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LABORATORY DIRECTIONS

GENERAL BIOLOGY

BY

HARRIET RANDOLPH, PH.D

Demonstrator in Biology and
Reader in Botany, Bryn Mawr College

"Willst Du in's Unendliche schreiten,
Geh1 erst im Endlichen nach alien Seiten."

— GOETHE,

NEW YORK

HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
1898

•

1

Copyright, 1897,

BY

HENRY HOLT & CO.

ROBERT DRUMMOND, ELECTROTYPER AND PRINTER, NEW YORK.

PREFACE.

THE following laboratory-directions have been pre-
pared for a course in General Biology that extends
throughout the collegiate year, and includes work in the
laboratory for about six hours each week.

Experience has shown that there are certain practical
advantages in beginning with the fern and the earth-
worm, and that the results are not at all inferior to
those that follow from, the more logical method of
beginning with the simplest organisms.

The plan of this course is similar to that suggested by
the ' ' General Biology " of Sedgwick and Wilson ; and
as the directions have been used with large classes for
several years, it is believed that they are entirely practi-
cable.

In determining the amount of work to be done upon
each form, an endeavor has been made to include the
most important points and at the same time to. keep
each in its proper relation to the other parts of the
course as a whole. But any suggestion of improvements
that may occur to any one using the directions would be
gladly received by the author.

The following list of hours has" been found by experi-
ence to represent approximately the time needed for the
different subjects :

iii

297*

IV

PREFACE.

Hours.
Preliminary practice with

microscope 3

Fern 10

Earthworm 10

Amoeba 2

White blood-corpuscles 1

Hsematococcus 4

Paramoecium 2

Vorticella 2

Yeast 5

Peuicillium \

Lichen C 4

Mushroom )

Bacteria 2

Spirogyra 2

Hydra 4

Mussel... . 5

Hours.

Lobster 4

Moss « 5

Stern, bud, leaf 4

Flower 4

Seeds 2$

Seedlings 4

Seed-contents „. 4

Circulation, etc., of proto-
plasm „ 2

Karyokinesis 2

Frog 12£

Fish 2

Pigeon 6i

Rabbit 10i

Embryology:

Frog 6*

Chick.. ..16

At the present time laboratory-directions in a course
in General Biology necessarily presuppose the use of
subjects and to some extent of methods employed by
previous writers. For the mode of presentation of cer-
tain topics my acknowledgments are due especially to
Prof. E. A. Andrews and to Prof. V. M. Spalding.

To Prof. T. H. Morgan, who has been so good as to
read and criticise the directions for Invertebrates, Plants,
and Embryology, and to Prof. J. W. Warren, who has
kindly advised me in regard to the Vertebrate work, it
gives me great pleasure to acknowledge my indebtedness.

H. R.

BKYN MAWB COLLEGE, June 1897.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

INTRODUCTION 1

PRELIMINARY PRACTICE WITH THE MICROSCOPE 5

FERN 7

EARTHWORM 13

AMCEBA 24

WHITE BLOOD-CORPUSCLES 26

H^EMATOCOCCUS 27

PARAMCECIUM 30

VORTICELLA , 33

YEAST 36

PENICILLIUM 39

LICHEN 41

MUSHROOM , 43

BACTERIA 45

SPIROGYRA 48

HYDRA 52

FRESH-WATER MUSSEL 58

LOBSTER 66

Moss. 75

SPERMAPHYTES . 79

Stem 79

Root 82

Bud 82

Leaf 83

Flower 84

Seeds 87

Seed-contents 90

Seedlings 91

V

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS,

PAGE

ROTATION AND CIRCULATION OF PROTOPLASM . , 93

KARYOKINESIS . . 94

FROG 95

FISH 113

PIGEON 116

RABBIT 128

EMBRYOLOGY 143

Frog .' 142

Chick.. 146

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

I. THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS USE.

The microscope * consists of a stand, a tube, and
lenses. Attached to the column of the stand is a
horizontal plate, the stage, which holds the object
to be examined.

In the middle of the stage is a round hole
through which light can be directed upward by a
mirror which is attached to the stand below the
stage. The amount of light can be regulated by
diaphragms.

The stand gives support above the stage to a
vertical cylinder in which the tube slides up and
down.

The combination of lenses to be inserted into
the upper end of the tube is the eyepiece (or ocu-
lar) ; that at the lower end the objective.

The objective AA is a low power, D is a high
power.

Objective AA, eyepiece 2 magnifies about 50
diameters.

Objective AA, eyepiece 4 magnifies about 90
diameters.

* The description applies to the Zeiss microscope, Stativ VII,
with oculars 2 and 4, objectives AA and D.

2 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

"-/

Objective D, eyepiece 2 magnifies about 240
diameters.

Objective D, eyepiece 4 magnifies about 420
diameters.

To be seen clearly an object must be at a definite
distance from the objective. Moving the lenses to
the proper place is called focussing.

For finding the focus there are two adjustments.
The coarse adjustment is used especially with the
low power ; it may be used also with the high
power for finding the approximate focus ; it con-
sists in sliding the tube up or down with the
fingers. This should always be done with a slight
twisting movement. The fine adjustment is effected
by means of a screw with a milled head behind the
tube. It is used to focus the lens exactly after the
object has been brought into view with the coarse
adjustment.

The following rules should be carefully ob-
served :

1. Always examine an object first with the low

power (AA).

2. Never use the high power (D) unless the

object is covered with a cover-glass, Be
very careful never to let the objective
touch the cover-glass.

3. Remember that objects can be brought

clearly into view only by the hand, not
by the eye. If the object is not dis-

GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 3

tinctly visible do not strain the eye to see
. it, but by means of the line adjustment
alter the focus of the microscope. In
order to bring different parts of an object
into view the focus must be continually
changed, and for this reason the hand
should always be kept on the fine-adjust-
ment screw. If this rule be observed
there is little danger of injuring the eyes.
If the object cannot be brought clearly
into view by focussing, see whether the
mirror reflects as much light as possible,
that the objective is not wet, and that the
cover-glass is clean.

4. The lenses must be perfectly clean. Dust

on the lens obscures the image, and may
strain the eye. To clean a lens, breathe
upon the glass in order to dampen it, and
then wipe it with a soft, fine cloth kept
for this purpose alone. A lens should
never be touched with the fingers, as
these often leave ineffaceable marks.

5. Look through the microscope sometimes

with one eye and sometimes with the
other, and keep both eyes open ; the
strain upon the eyes is by this means
much lessened.

6. Lenses, when not in actual use, should be

protected from dust and injury.

4 GENERAL BIOLOGY. .

7. The tube of the microscope should always

slide smoothly. If it does not, take it
out, wipe it clean, and apply a little vase-
line.

8. When lifting the microscope, do not take

hold of the column above the stage, as
this is apt to disarrange the fine adjust-
ment.

9. When not in use, the microscope should Tse

put into its box (observe paragraph 8).
Each objective should be put into its own
brass box with the lid that corresponds
(otherwise the thread of the screw may
be injured, and the boxes cannot be
tightly closed, to keep out moisture, etc.).

II. ON DRAWING.

Everything of importance should be recorded by
sketches or diagrams and by notes. Try to show
in the sketches as clearly and accurately as possible
the essential features of what has been seen, and
add concise explanations. In order to show the
natural relations of the parts it may be necessary
to combine several views of the object.

Draw on a large scale ; the sketches cannot be
too large.

It is best to draw to scale, i.e., either the exact
size or half or double, etc., the size of the object.

Name the parts represented in the drawing, and

GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 5

mark the scale adopted, as, e.g., X 2 when the draw-
ing represents the object twice its size.

The outlines should first be traced very lightly
with a soft pencil, so that they may be readily
altered. When the sketch is complete the outlines
may be gone over with a harder pencil or with ink,
and the different parts may be made more distinct
by slightly shading them with colored crayons.

Outlines should not be sketched in color. Certain
colors should be used for special organs or tissues.

PRELIMINARY PRACTICE WITH THE MICROSCOPE.

I. Scales from the wing of a butterfly.

Take with a scalpel some of the colored parti-
cles from the wing, place them upon a slide
and examine with AA 2, Compare the ob-
ject as it appears when illuminated by the
the mirror (" transmitted light"), and when
the light from below is cut off ("reflected
light"). Examine successively with AA 4,
D 2, D 4, and make a series of outline
sketches of a few of the scales to show the
difference in magnifying power.
II. Put a few fibres of wool into a drop of water
upon a slide. Put on a cover-glass and
examine first with a low and then with a high
power. Note the form of the fibre by care-
fully focussing at different levels. Sketch
CD 2).

6 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

III. Examine bubbles of air in water. To obtain
these, support a cover-glass by a thick piece
of filter-paper under one edge, run a drop
of water under the cover glass, and then tap
the glass.

The cover-glass must be supported so that
the bubbles may be spherical. Sketch
(AA 2). (Keep for comparison with IV.)

IY. Examine a small drop of oil suspended in water
with the cover-glass supported. Compare
the air and the oil, and note the differences
in the appearance of each upon focussing up
and down. Sketch.

V. To make a scale. Find on a stage micrometer,*
with the low power, the lines ruled one
millimetre and one tenth of a millimetre
apart. Draw some of these as they appear
projected upon paper at the base of the
stand. While doing this keep both eyes
open and the head motionless. Draw sev-
eral sets of lines, and then transfer the most
accurate set to a piece of cardboard.

Make a scale for the combinations AA 2,
D 2, and D 4 ; label each with the names of
lenses used, and the actual size of the mi-
crometer spaces.

*Zeiss's Object-micrometer, No. 26, b.

FERN.

PTERIS AQU1L1NA.

A. ASEXUAL GENERATION.

I. External characters.

1. Rhizome — the brown, underground stem with a

ridge on each side.

2. Roots ; springing from the rhizome.

3. The leaves or fronds: arising from the rhizome

at intervals along the lateral ridges.

(a) The subdivision of the frond : the leaf-

stalk or stipe, and the leaf proper or
lamina. The lamina is subdivided like
a feather (pinnately) into pinnae; each
pinna is pinnately subdivided into
pinnulae, the pinnulse in some cases into
lobes, and these into lobules.

(b) The sorus: a band of sporangia under the

edge of some of the pinnules.

(c) The mdusium ; the membrane covering the

sorus.

4. The nodes and internodes of the rhizome.

5. The growing point at the end of the rhizome.
/Sketch, slioioing these parts.

II. The rhizome.

1. Cut one end smooth with a razor and sketch the

cut surface as seen with the naked eye.
(a) The outer brownish layer : epidermis and
subepidermis (sclerotic parenchyma); the

7

8 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

subepidermis thinner at the lateral
ridges.

(b) The light-colored ground- substance or

fundamental parenchyma, forming most of
the stem.

(c) The dark interrupted ring of sclerenchyma

(sclerotic prosenchyma).

(d) Small patches of sclerenchyma outside

the main ring.

(e) Yellowish tissue (fibrovascular bundles)

lying ID side and outside the ring of
sclerenchyma.

2. Cut a small piece of rhizome in a longitudinal

vertical plane.
Find on the cut surface (a), (6), (c), (d), (e\ in

II. 1.
Sketch.

3. Cut a thin transverse section of rhizome, mount

in water, and examine with the low power.
Find the different kinds of tissues, as in II. 1,

(a), (6), (c), (d), (e).

Make a diagram to show the outlines of the different
regions.

4. Treat the section with iodine and observe the

result. To treat with iodine put a drop or two
of iodine on the slide close to the cover-glass,
and on the opposite side of the cover-glass draw
away the water from under the cover-glass ivith
a small piece of filter-paper.

FERN. 9

5. Examine a prepared stained transverse sec-
tion of rhizome. Study with the high
power.

(a) Find again the tissues in II. 1, (a), (6), (c),
"(a)" The epidermis: a single layer of cells

with very thick walls ; the subepi-
dermis (sclerotic parenchyma) : with
thick-walled cells.

" (&)" The fundamental parenchyma : large
thin-walled cells with protoplasm,
nucleus, and starch-grains.

" (c)" Sclerotic prosenchyma : smaller cells

with thick walls.
Sketch a few cells of each kind.

(b) In the fibrovascular bundle note :

1. On the outside a single layer of

flattened cells with brownish walls
and apparently empty (bundle-
sheath).

2. Within the bundle-sheath a layer of

parenchymatous cells containing
starch (phloem-sheath).

3. Within the phloem-sheath is the

phloem, consisting of :

(a) Small cells with thick walls (bast-

fibres).

(b) A single row of large thin- walled

cells (sieve-tubes or bast- vessels).

(c) Small thin-walled cells lying be-

10 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

tween (a) and (5), and contain-
ing starcli (phloem-parenchyma).
4. Within the phloem is the xylem or
wood. !N- te :

(a) Large eir tj vessels with thick

walls (tracheids).

(b) Small vessels (tracheae).

(c) Small parenc '-cells contain-

ing starch, i spaces between
the angles of vessels (wood-pa-
renchyma).
Sketch the outline of a fibrovas<. " bundle and

some cells of each kind in their relation to one

another.

6. In a prepared longitudinal sec. •• find the

kinds of cells just seen in tra sec-

tion.
Sketch.

7. Crush a piece of rhizome that has been v>> >cerated,

and ivith the high power find the var- ^ kinds
of cells now more or less isolated. xS/w. 'eft.
III. The' Leaf.

1. Strip off a piece of the epidermis from th 1wver
side of the leaf, mount in water, and no.

(a) The ordinary epidermis-cells with \v

outlines.

(b) The guard-cells, two surrounding each

stoma.
Sketch accurately (much enlarged) two guard-cells,

FERN. 1 1

a few of the ordinary epidermis-cells sur-
rounding.
2. In a prepared vertical section of a leaf note :

(a) The epidermis-cells of upper and lower

surface. Look for stomata and guard-
cells.

(b) Mesophyll-oells containing much chloro-

phyll. These cells are arranged near
the upper surface of the leaf in com-
pact layers, but near the lower surface
they are irregularly placed, with air-
spaces between them.

(c) Transverse or oblique sections of the

fibrovascular bundles.
Sketch a part shoiving (a) and (b).
IV. Asexual Reproductive Organs.

1. Examine a part of the sorus with a low power

without a cover-glass.

It is composed of a number of oval
bodies : the sporangia, covered by the in-
dusium. Sketch.

2. Remove some of the sporangia, mount in water \

examine ivith high poiver, and sketch. Note :

(a) Form : biconvex bodies, borne on short

stalks.

(b) Structure : flat cells, with one row thick-

ened to form a prominent ring (annulus)
around part of the capsule.

12 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

m

(c) Mode of debiscence (look for one that has

opened).
3. Spores. Examine with high power. Note :

(a) Size. (Measure.)

(b) Form.

B. SEXUAL GENERATION. Prothallium.
I. Examine a prothallium with the naked eye or a
hand-lens, then mount in water, and examine
with the lowest power.
Sketch. Turn it over and sketch again.
II. Reproductive organs.

1. Examine the lower surface of the prothallium
with the high power. Note :

(a) Archegonium : a chimney-like structure,

brownish in late stages. In the cavity
at the bottom lies the oosphere. /Sketch.

(b) Antheridium : a rounded projection with

an outer layer of cells containing a few
chlorophyll-grains. In different stages
of development there can be seen in
the centre either a single cell or a num-
ber of smaller cells (mother-cells of
spermatozoids) produced by the divi-
sion of the central cell. The mother-
cells in ripe antheridia contain spirally
coiled bodies (spermatozoids). /Sketch.

EARTHWORM.

LUMBRICUS TERRESTRIS.

A. OBSEEVATIONS ON THE LIVING WORM.

I. Put a living worm upon a sheet of paper on the
laboratory table and observe its shape and
its movements. (Be careful not to let the worm
become dry.)

1. Note tlie changes of form of the anterior and

posterior parts of the body as the worm
moves over the paper. In what way is
this change of shape brought about?

2. With a blunt instrument touch one end and

then the other end of the worm. Which
end is more sensitive ?

3. Note the pulsations in the dorsal blood-

vessel (visible through the skin along the
median dorsal line). What is the direc-
tion of the wave of contraction ?

B. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF THE PRESERVED SPECI-

MEN.*

I. With the worm extended in a dissecting -pan and

covered with water or with iveak alcohol, observe :

1. The division of the body by constrictions

into a number of segments or somites (me-

* For method of preservation, etc., see ' ' General Biology," Sedg-
wick and Wilson, second edition, 1895, pp. 210-213.

13

14 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

tamerism or serial symmetry). Count the
number of somites.

2. Modifications of the somites :

(a) At the extreme anterior end a smoothly-
rounded knob, the prostomium.

(6) Swellings on the ventral side of some of
the somites between the 7th and the
19th, the capsulogenous glands.

(c) Between the 28th and the 87th somites
a swollen region, the clitellum.

3. The anterior and posterior ends are not

alike (antero-posterior differ entiation).

4. The dorsal and ventral sides are unlike

(dorso-ventral differentiation).

5. When the worm is placed with the ventral

side down a longitudinal vertical plane
will divide it into similar right and left
halves (bilateral symmetry).

6. The stiff bristle-like setae: felt by drawing

the worm gently through the fingers.
With the naked eye or a hand-lens note the
arrangement of the setse.

7. The openings to the outside :

(a) The mouth: close to the anterior end on

the ventral side below the prostomium.

(b) The openings of the seminal receptacles:

on each side between the 9th and 10th
and the 10th and llth somites (four
openings; difficult to make out).

EARTHWORM. 15

(c) The openings of the oviducts : one on

each side on the ventral aspect of the
14th somite.

(d) The openings of the vasa deferentia : a

conspicuous slit surrounded by swollen
lips, on each side on the ventral aspect
of the 15th somite.

(e) Dorsal pores : one in each somite after the

first two or three, in the median dorsal
line.

(/) Nephridial openings : one pair in each
somite. (These cannot be seen with the
naked eye.)
(g) The anus : a vertical slit in the posterior

(the anal) somite.

Make two enlarged drawings (X 3 or X 4) of
the anterior end, a dorsal and a ventral
view, showing the first forty somites ; and a
sketch of the posterior end, dorsal aspect,
showing the last ten somites.

C. ANATOMY.

I. Extend a freslily killed worm dorsal side upper-
most in a dissect ing -pan and fasten it to the wax
by a pin at each end (the anterior pin through
the prostomium only). Cover the worm with
50 per cent, alcohol. With fine scissors cut care-
fully through the dorsal body-ivall a little to one
side of the median line. Note :

16 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

1. The body-wall consisting of three layers :

(a) The cuticle.

(b) The hypodermis.

(c) The muscular layer.

2. The space between the body-wall and the

alimentary canal, the body-cavity or ccelom.

3. The thin muscular partitions (dissepiments)

which divide the ccelom into a series of

compartments.

II. Cut through the dissepiments on the left side close
to the body-ivall ; spread out the body -wall and pin
it to the wax (putting the pins in obliquely). Sim-
ilarly for the right side. Note :

1. The alimentary canal : a straight tube extend-

ing throughout the whole length of the
body.

2. The nephridia : delicate, whitish bodies at-

tached by one end to the posterior side of
a dissepiment, and by the other end to the
ventral body- wall ; one on each side of the
alimentary canal in each somite.

3. The seminal vesicles : three pairs of white

bodies lying partly at the sides of the
alimentary canal and partly above it, be-
tween the 9th and the 12th somites.

4. The dorsal blood-vessel : a long tube lying

upon the dorsal side of the alimentary
canal. It gives off :
(a) The aortic arches: five pairs of large

EARTHWORM. IT

contractile vessels that pass down
around the digestive tract in somites
7 to 11.

(b) Smaller circular vessels : some passing
into the walls of the intestine, others
along the dissepiments into the body-
wall.
5. The parts of the alimentary canal :

(a) The buccal pouch : an eversible sac into

which the mouth-opening leads. (It
lies in somites 1 and 2, and should not
be dissected out until after the nervous
s}-stem has been studied. See C. II.

7, (/)-)

(b) The pharynx : an elongated thick-walled

pouch extending from the 2d to the 7th
somite. Numerous small muscles con-
nect it to the body-wall.

(c) The oesophagus : a thin-walled tube much

smaller in diameter than the pharynx,
extending from the 6th to the 15th
somite. (More distinctly seen when
being taken out ; C. II. 6.)

(d) The crop : a thin-walled dilatation of the

alimentary canal at about the 16th
somite.

(e) The gizzard : a thick-walled muscular sac

at about the 17th somite.
(/) The stomach-intestine : a thin-walled tube

18 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

extending from the gizzard to the anus.
It is expanded into lateral pouches or
diverticula in each somite.
(g) The chloragogue cells : the yellowish-brown
pigmented layer covering the outside
of the stomach-intestine.

Make a diagrammatic sketch (X 4) of the parts
included under C. II. 1 to 5 (g).
(h) Open the crop, the gizzard, and the stomach-

intestine by a lateral cut.

Examine the character of the wall of each,
and note in the stomach-intestine the thick
longitudinal ridge, the typhlosole, which
projects into the intestinal cavity from its
dorsal side.
Make a diagram of the stomach-intestine as it would

appear in transverse section.
6. The reproductive organs.

[To see the reproductive organs, cut until fine scis-
sors through the alimentary canal close behind
the gizzard, and holding the cut end of the
gizzard with fine forceps, raise it carefully and
cut through the attachment of the dissepiments
(disturbing them as little as possible); cut the
alimentary canal across behind the 6th somite
and remove the entire oesophagus.]
In taking out the oesophagus look in the llth
and 12th somites for three pairs of calcifer-

EARTHWORM. 19

ous glands: small pouches attached to the
sides of the oesophagus.
Observe :

(a) The seminal vesicles : three pairs of rela-

tively large, opaque white bodies lying
at the sides of the oesophagus. In the
mature worm the posterior pair grow
together, forming a posterior median
vesicle lying ventral to the alimentary
canal in the llth somite ; and the two
anterior pairs in a similar way form
one anterior median vesicle in the 10th
somite. Cut off the tip of one of the
vesicles, mount in water on a slide, and
examine with the high power. Look
for different stages in the development
of the spermatozoa. (Cf. " General
Biology," Sedgwick and Wilson, second
edition, p. 77.)

(b) The funnels ("ciliated rosettes") of the

vasa deferentia (seen in the mature
worm by carefully opening the median
seminal vesicles) : two pairs of rosette-
like bodies with opaque white borders
in the 10th and llth somites.

(c) The vasa deferentia: four fine ducts run-

ning posteriorly from the four funnels.
The two of the same side unite in the
12th somite to form a single duct on

20 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

each side, which runs back and opens
to the outside in the 15th somite.

(d) The testes : four small, opaque white

bodies with, finger-like lobes, attached
one on each side of the median line to
the posterior side of the dissepiments
9-10 and 10-11. In the mature speci-
men they are enclosed by the median
seminal vesicles.

(e) The seminal receptacles : two pairs of white,

rounded sacs in the 9th and 10th
somites. Their short ducts open to
the outside in the constrictions be-
tween the 9th and 10th and the 10th
and 11 th somites, respectively.

(/*) The ovaries: two pear-shaped bodies at-
tached to the anterior wall of the 13th
somite, one on each side of the median
line.

(g) The oviducts: two short, funnel-shaped
tubes passing through the dissepiment
between the 13th and 14th somites, one
on each side of the median line. They
appear often as thickenings of the dis-
sepiment.
Make an enlarged diagram of the reproductive

organs.
7. The nervous system.

Central nervous system. Observe:

-EARTHWORM. 21

(a) On the dorsal side of the pharynx in the
2d or 3d somite a pair of pyriform
white bodies united in the median line :
the cerebral ganglia.

(b) From each lobe a nerve-cord, the circum-

cesophageal commissure, passes down at
the side of the pharynx, in the con-
striction between the bnccal sac and
the pharynx, to the suboasophageal gan-
glion (first ventral ganglion) on the lower
side.

(c) From the suboesophageal ganglion a long

double ventral nerve-cord passes poste-
riorly in the mid ventral line.
Peripheral Nervous System.

(d) Two large nerves which run anteriorly

from the cerebral ganglia.

(e) A nerve from each half of the circum-

03sophageal commissure near the union
of the two halves on the ventral side.
(/) Typically three pairs of nerves in each
somite : two pairs arising from the gan-
glion and one pair (septal nerves) from
the cord immediately behind the dis-
sepiment.
Make a diagram (X 6) of the nervous system.

(At this point the buccal sac, C. II. 5. (a), may

be looked for.)

22 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

8. The cuticle.

With forceps strip off under water the cuticle from
the lateral and ventral aspects. Mount it in
ivater on a slide, and examine first ivith a low
and then ivith a high power.

With the low power observe :

(a) The tubular processes of the cuticle torn

from the setae-sacs.
With the high power observe :

(b) The thin transparent membrane not com-

posed of cells. It is traversed by deli-
cate lines and perforated by minute
pores.

9. Before leaving the anatomy of the earth-

worm see a demonstration of a nephridium
from a recently chloroformed worm.
10. Make a drawing ( X 5) of an egg-capsule.

D. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OR HISTOLOGY.
I. Prepared transverse section.

For detailed directions see "General Bi-
ology," Sedgwick and Wilson, second edition,
1895, pages 91 to 95 inclusive.
Make a diagram shotving in outline the different

regions of the section.
Sketch accurately, much enlarged, a portion of the

section a few cells in ividth.

Make an accurate sketch of the cross-section of the
ventral nerve-cord.

EARTHWOEM. 23

II. Prepared longitudinal sections to show the re-
lations of cerebral ganglia, alimentary canal,
circumoesophageal commissure, and ventral
nerve-cord.

1. Section through the median region (cerebral

ganglia, alimentary canal, ventral nerve-
cord).

2. Section at one side of the middle region

(circumoesophageal commissure).
Diagrams in outline !

AMCEBA.

Mount some of the water or sediment containing
amoebae under a large cover-glass. /Search for
them with the low poiver, and when found study
tvith the high poiver. Observe :

I. General Characters.

1. Form : in the motile state characterized
by irregularity and continual change ;
rounded processes (pseudopodia) formed by
the protrusion and the retraction of the
protoplasm.

II. Structure.

1. An outer transparent layer : the ectoplasm.

2. An inner more granular layer : the entoplasm.

3. A spherical or disk-shaped body in the ento-

plasm : the nucleus.

4. A spherical space filled with fluid, disappear-

ing and reappearing at intervals ; the
contractile vacuole, often situated in the
hinder part of the body. If the pulsations
can be readily observed, describe them.

5. Water-vacuoles (not always present) : in the

entoplasm.

6. Food masses in food-vacuoles in the ento-

plasm.
Sketch an amoeba ( X 8 or X 10).

AM(EBA. 25

III. Movements. Observe:

1. The mode of formation of a pseudopodium.

2. The process of locomotion.

3. If possible, the taking in of food and the

passing out of waste matter.
Make a series of outline sketches at regular intervals
to show the changes of form.

4. The effect of higher temperatures on the

movements of an amoeba. (Heat gradually
on a warm stage* Record the result.)

IV. [Reproduction.

If an amoeba be found dividing by fission, ob-
serve and sketch it.
Y. Chemical and Mechanical Tests.

1. Treat with magenta or iodine. Record the

result.

2. Crush a stained specimen. Describe the result.

* A simple warm stage may be made of sheet copper the width
of a glass slide and several times its length, with a hole pierced
an inch and a half from one end to correspond to the aperture of
the diaphragm. To use the stage, place it on the stand of the mi-
croscope and fasten the slide down upon it with the microscope-
clips. To heat the copper, place a lighted alcohol-lamp under the
free end. A simple method of determining when the temperature
of the slide has reached approximately 38 degrees is to place upon
it a small fragment of paraffine that has been mixed with suffi-
cient benzole to reduce its melting-point to the desired degree.

WHITE BLOOD-CORPUSCLES.

A. Mount under a cover -glass supported by a piece of

hair or a bristle a drop of blood obtained by prick-
ing the finger near the root of the nail with a fine
needle. Surround the margin of the cover-glass
with vaseline. Make the preparation as quickly
as possible in order that it may not dry.
Disregard the colored corpuscles and look for the
less frequent white ones. Observe :

I. General Characters.

1. Form : irregularly rounded ; changes occur
as in amoeba, but more slowly.

II. Structure.

1. Granular protoplasm.

2. Nucleus (rarely visible in the fresh state).
Sketch.

III. Movements.

Place the preparation on a loarm stage and heat
gradually to 38 degrees C. Record the result.

B. Mount in the same way corpuscles of the codomic

fluid of the earthworm. This may be obtained
by exposing the worm for a moment to the
vapor of chloroform, when the fluid will exude
through the dorsal pores j touch a cover-glass to
the fluid and instantly mount.

Note the shape, and changes of form that may
occur.

Sketch,

H/EMATOCOCCUS.

A. KESTING STAGE.*

Mount on a slide some sediment containing hcema-
tococcus that has been soaked for a feiv hours
in water. Cover and examine with a low power.
Find :

I. External Characters.

1. Red or green spherical cells.
With a high power observe :

2. Size. (Measure.)

3. Form.

4. Color : red, green, or in some cells both red

and green.

II. Structure.

1. Colorless cell-wall.

2. Cell-contents: more or less granular; con-

sisting of protoplasm, a centrally situated
nucleus and superficial chromatophores in
which the coloring matter is deposited.
(The outlines of the chromatophores are
difficult to distinguish in the living state.
The nucleus is more easily seen in the

* Haematococcus can sometimes- be found in old marble urns.
When once obtained the same supply will last for a number of
years. It should be wet each year with spring-water, and is be-
lieved to flourish better if a little powdered marble is added.

27

28 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

smaller, green form, Pleurococcus. See
below.)
Sketch (X 6).

3. Look for cells whose contents are undergoing

endogenous division. Sketch.

4. Treat with iodine. What structures show

more clearly?

5. Crush the cells by pressure on the cover-glass.

Note the unstained cell-walls, and the cell-
contents stained brownish yellow with iodine
(showing the presence of protoplasm).
B. MOTILE STAGE : Zoospores.

(These develop from forms in the resting stage
that have been in water for a number of hours.)
Study tvith a high power. Observe :
I. Larger motile forms : macrozoospores.

1. Form : pear-shaped.

2. Color.

3. Structure.

(a) Thin colorless cell-wall.

(b) Central protoplasmic mass separated from

cell-wall by clear space. Through the
clear space delicate protoplasmic threads
extend from the central mass to the
inner surface of the cell-wall (probably
to a thin layer of protoplasm lining
the cell-wall).

From the colorless apex of the proto-
plasm two processes pass to the pointed

HuflMATOCOCCUS. 29

end of the cell-wall. They are con-
tinued beyond it as rapidly vibrating
flagella.

(c) Nucleus (not visible in living specimen).

(d) Chromatophores.

4. Movements. Note :

(a) Active locomotion.

(b) The rotation of an individual on its own

axis.

(c) The movements of the flagella. (Try to

find a specimen whose movements have
become so slow that the flagella may be
seen.)

5. Stain with iodine. Look for the flagella.
Sketch (X 6).

II. Smaller motile forms : microzoospores. Like the
macrozoospores except in regard to size and
cell-wall, etc.
Sketch (X 6).

PLEUKOCOCCUS.

Soak in water for a few hours pieces of bark, etc.,
that have a green powdery coating or discolora-
tion. Remove some of the green layer with the
point of a scalpel, mount in ivater, and study
ivith a high power. Look for :

1. Nucleus.

2. Individuals multiplying by cell-division.
Sketch.

PARAMCECIUM.

Mount a small drop of ivater containing Para-
mcecia under a supported cover-glass. Examine
first with AA%, and observe where they are most
quiet ; then study with D 2.

I. General Characters.

1. Form : elongated, flattened, slipper-shaped ;

the anterior end rounded, the posterior
pointed.

2. Movements : by means of cilia over the entire

surface.

3. On the ventral or oral surface an oblique

funnel-shaped depression (vestibule) which
leads to the mouth. Note the direction of
the cilia in the vestibule.

4. A blind sac opening into the vestibule by the

mouth ; the oesophagus.

5. At a definite point posterior to the blind end

of the oesophagus, the anal spot, where
waste matters are at times passed out from
the body.

II. Structure.

1. Ectoplasm : the sharply defined outer layer,
with a delicate surrounding membrane, the
cuticle.

30

PARAMCECIUM. 31

2. Entoplasm : the more granular, inner portion.

3. At the base of the vestibule the mouth-open-

ing leads into a blind pouch, the oesophagus,
through whose posterior wall the food
passes into the entoplasm.

4. Food-vacuoles : spherical spaces in the ento-

plasm containing water and food-particles.

5. Water-vacuoles.

6. Contractile vacuoles : one near the anterior and

the other near the posterior end. (Study
carefully, and sketch in two or three stages.)

7. Nucleus : an oval body near the centre of

the cell (not always visible in the living
state), the macronucleus ; close to this the
micronucleus.
/Sketch a Paramcecium, much enlarged.

III. Movements.

1. Currents in the entoplasm : made evident by

changes in the position of the food-vacuoles
and the water-vacuoles.

2. Action of the cilia. (To see the currents pro-

duced by the cilia in the surrounding water
introduce under the cover-glass a small quan-
tity of powdered carmine. )

Make a diagram of the animal, and indicate by
means of arrows the course of the currents.

IV. Reproduction.

Sketch any specimens you may find dividing by
fission or conjugating.

32 GENERAL BIO LOOT.

V. Chemical Experiments.

Treat with 2 per cent, acetic acid; observe:
macronucleus, micronucleus, and tricho-
cysts.
To see the cilia, treat with dilute iodine.

VORTICELLA.

Mount in water a fragment of a submerged leaf or
other substance to which vorticelloe are attached.
Examine first with AA 2. Observe form and
movements. Look for a quiet specimen and study
with D 2. When it is extended, observe :

General Characters.

1. Form : bell-shaped. The bell attached by

its smaller end to a stalk.

2. Parts:

(a) The conspicuous rim, the peristome, sur-

rounding :

(b) The disk : which closes the mouth of the

bell.

(c) Part of the disk raised above the peri-

stome at one side, the epistome.

(d) Cilia : bordering the peristome and the

epistome.

(e) A space between the peristome and the

epistome, the vestibule.

(/) The mouth : opening from the vestibule
into :

(g) The oesophagus.

(h) A definite region of the vestibule, the
anal spot, through which waste matter is
passed out from the body (visible only at
the time of passing out of waste matter).

33

34 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

II. Structure.

1. The thin transparent external layer, the

cuticle.

2. The finely granular layer next to the cuticle,

the ectoplasm.

3. The central portion, the entoplasm.

4. Food-vacuoles.

5. Water- vacuoles.

6. The contractile vacuole : generally situated near

the disk.

7. The nucleus : a long slender curved body

(not always visible in the living specimen).

8. The stalk: by which the bell is attached,

consisting of :

(a) An outer transparent sheath continuous

with the cuticle of the bell.

(b) The contractile axial filament, the pro-

longation of the ectoplasm of the bell.
Make a diagrammatic sketch much enlarged.

III. Movements.

1. Of the cilia.

Note the way in which the cilia move, the
currents produced in the water (to see
this draw a few particles of finely pow-
dered carmine under the cover-glass), the
whirling of the carmine particles down
the oesophagus.

2. Of the entoplasm : made evident by the

carrying around of food-vacuoles, etc.

VORTIGELLA. 35

3. Of the animal as a whole.

(a) Method of contraction of stalk and of

disk.

(b) Mode of extension of contracted animal.
Make a diagram of an expanded and of a con-
tracted animal and label corresponding parts.

Make diagrams of stalk (a) in extended state ;

(b) when contracted.
IV. Reproduction.
Search for :

1. Specimens dividing by fission.

2. Motile forms. When found study with D 2.

Observe the secondary band of cilia. Look
for the contractile vacuole.

3. Conjugation : the union of a small motile

individual with a larger sedentary form.
Y. Chemical Experiment.

1. Stain with iodine ; record the result.

YEAST.

SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIJE.

Put upon a slide a drop of liquid that contains
actively growing yeast (e.g. brewer's yeast or
compressed yeast in Pasteur's fluid], cover and
examine, with a low power. Note :

I. General Characters.

1. Aggregations of cells into groups.

2. In the larger individuals protuberances par-

tially constricted off, buds.
Study ivitli a high power, and observe :

3. Form.

4. Mode of union.

5. Size. (Measure.)

II. Structure.

1. Cell-wall.

2. Cell-contents.

(a) Protoplasm (cytoplasm) : granular, with

shining spherules.

(b) Nucleus (not visible in the living state.

See demonstration of prepared speci-
men*).

(c) Yacuoles : note the number and size.
Sketch (X 10).

* For methods of staining, etc., see "General Biology," by
Sedgwick and Wilson, second edition, 1895, p. 219.

36

YEAST. 37

III. Reproduction.

1. Soiv a few cells of freshly moistened compressed

yeast in a few drops of Pasteur's fluid on a

slide. Cover, and examine with a high power.

Compare the structure of the cells with that

of growing yeast.
Sketch.

Put the slide on a zinc rack, stand the rack in a
dish containing half an inch of water, and cover
with a bell-jar (inoist chamber).
Examine from day to day to see multiplication
by budding. (Gemmation.)

2. Examine with a high power yeast-cells in which

ascospores have been formed. (Endogenous
Division.)
Sketch.

IV. Chemical Experiments.

1. Mount in water on a slide a very small

amount of powdered starch. Look at it with
a low power. Draw iodine solution under
the cover-glass. Look again ; note the
effect of iodine solution upon starch.

2. In the same way treat yeast upon the slide

with iodine. What inference is to be
drawn as to the presence of starch loithin
the yeast-cell ?

3. Treat another specimen of yeast with magenta

solution. What parts of the yeast plant are
stained ?

38 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

4. Crush the cells stained with magenta by press-
ing forcibly on the cover-glass with the
handle of scalpel or needle-holder. What
details of structure (see above, II. 1 and 2)
are visible after crushing ? Does the ma-
genta affect all parts of the cell equally ?
Y. Physiology.

1. Put a large drop of yeast into each of three

test-tubes (previously labelled) containing

(a) Distilled water ;

(b) Pasteur's fluid without sugar ;

(c) Pasteur's fluid with sugar.

Stop the tubes with cotton and keep side by
side. Examine the tubes from day to day
with the naked eye. Record the result and
explain.

2. Put a drop of yeast into each of two test-tubes

of the same size (previously labelled) con-
taining equal amounts of Pasteur's fluid
with sugar. Stop both well with cotton.
Boil one for five minutes. Keep them side
by side. Examine the tubes with the naked
eye from day to day. Record the result
and the explanation.

PENICILLIUM.

Observe Penicillium growing upon bread in a moist
aim osphere. * Note :

I. General Characters.

Velvety-looking surface, — white in young
specimens, — dull bluish green in older
stages.

Touch a mass of Penicillium spores ivith a needle-
point, and dip the needle-point into a drop
of water upon a slide. Cover, and examine
with a low and then ivith a high power.
Note :

Size. (Measure.)
Form.

In the same way sow some spores in Pasteur's
fluid in a watch-glass. Put the watch-glass into
a moist chamber. With a hand -lens watch
the development of the mycelium from day to
day.

II. Structure.

Examine germinating spores (sown twenty-four
hours previously in a vessel of Pasteur's fluid).

Observe and sketch a series of stages in the germina-
tion of the spores, noting :

* To obtain Penicillium, keep a cut lemon for a few days in a
moist atmosphere.

39

40 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

1. Formation of hyphae.

(a) Cell-wall.

(b) Protoplasm.

(c) Vacuoles.

(d) Fat-drops.

Mount in water a portion of mycelium from bread.
Observe :

2. Hyphse.

(a) Division into cells.

(b) Mode of branching. From what part of

a cell does a branch arise ?

(c) Vacuoles.
Sketch.

III. Keproduction.

Aerial hyphse and conidiophores.
Tease out in ivater some of the mycelium from a
specimen that has become only slightly green.
Observe :
1. Erect hyphse, each consisting of :

(a) Primary erect hypha.

(b) Branches. (Terminal branches : basidia

or sterigmata.)

(c) Constrictions of the terminal branches :

spores (conidia). At which end of the
chain are the conidia larger? At
which end are they first formed ?
Sketch.

LICHEN.

I. External Characters.

Examine ivith the naked eye the thallus of a green
foliaceous lichen — e.g., Parmelia — that has been
moistened tuith loater for several hours. Observe :

1. Form.

2. Color.
Sketch afeiv lobes.

With a scalpel carefully separate part of a thallus
from the substratum. Observe :

3. The difference in color between the two sides.
Place the specimen uncovered on a slide, the lower

surface uppermost, and examine with AA 2 by
reflected light. Observe:

4. Ehizoids. (Many will have been broken off

and only their bases will show.)

II. Structure.
1. Sections.

With a razor make sections through the thick part
of a thallus ; or, the specimen may be rolled up
closely and, cross -sections of the roll may be made.
Mount (in ivater) so as to shoiv the cut surface.
Examine with A A 2 in strong reflected light
Observe :

(a) A thin white superficial layer : the upper

cortical layer.

(b) A green layer : gonidial layer.

41

42 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

(c) A thick, pure white layer : medullary

layer.

(d) A dark-colored, external layer : lower

cortical layer.

Sketch.

2. Place a small piece of the thallus in water on a
slide and tear it apart ivith needles as com-
pletely as possible. Cover and examine ivith
D 2. Observe :

(a) The hyphse. Disregard the broken frag-

ments and search for specimens in their
natural condition.

(b) The gonidia. Observe : .

Cell wall.

Chlorophyll.

Nucleus (not always visible).
Sketch a few hyphse and gonidia to show their
form, their relative size, and the manner in
which they are connected.

MUSHROOM.

I. External Characters.

Note':

1. The vertical stalk, or stipe.

2. The umbrella-like cap, the pileus.

3. The ring, or annulus, around the stalk, the

remains of the membrane, the velum, con-
necting the pileus with the stipe and torn
by the extension of the pileus.

4. The underground mycelium from which the

stipe arises.

5. On the lower surface of the pileus radiating

vertical plates or lamellae.
Sketch.

II. Structure.

Tease out in ivater a piece of the stalk.

1. Note the hyphge of which it is composed.
Sketch.

Examine under the low poiver the surface of a
lamella.

2. Note the spores ; sometimes in groups of,

four.

Cut in pith cross-sections of a lamella.
Note:

3. The centre of the lamella, made up of hyphae

running parallel to the surface.

43.

44 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

4. The surface of the lamella consisting of

hyphse at right angles to the surface.

5. The swollen ends of many of the hyphse bear

four small awl-like points, the sterigmata,

each with a single spore.
Sketch.

Tease out in water some of the underground
mycelium.

6. Note the hyphae.
Sketch.

BACTKRIA.

PRELIMINARY.

Mix some India ink or jmely powdered gam-
boge with water and examine a drop with a
high power.

Note that when the currents in the water have
ceased the particles of gamboge do not move
from place to place.

Now observe the vibration or oscillation of the
lifeless particles (Brownian movement).

BACTERIA.

I. Active Bacteria.

Examine with the highest power a drop of hay
infusion or of other liquid containing active
'bacteria. Observe :

1. Form.

2. Size. (Measure).

3. Structure. ( What points of structure are vis-

ible ?)

4. Movements.

(a) Brownian movement.

(b) Active movement from place to place.
Treat with iodine.

Does the iodine bring out any details of
structure. What is its effect upon the
movements of the bacteria?

45

46 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

II. Resting Bacteria — Zooglsea Stage.

Examine the scum (zodglcea) from the surface of
hay or of other infusions, or of aquaria, etc.
Observe :

The multitudes of motionless bacteria im-
bedded in a gelatinous substance.

III. Cover-glass Preparation.

With the forceps hold a perfectly clean cover-glass
nearly horizontal and bring its lower side just
into contact with the surface of the liquid con-
taining bacteria (the best results are from a
scum that is only just visible). Put the cover -
glass, wet side uppermost, on a piece of filter-
paper slightly inclined in order that the water
may drain off. When the cover-glass is dry,
pass it quickly three times through a flame y
put a drop of methyl violet upon the cover-
glass j after three or four minutes rinse off
with distilled water; invert the cover-glass
upon a drop of water on a slide and examine
with a high power. Observe :
The deeply stained bacteria.
The differences in form and size.

Sketch a few of each form.
IY. Experiments.

1 . Clean a potato thoroughly, sterilize it in steam
for an hour, and cut it lengthwise into halves
with a knife sterilized in the flame of
a Bunsen burner. Put the halves on a

BACTERIA. 47

sterilized glass plate and expose the cut sur-
face to the air for an hour. A.t the end of
this time cover with a hell-jar that has been
sterilized, and put under this some (steril-
ized) liquid to make a moist atmosphere.

Examine from day to day for ten days or

two weeks. Record results and explanation.

Put some freshly-made hay infusion into

e/ «/ *7 t/

three (previously labelled) test-tubes (a), (b),
(c). Stop them securely with cotton.

(a) To be set aside.

(b) To be boiled once for 3-5 minutes.

(c) To be boiled for 3—5 minutes three or

four times at intervals of nine or
ten hours.

Keep all three side by side. Watch carefully
for any changes that may appear. Describe
briefly, with explanation.

SPIROGYRA.*

I. General Characters.

Observe with the naked eye. Note :

1. Floating masses consisting of long, fine, green

threads.
Take between the fingers and note the smooth,

slippery feeling.
J^fount a small quantity , in water on a slide , cover ,

and examine with a low power. Note :

2. Unbranched filaments.

(a) The shape of the cells.

(b) The way in which they are joined.

(c) The difference between the terminal

cell and the other cells of the fila-
ment.
With a high power observe :

3. The form of the cells composing the filament.

Focus carefully and determine what geo-
metrical form the cell most resembles.

II. Structure.

With D 2 examine :

1. The cell-wall, (Which part is common to two

cells ?)

2. The protoplasm.

* Spirogyra can often be found in slowly-running streams or
floating in the water of quiet pools.

48

SP1ROGTRA. 49

(a) Thin colorless layer lining the cell-wall,

primordial utricle.
To see the primordial utricle better, treat with 5

per cent, or 10 per cent, salt solution. Watch

carefully and observe :
The contraction of the primordial utricle away

from the cell-wall (Plasmolysis). Sketch.
With afresh specimen observe :

(b) One or more green bands, generally

with jagged edges, imbedded in the
primordial utricle : the chromato-
phore.

Changing the focus slowly, follow the band from
one end of the cell to the other.

What is its length compared with that
of the cell ? How is it arranged ?

(c) Biconvex disk-shaped bodies in the

chromatophore : pyrenoids.

(d) Near the centre of the cell a small mass

of protoplasm suspended by fine
threads that connect it with the pro-
toplasm lining the cell-wall ; in its
centre is the nucleus, with a large
nucleolus (not always visible in the
unstained specimen).

3. Enclosed by the primordial utricle and oc-
cupying most of the cell-cavity : a large
vacuole.

50 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Sketch a complete cell with half of each adjacent
cell(X 5).

Stain slightly with iodine and carefully re-examine
the cell-structures.

Look again at the different structures of the cell
in preserved specimens stained with borax car-
mine*
I. Reproduction.

Mount in water a group of filaments of conjugating
spirogyra. Examine with D 2.

[There may be present several species of Spi-
rogyra— differing in the number of the chro-
matophores. In addition to Spirogyra other
closely related forms may also be present, —
asMesocarpus and Zygnema, — differing chiefly
in the size of the filament and in the shape
of the chromatophore.]

Search for a series of forms to show the differ-
ent stages in the process of conjugation.

Observe the zygospores: large and oval. [Those
of Zygnema smaller and more rounded.]

In perfect specimens each filament containing
zygospores is connected with a filament with
empty compartments. Find cells whose walls
have just begun to send out a projection from

* To preserve Spirogyra, put it into a saturated aqueous solution
of picric acid for 12 hours. Wash for an equal length of time in
water. Stain for some hours in borax carmine.

SPIROGYRA. 51

the side. What is the relation between the
condition of the cell-contents and the presence
or absence of connecting tubules between two
filaments ?
Sketch a series of stages.

HYDRA,

General Characters.

Look at hydras in an aquarium. Observe that

they are found in greatest number on the

illuminated side. Notice :

1. Form.

2. Color.

3. Movements.

With a glass tube transfer one or more specimens
to a ivatch-glass ; place this on white paper
and examine the hydra with a hand -lens.
Observe :

4. The body : cylindrical and varying in length

and thickness with the degree of extension
of the hydra.
The parts of the body :

(a) The basal part, the foot, by which the

animal adheres to foreign surfaces.

(b) The conical free end, the hypostome.

(c) The opening at the summit of the hypo-

stome, the mouth.

5. Highly contractile processes of the body-wall

arranged around the mouth, the tentacles.
Count them.

Note the symmetrical arrangement of the
tentacles around the mouth — an instance of

52

HYDRA. 53

radial symmetry (the arrangement of " like
parts about an axis from which they ra-
diate ").

6. Buds. (Often present.)
Make simple outline sketches of the hydra when

extended and when contracted.
II. Structure.

Transfer ~by means of a pipette to a slide and
mount in water, supporting the cover-glass at
each side ~by another cover-glass. Study with
AA 2.

Review the parts examined with a hand-lens.
Observe also :

1. The transparent colorless outer layer, the

ectoderm.

2. The inner thicker layer, the entoderm* (green

in H. viridis).

With D 2 examine the character of the ectoderm
(best seen in extended tentacles). Find :

3. The knob-like prominences, the nettle-bat-

teries, f consisting of numerous cnidoblasts
(parent-cells of nematocysts), each with a stiff
projecting process, cnidocil.
Each cnidoblast contains a highly refractive
body enclosing a thread (nematocyst).
Kinds of nematocysts :

* The green hydra shows best the distinction between ectodermal
and entodermal cells, especially when macerated.
\ Best seen in the brown hydra.

54: GENERAL BIOLOGY.

(a) Large, often occupying the centre of the

nettle-battery.

(b) Smaller and more numerous, surround-

ing (a).

When a tentacle is in focus under A A 2, draw a
few drops of magenta under the cover-glass.
Observe :

The discharge of the threads.
With D 2 find the threads, and also note in
the surrounding water discharged nemato-
cysts.

(a) The larger rounded cysts do not become

colored.
Note:

The barbs.

The long finely tapering thread.

(b) The smaller oval nematocysts stain

deeply. Note :

The shorter, thicker thread.
Sketch both kinds of nematocysts.
III. Histology.
A. Isolated Cells.

Tease out in dilute glycerine a hydra that has
been macerated and slightly stained.* Examine
the fragments with the highest power in a strong

* To macerate, put for a few minutes into a mixture of glacial
acetic acid 1 part, glycerine 1 part, water 2-4 parts (the method
of Bela Haller), and stain in an aqueous solution of methyl-
green.

HYDRA. 55

light. Search for the following kinds of cells, and
sketch those clearly observed :

1. Entoderm-cells, of very transparent proto-

plasm, containing in H. viridis numbers of
Zoochlorella cells.

2. Interstitial cells : small angular granular

cells with distinct nuclei :

3. Cnidoblasts containing nematoeysts ; look

for the cnidocil and the nucleus.

4. Large ectoderm-cells : pale cells with large

nuclei ; the bases drawn out into muscular
processes.

5. Nerve-cells : small granular cells with long

branches and distinct nuclei.

6. Gland - cells (entodermal) : columnar cells

with distinct nuclei and foam-like, granu-
lar protoplasm.
B. Prepared Sections.*

With AA 2 observe in transverse section :

1. General form.

2. Ectoderm.

3. Entoderm.

4. Supporting lamella.

* For sections the hydras may be immobilized in a .25 per cent,
aqueous solution of hydroxylamin in from fifteen to sixty min-
utes, and then preserved in picro-acetic acid ; or they may be
killed instantly in the extended state in a few drops of water in
a watch-glass by pouring upon them hot, saturated aqueous solu-
tion of corrosive sublimate. Fine preparations may also be made
fiom hvdras preserved in osmic acid.

56 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Make an outline sketch of the section, omitting
cell-details.
With D 2 study the cell-structures as far as

they can be made out.
In the ectoderm :

(a) Large vacuolated ectoderm-cells ; the nu-

clei can be seen in some sections.

(b) Between the large ectoderm-cells rows of

smaller deeply stained cells, the inter-
stitial cells. Many of these are devel-
oping into :

(c) Cnidoblasts.

(d) A row of minute bodies like dots lying

along the outer side of the support-
ing lamella : sections of the contractile
processes of the large ectoderm-cells.

Between ectoderm and entoderm the thin,
structureless, supporting lamella.

In the entoderm :

(e) A single layer of large, much vacuolated

cells. (What is the explanation of the
appearance in the section of several
layers of cells ?)
(/) Small gland-cells among the ordinary

entodermal cells.
/Sketch accurately part of the section a few cells in

width.
Longitudinal Section.

HYDRA. 57

Note the central cavity enclosed by a wall
consisting of two layers separated by a
lamella.
Make a diagrammatic sketch.

Find again the cells seen in transverse sec-
tion.

FRESH-WATER MUSSEL*

ANODON.

A. General Characters.

I. Bivalve shell enclosing the animal, the valves

fastened together by a hinge along one — the

dorsal — side.

1. Straight dorsal side.

2. Curved ventral side.

3. Anterior end wide and rounded.

4. Posterior end narrower and more pointed.

5. The bivalve shell bilaterally symmetrical.

6. Concentric lines, lines of growth of the shell.
Diagram !

Force apart the valves of the shell about half an
inch and insert a loedge. Find :

7. The mantle, lining each valve of the shell.
With the handle of a scalpel separate the mantle

from the right valve. Find :

8. The adductor muscles.

With a strong scalpel cut through the attachment
of the muscles on the right side close to the

* Living mussels are advertised by some of the dealers in Jabo
ratory supplies. For preservation they should be put for twenty-
four hours into 70 per cent, alcohol (which is reduced to a much
lower per cent, by the water inside the shell), then changed to 70
per cent, alcohol for twenty-four hours, and kept permanently in
80 per cent, alcohol.

58

FRESH-WATER MUSSEL. 59

shell. Remove the right valve. On Us inner
surface find:
9. The Hue of attachment of mantle to shell.

10. Impressions of muscle-attachments.
Near the anterior end :

(a) A large impression made by the anterior

adductor and the anterior retractor mus-
cles.

(b) A. small impression near'(a), that of the

protractor muscle.
Near the posterior end :

(c) A large impression, of the posterior adduc-

tor and the posterior retractor muscles.
As the mussel lies on the left valve, find :

11. The muscles whose impressions have been

seen in 10. Observe :

12. The mantle enclosing the other parts of the

animal.

13. The edges of the mantle closely applied ex-

cept at the posterior extremity, where they
separate to leave two orifices ;

(a) A smaller dorsal opening (through which
water passes out), the exhalent aperture.

(b) A larger opening more ventral (through

which water enters), the inhalent aperture.
Diagram !

Insert a bristle into each opening, and tlien raising
the flap of the mantle see :

14. Inserted into the more ventral opening it

60 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

passes into tlie space between the flaps of
the mantle, the pallia! or mantle-cavity.

15. Inserted into the dorsal opening it enters the

cloacal chamber and passing forward enters
the mantle-cavity.

In the mantle-cavity find the following struc-
tures :

16. Inside of the mantle on each side two gills or

branchiae.

17. Projecting ventrally near the anterior end,

the thick foot, continued dorsally as the
visceral mass.

18. Attached to the mantle anterior to the gills

two triangular folds on each side, the
labial palps.

The gills, the foot, and the labial palps all
hang down in the mantle-cavity. By the
union of the inner gills in the posterior
median line a partition is formed that
divides the posterior part of the man tie -
cavity into two :

The large ventral branchial chamber.

The smaller dorsal suprabranchial chamber.

The posterior end of this forms the cloacal

chamber.
Pass a bristle again into the cloacal chamber,

through the suprabranchial chamber, and into

the branchial chamber.

FRESH- WATER MUSSEL. 61

II. External Openings.

1. The labial palps are united at their bases to

form ridge-like anterior and posterior lips.
Between these is the mouth.

2. On either side of the visceral mass near the

attachment of the gills is a small genital
opening.

3. Close to 2, slightly more dorsal, is the ex-

cretory opening.

4. On the dorsal side of the cloacal chamber

close to its external opening is the anus.
Make a diagram of the animal as it would be seen if

the mantle-flap of one side were absent.
B. Anatomy.
I. Circulatory System.

On the dorsal side of the body immediately
in front of the posterior adductor muscle
is the pericardial cavity with thin semi-
transparent walls.

Gut with fine scissors through the thin wall a little
to the right of the median dorsal line, taking care
not to cut deeper, thus exposing :

1. The pericardial cavity. It contains :

2. The heart.

(a) In the median line the opaque, muscular

ventricle.

(b) Into the ventricle opens on each side a

thin-walled auricle. The auricles are
funnel-shaped with the narrow end at-

62 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

tached to the ventricle and the broader
end to the dorsal border of the gills.
3. The vena cava running parallel to the heart
under the floor of the pericardial cavity ; it
will be seen later (C. II.) in section.
Note the rectum passing posteriorly from the

posterior end of the heart.
Make a diagram of the heart.

II. Excretory System.

In the anterior angle of the pericardial cavity
on each side is a minute pore, the internal
opening of the excretory organ, the organ
of Bojanus, the dark mass on each side
beneath the floor of the pericardial cavity,
(For the external opening of the excretory
organ see A. II. 3.)

III. Nervous System.

Remove the mussel from the shell , place it dorsal
side down, and cut through the partition between
the 'branchial and the cloacal chambers. See :
1. Close to the ventral side of the posterior ad-
ductor, the visceral or parieto-splanchnic gan-
glion.

Gently strip off the thin skin covering the
ganglion, and find the chief nerves given off
from it :

(a) The posterior pallial nerve.

(b) The lateral pallial nerve.

(c) The branchial nerve.

FRESH- WATER MUSSEL. 63

(d) A nerve passing forward on each side of
the middle line, the cerebro-splanchnic
commissure. Trace one forward through
the body to the :

2. Cerebral ganglion of that side, lying close

beneath the skin at the base of the labial
palps immediately in front of the protractor
muscle.

Find the cerebral ganglion of the other side,
and the commissure connecting the two
across the mid-line around the dorsal side
of the mouth.

3. Deeply-buried in the foot along the plane of

its junction with the visceral mass, the
pedal ganglia, closely connected by a trans-
verse commissure.

They may be found by making with a razor a

median vertical section of the foot, or by following

the commissure from the cerebral ganglion of one

side.

Find the commissures connecting pedal and cerebral

ganglia.

Make a diagram of the nervous system.
IV. The Digestive System.

Insert a small blunt instrument into the mouth.
With this as a guide open the alimentary canal
ivithjine scissors. Observe:
1. The mouth.

64 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

2. The oesophagus ; a short straight tube ex-

tending obliquely upward to :

3. The stomach : a dilatation of the alimentary

canal.

(The intestine passes with many turns through
the visceral mass, and will be seen later in
sections.)

In ike same way open the rectum frown the anus,
and trace its course through the pericardia!
cavity.

Look for the typhlosole.
V. The Gills.

1. Take out one of the gills, cut it transversely,

and examine the cut edge with a hand-lens.

2. Examine with the low and then with the high

power a small piece of one lamella.

3. In some specimens the outer gills are dis-

tended with young mussels (glochidia). If
these can be obtained, mount and examine
with a low and with a high power.
C. Sections.

Remove the shell from a second specimen, place
the mussel on its side upon the wax in a dis-
secting-pan, and with a razor make sections a
quarter of an inch thick. A.rrange the sections
in order, fastening each in place with a piny
and cover them with water.
Study especially the following sections :

FRESH- WATER MUSSEL. 65

I. Through the pedal ganglia.

Find the stomach, digestive gland, labial palps,
foot, and mantle.

II. Through the heart.

Find the ventricle, the rectum with the typh-
losole, auricles, organ of Bojanus on each
side with the vena cava between, the vis-
ceral mass with the intestine cut through
in a number of places, the reproductive
organ filling up the greater part of the
visceral mass, the foot, the inner and outer
gills, the suprabranchial chamber dorsal
to the outer gill on each side, the branchial
chamber, the mantle.

III. Through the visceral ganglia.

Find the rectum, the posterior adductor
muscle, the visceral ganglia, the divisions
of the suprabranchial chamber (how
many ?), the branchial chamber, the mantle.
Diagram of these three sections !
In the other sections trace the organs from
section to section.

LOBSTER.*

A. EXTEKNAL CHARACTERS.

I. The hardened cuticle, the exoskeleton, covering

the animal.

II. The body, consisting of:

1. An anterior part, the cephalothorax, with a

firm continuous covering above (carapace).
Parts of carapace :

(a) Cephalic part, covering the head of
the lobster ; prolonged anteriorly into
the frontal spine, on each side of which
is a depression containing the stalked
eye ; limited posteriorly by the cervi-
cal groove which separates it from :
(6) Thoracic part, covering the thorax, con-
sisting of:

(aa) Median dorsal part, separated by a
very slight groove on each side,
the branchio-cardiac groove, from :
(bb) Two lateral parts, one on each side,
the branchiostegites, which protect
the gills.

* If lobsters cannot be obtained in the market, these directions
will answer nearly as well for the crayfish.

66

LOBSTER. 67

Raise the branchiostegites and see

beneath them the gills.

2. A jointed flexible posterior part, the abdo-
men.

Count the number of segments. In what
plane or planes can the abdomen be
moved ?
HI. Appendages.

Jointed limbs attached to the ventral aspect of
the body. (To be studied in detail later
(0. II.) ).
IV. External Openings.

1. The slit-like auditory openings : on the flat

upper surface of the basal segments of the
antennules.

2. The excretory openings, perforating a tuber-

cle on the ventral side of the basal segment
of each antenna.

3. The mouth, in the median line, seen by

pushing apart the appendages on the ven-
tral side of the head.

4. The genital openings :

(a) In the female : on the basal segment

(coxopodite) of the second from the
last thoracic appendage.

(b) In the male . on the basal segment of

the posterior thoracic appendage.

5. The anus : a slit on the ventral surface of the

posterior abdominal segment.

68 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

B. ANATOMY.

I. Circulatory System.

Gut ivith strong scissors through the two branchio-
cardiac grooves and transversely through the
cervical groove (taking great care not to cut
through the skin beneath) and remove the isolated
part of the carapace.
Note:

The skin, colored by red pigment.
Cut through the body -wall by a shalloiu cut in the
median line and a transverse cut at each end of
the median cut. Turn aside the flaps, thus open-
ing the pericardial sinus and exposing :

1. The heart : pentagonal and slightly yellowish,

lying in the median line.
Find delicate strands of muscle that pass

from the angles of the heart to the wall of

the pericardial sinus.
The heart receives blood from the pericardial

sinus through three pairs of valve-like

openings, ostia :

(a) A dorsal pair : visible now.

(b) A lateral pair : better seen at a later

stage (B. I. 2. (e)).

(c) A ventral pair : better seen at a later stage.

2. Arteries : arising from the heart. (These are

extremely delicate and must be looked for
with great care.)
From the anterior region of the heart :

LOBSTER. 69

(a) A median ophthalmic artery.

(b) A pair of antennary arteries, close to (a),

one on each side.

(c) Posterior and ventral to (b), a pair of

hepatic arteries.
From the posterior region of the heart :

(d) A large median superior abdominal artery.

By longitudinal cuts remove a narrow
piece of the abdominal exoskeleton and
follow the artery through the abdomen.

(e) Passing ventrally from the ventral aspect

of the heart a large median sternal
artery : better seen at a later stage.
(See below.)

Diagram of heart and of arteries thus far seen.
Folloiv out tliefive arteries from the anterior end
of the hearty as far as possible tvitJiout injury to
the other organs.

Out through the anterior arteries, and turning
back the heart find the lateral and ventral ostia
(B. I. 1. (b), (c)), and the sternal artery (B, I.
2. (e)).

Cut through the sternal artery close to the heart and
through the superior abdominal artery and take
out the heart.

Finish diagram of the heart and arteries !
II. Eeproductive System.

On each side of the heart and partly ventral to it,
find:

70 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

In the male :

1. The testes : two long, white, lobecl bodies

which extend posteriorly into the abdomen

and are connected near their anterior ends

by a transverse commissure.
Near the middle of each testis a vas deferens

arises and passes ventrally to the genital

opening (A. IV. 4. (£>).)

By cutting through the muscles, etc., at the side,
folloiv the vas deferens of one side from the testis
to the external opening.
In the female :

2. The ovaries : elongated, yellowish bodies con-

tinued posteriorly into the abdomen, with
the oviduct passing to the genital opening
(A. IV. 4. (a)).
Trace the oviduct from the ovary to the external

opening.

Diagram of reproductive organs and ducts !
III. Digestive System.

In the median line anterior to the region of
the heart :

1. The stomach a dilatation of the alimentary

canal.

Insert the handle of a section-lifter through the
mouth-opening into the stomach. Turn the stomach
to one side to see :

2. The oesophagus : a short vertical tube from

mouth to stomach.

LOBSTER. 71

Diagram of the oesophagus and stomach as they
would appear if seen from the side. Observe :

3. Posterior to the stomach on each side a large,

soft, brown or greenish-yellow structure, the
digestive gland.

Gently pushing it with the handle of a scalpel away
from the middle line, find :

4. The duct of the digestive gland of that side,

a short, wide, thin-walled tube which enters

the part of the alimentary canal, the mesen-

teron, immediately posterior to the stomach.

Removing tJie reproductive organs and the digestive

gland , and separating the muscles of the abdomen

in the median line, find :

5. The intestine : a straight tube leading from

the mesenteron to the anus.
Finish the diagram of the digestive system. Cut
with fine scissors through the oesophagus close
to the stomach, and through the intestine, and
take out the stomach. Open the stomach and ex-
amine :

6. The arrangement of the gastric teeth.
IV. Excretory System.

In the extreme anterior part of the cephalic

cavity on each side.

1. Paired, delicate, greenish structures, the ex-
cretory organs (green glands).
(For the external openings see A. IV. 2.)

72 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Y. Endophragmal System.

Calcified projections from the inner side of
the exoskeleton of the ventral surface of the
thorax form an internal skeleton — the endo-
pliragmal skeleton, which arches over a canal
— the sternal canal.
To see the endophragmal system remove the thoracic

viscera and the muscles ventral to them.
YI. Nervous System.

Cut through the endophragmal system at each side
of the median line, thus exposing the thoracic
part of:

The central nervous system, which runs the
whole length of the body, in the median line,
consisting of :

1. The supraoesophageal or cerebral ganglia,

dorsal to the oesophagus. Each ganglion
gives off nerves to the eye, to the anten-
nule, and to the antenna of its own side.

2. The circumoesophageal commissure passing

posteriorly and ventrally from the cerebral
ganglia around the oesophagus to the first
pair of :

3. The thoracic ganglia : six pairs united by

longitudinal commissures.
Follow the commissures passing posteriorly
from the posterior pair of thoracic ganglia,
and find in the abdomen :

LOBSTER. 73

4. The abdominal ganglia : six pairs likewise

connected by longitudinal commissures.
Diagram of the nervous system !

C. EXOSKELETON AND APPENDAGES IN DETAIL.

I. Typical Abdominal Segment.

Make, a diagram, of the third abdominal segment as
it ivould appear if seen in anterior or posterior
view, to show the form of the segment and its
appendages.

II. Appendages.

Take off all the appendages from one side of

the body, beginning at the posterior end, being

especially careful to remove each appendage entire.

Observe :

The appendages that bear the gills.

The gills that are borne elsewhere.

Compare each different kind of appendage
with the second maxilliped, and by refer-
ence to the chart * determine the homolo-
gous parts in the series.

Find the scaphognathite. Of what parts is it
made up ? In what way can it move ?

Of what parts is the telson composed ?

Diagrams of :

The third abdominal appendage.

* Enlarged from Plate VIII, The Appendages of the Crayfish,
in "The Atlas of Practical and Experimental Biology," G. B.
Howes.

74 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

The posterior thoracic appendage.

The fifth thoracic appendage.

The fourth thoracic appendage.

The second maxilliped.

The first maxilliped.

The second maxilla.

The first maxilla.

The mandible.

The antenna.

The antennule.

MOSS.

POLYTRICHUM.

A. SEXUAL GENERATION. (Oophore.)
Keeping the specimen moist, observe :

I. General Characters.

1. Stem : erect and unbranched (or branching

only from the base).

2. Leaves : pointed at one end. Attached to the

stem without a stalk (i.e., sessile),

3. Rhizoids : at the base of the stem (often

hidden by the sand, etc., clinging to them j
to see them distinctly, rinse in water).

4. Flowering heads.

(a) In male flowers a terminal rosette of stiff

green leaves (perichsetium) surrounding
the antheridia.

(b) In female flowers a terminal bud formed

by the folding together of terminal
leaves that enclose the archegonia.
Sketch.

II. Histology.
1. Stem.

Remove the leaves near the base of the stem ; until
a razor make a thin transverse section, mount in
water, and observe :

(a) The thin epidermis (best seen in young

75

76 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

specimens), and the subepidermis : a
conspicuous brown layer.

(b) Next to this a region of nearly colorless

cells. Compare these with (a) in regard
to cell-contents and thickness of cell-
wall.

(c) In the centre a central or axial strand.
Make a diagram showing the outlines of the different

regions. Sketch a few cells of each kind to show
tlieir characteristics.

Make a longitudinal section, mount in ivater and
find the same regions. Sketch carefully to the
same scale a few cells of each kind.

2. Leaf.

Mount in water a young leaf of a more delicate
species of moss — as Mnium — and study with D 2
to see :

(a) The structure, a thin lamina with a thicker

median region, the midrib.

(b) The margin of the lamina.

Sketch two or three cells at the edge of the leaf to
show the character of the margin.

3. Ehizoids.

Mount in water. With D 2 note :

(a) Cell-contents.

(b) Any difference that is observable between

the younger and the older rhizoids.
Sketch.

4. Reproduction.

MOSS. 77

A. Male Plant. Sketch.

With a razor make longitudinal sections of the
flowering head. Mount in ivater and observe at
the apex of the axis within the perichcetial leaves :

(a) Antheridia : oblong sacs with a wall of a

single layer of cells. Within the sacs
are mother-cells of antherozoids.

(b) Filaments (paraphyses).

(aa) Hairlike.
(bb) Spatula-shaped.

Sketch an antheridium from the surface and in op-
tical section.
Sketch each kind of paraphysis.

B. Female Plant. Sketch.

With needles separate the leaves from the, top of the
axis of the female flowering head and search for:

(c) Archegonia : flask - shaped bodies with

elongated neck and enlarged ventral
part containing the oosphere.

(d) Paraphyses.
Sketch.

B. ASEXUAL GENERATION. (Sporophore.)

Observe :
I. General Characters.

1. The slender stalk, seta, which supports :

2. The capsule, which contains the spores.
Sketch.

The parts of the capsule :

(a) The thick hairy cap, calyptra.

78 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Take off the calyptra and by reflected light note
beneath it :

(b) The operculmn.

Sketch the capsule with the calyptra removed. Take
off the operculum and observe :

(c) Around the rim on which it rested, the

teeth of the peristome.

(d) Stretched across between the tips of the

teeth, the epiphragma partially closing
the spore-case.
Divide the capsule transversely and make a diagram

of the cut surface.
Examine and sketch a spore.
C. PKOTONEMA.

Examine with the naked eye some living moss-

protonema*

Mount some of the protonema in water; with needles
gently separate the green .filaments; cover and
examine with D 2. Observe :

1. The green branching filaments made up of

cells.
Sketch.

2. Growing out in places from the protonema

buds developing into moss-plants.
If observed, sketch.

* Found growing as a green encrustation on banks of earth
without much other vegetation, by roadsides, etc., in partly
shaded places, especially those exposed to the north.

SPERMAPHYTES.

STEM.

I. Gymnosperm,

Make with a razor thin sections — transverse, radial,
and tangential — of pine wood that has been soaked
in water. Mount in dilute glycerine and study
with A A 2 and D 2.
Observe in the transverse section :

1. The annual rings.

Compare the two edges of a ring.

2. The thick-walled pitted tracheids.

3. The narrow medullary rays.

Make a diagram with AA% showing the relation of

the autumn to the spring ivood, and of the wood

to the medullary rays.
With D 2 sketch accurately a small part of the

section.

In the tangential section observe :

1. The tracheids : their form, their arrangement,

and the pits in their walls.

2. The medullary rays.

Make a diagram showing the relation of tracheids

and medullary rays.
Sketch accurately with DZ a small part of tht

section.

Observe in the radial section :

79

80 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

1. The tracheids. Why is a larger number of

pits visible in this section ?

2. The medullary rays.

Make a diagram shoiving tlie relation of tracheids

and medullary rays.
Sketch a few tracheids much enlarged.

From what has been seen in the three sec-
tions describe the shape of a medullary
ray.

II. Angiosperm.
A. Dicotyledon.

Ampelopsis. Prepared transverse section of
entire, young stem. Study with AA 2 and D 2.
AA 2. Observe :

1. Epidermis, one cell-row in thickness.

2. Cork (subepidermis) consisting of several

layers of flattened cells.

3. Cortical parenchyma.

4. Fibrovascular bundles.

5. Pith.

6. Medullary rays.
Diagram.

Which tissues have cell-contents ?

Cut a section from fresh material and see

which tissues contain chlorophyll.
D 2. In the fibrovascular bundle observe the

cambium layer dividing the bundle into

an inner part (xylem) and an outer part

(phloem).

8PERMAPHYTES. 81

Xylem, consisting of :

7. Large vessels or tracheae.

8. Tracheids, smaller in cross-section than the

vessels.

9. Wood parenchyma (?). Thin-walled cells with

cell-contents.
Phloem, consisting of :

10. Sieve-tubes, thin-walled and in some places

showing the perforated ends of the cells.

11. Bast-cells, thick-walled.

Sketch accurately a feiv cells of each kind in their

relation to one another.
B. Monocotyledon.

Observe with the naked eye the cut end of a stem
of Indian corn. Note :

1. The firm outer layer (epidermis and sub-

epidermis).

2. The fundamental parenchyma.

3. The isolated fibrovascular bundles.

Make thin cross-sections through the outer part of
the stem. Mount in dilute glycerine and study
ivith A A 2 and D 2.
Observe in the bundles :

4. The two large pitted tracheids.

5. The smaller, spiral and annular vessels (one

or more) between the tracheids and nearer
the centre of the stem. In many instances
the cells immediately surrounding these

82 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

vessels have disappeared, leaving an irreg-
ular space.
6. The thin-walled phloem on the side opposite

the vessels.

The prosenchyma forming the outer part of
the bundle does not belong to the bundle
itself. It is a bundle-sheath of modified
fundamental tissue.

HOOT.

Lay in water on a slide the root of a young mus-
tard-seedling grown in sawdust. Cover and ex
amine with AA 2.

1. Find the region in which root-hairs are

present.
Sketch.

2. Moisten a piece of blue litmus-paper and

touch it to the root of a fresh specimen.
Record the result.

3. Examine the root-cap of Pontederia or of

Lemna.
Sketch under AA 2.

BUD.

Winter buds of elder or of horse-chestnut.

I. Sketch the ~bud.

II. Take off the bud-scales and the undeveloped leaves

in regular order ', beginning with the outermost.
Notice the way in which they overlap.

8PERMAPHYTES. 83

III. Compare as to texture the outer scales with

what is inside. Suggest a reason for the
difference. What other means are there for
the same purpose ? (Make a note of the
answers.)

IV. Compare a closed bud with others * in different

stages of unfolding. Make a note of what is
observed.

LEAF.

I. Strip off some of the epidermis from a hyacinth-leaf.

Mount in water and examine ivith AA% and D 2.
Observe :

1. The elongated cells of the epidermis without

chlorophyll. Compare with the epidermis
of the fern.

2. The stomata, each with two guard-cells con-

taining chlorophyll.
Sketch a few cells accurately (D 2).

II. Out a transverse section of the leaf of the india-

rubber tree (Ficus elastica). Mount in water.
Draw accurately.

Beginning with the upper surface find :
1. The upper epidermis, consisting of several

* Buds in different stages of opening can be obtained at any
time during the winter by keeping cut stems in water for a few
weeks. Flowering branches with the flower in different stages
of unfolding should be preserved in alcohol from the previous
season.

84 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

layers of thick-walled cells without chloro-
phyll. Compare with the epidermis of the
ferD.

2. Elongated cells closely packed together, with

their long diameter at right angles to the
surface of the leaf, the palisade tissue, con-
taining many chlorophyll-bodies.

3. Other cells containing chlorophyll, somewhat

irregular in shape and loosely arranged,
so that between them are large open
spaces, intercellular spaces.

4. The veins, fibrovascular bundles, cut trans-

versely or obliquely.

5. The lower epidermis, much like the upper,

but with stomata at intervals.
What is the relation between the position of
the stomata and the intercellular spaces ?

FLOWER.
Geranium.

I. The General Structure.

(a) Borne on a short stalk (pedicel).
(6) Composed of four rows or whorls of
organs.

1. The external green calyx.

2. Inside the calyx the corolla, the most conspic-

uous part of the flower.

3. Inside the corolla the stamens.

SPERMAPHYTES. 85

4. Inside the stamens and forming the middle
of the flower, the pistil.

II. The Calyx.

Five green-pointed sepals attached around the
outer edge of the receptacle (expanded end
of flower-stalk).
Remove two sepals. Sketch.

III. The Corolla.

Consisting of five brightly colored parts,
petals. Observe that their insertion on
the receptacle alternates with that of the
sepals.

Remove two or three petals. Sketch.
IY. The Stamens.

Ten in number, each consisting of a stalk-
like part, the filament, terminated by a
small expanded part, the anther The
filaments are united along part of their
length. The anther consists of two lobes
or thecae, and a very narrow connective.
Sketch a stamen.

Tease out an antlier in water and examine with
D2.

Numerous pollen-grains will be found.
Sketch.

Y. The pistil is surrounded by a tube formed by
the united filaments of the stamens. Take
the stamens off carefully. The lower two
thirds of the pistil is stout and green. The

86 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

upper third is slender and five-cleft at the
top (stigmas). The ovary is deeply lobed.
Sketch.
Make a transverse section through the ovary.

How many chambers has the ovary? Where

are the ovules attached ? Sketch.
VI. Make a diagrammatic sketch of the flower in
longitudinal section, showing the relative
position of all its parts.
Make a diagram of the transverse section of the

flower.

In like manner examine, sketch, and make
diagrams of the violet, of a papilionaceous
flower, and of a flower of the lily or of the
amaryllis family, following in each case
the order observed for the geranium, and
noting the differences.

For description of irregular parts, etc., the
student is referred to Gray's " Manual of
Botany," under Violacese, Leguminosse,
Liliacese, Amaryllidacese ; and to Miiller,
"The Fertilization of Flowers," under Vio-
lariese, Leguminosse, Liliacese, and Ama-
ryllidese.

GERMINATION OF POLLEN-GRAINS.

Mount pollen-grains of narcissus or of daffo-
dil in a 5 per cent, solution of cane-sugar in

8PERMAPHTTE8. 87

water, and of pansy or of violet in a 30 per
cent, solution. Support the cover-glass.
Examine at once, first with the low and then
with the high power. Look for the nuclei.
Examine at the end of an hour, and again
after another hour.
Sketch different stages.

SEEDS.

Examine seeds of the bean, of the pea, of
buckwheat, of Indian corn, and of wheat
that have been softened in water. Ex-
amine also dry seeds of the castor -oil
plant.
I. Bean.

1. Observe on one side the oval spot (hilum) to

which the stalk (funiculus) that fastened the
seed to the pod was attached.

2. Find near the hilum a minute opening, the

micropyle. If the bean is slightly squeezed
a drop of liquid may be pressed out through
the opening.

Cut the seed-coats along the convex edge of
the bean, remove them, and examine their
inner surface for the internal opening of the
micropyle.

3. Find the chalaza — the base of the nucellus

where the seed-coats blend with each other.

88 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

4. Split apart the cotyledons and observe the
radicle and the plumule lying between them.
Sketch.

What is the position of the radicle with refer-
ence to the micropyle ?

II. Pea.

Examine in the same way as the bean.

III. Castor-oil Bean.

Carefully take off the hard outer seed-coat and
then strip off the thin inner coat. Separate
the bean longitudinally into two parts. Exam-
ine with a hand-lens.

Find the plumule, the radicle, and the cotyle-
dons. Is there anything else present ? What
differences are observable between the castor-
oil bean and the common bean ?

IV. Buckwheat.

With a small scalpel take off the outer seed-
coat. Observe the thin, light-colored coat
beneath. Remove this carefully, and find the
parts enclosed by it. How do they compare
with the parts within the seed-coats of the
bean and pea ? And with Ifhose of the castor-
oil bean ?

V. Indian Corn.

1. How do the two sides of the grain differ

in appearance ? Sketch.

2. With a scalpel peel off the seed-coats.
Observe the yellow endosperm. Kemove this,

SPERMAPHYTES. 89

and find the organ of absorption (scutellum)
enclosing the rest of the embryo and in
close contact with the endosperm.
Dissect out the parts enclosed by the scutellum.
Observe :

(a) The radicle directed toward the small end

of the grain, and the root-sheath covering
its free end.

(b) The plumule at the opposite end of the

embryo. Its outer leaf is the cotyle-
don.

(c) The caulicle, the attachment between the

scutellum and the rest of the embryo.
3. With a razor make a median longitudinal section
through the broad sides of a grain. Observe
on the cut surface :

(a) The tough outer membrane, composed of

the united coats of the fruit and the
seed.

(b) The endosperm, consisting of starch and

other food-materials.

(c) The embryo, with its organ of absorption,

the scutellum.

Sketch the section much enlarged.
YL Wheat,

Examine the seed entire, and then find the

parts of which it consists.
Sketch.

90 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

SEED-CONTENTS.

I. Pea.

Cut thin sections of the cotyledons. Mount
some in dilute glycerine and others in
water.

1. In the glycerine preparations observe in each

cell:

(a) Large starch-grains.

(b) Small aleurone-grains.

(c) Very finely granulated substance.
Observe the intercellular spaces.

Sketch one or two cells with cell-contents.

2. Compare the glycerine-preparation with the

water preparation.

Add iodine to the glycerine preparation.
What is the effect ?

II. Bean.

Examine as Pea.

III. Wheat.

Cut thin sections at right angles to the seed- coat y
and mount them in dilute glycerine.
Observe :

(a) Just within the seed-coat a layer of rec-

tangular cells containing aleuTone-
grains.

(b) More centrally situated, cells containing

starch. Add iodine. What is the
effect ?
Sketch a few cells.

SPERMAPH7TES. 91

IV. Castor-oil Bean.

Gently remove the brittle seed- coat, separate the
cotyledons, and make very thin sections of
the endosperm.

Mount some in pure glycerine and some in
water. Put others into a drop of alcoholic
solution of eosin on a slide. After Jive
minutes remove the eosin with filter-paper,
add 50 per cent, alcohol and a drop of
glycerine, and put on a cover-glass.

1. Study first the glycerine preparation. Ob-

serve : large aleurone-grains containing
spherical bodies (globoids).

2. Compare the water preparation with the

glycerine preparation. What difference is
observable ?

Add iodine to the glycerine preparation.
What is the effect ?

3. In the stained preparation look for crystalloids

in the aleurone-grains.
Sketch.

SEEDLINGS.
I. Dicotyledons.
A. Observe in the earlier stages the way in which

the seedling breaks through the ground.
Examine and sketch different stages of each of the
following forms :

1. Pea.

2. Bean.

92 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

3. Buckwheat.

4. Mustard.

B. Comparison of different kinds of seedlings.

(After examining and sketching the second com-
pare it with the first. In like manner compare
the third with the first and second, and the
fourth with the first, second, and third.)

1. Compare the roots.

2. Has each a stem supporting the cotyledons

(hypocotyl) ?

3. Compare the cotyledons :

(a) In regard to form and size.

(b) What might be inferred as to their

function ?

4. Compare the cotyledons of the pea and of

the bean.

5. Compare the pea and the buckwheat as to the

time of appearance of the foliage leaves.
To what may the difference be due ?
II. Monocotyledons.

Observe and compare different stages of the
following forms :

1. Indian corn.

2. Wheat.

HI. Compare the seedlings studied in I. with those
in II.

1. Observe the number of cotyledons.

2. Compare their form with that of the foliage

leaves.

SPERMAPHYTES. 93

3. Note the venation of the foliage leaves and

their arrangement on the stem.

4. What is the character of the root-system ?

ROTATION AND CIECULATION or PEOTOPLASM.

I. Mount in water a duster of young leaves of Nitella.

Examine with AA 2 and D 2.
Observe :

1. The chlorophyll-grains arranged in rows.

2. The neutral zone, free from chlorophyll.

3. The current of protoplasm just below the

level of the chlorophyll-grains.
Diagram !

II. Mount in water one or more hairs from the filament

of the stamen of Tradescantia.

With AA 2 note the rosary-like appearance of
the hair. Study with the high power and see
the active circulation of currents of protoplasm
around and through the central vacuole,

Diagram !

STAECH WITHIN CHLOEOPHYLL-GEAINS.
I. Mount in water some pieces of Nitella leaves.

Note especially at the cut ends the chlorophyll-
granules containing highly refractive bodies —
starch-grains.

1. Draw some iodine solution under the cover-

glass. What parts are stained ?
Diagram !

2. Mount another specimen of Nitella and add

94 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

chloral-hydrate iodine. Watch a few min-
utes for the effect.

KAEYOKINESIS.

1. The tip of a young onion-root.*

Find and sketch seven or eight stages.

2. The testis of the lobster.f
Find the principal stages.

Sketch.

* Method of preparation : Cut off a quarter of an inch of the tip
of young roots of an onion growing in water in a hyacinth-
glass ; put them into Hermann's fluid in the dark for 48 hours ;
wash in running water 24 hours ; imbed in paraffine and stain on
the slide with Haidenhain's iron-hsematoxylin, leaving the sec-
tions in the haematoxylin solution overnight.

f Pieces of the testis a quarter of an inch long should be pre-
served and stained as the onion-root. In making the sections the
pieces of testis should be cut lengthwise.

FROG.

For an economical use of material this order may
be observed :

For the first day's work follow sections I-III in-
clusive, and in YI the directions for exposing and
hardening the central nervous system. This frog
should then be put into formic aldehyde solution of
1 to 2 per cent., which is especially good for hard-
ening the nervous system. If the odor of the formic
aldehyde is unpleasant, the material may be rinsed
in dilute ammonia before being used.

Taking a fresh frog on the second day, work out
upon it the circulatory and urino-genital systems,
sections IY and Y. This frog should be kept in
Wickersheimer's fluid, which preserves it in good
condition for the study of muscles, etc.

After a few days the brain, etc., of the first frog
will have become sufficiently hardened, and the
work may proceed in regular sequence. The direc-
tions after YI may be worked out upon either frog,
as the material serves.

For this work on the frog it is sufficient to use a
water solution containing from 1 to 2 per cent, of
formic aldehyde. "Formalin" is properly a com-
mercial name for a 40 per cent, solution of formic

95

96 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

aldehyde in water, but is often used indiscrimi-
nately for solutions of various strengths.

I. External Characters.

1. The division of the frog into head, trunk, and

limbs.

2. The skin: moist and smooth. Note its

looseness.

Make short slits in several places and inflate the
lymph-sacs.

3. The head : its shape.

(a) The eyes : each with two eyelids (are

they movable ?).

(b) The tympanic membranes; modified parts of

the skin covering the ears.

(c) The nostrils or anterior nares.

4. The limbs.

(a) The anterior limb is divided into three

regions : brachium, antibrachium, and
maims. The manus has four digits. In
the breeding season the first digit of the
male bears a swollen cushion.

(b) The posterior limb is divided into three

regions : femur, cms, and pes. The pes
has five digits connected by a web.

5. Identify all openings into the body.

6. Look at a living frog in an aquarium-jar with

a little water to see its position, its eyes,
etc., and its mode of breathing.

FROG. 97

Make an outline sketch of the dorsal aspect of the
frog,

II. The Buccal Cavity.

Open the mouth and note :

1. Its wide cavity ; the posterior part, the

pharynx, is continuous with the oesoph-
agus.

2. The teeth :

(a) On the upper jaw.

(b) On the roof of the mouth.

3. The posterior nares.

To find them, pass bristles into the anterior
nares and note the points of entrance into
the mouth-cavity.

4. The Eustachian recesses : a pair of lateral pro-

longations of the mouth-cavity. Pass a
bristle through the tympanum from the
outside and note the place of its entrance
into the mouth- cavity.

5. The tongue. Note its shape and its attach-

ment. Turn it forward to see :

6. The glottis : a longitudinal slit in the floor of

the mouth.
Pass a probe into it.

III. The Abdominal Viscera.

Lay the frog iipon its hack in a pan containing
wax, and fasten it down with pins through the
limbs. Cut through the skin along the median
ventral line, and make a transverse cut at

98 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

each end of the first. Turn the flaps of skin
outward and pin them down.
Observe :

1. On the skin near the shoulder the musculo-

cutaneous vein.

2. The body-wall, formed of muscles.

3. In the median ventral line the anterior ab-

dominal vein.

Put a double ligature on this by making a slit
on each side of the vein and tying two threads
around it near together. Raise the body -ic all
with forceps, and with scissors carefully con-
tinue the cut on the left side of the vein from
pelvis to sternum. Make a transverse cut
between the ligatures and extending across the
ventral aspect of the body.
Note the anterior abdominal vein passing
dorsally into the liver.

With scissors cut in the median line through the
sternum and other superficial parts, taking
care not to injure the parts beneath. Turn
each half outward and pin firmly .

4. Sketch the organs exposed to view and identify

them. {Remove the ovaries if they conceal
the other organs.)

(a) The heart.

(b) The liver : reddish brown and bilobed.

(c) The lungs.

FROG. 99

(d) The stomacli : lying partly beneath the

left lobe of the liver.

(e) The small intestine : a light-colored

slightly convoluted tube. It passes
posteriorly into the large intestine.
The terminal part of the large intestine
is the cloaca. Note the mesentery by
which the intestine is attached to the
dorsal body-wall.

(/) The bladder : a thin-walled bilobed sac
in the posterior ventral part of the
body-cavity.
Insert a bloivpipe into the glottis and inflate.

The lungs, if hidden before, will now come

into view.

Pass a probe into the mouth and through the

oesophagus into the stomach. Turn the liver

forward to see the oesophagus and stomach.

Uncoil the intestine and identify its parts.

Find :

(g) The pancreas, in the loop between the

stomach and duodenum.
(h) The spleen, in the mesentery near the

beginning of the large intestine.
(i) The two lobes of the liver. Observe that
the larger lobe is subdivided into two.
Note the position of the gall-bladder.
Make a slight slit in the duodenum and
try by pressing upon the gall-bladder

100 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

to make the bile pass to the duodenum.
Look now for the bile-duct.
(/) The fat bodies : long slender yellow masses
on each side, attached to the dorsal
wall of the body-cavity at about the
level of the posterior border of the liver.
In different specimens they vary much
in size.
Identify :

(k) The reproductive organs.
IY. The Circulatory Organs.

Open the per icar dial cavity, using great care not
to injure the anterior abdominal vein which
passes dorsally in the posterior wall of the
pericardium.

1. Examine and sketch the heart, showing its
parts :

(a) The auricles : dark colored and with thin

walls.

(b) The ventricle : of paler color and conical.

(c) The truncus arteriosus: arising from the

anterior side of the ventricle, passing
obliquely forward and dividing into two
large branches.

Turn the apex of the heart forward and note
on its dorsal side :

(d) A darker triangular-shaped region, the

sinus venosus. It is closely related to the
auricles, and receives the great veins.

FROG. 101

2. Observe the contractions of the heart. Note

the order of sequence of the contraction
in the four parts of the heart. The heart of
lower vertebrates often continues to beat
after the death of the animal.

3. The veins.

A. The Anterior Abdominal Vein and its Trib-

utaries.

(a) Trace the course of the anterior abdominal

vein into the liver. Just before its en-
trance it divides into two branches, one
going to each main lobe of the liver.

(b) Trace it posteriorly. It is formed by the

union of two pelvic veins which are
ventral branches of the femoral veins.

(c) Trace the pelvic vein of one side back to

the femoral from which it arises.

(d) Follow the femoral vein posteriorly, to

see from what region it is bringing
blood.

B. The Kenal Portal System.

(a) The dorsal branch of the femoral vein is
the renal portal vein. It receives the
sciatic vein and small veins from the
body-wall, etc. The renal portal vein
passes forward to the outer side of the
kidney and enters that organ by means
of numerous branches.

C. The Hepatic Portal System.

102 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

(a) Raise the liver and find the vein that
enters its left lobe, the hepatic portal
vein. Trace it posteriorly and find the
veins that unite to form it :
(act) The gastric vein : from the stomach.
(bb) The intestinal veins.
(cc) The splenic vein.

The hepatic portal vein just before entering the
liver gives off a branch that anastomoses with
the anterior abdominal vein.
D. Yeins Opening into the Sinus Venosus.

(a) The inferior vena cava: a median vein

which opens into the posterior part of
the sinus venosus. It brings blood to
the heart from the liver and kidneys,
etc., and from the hind limbs. It is
made up by :

(aa) The renal veins : from the kidneys.
(bb) The genital veins,
(cc) The right and left hepatic veins from
the liver. These open into the
vena cava inferior close to the sinus
venosus.

(b) The right superior vena cava. It brings

back blood from the right side of the
head and body and from the right fore-
limb. It is formed by :
(aa) The external jugular vein : formed by:

FROG. 103

(aaa) The lingual vein : from the

tongue.
(bbb) The inferior maxillary vein : from

the lower jaw.
(bb) The innominate vein : formed by

(aaa) The internal jugular vein : from

the brain, etc.
(bbb) The subscapular vein : from the

muscles of the shoulder.
(cc) The subclavian vein : formed by

(aaa) The brachial vein : from the fore-
limb.
(bbb) The musculo - cutaneous vein

from the skin, etc.

(c) The left superior cava : similar to the right.
E. Yein Opening into the Left Auricle,
(a) The pulmonary vein : formed by" the union
of the right and left pulmonary veins.
Each pulmonary vein runs along the
inner side of its lung.
Diagram of the veins !
4. The Arteries.

Distend the oesophagus by inserting the rubber
top of a pipette or a roll of paper, and thus
stretch the arteries.

Note the division of the truncus arteriosus
into two branches, and that each of these
is subdivided into three aortic arches :

104: GENERAL BIOLOGY.

(a) The anterior or carotid arch. Its chief

branches are :

(aa) The lingual artery : to the tongue.
(bb) The carotid artery : to the brain, etc.

(b) The middle or aortic arch. It runs around

the throat to the vertebral column and
unites with its fellow to form the dorsal
aorta. It gives off on each side at the
level of the arm :
(aa) The subclavian artery : to shoulder

and fore-limb.

(bb) The vertebral artery : to the vertebral
column and back, etc.

(c) The third, posterior, or pulmonary arch:

to the lung on each side. On the way
it gives off:

(aa) The cutaneous artery : to the skin,
etc.

(d) The dorsal aorta and its branches.
Posterior to the union of the two aortic

arches the dorsal aorta lies in the
median line just ventral to the vertebral
column. It gives off the following
branches :

(aa) The coeliaco-mesenteric artery : a me-
dian artery to the stomach and
intestine. Its branches are :
(aaa) The ereliac artery: to the
stomach and to the liver.

FROG. 105

(bbb) The mesenteric artery : to the

intestine and to the spleen.
(bb) The renal arteries : to the kidneys.
(cc The genital arteries : to the reproduc-
tive organs.

(dd) The inferior mesenteric artery: sup-
plying the base of the large intes-
tine.

(ee) The common iliac arteries : formed by
the division of the dorsal aorta.
Each continues down the leg as
the sciatic artery after having
given off:
(aad) The hypogastric artery : to the

bladder.

Diagram of the Arterial System !
T. The Urino-genital Organs.

Remove the alimentary canal between the base of
the oesophagus and the posterior third of the
large intestine.
Posterior to the fat bodies are the reproductive

organs.
In the female :

1. The ovaries : lobed organs, varying much in

size with the season of the year.

2. The oviducts : convoluted tubes, one on each

side. The anterior end is funnel-like, and
the tub.e passes posteriorly to open into the
cloaca.

106 GENERAL B10LOOJ.

3. The kidneys : elongated red masses close to

the vertebral column.

4. The adrenal bodies : a band of yellow tissue on

the ventral side of each kidney.

5. The ureters : two whitish tubes passing from

the outer edge of the kidney to the cloaca
In the male :

1. The testes : a pair of yellowish rounded

bodies.

2. The genital ducts (vasa efferentia) placing

each testis in communication with the
kidney of the same side. In the male the
ureter serves also as a genital duct.

3. The kidneys, as in the female (see above).

4. The adrenal bodies, as in the female (see

above).

5. The ureters, as in the female (see above).
Diagram of the Reproductive Organs !

VI. The Nervous System.

A. The Central Nervous System.
Cut the skin along the median dorsal line and
turn it back. Remove the muscles from the
vertebrae. Open the neural canal by cutting
the membrane between the skull and the first
vertebra. Remove the roof of the brain-cavity
gradually, bit by bit, with small strong for-
ceps or with small strong scissors. In the
same way remove the neural arches of the
vertebrce.

FROG. 107

Note the delicate pigmented membranes that
cover the brain and the spinal cord. The
outer, the dura mater, is often more or less
torn in removing the bone. The inner, the
pia mater, lies very close upon the nervous
tissue. It is usually more pigmented than
the dura mater.

Before the brain can be removed for further
investigation it must be hardened by ex-
posure to formic aldehyde.
To remove the brain :

Cut through the olfactory tracts (or nerves) close
to the nasal pits • lift the anterior end of the
brain gently , cut through the cranial nerves
close to the skull and through the spinal
nerves. Take out the brain and spinal cord
and put into a small dish of water (or dilute
alcohol).

Sketch the nervous system thus exposed :
1. The brain : the dorsal aspect (from before
backward) :

(a) The olfactory lobes, each passing anteriorly

into a cylindrical portion : the olfactory
tract.

(b) The cerebral hemispheres, separated from

each other by a deep cleft. They are
marked off from the olfactory lobes by
a slight transverse depression.

(c) The thalamencephalon: immediately behind

108 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

the cerebral hemispheres. In the middle
line between the diverging ends of the
cerebral hemispheres the pineal gland
is borne.

(d) The optic lobes: two conspicuous rounded

bodies, one on each side.

(e) The cerebellum: a narrow ridge posterior

to the optic lobes.

(/) The medulla oblongata: the region posterior
to the cerebellum, broadest at the an-
terior end and passing gradually into
the spinal cord. Its dorsal wall is a
thin, highly vascular membrane, the
choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle.
Beneath the choroid plexus is the cav-
ity of the fourth ventricle.

2. The Spinal Cord : continued posteriorly from

the medulla oblongata. It is flattened
dorso-ventrally. Near the region of the
sixth vertebra it tapers rapidly to a slender
thread, the filum terminale. The filurn ter-
minale and the proximal ends of the lumbar
nerves form the cauda equina. Note in the
median line a slight groove not well marked
throughout, the dorsal fissure.
Turn the brain and spinal cord ventral side upper-
most, and sketch. Note :

3. The Brain :

(a) The olfactory lobes and nerves.

FROG. 109

(b) The cerebral hemispheres.

(c) The optic chiasma : ventral to the posterior

end of the hemispheres. Trace the
bundles of fibres as far as possible.

(d) The tuber cinereum : a shield-shaped body

posterior to the optic chiasma. On its
posterior border attached by a slender
stalk :

(e) The pituitary body.

(/*) On each side of the pituitary body the
crura cerebri : two columns of fibres con-
necting the cord and the medulla with
the anterior part of the brain.

4. The Spinal Cord, continued posteriorly from

the medulla. Note the median (ventral)
fissure throughout its length.

5. The Cavities of the Brain.

With a razor make a horizontal cut midway
between the dorsal and the ventral sides to
show :

(a) In the cerebral hemisphere on each side

the lateral ventricle.

(b) Connecting the two lateral ventricles the

foramen of Monro.

(c) In the optic lobes the ventricles of the

optic lobes.

(d) Connecting (a) and (c) the third ventricle.

(e) In the medulla the fourth ventricle.
B. The Sympathetic Nervous System.

110 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Lay the frog ventral side up and carefully re-
move ike digestive, excretory, and reproductive
organs.
Observe :
1. Along the vertebral column on each side and

close to the dorsal aorta a slender cord.
With great care raise it slightly and note :
The yellowish enlargements along its length,

the sympathetic ganglia.
Count the ganglia, being careful not to injure

them.

C. The Peripheral Nervous System.
1. Spinal Nerves : passing out from between the

vertebrae. Count those of one side.
Gently raise the sympathetic cord, and note
the branch from each spinal nerve to a
sympathetic ganglion.

Note the grouping of the spinal nerves into
plexuses :

(a) The sciatic plexus; formed from the 7th,

8th, and 9th spinal nerves. From the
plexus the sciatic nerve is given off.
Trace this into the leg.

(b) The brachial plexus : formed from the 2d

and 3d spinal nerves. It gives rise to
the brachial nerve. Trace this nerve
into the arm.

Between these two plexuses the 4th, 5th, and
6th spinal nerves pass out separately as

FROG. Ill

small nerves to the muscles and skin of
the body -wall.

Diagram of the sympathetic ganglia and their
principal nerves, and of the spinal nerves
of one side.

VII. The Eye.

With fine scissors make an incision in the skin
above the eyeball. Continue this cut around
the edge of the socket. Lifting the eyeball
by the edge of the skin, cut it free from the
muscles and nerve beneath. Take out both
eyes and harden them for two or three days
in formic aldehyde solution.
Divide one eye into right and left halves,

and one into proximal and distal halves.
Observe :

1. The sclera. 4. The retina.

2. The cornea. 5., The lens.

3. The choroid coat. 6. The vitreous humor.

VIII. Muscles.

Cut through the skin around the junction of
the leg with the body, and strip the skin
from the leg.

Bend the leg, and try to distinguish the
flexors and extensors. Dissect the leg
to show the sartorius and gastrocnemius
muscles. (See diagram.)*

* Enlarged from Figs. 80 and 81, Ecker's "Anatomy of the
Frog," translated by G. Haslam. Clarendon Press, 1889.

112 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

How does a muscle begin and how does it

end? Compare the middle with the end.
IX. Bones.

Examine the articulation of the femur with

the pelvis. Observe the end of the bone,

cartilage, etc.
Clean up the knee-joint, the pelvis, one or

two vertebrae, and the skull, and see their

parts.

FISH.

I. External Characters.

1. Make an outline sketch showing the fins,

orifices, etc.

2. Find the operculum. Lift it up and find :

3. The gills. How many are there? How many

slits between the gills (gill-clefts) ?

II. Abdominal Viscera.

Cut through the body-ivall on loth sides along the
lines indicated in the diagram.* Remove the
portion of body -wall thus cut out.
Observe :

1. The liver, a conspicuous brownish lobed organ.

Lift it up to see :

2. The gall-bladder.

3. The hepatic veins, passing anteriorly from

the liver.

4. The stomach, partly concealed by the liver.

5. The intestine, passing posteriorly from the

stomach with one or two turns to the anus.

* An outline-diagram of the fish with lines to mark places for
cutting :

1. Antero-posteriorly : parallel and slightly ventral to the lateral

line.

2. Dorso-ventrally from the median ventral line to meet the

first cut:

(a) An inch in front of the anus.

(6) Obliquely just posterior to the pectoral and pelvic
girdles.

113

114 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

6. The pyloric appendages, finger-like organs

opening into the alimentary canal at the
junction of stomach and intestine.

7. The spleen, a dark red body lying in one of

the loops of the intestine.

8. The reproductive organs.

9. The air-bladder.
Diagram !

Cut through the intestine an inch from the anus
and through the hepatic veins close to the liver,
and remove all the organs thus far seen except
the air-bladder.

Cut through the air-bladder (noting the rete
mirabile on its ventral ivall) to see :

10. The kidneys, elongated red organs pressed

close to the dorsal wall of the abdominal
cavity, one on each side of the vertebral
column. Put a bristle into the outer open-
ing of the ureter and trace it to the kid-
neys.
Find:

11. The genital duct.

Diagram of the kidneys and reproductive organs.
III. Circulatory System.

Dissect away the left half of the pelvic and pec-
toral girdles from below upward, not injuring
the veins.
Observe :

FISH. 115

1. The pericardial cavity and the septum sep-

arating it from the abdominal cavity.

2. The heart .

(a) The sinus.

(b) The auricle.

(c) The ventricle.

(d) The bulbus (conus).
Diagram

3. Find the veins coming to the heart :

(a) The hepatic veins, passing through the
septum from the abdominal cavity and
opening into the sinus.

(6) The pre-caval veins (ducts of Cuvier), one
on each side formed by the union of
the jugular vein from the anterior and
of the cardinal vein from the posterior
region, passing ventrally along the sep-
tum and opening into the sinus.

4. Trace the ventral aorta from the bulbus and

find its branches.

5. Find the dorsal aorta (dorsal to the air-blad-

der) and trace it forward into the ceph-
alic circle.

Diagram of the veins and arteries.
IV. Exoskeleton.

Take off several scales from different parts
of the body. Examine with a low
power.
Sketch.

PIGEON.

I. External Characters.

1. Note the shape of the head, the neck, the

trunk, and the tail.

2. Note the arrangement of feathers in the body,

the wing, and the tail. Pull out some of
each of the different kinds and keep them
for examination.

3. Sketch the head. How many openings ? Com-

pare with those of the frog.

4. Observe the different parts of the wing and

of the leg. Find the hand and the foot.
Note the attachment of the feathers. "What
forms the covering of the foot ?

5. Pluck.

(This can be done more easily if the skin of the
bird is first thoroughly wet with very hot
water. Great care should be taken when
pulling out feathers from the neck not to
tear the skin of that region.)

II. The Abdominal Yiscera.

Make a median longitudinal cut through the
skin on the ventral surface of the body and
neck, being careful not to cut deeper.

Turn back the skin, and keeping it moist, note :

1. The oesophagus and crop.

2. The trachea.

116

PIGEON. 117 -

3. The blood-vessels (be careful not to injure

them).

Slit the trachea transversely in the middle neck-
region and ligature the neck through the slit
and under (i.e., not including) the skin. Cut
.off the head above the ligature. Open the
brain-cavity by shaving off the bone, exposing
cerebrum and cerebellum, and put the head at
once into formic aldehyde solution (as for
frog's brain).

JtfaJce a transverse cut through the body-wall
of the abdomen posterior to the pectoral
muscles.

4. Note the air-sacs. How many are visible ?

5. Observe the intestine and the fat in the mes-

entery.

6. Find the falciform ligament, a thin membrane

with a large vein, in the median vertical

plane and attached to the middle line of

the sternum beneath the keel.
7. Insert a tube into the trachea and bloiv up the

structures connected with it. (Compare II.

4., above.)

Holding the sternum with the right hand press
gently with the left thumb upon the part of
the crop that lies against the pectoral muscles
and thus separate the crop from the anterior
border of the sternum.
Note beneath the crop :

118 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

8. A bilobed sac in the angle formed by the

furcula, the interclavicular air-sac.

9. Dorsal to each lobe of the interclavicular

air-sac is one of the paired prebronchial air-
sacs.

Cut through the left pectoralis major muscle dose to
the keel of the sternum along its whole lengthy half
an inch deep at the anterior end and less deep as
the posterior end is approached. From the
anterior end continue the cut laterally and
dorsally to separate the pectoralis major from
the furcula. From the posterior end of the
keel continue the cut laterally to separate the
muscle from the body of the sternum. With
the handle of a scalpel gently separate the
pectoralis major from the pectoralis minor be-
neath.
Note:

10. The pectoral blood-vessels.

11. The axillary air-sac.

12. Note the oesophagus passing posteriorly from

the crop.

Cut carefully through the remaining muscle (pec-
toralis secundus) close to the keel of the sternum.
With strong scissors cut through the body of
the sternum close to the keel • cut through the
furcula and cut away the articulation of the
coracoid with the sternum.

PIGEON. 119

Reflect the two sides of the body-wall and
note the viscera now exposed to view :

13. The heart in the pericardium.

14. The liver. How many ]obes has it ? Which

one is larger ?

15. The duodenum, a U-shaped loop of the

intestine.

16. The pancreas, lying between the limbs of the

loop. Look for its ducts.

17. The gizzard.

18. The loops of the small intestine.

19. The epigastric vein, carrying blood from the

omentum and passing up in the falciform
ligament to the anterior border of the
liver.

(Note : 20 and 21 should be left until after
III.)

20. Unravel the intestine and observe :
(Esophagus. Intestine.

Crop. Rectum and rectal coeca.

Proventriculus. Liver.
Gizzard . Pancreas.

Spleen.
Diagram of the abdominal viscera, ducts, etc. !

21. Cut open the gizzard and observe its struc-

ture.
III. The Circulatory System.

The Heart.
Open the pericardium and observe the heart :

120 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Auricles.
Ventricles.
Diagram !
The Veins.

A. The anterior venae cavae, one on each side open-

ing into the right auricle ; formed by the
union of :

1. The jugular vein, bringing back blood from

the head and neck, receiving :
(a) The vertebral vein.

2. The brachial vein, bringing blood from the

wing.

3. The pectoral vein, bringing blood from the

chest muscles.

B. The posterior vena cava, an unpaired vein, open-

ing into the right auricle; formed by :
1. The two iliac veins. Each iliac vein begins
near the anterior end of the kidney by the
union of :

(a) The femoral vein, bringing blood from the

leg.

(b) The hypogastric vein, passing through the

kidney and formed in the posterior
abdominal region by the union of :

(oa) The caudal vein, an unpaired vein
from the tail.

(bb) The internal iliac vein from the pelvis.

(cc) The posterior mesenteric vein (coccygeo

PIGEON. 121

mesenteric), an unpaired vein from
the lower part of the intestine.
(dd) The sciatic vein, from the leg ; open-
ing into the hypogastric vein near
the junction of the middle and pos-
terior lobes of the kidney,
(c) The renal veins, bringing blood from the
kidneys, a larger vein from the pos
terior lobes, and a smaller vein from
the anterior lobe.

2. The hepatic veins from the liver ; they join
the post cava near its entrance into the
right auricle.
O. The hepatic portal system.

1. The gastric veins, two small veins from the

left side of the gizzard to the left lobe of
the liver.

2. The portal vein, sending a branch into the

right and a branch into the left lobe of the
liver, formed by :

(a) The gastro-duodenal vein from the right

side of the gizzard, duodenum, pancreas,
etc.

(b) The anterior mesenteric vein, from most of

the small intestine.

(c) The posterior mesenteric vein from the large

intestine, etc.

The portal vein receives blood through a small
vein from the spleen.

122 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

D. The pulmonary veins, short veins from the lungs

which unite and open into the left auricle.
Diagram of the veins !
The Arteries.

A. One aortic arch, the aorta, which passes to the
right. It gives off:

1. The innominate arteries, one on each side,

giving rise to :

(a) The common carotid artery, to the head.

(b) The subclavian artery, which divides to

form :

(ad) The brachial artery, to the wing.
(bb) The pectoral artery, to the muscles of
the chest.

2. The dorsal aorta, which passes posteriorly

dorsal to the heart.
It gives off :

(a) The coeliac artery, unpaired, to the pro-

ventriculus, gizzard, spleen, pancreas,
duodenum, etc.

(b) The anterior mesenteric artery, unpaired,

to the rest of the small intestine.

(c) The anterior renal arteries, paired.

(d) The femoral arteries, paired.

(e) The sciatic arteries, paired. The sciatic

artery of each side gives off :
(aa) The middle and posterior renal arteries.
(/) The posterior mesenteric artery, unpaired,
to the large intestine.

PIGEON. 123

(g) The internal iliacs, paired, to the pelvis.
(h) The caudal artery, the posterior continua-
tion of the dorsal aorta.
B. The pulmonary artries, to the lungs.

Diagram of the arteries !
N. B.— Keturn here to II. 17 and 18.

IV. The Excretory and Eeproductive Organs.

Carefully remove the digestive organs, cu^ng
through the intestine about an inch from its
posterior end.

1. The ovaries and oviducts, or testes and

vasa deferentia.

2. The kidneys, adrenal bodies, ureters.

3. The cloaca.

Slit open the rectum on the ventral side and
continue the cut into the cloaca.

(a) Note the number of chambers into

which the cloaca is divided.

(b) Find the openings of the ureters on

the dorsal side of the cloaca in the
urino-genital pouch. Also, the open-
ings of the genital ducts.
Diagram of excretory and reproductive organs !

V. The Nervous System.

A. The Sympathetic Nervous System.

1. A delicate cord running on each side close
to the vertebral column, with ganglia at
intervals.

124 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Diagram !

B. The Peripheral Nervous System.

1. On the dorsal wall of the body-cavity note :

the thoracic spinal nerves coming from be-
tween the vertebrae and passing out between
the ribs.

2. The brachial plexus, a network of nerves at

the base of the neck. Trace the distribu-
tion of the chief nerves given off from it.

3. The lumbar plexus in the lumbar region.

Two nerves are given off from it ; what do
they innervate ?

4. The sciatic plexus. The sciatic nerve is given

off ; what is its course ?
Diagram !

C. The Brain.

1. Externals.

As the brain lies in the cranial cavity, note :
(a) The cerebral hemispheres.
(6) The olfactory nerves.

(c) The optic lobes.

(d) The cerebellum.

(e) The medulla oblongata.
Diagram !

JZemove the dorsal arches of the first two verte-
brce, cut through the spinal cord, and turn
the brain forward, carefully cutting all the
•nerves.
On the ventral side note :

PIGEON. 125

(/) The optic cliiasma.

(g) The infundibulum.

(h) The pituitary body.
Diagram !
2. Section.

(a) Gently press apart the hemispheres ; note

that they are not connected.
Make a shallow incision in the inner wall of one
of the hemispheres near its poster o- dor sal
corner so as to open its cavity. Carefully cut
away enough of the inner end of the posterior
wall to see the whole of the cavity.

(b) Note the cavity of the cerebral hemisphere :

the lateral ventricle. Its floor is formed
by the corpus striatum.

Remove the cerebellum by cutting through its
peduncles.

(c) Note :

(aa) The two optic lobes connected by

the optic commissure.
(bb) Anterior to the optic lobes the paired

optic thalami.
(oc) Between the optic thalami the third

ventricle.
(dd) Anterior to the optic thalami is the

anterior commissure, and posterior

to them is the posterior commissure.
(ee) Posterior to the optic commissure is

the fourth ventricle.

126 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

(ff) At each side of the fourth ventricle
are the peduncles of the cerebel-
lum.
(d) Cut off the dorsal wall of one optic lobe

and see its ventricle.

(e) Make a median (vertical) longitudinal sec-
tion of the brain and see the continuity
of the third and fourth ventricles.
Diagram!

VI. The eye.

Divide one into two lateral halves, and the other

into anterior and posterior halves.
Observe :

1. The two humors.

2. The sclerotic coat.

3. The choroid coat.

4. The retina.

5. The ora serrata.

6. The entrance of the optic nerve.

7. The pecten.

8. The ciliary processes.

9. The lens.

10. The iris.

11. The pupil.

VII. The Feather.

In a tail feather, note :
1. The stem (scapus), consisting of :

(a) The quill (calamus), the hollow proximal
part.

PIGEON. 127

(b) The shaft (rachis), the solid distal part.

2. The vane (vexillum), made up of barbs.

3. The inferior and the superior umbilicus.

Cut off a piece of the vexillum, socik it for a
few minutes in a small dish of alcohol to
remove the air, and examine in glycerine under
a high power.
Note the barbs, barbules, and barbicels. What

is the relation between the barbules and

the barbicels ?
Sketch, noting which is the proximal and

which the distal side ?

RABBIT.

I. External Characters.

1. The body consisting of :
(a) The head with :

(act) The mouth ; note the character of

the lips.
(bb) The nostrils ; note their relation to

the upper lip.

(cc) The vibrissse, or whiskers.
(del) The ears, with elongated pinnae.
(6) The neck, — short and thick.

(c) The trunk', made up of :

(aa) The thorax, the anterior part, pro-
tected by bony structures.
(bb) The abdomen, the posterior part,
with soft walls. Its openings are :
(aaa) The urino-genital opening in
the median line, lying near :
(bbb] The anus, also in the median
line, posterior to the urino-
genital opening.

Note in the female the mammae or teats, four
or five pairs on each side, near the ventral
median line.

In the male, slightly anterior to and at the
sides of the reproductive opening, the
scrotal sacs.

(d) The tail.

2. The fore and hind limbs.

128

RABBIT. 129

Each divided into three chief regions.
Count the number of digits.
II. Abdominal Yiscera.

Spread the animal out dorsal side dotvn with its
head hanging over the edge of the pan, and
fasten it down by the legs.

Make a shallow cut along the median ventral line
and skin the ventral and lateral regions of the
abdomen and thorax. (The skinning to be com-
pleted later.) Open the abdominal cavity by a cut
in the median ventral line.

1. What forms the anterior wall of the abdomi-

nal cavity ?

2. Identify the organs exposed to view ; e.g.,

the stomach, the liver, the intestine, etc.
Pass a single ligature around the oesophagus
near the cardiac end of the stomach^ and double
ligatures around the rectum about two inches
from the anus. Find the portal veint and double-
ligature it at a little distance from the liver. (So
that later the intestine may be taken out.)

3. Examine the intestine.
(a) In place, finding :

(aa) The pancreas and duct.

The pancreas consists of a number

of scattered masses lying in the

mesentery of the duodenum. Its

• duct opens into the ascending loop

of the duodenum, and is formed

130 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

by the union of numerous smaller
ducts from the different lobes of
the pancreas.

(bb) The gall-bladder and the common

bile-duct. The gall-bladder lies

posterior to one of the lobes of the

right side of the liver. Its duct

unites with a duct from each lobe

of the liver to form the common

bile - duct, which opens into the

duodenum close to the pylorus.

(6) Eemove the intestine (for directions see

the next following italicized paragraph)

and unravel and identify its different

parts. Diagrams ! In taking out the

intestine note the attachment of the

mesentery to the intestine and to the

body -wall. Compare its extent in one

of these regions with its extent in the

other.

To remove the intestine cut above the ligature on
'the oesophagus and between the double ligatures.
Ligature any large vein that it is needful to
cut through. Be careful not to injure the repro-
ductive organs.

Remove the eyes, carefully t with the muscles and
put tliem into formic aldehyde solution ( 1 to 2
per cent.).
Skin the headt ligature the vessels of the neck,

BABBIT. 131

and cut off the head. Open the skull to expose
the cerebrum and most of the cerebellum. Put
the head into formic aldehyde solution (1 to 2
per cent.).

Finish skinning the body (leaving the skin intact
in the region of the anus and the scrotal sacs).

III. The Thoracic Cavity.

Open the thorax without injuring the diaphragm by
a slit on each side of the sternum. Remove the
sternum.

1. Examine the structure of the diaphragm

(muscle, tendon).

2. Insert a blowpipe into the trachea and blow

up the lungs.

IV. The Circulatory System.

Open and cut away the pericardium. Dissect off
the fat and the connective tissue around the heart
and the vessels near to it.

In young animals the fat-like thymus gland is
very conspicuous in the anterior end of the
thorax, and sometimes it lies over the anterior
end of the heart.
Find the parts of the heart :
The right and left auricles.
The right and left ventricles. (If no division-
line can be seen, try to distinguish the two
ventricles by feeling the thickness of their
walls.)

132 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

A. The Veins.

Leave those in the posterior abdominal region
until after the reproductive organs, etc , have
been examined.
I. The Yense Cavse.

A diagram should be begun at an early stage in
the dissection of the veins, etc., and added to
as each new structure is seen.

The anterior venae cavse.

Opening into the right auricle the right anterior
vena cava, a large vein bringing blood from the
right arm and the right side of the head, etc.
It receives near the heart (best seen by turn-
ing the heart over to the left) :

1. The azygos vein which comes from the median

dorsal thoracic region, bringing blood from
the posterior intercostal spaces of both
right and left sides of the body.

2. Near the entrance of the azygos a smaller

vein, the right intercostal vein, bringing
blood from the right anterior intercostal
region.

3. Anterior to the intercostal vein a vertebral vein

from the brain and the spinal cord.
4 A small vein from the inner side of the ven-
tral wall of the thorax, the internal mam-
mary vein. Near the entrance of the in-
ternal mammary vein the anterior vena
cava is formed by the union of :

RABBIT. 133

5. The subclavian vein, a large vein from the

arm and shoulder, with :

6. The external jugular vein, from the superficial

parts of the head. The external jugular
vein near its union with the subclavian
vein receives :

(a) The internal jugular vein from the brain.
The left anterior vena cava, like the right an-
terior vena cava, except that it receives a
small coronary vein from the walls of the
heart, and does not receive an azygos vein.
The posterior vena cava, a large vein that empties
into the right auricle. It receives near the
heart :

1. The hepatic veins from the lobes of the liver.

2. Veins from the body-wall, one on each side,

entering the posterior cava close to or in
connection with :

3. The renal veins from the kidneys, one on each

side.

4 The spermatic (or ovarian) veins from the re-
productive organs.

The veins posterior to the spermatic veins
should be left until after the examination
of the reproductive organs, etc.

5. The ilio-lumbar veins from the posterior body-
wall. The left ilio-lumbar vein in some
rabbits does not enter the posterior cava
at the same level with its fellow of the op-

134 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

posite side, but runs anteriorly to about
the level of the left renal vein. In this
case the left spermatic vein empties into
the ilio-lumbar vein.

6. The external iliac veins, bringing blood from

the legs, from the bladder, and in the
female from the uterus.

7. The internal iliac veins, which by their union

form the posterior vena cava. They bring
blood from the postero-dorsal part of the
thighs.

II. The Portal System.

The portal vein enters the liver by a branch
to each lobe. (It is formed by veins from
the stomach, from the different regions of
the intestine, and from the spleen.)

III. The Pulmonary Veins.

(These are best seen when taking out the
heart and lungs, IV. C.) Two veins from
each lung which enter the dorsal side of
the left auricle.
B. The Arteries.

I. The aortic arch, arising from the left ventricle
and curving to the left to form in the median
dorsal line the dorsal aorta.
The aorta gives off the following arteries :
1. Near the beginning of the arch, a vessel to
the right, the innominate artery, which soon
divides to form :

RABBIT. 135

(a) The right subclavian artery. It divides

into :

(aa) The vertebral artery which passes
dorsally and toward the median
line.

(bb) The internal mammary artery to the
inner wall of the thorax. It sends
off five branches to the five ante-
rior intercostal spaces.
(cc) The brachial artery to the arm.
(b) The right common carotid artery.

2. The left common carotid artery, on the left of

the median line. (Not infrequently united
with 1.)

3. The left subclavian artery.

Its branches like those of the right side.

4. The thoracic arteries ; seven pairs to the

seven posterior intercostal spaces.

5. A little posterior to the diaphragm, the large

unpaired coeliac artery to the liver, the stom-
ach and the spleen.

6. The anterior mesenteric artery to the small

intestine, the pancreas, the coecum and the
colon. It arises near the coeliac artery.

7. The renal arteries, paired, to the kidneys.

8. The spermatic or ovarian arteries to the repro-

ductive organs.

(The arteries posterior to the spermatic,
etc., arteries should be left until after the

136 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

examination of the reproductive organs,
etc.)

9. The posterior mesenteric artery, unpaired, to
the rectum.

10. The sacral artery from the dorsal side of the

dorsal aorta, unpaired, to the tail.

11. The iliac arteries, the two branches into which

the dorsal aorta divides at its posterior
end. Each of these gives off:

(a) The ilio-lumbar artery to the body-wall,

and divides into :

(b) The internal iliac artery, to the pelvis.

(c) The external iliac artery, which gives off

an artery to the bladder and becomes
the femoral artery to the hind leg.
II. The Pulmonary Artery.

(These are best seen when taking out the

heart and lungs. IY. C.).
From the ventral side of the right ventricle
a vessel passes anteriorly, and, curving
around the dorsal side of the heart, divides
into right and left branches to the right
and left lungs.
Diagrams !

C. The heart. Find its parts again ; then liga-
ture the posterior vena cava near the
heart and take out the heart.
To remove the heart cut through all the veins and
arteries (leaving the ends attached to the heart

EABBIT. 137

as long as possible] except those connected with
the lungs. Take out heart and lungs and put
them into a dish of ivater.

1. Identify again the vessels entering and leav-

ing the heart.

Cut aivay the outer walls of both auricles and wash
out the Hood.

2. See the septum with the fossa ovalis, and the

entering veins.

Make with fine scissors a cut through the ventral
wall of the pulmonary artery and continue it
through the wall of the right ventricle.

Note :

3. The auriculo-ventricular (tricuspid) valve.

4. The ventricular septum.

5. The semilunar valves at the base of the

pulmonary artery.

6. Cut away the outer wall of the left ventricle

and compare its thickness with that of the
right ventricle.
Note in the left ventricle :

7. The auriculo-ventricular (mitral) valve.

8. The chordae tendinese.

9. The papillary muscles.

10. Compare 7, 8, and 9 with the corresponding

structures in the right ventricle.
Note :

11. The semilunar valves at the beginning of the

aortic arch.

138 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

V. The Excretory Organs.

1. Note the shape and position of the kidneys.

2. Trace the ureter from kidney to bladder.

3. Find the adrenal bodies.

4. Take out the kidneys. Cut one kidney into

halves lengthwise and horizontally, and the
other into halves transversely (correspond-
ing to these planes as the organs lay in the
body).
Note:

(a) The cortex.

(b) The medulla.

(c) The pelvic cavity.
Diagrams !

VI The Reproductive Organs.

1. Identify ovaries or testis (position best found
by following out the spermatic artery or
vein).

(a) Ovary : note the Fallopian tube and

funnel, the uterus, and the vagina.

(b) Testis : note its relation to the scrotal sac.

Carefully slit open one scrotal sac.

Look for the epididymis. Trace the vas

deferens.

With bone forceps or knife cut through the
symphysis pubis. In the female open the vagina
just below the uteri by a lateral cut, and continue
this to the external opening.

RABBIT. 139

(c) Find the urethra and open it to the blad-

der.

(d) Note the orifices of the ureters.

(e) Examine the openings of the uteri and slit

one open.

In the male open the urethra by a cut beginning at
the external opening and continue the cut to the
bladder.

(/} Observe the uterus masculinus.
(g) Note the relation of the vasa deferentia to

the ureters.

Make a diagram of a view from the side show-
ing the relations of ureter, bladder, vas
deferens (oviduct), urethra (vagina).
VII. Find the veins and arteries of the posterior
abdominal region and trace those of one
side into the leg.
VIII. Review the lobes and vessels of the liver and

take it out.
The Nervous System.

A. The Sympathetic Nervous System.

A chain of ganglia extending from head to
tail close to the vertebral column.
Kami communicantes connect them with
the spinal nerves. The ganglia of one
side are also connected by commissures
with those of the other side.

B. The Peripheral Nervous System, nerves

passing out from the brain and from

140 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

the spinal cord. Note especially at the level
of the shoulder :

1. The brachial plexus, made up of the 5th to

the 8th cervical and the 1st thoracic nerves
inclusive. It gives off four chief nerves ;
follow them out and see what regions they
innervate.
In the region of the leg :

2. The lumbro-sacral plexus, made up of the

5th to the 7th lumbar and of the 1st to the
3d sacral nerves, inclusive. It gives off
three chief nerves ; follow them out.
C. The Brain.
1. Externals.

With bone forceps cut away as much of the skull
as may be necessary to free the brain. Take
it out and put it into a dish of formic aldehyde
solution or of alcohol.
Find the parts visible on the surface.
On the dorsal side :

(a) The olfactory lobes.

(b) The cerebral hemispheres.

(c) The pineal gland.

(d) The cerebellum.

(e) The medulla, etc.
On the ventral side :

(a) The olfactory lobes.

(b) The cerebral hemispheres.

(c) The optic nerves, chiasma, and tracts.

RABBIT. 141

(d) The pituitary body.

(e) The corpus mammillare.
(/) The crura cerebri.

(g) The pons Varolii.

(h) The cerebellum.

(i) The ventral pyramids.

(k) The medulla.

Sketch the dorsal and the ventral aspect.
2. Section.
Remove the right half of the cerebellum by a median

longitudinal cut.

(a) See the relation of the parts beneath (4th

ventricle, corpora quadrigemina) with-
out further cutting.
Remove the other half of the cerebellum.

(b) The cerebrum.

Make a horizontal cut in the right hemisphere to
expose the lateral ventricle.

Observe the hippocampus and see the succes-
sion of the optic thalami, the corpora quad-
rigemina, the third and fourth ventricles.

(c) The cerebrum, left hemisphere.

Make a frontal section half -ivay from front to back,
or cut off a series of thin sections until the same

<AJ */

region is reached, and observe again the same
parts.
X. The eye.

Divide one into two lateral halves and the other
into anterior and posterior halves.

. > . •

142 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Find:

1. The sclerotic coat. 7. The tapetum.

2. The choroid coat. 8. The lens.

3. The retina. 9. The iris.

4. The ora serrata. 10. The pupil.

5. The ciliary processes. 11. The humors.

6. The blind spot.

XI. 1. The Ear. Identify as much as possible.

2. The Teeth,, Examine, their fgrm^osition, * ••- ^

1. Hip and knee. Cut into them arrfl see

construction.

2. Kemove the muscle, etc., fro)ii two cervical

vertebrae and examine their articulation.

EMBRYOLOGY.
FBOG.

I. Two-, four-, and eight-celled stages.*

Study in a watch-glass with a hand-lens. Do
not touch the eggs ; if it is necessary to turn
them over, do so with a stream from a pipette or
roll them over ly tipping the watch-glass.

Make three sketches of each stage :

1. From the dark pole.

2. From the light pole.

3. From the side half-way between 1 and 2.

II. Gastrula, surface view. Three stages.
Examine as in I.

Note the formation of the blastopore.
Sketch.

III. Blastula. Prepared section. /Sketch.
Study with microscope.

IY. Gastrula. Prepared section. Sketch.

Study with microscope.

Y. Closure of the blastopore and the formation and
closure of the medullary folds. Two stages.
Sketch.

Study in a watch-glass with a hand-lens.
VI. The appearance of the adhesive glands, the eyes,
the nasal pits, the mouth, and the gills ; and
the formation of the operculum. Four stages,
Sketch.

* When preserved in a dilute aqueous solution of formic alde-
hyde (1-2 per cent., see page 95) the egg-membranes retain their
transparency and the egg has a perfectly normal appearance.

143

144 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Study in a watch-glass with a hand-lens.

VII. Observe the circulation in the gills of a living

tadpole.

Examine in a little water in a watch-glass with
microscope , AA 2.

VIII. The early embryo. Prepared transverse

section. Study with AA 2 and D 2.

1. The ectoblast (two-layered).

2. The neural tube.

3. The notochord.

4. The archenteron.

5. The mesoblast.

(a) Somatic.

(b) Splanchnic.
Sketch, much enlarged.

IX. The dissection of the tadpole.

Dissect under ivater. Pin the tadpole, dorsal side
down, through the ba.se of the tail and the roof
of the mouth.

Observe :

1. The mouth and the horny teeth.

2. The eyes. Are eyelids present?

3. The water-pore from the branchial chamber.

On which side is the pore ?

4. The anus.

Open the abdomen by a median incision of the ventral

body-wall.
Note:

5. The coiled intestine. Uncoil it.

EMBRYOLOGY. 145

6. The liver.

7. The pancreas.

8. The lungs.

9. The heart.

10. The kidneys, pronephros or mesonephros.

11. The reproductive organs.

Push a bristle into the water-pore, and then carefully
open the branchial chamber.

12. Examine the internal gills and arches.

13. Count the number of arches.

14. Look for the first pair of feet.

15. Open the pericardium.

16. Find:

(a) The ventricle.

(6) The auricles.

(c) The sinus venosus and its branches.

(d) The aortic bulb, divided into two parts

and each of these again into three parts.
Trace these to the gill-arches. Note
that the branch to the third arch divides
again.

Open the mouth and the pharynx by a ventral longi-
tudinal cut. See :

17. The sieve -like arrangement of the gill-arches.

18. The dorsal aorta, double in the gill region,

one on each side receiving the vessels from
the gills.

19. Find the posterior feet.

20. Of what structures is the tail made up ?

14:6 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

CHICK.
I. The Egg.

1. Raw egg.

Holding the egg in the left hand with its rounded
end toward the right, make a small opening (by
tapping with the points of tJie large scissors) in
the rounded end.
Note:

(a) The shell.

(b) Two membranes.

(c) The air-space between the two membranes.
With large scissors cut an oval piece from the top

of the shell.

Look in and identify the parts :

(d) The white, with chalazse.

(e) The yolk with the blastoderm.
Diagram !

Enlarge the opening and gently pour the, egg into a
dish.
Does the yolk mingle with the white ?

2. Boiled egg.

Remove the shell, finding again the mem-
branes and the air-space.

With the rounded end to the left try to take
off the white by unwinding it spirally from
left to right.

Find the blastoderm. With a razor divide
the yolk into halves, catting- through the
middle of the blastoderm. Try to see :

EMBRYOLOGY. 147

(/) The urn in the centre, — its neck extend-
ing to the blastoderm.

(g) The alternate layers of white and of yel-
low yolk.
Diagram 1

In the following work the students should
leave the slides in the trays on their tables
at the end of the laboratory period. If a
particular slide is wanted again, its number
should be entered by the student on the
card that is hanging up for the purpose.

II. The Unincubated Blastoderm.
Examine first tvith A A 2, then with D 2.

1. Surface view. Observe the relative size of

the cells in the middle and at the periphery.

2. Section.

Sketch with D 2 the cell-outlines in a small portion
of (1) and (2) accurately, and on a large scale.

III. The Early First Day.

1. The primitive streak. Surface view.
Study with AA 2. Sketch carefully.

2. The medullary folds. Surface view.

Study ivith A A 2, then with D 2. Sketch carefully.

3. Sections :

(a) Primitive streak. (Single section.)

(b) Medullary folds. (Single section.)

(c) The early first day chick. (Complete

series.)

148 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Study (a) and (6) ; then begin at the posterior
end (why?) of (c), and going toward the
anterior find the regions of the primitive
streak and medullary folds. Observe in
the medullary-fold region the notochord
and the mesoblast. In which region are
the medullary folds most nearly closed ?
After studying (c), sketch (a) and (b) with AA
2, after having examined them with D 2.
Sketch the outlines of the different germ-
layers with a black pencil and fill in the
space between with faint color, using al-
ways the same color for the same germ-
layer.
IV. The Late First Day.

1. Surface. Sketch with AA 2.

2. Sections.

Begin at the posterior end of the series.
Observe :

(a) The primitive streak.

(b) The medullary folds.

(c) The mesoblast.

Somatic layer.
Splanchnic layer.
Mesoblastic somites.

(d) The notochord.

(e) The closure of the medullary folds to form

the neural canal.
(/} The closure of the archenteron.

EMBRYOLOGY. 149

(g) The formation of the head by lateral and

anterior folds.

Sketch five or more different regions.
V. The Second Day.

1. Surface.
Observe :

(a) The area vasculosa.

(b) The sinus terminalis.

(c) The amnion.

(d) The vesicles of the brain.

(e) The eye.
(/) The ear.

(g) The lateral outline of the embryo.

(h) The omphalo-mesenteric veins and the heart.

(t) The dorsal aortse (?).

After studying the heart and veins from the

dorsal side, turn the slide over and examine

the ventral aspect.
Sketch under AA 2.

2. Sections.

Beginning at the posterior end observe the
structures seen in the first day (see IV. 2.
(a-g.), and In addition :

(a) The Wolffian ducts.

(b) The dorsal aortse.

(c) The spinal ganglia.

(d) The omphalo-mesenteric veins.

(e) The heart.

(/) The auditory vesicles.

150 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

(g) The aortic arches. What is their relation

to the pharynx ?
(h) The optic vesicles.
(i) The amnion.
Sketch six different regions.
VI. The Third Day.

1. Surface.

Note the curvature of the embryo; upon

which side does it lie ?
Note the cranial flexure.
Review the structures seen in the second day

and observe their further development.
New structures :
(a) The anterior vitelliue vein. What is the

course of the blood within it ?
(6) The gill-slits.

(c) The lens of the eye.

(d) The nasal pits.

(e) The allantois. (Possibly not yet visible.)
Sketch.

2. Sections.

Begin in the middle region (where the ar-
chenteron is still open). Make one sketch.
Then work backward into the tail-fold and
make out its structure completely.

Find the section where the dorsal aortse pass
out into the area vasculosa.

What is the origin of the allantois ?
A.t least two sketches desirable.

EMBRYOLOG Y. 1 51

Work thence forward through the head-fold
and make out all its relations.

Observe : the vitelline veins, the ducts of
Cuvier, the heart (follow out its turns), the
pericardia! cavity, the aortic arches.

Now begin at the front end of the series and,
remembering the cranial flexure, make out
the various parts of the brain, the develop-
ment of the eye, the internal ear, the olfac-
tory pits, the gill-slits (in the neck region),
the - archenteron and its derivatives : the
lungs, the liver, and the pancreas (?).

Study also the origin of the cranial nerves

and the Wolffian ducts and their tubules.
Sketches to show these structures.
3. The living embryo.
With the points of strong scissors pierce the broad

end of the shell to allow the air to escape.

Place the egg in warm normal salt solution

(38 degrees (7.,) cut away or break away with

forceps the upper part of the shell, and examine

in situ.

Observe ivith a hand-lens :

(a) The blastoderm and its areas.

(6) The position and form of the embryo.

(c) The heart, etc.
With fine sharp scissors cut through the blastoderm

entirely around the outside of the area vascu-

losa, float it off into a thin watch-glass, care-

152 GENERAL BIOLOGY.

fully remove from the salt solution, and exam-
ine with a hand-lens and with A A 2.
Study at first the circulation, the gill-slits,
and the movements of the heart. Then
review as far as possible the general
anatomy.
VII. The Fourth Day.

1. The formation of the face.
With a razor cut off the head dose "behind the last
gill-slit. With fine forceps remove the parts
of the heart, etc. , that are attached to the gill-
region. Fix the head, dorsal side down, in a
small dish of alcohol, and with a hand-lens
study and sketch the ventral and lateral
aspects.
Find:

(a) The naso-frontal process.
(6) The nasal pits.

(c) The eyes.

(d) The mouth.

(e) The superior maxillary process.
(/) The visceral arches.

What structures are visible in section on the

cut surface.
Till. Older Stages.

Examine for the amnion and the allantois,

and for the development of the face, the

limbs, and the feathers, and for the changes

of the yolk-stalk.

INDEX.

Abdomen, 67, 128
Abdominal ganglia, 73
Adductor muscles, 58, 59
Adductor muscle, anterior, 59
Adductor muscle, posterior, 59,

61,65

Adhesive glands, 143
Adrenal bodies, 106, 123, 138
Aerial hyphae, 40
Air-bladder, 114
Air-bubbles, 6
Air-sacs, 117, 118
Air-space, 146
Albumen, 146
Aleuroue, 90, 91
Alimentary canal, 16, 17, 23
Allantois, 150, 152
Amaryllidacege, 86
Amaryllideae, 86
Amaryllis, 86
Amnion, 149. 150, 152
Ampelopsis 80, 81
Anal spot, 30, 33
Augiosperm, 80
Annual rings, 79
Annular vessels, 81, 82
Aunulus, 11, 43
Antennae. 67, 74
Autenuules, 67, 74
Anterior adductor muscle, 59
Anterior commissure, 125
Anterior folds, 149
Anterior median seminal vesicle,

19
Anterior nares, 96

Anterior retractor muscle, 59
Antero-posterior differentiation,

14

Anther, 85
Antheridium, 12, 77
Antibrachium, 96, 129
Anus, 15, 61, 67, 113, 128, 144
Aortic arches, 16, 103, 104, 150,

151

Aortic bulb, 115, 145
Aperture, exhalent, 59
Aperture, inhalent, 59
Appendages, 67, 73, 74
Appendages, pyloric, 114
Aqueous humor, 126, 142
Archegonium, 12, 77
Archenteron, 144, 148, 151
Arches, aortic, 16, 103, 104, 150,

151

Arches, visceral, 152
Area vasculosa, 149, 150, 151
Arteries :

abdominal superior, 69

antennary, 69

aorta, 122, 134

dorsal aorta, 104, 115, 122, 123,
134, 136, 145, 149, 150

ventral aorta, 115

aortic arches, 16, 103, 104, 150,
151

brachial, 122, 135

carotid, 104

carotid arch, 104

caudal, 123

cephalic circle, 115

153

154

INDEX.

Arteries, cceliac, 104, 123, 135

cceliaco-meseuteric, 104

common carotid, 122, 135

cutaneous, 104

femoral, 122, 136

genital, 105

hepatic, 69

hypogastric, 105

iliac, 136

iliac common, 105

iliac external, 136

iliac internal, 123, 136

ilio-lumbar, 136

innominate, 122, 134

internal mammary, 135

lingual, 104

mesenteric, 105

mesenteric anterior, 122, 135

mesenteric inferior, 105

mesenteric posterior, 123, 136

ophthalmic, 69

ovarian, 135

pectoral, 122

pulmonary, 123, 136

pulmonary arch, 104

renal, 105, 122, 135

sacral, 136

sciatic, 105, 122

spermatic, 135

sternal, 69

subclavian, 104, 122, 135

thoracic, 135

vertebral, 104, 135
Ascospores, 37,
Asexual generation, 7, 77
Auditory openings, 67
Auditory vesicles, 149
Auricle, 61, 65, 100, 115, 120,

131, 145

Auriculo-ventricular valves, 137
Axial filament, 34
Axial strand, 76
Axillary air-sacs, 118

Bacteria-cultures, 46, 47
Barbicels, 127
Barbs, 54, 127

Barbules, 127

Basic! ia, 40

Bast-cells, 81

Bast-fibres, 9

Bast-vessels, 9

Bean, 87, 90, 91, 92

Bilateral symmetry, 14 •

Bile-duct, 100, 130

Bladder, 99, 139

Blastoderm, 146, 147, 151

Blastopore, 143

Blastula, 143

Blind spot, 126, 142

Blood-vessel, dorsal, 13, 16

Body, 128

Body-cavity, 16

Body- wall, 16, 98

Bojanus, organ of, 62, 65

Brachial nerve, 110

Brachial plexus, 110, 124, 140

Brachium, 96, 129

Brain, 107, 124, 140, 141

Brain- cavities, 109

Brain, vesicles of, 149, 151

Branchiae, 60, 64, 65

Branchial chamber, 60, 65, 144

Branchial nerve, 62

Branchio-cardiac groove, 66

Branchiostegites, 66

Brownian movement, 45

Bubbles of air, 6

Buccal cavity, 97

Buccal pouch, 17, 21

Buckwheat, 87, 88, 92

Bud, 36, 53, 78, 82

Bud-scales, 82, 83

Bulbus, 115, 145

Bundle, fibro vascular, 8, 9, 10.

79, 80, 81, 82
Bundle-sheath, 9, 82

Calamus, 126
Calciferous glands, 18, 19
Calyptra, 77
Calyx, 84, 85
Cambium, 80
Canal, sternal, 72

INDEX.

155

Capsule, 11, 77

Capsulogenous glands, 14

Carapace, 66

Castor-oil beau, 87, 88, 91

Cauda equina, 108

Caulicle, 89

Cavities of brain, 109

Cavity, buccal, 97

Cavity, pericardial, 61, 62, 115

Cell-division, 29

Central nervous system, 20, 72,

106

Cephalic circle, 115
Cephalothorax, 66
Cerebellum, 108, 124, 140, 141
Cerebral ganglia, 21, 23, 66
Cerebral hemispheres, 107, 108,

109, 124, 125, 140, 141
Cerebral peduncles, 126
Cerebro-splanchuic commissure,

63

Cervical groove. 66
Chalaza, 87
Chalazse. 146

Chamber, branchial, 60, 65
Chamber, cloacal, 60, 61
Chamber, suprabranchial, 60, 65
Chemical experiments, 32, 35,

37

Chloragogue cells, 18
Chordae tendineae, 137
Choroid coat, 111, 126, 142
Choroid plexus, 108
Chromatophore, 27, 29, 49
Cilia, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35
Ciliary processes, 126, 142
Ciliated rosettes, 19
Circle, cephalic, 115
Circular vessels, 17
Circuino3sophageal commissure,

21, 23, 72
Clitellum, 14
Cloaca, 123

Cloacal chamber, 60, 61
Cnidoblasts, 53, 55, 56
Cnidocil, 53
Coalom, 16

Commissure anterior, 125
Commissure cerebro-splanclmic,

63
Commissure circuinoesophageal,

21, 23,72

Commissure optic, 125
Commissure posterior, 125
Conidia, 40
Conidiophores, 40
Conjugation, 35
Connective, 85

Contractile vacuole, 24, 31, 34
Conus, 115
Cork, 80
Cornea, 111
Corolla, 84, 85
Corpora quadrigemina, 141
Corpus mammillare, 141
Corpus striatum, 125
Cortex, 138
Cortical layer, 41, 42
Cortical parenchyma, 80
Cotyledons, 88, 89, 92
Coxopodite, 67
Cranial flexure, 150, 151
Cranial nerves, 151
Crop, 17, 116, 119
Crura cerebri, 109, 141
Crus, 96, 129
Crystalloids, 91
Cultures, of bacteria, 46, 47
Currents in entoplasm, 31, 34
Curvature of embryo, 150
Cuticle, 16, 22, 30, 34, 66
Cuvierian ducts, 115, 151

Daffodil, 86
Dehiscence, 12
Diaphragm, 131
Dicotyledon, 80, 91
Differentiation, an tero- posterior,

14

Differentiation, dorso-ventral, 14
Digestive gland, 65, 71
Digits, 96, 129
Disk, 33, 35
Dissepiments, 16

156

INDEX.

Division, cell, 29

Division, endogenous, 28, 37

Division, nuclear, 94

Dorsal blood-vessel, 13, 16

Dorsal fissure, 108

Dorsal pores, 15

Dorso- ventral differentiation, 14

Drops, oil, 6

Ducts of Cuvier, 115, 151

Ducts, Wolffian, 149, 151

Duodenum, 99, 100, 119, 122, 129

Dura mater, 107

Ear, 128, 142, 149, 151
Early embryo, 144
Ectoblast, 144
Ectoplasm, 24, 30, 34
Egg, 146
Egg-capsule, 22
Egg-membranes, 143, 146
Egg-shell, 146
Elder, 82

Embryo, early, 144
Endogenous division, 28, 37
Endopbragmal skeleton, 72
Endopbragmal system, 72
Endosperm, 88, 89
Entoplasm, 24, 31, 34
Entoplasm, currents in, 31, 34
Epidermis, 7, 9, 10, 11, 75, 80,

81, 83, 84
Epididymis, 138
Epipbragma, 78
E pis tome, 33
Erect hyphae, 40
Eustacbian recesses, 97
Excretory openings, 61, 67, 139
Exbalent aperture, 59
Exoskeleton. 66, 73
Eye, 96, 111, 126, 141, 142, 143,

144, 149, 150, 151, 152
Eyelids, 96

Face, 152

Falciform ligament, 117, 119
Fallopian tube, 138
Fat-bodies, 100

Fat-drops, 36, 40

Feather, 126, 127

Feathers, arrangement of, 116

Feathers, development of, 152

Feet, 145

Femur, 96, 112, 129

Fibrovascular bundle, 8, 9, 10,

11, 80, 81, 84
Ficus elastica, 83
Filament, 85
Filament, axial, 34
Filum terminate, 108
Fission, 35
Fissure, dorsal, 108
Flagella, 29
Folds, anterior, 149
Folds, lateral, 149
Folds, medullary, 143, 147, 148
Food-vacuoles, 24, 31, 34
Foot, 52, 60, 65
Foramen of Monro, 109
Formalin, 95

Formic aldehyde, 95, 96, 143
Fossa oval is, 137
Fourth ventricle, 125
Frond, 7
Frontal spine, 66
Fundamental parenchyma, 8, 9,

81,82

Fuuiculus, 87
Funnel, 19, 138
Furcula, 118

Gall-bladder, 99, 113, 130
Ganglion, cerebral, 21, 23, 63

parieto-splanchuic, 02, 65

pedal, 63

spinal, 149

subcesophageal, 21

supracesophaii'eal, 72

thoracic, 72

visceral, 62, 65
Gastric teeth, 71
Gastrocnernius muscle, 111
Gastrula, 143
Gemmation, 37
Generation asexual, 7, 77

INDEX.

157

Generation sexual, 12, 75
Genital openings, 67
Geranium, 84

Gills, 60, 64, 65, 66, 73, 113
Gills, circulation in, 144, 152
Gills, internal, 145
Gill-arches, 145
Gill-clefts, 113
Gill-slits, 150, 151
Gizzard, 17, 119, 122
Gland-cells, 55
Gland, digestive, 65
Gland, pineal, 107, 140
Glands, adhesive, 143
Glands, calciferous, 18, 19
Glands, capsulogeuous, 14
Glands, green, 71
Globoids, 91
Glochidia, 64
Glottis, 97, 99
Gonidia. 42
Gonidial layer, 41
Gray, 86
Green glands, 71
Groove, branchio-cardiac, 66
Groove, cervical, 66
Guard-cells, 10, 11, 83
Gymnosperin, 79

Hay infusion, 47

Head, 96, 116, 128, 149

Head-fold, 149, 151

Heart, 61, 68, 98, 100, 114, 119,

131, 136, 137, 145, 149, 151,

152

Hilum, 87
Hip- joint 142
Hippocampus, 141
Horse-chestnut, 82
Humor aqueous, 126, 142
Humor vitreous, 111, 126, 142
Hyacinth, 83
Hydra mridis, 53, 55
Hyphae, 40, 42, 43, 44
Hyphae aerial, 40
Hyphae erect, 40
Hypocotyl, 92

Hypodermis, 16
Hypostome, 52

Indian corn, 81, 87, 88, 92
India-rubber tree, 83
Indusium, 7, 11
Infundibulum, 125
Inhalent aperture, 59
Intercellular spaces, 84, 90
Interclavicular air-sac, 118
Internode, 7
Interstitial cells, 55, 56
Intestine, 71, 99, 113, 117, 119,

129, 133, 144
Iris, 126, 142

Keel, 117

Kidneys, 108, 114, 123, 138, 145

Knee-joint, 142

Labial palps, 60, 61, 65

Lateral folds, 149

Lateral ventricle, 125

Lamellae, 43, 44

Lamina, 7

Layer cortical, 41, 42

Layer gonidial, 41

Layer medullary, 42

Layer muscular, 16

Leguminosae, 86

Lemna, 82

Lens, 111, 126, 142, 150

Ligament, falciform, 117, 119

Liliacese, 86

Lily, 86

Limbs, 96, 128, 152

Lips, 128

Liver, 98, 99, 101, 113, 119, 129,

130, 145, 151
Lobe, 7, 85

Lobes, olfactory, 107, 108, 140

Lobes, optic, 108

Lobule, 7

Lumbar plexus, 124

Liimbricus terrestris, 13

Lurnbro-sacral plexus, 140

Lungs, 93, 99, 145, 151

158

INDEX.

Macronucleus, 81, 32

MacrozoSspores, 28

Mammae, 128

Mandible, 74

Mantle, 58, 59, 65

Mantle-cavity, 60

Mauus, 96, 129

Mass, visceral, 60, 61, 65

Material, 27, 39, 48, 58, 66, 78,

83

Maxilla, 74

Maxillary process, superior, 152
Maxilliped, 73, 74
Mechanical experiments, 25
Medulla, 138
Medulla oblongata, 108, 124, 140,

141

Medullary folds, 143, 147, 148
Medullary layer, 42
Medullary rays, 78, 80
Membrane, tympanic, 96
Mesenterou, 71
Mesentery, 99, 117, 129, 130
Mesoblast, 148

somatic, 144, 148

splanchnic, 144, 148
Mesoblastic somites, 148
Mesocarpus, 50
Mesonephros, 145
Mesophyll, 11
Metamerism, 14
Methods, 13, 25, 36, 50, 53, 54,

55, 58, 94, 95, 143
Micrometer, stage, 6
Micronucleus, 31, 32
Micropyle, 87, 88
Microzoospore, 29
Mitral valve, 137
Mnium, 76

Monocotyledon, 81, 92
Monro, foramen of, 109
Motile forms, 28, 29, 35
Mouth, 14, 17, 30, 33, 52, 61, 67,

97, 128, 143, 144, 152
Movement, Brownian, 45
Muller, 86
Muscle, adductor, 58, 59

Muscle, gastrocnemius, 111

papillary, 137

pectoralis major, 118

pectoralis minor, 118

sartorius, 111
Muscular layer, 16
Mustard, 82, 92
Mycelium, 39, 40, 43, 44

Narcissus, 86 *

Nares, anterior, 96

posterior, 97
Nasal pits, 143, 150, 152
Naso-frontal process, 152
Neck, 116, 128, 151
Nematocyst, 53, 54, 55
Nephridia, 16
Nephridial openings, 15
Nerve, brachial, 110

branchial, 62

cranial, 151

olfactory, 107, 108

optic, 140

pallial posterior, 62

sciatic, 110

septal, 21

spinal, 110

spinal thoracic, 124
Nerve-cord, ventral, 21, 23
Nerve-plexus, brachial, 110, 124,
140

lumbar, 124

lumbro sacral, 140

sciatic, 110, 124
Nervous system, 20, 106, 123,

139, 140

Nervous system, central, 20, 72,
106

peripheral, 21, 110, 124, 139

sympathetic, 109, 123, 139
Nettle-batteries, 53, 54
Neural tube, 144
Mtella, 93
Node, 7
Nostrils, 128
Notochord, 144, 148
Nucellus, 87

INDEX.

159

Nuclear division, 94

(Esophagus, 17, 30, 31, 33, 70,

116, 119
Oil-drops, 6

Olfactory lobes, 107, 108, 140
Olfactory nerves, 107, 108, 124
Olfactory pits, 151
Olfactory tract, 107, 108
Ouion, 94
Oophore, 75
Oosphere, 12
Opening, urino-genital, 128

excretory, 67, 139

genital, 67

nephridial, 15
Operculum, 78, 113, 143
Ophthalmic artery, 69
Optic chiasma, 109, 125, 140

commissure, 125

lobes, 108, 124, 125, 126

nerves, 140

thalaini, 125, 141

tracts, 140

ventricle, 126

vesicle, 150
Ora serrata, 126, 142
Organ of Bojanus, 62, 65
Ostia, 68, 69

Ovary, 20, 70, 86, 105, 123, 138
Oviduct, 15, 20, 70, 105, 123, 139
Ovules, 85

Palisade-cells, 84
Pal Hal cavity, 60
Palps, labial, 60, 61, 65
Pancreas, 99, 119, 122, 129, 145,

151

Pancreas, duct of, 129, 130
Pansy, 87

Papillary muscles, 137
Paraffine thermometer, 25
Paraphyses, 77
Parenchyma, cortical, 80

fundamental, 8, 9, 81, 82

sclerotic, 7

wood, 81

Parieto-splanchnic ganglion, 62,

65

Parmelia, 41
Pea, 87, 88. 90, 91, 92
Pecten, 126

Pectoralis major muscle, 118
Pectoralis minor muscle, 118
Pectoralis secundus muscle, 118
Pedal ganglia, 63
Pedicel, 84
Peduncles, 126
Pelvic cavity of kidney, 138
Pelvis, 112
Pericardia! cavity, 61, 62, 114,

151

Pericardial sinus, 68
Pericardium, 145
Perichaetium, 75
Peripheral nervous system, 21.

110

Peristome, 33, 78
Pes, 96, 129
Petals, 85

Pharynx, 17, 97, 145, 150
Phloem, 80, 81
Phloem-parenchyma, 10
Phloem-sheath, 9
Physiological experiment, 38
Pia mater, 107
Pileus, 43

Pineal gland, 107, 140
Pinna, 7, 128
Pinnula, 7
Pistil, 84
Pith, 80
Pits, 79, 80

Pituitary body, 109, 125, 141
Plasmolysis, 49
Pleurococcus, 28, 29
Plumule, 88, 89
Pollen-grains, 85, 86
Polytrichum, 75
Pons Varolii, 141
Pontederia, 82
Pores, dorsal, 15
Posterior adductor muscle, 59,

61, 65

160

INDEX.

Posterior commissure, 125
Posterior median seminal vesicle,

19

Posterior nares, 97
Posterior pal Hal nerve, 62
Potato cultures, 46, 47
Pouch, buccal, 17, 21
Prebronchial air-sac, 118
Primitive streak, 147, 148
Primordial utricle, 49
Processes ciliary, 126, 142
Pronephros, 145
Prosenchyraa, 82
Prosenchyma sclerotic, 8, 9
Prostomium, 14
Prothallium, 12
Protonema, 78
Proventriculus, 119, 122
Pseudopodia, 24, 25
Pteris aquiliua, 7
Pupil, 126, 142
Pyloric appendages, 114
Pylorus, 130
Pyramids, 141
Pyrenoids, 49

Quill, 126

Rachis, 127
Radial symmetry, 53
Radicle, 88, 89
Rami communicantes, 139
Rays medullary, 79
Receptacle, 85
Receptacles seminal, 14, 20
Rectal cceca, 119
Rectum, 65, 119
Rete mirabile, 114
Retina, 111, 126, 142
Rhizoids, 41, 75, 76
Rhizome, 7, 8, 9, 10
Rings annual, 79
Root, 7, 82, 92, 93, 94
Root-cap, 82
Root-hair, 82
Root-sheath, 89
Rosettes, ciliated, 19

Rotation, 29

Sacs scrotal, 128, 138
Sartorius muscle, 111
Scale, 6
Scales, 15
Scaphognathite, 73
Scapus, 126
Sciatic nerve, 110

plexus, 110, 124
Sclerenchyma, 8
Sclerotic coat, 111, 126, 142

parenchyma, 7, 9

prosenchyma, 8, 9
Scrotal sacs, 128, 138
Scutellum, 89

Sedgwick and Wilson, 19, 22, 36
Seed-coats, 87, 89
Seeds, 87

Segmentation stages, frog, 143
Semilunar valves, 137
Seminal receptacles, 14, 20

vesicles, 16, 19

vesicle, anterior median, 19

vesicle, posterior median, 19
Sepals, 85
Septal nerves, 21
Septum, 137
Serial symmetry, 141
Seta, 14, 77
Seta-sac, 22

Sexual generation, 12, 75
Shaft, 127
Sheath, 34
Sieve-tubes, 9, 81
Sinus, pericardial, 68

terminalis, 149

venosus, 100, 102, 115, 145
Skeleton endophragmal, 72
Somites, 13

Somites mesoblastic, 148
Sorus, 7, 11

Spaces, intercellular, 84, 90
Spermatozoa, 19
Spermatozoid, 12
Spinal cord, 108, 109

ganglia, 149

INDEX.

161

Spiual uerves, 110

nerves, thoracic, 124
Spiue, frontal, 66
Spiral vessels, 81, 82
Spleen, 99, 114, 119, 122
Sporangium, 7, 11
Spore, 12, 39, 43, 77, 78
Sporophore, 77
Spot, anal, 30
Stage, micrometer, 6

warm, 25, 26
Stalk, 34, 35
Stamens, 84, 85
Starch, 9, 10, 37, 89, 90, 93
Stems, 126
Sterigmata, 40, 44
Sternal artery, 69

canal, 72
Sternum, 117
Stigma, 86
Stipe, 7, 43
Stoma, 10, 11, 83, 84
Stomach, 64, 70. 99, 113, 129
Stomach intestine, 17, 18
Strand, axial, 76
Streak, primitive, 147, 148
Subepidermis, 7, 8, 9, 76, 80, 81
Subcesophageal ganglion, 21
Superior abdominal artery, 69
Supporting lamella, 56
Suprabrauchial chamber, 60,

65

Supracesophageal ganglia, 72
Symmetry, bilateral, 14

radial, 53

serial, 14
Sympathetic ganglia, 110

nervous system, 109
Symphysis pubis, 138
System, eudophragmal, 72

nervous, 20

Tadpole, 144
Tail, 116, 128, 145
Tail-fold, 150
Tapetum, 142
Teeth, 97, 142, 144

Teeth, gastric, 71
of peristome, 78
Tel son, 73

Testis, 20, 70, 94, 106, 123, 138
Testis, cell-division in, 94
Thalamencephalon, 107
Thallus, 41, 42
Theca, 85

Thermometer, parnffine, 25
Third ventricle, 125
Thoracic ganglia, 72
Thorax, 128, 131
Thymus, 131
Tongue, 97
Trachea, 116, 131
Tracheae, 10, 81
Tracheids, 10, 79, 80, 81
Tradescantia, 93
Trichocyst, 32
Tricuspid valve, 137
Truncus arteriosus, 100, 103
Trunk, 96, 116, 128
Tuber cinereum, 109
Tympanum, 96, 97
Tympanic membrane, 96
Typhlosole, 18, 64

Umbilicus inferior, 127

superior, 127
Ureter, 106 123, 138, 139
Uterus, 138

Uterus masculinus, 139
Urethra, 139
Urine-genital opening, 128

pouch, 123
Urn, 147
Utricle, primordial, 49

Vacuole, 40

Vacuole, contractile, 24, 31, 34

food, 24, 31, 34

water, 24, 31, 34
Vagina, 138
Valve, mitral, 137

semilunar, 137

tricuspid, 137
Vane, 127

162

INDEX.

Vas deferens, 15, 19, 70, 123, 138,

139

Vasa efferentia, 106
Vein, abdominal anterior, 98,
100, 101, 102

azygos, 132

brachial, 103, 120

caudal, 120

coccygeo-iuesenteric, 120, 121

coronary, 133

epigastric, 119

femoral, 101, 120

gastric, 102, 121

gastro-duodeual, 121

genital, 102

hepatic, 102, 113, 114, 121,
133

hepatic portal, 102

hepatic portal system, 121

hypogastric, 120, 121

iliac, 120, 134

iliac, external, 134

iliac, internal, 120, 134

ilio-lumbar, 133

innominate, 103

intercostal, 132

intestinal, 102

jugular, 102, 103, 120, 133

lingual, 103

mammary internal, 132

maxillary inferior, 103

meseuteric anterior, 121

mesenteric posterior, 120, 121

musculo-cutaneous, 98, 103

omphalo-mesenteric, 149

ovarian, 133

pectoral, 120

pelvic, 101

portal, 121, 134

precaval, 115

pulmonary, 122, 134

renal portal, 101

renal, 102, 121, 133

sciatic, 101, 121

spermatic, 133

splenic, 102

subclavian, 103, 133

Vein, subscapular, 103

vena cava, 62, 65

vena cava anterior, 120, 132,

133

inferior, 102
posterior, 120, 133
superior, 102, 103

vertebral, 120, 132

vitelline, 150, 151

vitelline, anterior, 150
Velum, 43

Ventral nerve-cord, 21, 33
Ventral pyramids, 141
Ventricle, 61, 05, 100, 115, 120,

131, 145

Ventricle, fourth, 108, 109, 125,
141

lateral, 109, 125

optic, 109, 126

third, 109, 125, 141
Vertebra, 142
Vesicles, auditory, 149

of braiu, 149, 151

optic, 150

seminal, 16, 19
Vessels, annular, 81, 82

circular, 17

spiral, 81, 82
Vestibule, 30, 33
Vexillum, 127
Vibrissse, 128
Violacese, 86
Violarieae, 86
Violet, 86, 87
Visceral arches, 152

ganglion, 62, 65

mass, 60, 61, 65
Vitellus, 146, 147
Vitreous humor, 111, 126, 142

Warm stage, 25, 26
Water-pore, 144
Water- vacuole, 24, 31, 34
Wheat, 87, 89, 90, 92
Whiskers, 128
Whorl. 84
Wickersheimer's fluid, 95

INDEX.

Wolffian ducts, 149, 151
Wood-pareuchyma, 10, 81

Xylem, 10, 80, 81
Yolk, 146, 147

Yolk-stalk, 152

Zoochlorella, 55
Zooglcea, 46
Zoospore, 28, 29
Zyguerna, 50

163

January, 1898.

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