ake this suggestion in order that amateurs, like myself,
may afterwards compare what they have observed with the article
in your succeeding number. F. C. B.
THE POTATO.
[329]— In No. 12, Jan. 20, " F. C. S." gives an article on " Some-
thing Abont the Potato," which contains several statements which
I had hoped to see flatly contradicted by other and abler hands than
mine.
He says, "the influence of the blossoms makes a great difference,"
and quotes a case showing an increase of about 13 per cent, where
these are removed. Let " F. C. S." try a small plot during the coming
season, and give us his results. With Victorias, which are about
the freest bloomers known, the writer has several times tried it on
plots of from one-tenth to half an acre, with no appreciable dif-
ference ; in fact, if anything, the result was against the mutilation
of the plants.
Further on he says, " in frozen potatoes the sugar is doubled and
the starch diminished." This, I fancy, happens after or at the
time of the frost going out, as I find a frozen potato, if plunged
into hot wood-ashes and there cooked, is quite dry and floiuy, and
has none of the sweetness peculiar to a frosted potato.
Again, he says " compost has no effect unless to increase the
proportion of starch." It must surely have been poor compost.
Please say what was its composition, and the amount of increase of
starch ?
Again, he says " potatoes grown on moist soils, and soils contain-
ing mnch organic matter, are most liable to disease;" while fiu-ther
on, he says " the nnmanured plots are highest in di.sease." The one
statement is a contradiction of the other, and contrary to any result
I have ever heard of any one attaining, and certainly far from the
results attained by myself.
Further on, he says " Good peat is found to give even better
results than good stable manure." This would certainly be good
peat, and a mine of wealth to its owner. Will " F. C. S." quote
his authority on this matter, as I consider it downright nonsense ?
432
• KNOWLEDGE ♦
[MAncii 17, 18--
Can " F. C. S.," or any other rondor, any what i« tho diffcrcnco of
atarch in n noft, wiixy potnto nnd n dry, flour}' ono ; and (^ivo any
nxuon for tlip dilTiTi2, 19 an are man and wnfe.
A and R ;
Herbert Eees Philipps
[331] — T.et i=the number of guineas each husband laid out
more than his mfe = 21.r shillings.
Call tho four men A, B, C, and D, and their four wives o, b, c,
and d.
Let p = the number of hogs A bought more than n.
„ 9= „ „ B „ „ h.
„ r= „ „ C „ „ c.
„ «= ., „ D ,, „ ,1.
Now, by the conditions of the question, p, q, r, and .«, are four
consecutive terms of an increasing arithmetical progression. There-
fore it follows that p is less than rj,
q is less than r, i-c.
But the number of hogs bought by each man is equal to the
number of shillings given for each hog, therefore —
p hogs cost p' shillings,
and q hogs cost q' sliillings,
and as by the question —
p'=21i,
and (j'=21ii!,
P' = l',
and p = q,
but it has been shown that p is less than miitio Hpcctrom- [le, Mr. Cooko camo homo with mo to
tent thcn-in thiH Imiiil, which wiis now very ohviouB, nnd from thiit
day to tlio pivBont it hiis boon, boforo rain, n fumiliar iiabjuct to my
frioDds and myaolf.
Roforrinit to your foot note of the nnrscry rliynic, whicli, doubt-
Icmi, Mr. I^ockycr onjoycd hh much aa iinyone (?), these arc tho wordH
fpvcn to niP by one of the n\enibcrs of the 1870 KcHpse Ex|)eilition,
OD hia return home :
■ • • •
Till he of tho Corona,
Snys, Normnn is owner,
And the rest of tho Bun shines for Lockver. I'uiam.
EARTHENWARE INSULATORS.
[345]— .4propo« of tho electric " Telegraph," " The wires and insu.
lators," Knowlkdgk, Vol. l.,371, I was, some four or five years ago,
havinj; a conversation with an electrical engineer; and he informed me
that in the manufacturo «{ earthenware insulators, a large quantity
of animal charcoal was ured ; but if any human bone got mixed with
the others and burnt, the insulators (sn-called) were useless, as they
did not produce insulation, and ho told nic that he was a loser in a largo
contract entered into for insulators, in consequence of some human
bones having got among others which were used for the charcoal
for mixing with tho other materials of which the insulators were
composed, and not one of which executed its appointed task, llave
you ever hear of this peculiarity of human charcoal, and can you
account for it ? A. T. C.
SPECIAL NOTICE.
FOR some time past our Queries and Replies have involved a serious
and growing difficulty, which we had proposed to remedy in
Slime degree by having two numbers of 32 pp. per month. But the
diCficulty increased so much that this measure would only, we feel
assured, afford temporary relief. We must, therefore, adopt a more
satisfactory renied}-. Tlic difficulty is this : many questions arc
asked (perhaps about a tenth of those asked appear under head
Queries) ; to some questions ten or a dozen replies are sent in, of
which, perhaps, only one can bo admitted, while other questions
remain unanswereil. Correspondents who have written out queries
or replies are not well pleased if their labour is wasted, yet much
labour must be wasted according to our present arrangement. If.
as we proposed, wo enlarge our sheet occasionally to admit more
questions and answers, there would be delay in many cases, and the
bulk of our readers would not care greatly to have simply eight
more pages of correspondence, queries, and replies. In fact, we
should have not a few letters pointing out that whereas in number,
X, 12 pages out of 20, or 3-5ths, were original matter, in number
(i + l) there were 12 out of 28, or only 3-7ths, "and this, Mr.
Editor, is grossly unjust." We shall hereafter adopt, therefore, a
different system with queries. They will be classified, and sent to
experts in the departments to which they respectively belong, who
will reply to them at greater or less length, according to the nature
of the queries, but in such a way that each reply will convey
information to others besides the querist. These replies may,
from time to time, furnish occasion for correspondence, cor-
rections, suggestions, and so forth ; but, for the most part, a
query once asked and answered will be finally disposed of.
Thus, much less space will be occupied by questions and replies,
while much more satisfactory information will be given not only to
each individual (|nerist, but to our readers generally. The "Queries"
and " Replies " columns will thus be practically merged in
" Answers to Correspondents," classified under various headings —
Astrology, Geology, Chemistry, Botany, Entomology, and so forth.
It is hanlly necessary to point out to our readers that this arrange-
ment, by which the usefulness of Knowlepge will be greatly in-
creased, will not be altogether so inexpensive as one by which
readers are left to answer each others' questions. The proprietors
of K.NowLEnr.E cannot, therefore, at the same time, enlarge the
numbers. But when the growing circulation of Kn'owledoe justifies
that course aUn, readers will gain much more by it, as there will be
an increase of original matter, instead of a mere growth of the
Correspondence columns.
Owi.Nfi to the illness of engraver, the large picture of the looped
path of Mors, with reference to the earth, from 1875 to 1892, has
been delayed. It will appear without fail next week. — Ed.
It should have; been mentioned that tho note on the appearance of
Japitcr, in No. 18, was extracted from the A'unsas Science Sludeat.
The Editor.
(@urri(S.
fSllj-IlEATi.so Room.— Will Mr. W. Mattieu Williams kindlygay
what are the objections (if any), in a saniuiry point of view, to
heating a room by means of an atmospheric* (Bunsen) boraer
without a stove-pipe or vent, provided it is kept burning with a
perfectly bluo llamo 'r -J. W. B.
[312] — I'trolooual. — Will Colonel Rous please say: — 1. If,
having tried Fletcher's lamp for burning solid fats (modified form
for travellers), ho can recommend some? 2. Where the lOa. 6d.
microsco|ie8 he mentions in " Pyrcjlogy " arc to be got? 3. Where
tho spectrum lorgnette is to be got, and the price ? 4. What fat, or
fats, are best for blowpipe work ? — Jkmima.
[313] — Botanical. — Would any one kindly give tho name and J
j)rice of a book giving the derivations and meanings of the Tariooa -
botanical terms ? — Je.uima.
[31 1] — EVEsiGiiT.---One of my eyes is only half the focus of the
other ; what is the best thing to be done ? — Jemima.
[315] — A,stro-Photo(;rai'UV. — Will a reader kindly refer me to a
work on this subject, or give a few elementary instructions adapted
for a 3i-inch refractor. — C. J. C.
[316] — Ati.a.ntic Cable. — Where can I obtain an account of the
laying of the Atlantic telegraph cable of 1865 ? — W. Y. N.
[317] — Seal Fisheries. — How are seal-skins shipped to England,
&c., ])rocared ? Is it the case that the seal is flayed while alive
and conscious, and, if so, how is the animal afterwards treated ? —
J. 11. B. Fletcher.
[31><] — Vegetarianism. — I shoold be obliged if "A Fellow of the
Chemical Society " would tell me where to obtain information as to
the details of a proper vegetarian diet, so that I could give my
household sufficient variety ; and also that I might not err, as did
those who fed " the prisoners " referred to. — G. A. S.
[319 ,— BixocVLAR Microscope. — When using the quarter-inch
with binocular microscope, both tubes are not fully illuminated, but
there is always a dark shadow in one or other, wherever I place the
mirror. Is this unavoidable, or what will remedy the defect ? — .
J. E. S.
[320] — Botany. — I am about to commence the study of botany,
and should be very thankful for any information as to books, Ac-
Would Cassell's lessons in the " Popular Educator " be of any use
to me ? I cannot afford anything that is expensive, as I am only a
weaver lad. — F.
[321] — Botany. — Providing the ovules in the ovary of a flower
were unimpregnated, would they continue to devclope, and ulti-
mately to all outward appearance simulate true seeds. Of course, I
know they would not germinate. This is against all laws of
physiology. But everyone knows that a hen will lay eggs withoat .
the visit of the male bird. In replies, please quote references ? — '
JfMBO.
[322] — Meterological. — (1) What is the best self-registering ■
rain-gauge, price, and where procurable ? (2) Also tho handiest '
cards or sheets for tabulating the readings of the barometer, wot ,'
and drj' bulb thermometers, rainfall, and prevailing winds ? ObseCf
vations taken thrice daily. — G. B.
[323] — Shocking Coil. — Would any reader give full particulars
for making a powerful shocking coil, with the best form of battery
to use with the same in a small room, as I am desirous of making
one. — In Ambigio.
[32t] — Electric Organ. — Having an intention of constructing
an organ similar to the one at Messrs. Maskelyne and Cooke's, wiD
some reader kindly explain the action, say from the keys to the'
pipes ? — Roberto.
[325] — Stonehenge. — Can you inform me whether the Dmidi
placed the stones there, and if so, by what process ? — Slbscribkiu
[32G] — Antarctic Regions. — Required information respecting
the geology of these regions. Thero are volcanoes, but are there
stratified rocks? 1 remember some years ago hearing it stated
that elephant's tusks had been found, and I notice in the map an
" Elephant Island." Is there any book that would throw light on
the subject ? I addressed a query to you, which you published,
about Valley -terraces in Dorsetshire (No. 261), but no one haa
thought it worth while to reply. — S. H. W.
[327]— First B.Sc. Exam. (University of London) .—Could any
reader of Knowledge tell me the best books to procure for the
preparation of the various subjects required in the above ? — Und««-
ORADfATE.
[328]— Sub Teomine Fagi. — Can Mr. Grant Allen tell me why
herbage does not grow as readily under beeches as under other
Maech 17, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
435
trees ? Am I right in thinkin;; that grass under beeches is often of a
finer blade than nsual ? Why docs Mr. Allen exclude yellow at
pa}?e21 of '■ Evolutionist at Large ? " it surely predominates at least
in spring. — M. McC.
[329] — PnosPHOREs* EXCE OK Fish. — What is the cause of the
luminous appearance, so striking in the dark, observable on the
inside of a haddock, chiefly about the bones, even after it has been
cured ?— Leon.vrd B. I*.
[330] — Cliubi.vo I'lakts. — In our hemisphere, and in our
climate, of course, the sun rises on our left and sets on
onr right hand. Climbing plants, such as the hop, in con-
wqnence, it is believed, of the action between them and the
(un, wind round their supports in the same direction. Perhaps
■ome of your botanical readers will tuU whether, in the southern
hemisphere (say at the Cape or Australia), as the sun rises
on our right and sets on our left, these plants wind round in a
similar direction, following the sun, and thus in a totally different
manner from those with us. Under the equator, might they not be
sometimes puzzled as to the direction they ought to take ? —
W. P. B.
[331] — Evolution and Geology.— Dr. Wright, F.R.S., in a
lecture at Cheltenham a few days ago, declared the Lias formation
to be " the greatest possible stumbling-block to the theory of evolu-
tion, for he detied anyone to lind in this complete geological
chapter the slightest sign of any intermediate steps of life. If
palaeontologists could determine such steps, the world would soon
be convinced of the truth of evolution ; but in endeavouring to do
this, they would find the zones of life in the Lias a very hard nut to
crack." What reply do evolutionists make to this objection ? —
ECPTEBIS.
[332] — Mosses. — Can anyone recommend me a book giving the
English as well as the botanical names of British mosses ? Hob-
kirk's '■ Synopsis," and Dr. Braithwaite's " Flora " give only the
latter. — Eiptebis.
[333] — Sakkara Tablet.— Will "A Member of the Society of
Biblical Archaeology" kindly let me know when the Sakkara tablet,
mentioned March 3 on page 379, was discovered, and by whom r
What kingly dynasties are mentioned in it, and where is Maspero's
correction of these dynasties to be obtained and read ? — Egypt-
ologist.
[334] — Jupitee. — I should be glad of any information respecting
cause and nature of the red spot on Jupiter, also where to find
best description of same. — A. H. M.
iReplitE! to ©unirg.
[31] — Inte.nsity Coils. — Give the size and length of secondary
wire, together with the method observed in the construction of the
coils, then we may be able to assist you in determining the safe
limit of battery power. If the insulation has been destroyed by
" sparking," it wiU be necessary to unwind the wire until the faulty
part has been discovered, mend the insulation with silk dipped in
hot melted paraffin, and rewind the coil. — George Edwinson.
[93] — Water of Ayr Sio.ne. — This stone may be cut with a disc,
or a atrip of sheet iron with sand and water, or it may be cut with a
fine saw, as slate is cut. — George Edwinso.v.
[119] — Electro Plating. — The sis ounces of cyanide of copper
can be worked out of the plating solution in the course of a few
days by using a large anode of pure silver. Of course, the first
deposits of silver will be inferior in colour, because alloyed ; but I
knsw of no other practical method. Separation by the chemical
process would not pay for such a small quantity of solution. —
Gboege Edwinson.
[152] — Nickel Plating. — To economise space here, I may men-
tion that two good practical articles were given on this subject in
the Mechanical World for Sept. 17 and Oct. 1, 1881. — George
Edwinson.
[228] — Microphone. — Plates for this purpose, about 3 in. in
diameter, the volume of the current increasing with size of plates.
.\ny number nntU the required tension has been obtained. — George
Edwinson.
[229] — Hair. — See, for accounts of almost instantaneous con-
version of coloured hair to white, vol. i. pp. 198-99 of Hinton's
" Physiology for Practical Use."— E. D. G.
[238]--Electric. — Inductive electric force is displayed in the
space enclosed between the wires of a galvanic circuit, and also in
the close vicinity of such wires. The "co-efficient of induction"
would be the sum total displayed by two inductors, the amount of
induction by one being known. — George Edwinson.
[241] — Fai-re Accuuclator.— (1.) All the tongues of the lead-
plates destined to form the positive element of the cell must be
joined together. (2.) All the tongues of the opposite plates must
be joined together, and "look" the other way. (3.) In series, one
after the other, or side by side, as may be required. (4.) When all
the oxide of lead has been converted into the peroxide of lead by the
action of the charging current, the cell is fully charged, but the
" quantity of electricity it will hold " varies with the age, ic, of the
cell, for it improves with age. (5.) Open, if preferred, or protected
from dust by a cover of wood. (G.) Yes. A cell might be charged
with this force, or oven less. (7.) No. (8.) The force of the
battery does not depend u|ion the force of the charging battery
itself, but upon the amount of chemical energj- ilevclo])ed in the
cells by the charge of electricity. Perhaps the dischai-ging cnrrent
does not realise more than 80 per cent, of the force expended in
charging the battcrj-. — George Edwinson.
[242] — Prose Compositkix. — The theory of English prose com-
position is admirably treated in Bain's "English Composition and
Rhetoric," 1vol. (Longmans); while original and useful practical
methods are suggested in W. S. Dalgleish's " Introductory Textbook
of English Composition," Is. ; or bound with the " Advanced Text-
book," 2s. 6d. (Oliver & Boyd).— E. D. G.
[244] — Lecti-res. — The " Working Men's Educational Union,"
some years ago, published an Illustiated Reporter^ containing lists
of subjects for lectures, and of diagrams published in connection
with those subjects. The list before me comprises sets of diagrams
in astronomy, geology, volcanoes, the steani-engine, the telescope,
the microsco])c, the mechanical powers, and twenty-nine other
subjects. These diagrams are now published, I believe, by the
Religious Tract Society. Those which I have used were rough, but
gocd.— E. D. G.
[247] — WAKMTn at Night. — It is certainly conducive to health
to maintain the body at a comfortable temperature at night ; but
have a care in the choice of stoves to keep the room warm.
Unless the products of combustion, produced by a gas-stove, are
carried out of the apartment by a flue, they will counteract all the
beneficial effects of increased warmth. — George Edwinson.
[263] — Vegetable Food. — If Provost P., or anyone else who
desires any information about vegetarianism will write to Mr.
Doremus, 30, Rochester-road, London, X.W., he will get informa-
tion how to begin. A few stamps enclosed will further procure him
some pamphlets. — T. R. Allinson, L.R.C.P.
[270] — Blowpipe Chemistry. — " Amateur" seems to have puzzled
himself sorely over Colonel Ross's very clear instnictions for con-
structing his blowpipe. The piece of brass is to be soldered to the
large end of the 12-in. telescopic tube, the mouthpiece being placed
on the opposite end. " Amateur" will now see that there is no exit
for the air blown into the tube through the mouthpiece. The jet
(of which a drawing was given by Colonel Ross) is let into the tele-
scopic tube at right-angles to it, an'd about half-an-inch from the
stoppered end, fitting close on lines A and B of drawing. The hole
in the jet, between lines A and B, now forms the exit for the air
blown into the tube. The balloon is secured to the larger end of
the jet, and acts as an air-chamber or reservoir, and, owing to its
elasticity, a bellows. The brass nozzle is fitted to the small end of
the jet, and thus forms the only outlet for the air blown into the
tube. I hope this crude explanation will help " Amateur " over his
difficulty. He seems to have mistaken the jet, of which a drawing
was given, for the lube, of which only the dimensions were given. —
Pyrologist.
[273] — Strength of Material. — There appear to me to be
several errors in the solution given by "Anderson." First, he
uses two different values for the distance between the guide-rail
and the centre pivot — namely, 917 ft. and 8 ft.; and, again, he
resolves an apparently vertical force into vertical and horizontal
components. Taking 8 ft. for the distance between the guide-rail
and centre pivot, and 25 ft. for the distance between the guide-rail
and the direction of the weight, the solution is as follows : —
30x25
5 — = 93 J = tension in tons on the centre pivot,
30x33 . , ., .,
— s — ■"123i = pressure in tons on the guide rail,
1235 -93J = 30 = weight '" tons on the crane. — F. M.
[274]^FoRAMiNiFERA IN Chalk. — Bmsh out with a hard brush,
well wash in water, and pick out with a needle, and mount in
balsam. — Albert Smith.
[274] — Mi.scELLANEOus. — (3.) The following drawing-books may
be recommended to " Blozoon" : — 1. " Vere Foster's," Marcus Ward
& Co.; 2. Cassell's scries of "Popular Drawing-Books"; and S,
436
KNO\A^LEDGE
[March 17, 1882.
tlioRe ]>iil)liiihrply added nn long as it cinneg away of a milky
tint. The deposit will eonniBt ehielly of foraminfern. and may be
mounted in balsnni. I liaro prepared ooveral Hlides of e)ui1k from
the North Downs, in Kent, by tliia method, which 1 have always
found to answer perfectly well.— C. Habkis.
1 275] — Salt. — Tho objection to the use of salt can only bo ae-
counted for by some peculiarity of taste. It is certainly not
shared, ns far as I know, by any of our " high medical authorities."
By the use of salt the salivary glands, tho secretion from which
aids in the digestion of food, are stimulated. Its use is, of course,
not absolutely necessary; but that it is the most natural of all
condiments, and therefore the best, is made evident by tho fact
that saline matters are contained in all kinds of natural food. —
KoBEBT MAcrnEnsox.
[275]— Salt. — Many object to salt on the idea that it is an
acquired tustc ; thoy say salt is not a natural part of man's food,
and so wo ought not to take it. They instance children, who always
splutter ont salt food when given them. It creates a false appetite,
and a craving for food even when the stomach is fidl. Also giving
rise to thirst, or a desire to drink. It increases the flow of gastric
juice and of saliva, for a time, tho same as any other bitter sub-
stance will. Some object to it on the ground of it being a mineral,
and say that our food contains all that is needed without it. I
know many vegetists who never take it from year to year, who
cook everything without it, and who even have it not in their
houses. — f. R. Alli.vson, L.R.C.P.
[277] — LuMixou.-i Paixt.^ — This consists of calcium sulphide,
ground in oil. The light given by it is bluish. A 6-inch square
surface will show time by watch. Of course, the paint must have
been recently exposed to light. — Lkwi.s Arvxdel.
[277] — Luminous Paint. — This is sulphite of calcium, made by
burning oyster shells in a closed vessel with sulphur.— Albert
Smith.
[278] — Smell from Burning Gas. — Tho gas is imperfectly con-
sumed: The globes sometimes cause a rusli of air, through the hole
being too small, and then the gas is not consumed. — A. Ssiith.
[282] — S.MELLINC Salts. — The use of smelling salts is only bene-
ficial in cases of fainting and nervous depression, and at times in
neuralgic headache. Women use them more fiequently than men
for the same reason that men use tobacco more frequently than
women, the force of custom in both cases being the ruling power.
— KoBERT JIacpiierso.v.
[281] — Pkncil-point Protectors. — You can re-silver, using
cyanide of silver ; it is very poisonous. — A. Smith.
[285]— Scientific Terms. — Collins & Sons publish an illustrated
Dictionary of Scientilic Terms, by W. Ito.ssitor (price 3s. Gd.) ; very
useful and compact. Anything not in Rossiter is easily found by
taking the Roots and consulting a Latin or (Jreek dictionary, as the
case may be. — G. B.
[28G] — Electricity. — Get Spraguc's " Electricity," publislicd by
Spoil, Charing Cross. — A. Smith.
[297] — Tobacco and Science. — TjTidall has shown that tho blue
of the sky and the blue of tho sea are caused by the breaking up of
the rays of light by infinitely small particles of solid matter. The
blue smoke rising from the glowing end of n cigar or pipe contains
very minute particles of carbon at a high teinperaturo. After the
smoke has been drawn into the mouth and expired, two changes
have taken place — the smoke is at a lower temperattii'e and laden
with moisture. It is also heavier. Perhaps there has been some
chemical change in addition. At any rate, we may safely say the
atoms of carbon have united into larger particles— just as coal-
smoke particles form smuts — and reflect light in a different
manner. The smoke issuing from the paper tube of a cigarette
contains tho two smokes — a small quantity of smoke at a high
tcmiKsrature drawn back from the glowing end. and a larger quan-
tity of cold smoke that has been in the smoker's mouth, which has
been rendered doi-ker and heavier. — W. D. B.
PiioTocRAPiiic Bromide Solution.— Ammonia bromide, (!0 grains ;
liquid ammonia, 4 drachms; dis. water, 12 drachms. — A. Smith.
[Letter 309]— Dur.vtion ok Life.— S. wants to know what I mean
by stating that it depends on ourselves whether we die at 35 or at
70. It in thin, "All diaeaaon arc due to three condition!": — l*t, {
my parent's fault; 2nd, my neighbnar'H fault; 3rd, my own fault.
Int. If my parents tninsmit tome a tendency tu gout, coiiRumption, 1
or insanity, then the fault of ill-health belongs to them. If • |
person ilies before 20, it is the fault of hin parents, after that it ia
liis own fault. 2nd. If my neiglilxjur's drain rtins over, poisons mt
drinking water and I get typhoid fever, then he is to blame,
nnnther one comes lo my house whilst he is suffering from sma
po.x and gives it to me, then surely I am not to blame. 3rd. Thill
the largest class, and contains mo.st diseases, for by caro the I
dime}' to gout, Ac, can be rootefi ont from the system. Giv
many jiersons taking rich food and much of it, then bilious att
are to be looked for. If the rich food !« continued for n long (
then expect gall stones and stones in tho bladder. Give alcohd
and we get chronic indigestion, rheumatism, &c. Give rich fo
and alcohol, and we get gont, apojilexy, heart, kidney, and Ut
disease. Give tobacco, expect sore throat, palpitation, slowing
heart's action, and in some few cancer of the lip. If fresh air I
neglected, then expect colds on the least exposure. If exercise 1
not taken, we expect constipation, piles, congestion of liver,
Now add up the action of lots of meat, plenty of drink and tobacc
and we shall get our people dying at 35 years. Take all in modd
ration, and an average constitution will last till nearly 70. But 1
abstaining from beer and tobacco and being spare with meat, I
taking plenty of exercise and fresh air and keeping the mind cab
we may go to fourscore or more. — T. R. Axlinm^v, I, lif'.I'
^nsinns to Conrepontifnts.
*^*All eommitnicafionit for the EJitor requiring rarly atlfntion thoutd rtaeh t
Offict on or before the SaturJai/ prtcedinf] the current istue of Kkowlbdoi,
inereating circictaiion of which compel* um to go to prett early in the teeek.
Hints to CorrespOndrnts.— 1. Xo quention* atJcintj for tcicntific in/or
can ie answered through thepoft. 2. Lettert aent lo the ICditor for corre»pond«ni
cannot be fortcarded ; nor can the name/ or addreinei of corretpondentt be gicen i
anetcer to private inquiries. 3. iVo qiieriet or replies tarouring of tke nature i
advertifementH can Is inserted, 4. Letters^ queries, and replies are inserted, i
contrary to Eule 3, free of charge, o. Correspondents shouUi write on one
onltj of the paper, and put drawings on a separate leaj. 6. Each letter, \
reply should hate a title, and in replying to letters or queries, r^er
nade to the number qf letter or query, the page on which it appears, and tie titie.
t should \
A Reader and Subscriber to KNom,EDGE. The subject is I
considered in treatises on jAysiologj-. — Mathf.maticus. Math
matieal course at Dublin is excellent. — J. SI. You are not conted
with 2Jd. for 2d., but insist on 3d. or 25d. at the least. The pap
is excellent. — II. A. Bulley. You evidently misapprehend wh
science says on the subject. You carefully make a straw gia
and as carefully npset him. — Tyro. As to your first, ask us
easier one. As to tho other, to find how maeh a ton at earth^
surface is attracted to the moon, multiply a ton by the square
3,960, divide by square of 238,818, then by 81, and you will get th
mass whose downward pressure at earth's surface is equal to attp
tion of a ton of matter (on earth) moonwards.- Xicholas MobgA
Pardon me, the phrenologist contends for something more than tb
difference of cranial form indicates a like difference of disposit
or of talent, or of form. .So !iii(r/i, many admit who arc
phrenologists. The JIallicolese skull compression cannot, howeva
afford much ground for argument cither way. — 1"eeli), or Jecl
or Yeela (??). Have never heard of Dr. Long's " Astronomy^
For a beginner, should say Guillcmin's "The Heavens" (Bentley
would suit. — A. N. That frog cure is really too absurd, also to
cruel. — Cklt wants his theory discussed, that the builders of th
Great Pyramid heaped up earth all round tho Pyramid so i
form a slanting surface to the Pyramid level, as it rose layer 1
layer, and afterwards removed all that earth. He thinks — but do
not say why — that this would explain the slant passages. He as^E
if any one can offer a better theory. " In those days,"
says, " engineering appliances were not likely to be able oth
wise to raise such great blocks of stone, and labour was pr
tically unlimited." It must have been, if the theory is eorrect.-
CiiARLES Horxer. It would be simply absurd to tell our reade
that the Great Gallery has been measured to within a hnndredt]
of an inch. No one who knows anything about measureme
would believe it of any gallery fifty yards or so long, still less '
tho Pyramid (iailcry. You could make the length anything betv
1,870 and 1,890 in. according to the way you chose to measure, an
anything between 1,800 and 1,050, according to the length yo&l
choose to assign to the pyramid inch. These coincidences are mertl
tricks, though honestly meant enough, I have no doubt. Th4l
length of York Jlinster is quite as near the 1,000 millionth of i
sun's mean distance as the Pyramid's height ; so is the height cCf
Rouen Cathedral; but no one has yet started any craze about thediriap [
March 17, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE ♦
437
inspiration of the architects of cither cathedral. — W. A. C. It is
admitted, by so staunch an opponent of cruelty to animals as Mr.
R. 11. Button, that if all men became vegetarians, multitudes of
animals now used for food would of necessity perish for want of
food. This being so, it is not fair to tell the crcophagist that
thoujih ■' ho can pet all the chemical qualities of meat without
taking animal life, he takes it in order to tickle his palate." Xote
also that P.R.A.S. only speaks for himself ; ho does not attack
others; you go out of your way to charge him with cruelty.
Observe, I am quite with Mrs. Dr. Kingsford and other vegetarians
in all that they say abont the coarse and disguslin..; scenes now
associated with thesup]>ly of flesh meat. But 1 think the uncompro-
mising vegetarian does more to prevent change than to hasten it. The
world at largo would be easily moved, I think, to see that our meat
supply w-as obtained in a better fashion ; but you do not aim at that —
you try to persuade the world to admit at once that animal food should
be dispensed with ; and the world replies in effect, If that is what
you want, yon are not likely to get it. — T.\r.\xaki. If you read
Sir E. Beckett's book more carefully, you will find that where he
writes, " Chance is only the uncalcnlated result of some knowni or
unknown laws of natui-e " (these are his words, but your quota-
tion is near enough), he means only what he expresses thus later
on, " The only meaning of the word ' chance ' in the physical
universe, since it began to exist, is this sort of incalculable conse-
quence either of the kno^\^l or unknown laws of Nature." In other
words, he is referring to the word "chance" as applied to
natural pi-ocesses. What I have spoken of as pure chance he
speaks of as "bare chance" at p. 19 ; and, of course, like me, he
not only ■' believes," but knows " there is such a thing." To use his
own illustration, " every rational man concludes '' that the atoms of
the universe have been, " as we say, of dice. ' loaded.' to make them
behave in a particular way, not a thousand or a million times, but
always," ..." because the only jiossible alternative is that of bare
chance ; and the idea of all the atoms of the universe behaving as they
do by chance, is too absurd for any man in his senses deliberately
to entertain." — TAXGEN-Ti.\r, Tkndexcv. Xo ; it cannot be said that
because the sun's attraction acts in same direction at one part of
the earth's orbit as the tangential tendency acts a quarter of a
revolution later, the sun's attraction during one quarter cau.ses the
tangential tendency in the next. The direction of the earth's
motion is changed, but the earth's velocity in the tangential direc-
tion is not generated by the sun's action. — A Reader ok Knowledge.
The difference is due to use of mean instead of solar time. We shall
treat fully of this presently; it cannot readily be explained in few
words. Name a good science manual ? Would you mind mentioning on
what subject? — IIexry Bowman. Wc should be glad to give more
chess, if we could ; but others want less, and many want more
mathematics. — EnwAun Hargr-eave. We should be glad to give
more whist, if we could : but others want less, and several want
more chess. — n. B. R., Charles Jerrold, M. James, and others.
We should be glad to give more mathematics, but others want less,
and many ask for more whist. — H. W. FAWCf:'rr. Two of my essays
on the Pyramid are in my " Myths and Marvels of Astronomy," two
in my latest work, " Familiar Science Studies," both published by
Messrs. Chatto & Windus. — W. McManus. Your query would
lead to endless replies. The opponents of evolution are many,
their arguments numerous. Read, as one of the best examples.
Sir E. Beckett's little book on the Origin of the Laws of Nature
(8.P.C.K.), also Dawson's Story of the Earth and Man (Hodder
i Stoughton) — a really charming work. — Simplex. I am very
mnch obliged to yon for so carefully, in response to ray wish, show-
ing some examples of Bell's line-writing; but although, from a
scientifio point of view, it may (I cannot honestly say I see why)
be beyond comparison with anything preceding it, it seems to me
to compare tmfavourably with Pitman's in brevity. The double
Carres for v, /, !, r, n- (English) seem serious objections from a
stenographic point of view. — Paradox. He was kind enough to
send me his confounding of Darwin. — John J. Prince. Con-
sidering that the subject of the great changes of climate which
different parts of the earth appear to have undergone, occupies
many hundreds of pages in divers treatises on geology, you should
hardly expect us to put the matter as a quciy, inviting readers
not only to lucubrate thereon, and to give reasons for their
opinion, but if possible to demonstrate it mathematically. The
subject is one in which we may shortly offer an article by an ac-
knowledged master of the subject, but for correspondence and
replies, — not much : (for we should get too much). As to the other
luestion (which yon ask over name Tv.Ro), whether the earth's
diameter is being increased by layers formed out of its ovn\ sub-
stance, the question seems akin to this. When Pat took a strip a foot
mde from the bottom of his blanket and added it to the top, how
much did he increase the length thereof ? — W. C. Yon are angry
because we will not give np the fine saying by Liebig. Well,
yon make a mistake in tliis ; and, as Liebig says, there is no harm
in making a mistake. But before "putting us down," do con-
sider the harm you propose to do us. — W. H. H. Soames. Thanks
for your courteous letter. May I, for a last word, say that perhaps if
those who have devoted much time to the account in question were at
one in their interpretation. Science might do well to consider it more
attentively than at present. What say you to this from Monsignor
Clifford, respecting the account!' — " C 'est nullement I'histoiredela
creation, fait en sept jours ou sept periodes do temps, niais simple-
ment la consecration, sous forme d'hymno sacriS, dos sept jours de
la semaine il la mcuioire, au souvenir, des sept oeuvrcs principales
do la creation." Wherennto my e-xcellent friend, M. I'Abbe Moigno,
replies : — " Oscrai-je exprimcr lo regret que Monsignor Clifford no
partage pas mes convictions de la veritc do la cosmogonie de MoVse,
quoique mysterieuse encore dans quelqucs-uns de ses details." — His-
torian. Queries answered, I think, in this section ; history scarcely
falls into our line. — C. T. B. Surely the description of tobacco smoke
as "a cloud of tar in half-burnt gas" is inexact. — .1. U. Ward.
Erraii ; yon can either correct as you suggest, or for mean distance
write " perihelion." — A. T. C. Newton settles it, does he not ? yet
he says Hijpolliexes iinn fin'jn. Doubtless he came near the truth ;
but it was not a matter of observation, experiment, or mathematical
demonstration. Wonder who told him. — Ayrshire wants book on
Ventriloquism, with dialogues. — Private Stident. Such questions
are not suitable ; Ave can neither insert in Mathematical Column
nor answer hero. Wo shoukl be Hooded with such questions if
we did. — C. C. C. You seem to think 1 keep all the questions and
answers in my head. I cannot tell what theory you refer to unless
yon give page and column, of my answer. — Ignorant. Any text-
book of biology will tell you how fish breathe by means of their
gills ; the air in the water which passes through the gills being
"what they breathe." — J. P. Sandlands. We have treated you
with courtesy and consideration ; you repay us by accusing us of
unfairness and cowardice, because wo decline to break through a
rule which we consider absolutely essential to the maintenance of
Knowledge in its proper position. Wo shall say no more. — Edgar
Flower. George Stephenson, the engineer, was, of course, right in
saying that the uppermost point of a wheel of a carriage moves
twice as fast as the carriage, while the lowermost is for the moment
at rest : does this require elucidation ? — T. W. Johnson. If you
are "thoroughly satisfied" it is a delusion, all is well so far as
you are concerned. — J. McGrigor Allan. We are quite with you,
but have not room for the subject, which does not belong to our
programme. — A. Daniels. We cannot find time or space to work
" sums." — Jno. Trist. We regret that the necessities of space will
not permit us to find room for "a few essays on the doctrine of
philosophical necessitj-." — H. H. L. Hill notes that the collection
of the late Professor 'fennant are still on sale at a shop a few doors
west of King's College, and will shortly be sold by auction.
Suggestion noted as to centre of pressure, &e. — C. Harris. The
attraction of the mouthpiece is virtually nil. As to the colour,
there can be little doubt you are right, and that the smoke
looks blue only when seen by reflected, brown only when
seen by transmitted light. — Professor Buchheim. Your letter
appears. — Jemima. Scarcely space at jiresent for the refining
of sugar. — E. F. Scarcely a reason, — rather How, than Why.
— John Sparks writes "i" for "I," except when he forgets
his part. He may note with advantage that the word "science"
would not be spelled " ciencc " by one who wi'ote " i " for " I." —
F. Blaker. The law of diffusion of gases would not affect, to any
appreciable degree, the stagnation of the air in upper part of room,
and would only very slowly cause^the carbonic acid gas continually
poured into that part of the room (by persons breathing) to be-
diffused ; in fact, it would act much more slowly to diminish tho
carbonic acid gas than the breathing even of one person only
would tend to increase it. — 'Clare. You are rather hard ou
Mr. Abbott ; we do not think he wants to study a treatise
of either class, but simply to know what is commonly un-
derstood by the expression " abstract reasoning." The reply
about tobacco smoke assumes more than can very easily be proved.
Iron certainly does rust faster in saltwater. — W. Wilson. I agree
with Tou that there are cases where ordinary modes of expression
are misleading, " A tog is a tog, but the question is, is this tog a
tog?" for which you'll overhaul your " Snarlcy Yow," and when
found make a note of. — E. D. G. There are certainly cases in
which the differential equations admit of more than one solution ;.
but it has not been shown that such cases can occur in nature.
Till this has been sho^vn M. Paul Janet's inference is but a rather
fanciful guess. The question is too difficult and artificial to much
interest the bulk of our readers. — B. Riley. Question already
answered satisfactorily. — L. D. S. You should get an elementary
bc-ok on astronomy. — E. W. C. The one with larger capital,
whether A or B, has the best chance of winning in the
long run. See my essay on a Gambling Sujiorstition. — Erin.
As you think the outside car is the best ever invented, you ought
t38
KNOWLEDGE
[Makcu 17, 1882.
not to niik why I think it np)iroprinto to Irinh kWI*. Moon'ii phnM>«
cnn Bcnri'i'ly l>" ox|iliiiiif>il 1iiti>, nil (hey nr<> cxphiiiicd in cvrry n-
N(H'ctnl)h< Irxt hiMik iin imlnmoniy. — II. D. Haiiii.aV. A mini Hiiglil
Itr wiid tt to escape the "reader," for his attention is
directed to orthography, punctuation, syntax, &c., so that tho ab-
surdity of a statement, as such, is apt to escape his notice. — Percy
B. Donn. Thanks ; but the problem has been already dealt with
in Knowledge, No. 8, p. 16G.— Edward Stubb.s. I have carefully
compared the weather records for the years 1768 to 1792, left by
White of Selborne, and find not the slightest balance (even) of
evidence in favour of the theory that tho weather repeats itself
after seventy-six years, in England, at any rate. — F. Cowley.
Thanks. About photography, Mr. Brothers, of Manchester, has
kindly promiiod to write for ua. Tho other queiitiona already
answered. — IIallyakdh. I did not mean that 1 could jaiit
Hfe the lumidre reniln'p in America a day liefore first
quarter, but that it was then strikingly obvious — as obvious a« in
Knglaiid when moon shows but a narrow cresrent. When you saw
• ibjectH more clearly through moist air, they must, you think, have
been magnille surface of some smooth plastic mass, such as mud or mortar.
r. Meydenbauer, of Marburjr, uses a basis of dextrine for the
rpose, and drops small quantities of the same material from a
ieratc height upon that basis. A photosn^ph of various figrures
^ich are thus produced, shows a remarkable resemblance to the
rious inequalities visible on the moon's surface.— A. MARTn,in the
.Soot v. Pollen.— I liave often noticed that although the hazel
>vill grow and Hower freely in the suburbs of London, yet it will
vily produce fruit. To gather nuts you must go simie miles into
country. A few days ago, I was examining the catkins and
■lale (lowers of the hazel (gathered about four miles from the
t) under the microscope, and 1 was struck by the fact that the
-;ils were each severally coated with a deposit of soot, sutficicntly
rk to prevent any chance of fertilisation. The hazel being ane-
niophilous, the absence of nuts in the neighbourhood of London
(and, I presume, of other large towns) is thus, I think, sufficiently
;K-counted for. — William H. Allen.
MicRocixrci IN Mfups. — The Gazette iledUale says that MM.
itan and Charrin, at a recent meeting of the Biological Society
. I'aris. gave an account of the investigations which they have for
some time been engaged in, on the presence of minute organisms in
the blood of persons suffering from mumps. These are multipliable
by cultivation in Liebig's broth, and are found to consist of minute
batonnets, but chiefly of micrococci, all in a state of motion. These
minate organisms, they consider, corroborate the clinical observa-
tions which tend to place mnmps among the infectious diseases.
The absolute proof that this disease is due to these minute exist-
ences, by reproducing it by inoculation of the " cultures," has not
been attained by the experiments made to that end.
English as the Speech of the Fitire. — The success of the
English-.speaking peoples as colonists, and their superior prolificness,
are not the only reasons for thinking that the English tongue is
destined to dominate the world. The flexibility and terseness of
the English language has made it the language of international
telegraphy, and from statistics just collected it appears to be the
great newspaper language. In other words, it about equally
di\-ides the newspapers of the world with all other tongues com-
bined. The total number of new.spapers and periodicals now pub-
lished is given in H. P. Hubbard's forthcoming '" Xewspaper and
Bank Directory of the ^Vorld,' as 3I,:;74, with a circulation of
about HtJ,000,0<.iO copies, the annual aggregate circulation reaching,
in round numbers, 10,000,000,0(0 copies. Europe leads with 19,557,
and North America follows with 12,400, the two together maksBg
over nine-tenths of all the publications in existence. Asia has 775 ;
South America, 009; Australasia, 661; and Africa, 132. Of all
tbese, 16,500 are printed in the English language, 7,800 in German,
3,850 in French, and over 1,600 in Spanish. There are -1,020 daily
newspapers, 18,274 tri-weeklies and weeklies, and 8,5U8 issued less
feequently. It appears that while the annual acrgregate circulation
of publications in the United States is 2,600,000,000, that of Great
Britain and Ireland is 2,260,000.000.- -.SVien(i/ic American.
The SoiND or Swtm Blahder of Fish. — Perhaps the following
quotation from the " Icelandic-English Dictionary," by Cleasby and
VigfuBson will be suflicient to satisfy your readers as to the deri-
Tation of the word " sound " or " sounds" as expressive of the air
or swim-bladder of certain fishes The word is spelt " sund."
" Snnd {q.s. svund), [from ' svimma,' dropping the v and changing
f» into nj : ' a swimming ' ; " «ic. Some compound words are given
as "sund-fjiior " (/. "a swimming feather") ; "sund-foerr" (adj.
" a good swimmer ") ; "sund-hreifi" ("a swimming pair"), of a
seal with several others. It is said that " swimming was a favourite
sport, the antagonists trying to duck one another," and that
"snnd " is one of the sports m King Harold's verses. It is also
added that the word " snnd," as used to denote a "sound" "or
straight, narrow passage," is quite a different word from the pre-
ceding, being derived from " snndr," i.e., " that which sunders."
So that the proposed connection of fish " sounds " with words
(having a Romewhat similar appearance) in the Sanskrit, Assyrian,
Chinese, Egyptian languages, &c., denoting "blood," "heart," &c.,
has no real existence whatever. The Scandinavians were doubtless
aware of the part which " the sound" plays as an aid to a fish's
powers vith the best skill of teaching that the country
could produce, the following three things: — (a) 'fhe laws of health
and the exercises enjoined by them ; (i) Habits of gentleness and
justice ; and (f) The calling by which he is to live.' "
i&ur iBntbrmntiral Column.
THE LAWS OF PROBABILITY.
Bv THE Editor.
THE general law enunciated in our last number may be
regardeti as the fundamental law of probabilities. Nearly
aU problems in probabilities, direct or inverse, depend on this
law, to which the more complex cases are reduced by various
devices of greater or less simplicity according to the nature of
the problem. And again, the value of any chance not relating
to tickets in a lottery, or balls in a bag, may readily bo
440
♦ KNOWLEDGE ♦
[March 17, 1882.
refoiTod to tlicno oniiily-unilonitood illustnitiniiR. Thun (to take in
pnsiinga vcrj' fmnilinr raiip), Buppono wo nro told thnt tho bottinK
IH four to om- nKii""' " forlniii liorBO in n riico, wlmt nro wo to
infer i» tin- viilui> of tlir i-lmnco wliicli \iottin(f csiMTtB nHHlfOi to
liim. Till" oJil» of four to ono nirjin, of cunr»o, tlnit tlioro nro four
cliancCA npiiniit llio liorao for ono in liis fnvonr, or tlint out of Hvo
oqutti cliunci'8 lio lui« ono. Uin clinncc of winning ifl, tlicri'foro, an
far (U the liettin',1 shniis, oquni to that of dniwinn ono piirtiiMilnr
ticket from ii liu|? .-ontnininK live, nil ociunlly likely, untocodently,
to be (Irnwn. 1 need liardly Hny tlmt the reiil ehnnce of the borne
nniv be ven,- difTcrcnt. 'I'lie betting exi^rta niny not know neiirly
so inucli as they suppose, nnd tho horse niny have n niucli better or
a much worse ehnnce thun they iniBKino. Or n^ain, they may know
((.omo of them) much more than they pretend to know. JJut so far
as tho l)etting shows, tlmt is the horse's chance. We shall see
further on how tliis sinii)lilication of the jirublem enables us to
determine from tho known hotting about two horses singly, the
priiper betting about tho pair, and similarly for throo or more
horses.
Again, tnko cases which at first sight do not seem to resemble
the problem wo have just considered— as, for instance, the tossing
of a coin or the casting of a die more than once — and let us see
how those can be reduced to tho simpler case. Here is a simple
problem of this kind : —
What is the vhance that, when a coin is tossed twice, the tosaings
u-ill beunlike — (hat >'«, that loth mil not be heads nor hoth tails?
Simple as this problem is, by 'the way, tho great mathematician
d'Alembert went astray in dealing with it (at a time when the
mathematics of probabilities were not very well understood). Ho
reduced it to our general law in summary but inexact fashion. Thus
he said, There are three possible events: either both to.ssings
will be' heads, or both tails, or [they will be unlike; therefore
the chance that they will be unlike is one in three, or
one-third. This result d'Alembert maintained witli a degree of
confidence which seems singular when the simple nature of
his mistake is considered. To solve the problem correctly, we
must i)roceed, as he did, to consider the various possible events ;
but not err as he did, by failing to notice that he counted two of
them as one. The possible events are four, viz., head, head; tail,
tail ; head, tail ; and tail, head. There are manifestly no others,
and as manifestly any one of these is as likely as any other. Now
of these four cases, "two give unlike tossings, viz., the two last.
The real chance, therefore, is not one in three, but two in four, or
one half.
If d'Alembert had been a betting man, and had backed his
opinion bv wagering two to one against the occurrence of unlike
headings," during a great immbtr of trials, lie would have lost
heavily — the real wager being even. In the long run, half the
trials weuld be of the kind against which he had wagered ; and
losing thus as often as he won, while paying twice as much when
he lost as he received when he won, he would manifestly lose just
as much as his opponent had wagered. At least, the result would
approach this (and his loss, therefore, be the greater) the more
numerous the trials.
We note, then, in passing, that men who are unwise enough to
gamble ought to have a clear idea of the laws of chance ; for in the
long run these are as inexorable as the laws of the Medes and
Persians. A man may buy a single ticket in a lottery, and he may
chance to win, or he may try his luck pretty often at roulette or
rouge el noir, and still be a winner ; but if he keeps on long enough,
he will inevitably lose in proportion to tho calculated chances
against him. (Ho may lose at the outset, and probably, on the
whole, it is the better for him that he should.)
There are, indeed, ways in which men suppo.'ie that with patience
they can always win, though slowly. The following is a familiar
illustration, which wo leave as an exercise for the reader : —
Two gamblers, A and B, toss a coin on tho following terms. A
wagers against B evenly £1 ; if B wins A wagers £2 even with him ;
if B wins again A wagers £4 even with him ; and so on, doubling
each time, till A wins the toss. When this happens, whatever the
number of tossings before the event, \ wins £1. They begin again,
A wagering £1 even, as before, and doubling till ho wins, when he
pockets another £1. Every wager is .strictly fair, yet every trial
(as A must, at last, win) ends by A. winning £1. The system seems
altogether unfair in its results, though perfectly fair in details. Is
it Bo or not ? Assume A and B to have equal capitals, say £1,000,
and estimate their chances of success or failure. .\t first sight it
seems as though A must gradually win every pound B has. In
reality it is not so, as wo shall show later.
" All Roots." — (See " .\nswers to Correspondents," p. 391, line
17.) In reply to " All Roots' " query, I give an easy method of
extracting tho fifth root of 5153(532, and will endeavom- to state the
rule as briefly as ]ii)s.«ible. Make as many columns ns the number
of tho root to bo extracted ; then, having found the first quotient
figure, put it in tho first column ; odd tho same numlior to it ; then
multiply tho sum obtained, placing tho product in tho second
column. Continue this course, viz. : add and multiply, add ami
multiply, decreiiHing one column i-nch time, till you have only one
to make in tho first column, which will Ijo tho same nundwr of
additions as the root to be extmeted. Then odd 0 to the first
;f^2.]
♦ KNOWLEDGE ♦
441
♦
♦
♦
l*^C
♦
♦
♦
B
^^
♦
♦
♦
^^
6 pn^
THE GAME.
NOTB. — The underlined card wins trick, and card below it leads next.
REMARKS AND INFERENCES.
1. — A leads the lowest but one-
B wins with the Queen and observes
that the two docs not fall in the
trick. Either one of tlie i)Iayer8 is
callinsr for trumps, or A is leading
from live or more. If from more
than five, the suit will bo trumped
next round. Having a sequence,
he leads the heat! of it.
2. — B knows now that the adver-
saries are two by honours. K, having
turned up the King, properly heads
the trick with the Queen.
.■?. — Z plays his best suit. B win-
ning the trick continues the trump
lead. He knows that he must
make two by cards to win the
game. He properly leads the
eight, to show his partner the
strength of his sequence.
•t. — Z continues his suit.
5. — Z plays another Spade in the
hope of finding the Knave with Y.
6. — A knows now that the Ace
will fall, and that B will, probably,
remain with the last trump. Of
course, there is a chance of Z
having the seven.
7. — Z is now in a difficulty. He
knows he can force the remain-
ing trump, but he knows also
that B has led trnmp upon the
Heart suit. I" may, however, have
an honour in Hearts, and it is
better in any event, as far as the
Diamonds are concerned, that Y
should be fourth player. 1' discards
a Diamond to the 13th Spade,
though not of much use now, as
the only trump is forced from B.
The rest of the game play.-; itself,
but if the young player will play
the game over, and suppose B to
have led three rounds of Hearts
before leading trump, he will find
that Y and Z will make sis tricks
and win by their honours. If the
two had been led instead of the
three, B, although he might never-
theless have led trumps, would
have had no means of judging
that the entire suit was between
him and A.
JU Jk A A lA A
A
* ^ •!• * 4-
•f 4- + + 4- 4-
0 0 O 4-J5.* ♦ ♦
0 0 0 I't ^♦il!
•7 ^7
9
Errat.v. — It is, perhaps, hardly necessary to explain that in the
?esy easy Double IJummy problem given last week, the partners
k and B, not Z and Y, are to save and win the game. The cor-
rection was made in the proof sheets ; but, in making a more
important change (" Mogul's letter had been put last, instead of in
ts proper position), the compositor overlooked this one. A similar
«mark applies to the word '■small," p. 41G, 2nd col., 1. 22. Clay
ibhorred "false" cards, not small ones. Whist players will recill
[/avour's ^not : when some one complained, as bad players always do,
if constant ill. luck at whist, he replied, "C'est, mon ami, que vous
I'avez pasassez de respect pour lespetites cartes." — Five of Clubs.
All the Trumps in" One H.^nd. — In All the Year Round for
Dctober, 1876, page 77, two instances are given of a player being
lealt the entire trumps [" having dealt himself," it should be].
Pery recently, I myself held all the trumps but two (five and six)
n a hand at whist. — R. E. P.
A CORRESPONDENT asks how to score at Short Whist, not finding
Clay's account clear. If he would say what seems to him obscure,
we will endeavour to explain. — Five of Clubs.
J^. M.vcKENziE regrets to see Knowledge wasted, advising how
best to play Wliist, " a game depending so much on mere chance."
Does it depend on mere chance ? Cavendish has settled that
(luestion pretty decisively. The clement of chance is eliminated
in the long ran, and good jilay tells as certainly at Whist as it does
at Chess. The way chance works is to make Whist a capital moral
as well as mental exercise. The player who, having a bad hand,
steadily does all he can while yet a chance remains, and perhaps
retrieves a game which another might have thrown up as hopeless,
has had a useful exercise and set a good example. — Five of Clcp.s.
G. Thompson's second letter, relating to B.'s lead in problem 1,
somehow escaped the editor's notice until now, and has only just
reached me. He points out that in a somewhat similar case, in
Cavendish's fifth Hand, leader's jiartner prefers returning his
])artner's lead, to leading from a hand headed by a tenace (\, Q.
and two small ones.) 'j^he play in these hands is not intended to
guide Whist players, though Cavendish does not call attention to
every error in the play. In Hand X, Cavendish calls attention to
the importance of returning the best of two cards, without savin<'
whether B would not liave done better to show his best suit.
There is, however, an important difference between the two
cases. In Problem I, B. has length in trumps; in Cavendish'.s
Hand Y, B. has not. Again, in hand V, B. can return a
good strengthening card. The ten of Clubs, in Problem I., played
with the certainty that Y (fourth player) holds the Queen, and that
Z (second player) is weak in Clubs, could scarcely be considered a
strengthening card at all. The words to which I referred (which
llr. Thompson could not identify, having a different edition) are
these : — " Many players will not lead from a strong suit if headed
by a tenace ; preferring, for instance, to lead from ten, nine, three,
to Ace, Queen, four. two. They argue that by holding up the Ace,
Queen suit, they stand a better chance of catching the Kin*'. So
far they are right : but they purchase this advantage too dearly ;
for the probable loss from leading the weak suit may be taken as
greater than the probable gain fron holding up the tenace." Mr.
Thompson argues, however, that the case comes under Cavendish's
advice about returning yoiu- partner's suit rather than your omi,
with weak or only moderatel}' strong suits, which you open to a
disadvantage. Does Mr. Thompson regard Ace, Queen, to four, as
only a moderately strong suit ? I should call this great strength.
Cavendish refers to such a suit as Queen to four, in some cases
King to four, or Queen, Knave, two small ones. Even in such
cases as these, if you have strong cards in the adversaries' suits, it
is better to show your own. Five of Clubs.
©uv CftfSs Column.
PROBLEM No 25.
By Leonard P. Rees.
o " ®
H t
t
t
> ■
White to play, and mate in three moves.
T
THE GIUOCO PIANO.
HIS form of the Knight's opening, called by the Italians the
slow game, arises if, instead of moving his Kt. to B.3 on his
third move. Black should play B. to B.4., i.e.,
. P. to K.4. ., Kt. to K.B.3. „ B. to B.4.
■ P. to K.4. "■ Kt. to Q.B.3. ' B. to B.4.
White has now four moves at his disposal, viz., 4. P. to B.3
442
♦ KNOWLEDGE .
[Maiu;ii 17, 1882.
4. P. to Q.3. 4. Kt. to B.8. 4. Costloa. All tbcRo ihotob are ante,
but slow in thoir rSoct. Modem players incline towordii a more
iuoii*ivo lino of |>lny.
If Wliito pliiys' J. r. to B.3., with the intention of playing
P. to Q.I., when he would obtain a strong centro, the following play
would reault : —
P. to Q.4.
P. takes P.
Q.Kt. takes B.
P. to y.4, or (A.)
CnstloB.
Castles.
10.
13.
P. to B.3.
Kt. to B.S.
B. to Q.2.
B. takes B. (ch.)
Q. to Kt.3.
Q.Kt. to K.2.
Kt. to K.5.
Q.' to Kt.3.
. . I^HHLIfl
9.
12.
P. takes P.
B. tokt. 5 (ch.)
P. takes P.
K.Kt. takes I'.
Q.R. to K.H.
Q. Ukes P.
10.
P. takes B. " P. to K.Kt.3.
13. Q.K. to Q.sq., followed by 14. Castles with a strong attack.
Instead of 9. Kt. takes Kt.. White may also play 9. P. to Q.5..
a move adopted by Jlr. Steel, of Calcutta. This move cramps
Black's game very much, and unless he carefully opposes it, he
will get a bad game. Black might continue, 9. Kt. takes Kt.
Q. takes Kt.' ,j P. to Q A j^g Q- takes P.
KTTto K.27 ■ P. takes P. ' Kt. to B.l.
j„ Q. to Q.5. Castles Q.R.
Kt. to R.3.
It would obviously be bad to play 9. Kt. to R.4., as Black would
then most likely lose this piece by P. to Q.Kt.4. being eventually
played. Checking with the Queen on Black's tenth move would
also be bad, as White would play K. to B.sq. On the whole, we
think the move 9. P. to Q.5. is sound, and ought to obtain at least
a dran-n game.
,, ^ P. toB.3.
^f'^-" ^- Kt. to kt.3,
a move favoured and played often by Mr. Blackbume, who then
proceeded to bring his Q.Kt. over to his King's side. Should Black
Castle too hastily on his King's side. White would at once proceed
with an attack, by advancing P. to K.R.4.
P. to Q.3,
^Vhitc might also contmue with 5. —
B. to K.3.
^ Q.Kt. to Q.2.
^ P. to Q.3.
"■ P. to Q.3.
^ Kt. to B.sq.
■ P. to B.3T"
., Castles Q.R.
Kt. to^t3. ^" Q. to K.iJ.
If, on his sixth move. White proceeds with P. to K.5., Black ought
to obtain the better game, i.e.,
, P. to K.4. „ Kt. to K.B.3.
P. to K.4.
P. to B.3.
Kt. to Q.B.3.
5 P- to Q.4.
■ P. takes P.
6.
B. to B.4.
B. to B.4.
P. to K.5.
Kt. to B.3.
Black's best reply to this is 6. P. to Q.4. If, now, White replies with
7. P. takes Kt., a likely-looking move, Black will have a very good
and valid defence, i.e.,
P. takes Kt. g P. takes Kt.P. g B. to Kt.5.
P. takes B. ' E.lo Kt.sq. ' P. to B.3.
j(, Q. to K.2.(ch.) jj B. takes P. jg K. takes Q.
Q. toK.2. ■ Q. takes Q.(ch.) ' P. to Q.a.(ch.),
with the advantage.
Better than 7. P. takes Kt., is B. to Q.Kt.5., but even then Black
7.
rottld get the better game, i.e.,
7. "
13.
B. to Q.Kt.5.
kt. to K.5r
Kt^to B.3.
Castles.
P. takes Kt.
P. takes P.
B. to KTs.
Castles.
B. to Kt.5.
j^ P. to Q.R.4.
11.
B. takes Kt.(ch.)
P. takes B.
B. to K.3.
P. to K.B.3. " P. takes P.
ind Black has the better game.
(To ic continued.)
Kt. takes Kt.
P. to R.5.
P. to K.5.,
As pUyod in the match by Blackbume against Zukertort.
GAMES BY C0RBESPONDEN0E.—(Con/inti«ers wishing to complete their Sets are adnsed to make early applicatioa
to the Publishers, as no further reprints will be ordered.
TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
The terms of Annual Subscription to Knowledge are as foUowa: —
a. i.
To any address in the United Kingdom 10 10
To the Continent. Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Canada,
and the United States of America IS 0
To the East Indies, China, &c. [yii Brindisi) 18 I
All subscriptions are p.iyable in advance.
P. O. Orders and cheques should be made parable to the Publiahera,
Wtkan & Soxs, London, at the High liolbom Di!c sepals, so os to form a single
unit4d tiilio. Tho olijoct of this coalfsccnoc is easy enough
to understand. As in the harel.ell, tho daisy, and so many
other flowers, it has heen olFeeted by tho selective ogency
of hunihleliees and other insects, like the one whom I
found huried so deeply in its throat this morning. 'I'lie
tuhular form, with its stamens lian;,'ing out from
tho side, ensures tho fertilisation of tho flower much
lietter than the system of open petals ; ond so it lias been
brought about by the fact that uny variation in that direc-
tion was \niconsiiously favoured by tho insects, while
variations tho other way were universally neglect«^'d. IJut
while many other plants have hit upon this same device of
coalescence, few liave carried it so far as the daflbdil. In
tho lir-st place, the tube in the ti\c rayed flowers is formed
out of the petals alono ; but in the threo-rayod flowers, the
petals arc too few in number to make a sufficiently wide
tube, and .so the sepals or calyx-pieces are joined with them
in producing tho desired result Thus we can trace a
gradual progress from flowers like the iris and snowdrop,
where the sepals are distinctly dilTorent from the petals,
through flowers like the wild hyacinth, lilies, snowflake,
and flowering rush, whore all six pieces are equal and
simihir, to flowers like tho crocus, meadow saffron, and
(lafi'odii, where the six pieces are united together into a
long tube. But, furthermore, and in the second place, the
datibdil and the others of the narcissus kind have done
more than the mere ordinary tubular blossoms, inas-
asniuch as they have produced a singular outgrowth
in the shape of the crown or cup, which forms, as it were,
a vestibule to the tube, and thus still better ensures the
proper fertilisation of the flower. In some of the pink
tribe (amongst the tive-rayed flowers) we get a scale or
par.ipct on each petal in somewhat the same waj- ; but in
the daflbdil and its allies the crown is united and circular,
like the tube, though one can still trace six wavy lobes or
sinuosities on its edge. In some exotic members of the
narcissus group the crown is very small and rudimentary,
and is brilliantly coloured with red or orange, so that it
seems rather to act as a honey-guide for the bees than as
an additional aid to fertilisation ; but in the wild English
datTodil it has reached a very high state of development,
and occup-:es at least half the entire length of the blossom.
One word more as to its colour. The daflbdil is a pale
yellow, and it apparently depends mainly for impregnation
upon the visits of diurnal insects. Hence it is quite scent-
less, for its large size and brilliant colour suflice to attract
([uite enough visitors, without any necessity for the extra
allurement of sweet perfume. But many of the southern
species, like the jonquils of our flower gardens, have pure
white petals, and possess a very powerful jasmine odour.
Such white, strong-scented flowers always depend, in part
at least, upon night-flying moths, which are largely
attracted by perfume ; and, of course, no colour can be so
well perceived in the dusk of evening as a pure glossy
white. Ilencc the difference in hue between the two
kinds. At tho same time, tho southern varieties are also
fertilised by day-flying bees, and for these the frill of the
crown is prettily fringed with brilliant orange. Each
insect selects the plant that suits it best, and their joint
selection has thus produced the snowy petals and exqui-
sitely-coloured cup of the garden jonquil.
SPECIAL NOTICE TO OUR READERS
TiiREKPKNCK cacli Will be \y.M by tlio Pnblisliors for copies
Xos. 2, 3, 4, and 5. Apply or aililrcss Wyman & Sons, 75, Gn
Queen Street, Lomlon, W.C.
of
Great
A STUDY OF MINUTE LIFE.
I'.v IIknhv J. Slack, F.O.S., P'.R.M.S.
No. II.
rpilK editor will, it is lioped, allow the writer to explain
X that through the accident of his not receiving a proof
for correction, many typographical errors appear in the last
pa])or. The principal are, " cilian " for ci/intn, " injurious"
for in infiigioiia, in the sixth line from the bottom of the
first column ; "divided " instead of directed, eleventh line
from the bottom of second column ; and " analysis " for
aiialoi/i/, eighth line, p. .'(72.
If we were engaged in tracing life from its simplest
modifications upwards, we should now speak of those
objects, such as amri^ba-, which are composed entirely of
small masses of protojilasm, not built up into any positive
structure. Some notice of these is reserved for a future
paper, but it is best for the student to begin with objects
that can be obtained for certain, without difficulty, and
which are easy to observe. It may, however, be mentioned
now- that auKoboid creatures, in their ordinary and simplest
state, have no permanent distinction of parts. They put
forth prolongations and draw them in again ; portions that
were outside get inside, as they move on in a slobbery way,
and they swallow their food, not through any special aper-
ture, but anywhere, by flowing all round it
It is not uncommon to hear people talk about " homo-
geneous protoplasm," but as there is, and can be, no such
thing, it is not correct to describe any amoeboid object as
composed of it. Life is only manifested by the co-operation
of divers matters, highly complex in chemical constitution,
and able to perform different functions. The ciliated in-
fusoria, of which the Paramecium, spoken of in the former
paper, is a good example, is a little bag of skin sufficiently
firm to support the cilia, and full of the protoplasmic
material. When wo examine this material, wherever it is
found in a living state, we see a vast number of particles
in a viscid fluid. Their optical aspect suggests that they
are not all alike in molecular structure ; and if their ex-
treme minuteness did not render it impossible to separate
them for analysis, we should find they varied in composition.
Lumping altogether, particles and viscous fluid, the con-
stituents of protoplasm are found to resemble those of the
white of an egg. It belongs to a group of substances
found in all living things, and which carry on the chief
vital work. Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, o.xygen, sulphur,
and phosphorus all combine to build up the molecules of
this material, and the compound is in a state of such
delicate equilibrium that it is easily modified or decomposed.
The Paramecium, and similar creatures, take their food
in by a mouth, and in the early stages of knowledge con-
cerning them, the great German naturalist and micro-
scopist, Ehrenberg, thought they possessed a multiplicity of
stomachs, because the food particles were dispersed in
many little spaces. Their processes of digestion and as-
similation are probably carried on without the help of
special organs, though, no doubt, the particles seen in the
protoplasm have the power of performing different kinds
of work. The infusoria will not swallow evcrythintf, but
their selective faculty is very small, and they readily take
in particles of indigo or carmine, floating in the water
about them, although they are of no use to them as food.
Microscopists have long been fond of feeding them in this
way, as the colouring matters can be traced inside the
little animals. The cilia near the mouth bring ail sorts of
objects floating in the water towards it, and other cilia
make an inward current to suck in what the creatures
want. The appearances often seem to support the many-
stomached, or polygastric, theory, but the vacuoles in
Mahch 2i, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
445
which the food-particles assemble are not constant in their
position, and certainly do not possess any firm walls.
Although tho vacuole has not the structure of a vessel,
when food particles are assembled in its little open space,
it acts just like a real .stomach, and we must conclude that
fluids specially adapted for the work of digestion are pre-
pared l>y some of the visible granules and poured into it.
The nutritive products of the digestion ditl'use themselves
through the soft moist mass of the creature, and the useless
and used-up matters are excreted, in many species through
a definite anal aperture.
The organs of these transparent and minute creatures,
when they have such, are often impossible to trace. Para-
mecia, and many others, for example, have a contractile
vesicle which expands as if filling itself, and then con-
tracts rhythmically, and it is supposed from the analogies
oflTered by larger creatures, that these vesicles, whose walls
are invisible, are connected with a series of tubes through
which fluids are impelled for both respiratory and excretory
purposes.
However small may be tho creatures and their particles
of food, the composition of the latter, no doubt, resembles
that of higher animals, and has to be digested and assimi-
lated by a succession of similar processes. The microscopic
plants supply complex nitrogenous as well as starchy
materials, and the sarcode of the microscopic animal
resembles in ultimate composition the flesh of higher
creatures.
The hay infusion is sure to supply some animalcules,
showing an advance of structure upon that of the Para-
mecium. A little oval creature, called Stylonichia, scarcely
so long as the largest Paramecium, is common, and has,
besides swimming cilia, some stiff bristles at each end, and
with these it can walk briskly over any substance. There
are many other animalcides similarly provided. The skin,
or integument, in some cases acts like the craVi's shell, or
the insect's external skeleton of the homy substances called
chitin.
Let us for a moment consider the indications of nerve
power, without nerve structure, afforded by the creatures
we have noticed. First comes the perpetual movers. The
action of their surroundings upon their bodies causes the
molecules that do rudimentary nerve work to respond to
certain impressions by stimulating the cilia to their rapid
motion. The creatures that can be quiet when in full
vigour, and vary their movements with apparent purpose,
prefigure the voluntary actions of higher beings. The
little animals that can run, or swim, exercise something
that prefigures choice as to which set of locomotive organs
they employ. The reader may ask. Have they any sense of
pleasure in their busy and merry-looking existence ? To
this very natural query it is diflicult to give even a con-
jectural reply. Consciousness of existence could not be
conceived of them, but a feeling of pleasure may long pre-
cede any kind of know-ing, and we may gratify our own
sympathies, and not be far wrong if we deem them happy
in their little wav.
NIGHTS WITH A THREE-INCH
TELESCOPE.
By "A Fellow of the Eoyal AsTRoyoMicAL Societv."'
PENDING the appearance in the eastern and south-
eastern sky of the spring and summer constellations,
we shall devote our present night to an examination of the
more strictly circumpolar ones. Our original intention
was to have gone over Virgo and the neighbouring region
of the heavens. This, however, had, we now think, better
be deferred until that constellation approaches nearer to
the meridian during the working hours of the ordinary
amateur observer. Moreover, more than one of the con-
stellations we propose to in\estigate is now in a very
favourable position. First, then, let us turn to, perhaps,
the best known of them all — Ursa Major (Map, p. 3f Majoris, examined with the very highest power at
the disposal of the observer will furnish an absolutely
crucial test of the excellence at once of his eye and tele-
scope. 2.3 ITrsa> Majoris is rather a wide pair, but interest-
ing from the difterent tints of its components. .57 is a pretty
pair for a similar reason, but very much closer than the
last ; it is unnumbered in the map. 65, a fine triple,
is also unnumbered, but may be recognised to the south
of \ on the boundary of Canes Venatici. y X^rsa- Majoris
lies in a fine field of stais. This constellation, we may re-
mark, swarms with double and triple stars, but as in a large
proportion of cases they are of less than the Gth magnitude,
the map takes no account of them, and it would be use-
less to give their co-ordinates, unless the observer's in-
strument were equatorially mounted. Several interesting
nebulas are to be found in Ursa !Major, but in the case of
the student for whom these papers are written, it can only
be by fishing. If he will conceive an equilateral triangle,
to be described with a and 2■^ Ursa? Majoris at the ex-
tremities of its base ; then, by sweeping about to the right
of its apex with the very lowest power he possesses, he
may hit upon the two nc-buL-e 81 and 82 Messier, 1° apart.
About 2" (four diameters of the moon) south-east of ft is
another nebula, 97 Messier, a pale circular object, looking
like the ghost of a planet. An imaginary line di'awn
diagonally from a through y Ursa^, and continued nearly
as far again, will strike upon IjIV. 43, an oval nebula.
Half-way, too, between /3 and 97 Messier lies Ii,lV. 40. This
will require some gazing at with so small an aperture.
And now we will direct our telescope, armed with a power
of 160, to the Pole Star, which will be seen as depicted in
Fig. 24.
This is sometimes alleged to be a test for a 3-inch tele-
scope, but it is not so. Dawes has seen the companion with
a 1 -S-inch object glass, and the eagle-eyed Ward, of Belfast,
with only 1 •25-inch aperture '. North-west of ;, Ursa;
Minoris will be found tt', a wide and easy object.
Cassiopeia is one of the constellations through which
the Milky Way passes, and hence it affords innumerable
rich fields and clusters to repay the observer who sweeps
and fishes over it ; y, to begin with, lies in a fine field
of small stars. jj Cassiopeia, shown in Fig. 25, as
viewed with a power of 160, is a beautiful object, the
446
KNO^A/'LEDGE
[March 24, 1882.
>e it noticed, are not open to doubt or question : —
The University boats go over the 4^ miles course on a
good tide in alx>ut '1\ minutes. We shall not be far
wrimg in saying that a very good racing l>oat would cover
4 miles on still xisile.r in afjout 20 minutes, or would move
at the rat<' of 1 mile in .5 minutes (note that whether »
boat is travelling with or against the stream the rower
works as if in still water, for the boat shares the motion of
the stream). Certainly this speed is attained in spurts,
and a still higher speed in sharp bursts over a short cour'-' .
A mile in •") minutes, means ■■)-">2 yards per minute, or .3^7
yards (or 17'G feet) per second. This speed is not abso
hitely constant even in the lightest and best of our racing
boats ; but as e%ery one knows who has watched the pro-
gress of a bumping race when the pursuing l>oat has its
nose very near to or o\crlapping the stern of the pursued,
falls off perceptibly between the strokes. Still the falling-
off is very much less than in the best boats of half-a-century
ago. We may fairly take 19 feet per second as the
maximum velocity attained just at the end of stroke, and
16 feet per second as the minimum velocity just before the
beginning of the ne.xt .stroke.
Now, 40 strokes to the minute is pretty nearly the
maximum attained even in spurts, the tendency being (as I
shall presently explain; to diminish rather than to increase
the numljer of strokes per minute. At any rate, 40 strokes
per minute is very quick rowing indeed. If, then, tlie boat
travels 1 7 '6 feet per minute, she covers about half as much
again per stroke, or 26-.") feet. In other words, a boat
travels very nearly nine yards at each stroke, in the case of
an absolutely first-class and perfi>ctly trained " eight " in a
good craft, rowing at top speed.
Now, it requires, with an oar suited for an outrigged
craft, a very good reach forward and a good puU home, to
give the blade a sweep of six yards in the water ; and,
taking account of slip through the water and of the arc
nature of the blade's motion, we may consider five yards
an unusually good rffective sweep. Now, with the old-
fashioned stroke, the oar was in the water at least twice
as long as in the air, din-ing each complete stroke (from
feather to feather). If, then, this stroke were rowed now,
the oar would be two-thirds of the fortieth part of a
minute in the water, during which time the boat, with tlie
motion already considered (whether supposed to be com-
municated by previous effective strokes or by the rest of
the crew rowing properly), would travel six yards ; so that
rowing the old fashioned stroke in the old-fashioned way,
an oarsman would not be driving the boat at all, but
simply following with the blade of his 0£ir the (relative)
motion of the past rushing water.
It is obvious, then, that the stroke which was so
effective in 1840 will not do now. It is equally certain
that the requisite rapidity of propidsion caiuiot be attained
by rowing the same sort of stroke, but more to the
mimito ; for experience sliows that no crew can keep up
so quick a stroke as would be required — rowing full length,
be it noticed, for else the quickening would do no good.
Nor can men take a much longer stroke (in the same
time), e\en with tlie modern sliding seats. Leverage is
lost with increase of length : and though up to a cer-
tain point this consid(>ration must be overlooked, it
tells very much when the question is of adding a
foot or so of forwai'd reach to the reach which had
already l>rought the oar to an inclination of some 40
degrees to the mid position when the levei-age is greatest
The sliding seats add something to the old length of stroke.
March 34, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
447
and doubtless with advantage, but wo were considering
their use in tlie above calculation. More could certainly
not be added, without bringing the oar to a position in
which a large part of the oarsman's strength would be
wasted in pushing the water from the boat instead of
parallel to the boat's leugtli.
It is, then, a simple matter of demonstration that the
stroke must be changed, in the modern racing craft, in
respect of the time during which the oar is in the water.
If a greater rapidity of propulsion is required, as we have
proved, and neither the number of strokes per minute, nor
the length of the stroke, can be increased beyond a certain
point, which does not suffice to give the necessary rapidity
of propulsion, it follows of necessity that the oar must be
a shorter time in the water and a longer time out of the
water.
This is commonly misunderstood, especially by persons
who have never rowed in light racing craft. They say,
the stroke must be kept " long in the \\ ater," and in one
use they are perfectly right : the stroke of the oar in the
ater must be as long as possible in distance, but not in
'nil''. But then "comes answer like an Absey book," You
inhocate a quick stroke, and more than so many — say from
torty to forty-four strokes per minute — should not be taken.
This again is true, the oar must be dashed through the
water quickly (or rather, for in good rowing there is very little
slip, must be dashed down sharply against the water and the
1 loat lifted along by sharp strong pressure against the water),
'•ut not too often to the minute. But then, again, comes
ill the objection. That means a slow feather, for if each
! jke from feather to feather occupies a certain time,
^iii)rtening the stroke means lengthening the feather ; and
every moment that the oar is out of the water the boat is
losing speed. Again we replj', the objection is valid ; but
it is a necessity of the case that to give the swift, sharp
impulse to the long, but quickly drawn, stroke, the oarsman
must take a longer time in the feather. Of course, the best
thing of all would be to have as many strokes as possible
pir minute, the longest possible stroke, taken in the
shortest possible time, with the longest possible oars,
and in the lightest possible boats. But the rowers
IjL-ing limited in their powers, the choice must be
made between long dragging strokes with lightning
feather, and long but swift strokes with less rapid
recovery ; and as the long dragging strokes would simply
not propel a boat at all at the swift pace of a modern
racing craft, the long, swift stroke must he taken. (Here
Pendragon, of the iuy'eres A, B. The
lower ends of the wires are immersed in small quantities of
mercury, M, M'. Two copper wres, C, C, pass from the
mercury through the lower portions of the tubes. A, B,
(which merge into one tube at D), and thence outside the
lamp. The wires are then soldered to the portions of the
socket connected to the machine. The tubes. A, B, and
their continuation, D, are filled ^vith plaster of Paris, P,
and wool, W, keeping the copper wires and mercury in
position.
The Maxim lamp (Fig. 4) exhibits another fonn of
contact or connection. The globe is about '2^ inches in
diameter, the neck. A, B, being turned inwards until the
aperture at C, is reduced from about an inch to a quarter
of an inch. A glass rod, CD, is then fused on at C, and
has two platinum wires passing through it. Externally the
wires are continued to E and F (outside the neck), so that
in fitting the lamp into its socket, the wires come into
contact with two insulated springs, each of which is con-
nected to one of the machine wires. Inside the lamp, the
platinum wires are flattened and bent into a kind of hook
(H). The filament, which is fiat and in the shape of a
gridiron, or letter il (for Maxim), is made from paper, so
that in cutting it out, there is little or no difficulty in
making the extremities considerably broader than the other
■H8
KNOWLEDGE •
[March 24, 1882.
portion. A amall circular platinum washor is placed on
one face of oixch ciid, tlii' hookoil cud of tho pliitinuin
wire on tlio otlmr, niid a Kiimll l)olt(!) ])aSHCH throuj;li the
wholf. Hiiial! nuts screwed on to tlie liolt clump tlie three
parts, and so ensure tin- oonncction.
Tlio Britisli Lamp (Fig. 5) is perhaps the most recently
oftered to the public. It consists of a glass globe, 2i
inches in diameter, continued by a comparatively long
glass tube. The filament is made from cocoa-nut fibre,
and is attached at A and B by means of small carbon
tubes to two short platinum wires, AC and BD. Two
other platinum wires, Kl<' and GH, are fused into the
lower part of tlie glas.s tvilie, FC and C!II being lengths of
copper wire connecting; tli<' platinum.?. Externally, copper
wires connect the platinum to the wires from the machine.
It will doubtleiis l>e noticed that the Bimilarity between
the various lamps is, at least in regard to the principles
involved, very great. The slight variations or difTen-nceg
may lie classed under two heads — viz. (1), the substances
from which the filamentR are made, and (2) the methods of
connecting the filaments to the external circuit Platinum,
so far as is at present known, is the oidy substance avail
able for passing throinjh the glass, being the only metal
which will fuze into that substance — that is to say, it is
the only metal which expands and contracts at the same
rate as glass on an increase or decrease of tempera-
ture. Its use is, therefore, inevitable. Swan, Edison,
and Maxim take their platinums from the filament to the
outside of the bulb. Lane-Fox, however, connects the
interior to the exterior by means of mercury — a de\-ice
which appears useless, for equally good contact could be
made by attaching the copper to the platinum. The copper
wires inside the British lamp are evidently used on the
score of economy, platinum costing alwut ^.os. to 308. per
ounce. Whether it is true economy or not, remains to le bought
for .'^s.
Great efforts have been made by the difierent exhibitors
to secure the public favour, and in some cases these efforts
have been successful ; but there are times when we detect
traces of a want eitlier of ordinary energj- or of practical
knowledge, and it is to the absence of such shortcomings
that we must look for an explanation of much of the
favour with which Mr. Edison's exhibits are received.
Although he has a large staff in London, most of them are
Europeans, and are, therefore, not open to the charge
some people seem disposed to hurl at them, as accounting
for their diligence and enthusiastic loyalty to their employer,
\\z., that of being Americans. It would be somewhat
invidious to draw any distinction, or to refer to any par-
ticular instance of inexperience, but we may mention
one which came under our notice some years since.
Shortly after the transfer of the telegraphs to the Govern-
ment, a number of men were sent to construct a line of
telegraph in a woody district not a thousand miles from
London. They did their work during the winter months,
and followed out to the letter instructions to keep the line
as clear of the road as possible. They did their work too
well, for when the spring and summer came, and covered the
trees with shoots and leaves, the wires were enveloped
and lost sight of, and as a consequence the slightest shower
of rain rendered them useless. The result of this want of
experience was that the line had to be taken down and
reconstructed. Electric lighting, however, is a young
industry, and some time must elapse before all its votaries
acquire their necessary information
There are other points of great interest in connection
with incandescent lighting, which, however, we cannot
refer to now, but will avail ourselves of the opportunity
in our next notice.
THE GREAT PYRAMID.
By the Editor.
rr^HUS far all has been tolerably plain sailing. Of the
X. astronomical use and purpose (not quite the same
thing, be it noticed) of the Great Gallery, there can be small
room for doubt, when we find (1) every feature in all the
passages and in the Great Gallery correspond with the re-
(luinnients of the theory, and (2) many features explicable
in no other way.
March 24, 1882.]
KNOW^LEDGE
449
But here our difficulties begin. Astronomy no longer
lends its aid when we ask why the builder of the Great
Pyramid wanted to have an astronomical observatory as
well as a tomb. To begin with, I suppose Egyptologists
are quite clear that a main purpose of each pyramid was
that it should serve for a tomb. And I suppose, further,
that this being so, it was essential that each pyi-aniid, in-
cluding that one which we have been regarding hitherto
only in its astronomical aspect, should be as nearly as
possible completed before the death of its future occupant.
Tliere may be, for aught I know, some reason to believe
tliat in the days of the pyramids an Egyptian king might
lie able in some way to assure liimself of the bonajides of
his successors, and that they would continue the work
which he had begun and more than half completed. But
it is very difficult to imagine that this really was the
case. Human nature must in those days have resembled
1 letty closely human nature in our own time ; and it
stoms as unlikely that a kiug could trust in his
MKcissors so far as to believe they would e.xpend
V.u-j,!- >ums of money and a great amount of labour, in
CI .uipkting a work in which they had no direct or actual
interest, as that, supposing he trusted them to this degree,
their conduct after his death would have justified his
confidence. Thus, when we find that the Great Pyramid
was actually completed in the most careful and perfect
manner, we have very strong reason for believing it to
have been all but completed during the lifetime of the
king, its builder — if it was indeed intended for his tomb.
1 must confess that the exclusively tombic theory of the
(Ireat Pyramid (at least) had always seemed to me utterly
incredible, even before I advanced what seems to me the
only reasonable interpretation of its erection. One may
admit that the singular taste of the Egjptian kings for
monstrous tombs was carried to a preposterous extent,
but not to an extent quite so preposterous as the
■ xclusively tombic theory would require. Of course,
iif'n we see that the details of the gi-eat edifice
licate unmistakably an astronomical object, which
■ ■as regarded as of such importance as to justify
the extremest care, our opinion is strengthened that the
' yramid was not solely meant for a tomb. For this would
ing in another absurdity, scarcely less than that in\olved
the exclusively tombic theory of structures so vast, if
■ en they were non-astronomical, — this, namely, that the
liryptian kings thought the celestial bodies and their
movements so especially related to thftn, tliat their long
liome must be astronomically posited ^^^th a degree of care
lar surpassing that which has ever* been given to an astro-
■luical observatory. Common sense compels us to believe
at whether the Great Pyramid was meant for a tomb or
t, its astronomical character was given to it for some
ipose relating to the liv-ing king who had it built. (I
Hjpose Egyptologists are absolutely certain that the Great
I 'yramid ivas built by one king, and, therefore, within a
f' \v decades of years.)
Now, it is not reasonable to suppose King Cheops'
i-pose was simply scientific. We may fairly take it for
- mtcd that the king who expended such vast sums and
■ rificed so many lives to build for himself a tomb, was
t a man taking a disinterested interest in science, or
•->en ready to help the priests of his day to regulate
religious ceremonials by astronomical observations con-
ducted with reference only to general religious relations.
To put the matter plaiiily, the builder of the Great
Even in our own time, thoagh we pret greater accuracy in our
observations than Cheops obtained in his pyramid, we have not to
give anything like the same degree of care to the work.
Pyramid must have thought of himself first ; next, of his
dynasty ; then, perhaps, of the priesthood (though always
with reference to the bearing of religious ceremonies on the
welfare of himself and his dynasty) ; lastly, of his people,
as part of his wealth and power. For abstract science he
cared not, we may be well assured, a single jot I do not
wish to suggest that Cheops was wickedly selfish. I have
no doubt he was thoroughly persuaded that he was carry-
ing out the purpose of his existence in expending much
treasure and many lives on his own well-being (both before
and after death). But there can be no doubt this xcas the
real object of his expcnditvire of time, and wealth, and
human life on the great structure which bears his name.
Now, our thoughts arc at once turned by these con-
siderations to that one sole line along which astronomy
ever has been followed with the hope of material profit ;
and we are led to remember that if there is one idea which
has more strongly taken possession of the human race than
any other, or one which more than any other is associated
with the astronomy of ancient Egypt, it is the idea that
the stars in their courses rule the fate of men and nations.
When we remember that even now, when science has
shown the utter incorrectness of the ideas that underlie
the ancient system of astrology, this system has its
infiuence over millions. Even now the terms belonging to
the system remain part of our language. Our very religion
has all its times and seasons regulated in ways derived
from the astrological sj-stem of old Egypt. Our Sunday-
is the old Chaldwan and Egj'ptian quarter-month rest day,
and the Jewish Sabbath is this tiuarter-month rest day
associated with the belief in the malefic iniluence of the
planet (Saturn), which formerly ruled the last day of the
week (still called Saturday or Saturn's-day). The morning
and evening sacrifices of the Jews and their new moon festi-
vals were manifestly astronomical in origin — in other words
astrological (for astronomy was nothing except as astrology
to the old Chakla>ans and Egyptians). The Feast of the
Passover, however later associated with other events, was
derived from the old astrological observance of the passage
of the sun (the Passing over of the Sun-God) across the
equator, ascendingly ; while the Feast of Tabernacles was in
like manner ruled by the passage of the sun over the
equator descendingly. Our calendar rules for Easter and
other festivals would never, we may be well assured,
have been made to depend on the moon, but for their
original derivation from astronomical (that is astrological)
ceremonial.*
When we remember that the astronomy of the time of
Cheops was essentially astrology, and astrology a most
important part of religion, we begin to see how the erec-
tion of the mighty mass of masonry for astronomical
purposes nia\' be explained, — or, rather, we see how, being
certainly astronomical, it must be explained. Inasmuch as
it is an astronomical building, erected in a time when
astronomy was astrology, it was erected for astrological
purposes. It was in this sense a sort of temple, erected,
indeed, for the peculiar benefit of one man or of a single
dynasty ; but as he was a king in a time when being a
king meant a great deal, what benefited him he doubtless
regarded as a benefit also to his people : in whatever sense
* The Jewish people, when they left Egypt after their long
sojourn there, had doubtless become thoroughly accustomed to
the religious observances of the Egyptians (at any rate there is not
the slightest reference even to the Sabbath before the sojourn in
Egypt), and were disposed not only to retain these observances,
but to associate with them the Egyptian superstitions. Wo know
this, in fact, from the Bible record. Moses could not — no man ever
could — turn a nation from observances once become part of their
vcr)' life, but he could, and did, deprive them of their superstitions
character.
450
KNOWLEDGE
[March 24, 1882.
tlio Great Pyramid had a ivligious sigiiiflcanco with regard
to him, it had also a national rttligious signiticancc.
It would havii l)ocn worth Cheo])s' whili- to have this
•^reat astrological observatory erected, even if by means of
it he could learn only what was to happen, the times and
seasons which wore likely to be fortunate or unfortunate
for him or his race, and so forth. lUit in his day, a.s in
ours, astrology claimed not only to read l)iit also to rule
the stars. Astrologers did not pretend that they could
actually regulate the movements of the heavenly bodies,
but they claimed that by careful observation and study
they could show how the best advantage could be t.iki-n of
the good dispositions of the stars, and their malefic in-
fluences best avoided. They not only claimed this, but
doubtless many of them believed it ; and it is quite certain
that those who were not astronomers ('.'•., astrologers)
were fully persuaded of the truth of the system which,
even when the discovery of the true nature of the planets
has entirely disproved it, retains still its hold upon the
minds of the multitude.
There is, so far as I can see, no other theory of the
Great Pyramid which even comes near to giving a common-
sense interpretation of the combined astronomical and
sepulchral character of this wonderful structure. If it is
certain on the one hand that the building was built astro-
nomicalh-, and was meant for astronomical observation, it
is eiiually certain that it was meant for a tomb, that it was
closed in very soon after the king died for whom it was
built, that, in fine, its astronomical value related to himself
alone. As an astrological edifice, a gigantic horoscope for
him and for him only, we can understand its purport,
much though we may marvel at the vast expenditure of care,
labour, and treasure at which it was erected. Granted full
faith in astrology (and we kno\\- there was such faith), it
was worth while to build even such a structure as the
Great Pyramid ; just as, granted the ideas of Egyptians
about burial, we can understand the erection of so mighty
a mass, and all save its special astronomical character.
Of no other theory, I venture to say, than that which com-
bmes these two strange but most marked characteristics of
the Egyptian mind, crni this be said.
THE "SATURDAY REVIEW'S" COilET.
Cissio.— Why, thit is a more exquisite song than the other.
THE effect of [Mr. Proctor's] note of alarm was promptly seen iu
tlie queer homily in the Spectator, of which we have already taken
notice, having for its text this prophecy of Mr. Proctor, as one " of
whose astronomical authority and ability nobody doubts." Upon
this undoubted fact were founded some characteriatic speculations
as to the moral attitude with which the inevitable doom is likely to
be met as the day draws near, which day Mr. Proctor would doubt-
less be able to fix with still greater "precision. The Menacing
Comet has, it appears, since been "scratched" in the pages
of Knowledge. But the title of the essay, and what is drawn
out as the line of proof, epitomised by ns [querv, as epitomised
by the Saturday KertVio— Ed.] shows to our "mind an tinmis-
takablo desire, however it may be sought now to turn it off
as a playfiil freak of science, to make the reader's ilesh creep.
Hov: far, indeed, so many of us as aro not dead with fright
)iiai/ have indications vouchsafed them of the cominr/ catas-
Irophe does not yet appear. Nor does it very much matter. All
must soon be over. " Mr. Proctor's name will have one instant of
lurid fame, in which that and everything else connected with our
corporeal life will expire." In a few weeks— possibly in a few days,
or even hours, in the words of Mr. Proctor— the sun, excited for a
while to intense heat and splendour, will resume his usual temi)era-
ture. his usual lustre ; but there will be no one to bask in his genial
beams, no popular science teacher to tell of all he has done or is hence-
forth to do. [And no Saturday Uaiew to give treatises on science
for review to "society writers," reduced to the abject necessity of
" stealing their thunder " from the authors they criticise.— Ed.]" It
may yet bo that some spirits of a bolder and" more hopeful turn,
long trustful of popular scionco prophotn, mny bethink them that
out of the myriads, not to my milliona, of Ihcso menacing bodiea
that are said to circulate round the sun with the same cliance
of precipitation into his mass, i( would be odd if in the vrholt
ranyc of hiitorical, or, let 1M any, ytoloijical time, tueh
a calailrophe had vercr taken place before. Yet, whether
any such dreaded cmnh has come oil or not, bore at least
we are. There luis been, imlccd, a strong impression that the un-
iconled digturbanee of the nun') tiirfacc, noted at once by Mr.
Carrimjton and Mr. llod-jmn, on Sept. 1, 1859, u-at d\ie to the
inrush of a comet ["two meteors" it sboold bo. — Ed.] into f/ie cndoa<
mass of the sun with the utmost material volume that can ]ie
assigned to then fdmy lolatilc portintt of the sky, what jreat acces-
nion cnn we suppose any one among them to he sinyhj capable of
bringing to the x-ist eosmical centre of light and heat? Any parti-
cularly nervous person may as welt Ring a pinch of snufi into tha
fire, and see how it affects a thermometer upon the opjwsitc wall.
After nil our advance in scientific observation and theory for the
last fifty years, are wo really nearer to any definite knowledge of
the material constituents or the physical conditions of these myste-
rious wanderers of oar system ? "What are comets made of ? "
asked a French lady of the most distinguished savant of the time.
" Madame, I do not know." " Then what is the use of being an
Academician ? " " Madame, that I may be able to say I do not
know." It would never do for an oracle of popular scieru-e to have
it thought there was anything he did not know. — Saturday Revievo
for March 18, 1882.
[The reader may find it interesting to compare the following five
extracts, respectively, with the five italicised passages above. — Ed.]
Supposing there really is a possibility that our sun may one day,
tliruugli the arrival of some very large comet travelling directly
towards him, share the fate of the suns whose outbursts I have
described above, tee might he destroyed unawares, or we might be
aware for several weeks of the approach of the destroying cnmet. —
From "Myths and Marvels of Astronomy," 1877, by the Editor.
If among the comets travelling in regular attendance upon the
sun there be one whose orbit intersects the sun's globe, then that
comet must several times ere this have struck the sun, raising him
temporarily to a destructive heat. Such a comet must have a
period of enormous length, for the races of animals now existing
upon the earth must all have been formed since that conieVs last visits
on the assumption, be it remembered, that the fall of a large comet
upon tlie sun — or, rather, the direct passage of the stm through tha
meteoric nucleus of a large comet — would excite the sun to destruc-
tive heat. We may fairly believe that all comets of the destmctiTe
sort have been eliminated. — From " Myths and Marvels," IST^j
by the Editor.
I am not siu-e but that we may regard the meteors which seem to
have fallen on the sun on Sept. 1, 1859, as bodies travelling in (A«
track of the comet of 1843, just as the Xovcmber meteors, seen in
1S67-8-9, &c., until 1872, were bodies certainly following in the
track of the telescopic comet of 1866. — From " Mvthsand Marvels,"
1877.
The dread of the possible evils which might accrue if the earth
encountered a comet will possibly be diminished by the considera-
tion of the extreme tenuity of these ohject^t. — The Editor, in Bjiow-
ledge for November 11, ISSl.
To the astronomer, the appearance of so many comets — some vi
them large ones — has been full of interest, because he hopes by the
application of the new methods of research discovered within the
last quarter of a century to solve some of the mysteries with which
the whole subject is still fraught, despite a number of interesting
discoveries which have recently been made.— The Editor, in Know-
ledge tor Xovember 4, 1881.
TRICYCLES IN 1882.
Bv JOHX Bbowxixo.
SE\'ERAL correspondents have requested mc to give my reasons
for preferring the machines I have named as in the foremost
rank in the previous article, and as I cannot reply to them indi-
vidually, I will endeavour briefly to furnish such iiiformation here.
First, then, as regards the Kucker Tricycle. This is the only
open-fronted, rear-steering machine in which the pedals arc 80
placed that if the rider stands on them he adds to the stability of
the machine by keeping the hind steering-wheel more firmly on the
ground, while the pedals, beiuc; well under the rider, give the rider
more power, pariicularly in liill-ri.liii','. with Ii'--- fatiirniv .-Vnother
March 24, 1882.]
• KNOVVTLEDGE
451
great advantage the machine possesses is that it can be steered by
either or both hands, and having a chain to cacli wheel, it is a
Irue duuble-drii:er. In most of the opcu-fronted, rear-stccring
machiucs there is a tendency, when travelling down-hill, from the
weight of the rider being in front, for the liind wheel to leave the
ground. When this is the case, the power of steering is lost just
when it is most wanted.
The Monarch I liave selected for its originality, good workman-
ship, portability, and lightness. These good qualities are obtained
by dispensing witli all levers, chains, cog-wheels, or other gearing.
The pedals are in tliL' form of a stirrup, and are hung on the
cranks.
There are no more bearings in the Monarch than there are in a
bicycle, and all bearings are ball bearings. The brake acts on both
wheels, and it is a true double-driver. It would be better if the
bruko acted on the hubs of the wheels, or on drums, instead of on
the tires, and sonic persons would prefer the machine if the wheels
could bo made larger than forty inches, but small wheels are
stronger, safer, and lighter than lai-ge ones, and a machine with
small wheels can be driven much easier than one with large ones
against that bugbear of tricyclists, a strong head wind.
The National Tricycle I mentioned for its lightness and excel-
lent workmanship, but the lightness seems to have been exagge-
rated, for a macluno which was supposed to weigh 65 lbs. proves to
weigh 80 lbs.
The Improved Omnicycle solves in the best manner yet contrived
the application of speed-changing gear to a tricycle. It gives the
rider a command of thiee different speeds, which can be changed
without stopping the machine. The gearing is strong, and is not
likely to get out of order. It seems to me probable that the power
of applying changeable gearing to a tricycle, so as to adapt it to the
varying inclinations of the road or their condition, will, when the
machine has been perfected, cause it to be generally preferred for
road-riding, or at least for touring, to the bicycle.
In my former paper I have described the Humber tricycle, a'nd
spoken of it a.'; the fastest machine yet made. I have, therefore,
been asked if I strongly recommend this machine. 1 reply that 1
do for speed, but I think this has been gained at a sacrifice of
comfort, and, to a certain extent, of safety. The Humber has no
foot rests, and this greatly detracts from the comfort and safety of
) the rider when running downhill.
The new Rotary Coventry has the chain in the centre. It is one
of the lightest machines made. The throw of the cranks can be
altered at pleasure. It makes only two tracks, is an open-fronted
machine, has ball-bearings to all parts, and is the most perfect of
all machines in steering. This is due to the fact that it is steered
by means of two wheels, which are moved by one rod in opposite
directions.
The machine can be turned round in a circle one foot less than
its own length. None of our fastest riders have ridden the Coventry
Eotary in races. If they would do so, I think the machine would
prove among the fastest machines made, probably coming verj- close
to, and possibly equalling the Humber. The Coventry Rotary is an
excellent luggage carrier, one of the most important advantages
that can be possessed by a tricycle.
Scarcely a day passes without my being asked : " Which is the
best tricycle ? " It would be about as easy to answer another
question. " What is the best thing to have for dinner ? " So much
in this case would depend upon the eater, and in the first case
on the rider. Still a few hints may guide intending riders in the
choice of a machine.
For a man about 9 stone I would recemmeud a special Salvo, with
46-in. driving-wheels, geared down to 10, if the country is hilly ;
or, perhaps better still, a Monarch, with 36-in. driving-wheels. A
ridor who wishes to obtain speed apart from other considerations,
should select from the Humber, the Premier, or the Rucker, the
last being probably the best of the three, because it is a true double-
diiver, and has a double break. For hill riding the Humber, the
geared-down Devon, the improved Oninicycle, or the Rucker are
all good. For a very heavy man the Salvo, with 48-in. wheels and
1-in. tires, is excellent, and so would be many other machines, if the
makers were asked to make them equally strong for a specially heavy
rider.
THE DUCHESS OF CONXAUGHT'S ILLNESS.
n^UE Lancet publishes the "result of an inquirj- into the sanitary
X condition of the Duke of Connaught's house at Bagshot-park.
Dr. W. S. Playfair states that he wTites this notice at the suggestion
of the Duke of Connaught, as a matter of general interest to the
meilical profession, and in the hope that this instance of the danger
which may arise from faulty construction and workmanship in the
system of drainage may direct attention to the paramount im-
portance of questions of this kind. These defects are believed to
have led directly to the Duchess of Connaught's late serious illness,
from which she is now happily entirely convalescent. It appears
that the present house at I3agshot-park is not that long
occupied by the late Sir James Clark, but an entirely new
building, recently erected at a cost of from £30,000 to £'W,000.
Considerable pains were taken in the arrangement and venti-
lation of the drains, but not only was the system adopted in
itself defective ; the work was in many instances so carelessly car-
ried out that it is surprising that in this new and costly mansion
graver results did not follow. As a matter of fact, offensive smells
had long been perceived about the house, but no one suspected their
origin, or realised the danger they were likely to cause. Many of the
inmates, however, had suffered from various forms of indisposition,
such as sore throat, diarrhoea, and a general senso of heaviness and
mafaise, and those generally affected new-comers. About a fort-
night after the accouchement of her Royal Highness the Duchess
of Connaught, symptoms ominous of blood-poisoning presented
themselves. Happily these were promptly recognised by Dr.
Playfair, who has bestowed especial attention on the treatment
of the puerperal state, and the only efficient means of cure was
adopted, namely, instant removal. It is, however, with the cause
of the perilous occurrence of incipient blood-poisoning that Dr.
Playfair's statement is chiefly concerned. It may at first sight
seem incredible, but it is the fact tint the elaborately con-
structed system of baths, drains, and waste-pipes communicated
directly with the soil drains of the building, and by a Machia-
vellian poUcy, which would appear to be the pastime of
modern builders, pipes which ought to have been stopped
were left open, and the poisonous gas which rises from foecal
accumulations was actually conducted, in sundry ingenious and
wonderful ways, into the very apartments it was particularly
desired to preserve from possible infection. The professedly
"sanitary" constructors are, if possible, the least to be trusted. It
would seem to be the common practice of these remarkable persons
to ventilate the house-drains, and therefore, of course, the sewers
generally, into bedrooms. We are repeatedly hearing of this piece
of wantonness. Probably, in six cases out of ten the waste-pipes
of baths and cisterns, which are never cleared by a current of
water, except at the rare moment when a bath or cistern ** runs
over," communicate directly with a soil-jiipe. It is well that
the opportunity offered by this important instance of a wide-spread
peril has been so ably utilised. The state of affairs at Bagshot,
which Dr. Playfair has been not merely permitted, but commissioned,
t© disclose, may be taken as typical of that which prevails probably
throughout the class of modern and what are misleadingly called
sanitary houses. Dr. Playfair says he has long been satisfied that sani-
tary defects have often much to do with grave forms of illness after
child-birth, the origin of which illness cannot otherwise be traced.
He mentions two or three cases in which exposure to sewer-gas, as
he believes, caused puerperal disease ; they were cured by removal.
Fortunately, in the ease of the Duchess of Connaught, her symp-
toms did not commence for more than a fortnight after her confine-
ment ; and her removal, too, was immediately followed by a most
remarkable and instmctive change for the better.
Viviseltiox. — It is the notion of such absolute despotism as shall
j\istify, not merely taking life, but converting the entire existence
of the animal into a misfortune, which we denounce as a brutal
misconception of the relations between the higher and the lower
creatures, and an utter anachronism in the present stage of human
moral feeling. A hundred years ago, had physiologists frankly
avowed that they recognised no claims on the part of the brutes
which should stop them from torturing them, they would have been
only on the level of their contemporaries. But to-day they arc
behind the age ; ay, sixty years behind the legislature and the por i-
Irish gentleman who "ruled the houseless wilds of Connemara. '
and had the glory of giving his name to Martin's Act. How their
claim for a "free vivisecting table" may be looked back upon a
century to come we may perhaps foretell with no great chance of
error. In his last book, published ten years ago. Sir Arthur Helps
wrote those memorable words : " It appears to mo that the advance-
ment ef the world is to be measured by the increase of humanity
and the decrease of cruelty I am convinced that if an
historian were to sum the gains and losses of the world at the close
of each recorded century, there might be much which was retro-
grade in other aspects of human life and conduct, but nothing coiUd
show a backward course in humanity " (pp. 195, l!t6). As I have
said ere now, the battle of Mercy, like that of Freedom,
once begun,
Though often lost, is always won.
— Miss F. P. Cobbe, in the Comhill Mayazine.
KNoWhKIKiK. Maikii LM, 1882.]
THE PATH OK MARS
LOOPED PATH OF A PLANICT.
Bv TiiK EniToit.
MANY even of thoso who liavo read
tho usual descrijitioiis of planetary
motions, in our text-liooks of astronomy,
are perplexed by the way in wliieh the
planets pursue
Tlieii- waiuloriiig course, now lii,-!i, now low,
tlioQ hid,
I'leigrossivo, retroffrnde, uiul standing; still.
Miirs, Jupiter, and Saturn, during the
la.st few months have givpn Ktrikin<» illus-
trations in the skies (as indieated in our
maps) of their strange, and at first view,
fantastic and irregular motion.s. ^lai-s, in
particular, traverses a singularly devious
course upon the hackground of tho starlit
heavens. It has seemed to mc that it
would be interesting to exhibit the real
course of this ]ilanet, the one of all the
sun's family wliose j)ath, with reference
to the earth, has the most complicated
form. Of course, in reality this planet
travels around the sun in an ellipse
which is almost circular in form, though
considerably eccentric in position. The
earth also pursues an elliptic path, smaller
in size, still more nearly circular in form,
and much less eccentric. But viewed
from the earth, the planet Mars, in con-
sequence of the combination of these two
circling (but not strictly circular mo-
tions), travels on such a looped path as
is shown in the accompanying map. Here
the planet's position, as \'iewcd from the
earth (his geocentric position, as it is
called), at the successive oppositions (or
times of nearest aj)proach to the earth),
is shown V)y the small dot at the end of
the dated radial line. Then, at succes-
sive intervals of ten days, measured for-
ward and Viackward from the time of
opposition, Mars has the positions in-
dicated by the successive dots. (Of
course, there is a place in the outermost
[KNOWLEDGE, March 21, 1882
part of each whorl where these ten-day
dots meet without an exact ten-day in-
terval ; this, however, is unimportant, as
in these parts of his geocentric path
Mars is invisible. At the proper places
along the planet's looped geocentric path
are shown the places whore Mars is in
perihelion (M), aphelion M', at a rising
node (or crossing the plane of the earth's
orbit from north to south), ( JJ ), at a
descending node (or crossing the plane of
the earth's path from south to noi-th), ( ^ ),
the place where he attains his greatest
distance north (j) and south (I) of the
plane of his orbit ; the place where Mars
is at the point of his orbit corresponding
to the vernal equinox (beginning of spring)
of his northern hemisphere, marked (j's,
and the corresponding point for the
autumn of Mars, marked ,^'s ^.
The scale of the drawing is the same
as that of my picture of the orbits of
the terrestrial family of planets (Mars,
Earth, Venus, and Mercury), in the " En-
cyclopa;dia Britannica," viz., fifty million
miles to the inch, and on this scale the
lines I, I, &.C., indicate the greatest distance
attained by Mars north and south of the
plane of the ecliptic. The northerly dis-
placement, it will be seen, is the greater.
The path of Mars must be regarded as
passing above the plane of the paper, at
a point marked JJ , gi-adually attaining
its greatest height (indicated by the
length of the " I ") above that plane at
the point marked j ; gradually returning
towards the plane of the paper, which it
crosses again at a point marked i3 ; then
attaining its greatest distance below the
plane of the paper at the next point
marked I ; whence it returns gradually
to the plane of the paper at a point
marked Q ; and so on continually.
454
♦ KNOWLEDGE ♦
[Marcu 24, 1882.
CHALCEDONY CONTAINlNtJ LIQUID WITH A
M0VA15LE BUBBLE.
Ilv TIIK Ukv, UeMIV H. UlGUIN.--.
Two ipocimuiiB wore bruiif^lit from Moiilo Video by Mr. riiiliji
Itntliboiiiv Till" liir«iT )iiceo contaliiH not loss than nn niincu '\
uf lii|tii(l, with u hirgu huhlilc— the Hninlh-r sncins to huvo iiiiiro
litliiid in iiri>|>aHt have raised a warning voice against indul-
gonco in the fashionable caprices of their time ; but never before
has a detormini'd attempt to improve jiublic taublie ignorance in the matter of dress 1>eon made that characterises
the action of the National Health Society in this respect. Re-
cently, however, Mr. Freennit this result to create in our minds a belief to
the effect that the public arc at last growing alive to the harmful-
ness of following the dictates of fashion mth the unreasoning sub-
mission exhibited iu the adoption of its most outrageous demands.
It is true the auilicnca which greeted Mr. Trcves's domonslrations
of modern fashionable follies with applause, indicative of its
approval of his denunciations, was chiefly made up of ladies whose
claim to be regarded more or less as victims to the Moloch under
censure was indisputable ; but notwithstanding, it would be the
refinement of rashness to expect from them an immediate renun-
ciation of tight waists, cramped feet, and swathed limbs. The hold
of these on the lives of those who form " society " is too secure and
too steadfastly maintained to permit its being easily removed. We
can trust for this happy result to nothing but a general and an
intelhgent apprehension of the mischief attendant on continuance of
the evils which carry such disasters in their train.
The ill-conse(|uences set up by improjicr dress are most faniiliar
to medical men ; and medical men necessarily, therefore, are those
most competent to advwcate reform in customs* to the injarions
effects of which they are daily witnesses. In the particular folly of
tight lacing, for instance, there is probably no practitioner who is
not constantly called on to remedy the evils it produces. In young
girls, who, least of all, are calculated to support the strain to which
their internal organs are submitted imder the cruel pressure of the
corset, we have often to deal with piteous examples of the sacrifices
required in order to ensure a small waist. Nor is it that they suffer
only while young. During their whole after-life, symptoms referable
to visceral displacement and disorganisation are of frequent occur-
rence ; no woman, probably, who has at any time conformed to this
fashion of abdomen-strajiping being free from some form of gastric
or liver trouble. To what extent, moreover, the craze for " an
elegant figure " may carry its victim is scarcely credible, except for
occasional proofs afforded at inquests and post-mortem examinations.
While it is not unusual to find the liver deeply indented by pressure
of the adjacent ribs and displaced deep into the pelvis, it has more
than once been found that long-continued constriction of the body
has resulted in hour-glass deformity of the stomach. Nor need we
long hesitate to decide on the influence this vicious form of fashion-
able sacrifice e.verts on the duration of female life, when we reflect
on the prevalence among the middle and upper clas.f the cat, also mcanii truth, that which ia tni^
Ma being the GoddiHS of Truth ami Jimtice. Now time ia th
which in true, nor Hhull we get a more appropriate origin for (
word time, or tcmpus. than Ma the trne— she who, i« Tema, irappU
the (ireck Themig. Tema is the Mi, tho true, the manifeitor i
truth ; but it is 0(|ually the cat, whose eye was held to toll true :
the mutter of time, and whose type was assumed by the God Bai
the likeness of Time, or Seb-Kronus. Lastly, " Adeno is the i
of the Mother-goddess of Time" (Ritual, ch. 1C5).
GEB.tLIi MaSSCT.
TELESCOPES, Ac, ON THE THREE YEARS' SYSTEM
[3-18]— It has been suggested in these pages that it would be »
boon to many an honest science lover if such goods as microBco]
telescopes, ic. (good ones of which are far toacity of the air for water
must be very small, and the dessicating effect scarcely perceptible.
Would it not bo much more natural to account for " the lean and
shrivelled aspect " of the Y'ankee by reference to his habit of life
and, specially, of feeding, so very different from the roast beef and
plum pudding of the Britisher ; while, on the other hand, the
Canadians, who still keep to the English way of liWng, have not
lost the jolly and comfortable appearance of their forefathers.
I might add, too, that the Swiss and Germans, whoso houses arc
nearly all stove-heated, and without the advantage of steam (for I
never remember seeing water-pans on their stoves), are by no
means a meagre or lanky race. Canadensis.
THE CALIGRAPH.
[357] — I can furnish " Clericus " with any information he may
desire regarding an improved type-writer kno%vn .as the Caligraph,
v/ith which, by the way, a recent communication of mine to Mathe-
matical Queries in Knowledge was written.— W. W. Beman.
Anne Arbor, Mich., U.S.A., Feb. 23, 1882.
EYESIGHT OF DOGS.
[358] — I had not the good fortune to be a subscribor when tho
article in Knowledge on the noar-sightedness of dogs appeared,
but I have observed this peculiarity. A month ago my brother and
158
KNOWLEDGE •
[March 24, 16bu
1 Wvro out HliDotiiig; wo parted in t)io middle of n Inrgo fiold, I
homownrd with tlio ilogg, lip to a cormr of the fluid whore wii* n
likoly lyiiiK plnco for gnipc. A snipe nmci nnil ho firod ; one of tho
ilogn' lK>lt<'d awiiy from inr, but iiiBtrnd nf riiiming stmiglit to my
lirothiT, who could ciisily be seon, nnd the 8moko of whoso gun was
still conspiruous, tho dog ran bnck on my track till ho canio to
whiTo wc had parted before, and then followed np my brother's
ini.i, till Ih- niiihed him. Tki8 dog was a rotriovur. — Ci-abk.
(Oufiifsf.
[335] — Teicyles. — Will Mr. Browning kindly say if ho knows
the " Edinburgh," and will he point out what he considers its
faults?— F. H. S.
[336] — "l.N Memobiam." — Can you kindly t«ll me to whom
'J'ennyson refers in the opening stanzn of this poem ?
I held it truth, with him who sings
To one clear harp in divers tones.
That men may rise on stepping-stones
Of their dead selves to higher things.
1 have been trying to ascertain for iifteon years past, and 1 thought
Goethe was intended, but now Dr. Gatty tells mo that tho poet
cannot be identitied. On p. l*t (Q. 51), you ask if the .stanza con-
taining the allu.'fion to " tho crimson-circled star" is not LXXXIX. ?
In my edition (17th), it is LXXXVIII., but Tennyson has inserted
an additional stanza about the yew-tree in the later editions,
between XXXVIII. and XXXIX.— E. C. Mai.an.
[337] — Selk- Acting Blowpipe. — While cleaning a small tin spirit
lamp, I removed tho brass top, together with the wick. A small quan-
tity of spirits remained in the lamp, and a few di-ops stuck to the
opening. On applying a light and inverting the lamp, a flame
nearly three feet long nisliod out with great vehemence, accom-
panied by a loud and gradually increasing roar. At this pleasing
stage of the experiment the lamp became uncomfortably warm, and
was promi)tly dropjMjd, when the flame instantly vanished. Could
a modification of the above be used with safety as a blowpipe ?
Perhaps some of your readers who are insured will kindly carry the
experiment a step or two further. — J. H.
[338]— The Breaks ix the Singing Voice. — Can any of your
readers give a scientific explanation of the breaks in the human
singing voice, of their cause and cure ? Can they, at the same time,
name a few really scientific works bearing on the subject. — Musters
[Manchester].
[339] — ErsKAKiANS. — Can Mr. Grant Allen tell us of any
Euskorian words to be found iu Welsh or Irish ? Surely some —
names of places, at least — should be traceable by their resemblance
to Basque words. — S. C. Wood.
[340] — Calculating Machines. — I shall feel much obliged if any
of your mathematical readers will kindly give a description of the
various machines which have been invented, also those at present
in use. I possess Palmer's disc, improved by Fuller, but find it
inaccurate. How can I measure a logarithm on a circle or a plane ?
Is there any book on calculating machines and their construction ?
Does the Clearing-house make use of any mechanical contrivance
for computing mileages ? — iNquiEER.
[341] — Can any one give me a recipe to prevent incrustation on
the inside of a boiler of about 20 horse-power ? — G. Uobeets.
Jltplifsf to (©unirsf.
[274] — Drawing. — " Eozoon's" query is too vogue to admit of a
definite reply. There can be no bettor elementary training for the
eye and hand than to copy carefully the free-hand series, in all its
grades, of the South Kensington School of Art. For simple objects,
there is an excellent series published by Seeloy & Co., of Fleet-
street, and called, I think, " First Steps in Art." After this. Vore
Fostar's and J. D. Harding's are good for pencil, Leitch's for watei-
colotir. The rules of perspective for landscape are voi-y simple, and
come almost intuitively. But there is— happily for tho struggling
artist — no royal road here, any more than to the acquisition of a
foreign language — " French in six hours " notwithstanding. — R. S.
Stanpen.
[274]— FoRAMiNiKERA OF Chalk.— Let " Eozoon " take a piece of
chalk, and with a soft tooth or nail-brush brush it underwater, and
then wash tho sediment well till tho water is not coloured, when
the residue will be nearly all foraminifera. — John O. Patterson.
[2S5] — Scientific Tebhk. — " Pre«U-r W." may 6nd tho following
technical vocabularies of use : — For geology and physical geo-
graphy, " Uiindbodk of Terms," Blackwood & Sons; about 6«.
For botany, natural history, anatomy, modicino, and veterinary
surgery, Stormonlh'a " Manual of Scientific Terms," Mocluchlan i,
Stewart ; about 78. 6d. For Imtanical terms, Mr. C. Cooke't
" Manual of llntanical Terms," llardwicko. General — 1, Dr.
Henry's " Glossary of Scientific Terms," Smith, Elder, 4 Co. ; 2, Dr.
Nnttall's " Dictionary of Scientific Terms," Strahan 4 Co. ; about
5s. — K. P. Pobtek.
[286] — El.KCTBiciTV.— " W. H." will find the simplest and best
text-book on electricity and magnetism is Noad's " Text-Book of
Electricity," revised by W. H. Preece, price 12a. 6d. j published by
Crosby, Lockwoo->
should be
o» J* to the number qf letter or querg, the page on which 'it appears, and its title.
' W. S. Jackson, C. R., and others. Seventeen rorrespnn-
deiits already have " raved " against masric squares. We therefore
I must not insert anything more about them foragood while. Mr. Miles,
' however, will willingly, I doubt not, say where Poignard's method
lirst appeared. — Three Chroxos. Surely you are the ones to
'answer what you call the ■'mm watch query." — T.\k.\x.\ki. The
I horizon sinks as we ri?e above the eai'th's surface ; but the dip is
' vcrv slight, even for a considerable height. The eye cannot detect
it readily, even from a height of four or five miles. — A. P. M. Your
I letter about weather forecasts is long, but we will try to find space
'for it. — E. S. Kennedy. Sayce's writings on Assyrian literature
{contain a good deal about the star- worship of the Assyrians. Pub-
ilished, I think, by Bagster. — E. Kelly. You will not find that
jXewcomb attributes the acceleration of the moon to the tidal
|wave. He says that a part of the acceleration is explained by
(the effects of the tidal wave in retarding the earth's rotation. —
jClemext W. Jewitt. Cannot identify the year when " two comets
came in (some time about 1858)." — J. Thkistax calls attention to the
ifact that the barometer, after being abnormally high for several
(weeks, fell rapidly on February 25th, yet there were no explosions
■ in coal-mines, as predicted by Mr. E. C. Eapier. — Scrit.\tok. Let
IP be the length of a perpendicular let fall from one angle of
ja tetrahedron to opposite /ace, and let p be the length of perpen-
dicular from an angle to opposite side of any face including the
angle, and let s be length of a side. Then we know that
and
= \A-i4^3;
-V^'-f=
Jv/8 = 5v/6 = sv'l
= 3V--3
and the centre of the tetrahedron lies on each of the perpendiculars
p
from the angles on opposite faces, at a distance — from eacbface, of
|v § from any face.
If s = 16, then this distance
Wl
Uaceenzie, M.D. Considering how much it is the doctor's
interest to discountenance vaccination, supposing it to be really
protective (as every one knows it is), you can hardly expect me to
believe that doctors advance statements opposed to the truth in
this matter, when they advocate vaccination. An epidemic of
Bmall-pox would be a fortune to mercenary medical men, protected
themselves by vaccination. The paltry vaccination fees are
nothing by comparison with the fees they could fairly
vtiim in the times before vaccination. If small -pox were
rife in any city where yon or I dwelt, should we not at
mce be vaccinated, and should we not then feel as safe as if
there were no such epidemic ? Frankly, I should consider myself
pnblic offender if I admitted one line here in favour of the views
laintained by the .Society for the Preservation of Small-pox. As
for what yon say about Whist, doubtless many wonld prefer to have
the space now allotted to Whist given to some other subject ; all are
not Whist players. But the omission of several subjects which all
lo not like might readily lead to the omission of Knowledge alto-
jetiier. Every onr must not expect Knowledge to be filled with
those subjects lie may chance to like. I think we give our fair
•Wopenny worth of science, without the Whist and the Chess. —
toSAN E. Gay. Your letter was sent at once to printers, and will
Iftpear soon. — A. H. H. My papers on Differential Calculus would
pmbably be simpler than you would need. — Donald King. An
kl^le on sun spots would be necessary to answer your question ;
nU, probably have one shortly. Meantime, any good book on
onomy would help you. — H. B. Lindsay. Part of your letter
lefeiTed to F.R.A.S. May shortly write about space; but your
irks need not, therefore, be withheld. You know our require-
nents as to space. — J. McDowell. Your name entered on list for
•fos. 2, 3, and 5. Yon are quite right about our proposal on p. 302 ;
ve were but jesting. — F. Ram. To Darwin and Wallace, of course,
s due the credit of the recognition of the accepted theory of
evolution. Spencer's researches are, however, of great importance.
— Carpenter. If you really want to know its weight, put it in the
scales; it you set the query as a "sum," perhaps you will explain
what you mean by saying " the surface of the wet part was 209--14
inches." — Ixcredilots. Probably, table turned by pushing ;
depends how it went. — Q. E. D. Hog puzzle right. — W. H. Hewett.
The conditions seem equally favourable. — Spencer Byder. I should
imagine that you might more readily infer the existence of a God
fx'om your own personal sense of his works, than by the rather
roundabout way yon suggest. Does the most beautiful painting of
a landscape, or the most perfect description of the glories of the
heavens, give you so good an idea of the existence of a God as the
landscape itself in one case, or the star-lit vault of heaven in the
other? — J. A. C. Ollard. Yes; but suppose 20,000 copies of sup-
plement were printed, " containing letters only or chiefly," and only
1 .000 were sold ; how theni' On the reason of animals question,
what yon " believe " and " do not believe," might not interest
all our readers. — Finite Space. Neither can I imagine space
limited : nor can any one ; nor can any one imagine infinite space. —
C. J. TooTELL. Thanks for picture of sun-spots, but by time it
would appear they wonld not be there. Your method of focussing,
where rackwork is not very delicate, is, I know from experience,
excellent. (It is to let the eyepiece te not fully screwed "home,"
and then adjusting roughly by means of rackwork, to get exact
adjustment by turning the eyeglass.) Only it is not safe to have
the eyeglass but half screwed in ; for if you have many adjust-
ments, and a preponderance chance to be by screwing outwards,
the eyeglass may fall out. — G. T. M. Both your suggestions are
already under consideration. Thanks. — M. V. M. Thanks ; but too
long, and scarcely suitable otherwise. — H. W. We do not want
metaphysics, melancholy though you think the future of science is
to be without it. — SiRirs. Veiy doubtful at present about that
companion. Spectroscopic evidence shows Sirius to be probably in
an earlier stage of sun-life than our own sun. — Jawge. Dental
6 1—1 7—7
formula : incisors, -pr ; canines, :; — r; molars, = — i = 44, — means
' (j 1 — 1 ( — 7
that the teeth are arranged in the two jaws, Jawge, thus : —
MMMMMMMCIIIIIICMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMCIIIIIICMMMMMMM
where SI stands for a molar, C for a canine, and I for an incisor
tooth. — Thomas Smith, Jun. Describing a man's character from
his bumps is not phrenolog}-. Study what Gall and Spurzeim
really taught, and yon will see what it is that science rejects. —
Ishtah. AUruiiin, derived from alter, "another," means the con-
sideration of the interests of others before our own, just as egoism
from etjo, I, means the consideration first of our own interests. — -
G. T. W. M. There is a small book by Abbott, head-master of
St. Paul's School, on the " Queen's English." I forget publisher's
name and price. — J. H. Cobbett. You are too exacting. Parallax
allows only a top to the earth, and you ruthlessly ask for a model.
You might as well ask for soundings of the bottomless pit. — W. B.
Thank you for reminding me ; yes, the ratio of circumference of
circle to radius is, as you say, fixed ; but in the solution of the rod-
tossing problem this constant ratio comes in with a factor which is
not constant. — E. L. R. Yes ; ice-pai-ticlescan and do cause parhelia
(not perihelia, as the Gazette prints it). — G. A. K. The historical
value of the play called Shakespeare's Henry VI. is very small.
Shakespeare wrote but a small proportion of it. As you say,
the Bear |and Ragged Staff were not taken by the Nevilles
before their alliance with the Warwick family to which the crest
belongs. — W. Sumner. The rotation of thu earth has been regarded
as appreciably uniform. It is not quite so, but the variation is very
slight. The question is, however, too complicated to be discussed
here. It wants an article to itself.
i^tttrrsi Jxfrnfarli.
W. S. Jackson, K. Huskisson, I. H. Vulliamy, R. Tollit, Praxis,
K. L. P., J. Murray, Metamorphosis, Pertinax ('Tis true, 'tis pity).
Cosmopolitan, Anxious One, W. John Grey, J. U., Jlongredian,
Semper Paratus (so i.-5 W. P. B.), Jupiter Tnnans (save ns), M.
Purvis, J. Harmens, F. M. Rogers, Pollaky, H. F. C, J. H.
Marvin, P. Tindale, M. Morrison, K. P. M., R. Lecky, Circle-sqnarer,
Triangular, Queer Querist, M. Rambures, S. S. T., Rev. M. M.,
Castrensis, Ad ardua tendo (Respice finem), C. Collins, Anti-
humbug, Simplex, Verge, H. Jowett, K. Prothero.
Poxd's Eitbact is a certain core for Rhenmatisin and Oout.
Pond's Extract is a certain cure for Hemorrhoids,
Pond's Extract is a certain cure for Neuralgic pains.
Pond's Extract will heal Bums and Wounds.
Pond's Extract will cure Sprains and Bruises.
Sold by all Chenuste, Get the genuine.'
[Advt.
I(i0
KNOWLEDGE
[March 24, 1882.
©ur i¥latl)rmntiral Column.
1' U(tR A II I 1,1 T I E8.
By tmk KniTOR.
LET Ufl ncxl tnko n case not <|uil(> «o simple ns tlio todHin)? of n
coin, niiinoly, the caatinK of a die. We know tlint tlic cliftncc
of throwing nee in h single trial is }. Let us consider what is tlio
cliance of throwinR nco in two trials with one die. The considera-
tion of this will brinp before us a very common mistake in denling
with chtineo questions, nn instance of whirli occurred recently in
the discussion of the question about cutting any one of three
named cards (of any suit) from n pack, onco in three trials. A
correspondent asked, with reference to this question, whether, as
the chance of cutting one of the cards in a single trial was
obviously f\, the chance in three trials must not be thrice this,
or V'j' This is erroneous, but not very obviously so. So again
in the case of a die— it is not obvious at first sight that the
following reasoning is unsound. The chance of throwing aco in
vn in treatises on probability.
Let us take an illustrative case from which, as I judge, the true
nature of the error may be learned.
In an urn there are six balls, marked from 1 to 6. The chance
of drawing ball 1 is, of course, the same as the chance of
throwing ace .at a given trial with a single die ; that is, it is -J-.
Now suppose that six persons draw each a ball. One of them must
have drawn ball 1. The chance that any one of the six has drawn
this ball is J ; and the chance that one of a given pair of these six
persons has drawn the ball is J + ,\. This is clearly the case, as
shown in paper I. ; and that the reasoning is just is proved by the
• What follows is quoted, with very little change, from a series
of articles on the " Laws of Chance as Applied to Statistics," which
I wrote eleven years ago for the Knglish Mechanic, where they ap-
peared in August and September, 1871. I shall take occasion,
when convenient, to borrow passages from those articles, but with
such moditicationB as my experience of the dilKculties commonly
found by students of the subject may suggest.
fact that when it is oztondod so on to include all the Biz porsona, wa
got six times ^, or unity, corresponding to the certainty that one of
the six has drawn ball 1. Now the fallacy in the former reasoning
aliout the die lies in the supposition that twa throws with a single
die give the same chance of throwing an ace that any pair of our
six ball-drawers has of drawing ball 1. Whereas it is obvious that
to roijresent the case of the die-throwing, we must have — not two
different bulls drawn at random from an urn containing six, but one
ball drawn at random and replaced, and then again one ball drawn
at random.
Let it lie noted that there is no begging of the question here.
It is certain that the chance of throwing an ace is the same as the
chance of drawing ball 1 from the urn containing six. It U
certain that to represent the second throw, as well as the first, the
urn must have its full complement of six — that is, it is certain the
ball first drawn must be rc|>laced before the second drawing ia
made. Whereas it is certain that the case which gives as the re-
sulting chance i+ i, is the case where a ball is drawn, and then (or
simultaneously, it matters not which) another ball.
That the two cases arc distinct is rendered obvious, therefore.
And not onlj- so, but we can see which case gives the better chance.
For in considering the two cases, we can place our 6nger on the
exact spot where the chances differ. Suppose that a person A
proceeds as in the former case, a person B as in the latter, each
dealing with a separate urn, containing balls numbered from 1 to 6;
and let us compare their chances of drawing ball 1. They begin
alike. A draws a ball from his um, and B one from his. Their
chances of succeeding in this first drawing are, of course, equal : bnt
if they fail, their chances on the second drawing are not equal. For A
has to return the ball he drew into the um again ; and he will have
no better chance of success at the second trial than at the first.
But B retains tlio ball first drawn, and at the second trial he has a
better chance of success than at the first ; for he has to draw now
ball 1 from an urn containing only five bails instead of six. But B's
chance in his drawings i.^ certainly ^ -*- ^ ; A's chance, therefore, is
certainly something less than ^ + -^-.
We see, then, that we must adopt a more trustworthy mode of
reasoning in the case of successive trials under unchanged con'
ditions.
A Pretty Geometbic.^l Problem, axd Mogul's Pboblek. — A
great number of solutions of these problems have been received,
and of the former (" Kelland's ") problem a very complete discus-
sion has been sent to us. It will be a work of some little time to
analyse all the solutions, but we hope next week to give an abstract
of " Mogul's " solution, and of the paper just mentioned, with
suitable figures. Both problems are very instructive. — Ed.
^ur Cftrss €oInmn.
How the Devil was caught. Played at Brighton, 1S79.
AUgaier Oamiit.
Warrs. Slice. Whttk. Buck.
Mephisto. F. Edmonds. Mephisto. F. Edmonds.
1. P to K4
2. V to KB4
3. Kt to KB3
4. P to KR4
5. Kt to Kt5
6. B to B4('>)
7. B takes QP B to Kt2
8. P to Q3 P to KB3
9. Kt to K6 B takes Kt
10. B takes BC-") P to B6(')
11. P takes P(') QtoQ3
P to K4
P takes P
P to KKt4
P to Ko
Kt to KK3C)
P to Q4('^)
12. B takes P(b) Kt takes B
13. P takes Kt Q to Kt6(ch)
14. K to Bsq Kt to B3
15. Kt to B3(') Castles QRC)
16. Kt to Q5 R takes Kt(i)
17. P takes R Kt to Q5 !
18. P to B3 P to KB4
19. P to Kt5 R to KsqC')
20. P takes Kt B takes P
21. Q to K2(i) R takes Q
22. K takes R Q to Kt7(ch)
I resigns.
(*) Not to be commended. Black only obtains a very indifferent
game by this move, whereas, by the usual continuation of 5 P to
KR3 I he ought to get the better game, in spite of White's subse-
onents.
1 ■) An ingenious conception, which attained its object, but which
,'lit have boon met differently.
') Instead of P takes P, he should have played 11 B takes Kt !
i 1 Q3 for Black would not be good now, as White could safely
^'' the Bishop, as he need not fear the series of checks with
irk's Queen. 11 P takes KtP would also result in White's
.-.our. He would move his R to Ktsq, and, in reply to B takes B,
White would play Q takes KtP. The best line of plav would be
B takes Kt P takes P
.1 B takes B ' ^~- (better than 12 B takes P, to
x-h Black might replv with 12 P takes P, 13 R to Ktsq, 13 Q to
, .. 14 R takes P, 14 Q takes QKtP with a fair game), 12 Q to Q3,
B takes P K to Bsq
13 o to KtGfchV ^'* ' *"*^ White has two Pawns with a
good defence, as he will now be able to force the Queen to retire
either by playing R to R3 or Q to Ksq.
(«) Curious to say that, as we examine the position, we find that
even now B takes Kt would have proved effective ; in fact. White
had nothing to fear from Q to Q3, for, if now in reply to 12 B takes
Kt, 12 B takes B, then we have the same position as examined in
our former note; or, if 12 Q to Kt6(ch), 13 K to Bsq, the tempting
move of 13 P takes P for Black would be met by 11 R to Ktsq,
14 Q takes RP, 15 B to K3, and White has won a piece.
C) If 15 Kt to Q2, then Black replies with 15 Kt to K4.
(') This shows good judgment. He does not at once play Kt to
K4, but brings his Rook into play, while White's game remains in
statu quo. .
(') Black is playing in very good style. He obtains a strong
attack by this sacrifice.
C*) Excellent plav ; something of Morphy's style.
(') We don't see "anything better. If Q to Q2, then 8 to B6(ch),
or if Q to B2, R lo K8 mate. Of course, he threatens mate on B2.
LiiWEXTHAL PROBLEM TOURNEY, No. II.
Xo. 2G.
FiBsT Prize Set.
Motto : " Peep beneath.'
No. 27.
Secokd Prize Set.
Motto ; " Too many • Cooka ' spoil the mate
r:
• t
1 1
^
•or
It t k
White to plar and mate in four moves. White to play and mate in three t
The following two problems have won the First Prize in the
Tournament of the Boys' Neiispaper (taken from the Chronicle).
No. 28. No. 29.
By G. Hume (Nottingham).
Black. Black.
:; '" '
i
.\^. A
#, :"
6 i
''~)^'M. ^1-
White to plav and mate in two mov
GAMES BY COKRESPONDENCE.— (Con/inKcd/roTOp. 442.)
GAME I.
Position after White's ITtli move.
P to KKtl.
k ■'#"
^ k^ 'tM
P"i « #9# fi 2
p. ^i^ ^ ^^ i
Chief Editor.
18. RP takes R
19. Kt takes P
20. K to Q2
21. Q to Q3
23. Kt to K2
23. B to K Kt3
24. B to R3
25. Q to KB3
Chess Editor.
17. R takes Kt
18. Q to Q5
19. Q to Kt8(ch)
20. B to Q2
21. P to Kt3
22. Q takes P
23. Q to R4
24. R to Qsq
Position after Black's 15th move.
P takes P.
■^' ±
^
m ■rM■.^'.,:mr4. m-}
CniEF Editor.
16. Kt takes KP
17. Kt takes B
18. Kt takes Kt
19. B to KG(ch)
20. R to Ksq
21. R takes B
22. Q to KB3
Chess Editor.
16. Q to B3
17. Kt takes Kt
18. P takes Kt
19. K to Ktaq
20. B takes B
21. P to KKt4
CORRECTION.— Peoblem No. 25,
Remove Black Pawn on R3.
ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS.
*,* Plea.'ie address Chess-Editor.
J. A. Miles. — We have sent you your problem by post for
correction.
C. H. Brockelbank. — Received with thanks.
R. G. Brothers.- — We regret to see you disappointed by H. T.
Holden. Have given yon another opponent, J. B. Groscr, who will
reply to your moves.
J. B. Groser versus R. G. Brothers.
462
♦ KNOWLEDGE •
[March 24, 1882.
Ed«iu Clodil -1«3 I
Fonnd Links. By Dr. Andrew
Wilson, F.B.S.E., F.L.S. Part
IV.
164
PhotofniBphv for .\inateur^. By A
Brothers."F.R.A.S. Part 11 lee
XolM on Rowing. By an Old Club
Captain " »6
The Sun in April. (Itlurirated) ...468
KevioKs. The Two Hemispheres ... 471)
Did the K^rptians Know of the
Movement of the Earth in Space . 470
Weather Diagram, for Week Ending
Saturday, March io 471
Mesmerism 471
PAOR.
The Carnivorous Parrot 471
Easy Lessons in Blowpipe Chemistry.
Bt Lieut .-Colonel W. A. Ross,
lateR.A. (IlUslrated) 471
Slar-Map for April 473
Cod-Sounds and Scientific Privilege 477
CoRBBspoxDBHCB :— Screw-driver —
Colour of Paleolithic Man : Christ-
mas Roses — Jupiter in Cassiopeia
—High Numbers, &c 478-480
Queries 481)
Replies to Queries 4a0
Answers to Correspondents -180
Notes on Art and Science 4S3
Our Mathematical Column 483
Our^Vhist Column 484
Our Chess Column 483
PATH OF MARS FROM 1875 to 1892.
Bv a mistake, for which I fear I have no one but
myself to thank, 1877 was printed for 1892 in the
heading to the looped path of 3Iars from 1875 to
1892. As there are some GOO positions of the planet
(all separately laid down before the path was carried
through them) and the constructions for these involved
many hours of lal)Our, it was rather annoying to find
the diagram appeai-ing as if it only showed the planet's
path during two or three past years, instead of showing it
for seventeen years, ten of which have still to pass. For
a time I felt disposed to reject Liebig's saying that "there
is no harm in making a mistake." — Ed.
THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN
WESTERN EUROPE.
By Edwin Clodd.
IT is well known that the period from the unknown date
of man's appearance in Europe until about the
Christian era, is divided by antiquarians into the Ages of
Stone, Bronze, and Iron. Such a division, anticipated
nearly 2,000 years ago by Lucretius in his immortal poem,
De Rei'um Nalurd* is not restricted to one quarter of the
globe, but holds good for every part habitable once or
inhabited now ; a mass of ever-increasing evidence being
producible to show that the use of stone and other acces-
sible and pliable materials preceded that discovery of metals
which placed so powerful an instrument of control and
advancement in the hands of mankind. These divisions of
stone and metal-using periods, it should be Viome in mind,
are not to be applied to all parts of the world at one
and the same time, as if there had been a universal and
co-temporaneous abolition of stone at a given epoch in
human history, and a universal adoption of the compound
metal bronze in its place. In the later periods of the
Stone Age, it is certain that Europe was occupied by races
»Bk. v., 1,282. JIunro's tr., p. 268.
in markedly varying degrees of civilisation. The people
settled along the shores of the ^Mediterranean were far
ahead of those scattered over Northern Europe, iron being
probably known to the former, while the latter still used
ground and polished stone implements, or bartered the
much-prized amber for Etruskan and Phoenician bronze.
So in the present day, widely as metals are dispersed by
traders, wo find barbarous races who still make shift with
tools and weapons of stone.
But it is more important for our present purpose to
poijit out what is not so well known, namely, that the
subdivision of the Stone Age into the Pala>nlithic or
Older, and the Neolithic or Newer, marks a dift'erence
between these, which is in every respect greater than
that between the Neolitliic and succeeding ages. Whilst
these latter cover a comparatively trifling, although
crowded, span of man's tenancy of Europe, and one over
which the line of his advance is, if dim and zigzag, un-
broken ; the Paheolithic is of remote origin, of unknown,
but certainly vast, duration, and but sparsely marked with
the traces of his presence. Tlie men of Neolithic times,
concerning whom ISIr. Grant Allen has given the readers of
Knowledge a vivid and accurate sketch, are the direct
ancestors of peoples of whom remnants yet lurk in out-of-
the-way corners of Europe, where they have been squeezed
or stranded ; but the men of Palaeolithic times can be iden-
tified with no existing races ; they were savages of a more
degraded type than any extant ; tall, yet barely erect,
with short legs and twisted knees, with prognathous — that
is, projecting, ape-like jaws, and small brains. Whence
they came we cannot tell, and their " grave knoweth no
man to this day." The implements of the ancient Stone
Age, mainly of flint, sometimes of chert (an impure, flint-
like quartz), coarse, rough-chipped and unpolished, can
never be confounded with those of the later age, which are
made of divers native or imported materials ground to a
fine edge and polished, often exquisitely shaped, and highly
ornamented. Whilst those of Neolithic times are found in
surface remains, cavern-floors, camps, temples, tombs, and
mounds, from stately tumuli to rubbish-heaps on the Baltic
coasts, all more or less within the province of the antiquary,
those of Paleolithic times are unearthed by the geologist
from ancient river-valleys, from " caves and dens of
the earth," and from deposits so venerable that their
contents demand a far higher antiquity for man than many
anthropologists, by no means the slaves of Archbishop
Ussher's chronology, are as yet willing to allow. Between
the Older and Newer Stone Ages there is fixed the great
gulf of climatal change and of altered distribution in land
and water, for wliile the early, if not the earliest. Neolithic
immigrants into Britain traversed a continent which,
certain northern parts excepted, has undergone only local
changes since they crossed it on their westward path,
Pal.Tolithic man passed -nithout hindrance where now flows
the English Channel ; the mainland stretched northwards
beyond Ireland and Iceland ; through a forest-covered area
over which the German Ocean rolls ran the Rhine,
its waters swelled by streams now known as the Thames
and Humber, to empty itself in the North Atlantic.
Southward, the continent was joined to Africa at
Morocco and Tunis, dividing the Mediterranean into
land-locked seas, and making easy passage for man and
brute from tropical to cooler zones. WHiilst the animals
brought l>y Neolithic races from the East were, in the main,
those familiar to oursehes, those with which Palaeolithic
man waged war in forest and swamp were mammals now
whoUy extinct, or found only in arctic or tropical lati-
tudes. The curious admbcture with human relics of
remains of animals adapted to widely different regions
464
KNOWLEDGE
[March 31, 1882.
has raised somo interesting questions concerning the causes
and duration of changes in climate which permitted, now
nortl\ern spocius (as tlu! mammotb or woolly-haired elephant,
the musk shci'p, the reindeer, etc.) ; now southern spc^cics
(as the liippopotanius, liyana, lion, etc.), to roam over the
same ureas, finding at last a comuion grave. But to discuss
this at present would be to digress.
The above outline of the leading contrasts between the
two Stone Ages may sullice to show that our subject lies
far beyond the historic horizon. Ordinary landmarks and
methods of reckoning, therefore, failing us, we can have
some idea of man's place in geological time only V)y ascer-
taining the relative position of those deposits in which
traces of him are belie\e(l to occur to the general system of
organic-bearing rocks. Such traces are in truth indicated
by what man has done, rather than by himself, for of him
scanty are the relics — only a jawbone or fibula (small leg-
bone) here, only a skull-fragment there, a paucity for
which we must hereafter seek an explanation.
Vast as is the period in this world's history since the
appearance of man even iu Europe, it is Imt a fraction
compared with that which extends from the beginning of
life upon the earth to PaUeolithic times. Hreckel* remarks
that if we divide that period into a hundred equal parts,
and then, corresponding to the thickness of the systems of
strata, calculate the relative duration of the five main
divisions or periods according to percentages, we obtain the
following result : —
Primordial Epoch ....
(70,000 feet.)
Primary..
(42,000 feet.)
Secondary
(15,000 feet.)
Tertiary .
(3,000 feet.)
Quaternary (or Pleistocene)
(500 or 700 feet.) t
Laurcntian System 53"C
Cambrian
Silurian
Devonian 32"1
Coal
Permian
Trias 11-5
Jura
Chalk
Eocene 2"3
Miocene
Pliocene
Pateolithic Man ... 0'5
Neolithic and
Historical Period
Now, it would be in defiance of all that the doctrine of
evolution teaches, and, moreover, win no support from
believers in special creation and the fixity of species, to
seek for so highly specialised a mammalian as man at an
early stage in the life-history of the globe. Even in the
Secondary epoch, the only mammals which have been dis-
covered in Europe are the fossil remains of a small
marsupial or pouch-bearer ; and although the placental
mammals and the order of Primates, to which man is
related, appear in Tertiary times, and the climate, tropical
in the Eocene age, warm in the ]\Iiocenc, and temperate
in the Pliocene, was favourable to his presence, the
proofs of his existence in Europe before the close of
the Tertiary epoch, although considered sufiicient by
many foreign savans, are not generally accepted here.
It is at this point, however, that the interest of the matter
deepens. No anthropologist of repute denies the a priori
probability of man's presence in Europe under the favour-
able conditions of mid-Tertiary times ; and the remembrance
of what incredulity met the discovery in 1847 of relics
indisputably of human origin in hitherto undisturbed de-
posits in the Somnie Valley, checks incautious and hasty
treatment. Let us glance at the evidence on which the
French advocates of Miocene man now rest their case. Recog-
• " Hist, ot Creation," vol. ii. p. 20.
t The thicknesses of this and the other deposits are only approxi-
mately true.
nising tho enormous duration of the Palaeolithic Age, onei
of the most eminent of their number, M. Gabriel del
Mortillet, has divided it into several well-marked stages,!
certainly with such warranty as all that we have at ha
in support of the slow rate of human advance gives,
these divisions, five in number, M. de Mortillet places
earliest in the mid-Miocene period.
FOUND LINKS.
By Dr Axdkew "Wilson, F.R.8.E., F.LS.
PAST IV.
THERE are no two classes of animals between which
exists a greater dissimilarity than birds and reptile&
The active organisation of the one and the sluggish ways of
the other, the warm blood of the former and the cold blood
of the latter, are points in the popular natural history of
the two groups which technical zoology has but emphasised
in its turn. Yet the scientific examination of these beings
reveals bonds of connection between them, all unsuspected
by the ordinary reader, and demonstrates further, in the
most suggestive fashion, that the likenesses to be presently
alluded to must possess some origin and meaning. That
origin, evolution maintains, is " descent " from a common
stock ; the meaning is that seen throughout all similar
series of likenesses, namely, the natural result of the
laws of animal development. In the case of birds and
reptiles, the same considerations appeal to us which I have
already indicated as existent in the details of frog-develop-
ment. Either the likenesses science discovers between
apparently distinct groups of animals are explicable, or
they are not explicable. If the former, then science de-
clares, with unanimous voice, that the likenesses are due
to common descent, as the unlikenesses are due to the
variations and modifications produced during the evolution
of the race. If, on the other hand, the likenesses are inex-
plicable— as I hold them to be on any other theory save
that of evolution — then must mankind fold their hands in
the acknowledgment of an ignorance that might legiti-
mately, by its avowal, close the door to astronomical
research, to geological work, and to scientific investigation
of every kind.
I am led to make these remarks because several corre-
spondents have remarked to the editor, that because like-
nesses can be proved to exist between two different groups of
animals in their young state, they do not understand why
the evolutionist should lay such stress upon these facts as
proving his contentions. One correspondent, for instance,
says that he cannot admit that because one thing is like
another, tlie two things must stand in the relation of parent
and offspring. I replj% likeness does not necessarily imply
similarity of origin, but, on the other hand, it is one of the
proofs of such similarity. If likeness is to be denied its
place as a proof of common origin — apart from other
and equally powerful proofs known to biologists — what
guarantee should we possess that unlikeness means dis-
similarity 1 That the likeness of child to parent
is a natural likeness, every one must admit. The
reasons are clear enough, and they derive thtir force
from the fact that the latter begets the former. I hold
that the likenesses existent — especially in the early
stages of development — between different groups, are to
be judged on the same basis, namely that of heredity.
A manifest resemblance in the young frog to a fish is, I
repeat, inexplicable, equally on scientific principles and
on common sense grounds, unless on the hypothesis that
some bond of relationship comiects the two. The duty of
March 31, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE *
465
disproving this idea rests with those who deny evolution.
Until we receive a fuller and more likely explanation
of such likenesses as those we are at present discussing,
■we are entitled to hold to the only theory, which, so far
as I know, satislics the requirements of a good hypothesis —
these requirements being that it explains all the facts and
is contrary to none. This end the theory of evolution
attains in explaining both the likenesses and the dissimi-
larities of li\ing nature.
Returning, after this needful digression, to the case of
birds and reptiles, let us firstly note the structural points
in which these classes agree. To begin with, the skull of
both is joined to the spine by one bony process or condyle.
There are two of these processes in frogs and their neigh-
bours, and a similar number in quadrupeds, including man.
Then, secondly, the lower jaw of a reptile agrees with that
of a bird in its compound nature. This jaw, instead of being
simple and composed of two simple halves (as in quadru-
peds), consists in birds and reptiles of from eight to twelve
distinct pieces, which are amalgamated to form one bone.
Furthermore, whilst the quadruped's lower jaw is joined
directly, and of itself, to the skuU, that of the bird and i-eptile
is attached to the skull through the medium of a distinct
bone, which is named the quadrate hone. Curiously
enough, this bone in the quadruped is pushed upwards into
the middle of the skull in the course of development, and
becomes one of the three small bones (malleus) of the
internal ear. Again, reptiles and birds agree in possessing
lungs alone as their breathing organs. No gills are
developed (as in frogs and fishes) at any period of
reptile or bird-life, although both, like quadrupeds, possess
gill-clefts in the neck in early life. These " gill-clefts," seen
in the early life of man himself, are to be viewed as feeble
survivals of the aquatic ancestry from which, according to
evolution, all Vertebrate animals have sprung. Further-
more, instead of the ankle-joint (as in man and quadrupeds)
being situated between the end of the leg, so to speak, and
the beginning of the ankle-bones, this joint in reptiles and
birds exists in the middle of the ankle-bones themselves.
This curious feature will be further alluded to later on.
The technical naturalist would enumerate other points of
agreement between birds and reptiles, but sutiicient has
been said to show the close affinities which lie just beneath
the surface of their organisation. Their differences, how-
ever, are also of pronounced type. The causes to which in
the far-back past the evolutionist conceives the likeness
between these animals to be due, have operated, through
variation, at a less remote period, to produce the divergent
lines of development." Thus we discover that birds are
warm-blooded, whilst reptiles possess cold blood ; the
bird's feathers are unknown in the reptile-world ; and
the perfect heart and circulation of the bird — similar
to that of man — are also unrepresented in reptiles.
Crocodiles, which possess a four-chambered heart, like
birds and quadrupeds, nevertheless exhibit the same
imperfect and " mixed " circulation seen equally in
frogs and reptiles. The lungs of birds are of "open"
structure, and part of the air inspired passes through the
lungs to fill certain " air sacs " in the bird's body, and also
fills the interior of the bones in most birds. Such a dis-
tribution of air in the bird's body is evidently adapted for
the exigencies of flight. On the whole, then, with certain
well-marked likenesses — which, be it observed, evolution
accounts for on the idea of a common origin — the classes of
birds and reptiles are demarcated from one another by
cei-tain highly-distinctive characters.
The dissimilarities on the hypothesis of evolution are
due to variation and modification ; but, if this idea be
correct, can we show the stages through which the varia-
tion has led these two groups 1 In other words, have the
" links " which should hypothetically connect them, any
existence whatever ? Such an inquiry would have been
answered in the negati\e only a few years ago ; but, thanks
to recent research, wo are now enabled, satisfactorily
enough, to bridge the gulf between birds and reptiles,
and in a measure to reconstruct the pedigree of these
curious races.
To render my remarks clear, it may be well at this stage
to show in a tabular form the relative positions of the rock-
formations with which we shall have to deal. Placed in
the order in which they occur in the earth's crust, the
rocks in question lie thus : —
^ Recent.
Tertiary j Pliocene.
Hocks. J Miocene.
C Eocene.
„ , r Chalk.
Secondary I y^,.j^_
^"'■'''- [Trias.
The meaning of this table becomes clear, if it be borne
in mind that the rocks as here noted are divided into the
older Secondaries and the newer Tertiaries. The Eocene in
turn is the oldest (or lowest) series of the Tertiary rocks,
as the Trias is the oldest of the Secondary rocks.
The fossil remains of birds are few and far between, and
this for the reason pointed out by Lyell — namely, that the
body of a bird falling into water, prior to its entombment
in the deposits which form the rocks of the future, would
float, and would aflbrd a likely object of prey to other
animals ; thus escaping the chances of preservation. For
long, fossil birds were regarded as limited to the Tertiary
rocks ; but we now know of their existence in the Chalk, or
Cretaceous Period ; and we have also obtained fossil speci-
mens from the rocks immediately preceding the Chalk in
time, namely the Oolitic or Jurassic Period.
It is almost needless to remark that the bird-remains of
the Tertiary rocks, as a rule, resemble closely the birds of
our own day. In this light they only testify to the age of
some of our existing groups of birds, and do not directly sup-
port the theory of evolution, whilst, of course, they do not in
any way negative it. But in tlie deposits of the London clay
of Sheppey, belonging to the Eocene (Tertiary) period of
geology, tiie remains of a bird, belonging apparently to the
swimmers, were discovered. This form was named Odon-
toptcryx by Professor Owen, and its remarkable jaw-
armature at once attracted the notice of naturalists.
No existing bird has teeth ; and no bird possesses any
structures approaching teeth in function — save, perhaps,
such birds as the Mergansers, in which the horny
margin of the jaw is cut into a series of projections,
adapted for retaining a secure hold of the finny prey on
which these birds subsist. But in the Odontopteryx, the
jaws were beset with strong bony processes, which, though
resembling teeth in appearance, nevertheless are mere pro-
jections of bone — for, as most readers know, teeth are not
of bony nature, but possess a special and distinct structure
of their own. Nevertheless, the fact of this extinct bird
of the Eocene rocks possessing toothed projections of its
jaws, serves to link it, in the opinion of naturalists, to the
reptile hosts : for teeth are as stable and characteristic
possessions of the reptile class as their absence is a natural
feature of existing birds.
{To he continued.)
The Sound, or Swim-bladdek of Fish. — Erratum. In my letter
(Knowledge, Marcli 17, p. 439), for " a swimming paii-," read " a
swimming pow " ; for " straight," read " strait."— W. Houghton.
466
KNOWLEDGE
[MAUcn 31, 18b2.
PTTOTOn RAPHY FOR AMATEURS.
i;v A. liiioTirEHS, F.R.A.S.
FEW sul)J<'ots connected with science present more points
of interest tlian the discovery of pliotograpliy. M.
Niopce, OS we liavc; seen, Inlwured most patiently for many
years, and only achieved partial success. Independently,
Dap;uerre was working with a similar oUJect — that of iixing
the image produced by light wlien projected by means of a
lens on to a sensitive chemical compound. Also indepen-
dently, Mr. H. Fo.\-Tall)ot commenced experiments for
li.xing the photognphic imago. In his work, "The Pencil
of Nature," Talbot relates that in 18;il, while sketching
the scenery of Lake Como by means of the camera lucida,
the idea occurred to him that it ought to he possible to fi.x
the image produced by light by chemical means ; and on
his return to England he commenced researches, and con-
tinued them witli such success, that in 1839 he read a paper
before the Royal Society announcing his discovery, and in
18-lrl he secured his process by patent. This patent, how-
ever, he very generously resigned a few years later.
In his " History and Handbook of Photography," Tis-
sandier i-elates a circumstance which I have not seen else-
where, and it deserves to be repeated, as it shows that
others besides those savants already named were busy try-
ing to solve the ditiicult problem of painting by sunlight.
The authority quoted is " Guide du Photographic," Paris,
1856, and the narrator of the fact is M. Chevalier, an
optician. Daguerre and others were in the habit of fre-
quenting Chevalier's shop, and in 1825 a young man
called to inquii-e the price of a new lens which he had
heard Chevalier was making. The price appearing to be
beyond the man's means, he was asked for what purpose
he wanted the lens, when he said that he had succeeded in
fixing the light-produced image. Chevalier thought " Here
is another of those poor fools who want to fix the image
of the camera obscura ! " But Chevalier was astonished
when the man placed a paper on the counter. " That," he
said, " is what I can obtain." Chevalier looked at it, and
was astonished to find a view of Paris as sharp as the
image of the camera. The inventor had fixed the \"iew of
Paris as seen from his window.
Here was an instance of success achieved, but for want
of means, the discovery could not be carried further, and
when we remember the importance of the matter, it is
strange that the discoverer is never heard of again.
It is unlikely that Talbot could have known what others
were doing, as it was seen, when the two processes were
compared, that they were totally difl'erent. Daguerre's
pictures were on polished silver, made sensitive with the
fumes of iodine. This image was latent ; that is, nothing
could be seen until the vapour of mercury was caused
to develope the image ; that is, the mercury was de-
posited in proportion to the action of the light on the
plate. Talbot's process was altogether different. The
image was produced on paper, and was a negative. The
advantage over the Daguerreotype in this case was that an
almost unlimited number of copies could be produced as
positives ; that is, prints haWng the lights and shades as in
nature. Both of these valuable discoveries were to some
extent due to accidents. Daguerre noticed the effect pro-
duced on a plat(! coated with iodine, on which an object
had been accid(!ntally placed ; and Talljot observed that
gallic acid, which had been spilt on his prepared paper
after exposure to light, developed the latent image.
These are the main facts relating to the discovery of the
photographic art. and further detail here is unnecessary.
1'ioth of the processes named were extremely slow, several
mitiut<'S being ncces.sai'y to produce a portrait. But im-
pro\('inents were rapidly made. After bromine was intro-
duced into the process by the late Mr. John Cooat rowing with a strong wind on the
starlxianl l>eam, so that she is down on the stroke side for
awhiU- ; and wo hear tlie terrible news that, stroke and six,
or pcrliaps all the stroke side, " row too deep, tlx; conse-
quence being that they bring the boat down on th(,'ir side."
Tln! height of absurdity, however, was attained last week
in the Jt'/cree, which assuming the inferiority, or rather the
utter worthlessncss, of both the University crews (of " ineffi-
cient mediocrities ") this year, gravely hinted that it had
been attributed to favouritism in the selection of the
men to form the crews. This well informed sporting paper
Lopes the report may not lie true, but considers that if
it is untrue, it should be contradicted : so that Tom and
'Arry, after reading the paragraph, arc left under the
pleasing impression that " them nobs " can " nobble a
race " as thoroughly as the worst " dark rowers " on the
river. If Pendragon had ever attended Captains' meetings
at cithcB University, he would know liow pleasant would
be the fate in store for a " President " who should make up
a University crew of inefficient mediocrities, or from any
but the picked oarsmen of the best eights on the river.
That on some occasions there may have been one or
two men out of the "eight" who would have done a shade
better than one or two in the 'Varsity crew, may be
admitted : but readers of the R/'ferce may rest assured that
the President of either University Club selects ahcai/s, to
the best of his judgment, the eight men he believes to be
fittest.
THE SUN IN APRIL.
[Notice. — The foUowinff notes are prepared on the supposition
that those who will read them are provided with soaie almanac in
which the astronomical phenomena are announced. Tlie advanced
student of astronomy usually has the Nautictil Almanac, but for
the amateur, Whitaker's Almanac will be found amply sufficient.
Many other almanacs, though not so specially adapted to the re-
quirements of the amateur astronomer, contain much astronomical
information ; and scarcely any fail to indicate such matters as the
epochs of the lunar phases ; the hours of rising and setting of the
sun, moon, and planets ; the equation of time, and soon. It has
therefore not seemed desirable to cceupy space with such details,
but rather to provide matter which might prove of real assistance
to the student.]
THE sun's path during the month of April, or rather
from March 20 to April 20, is shown in the accom-
panying map from "y to » ; that is, from the place where
the sun's centre crosses the equator ascendingly, or north-
wards, through the part of the ecliptic corresponding to
the sign Aries. On March 20, at 11 a.m., the sun passed
the point called the First Point of Aries, and spring com-
menced. His rate of motion at this time does not difler
much from his mean rate, and in the course of his passage
through the first sign, Ai-ies, he passes one of the points
of his annual course where he is at his mean dis-
tance and moves with his mean rate of motion. (This
occurs on April 1, and again after the autumnal etpiinox
on October 3.) But although during JIarch and April
the sun moves at nearly his mean rate along the
ecliptic, his path is at its greatest -inclination to the
equator. Thus, while he travels along 30 degrees of the
ecliptic, reaching the point 8, he has not advanced
30 degrees in right ascension, which is measured parallel
to the equator. We see that the point b instead of being
in 11. A. 21i., or 30°, he is only in R. A. Ih. oOm., or 57.V"
(sec the illustrative map). The mean sun, therefore,
wliich is sujijiosed to travel at a uniform rate along the
equator, gains during March and April on the real
sun. liut we must not fall here into the mistake
made in some elementary tnsatises on astronomy (Mr.
Lockyer's, for instance), where it is said that there/ore
the clock gains on the sun. The sun's loss in right
ascension acts the other way. For as he moves annually
in a direction contrary to that of the diunial rotation of
the lieavens, the more slowly he moves in right ascension
the shorter distance has he to make u[> in coming to the
meridian. The eastwardly motion of the mean sun (from
right to left in our map) causes the difference of nearly
four minutes between a nif^n solar or civil day, and
the sidereal day. The smaller amount of the real sun's
eastwardly motion, measured parallel to the equator, causes
the real solar day in March and April to exceed the sidereal
day in less degree. Solar noon occurs sooner than it
would if the real sun moved like the mean sun. Accord-
ingly, whereas on March 20, at noon, the clock was nearly
71 min. faster than the sun, this araoimt has been
gradually diminishing day by day since then ; it will be
less than t min. on the day when this number of Know-
ledge is published, little more than 2 min. on Thursday,
April 7, 1 1 ••")I sec. on April 14 ; while at noon on April 15
the sun will be 347 sec. before the clock, and about 1 min.
before the clock when the sun completes his passage
through the sign Aries.
It is to these changes that the seeming irregularity of
the day, as measured from sunrise to sunset, by the clock,
is due. If the time of solar noon corresponded to noon by
the clock, the hour of smirisc would be almost exactly as
many hours and minutes before as the hour of sunset would
be after the time of noon. But when the hour of solar
noon follows the hour of clock noon, the time of sunrise
comes so manj- minutes nearer to clock noon, while the
time of sunset is as many minutes farther from clock
noon ; in other words, the sun seems both to rise later and
to set later than it does by solar or natural time. Thus^
on March 20 the sun rises at 6h. 5 m., only 5 h. 55 m.
before noon, and sets at 6 h. 10 m., or by so long (15 m.
longer) after noon.* Wliereas, on AprU Itfth, when the
equation of time vanishes, or the real sun and the mean
sun are together (in right ascension), the sun rises at
5 h. 6 m., and sets at 6 h. 54 m., in each case G h. 54 m. from
noon.
Asthma and Tobacco. — In reply to J. W. Brookes, I beg to state
that tobacco is sometimes recommended to persons suffering from
asthma, on account of its influence in deadening temporarily those
nerves upon whose irritation the asthmatic spasm depends. Troua-
seau, an eminent French physician, who suffered from this com-
plaint, mentions that " it often sufficed for him to take a few whiSs
from a cigar to free himself from his asthmatic trouble." And, on
the other hand, he says that he got an attack of asthma whenever
ho remained in a room in which there was a bouquet of violets. The
aroma from the violets acted as a stimulus to the na£al nerve-
twigs, which stimulus was communicated to the ner^■e3 governing
the bronchial tubes, and thus contraction of those tubes, and conse-
quent difficulty of breathing, were produced. Tobacco, on the other
hand, causes temporarj* paralysis of the same ner\-es, and rendew
them incapable of producing contraction of the air-tubes. But its
effects are merely palliative, not curative. — J. SIi IK Howie.
* Xote that on this day, the sun, being on the equator, would rise
at six and set at six were it not for refraction (almost exactly, but
tlie progression of the sun across the equator causes a slight dif-
ference, the sun being south of the equator when rising, and norA
of the equator when setting). But refraction, by raising him into
view before he has really crossed the plane of the horizon, and
keeping him still in view after he has really passed over it, makes
the day last rather longer than twelve hours on the day of the
equinox.
* KNO'vVL.SDGE
470
♦ KNOWLEDGE
[March 31, 1885
M
3RrbifU)sf.
THE TWO HEMISPHERES.*
/| R. CHISHOLM gives as complcto an account of the
I J_ continents and countries, tho oceans and seas, of the
two hemispheres, as could well V)e presented in a single
volume (l)ut of nearly a thousand pages). The book is
pleasantly written, and the information for the most part
accurate, though in places ratluT behind the time. For
instance, we are told that the largest of the rivers in
North Island, New Zealand, are the Waikato and the
Manawatu, no mention being made of the Wanganui, a
much more important river than the Manawatu. Some of
the information respecting the United States is singularly
out of date, and serves to gi\o but inadequate ideas of the
progress made in the Western States during the last quarter
of a century, in some cases even within the last ten years
or so, though statistical information is in most cases brought
up to date. The illustrations of natural scenery are, for
the most part, good ; but the views of towns are in many
cases behind the time. A "street in Chicago" gives no
correct idea of any of the principal streets in that wonder-
ful city ; and the view of Madison-square must have been
taken before the gigantic Hand of Liberty had been set up
which has now for several years formed a characteristic
feature of the square. Still, these are not points of great
importance ; and in the main we are struck rather by the
amount of exact and recent information which the book
contains, than by occasional shortcomings.
Messrs. Biackie &. .Sox note that ilessrs. Marcus Ward & Co.
have not published Vere Foster's Drawing Books (see reply to
query 274) for 3 J years ; these books arc pubhshed by Messrs.
Blackie & Son.
DID THE EGYPTIANS KNOW OF THE MOVE-
MENT OF THE EARTH IN SPACE?
IN confirmation of the translation of the Berlin papyrus by M.
Chabas, a paper is published in the " Transactions of the Con-
gress of Orientalists at St. Etienne," by M. Lieblein, one of the
greatest authorities on the Egyptian vocabulary, pointing out
another text alluding to the motion of the earth in very similar
terms. This second sentence occurs in a kind of chant to the god
Ptah, found in what is known of the gi-eat Harris papyrus, con-
tained in the British Museum, and speaks of him as "creator of the
gods, maker of heaven, and founder of the earth circulating in the
great ocean of heaven." This te.^t liad formerly been translated
by Dr. Birch and Professor Eisenlohr as " encircling the earth
with the waters of the great sea," and thus it will be seen at once
that the difference between tho two readings is that where one
translator reads travelling or circulating in, the other reads sur-
rounding tcith. M. Lieblein, consequently, in order to prove his
case, gives a large number of instances of exactly similar words,
wliere if the verb were really to surround, and the preposition with,
instead of in, such a translation would make nonsense, and also
refers to many texts where this very word has been rendered to cir-
culate, several of these having reference to tho path of the sun. In
controverting any decision arrived at by one so pre-en-.iuent as Dr.
Birch, tho very greatest caution must be observed, but no one, after
reading M. Liobloin's essay, can doubt that there is at least as
mncli right to his idea of tho true interpretation of the sentence as
to that of our greatest Egyjitologist.
Before apjiroaching our subject from a point of view not pm-ely
Egj'iitian, it will be well to point out that these remai-kable texts, in
speaking of the stars or sun navigating the heavens in boats and the
innumerable allusions to tho sky as a celestial ocean, must not bo
taken to do more than clothe in elegant imagery the phenomena of
tho universe. Their writers no more considered the interstellar
• " The Tivo Hemispheres : A Popular Account of the Countries
and Peoples of the World." By G. G. Chishohn, M.A. (Blackie &
Son, London.)
Bpaco OS a liquid than wo do. The idea itaolf nndoubtodly orif^inatcB
in tho beautiful account uf the creation given in the scvontccnth
chapter of llio Kittinl of the Dead, when it HtatoH that tho Deity,
there alluded to as Toiini, separated tho t<-rreBtrial waters which
gnvo rise to all rivers and oceans, from (lie celestial waters, sus-
pending tho latter in heaven. That behind and beyond all these
allegorical rcferonecs to the surroundings of our planet existc*! a
conception well-nigh panillel to our own, can bo scon by comparing
many texts ; for instance, in tho inscription of Amencmhcb, known
as " Tho Praise of Thotmes IIL," in speaking of tho King's death
at evening ho soys : — " Then ho fled up to heaven when tho disk of
tho sun went down, and the servant of Ood joined himself to his
Creator " (see Ecclcs., xii., 7). If it were legitimate to consider
that the Egyptians spoke of a liqaid heaven literally, then they con-
tradict themselves, for almost as frequently it is spoken of as
forming the body of tho goddess Nout, whose figure is delineated
adorned with the stars, her hamls touching the horizon on one side,
her body extended above, and her feet forming the horizon on the
other, 'i'hen, again, there is another figurative theory mentioned by
M. Maspero as being common, which speaks of the stars being fixed
as lamjis suspended in the celestial vault, and lighted each night by
divine power to illuminate the earth.
A Member of the Society op Biblical ABcn.coLoov.
The Solar Spectrum. — For more than twenty years I have had
on my study table a prism, brass-mounted, and moving on a ball-
and-socket joint. Tho apparatus may bo had at any optician's.
For two months in the spring, and for an equal period in the
autumn, the sun is in a suitable position for showing through the
prism a fine spectrum on the wall. It is one of the most lovely
sights in nature. It never tires or becomes indifferent ; and if I
felt disposed to idolise a phenomenon, it would not be a sun-flower,
but a sun-spectrum. Its interest to myself has been heightened by
a spice of mysterj'. In the inexpressibly tender sliading-off of the
violet rays may be seen a tremulous motion ; not always, but when-
ever the spectrum is very fine. Some of my family and friends can
see it, but not all. This secret of many years I now suspect to be
the passage across the violet of undulations of air ascending from
the lower and more heated red portion of the spectrum. Any con-
venient method by which a curl of white smoke can be disengaged,
so as to ascend gently through the path of the refracted rays, will
afford a floating spectrum of exquisite beauty. Seen through the
prism, the bars of the window, especially about sunset, are gorgeons.
HeNEY H. HiGGtNS.
The Lamson Case. — Dating from the Lamson trial, wc may expect
to find the history of cadaveric alkaloids will be more fuUy investi-
gated ; and, although in this particular case none of the conditions
essential to their existence were fulfilled, it «all not be without
some advantage, by stimulating inquiry into a very important and at
the same time all but unknown class of decomposition products.
In the whole masterly structme of the defence there was no more
ingenious point raised than this of cadaveric alkaloids. Against
the possibility of any reliance on it, however, were three
fatal objections, which effectually and for all disposed of it. These
were that tho body of the murdered boy was not decomposed
when the poison it contained produced fatal effects on animals it
was injected into ; that the vomited matter, preserved in alcohol,
and thus free from decomposed substances, gave indisputable proof
of aconitiue ; and that we have no proof that cadaveric alkaloids
are capable of producing the physiological effects of normal
vegetable alkaloids. Application has been made to tho Home Secre-
tary for a respite of tho sentence passed on Lamson, on several
grounds, among the reasons given being two chiefly interesting to
ns — viz., that the jur)' were not composed of medical experts, and
the unreliability of the experiments made with mice. The first of
these can need no serious consideration. The cWdence was of a
kind, more than is usuallj- so in mm-dcr cases, to approve itself to
the non-scientific mind. The symptoms of jioisoiiing by aconite
were carefully explained to tho jmy, and the evidence was snch as
to prove conclusively that these verj' symptoms were observed.
Dr. Stevenson's testimony, moreover, was especially such as a child '
might comprehend ; the only difference an expert jurv' would have
made would have been to shorten the time in which the verdict
was arrived at, and which even now is made one of the grounds of
aiiplication for remission of sentence. Of the objection to the '
experiments made by Dr. Stevenson it is needless to sjieak further.
Xo competent judge of their value and importance can hesitate a
moment as to their weight ; we venture to think none does so. On
every ground, the Lamson trial will take rank as of high im-
portance in a medico-legal sense; and as to the justness of its
result we think no question can be raised. — The iUdical Press and
Circular,
March 31, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
471
WEATHER DIAGRAM,
FOR WT:EK ending SATURDAY, MARCH 25.
; 3yrf\Veek
ABERDEEN
fl|lvl|T|wiT[F|s
I
LIVERPOOL
fiM TVKT F S
il
cc o c ooo
MJUVA\ai
h o c\> o o c
0MTWT F S
b"b ct c ot
SIM TWT F S
llllll
r cb t TOO
gp cmmni
5 g
I iT 1 I
Weather. — Beaufort Scale is, b. blue sky ; c. detached clouds ;
d. drizzling rain ; f . fog ; g. dark, gloomy ; li. hail ; 1. lightning ;
m. misty (hazy) ; o. overcast ; p. passing showers ; q. squally ; r.
rain ; s. snow ; t. thunder ; u. ugly, threatening ; v. visibility, un-
usual transparency ; w. dew.
MESMERISM.
2. The effect on the subject is temporary, causing only an increase
of nervous irritability which passes off in a few days. The effect is
similar to that produced by inhaling nitrous oxide gas.
3. The subject is restored to his senses by a change of stimulation,
such as stroking the skin in a direction contrary to the original one;
by sudden change of temperature, as by blowing on the face ; or left
aiono, he will in a short time come out of the hypnosis by himself.
The opinions hero expressed are entirely opposed to those of
professional mesmerists, who maintain that the operator is possessed
of some sort of electrical influence by which he can act voluntarily
on the person experimented on. Actual facts adduced both for and
against this theory would be highly interesting, for lloidenhain's
hypothesis does not afford a satisfactory explanation of many of the
extraordinary phenomena of hypnotism.
Perhaps you will allow discussion on this point in your interesting
REPLYING to " A Startled One," Kxowlf.dge, p. 301 (2G0)
the only work I have seen treating this subject scientifically
is that ("Animal Magnetism") by Professor Heidenhatn (Kegau
Paul & Co.), with a preface by G. J. Romanes, F.R.S.
The subject is deeply interesting, and well worthy of attention by
every medical man.
1. Heidenhain arrives at the conclusion that the cause of the
phenomena of hypnotism lies in the inhibition of the activity of the
ganglion-cells of the cerebral cortex, the inhibition being brought
about by gentle prolonged stimulation of the sensory noircs of the
face (by passes), or the optic nerve (by looking at a bright object),
or the auditory nerve (by a monotonous sound), and that in conse-
quence of the depression of activity of the brain there is a great
increase of reflex irritability which may be made to extend over the
body upon cutaneous stimulation of local parts, causing all the
nsnal mesmeric phenomena, such as muscular rigour, inscnsibiUty
to pain, hallacinations, &c.
F. Gibson.
THE CARNIVOROUS PARROT.
IN Kovember, 1879, Mr. J. Wood showed at a meeting of the
Pathological Society the colon of a sheep in -which the operation
of colotomy had been performed by the Nestor Notabilis. The
specimen, along with one of the bird.s, was from Otago, New Zealand.
The modus operandi appeared to bo as follows : — The bird, settling
on the sacrum, tears off the wool with its beak and eats into the
flesh until the sheep falls from loss of blood and exhaustion. It is
doubtful whether the birds attack dead sheep, and it was stated
that they single out the strongest sheep in the flock rather than
those that are sick, dying, or disabled.
It is difficult to account for this acquired carnivorous habit.
Professor Flower has suggested that the bird has in view the object
of getting at the contents of the intestines, while others state that
the loin and the underlying intestines are especially wounded owing
to the position the bii-d takes upon the sheep's back. This is not
an exiilanation, however, of the cause of the habit, for although we
may, and do, easily alter the dietary of individual parrots, it would
be interesting to know why the Xestor Notabilis in its freedom on
the sheep-runs of New Zealand should voluntarily change its mode
of living. Perhaps some of your naturalist subscribers will give us
the reason. Akrectis Ackibus.
EASY LESSONS IN BLOWPIPE CHEMISTRY.
By Lieut.-Coloxel W. A. Eoss, late E.A.
Lessox Y.— the physics* AND CHEIIISTEY OF THE
THING.
ALTHOUGH the merely mechanical study of blowpipe manipu-
lation ; its, comparatively with other chemical studies, child-
like simplicity and absolute economy, combined with the surprising
rapidity, beauty, and correctness of results, and portability of
apparatus required, have all such a charm for the man who seriously
takes it up, as to exercise in most cases a complete fascination over
him — the phvsics and chemistry of the thing must on no account be
neglected; and although, technically speaking, this is called the
" dry" method of chemistry, it will, when properly appreciated, be
found infinitely more amusing, and quite as instructive, as the "wet"
method, which involves the use of violent acids, expensive and
delicate glass-apparatus, a knowledge of " atomic theories," &c.
Let us now, therefore, collect and recapitulate the physical and
chemical phenomena casually mentioned in the four preceding
lessons, as follow : —
1. A cone of blue fire produced from a caudle, oil-lamp, or coal-
gas flame by a constant confined blast.
2. The probable cause of the change of colour in hot beads
cooling.
3. The power of the pyrocone to produce and abolish colour in
solutions of oxides.
4. The solubility of silica in P. salt, and its insolubility in
P. acid B.B.
(1.) As regards this fact, there is an obvious and very general
error, arising from optical misapprehension, or, as Mr. Foster wordd
call it, " untrustworthy information of the senses "—entertained as to
the shape and natm-e of the fire-cone alluded to, in consequence of all or
most writers on the subject making pictures of the blowpipe "Hame"
(as they call it) taken at the angle of depression, in^ which they
view the pyrocone, while using the mouth-blowpipe. This " optical
illusion" has the effect of causing the blast to appear uithin the
pyrocone, whereas, in reality, it passes over the surface. I have
* Greek, Phusike, Nature ; Natural Philosopliy.
472
KNO^A^LEDGE
[Maech 31, 1882.
now bcfnro mo ton iiUndanI works on rhomi«lry nnd lilowpipo
•nnlynix. iii nol oni- of wliicti in tli<- li)fiir<> of thc< pyrocono rorrorlly
drnwn ; Imt, «■ it wotilil novordo to tukouptho Bpiicuof Ksowi.KiMiK
with otToncou« ilnwinga, I ahnll horo moroly iniiort two j (o) from
llloxam's Chemistry ; ('■) from Thorpe's. In thcflo pictures it, will
ho scon Ihnt the " nozzio " of the blowpipe appears to bo scndinfr a
blast into the ceiitre of tho pyrocone, whicli latter is therefore s.'iid
hy most chemical writers to bo as hollow as tho luminous llamo of
a candle undoubtedly is; a statement which, as shall bo abundantly
proved in the course of these " lessons," is also quite incorrect.
Now, let us light a common candle in daylight, and apply a blow-
pipe blast to it, near a window, viewing tho resulting pyrocone by
transmitted light (that is, holding tho candle between us and the
window) on a level with the eyes; or, speaking concisoly, in tho
f- / C . ^ .
horizontal plane of vision. This is something like what wc see, but
by slanting tho candle a little, we can see quite distinctly the
actual path of the blast on tho u^-p^r surface of the pyrocone ; and
moreover, we can easily prove, while holding the candle or lamp
upon this level, that it is impossible to force the blast inside of tho
pyrocone. Another proof which I take from a former paper (Proc.
Roy. Soc, Vol. XX.) is that, in looking directly down (or perpen-
dicularly) on n pyrocono formed upon a thick wick, as that of a
Berzelins' lamp, wo see the black carbonised wick through the
Bpace which is always formed in the centre of even.- luminous flame,
and not throngh blue fiery matter, as would be the case were tho
blast in the centre of the blue pyrocone. Yet another proof lies in
tho fact that upwards heat-radiation is almost entirely stopped by
the superposed blast.
Simple learners like the poor workmen to whom I chiefly address
these little " lessons " — though I myself have quite as muoh to learn
in the matter as to teach — will scarcely credit the fact that none of
the eminent authors who have condescended to include blowpipe-
operations in their chemical writings, have thought it worth their
while to make the least inquiry as to the cause of the phenomenon
(1) now under discussion. No doubt, if such men as Plattner or
Berzolius had done so, speaking as they would, too. ex oficio
(which yoB must not translate by " as a Jack in office "), they would
have at once cleared up the matter ; as it is, the following sug-
gestion of an ei-artillory officer must be taken in lieu of anything
better. As before, we must rest our inquirj- on what that corrupt,
old, marvellous judge (t wish we had such judges now-a-days !)
and genius, Lord Bacon, called " Induction ; " that is, reasoning
from experiment. Most young Englishmen possess uncommonly
good eyesight, so that they will find little difficulty in proving the
truth of the following extract from my smaller book. " Alphabetical
Manual of Blowpipe Analysis," ppge 102. " If tho blast from a
mouth-blowpipe be propelled by an operator with good eyesight
across the heat-undulations rising from a lighted candle in broad
daylight by Irangmitted light, he will see it (the blast) in tho shape
of a strai'jht line, about the thickness of a fine sewing-needle. If
now he propel a similar blast through tho blue thin flame of a
spirit-lamp, which is peiule by tho blast, and observe
it by reflected light, that is, when ho is between it and the
window, ho will again seo it, but this time in tho form of
a minntc fono of air, synaxial (that is, formed upon tho
same line, an it wore) with a flnme-cono projected in tho same
dirertiori, from the spirit-lamp. What causig this diffenmco in tho
appearance of tho same thing? The only reply to this question
si'c-ms to me to bo that a conlined, continued blast apjiears to create
round it, in air, a rortez, the gj-rntivo rapidity of which ia least at
the commencement, or groatust direct rapidity of the blast, and
moKt when that begins to slacken. This aerial vortex is, of course,
invisible in air when tho blast is passed throngh the hcat-wavcf
above a candle, although the blast itself is perceived there, l>ccauio
a space is formed by it within which tho waves themselvos are
checked ; but the air-vortex, on tho contrarj-, is distinctly vigiblo
when formed within a coloured (blue) fluid of greater consistt^nce
than itself, like spirit-flame. It seems obvious, if this explanation
bo correct, and tho other fact kept in mind, that tho blast
from a blowpipe is not really projected into the candle or
oil-lamp pyrocone, but passes over its upper surface, that
tho vortex thus created includes within its gyrations the Bame
blown on one side in the direction of the blast, and force*
it to retain a horizontal position, as well as its ovm conical
form. It follows from this, that in order to produce a perfect
pyrocone, there should be a constant ratio between the strength
of tho blast (or air pressure) and the size or bulk of the flame
acted on — and this is the fact." If the blast be now propelled
into a spirit-lamp flame held about half-an-inch in front of
the point marked OP in the figure, that is, about half-an-inch
distant from the apex of the ai-rial vortex, a short inverted cone of
large diameter appears ; and this, according to Sir J. Herscbd
(Essay on Meteorology, page G7) is "a necessary consequence of
the vorticose motion." Tho existence of this atmospheric vortex
may bo further confirmed by holding about three inches of the
finest platinum wire, which has very considerable "spring" or
elasticity in it, so that one end just touches the left side of the
blowpipe pyrocone. That end will immediately commence a
series of gyrations, from left to right, rapid in direct proportion
with the strength of the blast, and therefore with the shortness of
the diameter of the base of the cone. Another proof is obtained by
holding an extremelv hot bead — as nearly red-hot as possible —
of fresh P. acid just under the base of the pyrocone ; when a
"mantle" of pale green flame surrounds the blue pyrocone,
spreading from base to apex. This "mantle" consists of in-
finitely small particles of the volatile phosphoric acid burning
in the vortex of intensely heated air surrounding the pyrocone.
But the most conclusive evidence of all — evidence which seems to
mo simply confirmatory of the fact — is this :- — An elastic, expansible
cone, such as that formed by an aii'-vortex, must, if compressed at
its base, extend in the direction of its gyrations. This is a self-
evident law of Dynamics,* and I can never forget the delight with
which I found, when I placed a globular ])latin\im dish so that its
curved bottom almost touched the base of the blue pyrocone, and
thus was bound to squeeze the aii-vortex at its commencement, that
my pyrocono instantaneously increased in length at least half on
inch.
We thus possess in this hypothesisf — for, of course, chemists will
not allow, for another ten years at least, that there is here the absCK
lute proof of the existence of these facts which they have obtained
of the existence of proportional atoms — a simple and " pretty " ex-
planation, not merely of the conical shape of the " flame " or fire,
but of the oxydising properties of tho position OP; of the still
more intensely oxydising properties of the position PP. whore the
inverted aerial vortex exists; and of the hydrogenising or
" reducing " properties of the position IIP ; that is, of the inside of
the solid blue pyrocone, which, according to the present accepted
" theory " of blowpipe pyrocones, must be full of oxygen contained
in the air of the blast.
But, as the poor ghost in " Hamlet " says (at the beginning, by
the way, instead of tho end of his oration), " My hour is almost
come ; " and space permits no more on this head at jiresent, so that
I must reserve tho discussion of tho other chemical and physical
clTects mentioned, for Lesson VI.
• Oreek, Dunamis, power ; he branch of Physics which treats of
bodies in motion, as opposed to Statics.
t "Hypothesis, a supposition. Something not proved, bnt as
Bumcd for tho purpose of argument " (Ogilvio's Dictionary).
KXOWI,KI)(iK, Mahj-ai»in
/i
... Alphirl;
... Ermi
n Ceti
... Uenhar
(?
. . . Diphda
... Ilaten Kaitos
11 ■
... Mirm.
11 Culamba!
... I'hact
II Corona) Borealia
... Atphecrn
« Corvi
... AlchiUi
0
... Algoren
a Crateris
... Alkes
a Cyf^ni
... Arided, Demi Adigt
n
... Albireo
11 Draconis
... Th^tban
ti
... Alwaid
... Etanin
/3 Eridani
... Cursa
1
... Zaurac
n Geminornm ...
... Castor
/5
... Pollux
I ;::
... Alhena
... Wasat
f
... Melenta
n Uerculi.s
... Ras Algethi
li
... KorneforoK
a Hydra)
... Alphcird, Cor Hijdrce
n Leonia
... Regulu.0, Cor Leonis
li
... Leneb Aleet, Denebula,
Deneb
-
... Algeiba
3
... Zosma
a Leporia
... Arneb
n Libra)
... Zuhen el Genubi
/3
... Zuben el Chaniali
... Zuben UaWabi
a Lyra)
... Vega
/i
... SheUah
7
... Sidaphat
n Ophiuchi
... Ras Alha^ue
/3
... Cebalrai
a Ononis
... Betelgeua
/3
... Rigel
I
... Bellatrix
.. Mintaha
Alnilarn
a Pegasi
... Markab
/3
... Scheat
7
... Algenib
... Enif
... Homan
z
« Persei
... Mirfak
li
... Algol
a Piacia Australia
... Fomalhaut
t Sagittal ii
... Kaus Australis
a Scorpionis
... Antares, Cor Scorpionis
a Serpentia
... Unwkalhai
o Tanri
... Aldebaran
13
... Nath
7)
... Alcyone (Pleiad)
« Ursas Maioris
... Ihibhe
)3
... Meralc
7
... Phecda
f
... Alioth
?
... Mizar
7/
... Alkaid, Benetnasch
... Talitha
(1 Drase Minoria
... Polaris
/a
... Kochab
a Virginia
... Spica Azimech, Spica
/3
... Zavijava
I
.. Vindemiatrix
March 31, 1882.]
♦ KNOWLEDGE
477
COD-SOUNDS AND SCIENTIFIC PRIVILEGE.
WHEN' I stated (page 295) that the tough leathery membrane
of tlio cod-fish, known to epicnres as the " sound," is an
organ of different structure and anatomical relation to the swim-
bladder of other fishes, 1 had no idea that the subject was suffi-
ciently interestinjr to call forth the critical correspondence it has
elicited, and should hardly have prolonged the discussion, but that
another and far more important subject has been connected with
it. "Old Kossil " says (page 380), that I have illustrated " the old
saying that a cobbler should stick to his last," ami that on " pass-
ing into the domain of the biologist " I must " bo regarded as an
intruder." Dr. Wilson (page 129) quotes and supports this state-
ment which assumes that scientific inquiry, scientific discussion, or
scientific criticism is the exclusive privilege of labelled specialists,
who must never invade each others' domains.
This is a mischievous dogma, too often assorted with less cour-
tesy than by the gentlemen above-named, and sometimes even
with downright insolence by certain narrow-minded pedanta.
"There is no man old enough to be an expert in all the sciences,
and yet all the sciences are but one science, and all our subdivisions
ore mei-ely artificial devices for the convenience of study. Hence,
if every man confined himself to his own particular branch of
special knowledge, the divine unity of creation would remain
unknown, and the highest object of all science — the uplifting and
purification of the human mind by the unselfish contemplation of
the marvellous harmonies of the universe — would bo unfulfilled.
The new-bom science of celestial chemistry could not have come
into existence without the previous wedding of tho laboratory to
the observatory ; and if we take a general survey of the progress
of human knowledge during the present generation, it will be seen
that the greatest strides have been made by those who have boldly
stepped across the'conventional boundaries that mark the customary
subdivisions of the sciences." I wrote the above protest thirteen
years ago ; 1 now repeat it with especial emphasis in the columns
of KNoni.EriGE, the value of which I regard as largely due to its
general freedom from the pedantry of the self-sufficient specialist.
Has not Tyndall invaded the domain of the biologist in conduct-
ing his researches on atmospheric germs, and have not the truly
philopophical biologists good reason to thank him for doing so ? All
such biologists acknowledge the importance of Herbert Spencer's
profound contributions to the theory of evolution ; but can he be
labelled a biologist ? I need only mention the names, of Humboldt,
Bunsen, Kirchoff, Helmholtz, Huggins, Huxley, &c., as illustrations
of men who, by forsaking their special lasts, have ceased to be
scientific cobblers, and have thereby become true philosophers.
This very magazine could have had no existence had its editor sub-
mitted to be strapped doivn to the astronomical last with which
his earlier literary efforts are associated, and some of his best essays
must have been suppressed had he not invaded other " domains."
Such specialists are unquestionably necessary to the building up
of the glorious edifice of inductive science, just as special masons,
bricklayers, carpenter.*, joiners, Ac, are demanded for physical
buildings, and I should bo the last to dispute their dignity and
importance, even when protesting against their undue assumptions
of exclusive privilege.
Dr. Wilson and " Old Fossil " are quite right in asserting that I
am not a biologist, thongh my earliest studies were biological, and
date from a period preceding the invention of the term " biology "
and tho birth of Dr. Wilson, viz., 1841, when I was a pupil of
Professor Jamieson in " Natural Histoiy," and attended the lec-
tures of "Monro terlitis" on " Anatomy and Physiology" in the
University of Edinburgh.
"Old Fossil " tells us that he dissected a cod-fish of 8 or 91b.
weight on tho day of writing. I hd,ve dissected many twenty-five
to thirty years ago, and therefore depend upon memory. The
reader, however, may judge for himself, by simply cutting such a
fish in half, or asking a fishmonger to do so for him, and he will
then be able to judge by the diameter of the blood-clot enclosed by
the stout membrane in question whether it can possibly bo con-
tained within an aort.a of -r-th of an inch diameter. If the section
is made at about the posterior termination of the abdominal cavity,
he will find that this blood-clot is nearly half-an-inch in diameter,
and confined between the spines and the thick membrane in ques-
tion. If he follows this membrane forward, he will find it still
adherent throughout its whole length to tho spines, and uuder-
lapping the blood-clot, which now becomes divided, and lies on
each side of the body of the vertebra?, accumulated in tho hollows
formed by the bases of the vertebral arches. It also contains air,
and this has probably led " Old Fossil " to suppose that it is a true
swim-bladder, the organ which modern biologists regard as an
homologue to the lung-bag of the amphibia and reptiles ; one of Dr.
Wilson's " found links."
All such bladders differ essentially in structure and anatomical
relations from the cod-sound. They are formed of a thin, trans-
lucent, delicate membrane, corresponding to the pleura, or mem-
branous envelope of the lung-ljag of air-breathers ; the cod-sound
has a tough leathery coat, like that of our own arteries. It is a
contradiction to all anatomical analogies to suppose that a mere
air vesicle should have walls strong enough for a fire-hose. The
true air-bladders, like the lung-baga of the amphibia, are, as
John Marshall says, " off-shoots from the upper part of tho
digestive canal," and come away freely from the abdominal
cavity along with tho other viscera when these arc removed.
The cod-sound is connected with the heart (as a )n-olonga-
tion or modification of the hulbus arteHosus) cf tho fish, and
so firmly attached by its edges that it has to be forcibly torn or
" sondert," by the Norsk fishermen, after all the rest of tho viscera
are removed, and thus, as I believe, obtains its name. When not
thus sundered for salting, it is ripped open in order to remove the
blood which it contains throughout its entire length. I have ex-
amined the swim bladder of many fishes — the single-lobed bladder
of our common fresh-water fishes ; the slippery double bladder of
eels ; the curious three-lobed blaildcr of the gurnets (tho pro-
portionate capacity of which is at least twenty times that of a cod-
sound, and yet is composed of thin membrane) ; and the still more
delicate, collapsing bladders of the herring and other similar fishes
— but have never found any blood within them, still less that they
enclose the great dorsal clot which I find in all fishes after death
enclosed in a special membrane corresponding to the cod-sound,
though generally thinner, and always quite independent of the swim
bladder.
In spite of the scalpel of " Old Fossil," I still regard tho sound
of the cod-fish, and the corresponding membrane of other fishes
similarly adherent to the spine, as the main bloodvessel of the
animal, for the simple reason that its blood is always contained
therein, but I do not deny that the air which it also contains may
assist the buoyancy of the fish, seeing that this buoyancy is
obtained in other fishes by other aiTangements than that of the
ordinary lung-like swim-bladder.
As regards the contents of this dorsal aorta during life, I may
mention one experiment. I have on several occasions lashed myself
to the martingale of a schooner sailing in the Mediterranean, and
stood so near to the water that my feet have dipped when the vessel
pitched. From this favourable position I have speared bonettas,
and observed that when one of the five barbs of tho "grains" (as
the sailor calls the murderous implement), has pierced the adherent
membrane in question, that the water all around the fish has
suddenly become deeply stained with blood to a distance of a foot
or eighteen inches, and the usual blood-clot under tho spine has
diminished accordingly, indicating more contractilo work than could
be done by the tiny heart attached to the gills, and suggesting the
probability of direct and powerful contraction of this sub-dorsal
membrane, which I believe does much more in circulating tho blood
through the body of fishes than Dr. Wilson and " Old Fossil "
imagine. Eymer Jones (who was a biologist especially strong in
comparative anatomy) tells us that there is " no systemic heart in
fishes, the aorta itself serving to propel the slow-moving blood in
its course through the arterial system." Hence the demand for the
strength and thickness of the cod-sound, which I commend to the
biological attention of the readers of Knowledge when they next
partake of boiled cod-fish. Even though not " accustomed to the
use of the scapel," they will then be able to consider the probability
of this being merely devoted to holding air, while the " delicate
thin-walled tube, about one-twelfth of an inch diameter," which
" Old Fossil " found in the 8 or 9 lb. fish, propels the blood through-
out its body without any help from tho outer tough membrane of
the sound. W. M.4ttied Williams.
ERRAxrM. — In letter on the Radiometer, p. 457, last line but one,
for Sodium read Iodine.
Colliery " Spoil Baxks." — Tou are doubtless familiar with the
large heaps of refuse removed from coal-pits, technically known as
" spoil banks." These heaps are usually, though not always, on
fire, and when seen after dark present an appearance of wild and
magnificent grandeui-. I have often heard expressions of wonder
and admiration from persons who have seen these burning moun-
tains for the first time. It is my habit to look at these " mountains "
from a less romantic standpoint, as the sulphurous and other
noxious fumes arising from them are doubtless as injurious to
animal life as the appearance of the immediately surrounding dis-
trict proves them to be to vegetable life. 1 frequently hear the
assertion that these heaps fire " spontaneously." Will you kindly
give your opinion, through the columns of Knowledge, as to
whether this is likely to be ; and, if so, how it occurs ? How is the
chemical combination necessary to produce flame brought about ? —
One who wants Knowledge.
478
• KNOWLEDGE •
[Maiicu 31, 1882.
IcttcrEf to tftc Cbitor.
{Th« Editor tloff not XnU himself rftporiMibUJor tMf opinioni of Mis eorre^findenti.
St cannot undtrttike to rrturn maniiBcrtytt or to corretDond u-UM tMrir itrttert. Alt
eommmnieatio»» thoutJ bf ii» thort oj potnblt^ eonsisttntlj/ icitk full and cleur ftutf-
mmt$ ofths vrttrr't mfttninp.']
Atl Sdiioruit communiraiionM «Aoh/J bf addrested to tht Editor qf KNOWI.sno»;
all Bugine»> cMmmunietition* to tk« Publishfrt, at tJt* OJice, 74, Great Queen-
ttrtft. W.C.
AH Semittanrea, Chtquf$, and Po$t-Offlc9 Ordert $kould bt madt pajfabU to
iie$*r$. Wymnn 4r Sont.
*^* AH UtttT* to tht EJUor teilt be Xumbgred. For convenience of reference,
corregpondenft, when refrrring to any letter, trill oblige by mentioning its number
and the page "»» »rAi>4 it uppearf.
AH Lrtfere or Querie$ tu the Editor vMrh require attention in the current is»ue of
Kito\vi.VTtom,»houtd reach the Publishing OJice not later than the Saturday preceding
the Jerver8ity in slipping out of the nick, and in refusing
to enter it. I wonder that it never occurred to me until the other
day, when I saw a man continually meeting with this trouble, that
it may easily be prevented by tho simple contrivance of putting on
a tube to embrace the screw-head.
There are, however, a few details to be attended to. Screw-
heads, for which the same driver is suitable, are not all of the same
size. Moreover, the jioint of the screw-driver of the now u.sual
round shape (which is the nicest to handle) is widened out, so that
a tube which will go over it will be loose on the shank above. The
■way to meet both those difficulties is to put a piece of leather round
tho shank while you slip the tube on, of such thickness that it will
hold moderately tight. Tlio consequence of that also will be that
as the screw-head goes down into the wood, the tube will bo sponta-
neously pushed up. For larger screws than tho driver is generally
used for, yon only want a larger tube and thicker leather.
I never believe in anything that involves motion till I have tried
it. I have tried this with a tube made only of strong tin, like an old-
fasliionod slate-pencil ease, and it answers perfectly. You need not
even look at your screw. Just put tho sockettcd driver on and
tnm ; it straightway walks into tho nick, and stays there until the
screw-head is imtieddcd in tho w^ood, or metal, as the case may be.
I also abhor patents, and I thercforo neither patent this, nor tell
it to a to<)l-nuikor. The last time I suggested a practical improve-
ment (not to a tool-maker, certainly) the man straightway went
and patented it. Luckily, however, it turned out not to be new, and
so the oilier makers lauglie 1 at him. Epm Beckett.
COLOUU OF PALAEOLITHIC MAX: CIUUSTMAS EOSE.S.
[3G0] — There is no evidence that Paltcolithic man was black ; it
is a sheer stretch of imagination on tho jiart of the present writer.
But when wo consider that black is tho common colour of the skin
in all tho anthropoids, that all the existing lowest human races are
black, and that tlio oarly PaUcolithic skulls of tho so-rallod Canitadt
type cloftely reseniblo those of tho mfjilorn .\uHtrulianR, I think wo
arc fairly justified in assuming that the its himself in doing
so with pollen from the stamens, which he then cirries to a neighbour-
ing blossom. Tho pistils of each flower mature before the stamens,
and so, even if the bee drops some of the pollen on the same flower,
it does not interfero with cross-fertilization, because the pistil will
in all likelihood have been alre.idy impregnated. But when ho
passes from an old blossom, in which the stamens are shedding their
pollen, to a young one, in which the pistils are mature while the
stamens are yet unripe, ho at once fertilises the ovary, and thos
ensures a plentiful crop of healthy seed. Geant Allen.
HIGH NUMBERS.
[361] — A parenthetical remark of yours in an early number of
Knowledge prompts mo to ask you if you will be kind enough to
say what you consider to be the scientific method of notation in
respect to very large numbers. That is to say, since a million is a
thousand thousands, should we call a thousand millions a billion,
and a thousand billions a trilUon, and so on ; or should we reckon a
billion as a million millions, a trillion as a million billions, and so
on, multiplying by a million for each one ? Or, peradventure, is
neither of these methods right ? Wixter.
[It has always seemed to mo the English system of calling a
million million — that is, a million to the second power — a billion, a
million to tho(7u'ri7 power, a trillion, and so on, is sounder than the
American system of calling a thousand millions a billion, a million
millions a trillion, and so on. Xo meaning can be given to the
his, tris, &c., in the compound word on the American plan, whereas
there is a verv obvious and natural meaning on the English plan. —
Ed.] "
JDPITEK IN CASSIOPEIA.
[362] — I presume that the Eev. H. H. Higgins, who sets down
the statement that " Wallenstein saw Jupiter in Cassio]>eia," as an
absurd mistake, {vide" Answers to Correspondents," p. 392), refers
to a passage in Schiller's " Wallenstein" s Tod," where the famous
warrior is made to say (Act V. sc. 3) : —
" Kein Stembild ist zu sehn ! Der matte Schcin dort,
Der einzelne ist ans der Kassiopeia,
Und dahin steht der Jupiter."
If such be tho case, I hope you will allow me to state that the
error is not Schiller's but must be laid to the chai-go of his com-
mentators and translators, who have construed the word dahin
as if it meant " therein," whilst it is employed in the sense of
" yonder ; " for the speaker points with this expression to another
direction than that where he had seen Cassiopeia. I may add that
I have interjireted the above passage in the same sense in my com-
mentary to Schiller's " Wallenstein."
C. A. BicnnEiM, Ph.S.
[Does Dr. Buchheim mean that tho interpretation he puts upon
Schiller's words is the one which would naturally be put upon them
by German readers ? — Ed.]
SPACE PAIUDOX.
[363] — I fancy the following problem might interest your readers.
— Two bodies, A and B, have been travelling in tho same path
through space from eternity. B goes a mile an hotu- faster than A.
Since they have been travelling for an infinite number of horns,
there is an infinite number of miles, or any other unit of length
between them. Honco a line drawn from A to B will be infinite,
although bounded at each end by A and B.
March 31, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
479
Would you bo kind enough to give an explanation of this appaient
:ira(!iix ? If this is not one, is it ever true that the conditions of
: 11 man thought involve contradictions where it transcends the finite?
of course, Kant says that our ideas of space and time are forms of
thought founded on no realities. But apart from this hypothesis, can
:i logical explanation of such problems as the above be supplied ?
!'i rliaps this might be combined mth the suggestion of J. S. T., in
lor 295, if, as I and many others hope, you are going to give an
I'icle on space. Eton.
This paradox resembles Aristotle's proof of the finiteness of
U.0, which never satisfied any one (as Sir J. Herschel remarks),
ugh unanswerable, — viz., Since whenever we take any two points in
■ universe, the straight line joining them is finite, the universe itself
iinite. But as this depends on the first postulate of Euclid, so the
:i-^wer depends on the second; — Each of Aristotle's finite straight
tiis can be produced to any distance in the same straight lino;
reforo the universe is not finite. Lastly comes the third postu-
■■. which since it asks us to admit that a circle can be drawn
\ ing anj- centre and at any distance from that centre, coiTosponds
li Pascal's saying, that the centre of the universe is every\vhere,
s circumference iiowhere. — Ed.]
AN IDIOT DOG.— AN EXCEPTION PROVING A IJULE.
o&l] — I once possessed a black cmly-haired Xe^vfoundland and
rricver, weighing 125 lb., and standing 2 ft. 4 in. high, as you
uld measure a horse. Despite his beauty and magnitude, he
::s, however, it not an idiot, certainly the least intelligent dog I
1 rsaw. Asa yard dog he was quite worthless, except that his
.liiuizing size terrified alike the honest and dishonest — i.e., in day-
liglit, for let come what or who would, he opened not his mouth.
Ill the house ho was equally crass. In his movements ho seemed
to have but one idea, and if a table or a child were in his way,
down they would go — Lion cared not. If taken out of doors he
would go straight ahead, neither kno\Wng his master nor his way
home, his solo and great delight being to slay any dog approaching
him in size.
. I have recently read a translation of a work on " Mind in
Animals," by Lnd^vig Buchner. Although he only describes ants,
bees, wasps, and spiders, yet he succeeds in annihilating the old
" instinct " superstition. Students of the subject of mind in
animals should read this book. Joseph Wood.
WOOD-GAS.
[365] — I repeat that carbonic anhydride can bo perceiTed by the
organ of taste and by the organ of smell. If " F. C. S." considers
that the taste and odour are due to impurity in the COo, as is the
case with hydrogen, will he state what this impurity is ? The
flame of CO was observable as I wrote, over a red-hot fiie without
flame, which I call a "sluggish fire." The process of CO from COn
and heated carbon is nothing new ; it is to be found in many text-
books. The main point, after all, in the use of such gas, would be
the danger of an escape. Lewis Abuxdel.
NOTES ON ROWING.
[366] — "Notes on Rowing" are very acceptable, and, happily,
promise more. Rowing, too, is not the only instance of propulsion
by pressure upon a lever of the second order. The tractive force
of a locomotive engine can be explained in the same way. To draw
a parallel, one might say that the rail corresponds to the water, for
it is the fulcrum. The axle-boxes are the rowlocks ; the crank-pin
is the " spool " of the oar, and the peripherj* of the driving-wheel is
the " blade." Each end of the cylinder (which, by the way, sits
like a rower, forward of its work) is in turn a " footboard " against
which the steam reacts with a force approximately equal to the
pull or thrust upon the crank-pin. And, to make the parallel com-
plete, I may say that the " slip " of a driving-wheel when an engine is
Pmming at high speed is at the present time the subject of experi-
ments. Of course, the action of a driving-wheel when the crank is
below the axle has no parallel in rowing, but it is a good exercise for
the student of mechanics to prove that the foovard pressure upon
the engine is the same on each stroke, in spite of the difference in
leverage. Lastly, the motion of the piston of the engine corresponds
pretty accurately with the motion of a rower's body— back^vard and
forward with respoct to the boat, but continuouslj' forward (although
with a varying velocity) with respect to the water. Take any point
in the periphery of the driving-wheel, too, and see how it goes from
a condition of rest when in contact with the rail to acquire a
velocity equal to double the velocity of the train when at its highest
point.
In the same way, the oar blade, from being nearly stationary in
the water, suddenlj- leaps forward with a velocity (that is, if
nothing happens) at least double the boat's speed. Is the parallel
complete ? — Yours, &c., A. N. S.
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.
[367] — Ronald's electric telegraph (see Knowledge, XIX., p.
401), is by no means the oldest known piece of telegraph aparatns.
Professor Siimmering (1 am not quite sure of the spelling of the
name), of Munich, constructed, in 1809, an elcdric telegraph, vthich
is preserved in one of Munich's numerous museums, and was
originally laid down between Professor S.'s laboratory and that of
one of his learned colleagues. A description and drawing of it are
given in " Das Buch dor Erlindungen," publ. Otto, Spamer, Leipzig.
1 give an extract in the following : —
There were as many circuits as the alphabet has letters, further
figures, signs, i'c., between the two stations. Each of the circuits
was an apparatus for decomposition of acidulated water, by means of
the galvanic current. The tubes containing the water represented
letters, &c. The rising of gas bubbles in a certain tube indicated to
the receiver a certain letter. There was only one battery, which
could bo connected to all circuits by means of switches. There was
also a cleverly-designed signalling apparatus to attract the receiver's
attention. One tube contained a glass bell, under which the poles
were situated, gas evolution would drive out the water of the over-
turned bell, and cause it to rise, move a lever, and set a clockwork
going. This is written after a lapse of Tear.=! since I read the
description, and there may be some slight incorrectness in the
details, but I have given the general idea correctly. — Yours, &c.,
F. Stern, D.Ph.
VEGETARLiNISM.
[368] — I wish to make a few remarks on the letter 207, p. 251,
in which the writer politely calls vegetarians " amiable fanatics,"
and further adds that they seem determined to force their way into
the columns of Knowledge. This is a very grave charge indeed.
Will the writer kindly state the number and date of Carjjer's
Quarterly Journal, in which Dr. Wald's statement about the
prisoners in a castle at Waltenburg is to be found ; for in the
interests of truth and humanity this case requires careful investiga-
tion. For example, it would be important to know whether the
bread given to the prisoners was white, and if much salt was taken
with the leguminous food mentioned.
It might bo also useful to know the proportions of meat to
vegetable diet partaken of, as a rule, by the writer of letter 207.
So far as my knowledge extends, I find that the greatest intellects
of the present and the past have been either altogether or almost
akreophagous.
As I write for the sake of information and not of controversy, I
am thankful that the columns of such an excellent paper as
Knowledge are open to the discussion of this important question —
viz.. What is the best food for the million ?
Why should abstainers from flesh, fish, and fowl be honoured
with so many conflicting titles ? In the few numbers of Knowledge,
in which the subject of vegetarianism has been mooted, I find them
described as "phytophagists," devourers of "potatoes and turnip-
tops," " eaters of greens," &e. C. L. Poechek.
TELEPHONE.
[369] — I have been much interested in " G. E. V.'s " description
of the telephone, and should like very much if he would follow it up
by an account of the microphone transmitter. In making the
telephone, '* G. E. V." does not say how much wire he puts on his
bobbins, nor the number of it. Would he oblige by stating what
length and number he considers most suitable ? W. B.
Notes on Science. — The former pupils of University College
School have raised a fund for the encouragement of science amongst
the boys at their old school. Besides an CNhibition for practical
chemistrj- and a prize for experimental jjliysics, thej- have founded
a medal, which wiU be awarded, at most annually, for original
work of sufficient merit in any branch of experimental science done
within a stated period of leaving the school. The medal, for the
design of which the contributors are indebted to Mr. Thomas
Woolner, R.A., will be exhibited in the Royal Academy this year,
and a copy ^vill be deposited subsequently in the British Museum.
It is not for us to criticise the work of that distinguished sculptor ;
those who have seen the copy belonging to Mr. Temple Orme,
pronounce it to be one of the finest medals ever struck.
480
♦ KNOWLEDGE ♦
[March 31, 1882.
iOtlfllfSf.
^842] — noi.p. — Will liny rciidor kimlly inform mo how I rouUI
■0|innito ({1)1(1 from (wippr? It iH dnubcil from tlio lirniih wliicli hnii
Iwcn iihimI for illiimiiintin^r. I rnrlono «|)ocimon. — I'fzzr.r.D.
[31.1]- LoiisTrii. — WhyilooR thololmtor-aholl tnnifrom blno-ljlnck
to rod when it in hoiloil ? — A. 0. (i.
[3-H] — Ki.KPE. — Ih thorp nny cxplnnntion of tho inability
of a point to w. approacliing another glacial period. (2) Inclination of earth's
\i3 remains almost unchanged. (3) Present condition in sense
: lat eaith is nearest to sun in winter of northern hemisphere, will
, reversed some eleven thousand years hence ; but whether that
. uid be favourable to glacial northern epoch or not, is open to
i'Stion. — AsHBRiDGE n. RoBixsox. Certainly not for reason
ined that Mr. Grant left out date of Stone Age period. Have
•u seen any, even the slightest trace of unwillingness on our part
put facts as we find them, because they do not square with precon-
ived ideas (whether relating to facts, fancies, or faiths) ? Fifty
atsand years ago. excentricity of earth's orbit was less than now
t ' UlOO; now 0.0168), longitude of perihelion 28° 36', so that earth
IS nearest to sun towards end of October. That was not the glacial
ch, or time of Stone Ago. For a time when excentricity was verj-
: at take SoO.OOOb.c, excentricity 00717 (I), and longitude of peri-
'ion 239° 28' — earth nearest to sun towards end of August. Very
acial time for northern hemisphere then. — Dr. Littox Forbes.
1 any thanks; a most interesting subject. — J. L. Sixclaie. Theory
at satellites were expelled from primaries by e.v|)losive force will
r bear examination. — E. C. It will make no difference which way
u put the lens. — W. J. L. (1) Ophite is a synonym of serpen-
le, but also sometimes applied to speckled green porphyry. (2)
'■ 1-. Brough was librarian at the London Institution, successor of
ayley in the office, and predecessor of Mr. Nicholson, now
Jleian librarian. He was a well-known writer on scien-
:io, chiefly chemical, subjects. — F. H. S. About the eye — the
;ierimenl proves nothing as to inversion of image. We know
; r. m optical laws that the image must be inverted. The other
lostions too wide, — such queries remind me of the lady who, just
■ lore supper, at a ball, said to Humboldt : " Now we have live
'uutes to ourselves, do tell me all you know about the earth." Sir
'-'.. Phillip's idea sheer nonsense. — Geo. E.Xewto.v. Thanks for the
imphlet against vaccination. I do not wonder that no notice has
on taken of it by Dr. Carpenter. IB-written, ill-reasoned, and
Ti^nsive, how does it deserve notice ? — J. McDowell. Probably
^r Henry Thompson meant the term vegetables to include fruit.
an one say that it docs not? What are tomatoes, pumpkins,
L,'etable marrows, and so forth ? Consider again the lines —
Amidst them stood the tree of life,
High eminent, blooming ambrosial fruit
Of vegetable gold.
'. Iocs not this seem to imply that Milton at any rate thought fruit
vegetable production '- Science thinks so, too. Ton would " define
. vegetarian as one who excludes from his articles of diet flesh, fish,
m1 fowl;" surely strict vegetarians would exclude eggs, milk,
itter, cheese, and so forth. These are distinctly animal food.
. len again, do you not rather ea^"il about words than facts, when
u dwell on his remark about debarring ourselves from the right
■ use such and such food ? " Surely he knows," you say, " that
u'ctarians do not debar themselves from the right," ;r H. Thompson's letter was eminently fair and judicious, and con-
ivcd entirely in the spirit of his own doctrine, that it is unwise to
■Ticlude over hastily that what suits ourselves must necessarily be
o best for others. If your letter had not been so very long, it
iuld have appeared. — R. H. I doubt if any reader could tell you
a way by which you could successfully make a Bainband spec-
; scope. — Ln"EEPOOL. The zodiacal light is certainly more than
<^ mere radijince from the sun after he has set. It is very
■ Iiiom distinctly seen in our latitudes. When seen (in February
: March in the evening, and in the autumn in the morning), it
; pears as a slant cone, the apex being some 80° or 90° from the
- ni's place. It is incorrectly depicted by Dr. Phipson, in his ex-
• '.lent little work on meteors, as a vertical cone. It is best seen
Ti hour or two after sunset. — F. Peait. You will pardon my re-
■ :arking I did not " permit the planets to be described here as the
aiise of weather changes." I distinctly said that I must draw the
ire somewhere, and I drew it just there. — E. P. C. Geologists
• -timate the thickness of strata (without digging directly down
* ' : rough the depths they name) , by noting the thickness of successive
>.yers, as they crop up to the surface, and adding these thicknesses
jjether. I do not myself think that the moon's mass was thrown
off in a single effort, so to speak, thinking it more probable that
the moon was first formed of multitudinous small bodies separately
thrown off, like spray, from the top of the great tidal wave. I
think the rings of Saturn represent this earliest or embryonic
stage of the moon's history. — S. Hall. The star you refer to
just below ''the little Bear" is Vega. You will be able to find
the place of the planets now visible to the naked eye, from the
zodiacal map in Part III., except Saturn, which you will find about
as far to the right of Jupiter as Mars is to the loft. — A. M. S.
Queries noted. — The Village Philosopher. One of the ways you
mention must certainly be used to find the cube root, unless you
resort to logarithms. — A. G. S. Your cat storj- is rather long ;
besides, the cat which follows the sweeper may " wish to gain
some jirivate ends." — X. Have already mentioned that query
about noise in trains was lost in postal transit. — CoXstaxs. Thanks.
— Alex. Aitkex. The only book I know of that would suit you is
"Chauvenet," in two volumes. It is expensive, and rather difficult.
For the other purpose you cannot do better than u.se " Guillemin."
— Gradatim. Shall probably write on the subject of space. —
Daxiel Jacksox. I belie\-e no small part of the success of
Kxowledge has been due to just those sections (Whist and Chess)
which you wish to see removed. If your ovm editorial experience
had been half as satisfactorj- as mine, you would understand my
unwillingness to make any changes. The contributor to whom you
refer is well able to tell me himself, if dissatisfied. As he has not,
I cannot but think your reference to what he said when at Hamilton
a breach of confidence. Is mischief-making one of the devices
which your editorial experience suggests as desirable for extending the
circulation of a magazine ? On the whole, I am inclined to believe
I know how to conduct this paper at least as well as you can teach
me. — Jos. Baxexdell. I did not insert your reply to Mr. Banyard,
because it seemed ^^-ritten under the impression that he meant to
offend you personally, which I am sure was not the case. Y'our
remarks to myself had better not be inserted, because readers might
imagine they were meant to offend me personally, which I am sure
is not the case. Still, they are digressive — if not aggressive. I
shaU be glad to publish any arguments you may wish to advance.
In the meantime, I do not see how you can deny that if there
are five equations in each of which cosmical elements appear
on one side, while one and the same number 18S1'59
appears on the other, there can be formed no less than ten
equations (the number of combinations of five things two to-
gether) having cosmical elements on both sides — giving, there-
fore, ten instances of remarkable but quite extra - pyramidal
coincidences. You say you do not know what '"Fudging" means,
and that a young schoolboy friend, whom you have asked, cannot
tell you. Perhaps in the North the term is not used. It means
humouring numbers or facts so as to get some result you want.
For instance, the answer to a sum should be, let us say, £1. 13s. id.,
and a schoolboy gets £1. 13s. Id. : well, he puts the right answer
in the proper place, and alters several of the preceding steps to
correspond, taking his chance that the teacher will only glance over
the few first steps and the few last, not finding out either the
original error, or the place where it has been corrected by an arti-
ficial error. That is one form of fudging. For other instances,
take your quiet assumption that the sun's real diameter has a
certain value fitting in with your other results, or your other quiet
assumption that the number 1S81"59, which comes out among cos-
mical relations, is the exact length of the Great GaUery. — Wm.
WiLSOX. Well, since you ask me, I do think your letter in singu-
larly bad taste I "' need not " (need I not ?) " trouble to reply."
No trouble whatever, my dear sir ; as you assume the office of
censor, I venture, following suit, to tell you that, while there is no
irreverence at all in what I said (quoting Shakspeare), there is
gross irreverence in the way in which you, to all intents and pur-
poses, attribute to the Almighty the susceptibilities of a soured peda-
gogue. Datveiiia»icunv[\\'.Vi'.) ieiat censura columham (K. A .P.).
— C. F. B. Harstox. Had not heard that " cats lie on their heads,
^viih one or both ears on the ground, when it is going to rain." It
may be the case ; but I wonder how it is done. 'The " sun entering
a sign" is quite different to the sun being in a "house"; the
former relates to the sun's passage along the ecliptic, the latter to
his position in those imaginary divisions of the heavens with
reference to the horizon on which astronomers base their predic-
tions. When astrologers said a person was born under a particular
planet, they meant that that planet was in the ascendant (the part
of the heavens about to rise above the horizon) at the time of the
person's birth. — C. Do you call the series (2 x S) + (4 x J) -H (6 x *)
-h(8x|) -i- (10 xf) -I- (12 xi), geometrical? The definition of a
geometrical series is sufficiently precise, and certainly does not
include such series. Surely " Teacher " is justified in his criticisms.
— X. Surely you are not in earnest in asserting that the oar
is not a lever of the second kind. If the object of the oars-
man was to push the water along, the oar would be a lever of the
482
• KNOWLEDGE •
[Maech 31, 1882.
first kinil, but lui hi* object i» to movo tlin bunt, nml as tlio l>out'fl
woight in iirfctxl fnini tlio ruwiuck, llu< ruwluck cannot iwmiibly bo
ro)(iirer8, beginning mth No. 21. — J. S. V. Paper on the Transit of
Venus soon. Have ^vritten no work on Practical Astronomy.
— E. Gbeatohkx. Wo scarcely take such matters as part of
our regular subjects. For general chemistry provision already
made. Other questions answered. — K. N., Lepns, J. Minor, C. A. E.,
Eipple, Alphard, Knowledge, G. P. Benstead, Garryl, S. S. S. S.,
Myrven, P. M., Amateur Reader, T. Boyer, D. A. N., Lomax, Boy,
P. P. J., Scientia cam Legibus, Novice. Questions either too vagne,
or trivial, or unsuitable, or already discussed, or for other reason
inadmissible. — Anti-Taranaki. Thanks. — W. S. Yes to both
questions. — Theo.-James. Already answered. — G. H. Mortimer
wants G. E. V. to toll him how to slip tho bobbin of wire over
magnet, and what size wire is. — C. C. C. Newton's theory of
comets' tails would only account for a certain definite rate of
emission, just as known density of our air and kno\vn force
of gravity gives a certain calculable rate for rising of a
balloon in still air. Comets' tails aro formed at a much
greater rate. — C. Harbap. Questions have been referred to bota-
nist. Cannot find space for replies so lengthy. — W. H. Harlaxd.
Thanks, but toads in holes now disposed of, and space crowded.
— J. C. L., T. .1. WoiniKow, and others. Y'our stories are inte-
resting, but, unfortunately, many subscribers consider enough said
for present about intelligence in animals. — E. Cox. Observe tho
influonco of your protest. — J. C. L. There has been a good deal of
it.— MoRK Lic:iiT. Will see about it. — R. HcsipnRF.Y.s. Writer of
srticles on lirnin Troubles not acquainted with tho hjnnn tune
"Midinn;" the nddition to tho echo chords ho devised bimiolf.
— Omicuox. What is Rhyolite ? — tt. S. Staxken. Trembling of ,
fixtMl stars duo to " movements" in our air, not moisture, oi mia- i
printed, p. •H2. Planets do not tremble, Ixjcauso they hnvo disc*; |
stars are appreciably the merest points. — Uowabk Williams. .
U'tter fornanlcd to printers. No, you did not mention our I
former nc(|unintance, and I therefore inferred you wore only a i
namesake of the 11. W. 1 know at St. John's. — Tiios. Mactaogast. |
'Hianks, but no space. — J. Oliisox. C)b, but oxcaso mo; the
sijuarcs of + o and — a nre c(|ual. — Cornwall. Thanks ; query i
referred to electrician.— U. A. N., J. -M., Ahtiii-k BtcKiiEm, ,
Brf.ntox, Kit, and others. What is the logarithm of a negative ,
quantity ? Tho logarithm of a number to a given base is that i
power to which the base must bo raised to equal tho number. To
what power must any given positive numlwr be raised to make it
negative ? It seems scarcely worth while to discuss a paradox
thus arising from misuse of a fonction invented for a S|iecial pur- i
pose. — C. Harris. Paradoxes well knomi. — J. McGrigob Allak.
If you conld only put your objections against vegetarianism into
smaller space. — W. H. Wood. Question answered. —Phosphor. Germ
theory not inconsistent with evolution. One of your other queries
inserted. When one correspondent sends six queries at once we begin
to think of closing tho Queries column. — E. M. (Cantab). When
tho thcorj' has been established it will bo time to consider how it
was originated. — Halivards. Axis of Venus does not point
towards sun. No ; I think you saw what yon thought you saw, but
that what you saw was not what you- thought it. You are quite
mistaken in attributing the origin of tho usage you mention to
KxowLKDGE. It has been customary for years, in press, pulpit, and
lecture-room, though of course not customarj- with all. It has been
adopted in my own case repeatedly. Your i)aper about jelly fish is
in type. Will you excuse me if I hint that you have evidently
much more leisure than I have. If one correspondent in twenty
wrote at such length, or if our circulation increased twenty -fold,
as we ho))0 it will, what could a poor editor do ? Replies to
such letters as yours would in that case fill all our space. — M. B.
Aldeb. Pardon me. I by no means welcome Dr. Siemens' theory.
I have given Dr. Cari)enter'8 report of it ; but it seems to me (I
venture to say, t( is) utterly untenable. There is no such centri-
fugal tendency as he imagines, and sims cannot at same time do
the work he describes and shine through interstellar space as they
do. — M. Wyatt. Yon don't explain why you take 22 to the power
5, and not 21 or 23, or some other number between 20 and 30. —
Z.iRES. Y'on have attacked too difficult a subject. — Hebbeet
Pickle. Thanks ; but we would rather not encourage such
kindness. Your book might not be returned, and we should
feel (though you, no doubt, would not hold us) respon-
sible.—W." H. PiGRiM. Theory too vague. — W. Smith. It
would bo much more convenient if two of the 31-day months
gave up one day each to February. But in such matters the human
race is ver\- slow to change. — JoBX Carteb. I was thinking rather
of cases where the training from the beginning had come into the
teacher's hands ; in other words, of cases in which a parent had
been the teaelier. I cau well believe there are cases whore bad home
training leaves the teacher little choice but to use some form of
corpor.ll punishment. — E. V. H. The indications of the spectro-
scope are reliable to a certain point ; they do not tell us everything,
however. Spectroscopic evidence respeclJvng larger comet presently.
— Cabixet Makes. Cannot give addresses of correspondents. —
Samuel Stuettard. There was a transit of Jlercury in Nov. 11,
IStJl, and one in Nov. 5, 1868; none eighteen years ago. Yon
could not have seen au intra-Mercurial planet in transit, if there
were one. Most probably, what you saw was a spot, and though
"apparently the size of a five-shilling piece" (how far off ?) was,
probably, considerably larger. — H. H. Harris. There are many
cases in which the old poets made their words resemble in sound
what they were describing. I know of none much more striking
than tliis, in a description of frj-ing : —
Qnis non — norit
Stridentesqne focis opsonia plebis alausas.
— N. The illusion is practically the same wliich Mr. Foster has
described and illustrated in No. 1. However, it shall appear. —
Henry Cabb. It is science which is exactly worded and plainly
described, not the magazine. The point you notice was carefully
considered in full conclave. — JoHX Hamer. Thanks for kindly
letter. As for your explanation, we wait.
Poxn's Kttract is a certain cure for RhenmaH^tm and Gout.
Pond's Extract is a certain cure for Hicmorrhoids.
Pond's Kxtract is a certain euro for >'euralpc pains.
Pond's Extract will heal Burns and Wounds.
Pond's Extract will cure Sprains and Bniisce.
Sold by all Chemists. Get the f^enaine.
March 31, 1882.]
♦ KNOWLEDGE ♦
483
^otes on art anli ^ticncf.
Dolloxd's Sipereal Watch. — Almost everj- amateur astronomer
requires to know approximately, if not exactly, the sidereal time.
He can calculate it, of course, from ordinary time, for any given
instant, but the difference between sidereal and ordinary time is
Always chan^'ing, so that the calculation made at one time will not
avail at another. On the other hand, not every astronomer can
afford an instrument so costly as a sidereal chronometer. Mr.
Dollond, the well-known optician, has devised a neat, simple, and
very useful sidereal watch — such an instrument as every amateur
astronomer should carry in liis pocket.
Pbofessor Pasteur's I'REVE.NTm: Ixoculatioxs of Charbox. —
The Prussian Minister of Agriculture, the Deittsche Med. H'ocA.
(Feb. 11) states, has appointed an influential scientific committee
to superintend and report upon a series of inoculations to be per-
formed by one of Pasteur's assistants. This gentleman then pro-
ceeds to Russia for the same purpose, and on his return to Saxon
Prussia, where the experiments are to bo made, will perform a
second series of inoculations. Besides some celebrated veterinary
professors. Professor Virchow is expected to take part in the
inqniry; but regret has been expressed that Professor Koch, the
able critic of Pasteur, has not been nominated.
Plawts IX BF.nROOMs. — Plants are unhealthy in bedrooms for this
reason, that during the night they give out carbonic bi-oxidc, which,
as is well kno^vn, is injurious to life. Plants, like animals, are
constantly breathing — taking in oxygen, and giving out carbonic
dioxide. During the day-time they feed as well as breathe, one of
their chief articles of diet being the very same poisonous gas which
they are constantly expiring. This carbonic di-oxide, under the
influence of sunlight, and by means of the colouring matter
(chlorophyl) is separated, the carbon being assimilated, and the
oxygen evolved. In the daytime there is more oxygen given off
than carbonic di-oxide, so that plants may be said to be healthy in
the Ught, but unhealthy in the dark. I may add that the quantity
of either gas given off in a room from a few plants is so small as to
be hardly worth noticing. — F. D. H.
(Bnv iHatftfinati'ral Column.
MOGUL'S PROBLEM.
THE problem being " Given any rectangle, divide it by the fewest
possible straight cuts, so that the parts can be put together to
form a square," my solution is as follows : —
;B'\fc
On the line a 6 of the rectangle aicd take a e equal to a d, and
make ef perpendicular to a i ; bisect ab at 9, and, with the radius
a y and centre g, describe a circle cutting <;/ at /, join a/ and bf,
and niake//i and hi equal to o/; draw hk audi I parallel to af.
By cutting the rectangle at such parts of the lines a /, kli, li, and
fb as pass through it, you will obtain pieces which will form the
desireif square, vide Fig. L, in wliich rectangle, n 6 is six times ad.
The principle, however, will bo the same, whatever may be the pro-
portion between the sides ; but in cases where the proportion does
not exceed two to one only two cuts will be necessary ; not exceeding
five to one, three cuts ; not exceeding ten to one, four cuts ; not
exceeding seventeen to one, five cuts ; and so on.
It will be observed that my method of finding the side of a square
whose contents are equal to that of a given rectangle, is different
to that given by Euclid, II., 14. Calling the sides of the rectangle
X and 1/ respectively, Euclid's method is equivalent to the mathe-
matical proposition that —
-2- J -L-2-J
whereas my method is equivalent to the proposition —
It may puzzle some of your readers to discover how my method
involves this last equation. — Mogul.
[Correct solutions by R. Home (two, both very neat), P. E. M.,
H. W. Partial solutions by H. J., N., E. Whitby, and others.
Solutions by G. H. Bonner, and H. Jones incorrect. — Ed]
PROBABILITIES.
The true method in dealing with problems of the kind considered
in our last, is to reduce them to the general law first established by
determining — (1) How many possible events there are ; (2) Whether
those arc all equally likely ; and (3) how many are favoui-able.
Our question is : What is the chance of throwing one Ace at least
in two trials with a single die ? Now, when such a die is tlirown
twice, the following are the possible throws : —
1, 1
2, 1
3, 1
4, 1
5, 1
G, 1
1, 2
2, 2
3, 2
4, 2
5, 2
6, 2
1, 3
2, 3
3, 3
4, 3
5, 3
6, 3
1, 4
2, 4
3, 4
4, 4
5, 4
6, 4
1, 5
2, 5
3, 5
4, 5
5, 5
6, 5
1, 6 2, 6 3, 6 4, 6 5, 6 6, 6
The table being formed by combining first throw 1, with any one of
the second throws 1, 2, 3, . . . 6 ; first throw 2 with any of the
same set of 6 ; and so on. The total number is 3G, or 6 times 6.
Any pair in the .first column, or in the top line, gives at least one
Ace— that is, there are 11 favourable pairs out of 36 possible pairs.
Also, it is obvious that any pair of the 36 is as likely to be thrown
as any other. Hence, by what was shown in paper I., the chance of
throwing Ace at least once in two casts of a single die is ^' The
25
chance of failing is z^-.' It will be noticed that the number of un-
3b
favourable cases is 5 times 5, the total number of cases being 6
times 6. It is clear that a table containing all the unfavourable
cases would be formed in precisely the same way as the above
table ; and that, in fact, such a table is actually included in the
above table, omitting the upper line and the left-hand column.
Now the way in which the above result is obtained would be in-
convenient in practice. Suppose, for instance, that instead of a die
484
• KNOWLEDGE
[Majicu 31, 1882.
wo hud n loplotnni witli twciily fnccii, iiuiiibcnxl 1. 2, 3, up to 20.
Thi'ii till- (iilili- fiiriiipil on the plan iiliown nlMivc wimld liiko nl, no tluit tlip total
nnmlior of pnim in IJ linu's 0. And, oljviou»ly, if nny numbiT, an ti,
roplnord (!, wo iihonlil (-ot 7i linioK ii, or «', nB tlui totnl nnmbor of
pair*. In like niunncT, wo hnro in tlio nliovo table, & tiniuH 5 un-
favuumblc cnsi'H ; nnd if 7i inatciid of 0 Imd been tlic numbor of
|K>8sibl>' rasL'« tiikon 8in(,'ly, w I
trials — or -. Therefore the chance that head will api)uar once
at least in throo 'ossings is -. The odds are 7 to 1 that one head
at least will bo tossed in three trials ; and if there were to be re-
peateil sots of three trials, a bettor backing the appearance of one
head at least in each set should Iny thesB odds. I-'urther, if a
person is to receive JCS in case a head a^ipears in three trials, he
ought to pay £7 for his chance.
MATIIKMATICAL QOEBIES.
[39] — ClIANXEH. — Ki^quired —
1. The chunco of dealer (at Whist) holding only one hononr in
any pnilicular suit.
2. The chunco of 1 he dealer holding at least one honour in any
particular suit.
3. Tho chance of tho dealer holding only one hononr ia
Trumps.
•1. The chance of tho dealer holding ut least one honour ia'
Trumps. GRADATUf.
[" Uradatim " sends solutions of these problems. — Ed.]
[10] — What is tlie general solution of the equation
OoO|fo~o
0 0 /^"^.^
%o ^ ^
0*^0 o o
» »l I* *| I O I O O
4- 4-
v>
0 <>
* *
w
*_*j
c?
0%
9
2 9
THE PLAY,
underlined card wins trick, and card below it leads next,
B Z KEMAKKS AXD INFEKENCES.
1. — 4, with five tramps, one
honour, leads from lu's shortest
suit, hoping to ))laj-a ruffing game.
His hopes, it will bo seen, are not
fulfilled by the event.
2. — Y having five Clubs, and
seeing lowest Club led, which
shows that B is not leading from
short suit, can pretty safely infer
that / has played his only Club.
Being strong in trumps himself he
returns his opponent's lead (which
is from his own long suit), forcing
3. — Z being short in trumps,
would ruff even if the trick were a
doubtful one.
■1. — Z like Y returns his oppo-
nent's lead. Having five Diamonds,
and noting that neither the tlu-ee
nor the four fell to trick one, he
can infer, with some degree of
probability, that ,4 has led from a
short suit, in which (from liis play)
Y is also short. Trick 4 shows
exactly how the case lies, and Z
can place every Diamond. Y also
sees how the Diamonds lie.
5. — B, liaring the winning Dia-
mond, takes out a round of trumps
before leading it, knowing his
partner's play, and that 1" lying
over him, A'a plan is not likely to
prove very successful.
6. — Y ruffs, of course, though
holding four tramps, and
7. — Leads his lowest Club to
tlraw his partner's trump card.
He can count the Clubs, knowing
that h must originally have held
four, and he knows, therefore,
that if he leads the best, A will
trump. By playing the lowest, he
causes his partner's King to fall
separately. The odd trick and the
game are won at this point.
S. — Z leads the best diamond,
knowing his partner to lie over A.
It matters not how A plays as the
cards lie, but, " for the sake of
uniformity," (7 having already re-
nounced), A should have played his
best trump or none.
10. — 1', finding all trumi)s left
with A, throws the lead into his
hand, kno«-ing that he must lead
a Heart cither after or before last
tramp, and that the trick wanting
to win the game must in that way
be secured, unless A and 0 between
them have entire command of
Hearts, in which case the game is
gone anyhow.
Pkoblem II.
Trick 1. A leads Spade Ace.
2. A leads Club Ace, trumped by B.
3. B leads small Spade, tramped bv A.
4. A leads King of Clubs, trumped'by B.
5. B leads Spade, trumped by A.
6. A leads Queen of Clubs, trumped by B.
7. B leads Spade, trumped by .4.
In Problem 3, hands A and B Avero inadvertentlv transposed.
[The fault was mine, not " Five of Clubs."— Ed.] However, it is
80 obvious that A cannot win every trick, as the hands are set, that
we suppose no Double Dummv problem solver has been for a moment
deceived. Teddinjjton, .1. K. L., R. Morrison, and F. .X. Y. have
correctly solved the problem, aU of them, however, first transposing
the hands of I' and Z, which does not quite make the problem right"
though, as it chances, not affecting the solution. The problem is a
pretty one, and we now give it correctly, and shall leave it for a
fortnight for solution.
A
Hearts — Kn, ti.
Clubs— 5, 3, 2.
Diamonds — A, Q, Kn, t;
5.
Spades — .\, Q, Kn.
B.
Hearts— \, Q, 10, 9, 4, 3.
Clubs— 10, 6.
Diamonds— 3.
Spades— 10, 9, 8, 7.
Problem III. — Double-Dummy.
The Hands.
y.
}feajts~K, 8, 7.
Clubs— 9, 8, 7, 4.
Diamonds — 2.
Spades— C, 5, 4, 3, 2.
Hearts — 5, 2.
Clubs— A, K, Q, Kn.
Diamonds — K, 10, 9,
«, 7, 4.
Spades — K.
The lead being with .4, A and B make every trick.
E. F. B. Harston. Yes : line 30 from top, first column, p. 462
for Ace and Queen read Ace and King. The correction was obvious'
Problem 2 is sound. In problem 3, a transposition has to be made.
When you say that i)Iayer at Doable Dummy has made every trick,
do you necessarily imply that he made them all out of his own
hand? In ordinary Whist a player would say, "We have made every
trick," when every trick falls between his own hand and partner's,
but in Double Dummy he would hardly say that. — Five of Clubs.
(9m- Cftrsis Column.
GAMES BY CORRESPONDENCE.— (Con(t»ued /romp. 461.)
Black's 23rd move in Game I. was notQ to R4, but Q to R5. With
that rectification the following are the positions corrected from last
week : —
GAME I. GAME II.
Posilion after Black's 23rd move. Position after White's 22nd move.
23. Q to Ko. 22. Q to KB3.
chief editob.
White.
Drawn game (perpetual move)
Black.
22. R to Q3
23. R to K5 K to Rsq
24. R to Kt5 R to Q Ktsq
25. R takes R(ch)K takes R
26. R to R2 P takes P
27. R to K2 Kt to K6
28. P takes P KttoQt
29. P to KB5
Had Chess Editor plaved as indicated bv mistake to Chief Editor
viz., 23. QtoR4; 24. B to R3 ; 24. R ti Qsq ; 25. Q to KB3, he
might have proceeded as follows :— 25. Q takes Q ; 26. R takes Q ;
26. Kt to Q5. With best play White may draw.
R^oKBsq
R to Kt3 best
B takcs^t
-^- B to Q4
r c /.\ ow ^' '""^^s Kt
^'"- '^ (•) 27- BtoB3
R to Ktsq
" B takes KI> tl'^'eatening B to Kt7 disc. ch. and to win the
Bishop. The variations arising from tliis lino of play are highly
interesting, but we find that the two Bishops aided by the Rook"get
the best of the struggle in every case. White's best course would
486
- KNOWLEDGE •
[Mabch 31,
bo to givo np t)ic oxchango volontnrily, niul Dicn a draw might
roanlt.
(^) If, in r<>|ily to 2(1. Kt to Q5, White docs not piny Kt takoB Kt,
lint 27. K to l<;t, I hen followH—
•>7 28 liL'J^SfJ^ 20 J*'-"Q'^'"'I
" ■ H I., m ' Wti^7Kt ' B to KKt7
nnd a(rnin, liy pro|>or piny, tho Hiahop will force the oxcliiinKO. In
addition, HInok iniRlit follow another lino of piny, viz., by di«covercd
check nnd other judieioim piny ho could cnpture tho Pnwns on White
King's side, nnd then BInck's I'nwns would bccoino formidable.
PKOBLEM No. 30.
By J. A. Miles.
k^
••^
-' ^¥
i
p
^..
White to play, and mate in three mores.
PKOBLEM No. 31.
By Leonard P. Eees.
WHITB.
White to play, ami mate in two mores.
riiOBLEM No. 32.
By B. G. L.WS.*
\^
6
■ ■
■
^
^
^
■ g-
White to play, and mate in throe mores.
Published anonymously in the Boys' Ha'jazine.
COnnECTION,— Piioni.EU No. 25, p. HI.
Ilomoro Black Pawn from B3.
Our nnmorouB correnpondentn who have kindly drawn our ntt.
lion to this problem, plcaiia take tho abovo correction (w) i
already appeared last week) in consideration. We shall bo li:i; :
to receive tlie correct solution of this problem, which embodi'
verj' neat iilea.
A groat international Chess Tournament wnll be held at Vl^ i
beginning on Slay 10. Prizes to tho amount of J&IOO will be gi
The first prize will be £200. MossrH. Steinitz, Blackbume,
/iUkortort, tho three best players of tho whole world, will conij
This Tournament promises to eclipse anything hitherto attcmpi
in Chess Tournaments.
ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS.
•»• Please address Chess-Editor.
J. A. Jlilcs. — Thanks for Problem, which has an improved
appearance.
Leonard P. Recg. — Wo apologise for mistake in your Problem
No. 25. Problem and Game welcome. In tho last variation of the
" Giuoco Piano," p. 4-i2, if White does not play 10 Kt to B3,
threatening to capture the Black Knight, but 10 Castles, then
Black need not reply with 10 B to Kt5 ; a likely line of play for
Black in reply to 10 Castles would be Castling, to be followed by
P to KBl. White's centre Pawns always remain weak, and liable
to attack and isolation by P to QB4. Whichever way you play,
White is on his defence, instead of having tho attack in hand as
first player.
W. Wood.— Received with thanks.
Muzio V. H. Grinold.
A. H. E., W. W. Morgan, 23, Great Queen-street.
Contents of Knowledge No. 21.
PAOB
Tho First Dadodil. Bt Grant Allen 443
A Studv of Minute £ife. No. II.
Br {lenry J. Sleek, F.G.S.,
F:R.M.3 444
Nichta i\-ith a Three-Inch Telescope.
By "A Follow of the Eoj-al Astro-
nomical Society" 445
Notes on Hoiring. By an Old Club
Captain 446
The Crystal Palace Electrical Exhi-
bition. Seventh Notice 447
The fireat Pyramid. Br the Editor 448
The Saturday JteHext'i Comet 450
Tricycles in 1883. By JohnBrovrning 4o0
The Duchess of Connaught's Illness 451
PIGB
The Path of Mars from 1875 to 1892 452
Chalcedonv Containing Liquid with
a Movable Bubble. By the Key.
Henrr H. Higgins 4$1
Modem' Dress 454
Compound Pendulum. Illustrated. 4S5
CoERBSPOXDBNCE :— Seeking after a
sign — Cat's-eve Timepiece of the
Chinese— Neolithic Man, &c. 456-153
Queries 458
Eeplies to Queries 468
Answers to Correspondents 459
Our Mathematical Column 460
Onr Chess Column 480
1 Our WTiist Column 462
NOTICES.
Special ^'otick to our Rbadees.— Threepence each will be paid by the Pab-
lishers for copies of Xos. 2, 3. 4, 5, and 6. Apply or address Wvman i Sons, 75,
Great Queen Street, Loudon, W.C.
The Back Numbers of Knowlbdgb, with the eiception of Xos. 2, 3, 4, 5,
and 0, are in print, and can be obtained from all bouKsellera and newsageoU,
or direct from the Pubhsbera. Should any ditiiculty arise in obtaining the paper,
an application to tho Publishers is respectfully requested.
The following Monthly Parts of Kxowlbdge are now to be had (Parts I. and
II. being out of print) : —
pAET III.— (Jan., 1883.) Containing four numbers. Price lOd. Post-free, Is.
Part IV.— (Feb., 1882.) Containing four numbers. Price lOd. Post-free. Is.
Part V.— (March, 1SS2.) Containing iive numbers. Price Is. Post free, Is. 2d.
Subscribers wishing to complete their Sets are advised to make early applicatiOB
to the Publishers, as no further reprints will be ordered.
TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
The torm3 of Annual Subscription to KifOWLBDGB are as follows:—
To any address in the United Kingdom 10 10
To the Continent, Australia, »w Zealand, South Africa, Canada,
and the United States of America 13 0
To the East Indies, China, &c. {cxd Brindisi) .' 15 2
All subscriptions are payable in advance.
P. O. Orders and cheques should be made payable to the Publishers, Mbssbs.
Wyuan & Sons, London, at the High Uolborn District Post-office,
OFFICE: 74 & 75, GREAT QUEEN STREET, LONDON, W.C.
April 7, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
487
MAGj^ZINEofS^ENCE
PLAlNLT^f ORJED -EXACTLVDESCRIBED J
LOI\'DON : FRIDAY, APRIL 7, 1882.
Contents of No. 23.
PAGB
Doniostic Ventilation. A Lesson
from the Coal-Pils. liy W.
Mattieu WilUams 487
Found Links. Bv Dr. Andrew
WiUon, F.It.S.E.;P.L.S. (/«»»(.) ISS
Xotes on Rowing. By an Old Club
Captain lOl
The Crystal Palace Electrical E.tlii-
bilion. Kichth Notice. (/«»*(.) 402
The ISrcat Pyramid. Bv the Editor 493
Phcilojiniphv for Amateurs. By A.
nrothera.'F.K.A.S. Part HI. ... 401
Brain Trouble?. Irritability 403
Does the Luminous Mixture of Blue
and Yellow make Green Light.'
Bv Lieut.<;olonel W. A. Ross,
late R.A. (lUminiUJ) 496
PAQB
Weather Diagram. For Week ending
Saturday, April 1 J9"
Amalgams 497
Silvered-Glass Telescopes -498
Prehistoric Research in Russia 498
Morning "Work 499
A Panther in Vermont 499
JeUv Pish 499
Intelligence in Birds 499
Fairy " Folk-Loro " of Shctknd ... 500
Con-e-pondence ../ 501-504
Queries 603
1 Replies to Queries 502
! Answers to Correspondents 503
I Our Mathematical Column 504
Our Chess Column 50.5
, Our ^Vlust Column 506
DOMESTIC VENTILATION.
A LKSSON FROM THE COAL-PITS.
Bv W. Mattieu Williams.
"ITTE rtMiuiru in our houses an artificial temperate
* V climatt; wliicli shall be uniform throughout, and
at tlie same time we need a gentle movement of air that
sliall supply t!ie retjuirements of respiration without any
gusts, or draughts, or alternations of temperature. Every-
body will admit that these are fundamental desiderata,
but whoever does so becomes thereby a denouncer of opcn-
gi-ate tire-places, and of every system of heating which is
dependent on any kind of stoves with fuel burning in the
rooms that are to be inhabited. All such devices concen-
trate the heat in one part of each room, and demand the
admission of cold air from some other part or parts, thereby
violating the primary condition of uniform temperature.
The usual proceeding effects a specially outrageous violation
of this, as I showed in my last paper.
I might have adtlcd domestic cleanliness among the
desiderata : but in the matter of tire-places, the true-bom
Briton, in spito of his fastidiousness in respect to shirt-
coUais, itc, is a devoted worshipper of dirt. No matter
how elegant his drawing-room, he must defile it with a
coal-scuttle, with dirty coals, poker, sho\el, and tongs,
dirty ash-pit, dirty cinder.s, ashes, and dust, and he must
amuse himself by doing the dirty work of a stoker towai'ds
his " cheerful, companionable, pokeable '' of>en fire.
It is evident that in order to completely fulfil the above-
named requirements, we must, in winter, supply our model
residence with fresh artificially-warmed air, and in summer
with fresh cool air. How is this to be done ? An approach
to a practical solution is afforded by examining what is
actually done under circumstances where the ventilation
problem presents the greatest possible difficulties, and
where, nevertheless, these difficulties have been effectually
overcome. Such a case is presented by a deep coal mine.
Here we have a little working world, inhabited by men
and horses, deep in the bowels of the earth, far away
from the air that must be supplied in sufficient quan-
tities, not only to overcome the vitiation due to
their own breathing, but also to sweep out the deadly
gaseous emanations from the coal itself. Imagine your
dwelling-house buried a quarter of a mile of perpen-
dicular depth below the surface of the earth, and its walls
giving oft" suttbcatiiig and explosive gases in such quantities
that steady and abundant ventilation shall be a matter of
life or death, and that in spite of this it is made so far
habitable that men who spend half their days there retain
robust health and live to green old age, and that horses
after remaining there day and night for many months
actually improve in condition. Imagine, further, that the
house thus ventilated has some hundreds of small, very
low-roofed rooms, and a system of passages or corridors
with an united length of many miles, and that its in-
habitants count by hundreds.
Such dwcllLngs being thus ventilated and rendered habit-
able for man and beast, it is idle to dispute the practical
possibility of supplying fresh air of any given temperature
to a mere box of brick or stone, standing in the midst of
the atmosphere, and containing but a few passages and
apartments.
The problem is solved in the coal-pit by simply and
skilfully controlling and directing the natural movements
of unecjually-heated \olumes of air. Complex mechanical
devices for forcing the ventilation by means of gigantic
fan-wheels, itc, or by steam-jets, have been tried, and are
now generally abandoned. An inlet and an outlet are pro-
vided, and no air in allowed to pass inwards or outwards
by an;/ other course than that whieh has been pre-arranf/cd
for the purposes of efficient ventilation. I place especial
emphasis on this condition, believing that its systematic
violation is the primary cause of the bungling muddle of
our domestic ventilation.
Let us suppose that we are going to open a coal-pit to
win the coal on a certain estate. We first ascertain the
" dip " of the seam, or its deviation from horizontality, and
then start at the loivest part, not, as some suppose,
at that part nearest to the surface. The reason for this
is obvious on a little reflection, for if we began at the
shallowest part of an ordinary water-bearing stratum we
should have to drive down under water, but, by beginning
at the lowest part and driving upwai-ds, we can at once
form a " sumpf," or bottom receptacle, to receive the
drainage, and from which the accumulated water may
be pumped. This, however, is only by the way, and not
directly connected with our main sulyect, the ventilation.
In order to secure this, the modern practice is to sink
two pits, " a pair " as they are called, side by side, at any-
convenient distance from each other. If they are deep, it
becomes necessary to commence ventilation of the mere
shafts themselves in the course of sinking. This is done
by driving an air-way — a horizontal tunnel from one to
the other, and then establishing an -'upcast" in one of
them by simply lighting a fire there. This destroys the
balance between the two communicating columns of air ;
the cooler column in the shaft without a fire, being heavier,
falls against the lighter column, and pushes it up just as
the air is pushed up one leg of an (J tube when we pour
water down the other. Even in this preliminary work, if
the pits are so deep that more than one air-way is driven,
it is necessary to stop the upper ways and leave only the
lowest open, in order that the ventilation shall not take a
short and useless cut, as it does up our fire-place openings.
Let us now suppose that the pair of pits are sunk down
to the seam, with a further extension below to form the
water sumpf. There are two chief modes of working a
coal-seam, the "pillar and stall" and the "long wall," or
488
KNOWLEDGE
[April 7, 1882.
more iiimlcm Hyittont. For present illuHtration, I wlect thi>
Utt<ttnin of
the upcast, each al>out 'J ft wide and about 4 ft length of
gnit<'-bars. The depth of the upcast and one downcast
1)00 ft, and of the other downcast l,Or)C ft The quantity
of air introduced by the action of these furnaces was
1GS,.")G0 cubic feet per minute, at a cost of about eight tons
of coal per day. The rate of motion of the air was
1,007 ft per minute (above 12 miles per hour^. This
whole current was divided by .splitting into 16 currents of
about 11,000 cubic feet each per minute, having, on an
average, a cour.se of 4| miles each. This distance was
however, verj- irregular — the greatest length of a course
being 9-f'jj miles ; total length 70 miles.
All these magnitudes are greatly increased in coal mines
of the present time. As much as 250,000 cubic feet of air
per minute are now passed through the shafts of one mine.
The ventilation of our houses may be conducted on the
same principles, and with corresponding efficiency, as I will
endeavour to show in my next.
FOUND LINKS.
Bv Dr. Andrew Wil.sok, F.R.S.E., F.L.S.
BACKWARDS in time, and in the course of the geo-
logical :eons, we find the Cretaceous or Chalk rocks.
To the naturalist these deposits have yielded a rich and
suggestive harvest of bird-fossils, which, in their approxi-
mation to the reptiles, certainly serve as " found links " in
more ways than one. In the Chalk rocks of North America
we disco\er the remains of " toothed birds," whose teeth
in every respect agree with the structures of that name,
and are not mere bony projections, as in the old swimmer
of the Loudon clay. The curious Ilespproriiig (Fig. 1) and its
neighbours the Iclilln/oriiis and Ajmtornis, thanks to the
exertions of Professor Marsh, appear before us as veritable
links, connecting the birds and reptiles in respect of
their teeth, as well as in other features of tlieir economy.
Hesperornis stood at least five feet high, and in respect of its
bony framework exhibits a close alliance with the grebes of
our own day. But strange to saj%He.speromis (Fig. I) wants
one marked peculiarity of other birds (save the ostrich-
group), namely, the prominent " keel " or bony ridge on
the breast-bone, to which the wing-muscles of birds are
attached. The wings were certuinly of rudimentary
character, but this is a feature we see exemplified in the
auks and penguins of our own day ; and it is probable that
the tail of this great diver of the chalk seas was unusually
mobile, and adapted possibly to serve as a rudder. The
reptile characters crop out, however, most clearly
in the teeth of this bird. There were no teeth
in the front of the upper jaw, and presumably this
region was covered with a horny beak. The teeth
themselves arc curved structures ; but they are set in a
common groove, and not lodged each in a socket, as is
commonly tlu' case in higher animals. In living reptiles
themsehes, it may be added, the teeth, save in crocodiles,
are not implanted in sockets. Thus, in serpents and
lizards the teeth arc simply united by bony union to the
liones which bear them ; but certain extinct lizards had
socket-fastened teeth, and the giant fossil ivptiles (Ic/il/ii/o-
saurxs, &c.) of the Lias, Oolite, and Chalk, possessed teeth
Api-.ri r, 1882.]
KNOVS/LEDGE ♦
489
Fig. 1. — Hesperornis ref;;alis.
„.^ o (■ A. Skeleton of Ptcrcdactyl.
'o- ■■• ^ J} Restoration of Pterodactyl.
Fig. 3. — Compsognathus (restored in outline).
. ( A. Hind leg of bird.
"*■ (. B. Tail bones of bird.
FOUND LINKS.
490
KNOVS/'LEDGE •
[April 7, 1882.
I
which liki'wino nroso from sockets ii» tht- jaws. In so
far a.H lIcsjMTornis is coiic«'nicd, it removes tiic liird class,
on thi' fiuc of thiiiRs, a sU-p ncnrcr to the ri'j(til(! hosts.
Koniierlv. part of the natiirulist's delinition of a liinl was
inchulol in thtMliiiaratioii that teitli were wanting. Now,
tlie ilelinition requires 8tret<-iiinK, to inciii(l<' a chariu-ter
wliiili is sliured in hy ccrtjiin reptiles. Just as otliers, npn-
seiited hv thu tortoises ami turtles, imitate the toothless
condition of existinj; birds.
Hut the Ichthyornis of the chalk is even a more re-
markal'le Inrd fossil than Hesperornis. For the teeth of
the former are implanted in distinct sockets, whilst its
hn-asthone liad a keel, and its wings are of large size, and
indicate the jwsseftsion of liird-haMts, united to structures of
reptilian kind. But more pei'ulirir still, as a departure
from liird-characters was the nature of its vertehra- or the
joints of the spine : for Ichthyornis possessed vertebra',
which, like those of the fishes and of extinct reptiles, were
hollow at either end. Such a feature must naturally be
ninde much of in (•stiniatiii-; the relationship of this old
bird to the reptilian hosts. The size of Ichthyornis was
that of a pigeon.
Preceding tlieso birds in time conies the Archcopteriix, of
the I'ppcr Oolite deposits of Solenhofen, in Bavaria. Here
the reptile-characters increase in number as becomes the
older nature of their possessor. A recently-procured speci-
men of this bird enabled a zoological authority to declare
that it was certainly not wholly a bird, and as certainly
not wholly reptile in its nature, but a strict link between
these classes. For, firstly, it has the tail of a lizard,
that is, the tail is long and jointed, and has no
plough-share bone, as in other birds (Fig. 5, B, h).
Secondly, the bones of its palm were not joined
together as in all other birds, whilst at least two
of its fingers appear to have been provided with claws,
a feature of exact reptilian nature. Then it likewise
lias been ascertained, by the discovery of the recent
s]>ecimen already referred to, that this old bird of the
Oolite possessed teeth. Judged fairly, then, Archa>optery.x
is, at the very least, as much a reptile as a Ijird. Its
shoulder and fore-limb (or wing) arc decidedly those of a
reptile, whilst its hind limbs are bird-like in nature. The
facts that such a race of animals once existed, and that
they livid at a period when, presumably, the bird-race was
undergoing its evolution from the reptilian confines,
may, in the eyes of any unprejudiced thinker, serve as
clear evidences that the common origin of birds and
reptiles is matter, not of speculation, but of scientific
demonstration.
I have shown, thus, cursorily, the evidences supporting
the contention that if, standing within the bird-class, we
look for reptilian features within its limits, we are not dis-
appointed in our search. But on the reptilian side of things,
there are also evidences to be found of the community of
type from which the birds and reptiles of to-day have
sprung. It takes but a slight acquaintance with
zoology to discover that the curious lizard, Hattiria
(or Sftliftwdon), of New Zealand, as befits the curious
history of its native country, brings us face to face
with characters of abnormal kind, from the reptilian view
of matters at least For this lizard has ribs which are
decidedly those of bird-type, and, moreover, it has the
same lioUow-ended vertebra* seen in the fossil bird Ich-
thyornis. In other points of its structure as well,
JIatteria seems to rejiresent a primitive type of reptile,
presumably indicating that stage in the evolution of the
two classes wherein certain characters of the bird had
already liegun to be developed in the common ancestors
of these groups.
The (lying reptiles (J'trn>il,iri,/I„) (Fig. 2) of the Lias,
Oolite, and Chalk, teach us tliat as the pure reptile thus
acquired powers of flight, the development of flight in
the bird-stock, which was evolved from the rej>tile, or
conjointly with it, need cause us no surj)rise.
The Pterodactyls j)0.sse.s8ed tlie outermost finger (seen in
the illustration) enormously elongated, and adapted to
form the chief siijiport of a wing-membrane which ex-
tended along the sides of the body and between the hind
limbs and tail also, as shown in B, Fig. 2. It may Ijc
added that these reptiles had a keel on the breastlxine like
most living and e.xtinct birds, and whilst in some species,
the teeth were developed, in othei-s the jaws appear to
have been toothless, and to have been sheathed in
horn like those of bird.s. But these reptiles are not
'•links." They stand, not between liirds and reptiles,
but at the end of their own side-branch of the great tree
of animal life. Still, from the reptile-side, it may lastly
lie shown that the " found links " connecting them with
birds — it may be, of course, in different lines from those
indicated by Arch:eoptery.\ and its neighbours — already
find a place in the geological museum. In those curious
reptiles, of which Coiiipsiit/nat/ntii (Fig. 3) is the best known
example, the characters of birds and reptiles were united
in a literally surprising degree. Imagine a reptile posses-
sing a swan-like neck, with toothed and bird-like jaws:
suppose, further, that this animal had very rudimentary
front limbs, and that it walked on its two hind limbs like
a bird, and we may conceive that this Compsognathus, had
it been feathered, would have at least appeared to resemVjle
a bird much more nearly than a reptile. But a still
stronger piece of evidence in favour of its bird-relationship
awaits the naturalist when he discovers that the hind
limbs of these curious reptiles are, in respect of structure,
midway and between those of birds and reptiles. If we
examine the hind limb of a bird (Fig. 4, A), we notice that
the upper half of the ankle (As. Ca.) unites with the shin-
bone, or leg (T) : and as the lower half of the ankle joins
the instep ( 1 ), the ankle joint thus exists in the middle of
the ankle-bones, and the lower ankle aiid instep-bones form
a single bone (ni) bj- their union. In Fig. 5 the hind limb
of the Iiird is also seen, e being the single bone formed by
the union of ankle and instep-bones. In the reptiles limb
(C), the ankle-joint, as a rule, opens between the divided
ankle-bones; but the instep-bones (C ; L, ii., iii., iv.) are
not united either to one another, or to the neighbouring
ankle-bones. Now it is extremely interesting to discover
that the hind-limb of Compsognathus and its allies (B) is
exactly intermediate between birds and reptiles. Here,
the leg bones resemble those of birds in shape. The chief
ankle bone (As.) exactly corresponds with that of a bird :
and, as in birds, this bone lieconies united to the lower end
of the leg. But, lastly, as if to show the intermediate
nature of the lindi, the instep-bone (I — iv) remain free,
and the leg of Compsognathus is thus practically half-
way between that of the bird and reptile. Thus, as
in birds, the upper part of the ankle is unitetl to the leg;
but, unlike birds and like reptiles, the Compsognathus had
the lower part of the ankle free, and not united with the
instep. In a word, the hind limb of this old reptile re-
sembles the condition of the limb in the chick before
hatching, and it may thus represent that stage in the
evolution of the bird-type wherein the type of limb common
to the primitive stock was being gradually modified into
the more consolidated limb of the bird.
Thus to-day, there exists a scries of forms, detached and
isolated, perhaps, but still eloquent enough in their de-
claration of the existence in past epochs of animals which
belong to no one class as defined by us to-day, and which
April 7, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
491
further stand int<-niiciliate between existent classes of
living beings. 'Die existence of these 'links,'' to argue
backwards, is inexplicable, save on the theory of evolution,
or on that of the production of "freaks " by nature : and
this last idea, I appn-hend, is put out of court, by every
consideration worthy the name of a scientilic thouglit.
NOTES ON ROWING.
By an Old Club Captain.
THE race is ovei-, and the despised crews of " inefficient
mediocrities" liave somehow managed to take their
boats over tlie course from Putney to Mortlake (on a good,
but not wonderfully good, tide), in the very good times of
20 rain. 12 sec. and 20 min. 32 sec. for winners and losers
respectively. I was able to watch both crews under singu-
larly favourable conditions as they rowed past the White
Hart, at Mortlake. With an excellent field-glass by
Browning, 1 had each crew in succession about half a
minute in view, as distinctly as if the}' were at an oar's
length from me. For a minute or two before and after
this, I was able to see both crews together, foreshortened,
so that the nature of the swing, and the time of stroke and
recovery could not only be well seen, but readily compared.
[I had before only se<>n the crews in practice, and always at
the beginning of their spins. Oxford, in particular, I had
seen under very favourable conditions.] At Mortlake on
Saturday, there was a difference naturally arising from the
circumstance that Oxford were rowing out to the finish a
race already won, while Cambridge — though they could not
be so sure of the hopelessness of their position as the Oxford
men were sure of victory — were nevertheless ver}* obviously
rowing a losing race. There was not seen that liveliness
O.i the feather, after rather sluggish disengagement of the
oar, which had been characteristic of the Cambridge
style. On the other hand, the Oxford men showed
the good features of their style very markedly. The
swoop down of th(- oars upon the water was splendid
at tliis stage of the race (I am told that earlier there was
occasionally some little trace of flurry). As for the way
in which the work was done — a question which I left not
tjuite decided in my last — I am as certain, after my obser-
vations last Saturday, as I am of my own existence, that
nearly all the arm work was done in conjunction with
body aid leg work, and not, as some persistently assert,
afterwards. I am eijually certain that in the Cambridge
boat the arm work followed the sway back of the body.
The sluggish look of the Cambridge style was in
singular contrast to the sfiarp slash of the Oxford
oars throigh the water; and this sluggish look was
entirely die to the inert condition of the arms during the
first pai-t o' the stroke. The slow disengagement of the
oar by the Cambridge, again, was in decided contrast with
the clean, qiiek disengagement by Oxford. On the other
hand, I caniot say that the swing forward by Cambridge
was anything like so sharp as I had expected to find it, or
as it appeared in practice. But this was only natural in a
crew which hal been rowing so hard a stern race. More-
over, the Camb-idge style is, as every one knows who has
ever tried it, e>ceedingly wearing iii a hard race ; and the
lightning feathe-, which is its one theoretical advantage
(more than counerbalanced by disadvantages), is very apt
to be exchanged tnvards the end of a long race for a much
less lively movenent. This circumstance, which I have
noticed myself in owing races (I suppose every reader of
these lines has alnady come to the conclusion that the
writer is a Cantab) s well described by Mat Bradwood, in
a passage which deserves to be quoted at full length, so
apt and instructive is it " Every day of practice on the
Cam," he says, "you hear the coaches of the difl'erent
racing-boats giving their crews certain directions, some
absurd, and nearly all from some accitlental reason useless.
The chief of these is to ' keep it long,' and if you object to
the results of this teaching, you arc told that ' length ' is
the great requisite of good rowing, and that 'Oxford,
sir, always beat us, because they are longer than we
are.' Now this is true and yet untrue. At Cam-
bridge, ' length ' is acquired by making the men ' finish
the stroke,' that is by making them swing well back
beyond the perpendicular. Of course the oar remains
longer in the water, but we maintain that the extra time
it is kept there by the backward motion of the body is
time lost. The ' swinging back ' throws a tremendous
strain on the abdominal muscles, the weakest rowing
muscles in the body ; very soon the men feel this strain,
become exhausted and unable to ' get forward,' and,
finally, lose time and swing and ' go all to pieces.' Length
obtained by going backwards is of no possible use. A crew
ought to be coached to go as far forward as they can, to
finish the stroke by bringing their elbows past their sides,
and their hands well in to their bodies, and then complaints
about ' wind ' and ' last ' will be fewer."
It may be asked wliy, if the repeated victories and the
nature of the victories of Oxford result from an inherent
superiority of the Oxford over the Cambridge style,
Cambridge does not adopt the Oxford style 1 It is well
known that Cambridge club captains try to introduce
what they believe to be the style of (Oxford. The passage
above quoted indicates very accurately the feeling of
Cambridge men on this point. But a radically wrong idea
is entertained at Cambridge as to what the Oxford style
really is. Oxford men are apt, as I have already
mentioned, to assert (and doubtless they believe, though
erroneously, as close observation and theory alike show)
that they do not use the arms till the body is nearly
upright. Thus, Mr. Ske)-, F.E.C.S., in writing on the
movement of the muscles and the body in rowing,
gives as the result of inquiry which he had made, the
following entirely incorrect account of Oxford rowing : —
" The prominent and distinctive feature of the O.xford
.system consists, I believe, in this that the action of the
glutei (the great muscles of the buttock), in drawing the
trunk backwards to something beyond the vertical, is nearly
exhausted before the agents of flexion of the forearm
commence their work. The O.xford authorities consider
that they row with their trunk, while others more pro-
minently row with their arms. In truth" (here his
anatomical knowledge sets Mr. Skey right) " the muscular
system of both trunk and arms is indispensable in all
cases, the only distinction being that in the case of Oxford
oarsmen the greater part of the retraction of the trunk,
by the action of the glutei is accomplished with rigid
unbent arms, while in other cases the retractors
of the shoulders, and the flexors of the fore-
arm are somewhat more in unison, or rather, they
share the time occupied by the former action." Mr.
Skey is " unwilling to express a positive opinion as to the
relative excellence of the two styles in rowing," but is
inclined to think that some advantage is obtainable from
the two actions being rendered consecutive, inasmuch as
the superior power of the retractors of the trunk, on
which the great efibrt in rowing depends, should be exerted
singly, without the physical action of the system being
hampered by two actions at the same moment of time."
As this was written in October, 1869, when Oxford had
been for nine successive years successful against Cam-
•M'2
KNOWLEDGE •
[Al'Kll
1882.
I>ri(l;;<', aiul lui < ' liiul beaten in hollow fashion
th(< Ain'Tiinii fi>iir li'iii lliiiMinl, it was only nutiiral that
Mr. Ski'v slicul.i I"- iticlii.ril to think th.- O.xf.iiii style-
niu.st )>(■ the lirttvr ; nnd so it iin<|Uf.stiunal>ly i.s ;
Jiut thi> st\l<' he (IcscrilM'K Ik that wliicli was, nnd is,
fMijoiiU'd rigidly l>y Canihridgi' cuptuins, and ohsiTvutiun
hhow.s that O.xford docs not follow that .styk-, liut
lirings tlio anns to work from tlu' lifginning. How ony
douht could <'vrr hr I'nti-rUiincd on this point l>y those who
l.niw how nnich farther hack than <).\forri;;htne.ss, the arms have little left to do, and therefore
the body need swing back but a very little. As O.xford
men umiuestionably do 710/ swing far back, while Cambridge
•men do— even men who know nothing practically of rowing
■can see Uiat — it should need no denionstration that O.xford
men do more of their arm-work than Caudiridge men during
the beginning of their stroke. " And I myself, with my
> ery own eves have seen," as the old chronicler wrote, that
O.xford men and London nu-n too, and watermen always,
row with body and arms, and legs too, from tin' very
•beginning of the stroke.
Jlcanwhilc, at Cambiidge they (piietly accept the faith
that O.xford men swing back with rigid, unbent arms (and
they see this in tub practice and paddling, where it is the
correct thing to do) ; so tliey keep to the rule, unconscious
or forgetful that it is the old rule, good only for the old
style of boats ; and so they get beaten, unless they have
overwhelming superiority of strength, when they win by
lialf a length or a length, where O.xford, with the same
superiority of strength, would have won by half-a-dozen or
a dozen lengths.
I write confidently, but I write when there is good
prospect that the matter will be tested in a way there can
be no mistaking (1 would stake a good deal on the result
if I were a betting man). Mr. Muybridge's method of
instantaneous photography, which has shown how a horse
gallops and liow an athlete tvirns a somersa\dt, will very
readily show how an Oxford or a Cambridge oarsman rows,
and is very likely soon to be applied to the work. But
there is a practical test which Cambridge captains might
very easily try, and perl.iaps apply the result in a way very-
pleasing to themselves and their crews. Let a crow, each
uieml)er of which rows well the Cambridge dragging swing-
back, go over a measured distance, say half-a-mile, at their
l)est speed in that style, and then let them —though, per-
haps, a little tired— go back to the starting-place and go
over the course again with a changed style. Let stroke
and each man of the crew agree for awhile to give up their
cherished drag and lightningfeather ; let the arms be sturdily
called into action, in due subordination, of course, to body
and in due alliance with the leg.s, from the very beginning of
the stroke, so that when the body comes upright, the arms
have nearly done their work. Let not the stroke be
hurried, but a steady (not sluggish) recovery, precede the
simultaneous grip at the beginning. I will undertake to
say that, even at the first trial (absolutely important
though practice is in this .style, where everything depends
on the work being done at the same time), even at the
first trial, I sa}-, the result will be such as to show unmis-
takably how nnich more etlective, and also how much
easier, this style is than the style inculcated forty years ago
for I)oats as dillerent from those of our time as a barge
from a pleasure-boat, or a pleasure-boat (with a party of
ten under her awning) from the old clinker built racing craft.
AT
THK KF.ECTRICAL EXHIBITION
THE CRYSTAL PALACE.
ElfMITII NOTICK.
J'l' is not ilitlii'ult to understand that if a certain amount
of electric energy is recjuired to render a carl>on fila-
ment I in.- long incandescent, ten times that eniTgj- will \>e
reijuired (presuming there is no other resi.stance in the
circuity to similarly heat a filament 10 in. long. If, how-
ever, we have sullicient energy to heat 10 in. of carWn,
it matters little whether that carbon is in one piece or
in ten, or in any number of pieces making up the same
total length. Here, then, is the first i)rinciple in the .so-
called division of the electric light. The great object to be
achieved is really a dislribulion of the light, necessitatetl
b)' the great diminution of luminosity as we recede from
the source of light. The exact falling-off is "inversely as
the Sfiuare of tin? di.stance," that is to say, if we have a
luminosity e(|ual to twenty candles at a distance of 1 ft.,
tlie intensity at - ft. will be —
2' : l'::20: r
or 1 : 1 ::20 : 5
•')-candIe power will, therefore, be the luminosity at 2 ft
distance. This explains how it is that a large light is so
expensive, or lacks economy so much, when compared with
a number of small lights placed at the proper distance from
each other to illuminate the same area.
Fig. 1 illustrates the method of connecting the lamps,
known as "joining in series " — that is to say, the whole of
the current passes through each lamp in succession.
Fig. 2 illustrates another method of joining up, and is
known as the " multiple arc," or " quantity " arrangement.
The current comes in from the machine at +, and retui'ns
liy the other wire marked — . In this case the current, instead
of passing through each lamp in succession and haring
to overcome the added resistance of, say four lamps, is
assisted by their conductivity, and divitles itself bet^vecn
them, the resistance being thereby considerably reduced,
just as a Mow of water which requires a certain pressure
to push it through, say, four yards of pipe, requires one-
fourth of that force to drive it through one yard. If we
were to place four pipes, one yard long, side by side, the
required pressure would be again quartered. .^^ctually,
therefore (assuming each lamp to ofter 50 ohms' resistance),
joining in series would give 200 ohms for four laups, while
in multiple arc the resistance would be reduced to '2 5 ohms.
But suppose again that in the single pipe thf quantity
of water was only sufficient to fill one pipe, we siould have
to quadruple the supply of water in order to fil four pipes
placed side by side. Accordingly, the currmt required
for the arrangement described is of less intoisity, but of
greater volume, to produce equal degrees of hminosity.
Fig. 3 is another arrangement known as * mixed," that
is, a combination of series and quantity. The diagram
may be left to explain itself.
We should have liked this week to give, in continuation
of our remarks on incandescent lightinji a few mathe-
matical details concerning the arrangemoit of the lamps
and generators. These details, however, will be best
comprehended after we have finished nir description, in
April 7, 1882.]
•* KNOWLEDGE ♦
493
another series of articles, of the fiiiulaineutal jniiu'iplps of
electric generators.
The incandescent light is, beyond doubt, the light of the
future, and we ha\c no hesitation in saying that before
long we believe it will be proved as much cheaper as it is
brighter, purer, and healthier than gas. At the same
time we must not lose sight of the fact that it ensures
perfect immunity from all those possible catastrophes in-
herent to gas. An incandescent lamp, even when broken,
is perfectly harmless, and it has been declared that it could
be broken in the centre of a barrel of gunpowder without
the slightest danger. The reason of this is that the moment
the glass is broken, or even cracked, air rushes in to occupy
the previously vacuous globe, and coming in contact with
the carbon filament, oxidation instantaneously takes place,
the filament being thus a continuous conductor no longer.
The only danger is when the covering of the wires gets
4
damaged, or in any other way allows the current to pass
from one wire to the other without going through the
lamps ; then great heat would be developed, sufficient,
perhaps, to set tire to the building. This danger, however,
is easily guarded against by inserting a piece of easily
fusible metal, such as lead, in the circuit, which, on getting
hot, melts and breaks the circuit, the only inconvenience
being the extinction of all the lights in that section, until
the piece of lead is replaced. And what is this incon-
venience compared to what would result from a gas ex-
plosion 1
Anent the various systems novvf before the public, there
is not much to choose between them, but for brilliancy
and durability the 8wan certainly leads the way. Thi'
Electrolier in the Furniture Court is simply beautiful, and
contrasts in the delicate outline of its design with the
gorgeous display of Mr. Edison. Nor must we forget
Messrs. Elkingtons' show-room, which is very tastily
adorned by the Swan light. The Maxim and Lane-Fox
systems are both very good, and try hard to outdo each
other in their application to delicate glass-work.
ExpLosivB Pa!nt. — It is stated that the Admiralty have directed
that the whole of the xerotine siccative in store at tlie various dock-
yards should be immediately destroyed.
THE GREAT PYRAMID.
By t}ie Editor.
'■pHIS week my remarks upon the Pyramid must be brief,
JL for the present number (on account of the approach
of Easter week) appears under certain disadvantages. 1
take the opportunity of noting sundry objections to my
views, which have been suggested by certain readers.
In the tirst place, many seem quite unaware of the
difficulty of orienting a building like the Great Pyramid
with the degree of accuracy with which that building
actually has been oriented. Oni' gravely asks whetlier
(as Narrien long since suggested) a plumb-line, so hung
as to be brought into line with the Pole Star, would
not have served as well as the great descending passage.
Observe how all the real difficulties of the problem are
overlooked in this ingenious solution. We want to get a
long line — a line at least 200 yards long — in a north and
south position. We must fix its two ends, and as the pole-
star is not available as a point along the line, we set our
plumb-line at the northern end of the line, and our observ-
ing tube or hole, or whatever it may be (only it is not a
telescope, for we are Egyptians of the time of Cheops,
and have none), at the other. The pole-star being at an
altitude of 26,V degrees, the plumb-line should be nearly
100 yards long,"to be seen (near the top), coincident with
the pole-star, from a station 200 yards away. That is a
tolerably long plumb-line. Then its upper part (thus to be
seen td'thout telescopic aid at night) would be about 260
yards away. The observer's eyesight would have to be
tolerably keen.
I am also asked whether a dishful of water would not
serve quite as well as a great mass of water, at the corner
where the descending and ascending passages meet, to give
the reflected rays from a star. It would, and so would a
thimbleful — just as a thread of cotton would serve as well
as a half-inch rope for the plumb-line just considered. But
just in proportion as the water surface was diminished
would the difficulty of seeing a star by reflected rays be
increased. The builders had, doubtless, good reason for
making the descending passage about 4 ft. wide and as
many high. It at any rate enabled them to see the pole-
star readily, just as the wide field of view of a comet-
finder enables the astronomer to bring a celestial object
very easily into view. Whatever rea.sou they had for thus
securing a tolerably large field of view, they would have
precisely the same reason for retaining it undiminished
when they used the reflected instead of the direct rays, in
observing a star. Now for this purpose nothing short ol
the whole lireadth of the descending and ascending passages,
would suffice— in other words, no dishful or thimbleful of
water would have served their purpose.
Then the Saturday Review asks why the descending
passage should be repeated in the other pyramids when the
orientation had already been secured in the Great Pyramid
— manifestly quite ignorant of the fact that it would lie far
more difficult to take the orientation for one pyramid from
another, than to do it independently. It also asks whether
the slant descending passages were not obviously meant for'
the sliding-down of the King's sarcophagus. Sliding the
sarcophagus down that it might afterwards be hauled up
the ascending passage ! or if not, what was the ascending
passage for ^ and why was it of the same cross section as
the descending passage! If the sarcophagus alone had
been in question, we may be certain that the pyramid
engineers would never have arranged for sliding it
down from the level of the entrance to the descending
passage, to the place where the ascending passage
begins, in order afterwards to raise it by the ascending
404
♦ KNOWLEDGE ♦
[Ai-Kii. 7, 1882
pii-s:!^'.'. If thf*y moant to go down to the undorground
cliitiiilx'i' tlii'V Would not have raised it at all, liut !*-t it
down fnim tlir Irvi-l of tln' pyramids Imsc. Hut, to Kiiy
truth, iiiovin;; tin- hnroo|>luij;ii» was a nKTc notliiii^ com-
|ian>d with tin* liftin){nf thogrrat Kolid hloukit whicli formed
till' pyrninid's mass. Tho on({inoc>r« who moved tlieKi- grriit
lilookn to thi'ir (ilnres, would not have wanted slant piLS-
sajjes ot the rii;lit friction slope, and all the rest of it, l>y
which to tuke the farco]>hnf;iiH to its ploee ; nor would
they have provided for unnecessary descents or ascents
either, hut have taken the sarcophagus from the outside
to its proper level, and sent it along a long level
passage.
The Saliirthy lifvitrw says further — hut, what can it
matter what the •Saturda;/ Review says on suhjects such as
these ?
A correspondent, ^Ir. .J. V. Ilodgetts, touches on the
a-s-sociatioii which I mentioned as existin;; between the
Jewish Sahliath (our Saturday) and Saturn ; labouring,
manifestly, under the imjiression that the point at issue
was the identity of the Koman gnd Saturn with the Scan-
dinavian deity assigned to Saturday. I5ut of course he
has entirely misapprehended me. It is not the god Saturn,
l)ut the planet Saturn, which is associated with Saturday.
How" Mr. Hodgetts can reconcile the clear statement of
Dion Cassius with his belief that the days of the week
were not as.sociated with the planets until the twelfth
century, pa.s.ses my comprehension. Dion Uassius distinctly
attributes the invention of the week to the Egyptians, and
as he wrote a thousand years before the time named,
there must be something wrong in Mr. Hodgett's dates.
In the ancient Brahminical astronomy the days are asso-
ciated with the same planets as among the Egyptians. See
Mr. Colebrooke's papers in the " Asiatic Researches."
Among more familiar discussions of this matter may be
cited liailly's " Astronomic Indienne et Orientale," and
Bohlen's " I):vs Alte Indien."
Dion Ca-ssius refers to the connection between musical
intervals and the planets, showing that probably the old
^SyP*^'"'^ '"'■'^ which Pythagoras of Samos brought to
Greece, included the association between the planets and
the days of the week ; that, in fact, all three subjects were
connected— planets, musical intervals, and the days of the
week. Lonirfellow thus poetically renders the views of
Egyptian astrologers on these, with them, mystical
matters : —
Like I lie astrolofjcrs of old,
In that grofit vision 1 heheUl
tiroator and dooppr niy.*id bnrs,
I''r»in earth unto the fi.veil stars.
And thriiugh the dowy atmosphere,
Not only could I .see hut hear
Its wondrous and hariuonious strings
In sweet vibmtion, sphere liy sphere ;
From Dian'a circle liRlit and near,
Onnard to vaster and wider rinffs,
Whore, chanting through liis board of snowa
.Mujestie. nioiimful Saturn poos,
.\nd down the sunless realms of apace
Iteverhnrntes the thunder of his bass.
Ehrata. In th" leitcr-presa OPcompanvinj: chart of the path of
Mars, second column, line 10, for •'south to north" read " north
to .outl. • and hnc IL', for '■ north (o south." read " south to north."
Line I., for ■ piano of hin orbit," mid " plane of the earth'a orbit."
Thi. miatakPS could scarcely deceive the carefii Ircader but it is as
well that they nhould 1k> corrected.
l'il()Tn(;i;Al'IIV I'OII AMATEURS.
!!■; A. IIitoTiiKiiH, F.It.A.S.
BEFORE leaving the historical part of tlie subject, it
may be in^■r«•sting to refer to the partnership which
was entered into between Niepce and Daguerre. The one
appears to have rendered no assistance whatever to the
other — and to Daguerre alone is due the credit of working
out tlie proce.ss which Was considered by the French
Government of so much importance, that Daguerre wa»
awarded a pension for life of .£210 a-year, and to Isidore
Xiepce* .£ 1 CO a-year — the half to revert to their widows
Considering the great value of the di.scovery, the sum
awarded was ridiculously small ; but, although the French
Government ajipear to have presented the discovery to the
world, Daguerre jiatented the process in England, and
must have realised a large sum I>y the sale of licen.ses.
For many years the two proce^sses of Talbot and Daguerre
were e-\tcnsively used. The Talbotype, or Calotype, as it
was indifferently called, was more suitable for land.scapes
and architectural subjects than for portraits, and the
Daguerreotype was used almost universally for portraits,
and may be said to have been without a rival until 1851,
when Mr. F. Scott Archer presented his process to the
public. Sir John Herscliel, I\Ir. Bingham, M. Legray, and
others, had tried various means for utilising glass on which
to produce the negative image ; but to Mr. Archer, assisted
by Dr. Diamond, is due the honour of inventing a process
which produced the most perfect results. Mr. Archer was
a sculptor ; he died a few years after the publication of
his process, and as it then became known he was far from
being in prosperous circumstances, his generosity in seeking
no pecuniary advantage in the sale of his process, or by
securing it by patent, will be fully appreciated. Mr.
Archer did not invent the stibstance known as mllodion,
which consists of gun-cotton dissolved in ether and alcohol ;
but he made it available for photography. By adding
iodide or bromide, or both, to the collodion, and then, when
the film had set, bj' immersion in a solution of nitrate of
silver, the conversion of the iodide or bromide of am-
monia (or other similar salt) into an iodide or bromide of
silver, the collodion film is rendered very sensitive to light
The collodion process is in universal use, and for tliirtjr
years may be said to have had no rival. Latterly, collo-
dion has, to some extent, been superseded bj- gelatine.
We shall see wherein the processes differ in a future paper.
We have now given the main facts relating to the history
of photography. If space had permitted, we might have
entered into the suliject with more detail. The merest
glance has been given, and it has been a matter of some
difficulty to select the main facts. A volume could be
filled with the interesting details, while we have attempted
to tell the story in a page or two.
The art of photography, as at present practised, is of
great simplicity : but, easy as it is, some experience is
necessary, and many failures may be expected before the
amateur can look with satisfaction on his work. His first
attempt maij he a perfect success, and so perhaps may his
second be, but his third attempt may be as great a failure,
and from want of experience he will be altogether unable
to account for his want of success. Much may often be
learnt from failures, and for the satisfaction of the be-
ginner he may be informeil that failures frequently occur
in the hands of those who have practised photography for
many years. No rule can be laid down for accounting for
• Xicephoro Niepce died before the pension was granted. b»t tbo
imrtnorship was continued with his son Isidore.
Ai'KiL 7, 18S2.]
KNOWLEDGE
i95
failures — the causes are so various, that tliey require in each
case to lie traced to their source, and not iiifreijuently the
cause will not l>e discovered. The amateur, therefore,
must not be discouraged Viy failures.
Advice will naturally be sought as to the outfit required ;
and the reply to this is that if expense he no object, the
best apparatus procurable should be purchased at the out-
sot. Our advice is, determine what you wish to do, and
then go to a dealer in photographic materials and appa-
ratus, and he will supply a list of M'liat is necessary. If
pictures not larger than y x -t will satisfy the ambition of
the beginner, the expense of the outfit will not be great —
£■") will supply camera, lens, and chemicals sufficient to start
him in his new and, as he will soon find, fascinating hobby.
Perhaps the most useful size for the camera for the tyro is
ine for taking pictures 7 x •">, and if a lens of the "rapid
rectilinear" form be adopted, poitraits as well as landscapes
may be taken with it, and it will not Vie necessary to have
a special portrait lens for that class of work, for the
amateur will soon find that portraiture is not the least
pleasing of the uses to which he may put his apparatus.
Tt is assumed that all the necessary apparatus and
• hemicals have been obtained, and we must now describe
how they are to be used ; and it is assumed, also, that the
luiateur will commence with the wet collodion process.
I laving become expert with this, he will have comparati\"ely
little difficulty in practising the newer and quicker process
with gelatine dry plates, which will be described later.
First of all, it is necessary that the glass used sliould be
if good quality and perfectly clean. Patent plate-glass
is, of course, to be preferred : but any glass of good
|uality will answer. The glass must be perfectly
'■lean ; and, to efl'ect this, whiting or Tripoli powder
may be made into a thin paste with alcohol and water —
^ay equal parts. After the glass has been washed in
I lean water, a small quantity of the Tripoli paste may
I'l' dropped on to the glass, tlien rubbed over hotk sides of
the glass, and then rinsed otl' under a tap of running water.
The cloths nsed for drying the plate should not be used for
uiy other purpose, and should bo washed without soap.
\\ hen dry, the plates should be polished with a clean
'••ather, kept strictly for the purpose. If breathed on, it
■'. ill be seen at once whether the glass is perfectly clean,
iii-fore coating the plate with collodion, all dust should be
' Tushed of!" with a large, soft Virush, kept for the purpose.
BRAIX TROUBLES.
Ii;uiT.vi!ii,ri'v.
VMOXG the most characteristic signs of mental weari-
ness, irritability may be mentioned. We use the
\\ord rather in its technical than in its ordinary sense.
Nervous irritation may be indicated iiuite as much by
■-;loom and melancholy, as by temper or impatience. When
we find ourselves disposed to take unreasonably gloomy or
unreasonably fretful views of our afl'airs, to be troubled or
vexed (that is, made sorry or angry) by trifling matters, we
may be assured that there is something wrong with us. The
mischief may be Viodily, or it may arise from external
causes ; but usually — at any rate with those who exercise
the mind more actively than the body — the cause of the
change is mental. It is not always easy to distinguish
between these various forms of irritability. Those who are
artected by the east wind can ascertain, when they find them-
selves out of sorts, whether the wind is easterly or not; but
: probable that the mere .'iabilit be thus affected
is a sign of nervous weakness, which may result from
mental overwork.* And there are some meteorological
causes of irritability not so easily inquired into as the
influence of an easterly wind. (Has it been commonly
noticed, or is the experience exceptional in the writer's
case, that when the mind has been heavily taxed, blusterous
weather produces the etlects usually attributed to easterly
winds ?)
Again: some of the forms of irritability due to
bodily mischief are not easily distinguished from those
due to mental overwork. Thus, a case is related of
a young man noted for his gentleness, who, forming
one evening a member of a brilliant party (his com-
panions being of his own age), was (juarrelsome and
cross-grained, wrangling with, and in the end ofl'ending,
everybody in the room. Two hours after he was seized
with nephritic torments, caused by a calculus, which
did not cease to trouble him till the next day. The writer
can recall an even more striking case of the sort in his own
experience. He had Vjeen struck by his own exceeding ill-
temper (which, utterly wrong-headed though ii seemed, he
felt quite unable to control), while visiting, at the request
of several of the ]>rofessors of Yale College, the laboratories
and technological collections of that institution. He could
in no way distinguish his irritability from that which he
had learned to regard as the effect of over-work. But it
continued (though he had had and availed himself of an
opportunity for resting) for more than twenty-four hours.
Soon after (for there was an interval during which the
sense of ill-temper and despondency passed away), he was
attacked by renal tortures, which, unlike those of the
amiable young man of the previous story, lasted more than
a week, and amply justified (in the writer's opinion) all
the ill-temper he had displayed beforehand, — if at least
the disorder of the nervous system before the attack could
be measured by the intensity of the pains suffered during
the attack.
Usually, however, an indefinable feeling of irritability
and ill-temper signifies that the mind has been overworked.
So, also, does that state in which, to use a commonplace
but convenient expression, everything seems to go wrong.
In reality, we do everything wrong, though we may be
unable to recognise any diti'erence between our way of
attending to those slight matters on which the pleasant
progress of our work depends and onr customary methods.
We misplace this and upset that, tear, smear, blot, and so
forth, not because the fates are for the time being against
us, but because we are weary and overwrought (though we
may not be conscious of it), and our hands and fingers
are not under the usual control of the mind and will.
* Dr. Forbes Winslow describes a curious instance of morbid
irritability of this kind. "A military man, suffering from severe
mental dejection, was in the habit," he tells us, " of promenading
backward and forward in a certain track, towards evening, on the
rampart of the town iu which ho resided. When he walked for-
ward, his face fronted the east, where the sky was hung with black,
as was, alas ! his poor soul. Then his grief pressed doubly and
heavily upon liini ; he was hopeless and in deep despair. But when
he turned with his countenance towards the west, where the setting
sun left behind a golden stream of light, his happiness returned.
Thus he walked backward and forward, with and without hope,
alternating between joy and melancholy, ecstasy and grief, in
obedience to the baleful and benign influence[s] of the eastern anil
western sky ! " Altieri siys, in his " Memoirs," " I have observed,
by applying to my intellect an excellent barometer, that I had
greater or less genius or capacity for composition according to the
greater or less weight of the atmosphere : a total stupidity during
the solstitial and equinoctial winds ; an infinitely less perspicacity
in the evening than in the morning; and much more fancy,
enthusiasm, and invention in midsammer than in the intervening
months."
49C
KNOWLEDGE •
[Ai'kiL 7, 1882.
DOES THE LrMIXOL'S MIXTURE OF BLUE
AND YELLOW MAKE CKEEN LIGUTI
U\ l.iKrr..Coi. pro|ierly placed, " it then apiicars as if there was a sinfrle
wafer at b, with a colour prowster's theory of the existence of three fundamental kinds of
li(tht— red, yellow, and blue — is found in all except the most recent
text-books on physics, and is almost universally believed by artists.
Nevertheless, it will not bo difficult to show that it is quite without
foundation." Eliminating; a rather silly observation, that the theory
" cannot be true, because there is no such thing as colour, which is
a mere sensation ^-orying with the length of the wave producing
it," — on which basis of " argument " wc might ask why Prof. Rood
took the trouble to write a book about mixing colours, when " there
are no such things" — the "rudo" assertion is found to be sup-
ported by evidence er) U|M)n the face of a glass prism held perpendicular to tho
lH?ani. Instead of a spectrum on the wall, which the beam, without
• Qnery : Docs this process really " mix " lights ? 1 should like
to SCO this proved.
the interposition of the Innii, orcoJiions, wc find the sunbeam con-
tinued within tho prism, but of a brilliant gram green colour;
although bubbles and other objects in the path of the green Ijcam
through the glass, reflect white light. This curious effect seems to
ine to be the result of the elimination of the least refrangible, or
reil mys, from tho beam in its passage thmugh the glass (for ony-
sliapcd, if mort will hval Bun
PoDd'i EilrKt will cure Sprains and BniisM.
Sold bj all Chemiels. Get tbe genuine.
re for Rheamatinn and Govt.
for Hirmorrhoida.
for Xeiiralpic pains,
and Wounds.
April 7, 1882.J
♦ KNOWLEDGE ♦
495
WEATHER DIAGRAM.
FOR WEEK ENDING SATURDAY, APRIL 1.
Statiaii
DyrfWeA
0 3 ii
CD.g
flMTWiT'F S
eiMlTiW.TiFiS
Ikilllllll
bbp cboo
C
. I
LIVERPOOL
boo o cmo
000
piMlTlWiTlFls
LI
>fTi-/!
o b c dblab
r J
5
00000
VALENCIA
BiMjT W'TiFlS
JIKU
coo ob r c
1 1 1 1
Weather. — Veau/ort .SVaJe is, b. bine sky; c. detached clouds;
d. drizzling rain ; f. fog; g. dark, gloomy ; h. hail; I. lightning;
m. misty (hazy); o. overcast; p. passing showers ; q. squally; r.
rain ; s. snow ; t. thunder ; u. ugly, threatening ; T. visibility, un-
asual transparency ; w. dew.
AMALGAMS.
OPINION is still divided with regard to the nature of amalgams,
some considering them to be isomorphous mechanical mix-
tures, others true chemical compounds. The former ^new derives
support from those cases in which amalgamation is associated with
an absorption of heat, as in the solution of a salt or in dilution of
a solution ; the latter is supported by the fact that many amalgams
are formed with a strong development of heat. A contribution to
the subject has been lately made by Herren Merz and Weith, in the
Berlin Chemical Society. These chemists have investigated whether,
with regular heating, amalgams part with their mercury con-
tinuously or in distinct gradations.
The experiments consisted in placing the amalgam in a porcelain
dish within a glass tube, contracted below, and inclosed in a second
tube, having a bulb at its lower end. This bulb of the outer tube
contained the snbstance of the vapour-bath (sulphur, mercury, or
diphenylamine). To guard the amalgam from air, a lively current
of an indifferent gas was passed through the interior tube while the
experiment lasted. The amalgams used, which were always directly
produced by kno«Ti methods, contained on an average 60 to 80 per
cent, of mercury. This heating was continued, wherever possible,
until after several hours no decrease of weight (or hardly any) was
perceptible. There were examined gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, bis-
muth, zinc, cadmium, sodium, and ])otassium amalgams. The results
tor the first eight are very briefly communicated, those for the last
two, whose ea.sy oxidability required special precautions, more
fully. In the case of those alkali amalgams, the authors also
sought to determine the melting points, but, for certain reasons,
very accurate results were not reached. In general the melting
points of the amalgams rise at first very quickly with the propor-
tion of alkali metal, then gradual!}' fall. It was thus obsen-ed th".t,
when mercury is heated under paraffin to 250°, and then some
sodium is added in ])ortions, the whole mass solidifies with four to
five per cent, of sodium ; but with further addition of some per-
centages the mass fuses completely.
The results of their investigation are summed up by the authors
as follows : — A survey of the results described shows, for a series
of amalgams, that even with moderate heating they do not furnish
determinate compounds.
The amalgams of gold, silver, copper, bismuth, lead, tin, zinc,
and cadmium lose their mercury entirely, or nearly so even at or
under the boiling temperature of mercury. Where no mercury re-
mained, the cause is to be sought rather in a mechanical exclusion
than in a chemical action. But, on the other hand, the easy de-
composability of these amalgams evidently offers no proof that
there are no chemical compounds in them.
For the rest, if we consider the great variability of amalgams,,
together with the fact that, in squeezing the so-called mercury
solutions of metals, these latter do not remain behind, but certain
mercury compounds, the view acquires the greatest probabilitv',
that at least very many amalgams may be, indeed, molecular com-
binations, but in fixed relations.
ilost pronounced does chemism appear to be in the amalgams of
potassium and sodium. They lose their mercury extremely slowly,
even at the boiling point of sulphur, as also in a gas current, and
so in cii'cumstances highly favourable to removal of mere mixed
substances. The remarkable relations, too, as regards the meltiag
point, seem to speak for the presence of true chemical compounds.
Probably these amalgams, at a comparatively low, as well as at a
high temperature, consist of different compounds, none of which,
however, have a durable existence, and therefore recurrent, fixsd
relations of composition are not to be met with. Alkali-metal
amalgams of fixed composition wonld probably be obtained on jiro-
duction of larger quantities of amalgam ; perhaps also by heating
considerably above the boiling temperature of mercury. — Scientijie
Aynerican.
Eea.so.n'int. Power in an Indian Crow. — Some years ago I sat
with my partner in the verandah of our ofilce at tiffin. Our regular
guest, a broken-legged crow, sat on the window sill. In the bread
basket was a piece of crust dried by the land wind as hard as a
brick bat. I threw it to the crow who picked at it many times, but
found it much too hard for his beak. He then evidently sat him-
self to find a remedy for so sad a state of things. He looked at it
with his head on one side, then he took another view of it from the
other side, and seemed faii'ly puzzled. All at once a bright thought
struck him, he seized the crust, flew with it to tlxe washhand basin
in the corner, shook the morsel well for a minute in the water, flew
back to his old place on the sill and gobled up the now soft crust
triumphantly. If that did not betoken reason I do not know what
could. — Kah Kah.
St'ssE.K Akch.eological Society. — An interesting addition has
just been made to the already large collection of antiquities in the
possession of the society, deposited in Lewes Castle. It consists of
a cinerary urn, probably of the British- Romano period, about nine
inches in height. The vessel is of sun-dried clay, and about seven
inches in diameter at its widest part, the mouth being about five
inches. It was discovered by some labourers engaged in flint
digging on Mr. Homcwood's farm, at Jevington, a few days ago.
They were working at the foot of Jevington-hill, and came ujxm
several urns embedded in a quantity of loose flints, lying about two
feet below the surface of the down land. There were no tumuli or
other outward indications that the spot had been used as a burying-
place. Unfortunately, the greater part of these relics were destroyed
by the picks of the labourers before the nature of the discovery
became apparent. One, however, reniained intact, and this fact
was communicated to the hon. sees, of the society, who at once
organised an expedition to the spot. The visit was made on
Wednesday, and the " find" carried off in triumph. Those present
were the Kev. W. Powell, the Rev. P. de Putron, Mr. R. Crosskey
Mr. J. C. Lucas, and Mr. Griftith.
498
- KNOWLEDGE •
[AriiiL 7, 1882.
8ILVERED-GLASS TELESCOPES.
HAVIN(i lin'l till- liiTt Hilvcml-KliiM (i-lri<.n|ie niiiilo l>v Mr.
MrowniiiK Willi ii Willi iiiiiTur, my i.'i|H'rifiico ia Iuiikit limn
tliiit if iiiukI utlii'i-a ill tliin ciMiiilry. 'i'lif iii8lruiiiriit wna um-il fur
iiiuiir yoiini Oil ilio iiurtli aiiii' of l.uiiilun, nml fur tlio limt lliirti-cii,
tir no, ill llic cuunlry. I liiiil tin- nilrvriii); limlii well fur live ur nix
yearn, niul llivn nliout oiu'-tiftli uf llii' li^lit in lust by purliutm tiiut
liiit-c cuiiio uff in till' nm-, liiil orciiniutial, rulibiiiK" nilli a dry luft
IcallitT. The ailvpriiiK niiiat uii nu iiccuiiiil lie touclieil uiiIlsh it in
Itrrfrclly dry. An apivKruiirc of tiirniali will umiiilly vnnisli liy
■■iixwurv to tho sun on ii wuriii dny. I iiuver fuuiid ival tiiriiisli,
osyilutiun, or «ul|>liuiimitiun orciir lu givu truiililu, even in I.uiiduli.
The mouth of the tt'Uwu|)i'-tubo is i-overod when tlie instru-
ment ia not in uac, but no cuver Iiuh been put over the mirror
itaclf. Aa com|>nred with a refroclur of the same size, tho
osoil of {,''"'•»''' saslies ; the
.Mccond of cnnvnoa, strvtched on n wooden frunic, strcnfithencd with
T iron. In both, the ititemiil temiieruture differs little from the
external when the ihiirs are open. 'I'liis ia of j;roat importance. 1
have known several vexatious failures of good instruments iu obser-
vatories with thick wails. Kctieeturs arc mure easily affected in this
way than refmolors. The Xe>vluuiun pattern, and moderate length
of tube, enables nearly all observations to be made in convenient
nttitudcs, which is fur from beinj; the case with refractors. The
observer should have a stool to stand upon, so as to bring the eye to
tho level of the eye-piece when the telescope points to tlio zenith;
and another to sit upon, about as hi^'h us a chair, for a Gin. or 6-in.
instrument, with tho top on a sliding; tube, that can be fixed at dif-
ferent heights by a cross-piece. The construction is : one square
tube intide another; a series of slots on two opposite sides of the
inner one, and one slot on each corresjioiiding side of the outer
one. f'.r till' crcws-pice t.i run throujjh. Ue.vky J. Slai K.
UisToRY or Inebriety .\s a Disease. — Under this title, a com-
nmnication appears in the Oelroit Medical Revieiv, from the pen of
Dr. Crothers, of Hartford, Conn. Uc points out that inebriety was
recognised as a disease, lonfr before insanity was thought to be
other than sjiiritual tnadness — or a possession of the devil. This
disease was hinted at in au early age of the world, and is by no
means a modem idea. (.)n an old jiapyrus found in one of the
tombs of Egypt, dating back to a very ancient period, was a very
significant passage referring to an inebriate who had failed to keep
sober. Many of the sculptures of Thebes and Egypt exhibit ine-
briates in the act of receiving physical treatment from their slaves,
such as purgatives, rubbings, or applications to the head anil spine.
Herodotus, live centuries before tho Christian era, wrote " that
drunkenness showed that both tho body and soul were sick."
Diodiima and I'lutarch assert " that drink madness is an affection
of tho body which hath destnn'ed many kings and noble people."
Many of the Greek |iliiIusophers recognised the physical character
of inebriety, and the hereditai-y influence or tendencies which
were transmitted to the next generation. Laws were enacted
forbidding women to use wine, and young boys were re-
stricted. In the first century of the Christian era, St. John Chrv-
sostom urged that inebriety was a disease like dyspepsia, and
illustrated his meaning by many (|uaint reasonings. This was the
first cleor distinctive rccognisntion of the disease which had been
hinted at long Ijofore. In the next century .\|i]jian, the Konian
jurist, referred to the irresponsible character of inebriates, and the
necessity of treating them as sick men. Many of the early and
later writers of Koniaii civilisation contain references to drunkenness
iva a bodily disorder, not controllable beyond a certain point, which
resulted in veritable madness. Little reference was made tu this
theory until the thirteenth century, when one of th« Kings of Spain
4-nactod laws fully reci'gnising inebriety as a disease lessening tho
pnnishincnt of crime rummiited when under the influence of spirits.
In the siiteenth coiitury the penal codes of Fiance and many of
tlip (tcmian States contained enactments which recognised the
disease charnctor of inebriety. All punishment for crime com-
mitted dnrinir this state varied according to the condition of the
prisoner at the time. In 1747 Condilluc, a French philosopher,
wrote expressing clear views of the disease of inebriety, also that
tho Ktato ahonhl recognise and proviile means for its treatment. Uo
nnwrted that the impulse to drink was, like insanity, an affection of
the brnin which could net U- reached by law or religion. Dr. Ben-
jamin Uush, of I'hilndelphin, in 175HJ,' act forth the same theory,
aopported by a long train of reasoning. To him belongs the honour
of timt einbirating this subject and outlining what has been accopte-.l
half a ceiilur after. —Jfi-iliftt/ I'resn flnj Circular
PREHISTORIC RESEARCH IN RUSSIA.
AT the meeting of the Imperial Ocogrnjihical Society of 8t,
I'cteraburg, Nov. 10, Ih'll, an account was given of tl
expedition of i\. Malakhof, whose anthropological invest igatiom,
which were Krminatcd in October last, )iad for their principal
object the examination of the caves of pn-histuric man discovcrcJ b;
him in IKSO, and the search fortraces of primitive cultivation in t"
8uutliern Oural, a region previously unexplored from this [loint of,
view. Ill Ilia journey he examined the diatricts of Urjum and Velfl'
bugn, in the government of Viatka, a large [lortiou of that of Pei
and the Troitsk district in Orenburg. In the first-named district hi
discovered, near tlie village of Verobieva, prehistoric remains, in
eluding a number of objects in metal and bone, and fragments of
clay vases. The bones were those of the deer, bear, wild l>oar, Ijeaver,
horse, 4c. In the Ciovcrnments of Peru and Orenburg, M. Malakhol
explored a number of caverns without success, bat he was mi
fortunatu in his researches on the shores of the Aiataky, Shiguircl
and Vurinsky lakes, and the rivers Sliass and Isseta where ho made'
a large collection of arms of polished silex and objects in bone, clayv
bronze, and iron. These results lead to the conclusion that in thi
Oural region, the jiassage from the stone to tho metal age tool
place in a wholly independent manner owing to the abundance ol
the metals. In one tumulus he found a skeleton with heavy coppci
ornaments, and in other excavations he met with a considcrabli
number of bronze idols, amulets, and articles of gold. 31. Malakhol
has also copied the red hieroglyphic inscriptions found on roc'
along various rivers. Tliis find of pure copper articles iu Siberia,^
in addition to those recently in Switzerland, renders it probable)'
that there may have been a pure "copper age" before that of'
bronze, as tlioiight by some anthropologists. '
A Mkmiikr of tue Society ok Bibliolocicai. ABCB.toLOGV.
Speech amongst Fowis. — As Lieutenant-Colonel Souzel and soma'
correspondents still keep the subject of animals and their doings to'
the fore, I scud the following : — Some years ago I saw two yoong^
cockerels lighting iu an out-of-theway comer of a large poultiy-
yard. A hen, ]irobabIy the anxions mother of one of the young
heroes, came U|), and, by voice and action, did her best to put an end
to the encounter, but without success. She then went away, and
presently returued, bringing with her a fine cock. The new-comer
made straight for the combatants, who were again hard at it,-
adniinistered a few vigorous pecks, and walked off with his loving
spouse, leaving the youngsters very crestfallen and as peaceable as
quakers. The cock's appearance on the scene was not accidental,
the hen having gone to the other side of the yard, about thirty Tarda
off, to find him, and having come back- beside him, almost arm-iib»
arm with him [!] This, coupled with the fact that, on his arrirsQ
he seemed to know exactly what to do, seems to point to some fair^
well-developed means of communication between fowls, though
unfortunately. I either could not see or did not notice, whatactuallj
took place at the meeting. The incident itself is ludicrously human^
and is, in fact, an .."Esop's fable in real life for little boys just out"
growing the nursery. — Kosemo.nt Geary.
Intehigenx'E i.n Swaxs. — The following extract from Yarrell'd
History of Birds may interest your readers. Mr. Varrell writesi
— " I am indebted to the kindness of Lord Braybrooke for th
following account of a female swan on the river at Bishop's StoK
ford. This swan ( Cygn us olor) was eighteen or nineteen years oU
had brought uj) many broods, and was highly valued by the neighnl
hours. She exhibited, some eight or nine years past, one of th« [
most remarkable instances of the jiowers of instinct that was over
recorded. She was sitting on four or five eggs, and was observed
to bo very busy iu collecting weeds, grasses, Ac., to raise her nest; I
a farming-man was ordered to take down half a load of haulm, with I
which she most industriously raised her nest and the eggs 2i ft. ; [
that very night there came down a tremendous fall of rain, which |
flooded all the malt-shops and did great damage. Man made no pre-
paration, the liii< did. Instinct prevailed over reason. Uereggsl
were above, and only just alx>ve, tho water." — (Brit. Birds. 111.,
p. 207, 208. Second Edition.) Two phenomena present themselves '
liere. (I) The prescience in the bird of iini>ending rain ; (2) the
means adopted by the bird to juxivide for the security uf lier nest and
eggs. The first question may be, perhaps, mainly independent of any |
ilirect conscious mental emotion, and may be due. as suggested by
Yarrell, to the susceptibility of the feathery covering of the bird to
atnios'iherie electrical changes, and whot we call iii.<(inr( may have
foretold impending rain ; but I do not see how we can intei-jii-et the
swan's act in providing for the safety of her nest, otherwise than b)
attributing it to direct ivosonin; power. — W. Hotonrox.
April 7, 1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
499
MORNIXG WORK.
PKRU.VPS, on tlie wliole, moderately early rising is now a
cnmmoner practice in cities than it was forty years ago. It
seems strange that the liabit of lying in bed hours after the sun is
up should ever have obtained a liold on the multitude of brain-
workers, as undoubtedly it had in times past. Hour for iiour, the
intellectual work done in the early morning, when the atmosphere
is as yet unpoisoned by the breatli of myriads of actively-moving
creatures, must be, and, as a matter of Cfpei-ience, is incomparably
better than that done at night. The liabit of writing and reading
late in the day and far into the night, " for the sake of quiet," is
one of tiie most mischievous to which a man of mind can addict
himself. When the body is jaded, the spirit may seem to bo at
rest, and not so easily distracted by the surroundings which we
think less obtrusive than in the day; bnt this .■-'wiiiwi;; is a snare.
When the body is weary, the brain, which is an integral part of the
body, and the mind, which is simply brain function, are weary too.
If we persist in working one part of the system because some other
part is too tired to trouble us, that cannot be wise management of
self. The feeling of tranquility which comes over the busy and
active man about 1030 or 11 o'clock ought not to bo regarded as
an incentive to work. It is, in fact, the effect of a lowering
of vitality consequent on the exhaustion of the physical sense.
Xature wants and c.iUs f 3r physiological rest. Instead of comply-
ing with her reasonable demand, the night-worker hails the " feel-
ing " of mental quiescence, mistakes it for clearness and acuteness,
and whips the jaded organism with the will until it goes on working.
What is the result 'i Immediately, the accomplishment of a task
fairly well, but not half so well as if it had been performed with
tlie vigour of a refreshed brain working in health from proper sleep.
Remotely, or later on, comes the penalty to be paid for unnatural
exertion — that is. energy wrung from exhausted or weary nerve
centres under pressure. This penalty takes the form of " nervous-
ness," perhaps sleejdessness, almost certainly some loss or deprecia-
tion of function in one or more of the great organs concerned in
nutrition. To relieve these maladies -springing from this unsus-
pected cause — the brain-worker very likely lias recourse to the use
"lt •" ri>o«t, nml iid' I'nrly
iMlir in t)i» niorniti^r, nml nro Kn IkiIiI tlint tlicy oflon rnmo " with
nmny n ulnlily llirt nml lliKtor " iiiln IliK vcmnrlah nhori' I won
■iltini;. I m-vrr nnt very
nniiininir. for lhi'y"tnki' llio nir " in the rvoninfr. xontoil nn iinnil-
linnka fnrini; t)ii> niiiil, with their miiiitha npon. They nr<' thrcnt-
i>ninj{ to "n- (" Unbeaten Truck« in
Jnpnn," vol. ii., p. IMI.) — From Salare.
I'AIKV "FOLKLORE" OF SHETLAND.
LIKK nil of the i-lnns to which the innjoritv of thorn hi'Ionp, the
Shptlnmlcr« arc slronRly inihuiHl with a holicf in the Rujjer-
imtiiml. They seem half axlianiecl to confess it, hut the fact is soon
iliscnvercd hy tljuse who have nny intercourse with them. Many of
their nuperstitioiisare of Scandinavian origin, and have been hnndcd
down from their Norse ancestors.
The principal character in all their poblin tales is the drow, or
fairy, a beiiip supposed to linvo great power and ninlignity, and
capable of doing great harm both to men and cattle. The diows
are Ijolieve*! to inhabit knolls or hillocks, and when a person meets
them, if he has not a Bible in his pocket, he must draw a circle
round about him and say, "InUod's name, keep back." In paralysis
thodrowsare saiii to have taken away the affected limb, and to
have put a log of wood in its place, the entire absence of sensation
in the diseased member being adduced as proof of the assertion.
Ciece is obtained, which is hung round
the patient's neck, and placed as near as possible to where his heart
onght to be.
Within the last few years witches, or wise women, have been
consulted in reg-.ird to ca'cs of sickness, by men apparently pos-
sessed of good sound sense, and some of them even elders of the
Kirk. The advice given is a sort of charm, similar to tho.se im-
puted to the witches of the seventeenth century, to which there are
many allusions in the various Presbytery records of the period.
Touching for the king's evil is still a devout article of faith in
Shetland ; but in order to be effectual it must be gone about with a
certain degree of ceremony. A silver coin of Charles II., one of a.
small number e.\pres8ly manipulated by the merry monarch for the
purpose, and bestowed on some favourite from whom they found
their way into these islands, is first laid upon the ntllictcd person's
tongue, and then carefully passed over the nffectcd jmrt, in the case
of a male, by the third or Ecventh daughter ; in that of a female by
the third or seventh son, of a family belonging to one father and
mother. In going through this process great precaution must bo
used lest the iiersim 0|)erated upon should obtain a sight of the
coin, for then the spell would be broken. We have heard it
repeatedly affirmed that those who have been treated in this
manner, and according to proper form, have invariably been cured.
and great regret expressed that the only remaining" coin in the
island invested with this healing virtue is lost, and cannot be
recovered.
There are also many superstitions connected with the sea. When
they arc about to set out to the haaf, they think it unlucky to meet
a minister, to call anything by its right name, to make a false step,
or to do anything else that may be ominous of trouble and disaster.
Should nny of these accidents occur, they will turn back and refuse
to venture, although the weather bo propitious, the sen calm, and
everything else favourable for the expedition. When at sea the
minister is called the " upstander," or the " lodar," the manse is de-
nominated the '• liKhir's still lioil," nnd the kirk the " banie house ; "
every part of the boat's furniture in like manner receiving a change
of np|>ellntion.
The iH'lii'f in omens nnd jmrtents is carried in Shetland to a greater
extent th.in one would imagine. Talking to a man one day, we hap-
pended to mention the fact of our having seen a lamb which hud
been dn>ppe- early in the season. To our surprise, he suddenly
l)ocnmc very gnive. but said nothing. The reason for this change
m his demeanour turned out to be an inipressiim that enrlv-dropped
lambs were " no cnnny," nnd were ominous of evil. '• fko folk nt
Hargnetter." he snid. nfier n thoughtful silence, "had a lamb
tiropiwd on New Venr's Day, nnd their son was killed by falling over
the banks the same year."
The strange reluctance to save a drowning man. from the wild
nnd absurd notion that to do so would be to incur the certainty of
receiving some wrong or injury at hi« hands, and which is so well
inlriMhued into Kir Wnltej- Scott's novel of " Tlio I'iratc," if it ever
was common in Shetland, is now everywhere extinct, and there is
not a man in the islands who would hesitate to do all in his jiower
to aid a fellow-creature if lie saw him in peril from the waves. It
is lo be ho|)cd that all such baneful sujterstitionB will soon dis-
np]ienr before the advance of education.
A. W., IN "Tiir, Antiqi-abiax WUojizixe."
Diphtheria Commi sic.^ted by Cats. — Dr. William Bnnce, of
Oherlin, (•., sends o report of the following cases to the Seio
Ynrk Medical Recnril. March 4 :— On May 1, 1»»H1, ho was called to
see a boy four years of age, of (Jerman parentage, and one of six
children ; he was found to have di|)hthcria. On the following day
the youngest daughter, two years of age, presented symptoms of
the same disease, and on the next day the father and two more
children were attacked. After this date all the other members of
the family, except the eldest boy. contracted the disea.se. A
thorough examination of the house elicited no source of con-
tagion, but in the bam a cat was found having the characteristic
lesions of diphtheria. On inquirv-, he ascertained that this cat
during its period of sickness had been played wth bv the
children. On August 20, 1881, he saw. with his son. Dr. W. C.
Bnnce, a lady, eighteen years of age. wlio had diphtheria of a
very severe type, which terminated fatally on the third day. In a
short time the disease developed in the mother and remaining two
daughters. A half-grown cat in the room was found to have well-
marked diphtheritic membrane in the throat; it was also ascer-
tained that its mother and four other kittens had been in the same
condition. The girls had endeavoured to cure the cats by removing
the deposit, in this way exposing themselves to the contagious
influence of the disease. After the recovery of these cases, and the
removal of the diseased animals, the spread of the disease ceased.
He thinks it fair, therefore, to conclude that the diseased condition
of the cats was the cause of the diphtheritic manifestations in the
cases reported. Mention is made of these cases as they are of
importance in the consideration of comparative medicine.
The Welsh TT. — Wc have a fixed and settled conviction that the
English language is the very best language in existence, and that
all foreign tongues whatsoever are mere lingoes, wholly unworthy
of our sublime consideration. Now there is no doubt a great deal
of sound truth in this view ; for even French and German i)hilo-
logists have been known to hoh* that English, because of its relative
simplicity and logical development, its freedom from the childish
fetters of gender and inflection, will ultimateh- become the common
medium of intercourse for the whole world. But our firm and
profound belief in the absolute superiority of our oivn tongue has
always made us very disdainful of other people's. There is a
genuine substratum of reality in the old joke about that typical
.lohn Bull who wouldn't learn French to talk to the mossoos,
but thought the mossoos niight learn English if they wanted
to talk to him. This universal English feeling, however,
seems to reach its culminating point when the foreign
language with which we have to deal is Welsh. Most
" Sa.^ons " have a congenital horiiir and dread of the Cymric
tongue, which they absurdly declare to be full of consonants and
absolutely unpronounceable. As a matter of fact, Welsh is far
softer and more vocal than our own harsh Teutonic speech, for it
lies about lialf-way between English and Italian, so far as the
relative predominance of vowels or consonants is concerned : and
lest my reader should view this para-ioxical statement with suspicion,
taking me for a Welshman in disguise. I hasten to add that I am
not in any way connected with Wales, and that I shared all the
common Saxon prejudices on this matter myself until I began to
learn a smattering of Welsh for philological purposes. Almost
all the terror and mystery of those awesome combinations
of letters which are wont so greatly to frighten us is remove*
in a moment, as soon as people have discovered the simi>le
fact that ic is a vowel, and not a consonant, its phonetic
value being merely that of our own no. Cwm and Drws look very-
terrible indeed until one knows that they are jn-onounced like
Combe and Dnice j while the fearsomeness of Llwch disappears
entirely as soon as we recognise that it is nothing more than the
Scotch Loch in nn unfamiliar guise. Yet. in spite of the perfect
transparency and regularity of Cymric phonetic spelling, ten thou-
sand English tourists continue every yctr to talk about those jaw-
hr(*aking long Welsh names, which aiv utterly unpronounceable hy
English lips merely because they have never taken the trouVile to
get up the most elementnrj' rules of the language, as they would get
up a little (ierman before going up the Rhine, or a little Italian
before trj-ing a winter at Bome or Florence. — From " Some English
Place Names" in the Coniliill Haautinc for November.
April
1882.]
KNOWLEDGE
501
Ifttns to tl)t eiJitor.
{The Editor does not hold him*elf rerponzibU for fhfopiniotig of his eorrefponden/t.
Be cannot undertake to return manufrripfr or to corrftpond vUh their vrifert. All
ecmmunir.itioni thould be at ahort oji potrible, consistently icith /ull ajid clear state-
ment)! of the ttriter's meaning.]
All Editorial com munic alio ns should be addrested to the Editor o/ K>-owlbdgB;
all BuMinets communications to the Publishers, at the Office^ 71. Great Queen-
Ktreet, JT.C.
All liemit/ancea. Cheques, and Pott-QMce Orders should be made paaable to
Messrs. nyman 4" Son,. ^ "
*,' Alt letters to the Editor vill be Xumbsred. For convenience of reference,
eorrf*pontients, when referrinrj to arty letter, viil oblige by mentioning its number
and the page on ichich it appears.
All Letters or Queriet to the Editor tehirh require attention in the current is»ue of
EmowlbDGB, thould reach the Publishing OJice notlaterthan the Saturday preceding
the day of publication* ^^^^^
(I.) Letters to have A chance of appearing muBt be concise; they must be drawn
op in the form adopted for letters here, bo that thev may go untouched to the
printers : private communication'), therefore, as well as queries, or replies to
queries (intended to appear as such) sh-mM he «Titten on separate leaves.
(ID Queries and replies should be eren more concise than letters ; and dra^m
up in the form in which they are here presented, with brackets for number in case
oi qtieries. and the proper query number (bracketed) incase of replies.
(in.) Letters, quenes, and replies which (either because toolonff, or unsuitable,
or desHns with mailers which others have discussed, or for anv other reason) can-
t And place here, will either be brietly referred to in answers to correspondents, or
' un reserved for the purpose.
ac.tioAledged i
I only is to be contemned and despi«ed who is not in a
here anything more adverse to accuracy
*'In knowledge, that
itate of transition
than fliity of opinion." — Faradu
'* There is no harm in making a mistake, but great harm in making none. Show
Be a man who makes no mistakes, and I will show jou a man who has done
nothing." — lA^hiu.
" God's Orthodoxy is Truth."— CAarfw Kingaley.
®\ix CoiTrsipontirnre Columns.
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.
[370] — It is pleasing to learn (letter 367, p. 179) that Sommer-
iiij's telegraphic apparatus is still in existence, but it must not be
forgotten that the idea of the electric transmission of intelligence
was not a novel one in Sommering's day. It is to Charles
SItirshall, a Scotsman, that we owe the invention of the electric
telegraph. He, in 1753, suggested that by erecting a series of
wii-es, one for each letter of the alphabet, and attaching to the
^nd of each wire a ball, near which was suspended a piece of
paper free to move towards the ball, and inscribed with a letter of
the alphabet, and sending a charge of electricity through first one
wire and then another, the pieces of paper at the other ends might
be caused to move, and so to indicate the letters of the message
which it was desired to transmit. In 1774 Marshall's scheme was
realised by Le Suge of Geneva. Alfred W. Sow.ikd.
GHOSTS.
[371] — The following details regarding the " War Office Ghost "
may be of interest to T. D. In September, 1857. Captain G
W , of the fith Dragoon Gnarfls, left England to join his
ri-„'iment in India, leaving his wife at Cambridge. On the night
between the IJth and 15th Xovomber, 1857. she dreamed that she
saw her husband looking very ill, and she thereupon awoke, much
agitated. When she looked up she saw the same figure standing
by her bedside. He appeared in uniform, and seemed to be in great
pain. Mrs. W at first thought that she must be still asleep,
but, by rubbing her eyes, and by listening to the breathing of a
child beside iier, she became convinced that what she had seen was
no dream. In December, 1S57, a telegram from the seat of war
appeared in the morning papers stating that Captain W had
been killed before Lucknow on the fifteenth of November. This
date was further confirmed by the War Office certificate, which was
obtained by the family solicitor. Mrs. W , however, maintained
that Icr husband had died on the/ciurfeenf7i,and not on the fifteenth
as stated. While the solicitor's mind remained in uncertainty
regarding the real date of the death, a curious incident joecurred
which seemed to confirm Mrs. W 'a opinion. The solicitor
mentioned the case to a lady friend, who all her life had had per-
ception of apparitions. She immediately, turning to her husband,
said, " That must have been the same apparition that I saw on the
evening we were speaking about India." The receipt for an account
paid on the same day enabled them to fix on the/ouWcenf/i as the
date. The solicitor was so much impressed by this that ho applied
to the War Office to find out whether there had not been some
mistake about the date. The officials stated that there could be no
mistake, as the death was referred to in two despatches from Sir
Colin Campbell, anil in both the date was given as the fifteenth. In
March, 185S, a letter arrived from a brother officer, giving an
account of Captain W 's death. This officer, who had been
riding beside Captain W when he was killed, stated that the
death occurred on the fourteenth of November. Finally, about a
year after the death, the War Office altered the date to the
.fourteenth. Joiix Gouuox.
MOON CRATERS.
[372] — A propos of the notice at p. 439 of imitations of moon
craters, I was greatly struck only a few days since by the very
close resemblance to such craters in the impression produced on a
smooth surface of sand by a drop of water falling on it from a
height of about five or si.t feet. This is what happened in a green-
house on the moisture of condensation dropping into a pot sown
with seed and thickly covered with sand.
Perhaps, as a small contribution to Kxowledge. this observation
may be acceptable. J. Power Hicks.
COLOURS AT NIGHT.
[373] — Can you tell me what is the explanation of the fact that
if a strip of cloth coloured either white, black, or blue be hungnp
on a pitch-dark night in a place where no lights are visible, and
against the sky as a background, it becomes swallowed up, as it
were, in the darkness, and is invisible ; but that if its colour be red,
it stands out as a dark patch on the black sky ? I have frequently
observed this to be the case, so that I am sure of my fact.
Winter.
GOLDEN SANDS.
[371] — On the Western coast of India there is a river. To the
north of its mouth on the sea beach, during the south-west mon-
soon, appear many patches of black sand (grains of magnetic iron
ore). These patches average five or six square yards area, and are
about half-an-inch thick, and lie on the surface of the ordinary
yellow sand of the beach. The gold-washing natives carefnllj-
scrape off this black sand, during the rains, as fast as it appears,
and make heaps of it on the higher beach beyond the reach of the
sea at high tides. When the rains are over they wash these heaps
for gold, nsing first a small wooden cradle and then a shallow
gun-metal dish, such as is commonly used by natives for their rice,
and called a " Kinny." When the black sand is almost all washed
awav they use quicksilver, make an amalgam, squeeze the excess
of mercury out through a piece of washleather, and get rid of the
rest bv heat, leaving from two to six annas (threepence to eight-
pence) worth of gold for their day's trouble. My trouble is not how
they get the gold from the sand — that is easy enough, I have done
it myself a hundred times — but how did the gold find its way down
the river and on to the surface of the beach ? and why always in
company of the black sand ?
Not one particle of gold is ever found in the yellow sand. There
is no adhesion or attraction between the black sand and the gold,
for the latter is as easily washed from the former as from yellow-
sand when mixed for experiment. I have tried it often. Why did
not the gold-dust find its way to the bottom of the river, as it did
at once to the bottom of the pan ? That is a Puzzler.
JUPITER IN CASSIOPEIA.
[375] — With reference to your editorial remark respecting my com-
munication on "Jupiter in Cassiopeia" (correspondence column,
p. 478), I beg to say the context of the refreshing passage in
Schiller's " Wallenste'in," naturally suggests the interpretation I
put on the words of the poet, and every German reader who knows
the force of dnhin and has, besides, even an elementary knowledge
of astronomy only, would at once understand it to mean " yonder.
If Schiller had wished to make Wallenstein say, " that he saw
Jupiter t')! Cassiopeia," he would certainly have used darin, or some
similar expression. May I add that few poets have so carefully and
accurately worked out the details of their productions as Schiller
has done. In his brilliant tragedy of " Wallenstein," he has shown
that he had fully mastered the " subject of astrology," and it is
quite natural that he should have at the same time occupied himself
with the science of astronomy, if he had not done so before.
C. A. BncHHEiM, Ph. D.
502
KNOWLEDGE
[April 7, 1882.
nl'KN I'lKK-rLACKS.
[870J.- Whnt iiro wp to ilo y Knrtiinntrly llio wriilliiT lini not
boon vpry c«lli'i>. null iilmlisli all our dialing nrcii," iitid
llii-n lio prominpK to toll uh wlint to ilo next. Has lir roimiilcrcii
how nwkwnnlly wi< arc pliii-oil witliout ii H]mrk of fire nil thia time?
.Mimt WP unHtop till' flrvliolo I' Of rour.w wis niniit wnit niiiitlior
wi'i'k. Must wp apnd our doctor's bill tu him, or to you, Mr. Kdilor ?
C. .1. UuoWN.
n.\K( II IX I'OTATOKS.
■ ill - hi aii.Hwir to "Knnui'r's" Inst qucKtion (.')-'.'), it may be
ntulpd that it has boon found that the ratios bi-tweon the starch and
nitrogenous mnttor in potatxxs are not nlwoys the same, and that
in those potnt'M'S whioli are the least floury tho ratio of nitrogen to
Bliirch is tho highest, by reason of clecreaso iu starch. Tho cause
seems to rest with the manuiv, for the same variety, under like
eoiiditiuns of position, Boil, and climate, is j,'rcatly intluenccd in
composition by the manure ujiplied. E. W. P.
HAIR Tl K.NIXG WHITE.
[37kJ— I'orhups the followinir facts may bo of sufticient interest
to warrant their insertion in K.vowledge. James Tratford, a coach-
smith in the cmployuicnt of Francis Mnlliner, coachbuildcr, of
Liverpool and London, about two-and-a-half years ago burned him-
self accidently at tho root of the middle linger of his right liand.
Tho injury was caused by a bit of red-hot iron flying into his hand.
lie was obligi'd to cease work .it once, and continued to bo
inca|>ablo for about three months, during which time I
Wdtehcd the consetiueuces of his accident as they made their
appearance. Uc poulticed his hand, and in about a week
the swelling broke, upon which matter began to e.xude. In
a week after the breaking of tho wonn] — lieading on page 157 tho remarks of " Canadensis " in
this connection. 1 would add that, having visited Xew York City in
the days of oM, besides being collided with many Yanks upon the
.\astmliuu gold-diggings, it struck me that tho leanness of the
.American is duo to the abominable practice of chewing lioncydow,
accompanied by the constant ejection of the saliva so necessary for
the duo assimilation, secretion, and digestion of the dietetical
delicacies incident to their Ll to Coirrsfpontifnts.
','All eommutiiciilioiit for the Edilar rrguirin^ f„rh atlf:ilion ihoiild reach the
Ue on or before the S,iliirdai, precejinn the cnrreiit'ifue of KxowLBDGB, the
ircittation o/" tchich eompeU ui to go to prett early ift the u-eek.
HiSTS TO COKRESPOSDBSTS.— 1. J\"o qur.liont ii.trin^ for ncienlijic information
tan ie amicrred through the post. 2. Letters rent to the Editor fur corretpondentt
cannot be forwarded ; nor can the namet or addrenfen qf correnponderitt be given in
anever to private inguirief. 3. So queries or replies savouring of the nature of
advertisements can ht inserted. 4. Letters, queries, and replies are inserted, unless
contrary to Rule 3, free of ehartie. 6. Corrtspondeuts should rcrite on one side
•ii/y of the p-iper, and pat drarings on a separate leaj. 8. Each letter, query, or
reply should have a title, and in replying to letters or queries, reference should be
tiade to the number qf letter or query t the page on tphich it appears^ and its title.
Laiiv Stkwart.- Regret very much that an advertiser in our
columns has been so dilatory (I trust that is the limit of his
offence). Your letter has been forwarded to the publishers, and
due measures will be taken. — Glaoiator. Fencing hardly a scientific
subject. As it chances to be a favourite exercise of mine, I will
give my own ideas about your diUicnlty. You ought, considering
the name you adopt, to be able readily to meet the im, deux, and
un, deux, tmis, which your opponent is so fond of using, in tlie
ordinarj- way. If I were you, I would not give in till I had acquired
the knack. But, if yon cannot, try what Mrs. Glasse would call "another
way." Follow him with the round parade. This will bring him up
in carte, instead of carte over the arm, and all he can do is to try
carce over the am again, which you can treat in the same way,
following up his blade. Remember, though, that this parade is not in
itself a defence. A good fencer will corkscrew in upon you, if you
forget this. The parade simply changes the direction of your guard.
Thus if you meet a thrust in carte over the arm with the round
parade, you are engaged in carte and innst defend accordingly, that
is towards the left, not towards the right, as in the simple parade
for that thrust. So if you oppose the parade to un. deux, &c.,
you are s.ife enough during your opponent's extension, but a.s the
lunge is delivered the parade merges into defence in carte. The
advantage of the round parade is that you know exactly where
your opponent's blade will be when the thrust is delivered. — Priam.
You may be surprised to leani that many of the marks of parenthesis
you counted so carefully were added after the papers leere iti type,
because, on careful consideration, they seemed more suitable than
commas. Macaulay (whose name j'on misspell Macauly) used to
boast that he seldom used the semicolon (not the parenthesis.)
Whateh". who severely rebuked the improper use of the parenthesis,
used it more freely than most writers. In fact, every logical writer
must use them, to write clearly and correctly. If it were not
in very bad taste to comment on faults of style, I would point
out that your letter would be all the better (at any rate, much
more easily understood) if you had used the parenthesis more
freely. Take, for instance, this sentence : — "It has been
on my mind ever since the first number of Knowledge to call
attention (in a friendly way) to a small evil, on the part of the
editor himself, and (in degree) of some contributors, of the con-
stant use of the parenthesis in the articles." Here, I hare added
parentheses where they are obviously not merely necessary, but
essential to the grammatical accuracy of the sentence. Without
them, you might mean "a friendly way to a small evil," and
"in degree of some contributors." Yonr first sentence would
farther bo improved by the addition of a da.sh after "evil "and
"contributors," though,, even then, "a small evil of the constant
ase" would be hopelessly ungrammatical. In fine, my dear
BIT, every sentence of your letter suggests the repetition
in your case of a small quotation I hare already had to use
in reference to correspondents wlio, having evidently had small
experience themselves, undertake to teach me how to do what
has been the business of my life. " Teach not a parent's parent,
I would beg of you, "to extract, the embryo juices of an egg
by suction ;" the good old lady can the feat enact q.-ite irrespective
of your kind instruction.— Akthlk Bvchukim. Do you make no dis-
tinction between the ordinary use of the term logarithm and its
use in the theory of functions'? Or, supposing you do draw such a
distinction, do you suppose our querist referred to the latter use ot
the term ? What you so carefully explain to mo is as familiar as
the interpretation "of imaginai-y expressions (of the imaginary cube
roots of unity, for instance). Of course, log {-a) has its meaning,
just as \/-a has ; but ewi'r; mill tlii'm wi