A LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY WILDER A LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY 01 total sagittal arc [22] . , occipital arc [41] X 100 (/) Occipito-saqittal arc index — — rr—, rrtm total sagittal arc [22] 11. Indices indicating the amount of curvature (bulging) of each of the three contour bones of the cranium. . . frontal chord [42] X 100 (a) Frontal curvature index - — : — —, F^J — frontal arc [39] parietal chord [43] X 100 (6) Parietal cunature index — — ^— -, TTTTJ — parietal arc [40] occipital chord [44] X100 (c) Occipital cunature index - — . .. , f-pn — occipital arc [41] 12. 13. Indices of the separate portions of the frontal and occipital arcs. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 65 The frontal and occipital arcs admit each of a separation into two parts, the proportions of which are of significance. The frontal arc is divided by the supraglabellare into a pars glabellaris and a pars cerebralis; the occipital is divided by the inion into an upper and a lower scale (squama). In each case the various measurements of arcs and chords may be compared by the use of indices and give details concerning the contour of the bones in question. Those which concern the forehead are of especial significance. 12. Indices of the frontal curvature . chord of pars glabellaris [g - sg] X 100 12 (a) Glabellar curvature index — ,. — r-^ arc ot pars glabellaris [This gives the amount of projection (bulging) of the supra- orbital region, and is especially useful in" comparing the Neandertal and other prehistoric types with the present species; also in the study of Australians, and other primitive races]. 12M Cerebral curvature index ch°rd °f pafS cerebralis ^ ~ 61 X 10° ±£\U } lw/c/t'C//Ci6 t/M'/C'til'M'/t/ C'/C'tC'C/*!/ P 11* arc of pars cerebralis 12(«) Glabello-cerebral index ch<"? «»? &**®*°> fr-*1 X 100 chord of pars cerebralis [sg — b] 13. Indices of the occipital curvature . , chord of upper scale [I — i] X 100 13(o) Upper scale cunature index - — — ^-— — — j_ chord of lower scale [i — o] X 100 13(6) Lower scale curvature index- arc of lower scale 13(c) Upper and lower scale index (chords) chord of lower scale [i — o] X 100 chord of upper scale [Z — i] . arc of lower scale X 100 13(d) Upper and lower scale index (arcs) arc of upper scale [The two last indices give the relative position of the inion.] 14. Index of the occipital foramen breadth of foramen occipitale [216] X 100 length of foramen occipitale [21a] [Like other indices, this gives the shape rather then the size. These indices may be classified as narrow, below 82; average, 82-86; and broad, from 86 on.] II. INDICES OF THE FACE* _. i , , . 7 . nasion-gnathion line [11] X 100 15. Total facial index rr— - —• — r ,.u ro1 — bizygomatic breadth [8] *Cf. Marie Sawalischin, in Archiv f. Anthropologie, Bd. 8, 1909., pp. 298-307. 5 66 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY hypereury-prosopic below 80 euryprosopic 80-85 mesoprosopic 85-90 leptoprosopic 90-95 hyperleptoprosopic 95+ [Various facial lengths, other than the one used here, have been employed by certain anthropometrists, such as the length from the ophryon, or the supra-orbitale, instead of the nasion. For the facial breadth, both here and in the next, Virchow used the zygomaxillare instead of the zygion, and made the breadth zm-zm, instead of zy-zy.] nasion-prosthion line [12] X 100 16. Superior facial index - . . —-. — -, — bizygomatic breadth [8] hypereuryene below 45 euryene 45-50 mesene 50-55 leptene 55-60 hyperleptene 60+ [The suffix "-ene," in the form -en, was first proposed by Martin in 1914 to distinguish between the adjectives used for the total face and the upper face. It is derived from an old Greek root, akin to the Sanskrit Ana-s, the mouth, and surviving only in a few adjectives, with the meaning of Face; yvcs, irpo1 maximum cranial breadth [2] 68 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY nasion-prosthion line [12] X 100 30. Vertical cramo-facial index ,. basion-bregma line [4a] IV. INDICES EMPLOYING THE LINES DERIVED FROM A MEDIAN SAGITTAL CRANIOGRAM Since certain lines and linear measurements, as stated above, may be taken either direct or by means of the median sagittal craniogram, necessitating their appearance in two places, so is also the case with the indices constructed from them; and, as in the former case, certain in- dices are here repeated, always with their old numbers. basion-bregma height [4a] X 100 2. Length-height index — : — J, { . — maximum cranial length [1] [For classification of the resulting indices, see above.] , , calvarial height [48] X 100 5. Calvanal height index - — : r- ? — ^ — roo1 — nasion-mion line [33] [The calvarial height is to be taken fiom the craniogram; the nasion-inion line from either the same source, or by direct measurement]. . , nasion to foot of bregma perpendicular X 100 6. Breqma position index — — = — . . .. nasion-inion line [As in the last two, the numerator is measured upon the cranio- gram; the denominator by either method. The lesser the value of the index the further forward the bregma position, and con- sequently the more erect the position of the frontal bone]. OD T .. ,. 7 . , . 7 . , basion-prosthion line [10] X 100 28. Longitudinal cranio-facial index - — r4- maximum cranial length [1] nasion-prosthion line [12] X 100 30. Vertical cramo-facial index — ; — ^- — ^— — , . . basion-bregma height [4a] , , lambda calvarial height [49] X 100 31. Lambda calvarial height index - — = — — , , °- — ,'-. nasion-lambda line [46] [As in the last, both measures may be taken from the craniogram; or the nasion-lambda may be measmred direct]. 00 r, . 7 ,. , . , frontal perpendicular [51] X 100 32. Frontal perpendicular index - frontal chord [42] [The lower this index the flatter the forehead. This has nothing to do with the position of the contour line, i.e., whether the forehead is "high" or "retreating," but refers solely to the shape of the contour, however placed with reference to the entire skull]. , . 7 . , parietal perpendicular [52] X 100 33. Parietal perpendicular index - . . , — ; — parietal chord [43] [A low index signifies a flat contour]. rk. .. i j. 7 . j occipital perpendicular [53] X 100 34. Occipital perpendicular index - occipital chord [44] [A low index signifies a flat contour]. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 69 V. INDICES OF WEIGHT AND CAPACITY [Various indices of weight and capacity have been employed, but comparisons can be made only in the case of skulls in about the same condition with respect to dryness, and where nothing of the bone substance has been lost through decay or weathering. The following are some of the most important, and are suggestive of further study along this line]. 35. Calvario-cerebral weight index weight of skull, without mandible X 100 cranial capacity [Here, as elsewhere when capacity is compared with weight, the weight must be in grams, the capacity in cubic centimeters] ,,,.,, , . . ,, . , weight of mandible X 100 36. Mandwulo-cereoral weight index — 5 — :— = — — r— cranial capacity [Here, and in all indices involving the weight of the mandible, as in the two below, the mandible is supposed to have a full com- plement of teeth. Some operators have a lot of odd teeth and find a corresponding tooth for each one gone, which is to be weighed with the jaw. Others add an average weight (1.25 g.) for each tooth missing]. weight of mandible X 100 37. Calvario-mandibular weight index 38. Femero-cranial weight index weight of skull alone weight of skull without mandible X 100 weight of the two femora Angles Angles. — The great majority of the cranial angles in use, either now or formerly, lie in the median sagittal plane. These, in the early practice, were rendered available for study by the drastic method of sawing the skull in two along the median plane, a practice which had the advantage of laying bare internal as well as external proportions, yet presented the disadvantages of rendering the specimen practically useless for many other data, especially breadth measures, involving points upon both moieties, and measured across the bisected skull. Prof. Huxley, however, at one time advocated this procedure so strongly that he declared that the time would come when it would be considered a disgrace for an anthro- pological collection to possess as much as a single skull that had not been thus treated. Fortunately for the science of anthropometry the introduction of the diagraph, with the possibility of obtaining an accurate profile tracing of the outer contour, without injury to the skull itself, has rendered available the study of all external curves and of angles involving only external parts, without recourse to bisection; while, by means of recently 70 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY devised instruments, certain important internal landmarks may be reached and located through the occipital foramen without injuring the specimen. Furthermore, the development of various forms of goni- ometer, and the establishment of a fixed horizontal, and other means for a precise orientation, have introduced methods of measuring many of the most essential angles directly upon the skull. There is thus usually left to the operator in determining a given angle, a choice of several methods, but where a craniogram is available it will often be found very convenient and practical to draw the angles to be measured upon it, and then measure them on the paper by means of a transparent protractor. This procedure is so very available, in fact, that it offers a serious temptation to the investigator to try any angles that suggest themselves, with the hope that they may prove useful or even reveal some unexpected and significant relation that has escaped the eye. The following angles have either already been extensively used with success in showing important difference, or are believed to have some chance of success in the future. As some angular measurements are very old, older in fact than any linear measurements, the most of these have now become classical by use, and are of first importance. 1. Metopic or frontal profile angle. This is the angle of inclination of the nasion-metopion line to the FH, and is best measured direct by the stationary goniometer. The metopion, the point in the median line crossed by the line connecting the two frontal eminences, is first ascer- tained as accurately as possible, and marked on the skull surface by a pencil. Then, with the skull oriented exactly on the FH, the two points of the goniometer are placed, the one on the nasion, the other on the metopion, and the angle read off in the usual way. The exact apex or center of the two frontal eminences is more easily ascertained by the finger, rubbed over the surface, than by the eye; or when, as in an espcically smooth forehead, even this method is insuf- ficient or uncertain, the point in the median line exactly one-third of the distance from nasion to bregma is taken as the metopion. GO. 2. Frontal angle of Schwalbe. A somewhat more practical frontal profile, readily drawn and measured upon a craniogram, and serving the same purpose of the previous one, is that devised by G. Schwalbe and used first in his studies of Pithecanthropus erectus.* As first used this angle was formed by the glabella-inion line with one drawn upward from the glabella and tangent to the most projecting point in the frontal profile curve; but in his later use of this Schwalbe substituted nasion for glabella, and the angle now used is fr-n-i, fr being the indefinite free end of the frontal tangent. CG. 3. Frontal inclination angle ( = "Bregma angle" of Schwalbe). This has the advantage over the previous angle in the accuracy of the points * Zeitschr. fur Morphol. und Anthropol. Bd. 1, 1899, p. 142. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 71 involved, but does not measure quite the same thing, and cannot be sub- stituted for it. It measures the inclination of the frontal chord (the line nasion-bregma) to the nasion-inion line. Schwalbe, who first em- ployed it under the name of the Bregma angle, measured it upon a cranio- gram, but it may equally well be measured direct by first setting the skull upon the nasion-inion, instead of the FH, as a horizontal, and then measuring with the goniometer, one foot each upon nasion and bregma. CG or GO. 4. Occipital inclination angle [= "Lambda angle" of Schwalbe]. The inclination of the lambda-inion to the nasion-inion line. This is best drawn upon the craniogram, as is done with the Frontal inclination angle, its counterpart at the other end of the nasion-inion. These two angles, which fix definitely the position of the frontal and occipital bones, respectively, were called by G. Schwalbe, who first proposed them, the " bregma" and "lambda" angles, evidently forgetting for the moment that ang'es are usually named from the point that forms their apex. He also used the glabella-inion, instead of nasion-inion, in accord- ance with the usage of the time.* As with the frontal inclination angle, this may also be measured upon a skull, set upon the FH, by means of the stationary goniometer, the two points of which rest upon lambda and inion. CG or GO. 5. Facial profile angle [The modern equivalent of the facial angle of Camper 1- The inclination of the nasion-prosthion line to the FH. Use as prosthion the most projecting point of the alveolar border in the median line and measure with the stationary goniometer. In a skull with a seriously damaged alveolar border this angle cannot be taken. The angles have the following values: hypei prognathous below 7€° prognathous 70°-80° mesognathous 80°-85° orthognathous 85°-93° hyperorthognathous 93° + This angle gives the inclination of the line used in calculating the superior facial index (index No. 16) and as it includes the slant of the entire upper face, it is very important, especially as a racial criterion. It was about this angle, roughly estimated, and very imperfectly designated, that was used by Petrus Camper as his famous Facial Angle, which yielded such definite results as a racial criterion, and may be considered the beginning of the modern science of anthropometry. GO. 6. Nasal profile angle. Similar to the last, -but with a shorter line subtending the angle, that of the nasal length, instead of the superior * For the frontal inclination angle cf. Zeitschr. fur Morphol. und Anthropol. Bd. I, 1899. p. 142. For the occipital inclination angle cf. Zeitschr. fur Morphol und Anthropol. Sonderheft, 1906. p. 20. 72 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY facial. It is measured in an oriented skull with the stationary gonio- meter, the two points of the instrument resting on nasion and naso- spinale. This latter point is determined by drawing a line across the lower border of the nasal aperture, tangent to the two lateral curves at their lowest points, and taking the point in this line where it crosses the median line. This nasio-nasospinale line is nearly as long as the one used in the previous case (nasion-prosthion), so that in practice the same FIG. 27.- — Diagram illustrating cranial angles, n-fr, plane used in measuring the metopic angle, fr-n-i, frontal angle of Schwalbe. b— n— i, frontal inclination angle (bregma angle of Schwalbe). 1-i-n, occipital inclination angle (lambda angle of Schwalbe). n-ba-pr, superior facial length angle, n-ba-pr (as a triangle) , superior facial triangle, n-b-l-ba, cranial quadrilateral. classification has been used, with 'the same values; it has the obvious advantage of eliminating all uncertainty concerning the often poorly defined alveolar border, especially when it is brought forward because of projecting teeth (alveolar prognathism) , and thus exaggerates the prognathism of the skull as a whole. Should this angle be actually OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 73 substituted for the previous one as the definite measure of the prog- nathism of a skull, it will probably be found advisable to reduce the values of the classes in the classification, to correspond with the re- duction in the size of the angles. GO. 7. Alveolar profile angle. The inclination of the profile of the alveolar region, measured fromnasospinale to prosthion (its most projecting point) . This angle can be measured only on skulls with complete alveolar region in the median line, and is taken with the stationary goniometer upon an oriented skull, as in the two previous cases. This seems hardly a practical angle to use, although it is generally recommended, since it is too small an angle to take accurately, and since it is too easily affected by varying degrees of projection of the teeth, quite an individual peculiarity and not racial. GO. 8. Profile angle of ihz nasal roof (the nasal bones). Inclination of the nasion-rhinion line, measured in the same way as the last, the two points of the goniometer resting upon the termini of the line in question. To be used only in skulls in which the nasal bones are complete. GO. 9. Calvarial base angle. The inclination of the nasion-inion line ( = calvarial base) to the FH. This is readily measured with the stationary goniometer on a skull placed upon the FH in a cubic craniophore. The craniophore is placed so that the norma occipitalis is beneath, and the norma verticalis towards the instrument. The two points rest respec- tively upon nasion and inion, and the angle shown is the complement of the one sought. The knowledge of the usual values of this angle and of Schwalbe's frontal angle (2) will allow one to place a fragmentary cranium upon approximately its proper position, and save one from making such erro- neous conclusions concerning the set of the head and the slope of the forehead in life, as was most unfortunately done in the case of the sup- posed Diprothomo platensis of Ameghino. Fragmentary skulls, consist- ing of calvarium alone, and this often badly broken, are so frequently found that a knowledge of this angle, giving the usual relationship of the nasion-inion line, is extremely useful.* 10. Inclination of the occipital foramen. This is naturally the inclina- tion which the plane placed across the foramen, and including both basion and opisthion, makes with the plane of the FH, i.e., a dihedral angle, but in a symmetrical skull it should have the same value as the angle made * For the studies of G. SCHWALBE concerning the proper orientation of a skull fragment, based upon the usual relations of the nasion-inion and glabella-lambda lines, cf. Zeitschrift fur Morphol und Anthropol. Sonderheft, 1906. Das Schadel- fragment von Brtix, and especially the diagram on p. 137, where the usual angle lambda-glabella-inion is given as 20°, and the angle glabella-inion FH as 15°. The author, like the rest of the world, was then using the glabella, instead of the nasion for all such data (e.g., the calvarial base), as is here the case. For the critical study of Diprothomo by the same author cf. Zeitschr. fur Morphol. und Anthropol., Bd. XIII, 1910-1911, pp. 209-258. 74 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY by the line basion-opisthion and the median line of the FH, which is always the line meant in a craniogram involving this horizontal. As most forms of craniophore use the occipital foramen to fasten the clamp into which holds the skull, either basion or opisthion or both are not available, a special form of craniophore is devised which takes hold of the skull elsewhere. A thin strip of metal is then attached to both basion or opisthion by wax, plastilena, or some similar substance and the inclination of this strip taken with the goniometer. When the opisthion is higher than the basion the angle made with the FH opens backwards and is marked with a + sign ; when the basion is higher, the angle opens forwards, and is marked with a — sign. 11. Frontal curvature angle. 12. Parietal curvature angle. 13. Occipital curvature- angle. These angles, all constructed in the same way upon the craniogram, show with considerable precision the shape of the three contour bones of the cranium, as they appear in the median line. In each case the longest perpendicular is erected upon the chord of the bone in question (lines 51, 52, and 53 above), and lines drawn from where this perpendicular comes in contact with the contour curve to each end of the chord. The angle thus formed is the angle sought. The greater the angle the flatter the bone. CG. 14. Occipital flexional angle. — This angle, which shows the amount of bend, or flexion of the two parts of the occipital scale, with apex at the inion, is drawn upon the craniogram, by the lines 1-i and i-o, and meas- ured by the protractor. CG. 15. Superior facial length angle. — The angle formed at the basion, by the lines nasion-basion and prosthion -basion (9 and 10), and subtend- ing the superior facial line. Drawn upon the craniogram, and measured by the protractor. CG. 16. Facial length angle. — Similar to the last, but using the line gnathion-basion (34), instead of prosthion-basion, and thus subtending the total, instead of the superior, facial length. Only to be done in skulls with a good mandible, which is set in the proper position, either by a spring or by plastilena, before making the craniogram. CG. Aside from angles, certain triangles or higher polygons are readily drawn upon a craniogram, or are constructed (like the triangle n-ba-pr) as a result of the preceding work. The various angles of these may be of some value, yet their further study falls dangerously near the empirical method above mentioned. However, there may be mentioned in this connection one triangle and one quadrilateral, whose position makes them more or less fundamental in describing the shape of a given skull. A. The Superior facial triangle (n-ba-pr). — This follows and ap- proximately defines the nasal fossa, being bounded by the cranio-basal OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 75 length line, and the lines of length and breadth of the superior face. Whether the angles which have their apices at n and pr are of especial value is not known, but the third angle, the apex of which is at ba, is already listed above, and serves to measure the length of the superior face. B. The Cranial quadrilateral (n-b-l-ba). — This figure, more than any other, especially with the cranial base as one of its sides, serves to define i.int. ' Fro. 28. — Important angles shown on a sawn skull, illustrating an old method of study; based upon several drawings of Topinard. Certain well-known lines are given their earlier French nomenclature to facilitate the reading of French texts of the period of Broca and Topinard. n-sphen-ba, the Sphenoidal angle of Welcker. n-ba, the cranio-basal length, the "cranial base line." n-ba-pr, the facial triangle of Vogt. n-ba-a, the facial triangle of Welcker. The naso-basal angles of Vogt and Welcker, respectively, were used by these two men. Vogt used the angle n-ba-pr, and Welcker the angle n-ba-a. The two inions, external and internal, are incidentally shown in this figure. the profile of the entire cranium. Thus far it is not known to have been used, but from its appearance, embracing the entire cranial contour, it 76 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY would seem to have some value, which future work may prove. Its angles at n and I subtend the basion-bregma height; the angles at 6 and ba subtend the nasion-inion (Bi-B^). It is presented here merely as a suggestion. II. THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN, WITH THE RIBS AND STERNUM The Vertebral Column, with the Ribs and Sternum. — One of the most frequently emphasized differences between man and the apes is that of the degree of forward curvature of the vertebral column in the lumbar region (lordosis) . This curve which, in its extreme form, is characteristic of the human back, is displayed to a much lesser degree in the Simiidae, and in the gibbons (Hylobates), the lowest of the family, is but slightly indicated. It is thus generally considered, and with much probability, that this lumbar curve has been gradual attainment in the evolution of man, and that, in all probability, the curve would be found to be less in the lower races, and thus serve as a racial criterion. The ideal and only complete method of studying this and the other curves of the vertebral column is by means of accurately made sagittal sections taken through frozen bodies, but owing to the obvious difficulties, this had been done in only a few cases, and includes only representatives of races of higher culture. Much can be done, however, by the study of the separate vertebrae, since the character of the curve is conditioned largely by the proportions of the bodies of the vertebrae involved. By measuring the antero-posterior thickness, of the lumbar centra in the median line, both dorsally and ventrally, and then comparing the two, it is found that these parts are wedge-shaped, the most anterior one slightly, increasing gradually to the fifth, in which this character is the most pronounced. It is to this that the lumbar curve is largely due, and thus the degree of curvature may be ascertained by obtaining the above measurements of the vertebral centra. As a sufficiently exact measurement is difficult or impossible, and as the differences between the dorsal and ventral measures of single vertebrae are but slight, Turner, who first proposed this method, obtained more accurate figures by adding together the measurements obtained from twelve individual spinal columns, and comparin r the sums.* Thus, the ventral measure of the 12 fourth lumbar vertebrae was 336 mm. while the dorsal measures of the same parts was only 313. In the 12 fifth lumbar vertebrae the corresponding numbers were 337 and 281, a more pro- nounced difference, since the ventral measures were practically identical, * TURNER, SIR WILLIAM: Report on the Human Crania and Other Bones of the Skeletons Collected During the Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger in the years 1873-76. Part li. The bones of the Skeleton, publ. in 1886 in the Reports of the Challenger Expedition, Zoology, Vol. XVI, pp. 1-136. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 77 while there was a marked disparity in the dorsal one, indicating a more definite wedge for the fifth than for the fourth. To get the average difference for a single vertebra these figures are divided by 12, giving for the fourth lumbar vertebra the figures 28 : 26 mm., and for the fifth, 28 : 23.4. The amount of curvature in a single spine can be indicated by taking the above measurements, adding together the five dorsal thicknesses, and comparing the sum with that obtained by adding the five ventral ones. The result can be best obtained in the form of a General lumbar index, thus : 39. General lumbar index dorsal vertical diam. of lumb. vert. I — V X 100 ventral vertical diam. of lumb. vert. I — V The values from this index may be classified as follows : * curtorhachic ( = convex spine) below 98 orthorhachic ( = straight spine) 98-102 coelorhachic (= hollow spine) 102+ The Special lumbar index for a single vertebra may be obtained in a similar way by dividing the dorsal by the ventral antero-ppsterior diame- ter (thickness), and the general index may be calculated from the five results by obtaining the mean, or average, of all five. 40. Special lumbar index dorsal vert. diam. of vert. I, II, III, etc. X 100 ventral vert. diam. of same vertebra The special index of a given vertebra in a number of cases may be averaged as is done in any other such data, and the results compared as racial criteria. Thus Turner presents the following table. 12 Euro- peans 5 Austra- lians 2 Andama- nese 3 Negroes 3 Hawaiians 1st lumb. vert 106 8 114 4 111 3 108 8 114 6 2d lumb. vert 101.5 112.3 105.6 104.2 108 0 3d lumb. vert 95.4 108.0 102.0 100.0 108.2 4th lumb. vert. . .' 93.0 103.7 91.8 93.0 101.5 5th lumb. vert 83 6 91.4 84.2 89.0 87.7 Mean general lumbar index 96.0 106.0 (nearly) 99.0 (nearly) 99.0 104.0 From this table there will be noted the marked change of shape of the vertebral bodies from the first to the fifth. In the first and second the *Gk. /&n transverse diameter, clenoid fossa X 100 6. Glenoid index [8 : 7] ,. , ,. — — . rr-= — vertical diameter, glenoid fossa III. ANGLES 1. Spinal axis angle [AHD]; made by the intersection of the spinal axis with the maximum length line. 2. Infra-spinous angle [ABD]; made by the intersection of the infra- spinous line (prolonged) and the spinal axis. 3. Vertebral border angle [ABG]; the angle between a line drawn tan- gent to the vertebral border and the spinal axis. 4. Axillo-spinal angle [BKD]; the angle made by the line of the axil- lary border length and the line of maximum breadth, meeting at the point [K] in the diagram. The measurement of all of these angles can be best effected by the use of knitting needles, fastened directly upon the bone by wax or plastillna, and thus defining the lines. The angles are read off by a transparent protractor. IV. — TABLE OP SCAPULAR MEASUREMENTS* Character Maori (1) Europ. (200) French (73) Austral. (6) Senoi Egyptian r l r 1 Max. length 145.0 95.0 59.0 109.0 65.5 54.1 142.0 95.0 55.0 106.0 66.9 51.9 155.0 101.4 113.6 62.5 168.0 105.9 124.3 154.5 97.3 113.6 63.0 64.9 152.0 97.0 103.0 72.5 137 87 95 98.0 110.0 65.9 Max. breadth .... Supra-spin Infra-spin Scap. index Foss. index * The above results are those of various authors, as found in MOLLISON (1908) and MARTIN (1914. pp. 977-978). The Europeans were studied by FLOWER and GARSON (1880), the French by LrvoN (1879), and the Australians by TURNER (1886,. As elsewhere, the numbers of individuals studied in each case are given in parenthesis following the name of the race. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES . 83 Clavicle I. MEASUREMENTS 1. Maximum length;* taken with the osteometric board. 2. Girth; taken at the middle of the shaft. 3. The two angles of curvature; These are taken upon the dioptograph tracing of the contour of the bone from above, oriented as this is done by having the two borders of the acromial third in the same plane, hori- zontally placed. The middle axis of the bone is traced, following the curves, and beginning and ending in the center of the two ends; the points where the line attains the farthest point anteriorly and posteriorly are then FIG. 30. — Right clavicle, from above, showing measurements. This figure is based upon several by Parsons, and represents the average measurements obtained from 70 English males. marked, and lines drawn, connecting these with the middle of the two ends and with each other. These form a medial angle, projecting forward and a lateral, projecting backward. These can be measured with a protractor. Added together they form the "index of curvature. " These may be directly compared. 4. Breadths, taken from the dioptograph tracing; Parsons uses five of these; at the two ends, at the inner angle, at the narrowest place, and at the conoid tubercle. * PARSONS: Engl. Journ. Anat., 1917, found the average length of English clavicles, taken from the lower and lower middle classes to be: males, right (70) 151 mm. males, left (83) 153 females, right (65) 138 females, left (64) 138 The above were separate clavicles, taken at random; when the two clavicles of the same individual are taken in the cadaver, and compared with the total shoulder- vridth (not bi-acromial) PARSONS found, in 50 male bodies, the length of the right clavicle to average .382 of the shoulder-width, and that of the left, .387. In 49 female bodies the respective figures were .380 and .383, thus showing more definitely the greater length of the left clavicles in both sexes. 84 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY II. INDICES 1. Caliber index (2 : 1] Diddle circumference of shaft X '100 maximum length 2. Claiicle-humeral index [1 : 1 of humerus] maximum length of clavicle X 100 maximum length of humerus ARM AND HAND Humerus I. MEASUREMENTS 1. Greatest maximum length [AB, Fig. 31]; taken with the osteometric board. 2. Breadth of the proximal epiphysis [AC] ; taken from head to greater tuberosity, so as to get the greatest measurement. Use the slide compass of the rod compass. 3. Breadth of the distal epiphysis [BE]; measured between the two condyles, to get the greatest measurement. On about the same plane as No. 2. 4. Circumference of the diaphysis at the upper third; this is preferred to that taken in the middle of the shaft, as it avoids the deltoid eminence. 5. Least circumference of the diaphysis; this is found at about the second third, distal to the deltoid eminence, and just proximal to the beginning of the supra-condyloid ridges. It is usually about a centimeter distal to the nutrient foramen. 6. Proximo-distal (longitudinal) diameter of the head; taken from a point in the edge of the articular surface of the bone across to the opposite side, taken in a plane parallel to the long axis of the bone. SC. 7. Dorso-ventral (transverse} diameter of the head; taken in the same way, but at right angles to the previous one, and at right angles to the long axis of the bone. 8. Circumference of the head; measured around the margin of the articular surface, with the tape. II. INDICES least circumference of diaphysis X 100 1. Caliber index [5 : 1] — -. — — , f^ maximum length , .„ -. transverse diam. of head X 100 2. Index of the head [7: 6] — rr — r. — i— p — longitudinal diam. ol head III. ANGLES 1. Angle of torsion; the angle formed by the line connecting the cener fo the head and the greater tuberosity, when projected upon the OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 85 PIG. 31. — 'Right humerus, showing the cubital angle. 86 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY line connecting the two condyles; i.e., the axis of the head and the axis of the condoles (Fig. 32). This is taken by means of the parallelograph. 2. Cubital angle; the angle formed by the axis of the shaft with that of the trochlea. This is taken by standing the bone upon the table, the trochlear surface in contact with it. The angle to be measured is that of the bone with the table. This angle, taken in connection with that formed by the olecranon and shaft of the ulna, (joint axis angle, Swiss 143.9 FIG. 32. — Contours of the two ends of a humerus superposed upon each other in bones from two different races, to show amount and angle of torsion. (After Martin.) see below, under Ulna), determines the degree of obliquity of the fore arm upon the upper arm in life, the "elbow angle" which is usually so much more pronounced in females than in males as to constitute almost a secondary sex character.* The anthropological study of the humerus is as yet too new either to estimate the relative value of the data given, or to formulate definite results from them. A few suggestions may be permitted, based upon the * MARTIN found the average value of the cubital angle in Fuegian humeri to be 83°, and that of the Swiss, 77°. Other authors have established an average of 70° for the white race. For the discussion of the elbow angle, see below, under Ulna. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 87 humerus of Homo neandertalensis, and other extinct forms, as well as from the study of this bone in other Primates, suggestions which show the tendencies i.e., the lines along which the human specialization is moving. Thus, contrary to expectation, the humerus in the modern type is distinctly longer than in the Neandertal species, that of the right humerus of the latter being but 312 mm. long, although the cranium was very large. It is, however, extremely robust, although, from the few fragments extant, the hand was rather small and delicate. The shape of the head of the humerus is peculiar, being broader than long, that is, measurement No. 7 exceeds that of No. 6, and the Index (No. 2) is more than 100, a condition that does not exist in modern man, so far as is known. The direction taken by the head, as shown by the angle of torsion, is more towards the back than in the European race, resembling that of Australians and other lower races. The value of the angle of torsion in various other mammals, and in several human races, is as follows:*. Carnivora 85. 1° Hvlobates 68.0 Simia 59.75 Pan 52.0 Australians 45 . 5 Gorilla 39.0 Negroes, Fuegians, Polynesians 36.0 *Neandertal (right) 35.0 Chinese. 33 . 13 Neolithic French 27 . 68 Ancient Parisians 24 . 6 Swiss 19.0 Modern French 16.0 Among the characters classed as variations two have especially at- tracted the attention of ethnologists; the perforation of the olecranal fossa, and the supra-condyloid notch. The first is the result of unusually deep coronoid and olecranal fossae, opposite each other upon the two sides of the bone, immediately over the trochlea. This occurs in some 4—5% of Western Europeans, but is more common in African negroes (21.7 %), and in Polynesians (34.3 %), and is still more frequent in, American Indians (36.2 %). It seems to have been more common still in prehistoric peoples. The second character is clearly a remnant of the supra-cond3^1oid foramen of lower mammals, and, when well-developed, as occasionally * In taking the angle of torsion some authors use one of the two complementary angles, and some the other. It is thus often necessary to reduce all to a common form by subtracting from 180°. This was done in this table, which is taken from data given by BROCA, MARTIN, and DUCKWORTH. 88 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY in modern man, consists of a hook-like process upon the internal condylar ridge projecting distally, and converted into a complete foramen in the recent state by a ligament. It transmits the Median nerve, and fre- quently also the Brachial artery, or a branch arising from it, as in the case of the complete foramen of certain other mammals. In the humeri of the Spy and Neandertal skeletons there appears a groove (Sulcus supracondyloidsus, Klaatsch), evidently the vestige of the foramen in a slightly different form. Ulna The treatment of this and the following bone (Radius) is based largely upon the excellent model set by the paper of Fischer,* which differs in its arrangement from the more usual one. Instead of listing first the meas- urements, then the indices, and then the angles, he treats of a side, aspect, or end, with all its data together, a method which is here followed. The numbers thus follow consecutively, without placing angles, indices, etc., in separately numbered lists. I. LENGTHS AND CALIBER 1. Maximum length; measured either upon the osteometric board, or by means of calipers. This measurement includes, naturally the ex- treme points of the olecranon and the styloid process, which, in the case of measurement by the calipers, become the points upon which the feet of the instrument rest, the termini of the maximum length line. The longest ulna measured by Turner, that of a male Hindu, was 305 mm.; Fischer's longest, out of several hundred, was 296. In the Sikh, a very large race, Turner's maximum was 297, in the Malay 265, and in the Chinese 247. In negroes the maximum ulna was 301. The females of all these show considerably lower maximum figures, as would be expected. 2. Physiological length; measured with the calipers, the two measuring points, or termini, being (1) the deepest point in the longitudinal ridge running across the floor of the greater sigmoid notch, and (2) the deepest point of the distal surface of the "head," not taking the groove between it and the styloid process. Although the maximum length line has long been used as the main, or the only, length measurement, there are many reasons for preferring the "physiological" or effective length; more in fact than in the radius, where it is also recommended. This length is that included between the articu- lar surfaces, and is to be preferred, not only because it avoids the neces- sity of using the points of the olecranon and styloid processes, which are often incompletley preserved, but also because it corresponds to the effec- tive working length of the forearm, as measured upon the volar side. * FISCHER, EUGEN: Die Variationen an Radius und Ulna des Menschen. Zeitschr. fur Morphol. und Anthropol. Bd. IX. 1906, pp. 147-247. 5 Pis., 16 text-figures, and 6 tables. (This paper is fundamental for the anthropological study of Ulna and Radius.) OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 89 The following averages of this measure are given by Fischer: Prehistoric Teutons (Reihengraber) 239. 7* Negroes (6) 239.5 Africans in general (12) 234 . 6 Australians (6) 233.7 Melanesians (17;* 230. 5 Germans (Baden) (25) 227.2 Ainu (60) f 212.5 Japanese (40) f 200.4 Compared with these figures the species H. neandertalensis shows nothing distinctive, but comes quite within the limits of recent man. The Neandertal ulna (right) measures 231 mm., physiological length, and those of Spy are estimated by Fischer at about the same figure (Spy I, Right; 233; Spy II, Left, 231). The orang, with its phenome- nally long arm, shows a physiological length of 340.5. In the gorilla it is 303.21 in the chimpanzee 269, and in the gibbon, the smallest of the Simiidse in body, it reaches 282.2, a larger actual measurement than in any normal man. 3. Least circumference of the diaphysis; located a little above the dis- tal epiphysis, where the shaft, through the reduction of the muscular ridges and crests, becomes nearly cylindrical. Measured with the tape. _N least circumference (3) X 100 4. Caliber index; (3:2)=- — r — ^r — = — n — \v. /o\ physiological length (2) By this index is expressed the relative delicacy or robustness of the bone as a whole, the larger the number the stouter the bone. The fol- lowing table expresses in figures facts that have been frequently stated from observation; among others that the ulna of primitive people is more slender than that of the culture races. The extreme slenderness of this bone in the gibbon and oran'g is also manifest. Caliber Indices of the Ulna Simian apes Gibbon (4) 6.0 Orang (8) 10.0 Gorilla (5) 13.4 Chimpanzee (2) 14 . 3 Primitive human races Australians (6) 12.7 Melanesians (13) 13.7 Negritoes (6) 14.6 Culture races South Germans, Baden (25) 16.8 * The prehistoric Teutons, measured by LEHMANN-NITSCHE, and the last two, measured by KOGANEI, may not correspond exactly in the mode of measurement with the rest,' which were calculated by FISCHER. t In these the two sexes were used indiscriminately, in the others the bones were those of males alone as far as could be determined. 90 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY II. STUDY OP LATERAL PROJECTION; CURVATURE OF THE SHAFT A convenient plane, to be used in projections and in general compari- son, is one established by Fischer, and conveniently called the sagittal, or dorso-volar, although in the natural position of the forearm, with the palm up wards and the radius and ulna parallel, it is set some what obliquely and is not perpendicular to the "volar plane," used in the study of the radius. This plane is determined by the curved ridge that runs longitudinally across the greater sigmoid notch, from the volar point of the olecranon to the projecting point in the lip of the coronoid process. The plane of this curve also passes approximately through the styloid process at the distal end, and the bone may thus be conveniently adjusted for projection by placing both the curved line and the styloid process at equal distances from the plane of the paper. Using this plane the bone may be inspected from the two opposite aspects, the one displaying the lesser sigmoid notch the other not. For the outline of the entire bone either aspect is, of course, equally serviceable, but as the features of the lesser notch are used in some of the measurements, the side that shows it is to be preferred. 5. Curvature index. A comparison of several bones, or of their pro- jections, in the plane just denned, shows a striking difference in the shape of the bone as a whole, due mainly to a variation in the amount of curva- ture in the shaft. This may be measured upon a projection from the lesser sigmoid aspect by the method indicated in Figure 33. A median longitudinal line is first drawn through the proximal end of the bone to serve as an axis, and this crossed by a perpendicular tangent to the lower (distal) border of the articular surface of the lesser sigmoid notch. This locates the point a, where this cross line intersects the outer marginal line. A line is now dropped from the point a towards the distal end of the bone, tangent to the slight inward curve that is always found in the outline just above the distal epiphysis. The exact point of tangency is the point b, and the line ab is the chord of the outer outline, the curve to be measured. When this has been done the amount of curvature is ascertained by measuring the longest perpendicular to the chord that can be erected within the limits of the curve, and this length is expressed in terms of the entire -,,,,, . f T longest perpendicular X 100. chord by means of the following formula; - — , -r — ~ — r , . E, — length of chord AE The result is the curvature index, the greater curve giving the larger number. 6 and 1. Height of olecranal cap, and olecranal cap index. A second measurement obtainable from this lateral projection is that of the height of the olecranal cap (No. 6), the amount of projection of the olecranon process above the upper lip of the greater sigmoid notch. The wide differences that are possible in this respect are seen at once by comparing any human ulna, in which the projection is slight, with the ulna of almost OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 91 FIG. 33. — Outlines of five ulnas, human and anthropoid, showing varying degrees of shaft-curvature. Further explanation in the text. After Fischer.) I. South German (Baden) II. Australian III. New Mecklenburg (female) IV. Chimpanzee V. Gibbon 92 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY any quadruped, such as a cat or a rabbit. In various human ulnae there are considerable differences, the measurement of which may be made by first establishing upon the projection the longitudinal axis of the proximal end of the bone, and crossing this with a perpendicular, tangent to the upper lip of the greater sigmoid notch. The height of the olecranon above this is the measurement sought (n in Fig. 33) . The olecranal cap index (No. 7) may be obtained by comparing this measure with that of the physiological length of the entire bone; as follows: • j fa n\ height of olecranal cap (6) X 100 7. Olecranal cap index (6:2) = - — r — =-^ — = — ri — .v /o\ physiological length (2) In modern men this index varies individually between 0.6 and 3.7, the larger figures occurring in the more primitive human races, although with some notable exceptions. In H. neandertalensis the cap is high, but in the Simian apes it is low. On the other hand the lower monkeys in general have a much higher cap than is found in any human races, some of them approaching the quadrupeds in this particular. The table of olecranal cap indices follows: H. papiens: South Sea islanders (6) 1.2 Melanesians (13) 1.7 South Germans, Baden (25) 1.7 Australians (6) 1.8 Africans (8) 1.9 Negritoes (6; 2.0 Fuegians 2.5 H. neandertalensis: Neandertal 4.6 Spy II; right 4.0 Spy 11; left 3.8 Simian apes: Gorilla (4) 0.8 Gibbon (4) 1.0 Orang (9; 1.1 Chimpanzee (2) 1.4 Lower apes (23), miscellaneous 6.4 Lemurs 8.3 8. Olecrano-coronoid angle. This character, also brought out by the lateral projection, is the position or tilt of the greater sigmoid notch, taken as a whole, as compared with the long axis of the bone. This can be readily expressed by the value of the angle formed between the chord ab, previously defined, and the prolongation of the line drawn across the points of the upper and lower lips of the notch. If, as is sometimes the case, the two lines are parallel, the angle is naturally O, and the notch faces straight outwards; when, however, the notch has an upward tilt, the two lines intersect above and form an angle which becomes greater the OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 93 more the opening of the notch is elevated (Fig. 33, I and II). Should this look downwards the intersection would be below and the angle would be given a minus value. On an average, in modern races, this angle has a value of 15-20°; but an angle of 32° has been recorded. The value of this angle which, from the two points involved, is termed the olecrano-coronoid, is directly concerned in the question of the angle formed at the elbow during the extension of the arm, since a complete extension to 180° is more easily possible, other things being equal, when the olecrano-coronoid angle is large, that is, when the notch is directed upwards. This possibility of complete extension is, however, dependent upon other factors also, for example, the depth of the olecranon fossa, or a slight forward cant of the olecranon process as a whole ; so that an unusually deep fossa, or perhaps a perforation of the bone (supra-trochlear foramen), may compensate for a moderately low position of the greater sigmoid notch, and still render a complete extension possible. When, however, the angle is very small, and the notch has little or no upward direction, a complete exten- sion, even with these compensations, is quite impossible. This is the condition in Homo neandertalensis so far as known; the olecrano-coronoid angle is low, and the extension of the arm is incomplete, the bones, when articulated, forming an angle of 160-165° when fully extended, so that, in the flesh, allowing for the space taken up by the soft parts, the amount of extension must have been even less. In the lower monkeys the olecrano-coronoid angle is very low, in some cases even negative (notch pointed downwards) and it would seem that here also a complete extension is impossible. Many human races, on the other hand, both high and low, such as the Central Europeans and the Australians, possess a high angle, and presumably have the power of complete extension. Definite statements on this point cannot be made from lack of sufficient data, and more detailed study, not only upon the bones but more especially upon the living, including all races and both sexes, are a pressing need. III. STUDY OF THE VOLAR PROJECTION This projection is that of the bone when rotated about its longitudinal axis exactly 90° from its former position, showing the curved longitudinal ridge that crosses the greater sigmoid notch as a straight line. As the former position was not strictly lateral, though called so for convenience, so this position is not quite volar, but in the normal position of an ex- tended arm is set at nearly 45° to the "volar plane" of the radius, de- scribed in the next section. Like the aspect previously used, however, it best shows certain essential peculiarities and has the advantage of being consistent with it. From this aspect the entire shaft is seen to possess a very slight S- curve, but it is difficult to measure, and thus far has yielded no important 94 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY result. Of much greater significance is the angle expressing the relation of the plane of motion of the elbow joint to the longitudinal axis of the shaft, which can be ascertained with some accuracy from such a pro- jection, the joint axis angle. 9. Joint-axis angle. To determine this first draw upon a given volar projection the line AE (Fig. 34), coincident with the curved longitudinal II FIG. 34. — Ulna of I, White (So. German), and II, Negro, to compare the joint-axis angle in the two. (After Fischer) . ridge of the greater sigmoid notch, which is used in determining the lateral plane. This marks the plane along which the forearm moves in flexion and extension. Next draw a perpendicular across this at any convenient place with the limits of the notch, as CD, and this line, which is perpen- dicular to the plane of rotation, must necessarily be parallel to the axis OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 95 of the joint. If, now, the axis of the shaft be drawn, EF, intersecting the line CD at E, the angle formed, CEF, is that between the joint axis and that of the ulna, or of the forearm, the joint axis angle. 10. Lateral divergence angle. — This angle, which is that made between ulna and humerus during extension, might equally well be placed under either bone, since it involves both to an equal degree Under the more common name of the "Elbow angle" its more extreme case, in which the two parts, upper and lower arm are set obliquely to each other in the living, this angle has been frequently noted and extensively commented upon. The true relation of these two parts is naturally a matter of the bones concerned, and is due to the two angles, cubital (Humerus III, 2) FIG. 35. — Lateral divergence angle of elbow joint. (After Fisher.) I South German (Baden) II Negro III Australian IV Australian and joint-axis (Ulna, 9), which may vary quite independently of each other The four possibilities are presented in Fig. 35, taken from Fischer. In the first case both cubital and joint axis angle are considerably less than 90°, i.e., the axes are both obliquely set, the result being a pro- nounced divergence of the forearm from the line of the humerus; in II, where the cubital angle is oblique, and the joint axis nearly straight (the angle even more than 90°), and in II, where the reverse is true, and the cubital angle is straight (88°), there is a moderate amount of lateral divergence. In IV each angle is practically a right angle, one compen- sating exactly with the other, (88° and 92°), and the result is a perfectly 96 LABOEATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY straight arm. It is thus seen that the lateral divergence angle (elbow angle of some authors) is always the sum of the two angles, cubital angle of the humerus and joint-axis angle of the ulna. That of 1 equals 154°; of II, 175°; of III, 168°, and of IV, 180°.* IV. PROPORTIONS OF THE OLECRANON Certain of these, relative to the olecranal cap (Nos. 6 and 7) have already received treatment. There remain now the more usual dimen- sions of length, breadth, and thickness (or depth), with the customary indices to express the relations between them. These are here tabulated, although their value or significance have not yet been proven. 11. Maximum breadth of olecranon; measured with the sliding com- pass at right angles to the olecrano-coronoid ridge used to define the sagittal plane. 12. Height of olecranon; measured from the transverse line, groove, or roughness, which runs partly across the concavity of the notch from the outer side, separating the articular surfaces of olecranon and coronoid process, up to the highest point of the olecranon, i.e. the top of the olec- ranal cap. 13. Thickness (or depth) of olecranon; measured with the sliding compass from volar to dorsal aspects. This is taken across the lip above the notch. 14. Thickness-breadth index of olecranon (13 : 11) _ thickness of olecranon X 100 breadth of olecranon 15. Height-breadth index of olecranon (12 : 11) height of olecranon X 100 These last two indices have yielded the following values: H. sapiens: Thickness-breadth (14) Height-breadth (15) Negroes (11; 92 83 Weddas (3, 96 85 South Germans, Baden (25) 98 80 Australians (6) 98 80 - Melanesians (18) 104 88 Negritoes (6) '. 107 90 Fuegians (6) 107 85 H. primigenius : Neandertal 97 86 Spyl 92 83 Spy II 100 86 * For special studies of the elbow angle see NAGEL: Untersuchungen uber den Armwinkel des Menschen. Zeitschr. Morphol. u. Anthropol., Bd. 10, 1906-07, and MALL: On the angle of the elbow, Amer. Journ. Anat., Vol. 4, 1905, pp. 391-404. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 97 Simian apes: Gibbon (4) 88 75 Orang (11) 95 81 Gorilla (5) 101 77 Chimpanzee (2) 120 73 Lower apes 165 153.9 Lemurs 120 138 V. SHAPE OF THE SHAFT Through the formation of longitudinal ridges the shaft of the ulna becomes more or less definitely a three sided prism, one edge of which, the one turned towards the radius, forms a sharp crest, often considerably developed. Aside from these there are many minor elevations and slight depressions, which have their meaning for the anatomist in relation to the attachment of muscles, but in which thus far no racial characters have been established, and it is more probable that the variations are mainly those of age, sex, and degree of muscular development. Two methods have been devised, however, for determining the shape of the shaft at different levels, the one mechanical, the other mathematical. The first consists of surrounding the shaft at a given level with a band of wax, which, when removed, gives the exact form of the part enclosed. For this a mixture of wax and paraffin, 4 : 1, is warmed to the degree necessary to make it plastic, worked a little between the fingers, and then pressed around the region selected in the form of a band. The upper and lower margins of this band are then made straight by means of a knife, and the whole is then plunged into cold water to harden. When sufficiently hard the ring is cut across at two opposite points and the two halves are removed quickly from the bone and dropped upon a table or board without being handled. They are then placed together and fast- ened by means of a hot spatula applied to the outer surfaces. In this way may be obtained the outlines of any section, but the two points of greatest interest are (1) the point of greatest crest development, and (2) the cylin- drical region above the distal epiphysis, where the ridges fail and the cali- ber is the minimum. The second method is the more usual one of obtaining an index from two diameters taken at the same level and at right angles to each other. For this the point of greatest crest development is recommended, a point at about the upper third of the bone. Fischer uses for the two diameters the dorso-volar, from the ridge on the dorsal side to the flat plane on the ventral, and the transverse, exactly at right angles to the first. His index is formed by dividing the first by the second, or, in other words, by considering the transverse diameter = 100. Since in most ulnae the shape of a cross-section at this place is triangular, there are obvious difficulties in establishing two diameters at right angles to each other, while a measurement that includes the crest would give, not the primary shape of the bone, but the degree of development of the crest itself, that 98 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY is, the degree of muscularity of the indivdual, and not the fundamental shape of the shaft. Since, however, nothing better has as yet been devised, and since these measurements have been actually used by Fischer, they are added here. 16. Dorso-ventral diameter of shaft at the upper third; taken as suggested above. 17. Transverse diameter of shaft at the upper third; taken as suggested above, and exactly at right angles to the previous measurement. ~ . . dorso-ventral diameter [16] X 100 JLo. (^aLioer inaex T~* ] ri „-, transverse diameter [17] In this index the higher figures signify an approach to the cylindrical, a perfect cylinder being 100, while a lower index suggests a flattening of the shaft transversely. In Fischer's results the average index for South Germans is 76, for Fuegians, 86; and for Australians, 90. The ulnae of Neandertal and La Naulette gave each an index of 100. i Radius I. LENGTH MEASUREMENTS 1. Greatest maximum length; taken either with the osteometric board or with the calipers, using as termini (1) the highest point of the margin of the capitellum, and (2) the point of the styloid process. The maximum length of normal radii was found by Fischer to lie between 190 and 288 mm., the shortest average being found among the Negritoes and pre- historic pygmies from the Swiss lake-dwellings, and the longest among African negroes. Turner's longest radius, that of a negro, measured 287 mm., his longest Sikh radius was 267, longest Malay 250, and longest Chinese 227. 2. Physiological length; measured with the calipers from the deepest point in the bottom of the fovea capitelli (the articular surface which receives the capitellum of the humerus) to the deepest point in the semi- lunar facet at the distal end. Here, as elsewhere, the physiological length is the effective length for use, and is generally to be preferred, since it is that of the lengths of the parts in the living, thus enabling one to compare directly the figures in the living and in the bones. Thus here, the distance from the bottom of the external dimple or depression, so conspicuous an object in the dorso-lateral side of the living arm to the point of the styloid process, accurately located in the wrist, is the same as the physiological, rather than the anatomical, length of the bone. From the practical standpoint, in measuring a collection of bones, the physiological length is more generally applicable, since it does not depend upon the integrity of the styloid process, which is so often more or less deficient. The greatest average physiological length of the radius thus far recorded is that of the prehistoric Teutons from the "Reihengraber," OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 99 for which the average of 25 separate radii is 237.3 mm.* Next follows the negro races, with an average of 235 to 238. Among other races are the following averages; although they rest upon too few single cases to be final: Australians, 227.3; Melanesians, 226.4; Polynesians, 210.3; Japanese, 200; Negritoes, 194.7. The physiological length of the Neandertal right radius is 225. The Simian apes, with their notably long forearm, naturally show longer absolute figures than does even the largest man. Thus, for the gorilla we have 302.4; for the chimpanzee, 266; for the orang-utan 334.3; and for the gibbon, in spite of its small size, 257.8. Several of the older anthropometrists, notably Turner, used a com- parison of the lengths of humerus and radius to form a Radio-humeral index, in which the length of the humerus was taken as the standard (= 100), and the (anatomical) length of the radius compared with it. This evidently grew out of the still earlier observation on the relative lengths of the forearm and upper arm, which formed the starting point of the anthropometry of the limbs, as given in the Introduction. This may be recorded here. max. length of radius X 100 3. Humero-radial index; max. length of humerus II. SHAPE AND PROPORTIONS OF SHAFT 4. Least circumference of the distal half. Most usually that circum- ference of a long bone which is selected for comparison with the length in estimating its proportionate caliber is the least one that can be found, which, in the case of most bones, is a fairly definite point. In the radius, however, there are three small places. (1) The "neck," between capitel- lum and bicipital tuberosity, (2) a point a little below this latter, and (3) a point just beyond the middle of the shaft, towards its distal end. In some bones one of these, and in others another, may prove to be the least circumference, so that, in order to be uniform, one must be desig- nated as the one to use. The best for many reasons, and in more than half the cases the actually smallest place, is the last named, which may be definitely designated as the point to be measured. As in all circum- ferences the measure is taken by means of the tape. , , . _, least circumference (4) X 100 5. Caliber index (4:2) = - — r — =— = — = — n -, ,0. physiological length (2) This index expresses the degree of slenderness of the bone as a whole, the less the figure the more slender the bone. The following table shows that in general the radius is especially slender in the lower Primates, stouter in the Simian apes, and in the lower human races, and in the culture races the stoutest of all. The orang and gibbon, however, with * LEHMANN-NITSCHE : Untersuchungen iiber die langen Knochen der siidbayer. Reihengraberbevolkerung. Beitr. zur Anthropol. und Urgeschichte Bayerns. Bd. 9, Munchen, 1895. This is also excellent for the other long bones of the skeleton. 100 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY their extremely long and attenuated forearms, are an exception to the general law, and belong in this respect with the lemurs. Caliber indices of radius. Gibbon (4) 8.1 Orang (10) 12.8 Lemur (5) 13.3 Melanesians (18) 15.7 Lower monkeys (20) 16.2 Burmese (8) 16.3 Negritoes (6) 17.0 Gorilla (5) 17. 1 Germans, Baden (25) 18.1 Japanese (3) 20.2 The radius of H. neandertalensis contrary to expectation, is less slender than in the lower races of the recent species, the index being about like that of the culture races. For the two following data, and for some others, one or more definite planes must be determined in which the bone may be placed and from which it may be viewed. The most obvious of these is the volar plane, or approximately that of the two forearm bones when the arm is stretched out in a supine position, with the palm up, a position which brings the radius and ulna parallel to each othei. This plane is determined by a line and a point. The line, which is the maximum length line of the distal articular surface, extends from the apex of the styloid process to the middle of the concave edge of the incisura for the reception of the ulna. The point, which is placed at the opposite end of the bone, is the center of the depression in the capitellum, the fovea capitelli, the point used in the determination of the physiological length. To place a given radius so that its volar plane lies parallel to the surface of the drawing- table, that is, in a position for drawing a volar projection, the line and point must be placed at the same distance above the table surface. The dorso-ventral, or sagittal plane, lies at exact right angles to this, and is obtained by first placing the bone in the volar plane and then rotating it about its longitudinal axis 90°. With these planes determined the two following measurements may be easily taken, either upon the bone itself, or upon a dioptograph outline. 6. Transverse diameter of the Shaft. — This should be taken at the point of the greatest development of the crest, a point indicated not only to the eye, but to the finger, being designated by a certain roughness of edge that corresponds anatomically to the insertion of a specially strong band of fibers forming a part of the interosseous ligament. The diameter lies in the volar plane. 7. Sagittal diameter of the Shaft. — This must be at the same level as the last, but in the sagittal plane, 90° from the last. sagittal diameter (7) X 100 8. Diaphyseal index (7:6) = transverse diameter (6) OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 101 This index is of rather questionable value, and gives little more than an indication of the degree of development of the interosseous crest, which can be noted almost as well by the eye. Where the crest is large the transverse diameter is considerably in excess of the sagittal, and the shape of the cross section at this place is somewhat triangular; where there is little or no crest, on the other hand, the diameters are nearly equal, and the cross section approximates a circle. In the first case the index is a low number (72-75) ; in the second it is higher, reaching in the Simian apes to above 80. Here also the figures for Homo neandertalensis are unexpected, and resemble those of recent men, evidently because of their high crests. As in the case of the ulna the study of cross section outlines, both at this place and at others, is of more value than this index. Such outlines are prepared by the method described by the use of girdles of wax (cf. ulna). If these bands be filled with plaster of Paris little disc-shaped pieces are obtained, which represent actual cross sections which are very convenient for comparison. III. STUDY OF THE VOLAH PROJECTION Several striking differences in general form are brought out by com- paring several radii placed in the volar plane, or, what is the same thing, by comparing a series of volar projections (Fig. 36). The two most important points are the collo-diaphyseal angle and the amount of curva- ture of the shaft as a whole. 9. Collo-diaphyseal angle. — This is obtained in the projection by marking upon it the axes of the two parts in question; (1) of the head and neck, by a line connecting the center of the head, through the middle of the shaft as far as the tuberosity, and (2) of the next ensuing portion of the shaft. The angle thus formed may then be measured by means of the transparent protractor. If one is dealing with an actual bone instead of a projection, the bone must first be properly oriented, and then the two axes marked by means of fine knitting-needles, attached to the bone surface by wax or plastilena. The angle is then read as before. Where there is no bend between the two parts considered, the head- neck axis, and that of the ensuing portion form a continuous straight line, and the angle = 180° (Fig. 36, I). This has been found in South Germans, although the average is 171.6°. A slight bending reduces the angle, which thus becomes less the greater the amount of bending ex- hibited. The average angle for Australians is 165.4, and of Fuegians, 160.4, showing a progressively greater amount of bending in these races as compared with Europeans. The Neandertal race, at 166°, shows an amount of bending comparable with that of the lower modern peoples, and the bending in the higher apes varies from 165° to 159°. 10. Curvature index. — The amount of curvature of the whole shaft may be expressed, in a way, similar to that used for the ulna, by fixing a 102 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY definite tangent line along the convex side of the curve, and constructing upon it the longest perpendicular. To fix the line, which is tangent FIG. 36. — Outline of four right radii, human, prehistoric, and anthropoid, showing the collo-diaphyseal angle. Further explanation in text. (After Fischer.) I. South German (Baden). II. New Mecklenburg. III. Neandertal. IV. Gorilla. to the inner curves, and not the outer ones, a perpendicular to the first of [the axes used in the previous measure, that of the head and neck, OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 103 which marks the point a, on the margin (Fig. 36). The point 6 is the deepest point of reentrance of the distal curve seen on this outline, as shown also in Fig. 36. Now, connect by a line points a and b and we have the tangent sought. Finally, upon this as a base erect the longest possible perpendicular to the outer line of the margin, and the proportion of this to the entire tangent ab will indicate the amount of curvature; , height of greatest perpen. X 100 length of tangent chord ab This index is always a small one, varying from 2 in modern culture races to over 6 in the strongly curved radii of the Neandertal species. Where the curve is large, it indicates a broad interosseous space, which in turn suggests a large suiface for the origin of the finger flexors, and an ability to cling very tenaciously to such an object as a tree limb. In this connection the large amount of curve in the Neandertals is significant. TABLE OF SHAFT CURVATURE INDICES, AVERAGES Higher apes Gorilla 5.7 Orang-utan 5.1 Chimpanzee 4.3 Gibbon 3.6 Homo neandertalensis Neandertal specimen 5.2 Spy 1 6.5 (approx.) Spy II 5.2 (approx.) Homo sapiens South Germans 3.2 Melanesians 3.0 Burmese 2.7 Fuegians 2.5 IV. STUDY OF THE SAGITTAL PROJECTION In turning the bone around to a position 90° from the volar plane, it comes into the sagittal plane. Here but one important character has thus far been observed, and that is, a second collo-diaphysial angle, which marks the amount of backward projection of the proximal end of the bone. This can be measured by the same methods as are used for the collo-diaphysial angle of the volar plane (No. 9), and has been found to average 172.5° in the people of Oceanica and 175.0° among the South Germans, in both cases a greater bend than in the volar diaphysial angle. This angle may prove to be important, but thus far it has not been used very much, and need not be listed. V. THE TORSION OF THE SHAFT If in number of radii the maximum length line of the distal articular surface be plainly marked, that is, the line used above in determining the volar plane, and the bones be then placed in a parallel row upon a 104 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY table, with the bicipital tuberosity looking straight upwards, there will be seen considerable difference in the angle which this distal line makes with the plane of the table. In other words the angle made between this line and one at the proximal end driven straight down through the tuber- osity is subject to much variation. This angle is called, 11. Angle of torsion. — It is measured by the parallelograph, which places on a piece of paper placed on the table a projection of the two lines involved, in the case of a bone held in a clamp and placed perpen- dicularly over the table. The angle is then determined by the transparent protractor. Viewed in another way this measurement defines precisely the direct- ion towards which the tuberosity points when the bone is placed in the volar plane. If in this position the tuberosity points directly upwards, its axis is at right angles to that of the distal articular surface line and the angle is 90°; if it point laterally, along the crest, its axis lies in the volar plane and the angle is 0°. This is about the condition in the large apes, and in the Neandertal species of man; indeed, occasionally in an ape (apparently always in the chimpanzee) the tuberosity axis passes the 0 line, that is, the volar plane, and actually faces a little backwards, making a minus angle. In the white race in general the angle is somewhere around 45°, and consequently looks obliquely forwards and inwards. The following results of the study of this angle have been found by Fischer, who, however, uses the complement of the angle as described here, considering the position in which the tuberosity looks directly up- wards as 0°, and that in which it lies in the volar plane as 90°. The table here, in order to agree with the textual explanation has been translated into the complements of Fischer's table. TABLE SHOWING THE ANGLE OF TORSION Simian apes Chimpanzee 3.5° Gibbon +0.5° Gorilla 2.0 Orang-utan 5.8 Homo neandertalensis Neandertal specimen 2.0 Spy -. 9.0 Homo sapiens Hawaiians 23 . 0 Melanesians 24 . 7 Australians 26 . 3 Negroes 26.7 Fuegians 29 . 5 Burmese 31.6 Veddah 37 . 0 Negritoes 37.5 South Germans (Baden) 39.8 Lake-dweller pygmies (prehist) 49 . 2 OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 105 Although in averages this character is sufficiently striking, yet there are very large individual differences. Fischer found, for instance, among six negro radii, extremes of 39 and 85°; and among twenty-five South Germans, those of 22 and 67°. The Bones of the Hand Of all parts of the human skeleton it is safe to say that the bones of the hand and foot are anthropometrically the least known, and that in spite of the fact that, as always among highly differentiated parts, it is to be expected that they would reveal important racial differences*. The reason for this lack is mainly to be found in the paucity of available material. Few anthropological collections contain complete sets of hand and foot bones. In the case of those obtained from dealers, either attached to skeletons, or obtained separately, there is no guarantee that all the bones of a set came from a single individual and are not "com- posites," put together from several sources, and hence valueless for anthropometry. Again, it is very seldom that in an excavated skeleton these small and fragile parts are found complete, or even approximately so, since the lightness and smallness of the most of these parts allow them to become scattered by the action of worms and insects, and by various other sources. To remedy this great defect, and supply material for his own univer- sity, Dr. Wilhelm Pfitzner of the University of Strassburg macerated and prepared with his own hands a collection of nearly 2000 human hands and about the same number of feet, not daring to entrust to a trade preparator any portion of the work.f Thus this place, and this alone thus far, possesses a priceless collection of just the material needed for anthropometric examination of hand and foot skeletons, but even here the collection is derived wholly from the local Alsatian population, repre- senting but a small part of Europe. Adachi, in Tokyo, has been able to collect valuable data concerning the Japanese, but by the study of far fewer individuals, and when Uhlbach recently studied anthropometrically the hands and feet of Hottentots, he was obliged to content himself with these parts from only six individuals, and had it not been for the painstaking excavations by his friend and teacher, Fischer, he could not have gotten even these. Granting, however, that material is not lacking, a distinct problem presents itself in the fact of the multiplicity of single bones which together make up the unit whose proportions are especially to be studied. That is, * GEO. S. HTJNTINGTON, in a lecture delivered before the Galton Society, New York, Dec., 1918 (unpublished). t PFITZNER, W.: Beitrage zur Kenntniss des menschlichen Extremitatenskelets. VIII. Die morphologischen Elements des menschl. Handskelets. Zeitschr. /. Mor- phol und Anthropol, Bd. II. 1900, pp. 77-157 and 365-678. There are other im- portant papers upon the subject by this author, but this, the last of the series, has an excellent bibliography, and will serve to direct the reader to the subject in general. 106 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY except in the bones of carpus and tarsus, whose proportions, taken a bone at a time, are frequently found significant, the points of comparison are found in the dimensions of the palm as a whole, or the relative lengths of entire fingers, while little or nothing is to be expected from single bones. It is thus frequently necessary to use as data the total lengths and breadths of several bones together, in which work the exact identity of every phalanx is of the utmost importance. For convenience of treatment the proportions of the hand as a whole, or without the carpus, and those of the separate carpals, are here treated separately, and in the order mentioned. I. THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HAND (WITHOUT THE CARPUS) This part consists of the 14 phalanges, together with the 5 meta- carpals, 19 bones in all; their measurements, used either separately or in combination, consist of lengths, breadths, and depths (dorso-ventrally) . 1 . Lengths. There are two possible lengths of phalanx or a metacarpal ; the anatomical or maximum length, and the physiological. The first includes all processes or ridges which may be found prolonging the articu- lations, and this length is taken either by the anthropometric board or by a slide compass with flat points. The ordinary type of osteometric board is too large and heavy for all except the metacai pals' or the basal phalanges, and for this sort of work a much smaller size should be constructed, delicate enough to measure accurately, at least to half-millimeters, a bone the size of a terminal phalanx. The physiological length, or that length which is actually effective when the articulations are closed together as in life, is that found by measuring the length from the center of the depression of the articular surface at one end by that of the other. This seems, and probably is, the best one to use in calculations requiring the length of an entire finger, since, when put together in the natural manner, the length contributed by each piece would be its physiological, and not its maximum length. 2. Breadths. The usual practice in ascertaining the breadth of a given phalanx, with its difference in caliber, and hence of breadth, at various points, is to measure the exact breadth at three places, across the two epiphyses and the middle, and average all three by adding them together and dividing by 3. 3. Depths (Heights). This measure, taken dorso-ventrally through a phalanx, at right angles to the previous one, is usually taken in the same way as the last, by the average of three measures, taken in the same places as the last. 4. Calibers. The caliber of the separate phalanges is a set of measures that will become important in the future without much doubt, but has not been employed thus far, probably owing to the technical difficulty of making a sufficiently accurate measurement to be of much discriminative OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 107 value. To use this measure more delicate methods than any we have at present must be devised. As an example of data which may be derived in this way we present here the average lengths of the separate components of the middle finger (digit III) in Europeans, Japanese, and Hottentots, after the measure- ments of Pfitzner, Adachi, and Uhlbach respectively.* MEASUREMENTS OF DIGIT III (PHYSIOLOGICAL LENGTHS) bone Europeans Japanese Hottentots male female male female metacarpal 62.8 43.4 28.5 18.6 90.5 143.9 59.8 41.2 27.1 16.7 84.9 144.7 59.3 42.3 26.7 17.8 86.8 146.1 56.0 40.4 24.9 16.9 82.2 138.2 54.1 35.8 23.5 14.5 83.8 137.9 basal phalanx middle phalanx terminal phalanx. . free finger total digit (-(-metacarp.) The following indices may be suggested, the most of which have al- ready been employed by some of the above authors. 1 . Hand index. This indicates the shape of the entire hand, whether long and narrow or short and broad; it is found by comparing the total length of digit III (metacarp. + phi + 2 + 3) with the physiological breadth of the four finger metacarpals, taken across their bases, thus: physiological basal breadth, metacarp. II — IV X 100 physiol. length, entire digit III 2. Palmar index. Like the previous one, save that the length of the palm is compared with its breadth, thus: physiological basal breadth, metacarp. II— IV X 100 physiol. length, metacarp. Ill 3. Digital index. Intended to compare the length of the palm with that of the free fingers, taking for the comparison the third digit, which is the longest, thus: physiological length, metacarp. Ill X 100 physiol. length, phal. 1 + 2 + 3 of digit III * ADACHI, B. and Y. (MME ADACHI) : Die Handknochen der Japaner. Mitt. med. Fakult&t Univ. Tokyo. Bd. 6, pp. 349+. ADACHI, B.: Die Fussknochen der Japaner. Mitt. med. Fakutt&t Univ. Tokyo. Bd. 6, pp. 307+. PFITZNER, W.: Maassverhaltnisse des Handskelet. Morph. Arb., 1892. Bd. 1, PP. 1+. UHLBACH, R. : Messungen an Hand- und Fussskeleten von Hottentotten. Zeitschr. Morphol. und Anthropol, 1914. Bd. 16, pp. 449-464. 108 LABORATORY MANUAL OP ANTHROPOMETRY 4. Thumb index (a). The relative length of the thumb is obtained by comparing its total physiological length (metacarp. + basal ph. -f ter- minal ph) with that of digit III, thus: physiol. length of thumb X 100 physiol. length of digit III 5. Thumb index (6). The relative length of the thumb, as indicated by its metacarpal, may be tested by comparing this latter bone with the metacarpal of digit III, thus: physiol. length of metacarpal I X 100 physiol. length of metacarpal III 6. Breadth index (separate phalanges). In this the breadth of a single bone, taken in three places and averages, is compared with the physiol length. average breadth X 100 physiol. length 7. Depth index (separate phalanges). As used by Uhlbach this index compares the average depth (height) with the average breadth. average depth (dorsal-ventral) X 100 average breadth This might also be compared with the length, as in the previous index. In carrying this investigation further, as is bound to be done soon, both here and in the case of the foot, one sees that the number of possible indices, taken with all the possibilities of comparing sums of separate bones, is practically endless, and the investigator should avoid an aimless multiplication of such possible data, using new indices only for some definite purpose, usually to put into mathematical form some difference of proportion already detected by the eye, or suspected as the result of measurement. The study and comparison with the hands and feet of the larger apes should here, as elsewhere, suggest certain lines of difference where racial criteria are to be looked for. II. ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE CARPUS This is the most neglected region anthropometrically of the entire skeleton, as thus far no definite measurements of single bones have ever been established, or definite indices used. Causes for this may be found in the small size of the bones, in the rarity of properly determined sets of carpal bones, and also in the fact that, although small, these bones are complex in form and in their mutual actions, and thus require an unusual amount of data to be of use. It is likely that important characters may be found in the actions and habitual positions of these parts, or of the wrist as a whole, the exposition of which will involve more than single bones, mainly the proportions of adjacent articular facets and the mechanics of the possible motions between them. Again it will perhaps be sometime shown that character- OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 109 istics of these sorts which seem to be racial may be in reality industrial or habitudinal, and have become the definite characteristics of a given race because of definite peculiarities in their racial culture. To illustrate this we have the claim of the two Adachis that the wrists and hands of the Japanese race are much more supple, and have a greater mobility that these parts in Europeans, and that this may be due to the harder forms of toil indulged in by the latter; not that they work harder, but that they are concerned with larger and heavier objects, such as larger tools, larger structures involving larger parts, and so on. In the case of the tarsus the importance of the various foot motions, especially those of the ankle, involved, not only in walking and climbing, but in sitting and squatting, have already called especial attention to such bones as the calcaneus and the talus, and these parts have received much special attention anthropometrically, and from these one may get excellent models and many suggestions concerning the prosecution of further study of the carpus (cf. below). As much of value has been sug- gested in other regions by the comparison with the same parts in the large apes, it may be suggested that here would be an unusual opportunity for suggestive comparison by observation of the use of the hands and wrists in these animals, and a constant comparison with the use in man. V. THE PELVIC SKELETON, INCLUDING HIP-GIRDLE AND SACRUM Pelvic Girdle Next to the skull the pelvic girdle, including the sacrum and the ossa coxae (innominata) is of the most general interest, and the two have many attributes in common. Like the skull, the pelvic girdle is complex, formed by several separate elements, showing in the adult several degrees of fusion, but never with more than a limited amount of independent motion; both skull and pelvic girdle, too, are in many places quite superficial, and allow numerous measurements to be made with equal facility upon the bones of the living, with either no difference in the result, (e.g., spinal breadth) or with only the slight difference caused by the thickness of the integument (e.g., cristal breadth). In another way the pelvic girdle is, in its treatment, like the skull, and that is in its need for orientation, and in its presentation of three dimensions, length [depth], breadth, and height. As in the skull there is a definite plane of orientation, the aim of which is to place the part in a natural position corresponding to that in the living. In the pelvic girdle, unlike the skull, the plane of orientation is vertical rather than horizontal, and the orientation is effected by placing the girdle, with its three parts (two ossa coxae and sacrum) fastened together, in such a position that the two anterior ventral iliac spines, and the ventral 110 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY surface of the pubic arch are in contact with a board placed vertically. From its three contact points it is called the spino-symphysial plane, and because it is defined by three points instead of four it is mathe- matically more precise than is the use of the FH with the skull, which depends upon four. When oriented along the spino-symphysial plane the girdle possesses a maximum height, breadth (laterally), and depth (dorso-ventrally) , approximately at right angles to one another, the first three measurements given below. Oriented in this way there are the usual number of normse, as in the skull, which might come into use in making careful drawings or photographs for comparison, these have had little use thus far. The anthropological study of the pelvic girdle is one of the oldest sub- divisions of the subject, mainly, perhaps, on account of the early necessity of making measurements of this region in the female on the part of the obstetricians and gynaecologists. These men had thus assembled many data when the modern science came into existence, and all or nearly all of them found at once a place in the rubric of suggested measurements. Thus, in Turner's Report of the bones collected by H. M. S. Challenger (1886), the pelvic girdle, aside from the skull, to which an entrie mono- graph was devoted, has the first and most prominent place. No less that 35 separate data were presented, mostly measurements, with a few indices, and angles, and in this paper the Pelvic brim index (Turner's No. 15), originating from Zaaijer in 1866, was made much use of.* I. MEASUREMENTS (a) Outside measurement of the pelvic girdle as a whole. 1. Maximum pelvic height; the greatest distance between the upper edge of the iliac crest and the lowest point of the sciatic tuber (ischiadic tuber osity) of the same side. As the two terminal points are on the same bone, this measurement becomes also the maximum length line of a single os coxae (innominate bone), and as such is employed in cal- culating certain indices, like the Innominate (3), and the Ischiadic (6). 2. Maximum pelvic breadth (cristal breadth); the greatest distance between the two iliac crests, taken along the outer lips. This and other large pelvic and thoracic measures are taken with the pelvimeter (Pm), a large pair of calipers, with a reach of 600 mm. 3. Maximum pelvic depth (dorso-ventral,' or sagittal). From the most dorsally projecting point of the sacrum, in the median line, to the * An excellent paper to serve as a laboratory manual for the measurement of the pelvis is that of KOGANEI and OSAWA, Das Becken, der Aino und der Japaner, Tokio, 1900, in which the authors have made an exhaustive study of the pelvis both in the skeleton and in the living subject, employing a large number of subjects in all cases. Earlier papers of importance, dealing with the racial diffeiences, are TURNER'S Chal- lenger report, referred to above, and HENNIG, Das Rassenbecken, in Archiv f . Anthro- pol., 1885. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT or THE BONES 111 most ventrally projecting point on the ventral surface of the pubic symphysis. Pm. 4. Conjugate, externa (lumbo-pubic depth); this corresponds to the like-named measurement on the living, and is taken between the same two points, the point of the dorsal spine of the fifth lumbar vertebra, and the most ventral point of the pubic symphysis. This measurement is naturally possible only in cases in which the fifth lumbar vertebra belonging to the same pelvis is present. It is carefully adjusted in its proper place where it is held by plastilena, and the measurement is then taken as directed. This measurement in -the living exceeds that of the skeleton in the thickness of the two layers of integument and in the subcutaneous fat. 5. Intertuberal breadth; from the center of the lower surface of one sciatic tuber to that of the other. This should be the same value in living or skeleton. RC. We may also make use of either : 5a. Outer intertuberal breadth; measured from the most lateral points on the lower surface of the tubers, or 56. Inner intertuberal breadth; measured from the most medial points on the lower surface of the tubers. In all cases it should be stated which measurement is used. 6. Spinal breadth; the distance between the anterior ventral (anterior superior) spines of the ilia, taken from their outer lips. The same value as in the living. RC. 7. Acetabular breadth; across the pelvic girdle from the center of the bottom of one acetabulum to that of the other. Pm. (6) Measurement of the pelvic basin. 8. Upper sagittal diameter (conjugata vera); from the mid-ventral point of the anterior lip of the first sacral vertebra (promontoiium sacri), across the basin to the upper end of the inner surf ace of the pubic symphy- sis, but not to the inward projecting process a little lower down. 9. Lower sagittal diameter (conjugata diagonalis) ; from the middle point of the promontorium sacri to the apex of the pubic angle, inner surface. 10. Upper transverse diameter; the greatest transverse diameter of the pelvic brim (ilio-pectineal line), at right angles to 8. 11. Lower transverse diameter; measured between the apices of the spines of the ischia. Only possible when the spines are intact. 12. Oblique diameter of the pzlvic brim; upon the ilio-pectineal line from the ilio-sacral suture of one side to the region of the ilio-pectineal crest of the other side. This latter point corresponds closely to the original ilio-pubic suture, and lies above the lateral side of the obturator foramen. There are naturally two of these oblique measures, the dextro- sinistral and the sinistro-dextral; both should be measured, as pelves are frequently asymmetrical. 112 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY 13. Depth of the pelvic basin; from the ilio-pectineal line in the region of the ilio-pectineal crest, to the lowest point of the sciatic tuber of the same side. This line measures the antero-posterior* depth of the lower pelvis, and runs along the lateral boundary of the obturator foramen. (c) Measurements of a single os coxae. 14. Maximum length of the os coxce; this is the same as the maximum pelvic height, used in connection with the entire pelvis [cf. No. 1 above]. The termini are the upper edge of the iliac crest and the lower surface of the sciatic tuber, where the greatest length is sought. Cr. 15. Maximum breadth of the os coxa; the distance from the anterior dorsal (posterior superior) iliac spine to the anterior (upper ) end of the pubic symphysis, that is, the anterior medial apex of the pubic bone. Cr. 16. Length (height) of the ilium; from the center of the acetabulum to the highest point of the iliac crest. SC or Cr. 17. Breadth of the ilium; across from the anterior ventral (anterior superior) to the anterior dorsal (posterior superior) spine of the ilium. Cr or RC. 18. Length of the os pubis; from the center of the acetabulum to the medial edge of the pubic symphysis, the maximum measure. SC. 19. Length of the ischium; from the center of the acetabulum to the lowest point on the surface of the sciatic tuber, the maximum measure. SC. 20. Length of pubic symphysis; this is the length of the roughened contact area between the two bones, measured along the medial border. SC. 21. Vertical diameter of the acetabulum; from the middle of the notch between the ends of the articular surfaces, measured upon the lateral edge of the obturator foramen to the opposite edge of the acetabulum where the diameter is the greatest. SC. 22. Transverse diameter of the acetabulum; the diameter taken at right angles to the preceding. SC. 23. Vertical diameter of the obturator foramen; the maximum antero- posterior diameter, taken approximately parallel to the lateral edge. SC. 24. Transverse diameter of the obturator foramen; the diameter taken at right angles to the above. SC. * Note that here and elsewhere the nomenclature used is the morphological one, as related to any mammal, irrespective of his posture, whether bipedal or quad- rupedal. Thus the terms anterior and posterior are equivalent to the older superior and inferior while the older terms anterior and posterior are replaced by ventral and do-sal respectively. Thus the common phrase "anterior superior spine of the crest of the ilium" is here the anterior ventral spine; the "posterior superior" is the anterior dorsal; the "anterior inferior" is the posterior ventral and so on. Also, in accordance with the BNA, os innominatum becomes os coxce, and the tuberosity of the ilium the sciatic tuber. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 113 II. INDICES j*x i • n • j /-i o\ max- pelvic height X 100 1. Breadth-height index (1:2)- . , , , , jti. j n. • j /o o\ max- pelvic depth (dorso-ventral) X 100 2. Breadth-depth index (3:2)- . . , , cristal breadth 3. External conjugate index (4 : 2) — — -7-7- — cristal Dreadtn. This index requires the presence of the fifth lunbar vertebra, and is therefore seldom possible. Its value consists mainly in its close corres- pondence to the same index on the living which is here one of the most important of the pelvic measurements. As the difference of this index in skeleton and in the living consists mainly in the addition of two,thick- nesses of integument to each measure, plus a slight reinforcement of fat added to the longer of the two, the proportions are kept almost exactly and there is probably less disparity in the index between the two con- ditions than in the length-breadth index of the head. 4. Pdvicbrim index (Z:W) "pper .apt. diam. (conjugata vera) X 100 upper transverse diameter As classified by Turner* (1886) this index is divided into three groups: brachypellic below 90 mesopellic 90-95 dolichopellic 95+ Male Australians, Hottentots, and Andaman Islanders, are dolicho- pellic; male negroes are mesopellic; and male Europeans, Hindus, Chinese, and American Indians are platypellic. The females are gener- ally broader than their respective males, but in the South American Indians the males are platypellic and the females mesopellic (Turner). breadth of ilium X 100 5. Coxal index (17 : 14) 6. Iliac index (17 : 16) 7. Pubic index (18 : 17) max. length of os coxae breadth of ilium X 100 length (height) of ilium pubic length X 100 breadth of ilium T *.'. !• • j /m -i A\ length of ischmm X 100 8. Ischiadic index (19 : 14) - max. length of os coxae • j tnA «o\ transverse diam. of foramen X 100 9. Obturator index (24 : 23) — vertical diam. of foramen * In Turner's original paper the middle group was called mesatipellic, as was then usual. The three classes were presented also in the reverse order. These have both been modified here to correspond to the general plan of the book. Turner also suggested, as alternate terms with the ones favored, those with the suSix-lekanic, instead of -pellic. 8 114 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY III. ANGLES 1. Subpubic angle; the angle formed by the two ischio-pubic rami, along their medial borders. As is well-known the subpubic angle is a famous sex criterion, being small in the male and large in the female, which is true of all human races. Still, it may have a racial significance also, although the data thus far obtained are meager. Thus Turner, upon the basis of single individuals , where the sexes did not even correspond racially, are yet of some signifi- cance. Males Females Australian 47° Negress 71° Chinese 76° Hawaiian 102° Malay 76° Lapplander 104° Of these three males the average is 64°; of the three females 85°. Martin (1894) gives more complete data, from various sources: Names of race Males Females European 58° (Verneau) 76° (Martin) 75° (Verneau) 72 (Hennig) Fuegian 60.5° (Martin) 85° (Martin) 60.7° (Garson) 59° (Sergi) 81° (Sergi) Australians 78° (Martin) 80° (Verneau) Andamanese 85° (Martin) 2. Angle of inclination of the ilium. This is the angle made by the plane of the ilium with the horizon, and may best be reckoned mathe- matically by the use of data already obtained from measurements, viz. — cristal breadth (2) upper transverse diameter of the pelvic brim (10) length (height) of the ilium (16) Nos. (2) and (10) are parallel to each other. (16) is set obliquely, connecting their ends. If the pelvis is perfectly symmetrical, which can by no means be taken for granted, these two parallel lines may be charted on a paper with their median points upon a common perpendic- ular which represents the median sagittal line. For complete accuracy the point in each line where it crosses the median plane should be noted in the measurement and these points, rather than the geometrical middle point, should be placed upon the perpendicular. In this way the exact inclination of each side can be either measured by the protractor upon the chart, or be reckoned by trigonometry from the data furnished. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 115 3. Divergence of the two ilia from each other. This is nothing more than the sum of the previous angles as found for each side of a given pelvis, and is obtained by adding the two. It could also be obtained by some simple device which would measure this angle direct. 4. Inclination angle of the pelvis as a whole. This means the in- clination of the conjugata vera to the spino-symphysial plane, or to the horizontal, which is the complement of the first. This angle is best measured direct upon the bones by some form of goniometer, the two legs resting upon the promontorium (in the median line) and the inner surface of the upper edge of the pubic arch. If the girdle be held in an osteophore from behind, and the vertical board used in orientation removed, the aspect required is quite exposed, and readily accessible to either the stationary or the clamp-on type of goniometer, by which the angle may be easily measured. For some methods of measurement a steel needle, fastened to the bone in such a way as to represent the conjugata vera, is of assistance. 5. Sacral inclination angle. This angle, which belongs more properly under the head of measurements of the sacrum, is the inclination of the sacral base to the spino-symphysial plane . The sacral base is the anterior surface of the body of the first sacral vertebra, which, in a complete girdle, is so closely fastened to the ilia, and intimately associated with them, that it serves as a base for the entire complex. This is measured by the goniometer, any form, upon a girdle properly oriented, and held in an osteophore applied dorsally. The measure ment is much assisted by first applying a steel needle to the surface of the base, along the median plane, and firmly fastened to the bone. General considerations concerning angular measurements. In all angular measurements, both here and elsewhere, the actual obtaining of the values is a matter of individual ingenuity, in which there are always many possibilities. In general there are three kinds of methods, viz.: (a) direct measurement on the bone, by some sort of goniometer (6) charting the essential lines on paper, and measuring the angles thus obtained by means of a protractor (c) getting the essential data by linear measurements, and reckon- ing the values of the angles involved by trigonometrical methods. In many cases, where a single definite angle is receiving special at- tention, and where it therefore has to be measured again and again, the investigator has devised some special form of goniometer fitted to this particular purpose. This is to be generally encouraged, especially when the device is simple, but the modern tendency seems to be to reduce, rather than multiply, the number of different instruments, and to render those used more universal in their application. Thus, the calipers (craniometer) of the present time, and the pelvimeter, are practically identical in form, differing only in size, which is wholly a matter of convenience, and both are devised for use in cases where the two 116 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY termini of a line frequently have some obstacle between them which has to be reached around in order to obtain a straight measurement. Again the slide-compass and the rod-compass are practically the same thing in two sizes, also for convenience; and these with the clamp-on goni- ometer the tape, and the anthropometer, of which the rod-compass is an adjustment, are all that is needed both for bones and the living, for all anthropometric uses except certain special work. Aside from the sub-pubic angle, the difference in the value of which in the two sexes has long been known, the ossa coxae with the sacrum exhibit other marked sexual differences, which may usually be relied upon in sexing a skeleton. These latter are especially practical when applied in the field during excavation, or in the case of incomplete skeletons, as they concern the single parts of which the girdle is composed and consequently do not require to have the pelvis put together as is the case with the subpubic angle. The following are the most pronounced of the sex-determining char- acters of the separate ossa coxae: * 1. The curve of the iliac crest. This is higher and more abrupt in the male; or, in other words, the outline presents the arc of a much smaller circle. It also turns down more abruptly dorsally. 2. The shape of the sacro-sciatic notch. This is narrow and deep in the male; shallow and wide in the female. 3. The sulcus paraglenoidalis s. praeauricularis. This is a groove, which runs over the inner surface of the ilium, just posterior to the au- ricular surface, and parallel to its posterior border. It is very, variable in its appearance and occurrence, being generally absent in males, and present in females, with exceptions both ways. When well developed it is 2 cm. or more in length, and runs over the dorsal margin of the bone, so that it may sometimes be seen upon the outer side.f 4. The acetabulum. (a) This is larger in males; smaller in females. (6) In females it looks more forwards; in males more laterally. This character can be seen only in the complete pelvis. Sacrum % I. MEASUREMENTS 1 . Mid-ventral curved length; the length of the median line, drawn along the ventral surface, from the median point in the anterior or margin * There are also certain sex differences in the sacrum, which are noted in their proper place, below. f For a recent discussion of the sulcus paraglenoidalis (praeauricularis) cf . DERBY, in Journ. Anat. and Physiol, Vol. 43, 1909, pp. 266-276; see also LOHR, in Anal. Am., Bd. IX, 1894. t Cf. RADLATDER Beitrage zur Anatomie des Kreuzbeines. Morphol. Jahrs., Bd. 38, 1908, pp. 323-447. This work was done at Zurich under Rudolf Martin, and is a complete analysis of the sacrum, treated anthropometrically and racially, according to the newest methods. The work may be taken as a standard and is largely followed here. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 117 of the promo ntorium to that of the apex, without including the coccyx. (Fig. 37, the curved lineal). TM. 2. Mid-ventral straight length (length of sacral axis); the length of the straight line drawn between the two terminals employed in the pre- vious measurement (the line ab in Fig. 37). SC. 3. Anterior curved breadth; the length of the line drawn perpendicular to (1), across the ventral surface of the first sacral vertebra, between the widest points of the margins of the lateral wings. TM. 4. Anterior straight breadth; the length of the straight line drawn between the two termini employed in (3). SC. 5. Middle curved breadth; the length of the line drawn perpendicular / f to (1), across the ventral surface, connecting the posterior angles of the wings as termini. These terminal points are practically at the level of the lowest point of the auricular surfaces, which can be used in cases where the lower angles of the wings are indefinite. TM. 6. Middle straight breadth; the straight line drawn between the termini employed in (5). SC. 7. Lower breadth; the distance be- tween the posterior lateral angles, or, when these are not evident, the greatest breadth across the bone at the level of the most posterior pair of foramina. At this level the ventral FlQ- 37.— Median curve of sacrum. r .. , , . I-V, centra of vertebrae; a-b. mid-ventral SUrtace OI the DOne IS SO flat that there curved length; c-d, maximum height of is practically no difference between the curvature. (After Radiauer.) straight and curved breadths. SC. 8. Maximum height of curvature; the greatest distance bet ween the two lines used in (1) and (2), measured on a line perpendicular with (2); i.e., the line cd in Fig. 37. 9. Position of the maximum height line; the relative position of the point c in Fig. 37, the foot of the perpendicular used in the previous measurement. The distance here measured is that from the promontor- ium to the foot of the perpendicular, the line ac of the figure above referred to. This figure is a profile projection of the median sagittal curve, and is drawn upon a properly oriented bone by means of a diagraph, precisely as in the corresponding craniogram described elsewhere. Several important sacral measurements may be measured upon it, such as Nos. 2, 8, and 9. These may be measured also directly upon the bone, and the two used to check each other. An instrument especially devised 118 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY for measurements 8 and 9 consists of two graded scales , set at right arigles to each other. One spans the bone in the. median line, and is placed in contact at the promontorium and the apex, while the other, which slides upon the first, and also lengthens and shortens, is adjusted as desired. When in the position cd its length, and its position on the base line, can be read off on the scales.* 10. Antero-posterior (sagittal) diameter of the anterior articular surface', the surface that articulates with the last lumbar vertebra. SC or TM 11. Lateral (transverse) diameter of the same. Nos 10 and 11 must be at right angles to each other. SC or TM II. INDICES (a) Sacral indices; designed to show the general shape of the bone as a whole. I. Sacral index A (4 : 2) anterior straight breadth X 100 mid-ventral straight length 1N anterior straight breadth X 100 2. Sacral index B (4 : 1) - — 7-5 — mid-ventral curved length ,N anterior curved breadth X 100 Sacral index' c (3:1)- — =-^ — mid-ventral curved length Of the above three indices A is the classical one used by Turner; while B and C have the merit of expressing the full value of the vertebral axis, but have thus far been but little used. In these indices the sexual difference is marked, the breadth measures, and consequently the indices, being greater in females, f The following values of Sacral index, A, have been found for various races, and appear here. as compiled by Radlauer. RACAL INDICES SACRAL INDEX A Name or race Males Females Negtoes . . ; . . 91.4 (33) 103.6 (18) Egyptians ,..'.... '. 94.3 (7) 99.1 (2) Andamanese 94.8 (22) 103.4 (35) Australians 100.2 (14) 110.0 (13) Japanese . .... 101.5 (37) 107 1 (36) Europeans : 102.9 (63) 112.4 (43) * This instrument was devised by RADLAUER and is figured by him in the article above cited (p. 336). t With the exception of the ossa coxae (innominata; there is no bone in the body more profoundly modified by sex than is the sacrum. The sex should thus be con- stantly regarded in all general averages, especially those which concern breadth of the bones, or the depth of curvature, and in conclusions connected with racial char- acteristics. Cf. DERRY: The influence of sex on the position and composition of the Human Sacrum, in Journ. Anat and Physiol. (Engl.), 1912, pp. 184-192. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 119 The numbers in parentheses give the number of individuals studied in each case. Sacral indices like these are classified in three groups, with the fol- lowing values : — Index below 100 dolichohieric Index between 100 and 106 subplatyhieric Index above 106 platyhieric In general, averaging both sexes, the narrowest sacra (dolichohieric) are those of Malays, Andamanese and Bushmen; sacra of middle pro- portions are possessed by many Caucasians, American Indians, Chinese, and Japanese; while wide sacra (platyhieric) occur among Australians and the Apline peoples of Europe. There are, however, in many cases, conflicting figures presented by different authorities, presumably because of the small numbers of individuals measured, in some cases only three or four. (6) Longitudinal curvature indices. mid- ventral straight length X 100 4. Curvature index A (2:1) mid-ventral cui ved length _ n • j D /o- ON maximum height of curvature X 100 5. Curvature index B (8 : 2) - — r^- mid-ventral straight length 6. Curvature index C (9 : 2) position of maximum height line X 100 mid-ventral straight length These indices, devised by Radlauer, present the following values, al- though the number of individuals used is often too small for final conclusions. CURVATURE INDICES OF VARIOUS RACES Curvature Curvature Curvature Name of race index A. index B. index C. Simian apes 98 7 9 6 42 9 Negroes . ... 92 4 18.1 63.1 American Indians 91 6 19 5 72 5 Asiatics 89 7 20 0 67.2 Australians and Oceanians 93.1 20.8 48.8 Europeans 86 5 23 6 50 4 In index A the nearer the index approaches 100 the flatter is the longitudinal curve; in B the higher figures represent a deeper curve. Thus, in the Simian apes both the high index A and the low index B show that the longitudinal curve is slight, i.e., that the sacral axis is more nearly 120 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY a straight one than in man. The position of the point of greatest curva- ture, as indicated by Index C, varies with the amount of curvature, lying farther back (more posteriorly) when the curve is deeper. This is indi- cated by the larger numbers, which show that the line ac is longer. In this particular the Fuegians have the highest number, and consequently the most posterior position of any race yet studied, modifying the general rule concerning the relation of curvature to position of the foot of the perpendicular, for in these people the actual amount of curvature, although great, is not quite that of the Europeans. (c) Transverse curvature indices. m • j i i A ON anterior straight breadth X 100 Transverse cunature index A (4 : 3) - — ; — anterior curved breadth Transverse curvature index B (6 : 5) middle straight breadth X 100 middle curved breadth These two indices consist merely of comparisons of the straight and curved transverse diameters at respectively the anterior and middle parts of the sacrum, and indicate the amount of curvature, or longitudinal rolling, found in a given case. A similar index at the more posterior part of the sacrum has no especial meaning, as there the ventral surface of the bone is so flat that there is practically no difference between the two measurements. For these two indices the following racial values have been determined. VALUES OF TRANSVERSE CURVATURE INDICES [RADLAUER, 394]. Name of Race Transv. curv. index A Transv. curv. index B Lower apes 90 5 Simian apes 97.1 97 3 Australians, Oceanians 94.8 97 3 Negroes 94 6 97 8 Asiatics 95 1 97 4 American Indians 95.3 97 9 Europeans 95.5 98 0 From these figures it will be seen that the sacrum is more nearly flat at about the middle than at the upper level; also that the European have the flattest sacra transversely, and the Australians and negroes the most curved, along the same aspect. Taken as racial criteria the slight difference shown here, which include the races of the greatest general difference, gives us little to hope for in the use of these indices. Prob- ably the actual value of these transverse curvature indices is but slight. OSTEOMETKY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 121 (d) Miscellaneous , ., 1 . x sagittal diameter X 100 9. Index of the sacral base (10 : 11) - — p — transverse diameter This index, a comparison of the two diameters of the anterior articular surface of the first sacral vertebra, (= Sacral base) has not yet been shown to be of much importance racially. It gives the relative shape of this flat surface, and range from 54.1 in the inhabitants of the Ural Mts. to 66.4 in the Burmese. The index for Europeans is estimated at 58.5, but for the Alpine peoples, at 58.7. In Negroes it is 61.2 and in Asiatics in general 62.6. III. ANGLES Promontory angle; this is the angle formed between the flat surface of the sacral basis and the beginning of the longitudinal curve of the ven- tral surface, as taken in the mid-ventral line, (angle fae, or fac in Fig. 37) This angle is the least in the Tyrolese, 58°; and the highest in Asiatics, averaging, 65°. In the Neolithic station at Schweizersbild are found sacra with a promontory angle of 70°, five degrees more than in any recent race. The sacral inclination angle (No. 5 under Pelvic girdle, above) uses the plane of the sacral base for one of its sides, but, as it requires the spino-symphysial plane for the other, must be taken only on a complete girdle. Another form of the Promontory angle, which is in some ways more satisfactory than the one given here, might be made by using, with the same plane of the sacral base, the entire straight length line instead of the one indicating the anterior portion of the ventral surface, i.e., the line ab of Fig. 37 rather than the line ae of the same figure. This line seems not to have been used, and is hence not recommended here. Other angles suggested, and occasionally used, are (1) the angle formed by the plane of the two auricular surfaces, usually meeting along an im- aginary line posterior to the bone, and (2) the angle of inclination of the sacrum, or of the sacral axis, when the subject is standing. This latter, like that of the inclination of the pelvis as a whole, can be measured only upon the living subject, and then only approximately. It might be possible, however, to relate the sacrum to some definitely determined plane in a properly articulated pelvic girdle, such as the spino- symphysial plane or that of the rim of the lower pelvis, and thus obtain proportions or relations of importance. Anatomical variations in the sacrum, such as the number of the verte- brae which compose it, or the sacralization of the last lumbar vertebra, are mainly of biological interest, as are similar variations in other bones, and seem to have no racial significance. 122 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY VI. THE BONES OF THE LEG AND FOOT Femur* I. MEASUREMENTS A. Length Under this head four possible measurements may betaken, asfollows :- 1. Absolute length', taken with the osteometric board. OB 2. Physiological length; this is the length used by Turner, and described by him as "taken in the oblique position". The two condyles are set upon a plane surface, and the length is then measured along a line per- pendicular to this plane. This is taken with the osteometric board by placing the two condyles in contact with the fixed end. The shaft then lies obliquely in the trough of the board, and the moveable piece is shut down upon the head, thus measuring the greatest length obtainable with the bone in this position. This corresponds to the physiological, or efficient, length in the living limb. OB - 3. Trochanteric length; from the most prominent point of the greater trochanter to the most distal point of the lateral condyle. This is an especially convenient measure, since it can be taken upon an articulated skeleton, or upon a fragmentary femur that has lost the head. It can also be approximately detei mined upon the living subject . RC Recent English work on this bone is that of Parsons; Characters of the English Thigh-bone (Journ. Anat. [English], Vol. 48, 1913-14; and Vol. 49, 1914-15). The author obtained his material from a crypt of the 13th and 14th Centuries, where the bones of some 33,000 persons had been interred, and thus had recourse to an enormous collection of bones of mediaeval Englishmen. Holtby in the same Journal (Vol. 52, 1918), gives a few additional data. 4. Diaphysial length (shaft-length); this uses as the two terminal points the upper end of the anterior intertrochanteric line, marked by a slight tubercle, and the middle of the anterior intercondyloid line, that is, its most proximal point. This may be measured by any suitable in- strument; Lehmann-Nitsche uses a steel tape. RC or TM. * A thorough analysis of the femur anthropometrically, both in the recent species, and in H. primigeniits, is found in KLAATSCH'S paper in Merkel and Bonnet's Anat. Ergebnisse, Bd. X. 1900. The special part treating of the femur is found on pp. 609-665. There is also an excellent bibliography of the subject to date. The full title is, Die wichtigsten Variationen am Skelet der freien unteren Extremitaten des Menschen, und ihre Bedeutung fiir das Abstammingsproblem. Much of the pioneer work upon the femur, and the other long bones, was done by LEHMANN-NITSCHE in his investigation of the prehistoric " Reihengraber " skeletons Cf. for this, his " Untersuchungen tiber die langen Knochen der siidbayerischen Rei- hengraberbevolkerung", in Beitrage zur Anthropol. u. Urgeschichte Bayerns. Bd. IX. 1895. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 123 B. Shaft. (a) Proximal shaft diameters SC or Cr. 5. Dorso-ventral diameter of shaft \ At a point about 3 cm. distal to 6. Medio-lateral diameter of shaft J the lesser trochanter. (6) Middle shaft diameters SC or Cr. 7. Dorso-ventral diameter of shaft \ .,„ c ,, , ,, , ,. J, , Jf. > At the middle of the shaft. 8. Medio-lateral diameter of shaft ) (c) Circumference TM. 9. Circumference of shaft at the middle; taken at the same level as the two previous measurements. C. Proximal end. 10. Oblique proximal breadth; the greatest breadth of the proximal epiphysis, measured along the axis of the head and neck. This measure- ment is taken from the free surface of the head to the most lateral point on the surface of the greater trochanter. SC or RC. 11. Length of head and neck; from the free surface of the head to the center of the intertrochanteric line. *12. Vertical diameter of the head; this is measured on the periphery and is the greatest diameter possible in this plane, which is parallel with the main axis of the shaft of the bone. SC. 13. Transverse diameter of the head; similar to the last but taken through a plane at right angles to the axis of the bone, and to the plane used in the previous measurement. SC. 14. Circumference of the head; taken around the largest place. TM. 15. Vertical diameter of the neck; taken across the neck, in the same plane as that used in measurement 12. SC. 16. Transverse diameter of the neck; taken across the neck, at right angles to the previous measurement; in the same plane as No. 13. SC. 17. Circumference of the neck; naturally the maximum circumference is intended. TM. D. Distal end. 18. Dorso-ventral diameter of the shaft just above the condyles. For this a point in the middle of the flat area proximal to the condyles should * PARSONS (Engl. Journ. Anat., 1913-14, p. 253) finds the diameter of the head of the femur of great use in sexing the bone, as this measurement is distinctly less in the female. Instead of using the vertical and transverse diameters, as recommended here (Nos. 12 and 13) the author uses the maximum diameter, which he finds by ro- tating the slide compass around the periphery of the head until he finds it (usually not far from the vertical line as here used). In English females this diameter is nearly always less than 45 mm.; in males of the same people it is in excess of 47 mm. In those few cases which are between these limits one cannot be certain about the sex. Cf. also, DWIGHT, in Amer. Journ. Anat., Vol. IV, 1905, pp. 19-32. 124 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY be taken, about 4 cm. proximal to the line delimiting the articular surface. Cr. 19. Medio-lateral diameter of the shaft just above the condyles. This is to be taken at the same transverse level as No. 18, and should be at right angles with it. Cr. 20. Greatest medio-lateral breadth across the epicondyles; this is the greatest medio-lateral breadth of the lower end of the bone, and is ascertained by trial. It should be strictly lateral, and not passed ob- liquely from a ventral portion of one condyle to a dorsal portion of the other. OB; perhaps also SC or RC. *21. Greatest dorso-ventral length of the lateral condyle; taken with the SC across the bone, at right angles to the axis. SC. *22. Greatest dorso-ventral length of the medial condyle; taken in the same way as the preceding. SC. * The significance of these last two measurements has been brought out in the comparison of the distal end of the femur in modern man and in the Neandertal species, as in the latter the lateral condyle is distinctly longer (deeper) than the medial one, while in the modern type the two are about equal. Thus, comparing the two although with a very few individuals concerned, we have the following: Name of race Length of lat. condyle Length of med. condyle Average of 25 modern femora; various races 60 55.3 European, No. 1 59 60 European, No. 2 62 61 Negrito 53 53 » Neandertal (right) 70 67 Neandertal (left) 71 66 Spy 1 (right) 72 67 Again, by comparing the length of the lateral condyle (Measurement No. 21) with the length of the entire bone (here the trochanteric length, Measurement No. 3), the excessive length of the condyle in the Neandertals becomes at once apparent, thus: Name of race Trochanteric length Length of lat- eral condyle Negrito 390 53 Fuegians (8) 406.4 61.2 Veddah 425 60 Europeans (3) 443.3 64 Neandertal (right,; 423 70 Neandertal (left) 425 71 Spy I (right) . . 410 (approx.) 72 OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 125 n. INDICES A. Caliber indices. T r ,, . , • j /« o\ circum. of shaft at middle X 100 1. Length-circumference index (9:2)- — : — ^ physiological length 0 T ,T j. • j /« i o r»\ sagit. + transverse diameters 2. Lerqth-diameterindex(7 + 8 : 2) ^j^e of shaft X 100 The ' ' Robusticity index ' ' —r-j — — physiological length B. Shape indices. 3. KS$ feb, (5 : 6) ant.-post. diam. of shaft proximal X 100 transverse diam. at same point platymeric below 85 eurymeric 85-100 stenomeric 100 + (middle) dorso-ventral diam. of shaft, at middle 4. Pilastric index (7 : 8) of the bone X 100 medio-lateral diam. at same point (distal) dorso-ventral of shaft, just above 5. Popliteal index (18 : 19) the epicondyles X 100 medio-lateral diam. at same point G. Indices of proximal end. TT j • j i /io io\ transverse diam. of head X (100 6. Head index A (13 : 12) - — -. -p— — ^-r vertical diam. of head 7. Head index .5(13 + 12 :2) transverse + vertical diameters of "Robusticity index" head X 100 8. Neck-length index (11 physiological length length of head and neck + 100 physiological length D. Indices of distal end. 9. Epicondylar breadth index (20 : 2) greatest medio-lateral breadth across the epicondyles X 100 physiological length 10. Intercondylar index (22 : 21) length of medial epicondyle X 100 length of lateral epicondyle ., 1 n , , , .7.7 /01 ON length of lateral epicondyle X 100 11. Condylar length index (21:2) - r — . , .-,-,— physiological length Many of the indices above listed were at first devised to bring out more definitely certain differences already noted, which occur between man and the higher apes, or between modern man and the prehistoric H. neandertalensis, and hence like differences shown by measurements be- tween the various human races may be found to have a developmen- tal significance. Thus, the head of the femur is enormously large in the Neandertal type as compared with the modern species; and the difference in the shape of the shaft between the two human species and the gorilla is shown by the pilastric index. Other indices, indicate form- 126 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY differences that have been in all probability brought about by habitual posture or habit, such as an habitual squatting as compared with sitting in chairs or upon stools. A few significant results as interesting in com- parisons, may be given here. Platymeric index (No, 3) . Normal femora are always either platy- or eury-meric. Stenomeric femora seem always to be pathological. Among extremely platymeric peoples may be reckoned the Maori (63.6) the Hawaiians (65.4) and the Fuegians (66.9). The Hindu (72.6) and the Japanese (75.5) are moderately platymeric. The native Australians (82.2) and the Swiss (84.6) are almost eury-meric; and the Negroes (85.3), the French (88.2), and the Eskimo (88.3), are quite so. Ancient British skeletons, excavated in the neighborhood of the Roman wall, are very platymeric (67.7), while the modern British are more nearly eurymeric, with an average index of 81.8. This may suggest a partial substitution of race, or may be the result of a cultural change in the manner of resting, chairs vs. squatting. Pilastric index (No. 4) . This index is that of the two diameters of the bone, taken in the middle of the shaft, and is thus named from its in- clusion of the longitudinal ridge or pilaster, which furnishes an attachment for certain of the large thigh muscles. This index is open to the objection that it is modified by the degree of development of the ridge, yet it shows considerable differences between modern man and the large apes, and may be considered of value. In general, in man, the shaft is in this region nearly circular, taken without the pilaster, and may thus be pre- sumed to furnish an index of about 100. This the pilaster itself increases so that in all men an index of some over 100 is to be expected. The following indices have been found: Australians 122.2 Veddah 122.1 Eskimo 118.4 Malay 114.7 N. Amer. Indians ...... 112.4 Cro-Magnon. . "...... 111.6 Maori 110.1 Negroes 108.0 French 107.8 South Germans 105.3 Fuegians 103.5 Japanese 100.0 Neandertal species (aver.) 99.0 Gorilla (5 femora; aver.) 78.0 Neck-length index (No. 8). In the exact form advised here there do not seem to be available figures as yet, but for two measurements very similar to those involved certain interesting figures are known. In OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 127 these the trochanteric length (No. 3) and the total distance from the head to the outer margin of the bone are taken, which is very similar to our Measurement No. 10. The index can be readily calculated. The measures are generally those of single femora; those marked * are averages. Name of race Trochanteric length Proximal breadth Japanese ... . . . . ... 390 87 *Ainu. ... .... .... 394.4 85.8 Javanese 400 94 *Fuegian 408 7 88 Malay . . . . 410 89 Gilbert Islander 420 96 *South Germans 428 91.5 Neandertal (right) . . 423 105 Neandertal (left) 425 106 Spv I.. 410 (approx.) 110 The markedly greater length of the proximal epiphysis in the Neander- tal species, as compared with recent man, is here clearly shown. With a moderate trochanteric length the proximal breadth, that is, the length of the axis of head and neck, is far greater than is f dund in any normal femur of modern man. This is probably correlated in some way with the massiveness of the head of the femur in the earlier species. Head index B; = Robusticity index of head (No. 7). This index should show the large size of the head in femora of the Neandertal species, since this peculiarity strikes the eye immediately, and is indicated by the following list of measurements. Although these give the absolute, instead of the physiological, length, the two differ but two or three millimeters as a rule, and indices using this length instead of the one recommended here, would show the contrast very decidedly. The figures, mostly of single measurements, are as follows: Name of race Absol. length Vertical diam. of head Transverse diam. of head Circumference of head Adamanese 375 36 1* Lapps . . 380 5 40 3* Hawaiian 404 39 0* Fuegians 427 1 45 9 46 3 146.4 Alemanni (ancient) 436.6 44.3 45.4 147 Neandertal (right) . 439 50 5 52.0 164 Neandertal (left)... 440 52.0 53.0 165 Spy 1 (right) . 430 52 0 53 0 175 (approx.) In the figures marked specified. there is but one diameter given, and that one is not 128 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY Here the Neandertals are best compared with the Alamanni, in which the absolute length is about the same, while the disparity in the dimen- sions of the head are evident. That this large and heavy head is in some way correlated with the great length of the proximal epiphysis, which includes head and neck, is highly probable. III. ANGLES 1. Collo-diaphysial angle. This is the angle made by the axis of head and neck with that of the shaft (of the bone as a whole). It is usually measured by first placing steel needles along the bone to define the two axes, and then measuring the angle made by their intersection by means of a transparent, or other, protractor. As this angle varies at different ages, becoming more nearly a right angle in senile femora, it should be used only through the middle part of life, from maturity to perhaps the 60th year. The angle differs markedly in the two human species, H. sapiens and H. neandertalensis, being much greater in the former. Thus in Germans it averages 125.9°, in Swiss, 133.°; and in Fuegians, 123.0°, while in Homo neandertalensis it varies between 115° and 120°. 2 Condylo-diaphysial angle. Stand several femora on the table, on their distal ends, resting both condyles on the surface, and with the bone extending vertically upward, and it will be noticed that the inclina- tion of the bone to the surface of the table is not the same. This displays practically the condylo-diaphysial angle, which is the angle between a line drawn across the condyles distally and the axis of the shaft. As in the former case these lines are determined by the eye, and marked by steel needles, fixed to the bone by wax, or plastilene, while the angle is read off by a protractor. It may be also measured by means of a specially prepared osteometric board, upon which the bone is laid as in getting the physiological length. This angle has been determined at 8° in Fuegians, and 11° in Swiss. In H. neandertalensis it has been estimated at 9°, quite within the range of variation of modern men. 3 Angle of torsion; the angle formed by the axis of head and neck projected upon that of the condyles, and is measured in the same way as is the like-named angle in the humerus, by the parallelograph. If found to be easier the two axes may be marked by applying steel needles to the bone. The bone is then held vertically in a clamp, and the two axes are drawn as projections upon a piece of paper placed on the table underneath the suspended bone (see Fig. 11, p. 18). This angle shows great individual variation, but may be of some racial value also. Thus Martin found in Fuegians a range of values between 6° and 38°, with a mean value of 18.3°. The right femur of the Neander- tal skeleton has a torsion angle of 9.5°, and the same bone in Spy 1, shows a value of 12°. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 129 IV. CURVATURE OF SHAFT This character of the femur may be noticed incidentally by placing a series of femora on the table, dorsal side down, and lying in their natural position, when it will be noticed that the highest point of the convex curve of the ventral (anterior) surface differs considerably, i.e., that some femora lie flatter than others. This is a definite characteristic of the Neandertals, in whom the femora curve up strikingly higher than do those of the present living species. No special apparatus has been devised to measure this with accuracy but by simply measuring the highest point of this curve by a ruler held vertically upon the table, and making an index with this as numerator and the physiological length as denominator. In this way the amount of curvature of individual bones may be easily compared. Patella* In spite of its small size, the patella is an important bone anthro- pometrically, as it is one of the parts, like the distal end of the femur, the proximal end of the tibia, and the bones of the ankle, which are concerned in the various methods of sitting and squatting, and are thus modified by the cultural environment of various races. These effects are largely seen on the dorsal (inner) surface, expressed in the articular surfaces; there are also differences in the relative size and shape of the entire bone. Yet, although these racial and individual differences have been recognized, very little actual work has as yet been done upon this bone, and the measurements proposed (e. g. Martin; Lehrbuch, pp. 930-31) are still mainly in the form of suggestion for future investigation.! The articular surface of a patella is divisible into a number of facets, set at slightly different angles, reflecting the various habitual positions of the knee in different races and in different individuals. The most constant are (1) an inner and (2) an outer, of which the inner is much narrower, thus easily orientating the bone and distiguishing the left from the right. In some races there seem to be three such the third being placed between the first two. The outer one, also, is sometimes divided across into a larger upper, and a much smaller lower facet, as is seen in the Punjabi [Lamont, 1900]. The proportions of these facets may be readily expressed by the indices of the measurements of the maximum length and breadth of these separate facets. Aside from the study of the facets there are the measurements of the bone as a whole. Martin (1914) gives the following measurements.- 1 Maximum height', taken along the main axis of the extended leg, from base to apex. SC. * See a paper by J. C. LAMONT in Jour. Anat. and Physiol., Vol. 44, 1910. This is upon the patella of the Punjabi and consists of two pages only, but is important, t (See note at end of section on Tibia.). 9 130 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY 2 Maximum breadth; across the bone from side to side, at right angles to the previous measurement. SC. 3 Maximum thickness; taken by placing the patella in the sagittal plane between the two arms of the slide compass. SC. Then follow certain definite measures of the articular surfaces, which can be devised by the investigator in accordance with what he wishes to show. Martin suggests the height (proximo-distal) of the entire arti- cular surface, and the breadth of the two lateral facets. For indices he suggests :- 1 Height index; this compares the height of the patella with the com- bined length of femur and tibia, and in order to make a comparison between two measurements of such different proportions, he takes a tenth of the latter measure, or, what is the same thing, multiplies the numerator (height of the patella) by 1000 instead of 100, thus Maximum height of patella (1) X 1000 length of femur + length of tibia For definite values of this index he suggests, low patella below 50 medium height 50-55 high patella 55 + 2. Breadth index; he avoids dealing with such disparity in numbers by comparing the patellar breadth with the breadth of the femoral epicondyles, thus, maximum breadth of patella (2) X 100 epicondylar breadth of femur values : narrow patella below 51 medium breadth 51-56 broad patella 56+ 3. Height-breadth index of patella; this is simply the index of the two main dimensions of the patella, considered as a disc; measurements 1 : 2, thus maximum height of patella X 100 maximum breadth of patella Tibia I. MEASUREMENTS A. Lengths. 1 Maximum length (spino-malleolar) measured with the inclusion of the intercondylar and malleolar spines, and hence possible on complete bones only. OB 2 Maximum length (condylo- malleolar); measured with the calipers OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 131 (pelvimeter) from the proximal articular surface (internal condyle) to the extreme end of the internal malleolus. PM 3 Physiological length; measured with calipers (pelvimeter) be- tween articular surfaces and avoiding the projecting processes at either end; usually taken from the deepest point in the medial articular surface of the proximal end to the bottom of the hollow in the distal articular surface, just within the malleolus. PM Lehmann-Nitsche, in his investigation of prehistoric German graves (Reihen-Graber. 1895) uses the second maximum length, that is, the one without the intercondylar spine. Mollison (1908) uses the first and the third. Thus, for two Maori skeletons (right and left) he gives the following measurements : — 1 Spino-malleolar length 318 315 341 339 3 Condylo-astragal length 294 294 312 311 ( = "physiological") B. Shaft. 4 Dorso-ventral (sagittal) diameter } Taken just below the level of 5 Medio-lateral (transverse) diameter J the tuberosity. SC or CR. 6 Dorso-ventral (sagittal) diameter } Both taken at the level of the 7 Medio-lateral (transverse) diameter t nutrient foramen, i.e., at about J the proximal third. SC or Cr. 8 Dorso-ventral (sagittal) diameter 1 Both taken at the middle of 9 Medio-lateral (transverse) diameter j the shaft. SC or Cr. 10 Circumference of the shaft (middle) 11 Least circumference of the shaft; this place will be found somewhere in the distal fourth of the bone, generally about 10 cm. above the point of the malleolus. TM 12 Proximal epiphysial breadth; greatest medio-lateral breadth of the proximal end of the bone; the bicondylar breadth. SC 13 Sagittal diameter of the distal epiphysis; taken dorso-ventrally across the distal end of the bone. SC or Cr. 1 Platycnemic index (7 : 6) II. INDICES medio-lat. diam. (nutr. for) X 100 dorso-ventral diam. (nutr. for) platycnemic below 63 mesocnemic 63-70 eurycnemic 70 + This index expresses the degree of platycnemy, or medio-lateral flatness, of a given tibia, a peculiarity which occurs sporadically in individuals of all races, and is practically constant in primitive peoples, and in ancient bones in general. Thus in Neolithic bones from French 132 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY soil the range of the platycnemic indices runs from 61.5 to 65.4, while in the modern French the indices fall between 71 and 74. This may be a H •a a .2 «« ® o u 2 .3 •a- a o3 c3 9 r-, WO •5 d «*< a- g§ ^ 3 a -a s M 0^) 13 -^ a W gj •^3 s "" a rt O o ., •s^s § & o •§ IH O •— I O bfi JS 05 43 cultural modification due to the resting posture, squatting vs. sitting in a chair, [cf. Note below]. , N least circumference of shaft X 100 2. Cahber^mdex (11 : 1) - — = — maximum length OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 133 III. ANGLES 1 Retroversion angle 2 Inclination angle 3 Biaxial angles These angles are involved in the description of the noticeable bend which the upper end of the tibia makes with the remainder of the shaft, best seen when the bone is in profile. They are best measured with a protractor upon a projection on a sheet of paper, drawn from a bone placed horizontally above it, with the lateral (outer) aspect uppermost. Certain essential points and lines are first located on the bone and then projected upon the paper. The termini of the mechanical axis are first determined as follows, and marked on the bone with a pencil. The proximal point is the center of the deepest portion of the articular surface of the inner condyle, (B) and the distal one is in the middle of the very slight ridge that runs sagitally across the distal articular surface (A). The line drawn through these is the mechanical axis. The next is the determination of the plane of inclination of- the articular surface of the medial condyle, which is effected by placing a steel needle tangent to the -surface and in a dorso- ventral direction, and fixing it in the desired position with wax. (JK) When these preliminaries are done the bone is placed in a horizontal position above a large sheet of paper lying on the table, with the lateral (outer) surface facing directly upwards, and the essential points projected upon the paper, precisely beneath its position on the bone. The hold- ing of the bone may be effected by means of a clamp upon an iron retort stand, and the projections drawn by diagraph or parallelograph. Indeed, a fairly accurate projection may be made by placing the bone almost in contact with the paper, and then tracing around it with a pencil from which the wood upon one side has been whittled away. The pencil must be held perpendicularly. This need not be a complete contour tracing, but must include the accurate locating of the two points in the two artic- ular surfaces above mentioned, two points along the course of the steel needle, as far apart as convenient, and bits of the contour of the sides of the shaft in the vicinity of the nutrient foramen. When these points are located, connecting lines are drawn through and between these as follows: — (see Fig. 38) (a) The mechanical axis; from the distal articular point, A, to the proximal one, B. (&) The line EF, directly across the shaft, about 2 cm below (distal to) the tuberosity nurti. This line, limited at both sides by the shaft contours, is bisected at C, which is the point sought, (c) The diaphysial axis; drawn from the point A, in common with the former axis, through the point C, coming out proximately wherever it may. (here, in the figure, at D) 134 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY (d) The line of inclination of the inner condyle, which is that of the steel needle; found by connecting the two points already located in the projection. Naturally these may be placed anywhere along the needle, but the line is more accurate the farther apart they are. JK. The three angles above listed are thus constructed, and now have merely to be read off, thus: — 1 Retroversion angle; the angle JDG is measured for this, after which 90° are subtracted. This gives the value of the true retroversion angle, LMD, which is that between the axis of the retro verted proximal end (at right angles to the inclination of the face of the condyle) and the diaphysial axis. 2 Inclination angle HLK, the angle of inclination of the face of the inner condyle, compared with that of the mechanical axis of the entire bone. Here also 90° are to be subtracted. 3 Biaxial angle; that between the two long axes here used, mechanical and diaphysical, HAG. Its value is that of the difference between the two preceding angles, of reversion and inclination. Thus, in the diagram here shown, Fig. 38, the first is 25°, the second 21°, and the biaxial 4°. The reason for using the plane of inclination of the proximal articu- lar surface is that it is at right angles to the axis of the short proximal part, the angle of retroversion of which is sought, and that it can be placed in a projection with considerable precision, while there is little to use in placing a definite axis to this short part. This large surface is, however, at right angles to the axis sought, and hence its angle may be measured and then reduced by 90°. Should the investigator so desire, he might ascertain the axis of each part as he best can by estimation, fix steel needles to both, and measure the angle between them direct on the bone, as in similar cases. The value of this retroversion angle has been found to vary from 0° in an ancient French skeleton to 30° in a California Indian, but is usually, in European skeletons, between 15 and 20°. The diagram given here where the angle of retroversion is 25°, is taken from an Australian. A considerable retroversion of the tibia is the usual fetal condition, even in Europeans, and is retained during infancy. In other words it is a universal human condition of human tibiae at birth, and is retained by certain of the lower races, but is generally outgrown by Europeans. 4. Angle of torsion; as with such bones as the humerus and the femur, this angle is made by the lateral axes of the two ends of the bone, pro- jected upon each other in a bone held perpendicular to the paper. The proximal axis passes through the two condyles, at right angles to what is judged to be the sagittal plane, and the distal axis is drawn across the articular surface from the point of the inner malleolus to the opposite side, as in the case of the radius. Little has been done with this angle OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 135 within recent years, but Miculicz in 1878 determined its usual value as lying between 5 and 20°, with extremes of 0° and 48°. IV. SPECIAL FEATURES The profile of the articular surface of the lateral condyle, as seen from from the lateral side, has been found to vary markedly in certain human races, although it is a character which cannot be easily expressed by measurements. At one extreme of the series of outlines which this sur- face presents we find one that is almost a plane, or even slightly convex; the series then passes through the various stages of a slight or a consider- able convexity, becoming decidedly rounded at the other end of the series. This last is found among individual Andamanese, although it is by no means a general character. A modification at the distal end, which must be taken in connection with corresponding ones in the talus, which articulates with it. It con- sists of the extension of the articular surface forwards (i.e., ventrally) especially along the medial side, and is plainly a modification due to an extreme flexed position of the foot upon the leg, in the position of squat- ting. This is one of the most simple and easily noticed modifications correlated with posture, and should be studied in connection with several others noticed here. As expressed by one of the latest investigators on the subject, Havelock Charles, "The history of the influence of the chair upon the tibia has got to be written." Such studies of the correlation of the details of the bones and certain habitual actions and postures has not only a fundamental biological interest, but will allow the investigator to obtain numerous details concerning the daily life and activities of pre- historic peoples, written in definite, though as yet unknown characters upon their bones.* * The following papers deal directly with the influence of habitual posture upon the bones of the lower limbs, and the results are deduced mainly by comparison of Europeans with races like the Punjabi of India, who in a resting position squat upon their heels without coming in contact with the ground. Such a posture induces an extreme flexion at hip, knee and ankle, and naturally modifies the articular surfaces and other characters. THOMSON, A.: The influence of posture on the form of the articular surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the different races of men and the higher apes. Journ. Anat. and Physiol, XXIII, N. S. Vol. Ill, 1889. THOMSON, A.: Additional note on the influence of posture, etc. Journ. Anat. and Physiol, XXIV, N. S. IV, 1890. CHARLES H. : The influence of function as exemplified in the morphology of the lower extremity of the Punjabi. Journ. Anat. and Physiol, XXVIII, N. S. XIII, 1894. CHARLES H. : Morphological peculiarities in the Punjabi and their bearing on the question of the transmission of acquhed characters. Journ. Anat. and Physiol, XXVIII, 1894. LAMONT. J. C. ; Note on the influence of posture on the facets of the patella. Journ. Anat. and Physiol, Vol. XLIV, 1900. 136 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY The Fibula I. MEASUREMENTS 1. Absolute length; taken .with the osteometric board. Only to be taken in bones with the two ends perfect. OB. 2. Circumference of the middle of the shaft. TM. 3. Least circumference. TM. II. INDICES n T -r • j /o •• \ least circumference X 100 1. Caliber index (3:1)- — r — , . •> ij-~ absolute length This bone has thus far been studied anthropometrically but very little and yet, as the bone is easily modified by the usual position of the leg, both in sitting, standing, and walking, it is very probable that striking differences, both morphological and cultural, will be revealed to future study. It is an excellent bone to recommend for future work. Thus, as a beginning, Martin has noticed its absolute straightness in Fuegians in contrast to the curve seen in Europeans, the concavity being forward. Klaatsch correlates a straight fibula with a large degree of tibial rever- sion, the two occurring together in legs the feet of which rest largely along their outer edges, as in apes and infants. The correction of the tibia, by which the proximal end is brought forward affects also the fibula, which is attached to it, bringing its proximal end also forward, and giving the entire bone a light curve. There is also some variation of the relative position of the two lower leg bones, as is seen by comparing on several tibiae the actual position of the facets for the fibula. Thus the fibula of the Spy skeletons was placed upon the tibia more as is that of the present-day Mongolian. The neandertaloid fibula seems to indicate that the foot came in this species in contact with the ground more along the outer edge than in modern man, and that the modern correction has tended to shorten the length and reduce the caliber, of the whole bone. The Foot Skeleton in General* As the human foot has been subject to much more profound modifica- tions than the hand in changing from the typical anthropoid condition, so is the study of its proportions of more importance. Many of its peculiar- * For the foot skeleton in general, cf . VOLKOV, TH.; Les variations squelettiques du pied chez les Primates et dans les races humaines. Bull, et Mem. de la Soc. d'Anthropol. de Paris. 1905. LAZARUS, S. P.; Zur Morphologic des Fuss-skelets. Morph. Jahrb., Bd. XXIV, 1896. ADACHI, B. und MME. ADACHI: Die Fussknochen der Japaner. Mitt, der med. Fak. der Univ. Tokio. 1905. UHLBACH, R.; Messungen an Hand-und Fuss-skelet von Hottentotten. Zeitschr. Morph. und Anthropol., Bd. XVI, Jan., 1914. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT or THE BONES 137 ities are due to morphological causes; others to cultural ones. The first considers the gradual shaping of an arboreal foot from a climbing, prehensile organ, to a firm platform for walking upon the ground, changes which are largely due to the shaping of the peroneal muscles for lifting the outer edge, and in part also to the giving up by the first digit of the most of its prehensile function, and the gaining of greater size and strength for the application of force in a new direction. The second, or cultural, changes, are the result in part of the introduction of new methods of sitting, standing, and walking, and in part modified by the introduction of various types of shoes and sandals. Aside from the study of the foot as a whole, several of the separate bones deserve special treatment, especially the talus, which forms the main articulation with the tibia, and is thus concerned in all general acts, such as walking. Next in importance come calcaneus and navi- culare, which have already been the subject of anthropometric research, while the remaining bones have been studied mainly in relation to the shape of the entire foot. These three specially named bones are here treated in detail, after which the foot is considered as a whole. Talus Orientation. — The bone is to be first placed on a table, with the trochlear surface uppermost, and with the navicular head towards the observer. The bottom of the trochlear groove, which is almost a straight line may be marked with a pencil, and gives approximately the location of the sagittal axis (SS in Fig. 38). The transverse axis (TT) runs across the middle of the trochlea, at right angles to the sagittal axis. As the navicular head forms, with its neck, a distinct portion of the bone, the collum tali, it may be considered to have its own axis, as drawn by the eye through the middle of this portion, beginning at the center of the HASEBE, K.; Ueber die Haufigkeit der Coalescenzen, etc., der Fussknochen der Japaner. Zeitschr. Morph. und AnthropoL, Bd. XIV, 1912. For separate tarsal bones, cf . REICHER, M.; Beitrag zur Anthropologie des Calcaneus. Archiv. f. AnthropoL, N. F. Bd. XII, 1913, pp. 108-133. SEWELL, SEYMOUR; A study of the astragalus. Journ, Anat. and Physiol. (Engl.) Apr., 1904; July, 1904; Oct., 1904; Jan., 1906. MANNERS-SMITH; A study of the navicular in the human and anthropoid foot. Journ. Anat. and Physiol. (Engl.), 1907. MANNERS-SMITH; A study of the Cuboid and Os peroneum in the human foot. Journ. Anal, and Physiol. (Engl.), 1907. For relations of foot bones in the same foot, cf . PFITZNER, W.; Beitragen zur Kenntniss des menschlichen Extremitaten skelets. A series of papers in the Morphol. Arbeiten, especially, No. VII, Die Variationen im Aufbau des Fuss-skelets, Bd. VI, 1896. This paper presents a summary of the details obtained from more than a thousand human feet, personally prepared by the author in order to prevent any possible confusion. Cf . also the work of this author, in the same series, on the hand. VIRCHOW, H.; Die Aufstellung des Fuss-skelet. Anat. Am., Bd. VII, 1892. 138 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY articulation with the navicular bone. This axis (ac) makes an important angle with the sagittal axis, the angle of the collum (acS). Oriented in this way the talus presents the usual six aspects, or norms, of which the most important are (1) the norma trochlearis, (Fig. 33) ; (2) the norma basilaris, which is in contact with the calcaneus (Fig. 39) ; and (3) the norma frontalis, or distalis, in contact with the naviculare (Fig. 40). I. MEASUREMENTS 1 . Length ; greatest length obtainable between the bottom of the sulcus for the tendon of Flexor hallucis longus and the fuithest point on the sur- face of the navicular head; the line ab in Fig. 39. SC or Cr. 2. Breadth; from the furthest lateral point of the lateral process, in the transverse axis, to the opposite side (Te in Fig. 39). SC or Cr. 3. Height: the distance of the highest point in the trochlear groove from the table on which the bone rests (cd in Fig. 40). This measure- ment is best taken by holding the bone upon a glass plate of known thick- ness, say one millimeter, measuring the distance from the upper point through to the lower surface of the glass plate, and then subtracting the thickness of the glass. SC or Cr. 4. Length of the trochlea; measured with the slide compass along the sagittal axis, between the borders of the articular surface. SC. 5. Breadth of the trochlea; measured with the slide compass along the transverse axis, between the borders of the articular surface. SC. 6. Length of the head (caput tali); total length of the articular sur- face covering the head, using as termini the ends of the longitudinal axis of this surface. SC. 7. Breadth of the head (caput tali) ; total breadth of this surface, taken at right angles to the above. SC. 8. Length of the posterior articular surf ace for the calcaneus (ab in Fig. 39); taken along the longitudinal axis of this surface SC. 9. Breadth of the posterior articular surface for the calcaneus (cd in Fig. 39); taken at right angles to the previous measurement. SC. 1. Length-breadth index (2 : 1) II. INDICES breadth of the bone X 100 length of the bone or 41 i • n • i to i\ height of the bone X 100 2. Length-height index (3:1)- — n — FTI — r~ length of the bone „ 7 , 7 ,, . , ,A , x length of trochlea X 100 3. Trocheal length index (4 : 1) - —r — 5-71 — r— length of the bone 4. Length-breadth index of posterior calcanear articulation (9 : 8) breadth of the post, calcan. artic. X 100 length of the same jti. • j f 4-L T, j fn a\ breadth of the head X 100 5. Length breadth index of the head (7 : 6) - —-. — 7— =- — = = — length of the head OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 139 III. ANGLES 1 Angle of inclination of the collum tali; the angle between the axis of the neck and the sagittal axis of the bone (as in Fig. 38). 2. Angle of torsion of the head; the angle between the longitudinal axis T— FIG. 39. — (After Seymour Sewell) . of the headjjand the plane placed tangent to the highest points of the trochlea (efg in Fig. 40). 3. Angle of inclination of the posterior articular facet; this is the angle formed between the sagittal axis of the bone (i.e., the line of the trochlear FIG. 40. — (After Seymour Sewell). trough) and the long axis of the posterior facet (SS, Fig. 38 with ab, Fig. 39). As these two are not only in different planes, but also upon opposite sides of the bone it is clear that the angle must be formed by projection, which is accomplished in a practical way as follows. Steel 140 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY needles are applied to the surface of the bone, the one defining the longi- tudinal axis of the trochlea, the other that of the posterior facet; a third one is then placed upon the trochlear surface, crossing the needle which defines the axis, and placed parallel to the needle upon the posterior facet, which can be done by the help of the projecting endso this needle. The angle thus formed by the intersection of the two needles in contact may then be read off by the transparent protractor. Calcaneus The technique of the anthropometry of the calcaneus, as given here, consists of the more important of the measurements proposed by Reicher, in 1913 (Archiv fur Anthropol. XII, pp. 108-133). This work was done at Zurich under Martin, who has also incorporated Reicher's results in his text book (1914). I. MEASUREMENTS 1. Maximum length; the length of the longitudinal axis of the bone, which runs through the most backward projecting point of the tuber FIG. 41. — Right calcaneus, medial view, showing lines for measurement. (After Reicher.) calcanei, and the middle of the upper edge of the articular surface for the cuboid. There is a slight difference between this measure, taken directly, as done by Volkov (1904), and by Reicher and Martin, who take it projectively, dropping the two points down upon the surface upon which the bone lies (line db in Fig. 41, dropped from a' and b' or d). The line a'd would be oblique, and hence a little longer than ab. Reicher mentions also what is really the physiologica, or working, length, which ends anteriorly in the center of the cuboid articulation, i.e., the line cd in Fig. 41. SC. 2. Breadth across the sustentaculum; this is taken across the sustenta- culum to the most lateral point in the border of the posterior articular surface for the talus, along a line at right angles to the longitudinal axis and upon a horizontal plane, perpendicular to the sagittal plane, that is involving a double projection (line ab in Fig. 42). This measurement is OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 141 not really difficult to take, as the two arms of the slide compass, as long, parallel rods, may be placed parallel with the longitudinal axis of the bone, and in an approximately horizontal plane. SC. 3. Least breadth of the body of the bone; this is taken, with the slide compass held transversely to the longitudinal axis and enclosing the narrowed portion of the bone, just anterior to the tuber calcanei, and immediately behind the posterior articular surface for the talus. SC. 4. Height of the body; this is the distance from the bottom of the slight depression between the raised upper edge of the tuber calcanei and a similar one at the back of the posterior articular facet for the talus, and the substratum upon which the bone is resting. It is best measured, as in the case of the talus, by holding the bone in the proper po- sition upon a glass plate of known thickness, taking the measure through both glass and bone, and then sub- tracting the thickness of the glass plate (see measurement 3 under Talus; Fig. 40). The measurement, without the glass plate, is shown as the line ef in Fig. 41. Cr or SC. 5. Length of the body of the calcaneus ( = jthe effective length of the heel); this is the length, taken along the longi- tudinal axis, from the most backward projecting point on the tuber to the most anterior point of the anterior margin of the posterior articular surface for the talus (line cc' of Fig. 42). SC. 6. Breadth of the sustentaculum; taken from the most laterally project- ing point of the sustentaculum, at right angles to the longitudinal axis, to the medial edge of the sulcus for the tendon of the Flexor hallucis lon- gus. This is a very uncertain measure, unless the line is taken exactly at right angles to the longitudinal axes, as the medial limit is placed upon an oblique line, which changes its relationship to the lateral one at every point. 7. Height of the tuber calcanei; taken sagittally through the tuber from the highest point above to the lowest point in the medial tuberal process, as far anteriorly as possible. SC or Cr. 8. Breadth of the tuber calcanei; taken across the tuber, at right angles to the previous one; the maximum breadth. SC or Cr. 9 and 10. Length and Breadth respectively of the posterior articular surface for the talus. (Fig. 42, ef and gh). SC. FIG. above, ment. 42. — Right calcaneus, from showing lines for measure- (Afler Reicher.) 142 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY II. INDICES , breadth across sustentaoulum X 100 1. Length-breadth index A (2 : 1) - — -. — maximum length _ T , , . , . . least breadth of body X 100 2. Lenqth-breadth index R (3 : 1) -- : - \ — *rr - maximum length / a i, • i* • j />i i\ height of body X 100 3. Length-height index (4:1) - — = — maximum length ,L • j in 1N length of the body (heel length) X 100 4.- Calcar length index (5 : 1) - — r- = •*-: — maximum length rx breadth of the tuber X 100 5. T liberal index (8:7) - — rr — f ., length of the tuber 6. Index of the posterior articular facet (10 : 9)* breadth of post. art. facet X 100 length of post.' art. facet III. ANGLES 1. Angle of inclination of the posterior articular facet; this is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the facet in question and that of the bone as a whole (cd and ef of Fig. 42). It is taken by fixing steel needles in the proper places and reading the result by means of a protractor. 2. Talo-calcaneus angle; this is an angle involving the relative position of the two bones considered, and differences in it are indicative of differ- ences in the habitual position, and consequently in the use, of the foot. It is really the angle formed between the longitudinal axis of the calcaneus and that of the talus, through the trochlear trough, but is best obtained by subtracting the angle of inclination of the posterior facet of the talus from the corresponding angle on the calaneus (angle 3 of the talus from angle 1 of the calcaneus) . This procedure assumes a complete coincidence of the two posterior facets with their longitudinal axes, from which the varying longitudinal axes of the two bones are laid off at definite though different angles. The difference between these two, as measured from the same plane, is the value of the angle sought. The Other Tarsal Bones. The remaining tarsal bones, especially cuboid and naviculare, have been subjected to certain special anthropometrical measurements, upon lines similar to those already laid down for the others. These consist of lengths, breadths, and heights, the axes of important articular facets, also indices expressing the relationships of these. The two first-men- * Besides the above there have been used (1) the index between the length of the sustentaculum and the breadth of the entire region, and (2) the length and breadth of the cuboid articulation, with the index between them. The first would seem to require an almost impossible accuracy in the length measurement; the latter is too uncertain in many ways. However, these results may be consulted in the original paper, above referred to. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 143 tioned bones have been considered by Manners-Smith in the Journal of Anatomy (EngL), 1907-1908, to which the reader is referred. The Metacarpals and Phalanges. In these bones, as in the hand, the most obvious measurements are, first of all, the total lengths of the separate bones, and then the breadths of the two epiphyses and the middle of the shaft, also certain of the girths especially the least circumferences. For these itis obvious that some very c FIG. 43. — Torsion of the calcaneus, in various Primates. (From Loth, after Volkov.) A. Chimpanzee. B. Gorilla. C. Australian. D. European. delicate method of measurement should be devised, such as, for example, the use of fine wire, as employed by dentists in getting the caliber of a tooth. As for indices, aside from those derived from the measurements of single bones there are obviously collective indices obtained by adding certain similar measurements of a series of bones, for example, the entire breadth of the foot at a given point might be represented by adding the 144 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY breadths of the proximal epiphyses of all five metatarsals, and this combined breadth might very well be compared with a combined length, such as those of the metatarsal, first, and second phalanges of digit I. Thus the two following indices have been suggested and employed to some extent. breadth of metatarsals I-V (proximal) X 100 Foot index length of digit I; metatarsal; phal. 1; phal 2 breadth of metatarsals I-V (proximal) X 100 Plantar index . length of metatarsal I As in the case of the knee, so the ankle joint, with the reciprocal action of the various articular facets of the several bones involved is of great importance in the study of habitual posture, and possible racial differences due to environment and habit (see above, under Patella, Femur, Tibia, etc). A noticeable angle, as seen from behind, is that first pointed out by Volkov (1905) [Fig. 43]. For measuring this the entire set of the bones involved must be accurately placed together as in life, a feat impossible of accomplishment save by special treatment of single specimens,* but the results show beautifully that the human foot has descended from one whose sole was turned obliquely inwards, and that certain of the races yet living have not progressed as far as the Europeans in rectifying this. The four figures presented show the foot skeleton in a natural position as seen from directly behind. The longer axis of the tuber calcanei is indicated in all cases by a line, the inclination of which to the long axis of the leg shows the habitual foot position. The plane of the sole is in all cases set at right angles to this line. The tuberal axis is thus in the chimpanzee (A) seen to be set at about 30° from the perpendicular, in the gorilla (B) somewhat less; in the Veddahs from Ceylon (C) the line approaches the perpendicular, and in the European (D) this point is nearly attained. The changes shown here phylogenetically appear in succession in the first two or three years of life in the human infant, who passes through all the stages in the gradual straightening of the feet for erect walking, from the extreme simian position at first to the characteristic adult condition. The use of both the feet and legs, as well as their frequent postures, give many an indication of early conditions, when these mem- bers possessed a more prehensile function than in the recent species. Intermembral Indices Intermembral indices, as used thus far, concern the lengths of the four principal lengths of arm and leg, as represented by humerus, radius, femur, and tibia, and express the various relations shown between them by the use of a certain one as a standard. The particular lengths recom- mended in this work are the following:- *See H. VIBCHOW: Die Aufstellung der Fuss-skelets, in Anat. Am., VII, 1892. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OP THE BONES 145 Humerus; Greatest length (1), as taken with the osteometric board OB. Radius; Physiological length (2); from the center of the capitellar depression proximally to the center of the slight ridge which crosses the distal articulation transversely. Cr or SC Femur; Physiological length (2) ; as taken with the osteometric board, and with the two condyles in contact with the transverse plane. OB. Tibia; Physiological length (3); from the deepest point in the arti- cular surface of the medial condyle to the deepest point in the distal articular surface just within the medial malleolus. Cr or SC. The following indices are in common use :- „ , . , T . , radius length X 100 1 Radio-humeral index — ?— — -, rr— humerus length This is an old index, formerly much used notably by Broca in 1862, and by Turner in 1886. In both cases the greatest lengths were used, and the arms (radii) were classified as follows : Index below 75 brachycercic 75 to 79 mesaticercic (mesocercic) Index above 79 dolichocercic Europeans, Lapps, Eskimo, and Bushmen are brachycercic; Australians, Negroes, Hindu, Chinese, and American Indians, except Fuegians, are mesocercic; Andamanese, Negritoes, and Fuegians, are doliehocercic. o m-i- f t • j tibial length X 100 2 Tibio-femoral index — ^ — femoral length This index corresponds exactly to the previous one, being for the leg what that is for the arm, i.e., a proportionate measure for the distal joint. These indices are classified into two groups by the boundary number 83, all indices below this being brachycnemic; all above it dolichocnemic. To the first belong the Europeans, Chinese, Tatars, Lapps, and Eskimo; to the latter the Australians, Negroes, Andamanese, and American Indians. , T . , length of humerus + radius X 100 3 Intermembral index - —-r — T~i — ~Tn^ — length of femur + tibia For this, both Turner (1886) and Martin (1893) used the maximum lengths of all the bones concerned, as ascertained by the osteometric board, but the differences between these results and those obtained by the more exact physiological lengths are but slight, and the data thus obtained may be considered as practically correct. For comparisons involving both bones and the living, however, the physiological lengths should be used, as the two may then be closely compared, or even used interchangeably. The most important results of the two investigators 10 146 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY mentioned are as follows, remembering that, unless there is much dis- parity in leg-length, a low index means a short arm, and vice versa. Name of race males females both together Australians (T) . approx. 68 Australians (M) . . . . 68.7 Negroes (M) 68.3 68.1 68.2 Negroes (T) 69.0 Andamanese (T) 69.0 Fuegians (M 69.4 70.8 70.1* Europeans (Alsace) (M) 70 4 69.3 69.7 * The total length in millimeters of Fuegian limbs (bones) averaged at 758 mm. for males, and 709 mm. for females, according to Martin. These were taken from a large number of individual bones. length of humerus X 100 4. Humero-femoral index - — T — .-^ — length of femur This comparison gives the relative length of the humerus, when compared with the thigh. Martin gives the following values:- Name of race males females both sexes Fuegians 69.8 72.9 71.3 Negroes • 72.4 71.8 72.2 Europeans, Alsace 69.0 68.8 68.9 The indices that follow have been seldom used, and some of them may even have never been practically employed. They are placed here mainly to show some of the many possible combinations, since any one of these or similar ones may at any time be found to clearly present a certain new relationship. To guard against an excessive employment of indices, one should always have in mind exactly what real relationship a given index is intended to show, and never use one (in published writings) merely for the reason that it has never been employed before. 5. Tibio-radial index length of radius X 100 length of tibia . , length of humerus X 100 6. Humero-skelic index , — rr~ ... . — - lengths of femur -f- tibia length of radius X 100 7. Radio-skelic index lengths of femur + tibia length of femur X 100 r emero-bracnial index , — 9. Tibio-brachial index lengths of humerus + radius length of tibia X 100 lengths of humerus + radius OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 147 Relation of the Lengths of Limb-bones to The Total Stature of the Same Individual, when Living The relationship of the lengths of the long bones to the stature of the individual, if possible to establish, would be a priori of immense import- ance in the constantly recurring problem of estimating the height, during life, of individuals known only be excavated bones. This is a ways the first question of people in general, who happen to be present when excavations are going on, and it is a curious fact in popular psychology that heights calculated by unprofessional people are always excessive, sometimes ridiculously so. It would seem of much practical utility, then, to ascertain through a series of measurements the usual ratios of the separate long bone lengths to the total height, thus obtaining a coefficient, by which a given long bone may be measured to get the ex- pected, or usual, bodily stature. With such a purpose in mind Rollet, in 1889, took the total height measures of a series of dead bodies, 24 males and 25 females, between the ages of 20 and 65, in order to eliminate both senile and infantile propor- tions, after which he had the bones prepared and available for measure- ment. His results he formulated as follows: Male. Femur (greatest length) multiplied by 3.66 = Total height Female. Femur (greatest length) multiplied by 3.71 = Total height Male. Humerus (greatest length) multiplied by 5.6 = Total height Female. Humerus (greatest length) multiplied by 5.22 = Total height These figures were, however, reliable only for people of about the medium height, 1650 mm. also, owing to the well-known differences of proportions in different human races, these coefficients would apply with any certainty only to Frenchmen, or at best to members of the white race. The necessity of a sliding scale of coefficients for different sizes of individuals was taken into account later of by Manouvrier (1892) who calculated a series of different coefficients for bones of different sizes. Thus, for male femora, instead of using as coefficient the single "3.66" of Rollet, he used for a femur of 422 mm, the coefficient 3.85, for one of 446 mm, a coefficient of 3.73, and for one of 475 mm. a coefficient of 3.61, and so on.* He finally represented a set of coefficients for lengths of every few millimeters for the six long limb bones in each sex, and worked out the resultant stature in each case, from which a desired stature may be easily obtained. His table is as follows: * MANOTJVRIER: Le determination de la taille apres les grands os des membres'. Mem. de la Soc. d'Anthropol. de Paris. 1893. 148 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY MALES Fibula mm. Tibia mm. Femur mm. Humerus mm. Radius mm. Ulna mm. Total height mm. 318 319 392 295 213 227 1.53.0 323 324 398 298 216 231 1.55.2 328 330 404 302 219 235 1.57.1 333 335 410 306 222 239 1.59.0 338 340 416 309 225 243 1.60.5 344 346 422 313 229 246 1.62.5 349 351 428 316 232 249 1.63.4 353 357 434 320 236 253 1.64.4 358 362 440 324 239 257 1.65.4 363 368 446 328 243 260 1.66.6 368 373 453 332 246 263 1.67.7 373 378 460 336 249 266 1.68.6 378 383 467 340 252 270 1.69.7 383 389 475 344 255 273 1.71.6 388 394 482 348 258 276 1.73.0 393 400 490 352 261 280 1.75.4 398 405 497 356 264 283 1.76.7 403 410 504 360 267 287 1.78.5 408 415 512 364 270 290 1.81.2 413 420 519 368 273 293 1.83.0 FEMALES Fibula mm. Tibia mm. Femur mm. Humerus mm Radius mm. Ulna mm. i Total height mm. 283 284 363 263 193 203 1.40.0 288 289 368 266 195 206 1.42.0 293 294 373 . 270 197 209 1.44.0 298 299 378 273 199 212 1.45.5 303 304 383 276 201 215 307 309 388 279 203 217 1.48.8 311 314 393 282 205 219 1.49.7 316 319 398 285 207 222 1.51.3 320 324 403 289 209 225 1.52.8 325 329 408 292 211 228 1.54.3 330 334 415 297 214 231 1.55.6 336 340 422 302 218 235 1.56.8 341 346 429 307 222 239 1.58.2 346 352 436 313 226 243 1.59.5 351 358 443 318 230 247 1.61.2 356 364 450 324 234 251 1.63.0 361 370 457 329 238 254 1.65.0 366 376 464 334 242 258 1.67.0 To use this Table the following rules are to be observed: 1. Determine the sex of the skeleton, if possible. 2. Take the length measurements of the six long bones given in the Table, or of as many of them as are in good condition. The femur is OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 149 measured "in the oblique position", i.e., physiological length; the tibia uses the medial condyle at the proximal end, but includes the entire malleolus distally, a departure from the rule laid down above; the other bones are used in greatest length. 3. If the bones are dry, and deprived of cartilage, add 2 mm. to the length measurement of each bone. 4. Find the nearest length for each bone separately, and set down the total stature expected. Lengths that fall in between those given will furnish their total stature through a simple calculation. 5. The series of total statures thus obtained should be averaged up in the usual way, by adding all together and dividing by the number of bones used. The resulting average is that of the cadaveral height. 6. The living height is considered to be 20 mm., less than the cadaveral height. 7. If you have the corresponding bones of the two sides, measure both, and use the average of the two for the measurement. If you possess the radius and tibia, the ulna and fibula need not be measured. Although the values of this Table have been deduced from French bodies, and may not be wholly applicable beyond the confines of these and related peoples, still the work of Rahon* who applied them to a very large number of ancient men, in part absolutely prehistoric, possesses considerable interest. Some of his results follow: mm Neandertal skeleton 1613 Spy skeletons 1590 Skeleton, La Madelaine 1665 Old man of Cro Magnon 1716 Mentone skeleton, 1732 Dolmen of "Cave-aux Fees" males, 1600; females, 1470 Dolmen of "Bray-sur Seine males, 1600; females, 1492 Merovingian Period, one skeleton of of each sex males, 1771; females, 1579 Burgundians, 5th. Century males, 1646; females, 1518 Carolingian Period males, 1674; females, 1585 In all these the height given is that for the living. It is to be noted that the two first are now accredited to a distinct species, making their inclusion within this table quite inapplicable. The rest seem fairly reliable. * RAHON, J. ; La taille d'apr6s les ossements prdhistoriques. Rev. EC. Anthropol. T. 2, p. 234 +. 1892. Recherches sur les ossements humains anciens et prehistoriques en vue de la reconstitution de la taille. Mem. Soc. Anthropol. Paris, Series 2. T. 4, pp. 403 + 1893. PART II Somatometry; the Measurement of the Body LANDMARKS [The list here given is taken from Martin (Lehrbuch, 1914, pp. 120-131) but those of the head and face are given first, and the arrangement is alphabetical instead of topographical. The abbreviations are the same, and as they do not repeat any of those in use upon the skeleton, save in those cases where the two correspond, it is hoped that they will come into common use, much as in the case of the abbreviations of the elements in Chemistry]. (a) Landmarks upon the head and face. The most external point on the wing of the nose. * Outer corner of the mouth; lateral terminus of the oral slit. . • Outer corner of the palpebral opening. Inner corner of the palpebral opening, medial to the caruncula lacrimalis. alare (al) bregma (b) cheilion (ch). crinion (see trichion) ectocanthion (ex) endocanthion (en) euryon (eu) f rontotemporale . (ft) glabella(g) gnathion (gn) gonion (go) inion (i) labrale inferius (li) labrale superius (Is) * mastoidale (ms) mesosternale (mst) *(here taken as the occipital protuberance). The median point in the lower boundary of the mucous surface of the lower lip. The median point of a line drawn across the boundary of the mucous surface of the upper lip. tangent to the curves. * The point in the sternal median line crossed by the transverse line connecting the middle of the two 4th costal cartilages, at the insertion into the sternum. The determination of this cartilage is facilitated by first lo- cating the 2d, which noticeably projects a little above the others. * Points followed by an * are the same as those of like name upon the bony surface of the skull, save that here the point designated is upon the external surface of the skin, exactly above the one on the skull, and differs from this latter by the thickness of the soft parts. When used as the termini of lines parallel to the surface, the meas- uements of both skull and face are the same, when the thickness of the soft parts is included in the line measured, the two measurements differ by this amount. Thus, compare the least frontal breadth, where the measurements of skull and face are the same, with the greatest head breadth, where the breadth in the living includes the soft parts upon each end of the line, and is larger by so much than in the skull. 151 152 metopion (m) nasion (n) ophryon (on) opisthocranion (op) orbitale (or) otobasion inferius (obi) otobasion superius (obs) postaurale (pa) preaurale (pra) pronasale (prn) prosthion (pr) stomion (sto) subaurale (sba) subnasale (sn) superaurale (sa) tragion (t) trichion (tr) tuberculare (tu) vertex (v) LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY zygion (zy) acromioji (a) The median point of the line connecting the two frontal eminences. * Median point of the line drawn tangent to the upper border of the eyebrows. Point where the ear attaches to the side of the head, above. Point where the" ear attaches to the side of the head, below. The most posterior point in the free margin of the ear. The point in the line connecting the two otobasia, and crossing the isthmus of attachment of the ear to the head, which is directly opposite the postaurale. This line is at right angles to the ear length line. The point of the nose. "Owing to the gum this point lies about 1 mm. lower than on the bare skull. Median point of the oral slit, when mouth is closed naturally. The lowest point in the free margin of the ear. This is also the lowest point of the lobe. Point of the angle between the septum and the surface of the upper lip. The highest point in the free margin of the ear. The notch just above the tragus of the ear. The median point in the line of the hair. To be used only when the area covered by the hair is normal; not to be used when the hair has begun to retreat in incipient baldness. Darwin's point on the ear. Highest point of the head, when standing erect, or sit- ting as straight as possible. acropodion (ap) cervicale (c) (6) Landmarks upon the trunk and limbs The most lateral point of the acromion process, felt through the skin; found by tracing along the spine of the scapula, with index and middle fingers, or by following the shaft of the clavicle, or by laying the middle finger across the shoulder at the top, and gradually down over the side until it drops over the edge of the bone. This is a difficult point to learn to find, and should be practiced in connection with an articulated skeleton. One should first become familiar with all the superficial parts of scapula, clavicle and proximal end of humerus, and learn to locate and recognize them in the living by pal- pation, in the various positions assumed. The most forward projecting point of the foot whether, upon the first or second toe. Free end of the spine of the seventh cervical vertebra; the vertebra prominens. SOMATOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 153 dactylion (da) iliocristale (ic) iliospinale anterius (is) iliospinale posterius (is.p) labiomentale (lab.m) lumbale Qu) mesosternale (mst) metacarpale laterale (ml) metacarpale mediale (mm) metatarsale laterale (mt.l) metatarsale mediale (mt.m) omphalion (om) phalangion (ph) pternion (pte) The distal point of a finger, designated as da I; da II; etc. When not specified, the one referred to is the point of the middle finger, da III, which is used in the series o distances from the floor. As thus used the arm hangs at the side in the most natural position. The most lateral point of the iliac crest; feel from below upwards with the fingers laid flat and horizontal (when the subject is standing), and parallel to the crest. The point sought is found where the surface of the bone passes over from the side to the top of the crest. This is the anterior ventral spine of the crest of the ilium (old terminology; anterior superior spine) and is best found by placing the finger along the crest and feeling for it with the thumb. This is the anterior dorsal spine (posterior superior) at the dorsal end of the crest. Median point in the transverse groove in the chin at the point where the lower lip is attached, the sulcus labio- mentalis. Find about as in the previous case. It is usually char- acterized upon the surface by the presence of a little dimple. The point of the spinous process of the fifth lumbar vertebra. This is difficult to locate and some anthro- pometrists do not use it because of this. Others recom- mend counting (and perhaps marking all the spines from the seventh cervical down, with the body bowed for- wards. The lumbale can be marked when in this bowed position, and the point will then be present after the body is erect again. The median point, on the sternum, of the line which connects the sterno-costal articulation of the two 4th ribs. The cartilages are to be counted by running the finger down the sides of the sternum, where they are superficial. Corresponding to the break between the manubrium and the mesoternum, where the 2nd costal cartilages are inserted, these cartilages project forwards a little, projecting beyond their neighbors. The second pair below this is the one sought. The most projecting point on the free outer margin of the hand, at the level of the basal joint (metacarpo- phalangeal articulation) of the little finger. The most projecting point on the free inner margin of the hand, at the level of the basal joint (metacarpo- phalangeal articulation) of the index. The most laterally projecting point of the metatarso- phalangeal articulation of the little toe. The most medially projecting point of the metatarso- phalangeal articulation of the great toe (hattux). Middle point of the umbilicus; an unstable point. The most proximal point of the basal phalanx of a finger; designated as I, II, III, etc. The most posterior point of the heel, when the foot is sustaining the weight of the body 154 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY radiale (r) spherion (sph) stylion (sty) suprasternale (sst) symphysion (sy) thelion (th) tibiale (ti) trochanterion (tro) The plane of the top of the capitellum of the radius. In the hanging arm it is found in the bottom of the con- spicuous groove or dimple of the elbow. The lowest point of the inner malleolus. The distal margin of the styloid process of the radius where it appears superficially upon the medial side of the wrist. In the hanging arm seize the wrist and palpate downwards over the surface of the process with the thumb. The exact end of the process may be felt with the thumb nail. The middle of the suprasternal notch, in the upper margin of the sternum. This margin is covered simply by a thin layer of skin, and the point in question may be readily located with precision. Middle point in the upper border of the pubic arch, at the symphysis. This is usually at about the level of the upper border of the pubic hair, but as there is some variation in this it is not safe to rely wholly upon this when precision is wanted. Involuntary shrinking on the part of the subject, due to the tickling reactions, are obviated entirely by approaching the point from the side with the flat of the hand, and using the end of the finger only when the upper border of the pubic arch is reached. With intelligent subjects they may often be entrusted to find the proper point themselves, especially when an articulated skeleton stands beside the operator and subject, a condition which should never be neglected. This point is of vital importance in all studies of pro- portions, and ought always to be taken, and with as great precision as is practical. The middle point of the nipple. To be taken only in men, children, and in women with no perceptible tendency for the breasts to sag downwards. The medial separation between femur and tibia, at the medial glenoid margin of the latter; the point is difficult to find in persons with strongly developed panniculus adiposus in the knee region. To find this, place thumb and forefinger of the right hand upon the quadriceps tendon (ligamentum patellae), ask the subject to slightly flex the knee, and then slip the forefinger over to the side, and explore with the finger nail for the separation between the bones. This may be marked when found, for reference in other positions of the leg. A point of some uncertainty and never vary precise. It is defined as the highest point upon the trochanter major, but in practice some use the most lateral point, thus making the bitrochanteric breadth a synonym of the greatest breadth across the thighs, with the heels together. Others reach the bone surface from behind, where the adhesion of the integument to the subcutane- ous bone surface form a deep and noticeable hollow. To find the more precise point, as defined, the hand is placed nearly flat upon the region where the bone lies subcutaneous, and request the subject to move the leg SOMATOMETRY ; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 155 laterally, to bow the body forward, and to make other motions which concern either the femur or the adjacent parts. The shape of the process, and the position of its highest point may thus be located with a fair degree of accuracy. MEASUREMENTS (a) General Considerations; Position of Subject In all measurements or other observations of the living subject it must first be emphasized that one is engaged in the study of the in- dividual bodily variations of an animal species, and that, in order to obtain satisfactory results, the subjects, wherever possible, should be studied in the nude. When for various reasons this is not practicable, however, it will be found that the use of some slight covering does not materially interfere with the measurements, although it may be fatal to a number of other important observations which are conveniently made at the time of the mensuration. Thus it has been found that in a mixed class, or with observer and subject of opposite sex, the use of a simple bathing-suit allows the majority of the measurements to be taken with considerable accuracy, especially when the material of which the suit is constructed is of a sort which yields with the underlying surface, and does not restrain or confine in any way any part of the body. As to the position of the subject when measured, opinions differ, the usual choice lying between two; (a) standing erect, and (6) placed in a horizontal position upon a measuring table. In the first the subject hands as erect as possible, with the heels together and with the arms and stands hanging at the sides; the "military position." If, when in this position, the exact heights above the floor of certain essential landmarks be taken, many essential measurements may be obtained through the subtraction of these numbers from one another, thus finding the dif- ferences between them. To be exact, however, both the numbers indicating heights, and the lengths obtained from them are really pro- jections, and concern, not actual points, but the horizontal planes in which the points lie. To illustrate; if, in a naturally hanging arm, with hand extended downward, the distance of the floor from the points acromion, radiale, stylion, and dactylion be accurately taken, the subtraction of the radiale height from that of the acromion, will give the height of the upper arm, that of the stylion height from the radial height gives the length of the forearm (i.e., of the radius) ; and that of the dactylion height from that of the stylion will give the length of the hand. The total length of arm and hand is obtained by subtracting the dactylion height from that of the acromion, and so on It will be noticed, however, as these heights are each that of horizontal plane passing through the landmark in ques- 156 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY tion hat the lengths obtained by subtraction are the actual perpendicular distances between the two planes considered; and that, in case a bone hangs in the body a little obliquely, its actual length will exceed by a little its projected length, or that obtained by the subtraction of heights. To give another example, take the distance in height between any lateral point and a median one, as, for instance, thelion and omphalion. The height of either of these, as taken, means the height of a horizontal plane through which the point in question passes, and the difference in height obtained by subtraction means the perpendicular distance between the two planes, that of thelion and that of the omphalion. In actually measuring the straight distance from one of these points to the other we are dealing with an oblique line, which has nothing necessarily to do with the horizontal plane of either point. Aside from dealing with projections, which is the really scientific method of dealing with relative heights, the use of these projected heights has the decided advantage of saving much time,' important alike to subject and operator. It is easily possible to run through the usual list of heights (about 25) within a very few minutes, after which many other measurements, such as the lengths of separate parts of the limbs or the projected distance between trunk landmarks, may be readily calculated in the study. In the other types of measurement, such as breadths, or girths, the standing position of the subject is extremely convenient, with the possible exception of the few that concern that portion of the figure below the knee, where some stooping is required on the part of the operator, but this is quite inconsiderable, as there is but a small number of such data to be obtained. For measuring the body in the horizontal position the only absolute essential is a horizontal table six feet or a little more in length, and two and a half feet in breadth, upon which the subject may be placed upon the back. To admit a little comfort a slight pillow is admissable, care being taken that it does not materially change the position of neck or head. To these simple essentials many improvements may be added, for the comfort of either operator or subject, or both. For example, the board may be crossed by transverse lines in black painted and graded to serve as an anthropometer; or, by means of some simple staging, the metal rod of the regular anthropometer may be suspended horizontally above the subject, while one of the cross-bars, slipping back and forth upon the graded rod, marks the points desired with precision. Frassetto, the anthropologist of Bologna, one of the chief advocates of this position, has a table that swings upon a strong steel cross bar, which runs across the middle of the table. The subject takes his position when the table is set upright on the floor, with his feet standing upon the transversely placed board at the lower end, and with his back touching the table top. When this is done the table is swung slowly into the horizontal position SOMATOMETRY ; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 157 by some such mechanisms as are used in the chairs of dentists and barbers, and the subject is ready to be measured. Concerning the relative advantages of the two positions, they may be set forth as follows : Erect position 1. A rigidly erect position is hard to main- tain; a fatigued subject frequently shrugs the shoulders and sways at the hips, thus constantly making differ- ences of a centimeter or more in some of the longer measurements. 2. [No counter argument]. 3. [No counter argument]. 4. [No counter argument]. Recumbent position The ease with which a body lies on the back insures a much quieter and more motionless position than in a standing subject. This allows more accurate measurement. Children, and even babies, may be measured in a recumbent position where an erect and motionless position is impossible. The dead body may be measured in the recumbent position, and, allow- ing for a certain amount of relaxation, the data thus obtained may be directly compared with those from the living. The bodies of apes and monkeys, as in the case of dead bodies, can be directly compared with data obtained from the living, when measured in the recumbent position, while, if the living are measured erect, no comparison is possible. [No counter argument]. 5. Primitive and superstitious people, who often object to any form of meas- urement, still often allow more or less of it, when allowed to stand erect. It would usually prove quite impossible to place them on their back for any form of measurement or other investi- gation, as this position would be felt by them to be a position of defence- lessness or of actual dishonor. As a purely academic question the arguments seem about equally bal- anced, with possibly a little more weight upon the side of the horizontal position, yet, the arguments against this position and in favor of a stand- ing subject are so cogent from a practical standpoint (cf. argument 5), that at the International Congress of 1912 at Geneva the standing position was adopted as a part of the prescription. At this time the general principles adopted were the following: (a) For measurements upon the living the standing position is adopted. (6) The method of projections is adopted, save in cases where special mention is made of some other way. (c) For paired measurements it is recommended that the work be 158 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY done upon the left side, but that the measurements of both sides be taken in the cases of the acromial and trochanteric heights above the ground. (d) Observers are requested to always carefully indicate their methods and their instrumentation. (e) It is very strongly recommended to all persons wishing to do any anthropometric work not to be content with a theoretical study of the principles of mensuration, but to learn them practically in one of the different laboratories in which they are taught.* A certain number of prescriptions for the measurement of the living head (some 19) was included in the prescription of 1906, at Monaco, which form the basis of all later proposals. Certain measurements of the trunk and limbs were decided upon during the session of 1912, at Geneva, and are equally fundamental. In the list which follows, and which includes, not only the measurements of the two original lists, but others that have received general approval since then, the former are marked *by an asterisk. These lists, in their original form, may be found as follows : 1. Skulls and living heads, Monaco 1906. French; L'Anthropologie, T. 17, 1906, pp. 559-572; reported by Papillault. English; Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. reported by Duckworth. II. Trunk and limbs of the living, Geneva, 1912. French; L'Anthropologie, T. 23. 1912, pp. 623-627, reported by Rivet. Italian; Rivista di Antropologia, 1912, Vol. XXII Fasc. III. pp. 1-15 reported by Frassetto. German; Korrespondenzbl. der Deutschen Anthropol. Gesell. 1913, Jahrg. XLIV, No. 1. Publ. in Archiv fur Anthropolo- gie; reported by Schlaginhaufen. English; Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. reported by Duckworth. (6) Lists of Usual Measurements A. ON THE HEAD 1. Linear measurements. 1. Maximum head length (g-op) 2. Glabella-inion length (g-i) 3. Maximum head-breadth (eu-eu) 4. Least frontal breadth (ft-ft) 5. Bizygomatic breadth (zy-zy) 6. Bigonial breadth (go-go) * The italics are those, of the present author; the translation is free, after the French version (L'Anthropologie, T. 23, 1912, pp. 623-627, by RIVET). SOMATOMETRY ; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 159 7. -Biauricular breadth (t-t) 8. Bimastoid (ms— ms) 9. Biocular breadth (ex-ex) 10. Interocular breadth (en-en) 11. Interpupillary distance (with pupillometer) 12. Breadth of palpebral opening (Subtract No. 11 from No. 10) 13. Nasal breadth (al-al) 14. Oral breadth (ch-ch) 15. Auricular height (t-v); projection, i.e. difference of level between tragion and vertex; may be done either by anthropometer as in the case of the skull or by subtraction. 16. Height, vertex to subnasale (v-sn) by subtraction, or in projec- tion with anthropometer. 1 7 . Physiognomic facial length (tr-gn) ; only in individuals with normal extent of hair. 18. Morphological facial length (n-gn) 19. Physiognomic superior facial length (n-sto) 20. Morphological superior facial length (n— pr) 21. Nasal length, in ground plan (n-ns); used for nasal index with 13 22. Nasal length, along profile (n-prn) 23. Nasal height, projection from face (prn-sn) 24. Frontal height, physiognomic (tr-n); only in individuals with normal extent of hair. ; 25. Height of mucous lips (li-ls) 26. Height of entire upper lip, (sn-sto) 27. Height of entire lower lip (sto-slm) 28. Height of chin (sto-gn) 29. Physiognomic ear length (sa-sba) 30. Physiognomic ear breadth (pra-pa) 31. Morphological ear length, cf. ear of horse, sheep etc. (t-tu) 32. Morphological ear breath (obs-obi) 2. Angles. 33. Profile angle (line FH with line n-pr prolonged) 34. Camper's facial angle (line meat-sn with line on-sn) 35. Superior facial angle (line meat-pr with line meat-n) 3. Girths. 36. Horizontal circumference of the head. Put the "O" of the tape measure at the glabella with the left hand, lay tape with the right hand along the left side of the head over what appears to be the opisthocranion and thence around to point of beginning. Shift until correct, with the tape placed horizontally and drawn over the opisthocranion. 37. Sagittal arc; with the tape, from nasion, over top of head, to inion, in the median plane. This does not quite correspond to the like- 160 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY named measurement on the skull, as in the latter the posterior terminus of this arc is on the opisthion. 38. Transverse arc; from tragion to tragion, over the vertex. B. ON THE TRUNK AND LIMBS. 1. Height from floor (Projections) 1. Ht. vertex (total stature) 2. Ht. tragus 3. Ht. gnathion (eyes looking straight ahead). 4. Ht. suprasternale 5. Ht. thelion (not taken in women with hanging breasts) 6. Ht. mesosternale 7. Ht. omphalion 8. Ht. symphysion 9. Ht. iliocristale 10. Ht. iliospinale 11. Ht. vertebrale 12. Ht. lumbale 13. Ht. acromion 14. Ht. radiale 15. Ht. stylion 16. Ht. dactylion 17. Ht. trochanterion 18. Ht. tibiale 19. Ht. spherion 2. Sitting height; from plane of seat. [For these the subject should be seated upon a low, level table, where the foot of the anthropometer should also rest. If the feet be placed upon a rather high chair, thus lifting the dorsal muscles of the thigh from contact with the table, they cannot be used by the subject in lifting the body, while it rests directly upon the sciatic tubers (ischiadic tuberos- ities), here quite subcutaneous] 20. S. Ht. vertex (This gives the trunk length between vertex and the lowest point of the pelvic girdle). 21. S. Ht. tragus (This gives the trunk length from the first vertebra, as the tragus level is practically the same as that of the occipital condyles, or the plane tangent with the upper projections of the atlas. (The sub- ject must look straight ahead, as in Measurement 3, and some others). 22. S. Ht. suprasternale (This gives the trunk height from the anterior end of the sternum, a point often used). 23. S. Ht. vertebrale. 24. S. Ht. iliocristale (This gives the height of the pelvic girdle). SOMATOMETRY ; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 161 3 Arm-stre'.ch. 25. Arm stretch (The best way to get this is to place the subject against a wall, with arms extended horizontally, with shoulders and dorsal aspect of the arms in contact with the wall, and with the palms facing forwards. The extreme distance between the points of the two middle fingers -when exerted to the utmost is the distance to be measured. It facilitates measurement if the wall be marked in centimeters along a horizontal area where the arms of the subject may be expected to come; also if one middle finger tip be placed in contact with a small board placed vertically upon the wall, the attention may be more completely directed to the position of the other. In default of a wall the anthropometer may be held horizontally behind the subject, and the fingers used to push the rods apart). 4 Diameters. 26. Biacromial diameter (a-a). 27. Breadth of shoulders between the deltoids; widest place (secdary). 28. Bimammillary diameter (th-th). 29. Ilio cristal diameter; "cristal breadth" (ic-ic) 30. Iliospinal diameter; "spinal breadth" (is-is). 31. Bitrochanteric diameter; " trochanteric breadth" (tro-tro). 32. Dorso-ventral pelvic diameter (lu-sy). 33. Dorso-ventral diameter of thorax; plane I (at level of base of ensiform cartilage). 34. Transverse diameter of thorax; Plane I. 35. Dorso-ventral diameter of thorax; Plane II (level of mesosternale). 36. Transverse diameter of thorax; Plane II. [The four above diameters of the thorax are to be taken with the chest midway between a full inspiration and an expiration.] 37. Bicondylar diameter at elbow (secondary). 38. Bistyloid diameter at wrist (secondary). 39. Bicondylar diameter at knee (secondary). 40. Bimalleolar diameter at ankle (secondary). 5 Girths 41. Girth of neck, across larynx. 42. Girth of thorax, Plane I; (quiet breathing, midway between inspiration and expiration). 43. Girth of thorax; Plane II; (quiet breathing. Lift arms to shoulder height, and place tape around chest, well up in the axillae, at level of mesosternale; then let arms drop, while tape is held in place by the operator. Let subject continue quite breathing, and take the middle point shown by the tape between the extremes). 44. Girth at waist, least girth of body. 45. Girth of upper arm, greatest when relaxed. 11 162 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY 46. Girth across contracted biceps. 47. Girth of forearm, greatest. 48. Girth of wrist, least. 49. Girth of thigh, greatest (in or about the gluteal fold). 50. Girth of thigh, middle. 51. Girth of thigh, least (just above knee). 52. Girth of calf 53. Girth of ankle, least. 54. Contour tracing of hand (traced with a split pencil, held vertically) . 55. Length of hand (either by subtraction of No. 16 from No. 15, or by direct measurement between stylion and dactylion). 56. Breadth of hand (mm-ml). 57. Contour of foot (as in No. 54). 58. Length of foot (burdened by weight of body), (ap-pte). This is most conveniently taken with the osteometric board. The subject stands upon this, with the farthest forward point (acropodion) in contact with the fixed board which indicates O. The moveable board is then moved up to contact with the heel (pternion). 59. Breadth of foot (burdened by weight of body), (mt.m-mt.l). C. WEIGHT (in Kilograms). 60. Weight of body (without clothing). As the weight without clothing is often inconvenient to obtain, the following data on the weight of clothing [Martin, p. 152] may be found useful. These data are taken from the dress of Central Europe, which should be about the same as found in the United States. I. Total weight of clothing, without hat; averages. man, in summer 3800 grams man, in winter 4500 grams woman, in summer 3000 grams woman, in winter 4000 grams II. Percentage of clothing in the total weight (clothed) of children. boys; 3-6 years 6% girls; 3-6 years 7% boys; 7-14 years 8% girls; 4-14 years 7% III. Average weights of certain garments. boy's shirt 100 grams boy's shirt and stockings 300 grams girl's chemise and petticoat 500 grams shoes; children of six years 200 grams . half-shoes of older children 350 grams boys boots 700 grams SOMATOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 163 Measurements Obtained By Calculation From Other Measurements (1) Trunk length It is very important to determine upon the best of the many possible trunk-lengths and use it exclusively and universally, since especially it is of great importance in all comparisons with the limbs, but unfor- tunately there are many possible trunk-lengths, and each may have certain advantages, such as greater availability, or a better value for comparison. The many possible limits to be set to this length, each one with some following, are the following : — Upper limit Lower limit Tragus Lumbale Subnasale Symphysion Inion Sciatic tuber Cervicale End of coccyx Suprasternale For the upper limit the tragus and subnasale, in a standing figure with 'eyes forward are either of them in about the plane of the upper face of the atlas, and thus give the upper limit of the vertebral column. The inion is a bit higher, but is easy to locate (meaning here the occipital protuberance). The two others, cervicale and suprasternale, are used as the upper limit when the trunk alone is desired, counting off the cer- vical region, as is often done. In the case of the lower limit neither symphysion nor lumbale give the full value to the physiological trunk, since they omit the lower part of the pelvic girdle. This latter is, mor- phologically a part of the appendage, and thus shows certain arguments in favor of the omission. Viewed physiologically, however, the girdle is a part of the trunk, and thus should be included down to the plane of the sciatic tuber or the end of the coccyx. At present this view prevails, and the choice rests much in favor of the first. To use the plane of the sciatic tuber for the lower limit of the trunk it is simply necessary to seat the subject upon a table in the manner lecommended above, with the feet supported rather high, so that no aid can be furnished from the dorsal muscles of hip or thigh, and then take the height from the table of any of the upper limits decided upon. Thus, selecting the suprasternale, as here recommended if the neck is not to be included, the height of this landmark in the seated subject is also the trunk-length. Should one wish to include the neck, use the tragus height. (2) Arm length Length of entire arm and By direct measurement, By projection, by sub- hand from acromion to dactyl- tracting ht. of dactylion ion; arm either extended from ht. acromion. horizontally or hanging pendulous; hand in either case extended so far as possible. 164 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY Length of entire arm, with- Direct; between acromion By subtracting ht. styl- out hand Length of upper arm Length of forearm Length of hand and stylion, in extended arm. Direct; between acromion and radiale. Direct; between radiale and stylion. Direct; between stylion and dactylion, hand ex- tended. ion from ht. acromion. By subtracting ht. radiale from ht. acromion. By subtracting ht, stylion from ht. radiale. By subtracting ht, dac- tylion from ht. stylion. Limb measurements are a little longer when taken direct than when calculated by subtraction (projection method). Thus the forearm, where the difference is the most marked, is about 6 mm. longer by the first method, but the upper arm is longer by only about .5 mm. The other results differ by about 3 mm. (3) Leg length In the leg there is no definite landmark to use as the proximal limit, as the pelvic girdle has a different physiological relation to the body from that of the shoulder girdle, and consequently there is no point on the former to serve the same purpose as the acromion. It is usual to consider the head of the femur as marking this limit, but here the difficulty is hat this feature lies too deeply for palpation, or even approximately locating it. One may use, however, its average relative distance from other landmarks, and by such means several of the following rules have been devised. Total length of leg from head of femur to sole; subject standing Total length of leg without foot Length of thigh Length of lower leg (o) Sub tract 40 mm. from iliospinale, or (6) Add 35 mm. to symphysis. Subtract ht. sphyrion from ht. iliospinale, and from this result subtract 9% of itself. (a) Subtract tibiale from iliospinale, and from this result subtract 7% of itself. This corre- sponds to the physiological length of the femur. (6) Take the direct measure between iliospinale and tibiale, and from this subtract 40 mm. (c) Subtract tibiale from symphysion and then add 10% of this result. Subtract ht. sphyrion from ht, tibiale. INDICES (a) Indices referring to certain measurements as standards. In comparing a number of measurements together it is sometimes con- venient to refer them all to a certain definite standard, especially if this standard is itself one that is not very variable. For instance it would occur to everyone to use as such a standard, the total stature, to which other measurements, such as the lengths of arm or leg, trunk- SOMATOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 165 length or thoracic depth, could be referred, and through which they could be compared with one another; the comparison would become unjust in the case of an individual with an abnormally long neck, yet, in the major- ity of cases, this standard would serve its purpose. Two such standards are commonly used, and the sets of indices are the following: any bodily measurement X 100 I. Index a = II. Index 6 = total stature. any bodily measurement X 100 trunk length (sitting height of sst). For this latter Martin uses the distance (projected) between height of suprasternale and the perineal height ; but as this latter point is not advo- cated here, and is difficult to obtain, the distance sst — sciatic tubers is substituted. (6) Convenient indices which bring out comparisons which are fre- quently desired. length of forearm X 100 Brachial index - Forearm-hand index , length 01 torearm hand breadth X 100 Hand index - hand length ,„.,. . ,. , length of lower leg X 100 Tibio-femoral index - —r — f ^, . , — length of thigh length of foot X 100 Lower leg-foot index Intermembral index I length of lower leg length of entire arm X 100 length of entire leg , . , TT length; upper arm + forearm XI 00 Intermembral index II - length; thigh + lower leg length of upper arm X 100 Femoro-humeral index - length of thigh m., . length of forearm X 100 Tibio-radial index - length ol lower leg . , . max. girth upper arm* X 100 Upper arm girth index - length of upper arm max. girth forearm X 100 Forearm girth index - — ^ — length of forearm ,. . max. girth forearm X 100 Arm proportion index - max. girth upper arm* min. girth forearm X 100 Forearm proportion index - max. girth forearm * with biceps muscle not contracted. 166 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY . ,, . , max. girth of thigh X ICO Thigh girth index - °. length of thigh . ,, . , max. girth of lower leg X 100 Lower leg girth index - — p- length of lower leg , . . , max. girth of lower leg X 100 Leg proportion index - — r-rr — , ., . , max. girth of thigh min. girth of lower leg X ICO Lower leg proportion index - — =— - — ^ — max. girth of lower leg bimammilarv diameter X 100 Mammilo-acrormal index - Cristo-spinal index biacromial diameter iliospinal diameter X 100 Acromio-cristal index iliocristai diameter iliocristal diameter X 100 biacromial diameter ,,, . , bitrochanteric diameter X 100 Body breadth index - — =-= — biacromal diameter transverse thoracic diameter I X 100 Thoracic index I. Thoracic index II. sagittal thoracic diameter I transverse thoracic diameter II X 100 Skelic index [Manouvrier] sagittal thoracic diameter leg length * X 100 trunk length hyperbrachyskeli c below 75 brachyskelic 75-80 subbrachyskelic 80-85 mesatiskelic (mesoskelic) 85-90 submakroskelic 90-95 makroskelic 95-100 hypermakroskelic 100 Constitutional index The maximum thoracic girth in centimeters + the total weight in kilograms is to be subtracted from the total stature in centimeters. Difference between these two numbers below 10 denotes a very strong constitution 11-15 denotes a very strong constitution 16-20 denotes a very good constitution 21-25 denotes a veiy fair constitution 26-30 denotes a very weak constitution 31-35 denotes a very weak constitution above 36 denotes a very bad constitution * To use the accompanying table of values it is of course necessary to use also the measurements of the author [Manouvrier]. His leg length is that obtained by sub- tracting the total sitting height, from the vertex to the table on which the subject is sitting, and his trunk length is the same as the total sitting height. SOM ATOMETRY ; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 167 This index has little if any value in individuals, but, representing an average of many individuals of one race, it has significance concerning the race. ,. . T . ., cube root of the weight X 100 Weight index [index ponderahs of Livi] - , . , ' total height APPENDIX A MEASUREMENTS OF THE SKULLS OF 93 INDIANS FROM SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND MARIAN VERA KNIGHT, A. M. (SMITH) From The Craniometry of the Southern New England Indians; Mem. Conn. Acad. Sci, July 1915 from the Anthropometrical Laboratory of Smith College. TABLE, GIVING THE RANGE OF VARIATION AND THE MEAN FOR EACH MEASURE- MENT TAKEN FOR EACH SEX, AS FAR AS AVAILABLE. Males Females Ave. Max. Min. Ave. Max. Min. Maximum length (g-oe) Maximum breadth (eu-eu) . Glabella-inion length (g-i) . . Nasion-inion length (n-i) . . . Frontal arc (arc n-b) . . . . 182.2 134.0 175.5 171.0 126 2 203.5* 151.0 206.5* 200.5* 142 0 169.0 120.0 161.0 157.0 112 0 175 5 132.0 164.4 160.3 123 0 188.0 145.0 178.0 169.0 137 0 1 158.0 124.0 150.0 145.0 113 0 -Parietal arc (arc b-1) 122 7 129.0 101 0 119 4 129 0 101 0 Occipital arc (arc l-o) 118.8 147.0 101.0 113 3 137 0 101 0 Frontal chord (n-b) 113.6 127.0 104.0 108 0 116 0 102 0 Parietal chord (b-1) 109.6 121.0 99.0 107.2 117 0 96 0 Occipital chord (l-o) 97 8 109 0 85 0 96 8 114 0 89 0 Total facial length (n-gn) . . . Superior facial length (n-pr) Orbital height (right angles to mf-ek) 113.58 69.2 33.83 126.0 76.0 36.0 103.0 59.0 31.0 111.9 67.3 33.78 127.0 76.0 36 5 102.0 57.0 31 0 Nasal height (n-ns) 50.35 57.0 39.0 49.4 Chin height (id-gn) . . 34.1 39.0 31 0 32 5 38 0 28 0 Least frontal breadth (ft-ft) Interfrontomalare tempora- le (fmt-fmt) 93.2 98.0 108.0 104.0 82.0 92.0 90.0 93 0 99.0 100 0 82.0 85 0 Interfrontomalare orbitale (fmo-fmo) 98.05 93 0 Interorbital breadth (la-la) . 23.6 27.0 18.0 20.8 Bizygom axillary breadth (zm-zm) 105.9 112.0 83.0 99.3 100 0 87 0 Bizygomatic breadth (zy- zv) . . 132.0 147.0 110.0 127.6 135.0 121.0 Biauricular breadth (au-au) Orbital breadth (mf-ek) Nasal breadth (right angles to n-ns) 123.2 42.52 25.77 138.0 47.0 31.0 =f 104.0 39.0 21.0 = 120.3 41.56 128.0 43.0 112.0 36.0 Greatest frontal breadth . . . Horizontal circumference over glabella 119.1 518.1 123.0 555.0 101.0 495 0 111.3 497 0 125.0 532 0 99.0 461 0 Horizontal circumference over ophvron 511.1 546.0 490 0 492 5 523 0 456 0 Transverse circumference. . Basal facial length (n-ba) . . . 324.6 102.3 370.0 301.0 312.6 97.5 337 0 270.0 Cranial height (ba-b) . . . . 136.1 133 2 *The maximum measurements for males are much increased, especially in length measures of the cranium by including a single skull of huge proportions which come from a cemetery in Warren, R. I. If this had not been included, the three measures here indicated would have been, respectively, 198, 190, and 194. t ( = ) Measurements thus given are without separation of the two sexes. 169 170 LABOEATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY TABLE, GIVING THE RANGE OP VARIATION AND THE MEAN FOR EACH MEASURE- MENT TAKEN FOR EACH SEX, AS FAR AS AVAILABLE. Continued. Males Females Ave. Max. Min. Ave. Max. Min. Basion-gnathion length (ba- en) . . 114.1 110.5 Basion-opisthion (ba-o) .... Breadth; occip. for (at right angles to ba-o) 36.0 30.7 42.0 35.0 32.0 22.0 36.5 30.76 40.0 33.0 32.0 22 0 Total sagittal arc (arc n-o) . Bimastoid breadth (ms-ms) Maxillo-alveolar length. . . . Maxillo-alveolar breadth. . . Palatal length 368.7 105.5 53.36 61.39 46.11 398.0 124.0 60*. 0 72.0 51.0 336.0 90.0 46.0 53.0 43.0 357.0 99.4 51.8 69.62 45.5 383.0 106.0 57.0 67.0 52.0 330.0 88.0 42.0 44.0 37 0 Palatal breadth 36.5 45.0 32.0 38.0 45.0 30 0 Auricular height 115.4 129.0 92.0 113.5 124.0 109 0 Condylar breadth 115.5 138.0 84.0 113.2 124 0 102 0 Bigonial breadth (go-go) . . . Length of ramus 93.5 58.7 116.0 74.0 80.0 51.0 98.0 55.0 104.0 66 0 87.0 44 0 Least breadth of ramus .... Length-breadth 35.5 73.63 41.0 81.5 29.0 63.4 33.8 75.43 39.0 84 4 28.0 67 0 Length-height 74.73 81.67 64.36 75.90 84 12 65 57 Breadth-height 101.49 100.76 Length-auric, height 63.19 65.14 Transverse frontal 78.15 89.91 73.17 81.08 87 88 76 0 Transverse f ronto-parietal . . 69.40 78.26 = 60.54 = 68.18 Sagittal f ronto-par (arcs) . . . 97.62 96.75 Sagittal frontal ; arc to chore 90 48 88 62 Sagittal parietal ; arc to chord 89 43 89 92 Sagittal occipital; arc to chord 82.35 85.84 Total facial 84.33 87.84 Superior facial 52.27 52 34 Nasal 52.0 66.0 = 39 0 = 51 02 Orbital 80.95 92.0 = 74 0 = 80 49 Interorbital 23.47 24.70 Maxillo-alveolar 115.09 134.62 Palatal 78.26 107.14 = 65 31 84 44 Cranio-facial; bizygomatic breadth by cranial breadth 98.51 109.2 = 85.71 = 96.97 Fronto-biorbital 94.90 96 77 Fronto-malar; least frontal breadth by bizygomatic . . 70.45 76.23 = 64.49 = 70.31 Malar-mandibular; bigonial to bizygomatic breadths 70.45 76.56 Fronto-parietal (chords) . . . 95.61 111.0 = 80.0 = 98.17 APPENDIX B BODILY MEASUREMENTS OF 100 SMITH COLLEGE STUDENTS (FEMALE) TAKEN BY MARGARET WASHINGTON, A. M. (SMITH) No. Ancestry Age Total Height Arm- stretch Ht. Tragus Ht. Vert, prom. 1 Dutch, Ger 20 1738 1760 1599 1504 2 Welch, Norm 23 1654 1683 1533 1420 3 Ene. . . 18 1655 1662 1513 1404 4 Jewish (Russ.) 21 1510 1540 1393 1289 5 Ene-, Ir. . . 23 1543 1551 1400 1302 6 Enc. . . 20 1667 1688 1539 1431 7 Ene. . 21 1636 1677 1515 1426 8 Ene. . . 21 1635 1621 1502 1382 9 Dutch, Scot 21 1589 1584 1463 1339 10 Scot., Ir 20 1694 1743 1551 1430 11 Ene. . . 18 1614 1663 1489 1383 12 Ene. . . 19 1747 1764 1606 1486 13 Scot., Ir 21 1757 1745 1625 1502 14 Eru£.. Ir. . 20 1662 1659 1538 1429 15 Ger., FT 19 1631 1668 1520 1400 16 Eng., Dutch 24 1564 1560 1440 1310 17 Ene. . . 22 1674 1672 1521 1407 18 Eng. . . 20 1698 1760 1554 1450 19 Ene. . . 18 1525 1509 1405 1286 20 Eng., Ir.. . 21 1555 1600 1422 1315 21 Scot., Ir 22 1647 1680 1502 1386 22 Eng., Dutch 17 1662 1715 1540 1412 23 Jr.. Dutch 23 1649 1620 1519 1402 24 Eng. . . 21 1637 1614 1513 1400 25 Ene. . . 20 1593 1569 1473 ?367 26 Ene. . . 21 1695 1729 1574 1452 27 Eng., Scot 19 1720 1743 1593 1469 28 Eng., Dutch 20 1627 1615 1499 1394 29 Scot., Ir., Ger 19 1556 1577 1432 1321 30 Ene. . . 20 1642 1651 1509 1390 31 Scot., Dutch 21 1504 1509 1396 1274 32 Ir 21 1684 1755 1552 1456 33 Ene.. 21 1654 1687 1524 1422 34 Ene. . . 18 1630 1563 1505 1379 35 Ene. . . 20 1556 1552 1424 1323 171 172 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY No. Ancestry Age Total Height Arm- stretch Ht. Tragus Ht. Vert, prom. 36 Eng., Fr... 22 1562 1623 1445 1322 37 Ene. 22 1668 1624 1538 1436 38 Ger 19 1598 1609 1476 1386 39 Eng., Scot 20 1624 1553 1483 1380 40 Eng. . . 22 1606 1655 1459 1374 41 Eng. . , 20 1609 1685 1509 1386 42 Scot., Ir. 21 1714 1727 1580 1454 43 Eng., Scot., Ir. . ... 21 1610 1597 1478 1380 44 Eng., Scot., Ir 18 1657 1708 1523 1404 45 Ger 20 1600 1605 1476 1361 46 Eng. . . 20 1651 1630 1512 1417 47 Ger.. Ital 20 1571 1588 1446 1347 48 Eng. 21 1696 1655 1571 1460 49 Eng., Soct 20 1696 1700 1552 1461 50 Jewish (Ger., Rus.) 19 1621 1650 1480 1400 51 Eng. . . 21 1590 1563 1462 1365 52 Eng. . 21 1620 1641 1495 1390 53 Enc. 20 1688 1664 1548 1430 54 Engr 20 1634 1599 1523 1405 55 Em*. 24 170S 1792 1587 1464 56 Eng. . . 24 1648 1676 1510 1384 57 Enc. 19 1759 1728 1627 1515 58 Jewish (Rus.) 20 1545 1540 1423 1328 59 Ger., Fr... 21 1697 1644 1568 1453 60 Enc.. 23 1636 1676 1511 1409 61 Enn. . . 22 1574 1568 1443 1342 62 Enc. . 21 1680 1700 1555 1433 63 Scot., Ir. . 21 1601 1581 1492 1371 64 Ger 18 1669 1621 1521 1431 65 Ger 18 1668 1631 1522 1433 66 Ene. . . 19 1594 1653 1479 1376 67 Eng. . 21 1645 1730 1532 1400 68 Eng., Scot 18 1609 1658 1470 1373 69 Eng., Fr., Ger 19 1679 1673 1540 1430 70 Enec. . . 19 1685 1673 1558 1441 71 Eng., Ger 20 1597 1542 1470 1372 72 Eng., Dutch 18 1636 1655 1495 1398 73 Eng., Ger 20 1684 1640 1568 1450 74 Eng., Scot 20 1650 1610 1523 1405 75 Eng 19 1638 1710 1518 1414 APPENDIX 173 Xo. Ancestry Age Total Height Arm- stretch Ht. Tragus Ht. Vert, prom. 76 Eng. . . 20 1663 1670 1532 1413 77 Eng., Fr. 22 1563 1564 1455 1350 78 Scot., Ir 21 1548 1593 1435 1323 79 Eng. . . 18 1674 1625 1555 1432 SO Eng. 17 1696 1765 1568 1444 81 Eng., Scot., Fr. ... 21 1681 1702 1553 1451 82 Eng. 18 1640 1611 1513 1428 83 Ene. 20 1609 1570 1480 1363 84 Eng 18 1667 1660 1534 1400 85 Eng., Ir., Welch 20 1627 1681 1500 1395 86 Eng., Scot 20 1697 1725 1562 1446 87 Irish 20 1696 1673 1537 1456 88 German 21 1611 1650 1477 1392 89 Eng.. 25 1603 1624 1495 1373 90 Enc. . . 27 1641 1634 1517 1405 91 Entr 21 1661 1605 1522 1432 92 Ene. . 20 1551 1615 1439 1341 93 Scot., Ger. 19 1590 1622 1456 1345 94 Eng., Ger. 21 1674 1725 1534 1424 95 Eng., Scot 19 1546 1560 1440 1307 96 Eng., Ger. 21 1562 1583 1446 1340 97 German . . 23 1584 1644 1465 1357 98 Eng., Dutch 20 1631 1595 1500 1402 99 Eng., Scot 20 1642 1694 1522 1400 100 Eng. . . 21 1612 1630 1485 1384 174 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY No. Ht. Juris. Ht. Acrom. Ht. Nipple Ht. Umbil. Ht. Sp-il. Ht. Troch. Ht. S-pub. Ht. Olecr. Ht. St-rad. 1 1421 1421 1268 1064 1005 910' 899 1100 847 2 1366 1357 1233 990 961 897 875 1062 794 3 1356 1325 1205 1001 923 920 860 1029 790 4 1232 1205 899 831 773 767 937 717 5 1247 1242 1111 919 857 806 790 957 729 6 1375 1362 1237 1022 946 874 847 1049 800 7 1349 1344 1189 995 939 863 832 1036 799 8 1326 1315 983 940 845 838 1012 785 9 1291 1295 1169 955 919 841 808 S95 763 10 1379 1369 1246 1010 943 881 870 1061 757 11 1329 1316 1196 997 934 877 870 998 757 12 1450 1412 1276 1042 1008 939 913 1119 839 13 1426 1425 1223 1032 999 899 883 1126 837 14 1360 1365 1031 970 892 877 1106 825 15 1348 1351 970 917 843 819 1056 794 16 1283 1281 1137 918 852 872 775 993 762 17 1368 1361 1204 998 944 858 832 1056 800 18 1400 1385 1268 1050 996 947 920 1096 825 19 1232 1226 1102 898 837 782 756 948 725 20 1257 1264 1125 947 896 831 805 981 755 21 1340 1330 1192 966 919 832 823 1020 780 22 1354 1348 1219 1000 940 861 850 1056 790 23 1335 1327 1200 977 926 821 805 1029 787 24 1330 1325 1218 946 919 848 809 1031 790 25 1313 1282 1169 928 889 849 827 1005 782 26 1394 1354 .... 1033 1003 919 907 1077 829 27 1410 1406 1010 991 908 872 1076 829 28 1332 1323 1191 991 912 854 821 1044 809 29 1267 1251 1144 920 889 807 748 955 744 30 31 1339 1341 1187 988 955 841 821 1057 790 1213 1207 1064 880 811 763 737 924 693 32 1401 1376 1048 951 907 886 1081 796 33 1365 1353 1227 1005 956 892 851 1039 783 34 1333 1301 1186 956 880 808 777 1011 781 35 1274 1247 921 884 829 804 980 737 36 1281 1253 1139 925 898 822 799 975 743 37 1372 1346 1235 995 921 855 822 1066 833 38 1306 1309 1165 942 902 813 769 1012 775 39 1333 1331 1196 963 903 840 809 1040 810 40 1328 1301 1189 957 909 845 825 1007 771 APPENDIX 175 No. Ht. Incis. Ht. Acrom. Ht. Nipple Ht. Umbil. Ht. Sp-il. Ht. Troch. Ht. S-pub. Ht. Olecr. Ht. St-rad. 41 1322 1290 1199 987 942 869 846 1019 759 42 1392 1363 1009 972 907 880 1091 832 43 1316 1300 1167 957 919 828 808 1033 808 44 1363 1338 1226 1039 937 887 875 1028 768 45 1306 1282 924 883 814 793 1061 778 46 1364 1330 992 926 835 808 1051 812 47 1281 1260 1152 927 860 808 774 998 756 48 1405 1385 1236 1023 988 910 881 1091 825 49 1391 1370 999 964 883 862 1093 843 50 1324 1310 980 936 890 877 1023 789 51 1307 1290 1162 943 892 842 790 1017 784 52 1313 1319 1015 927 872 838 1020 785 53 1372 1371 1246 1029 995 893 875 1080 836 54 1355 1321 1235 1004 926 860 841 1066 809 55 1411 1387 1270 1042 992 919 904 1063 809 56 1360 1341 923 832 832 824 1074 798 57 1436 1414 1280 1080 1013 980 897 1104 857 58 1268 1230 1137 907 859 806 773 977 755 59 1394 1369 1233 998 924 885 843 1088 837 60 1349 1300 1324 1004 955 895 868 1039 777 61 1290 1181 919 870 827 799 1026 800 62 1400 1362 1256 1010 953 881 856 1041 802 63 1325 1302 1189 968 925 885 846 1043 800 64 1360 1361 1233 1020 964 891 885 1080 838 65 1361 1349 1248 1030 966 911 879 1055 822 66 1306 1294 1170 964 914 875 836 1002 749 67 1360 1348 1242 1007 934 878 835 1045 803 68 1310 1292 1173 976 916 864 816 1012 773 69 1371 1355 1224 1024 970 S07 857 1061 820 70 1402 1370 1000 964 924 894 1115 831 71 1302 1282 960 890 852 800 1014 789 72 1315 1310 997 959 884 858 1039 788 73 1393 1353 1222 1009 931 868 847 1078 834 74 1354 1316 961 899 849 820 1050 799 75 1342 1326 1222 973 948 895 855 1062 807 76 1361 1336 1236 1026 969 905 889 1042 798 77 1284 1258 . . . • 906 874 818 762 1006 769 78 1268 1242 928 874 826 768 971 755 79 1360 1335 1235 1000 909 884 834 1081 844 80 1387 1375 1243 1044 980 950 942 1062 815 176 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY No. Ht. Ineis. Ht. Acrom. Ht. Nipple Ht. Umbil. Ht. Sp-il. Ht. Troch. Ht. S-pub. Ht. Olecr. Ht. St-rad. 81 1371 1347 1211 1000 965 923 934 1047 820 82 1350 1339 1192 1020 938 890 840 1068 828 83 1310 1290 1191 985 920 869 817 1015 777 84 1354 1340 1213 983 915 865 821 1041 814 85 1326 1316 965 910 852 813 1027 790 86 1374 1333 1206 1046 990 893 865 1052 810 87 1387 1337 1020 957 902 876 1090 830 88 1310 1300 1175 969 910 861 814 1037 780 89 1319 1301 1210 974 912 860 855 1019 792 90 1342 1310 1199 957 900 845 850 1050 825 91 1366 1361 996 940 858 832 1008 828 92 1274 1268 1160 945 900 852 932 973 748 93 1295 1269 1143 931 900 850 830 1004 746 94 1361 1337 1207 1015 943 893 857 1048 807 95 1247 1238 1111 950 865 814 770 977 733 96 1272 1272 933 860 842 789 1005 760 97 1301 1298 947 898 835 820 1010 758 98 1336 1322 973 930 865 855 1021 790 99 1344 1300 1012 952 895 895 1020 762 100 1316 1310 979 909 875 844 1047 772 APPENDIX Height Breadth Length, breadth Ht. Dact. Ht. Knee Ht. Mall. Biacr. Crist. Troch. Mamm. Foot Spin. Th-width 1 669 469 80 385 281 255 217 254 2 638 405 81 370 289 265 184 250 3 608 417 68 369 270 217 212 230 4 565 372 72 345 270 251 193 223 5 547 395 70 344 246 220 196 219 6 647 403 63 329 281 229 201 248 7 617 424 81 368 250 211 185 236 8 619 382 75 363 250 211 185 236 9 602 382 71 326 266 240 251 10 577 410 68 382 285 243 195 252 11 594 406 57 369 248 231 211 235 12 649 461 85 372 313 249 216 267 13 644 455 81 345 299 249 196 239 14 653 456 779 354 225 258 242 15 622 431 71 363 235 239 241 16 606 412 65 322 210 209 177 207 17 628 438 85 356 270 283 186 245 18 621 462 86 385 294 280 211 252 19 564 392 73 349 268 273 220 226 20 593 389 82 376 263 261 185 230 21 612 396 72 370 258 215 215 247 22 611 405 71 391 305 250 184 250 23 617 414 72 369 262 248 188 242 24 623 431 69 355 295 232 184 237 25 622 435 68 336 294 241 208 220 26 616 449 87 345 270 227 241 27 650 429 73 376 291 254 246 28 636 415 72 352 264 236 203 230 29 566 391 79 249 255 229 188 229 30 608 389 74 353 244 215 183 239 31 561 353 79 302 247 210 193 223 32 623 433 83 365 290 239 240 33 618 439 89 386 269 221 221 238 34 591 408 83 355 257 228 208 237 215 241 35 583 387 86 337 278 221 228 235 235 36 565 375 83 324 267 227 198 230 260 230 37 634 444 95 335 207 229 204 259 252 230 38 603 409 72 342 255 230 170 227 232 228 39 637 413 89 321 257 239 183 230 252 222 40 591 419 86 354 284 249 203 240 269 239 1-' 178 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY Height Breadth Length, breadth No. Ht. Dact. Ht. Knee Ht. Mall. Biacr. Crist. Troch. Mamm. Foot Spin. Th-width 41 572 391 87 358 255 264 185 252 250 228 42 663 438 89 362 291 258 259 252 266 43 625 374 79 335 262 238 215 248 235 246 44 594 420 88 372 242 247 194 243 219 255 45 598 380 85 373 289 307 237 255 280 46 630 431 74 357 299 275 241 259 248 47 561 367 77 340 242 223 197 230 258 230 48 669 401 85 366 269 249 185 244 245 244 49 643 420 91 359 297 247 262 270 251 50 600 409 73 344 267 218 240 253 242 51 621 391 71 327 269 247 193 222 251 237 52 598 398 85 355 271 235 233 257 257 53 647 439 86 346 251 225 162 226 259 242 54 613 396 75 337 269 234 204 237 261 224 55 618 433 87 364 295 258 195 261 255 254 56 632 385 75 362 301 280 241 287 270 57 6S1 432 89 369 300 265 207 253 280 266 58 589 352 66 328 249 209 181 232 241 227 59 668 410 81 349 269 221 195 239 260 231 60 605 385 80 345 278 249 238 252 260 61 625 397 72 344 256 237 189 240 250 224 62 634 410 92 381 260 237 187 273 227 230 63 627 410 85 320 280 223 165 245 270 235 64 639 442 80 337 254 205 195 251 256 236 65 621 445 80 340 255 205 190 254 250 232 66 579 405 85 335 265 233 215 255 235 244 67 602 423 84 345 254 230 187 236 255 234 68 608 401 72 370 270 220 190 252 252 270 69 634 430 92 362 258 225 196 251 247 251 70 634 428 89 369 280 242 231 263 243 71 629 405 67 344 267 232 221 260 222 72 589 404 85 329 254 219 237 240 252 73 652 409 79 360 288 225 191 236 260 248 74 611 401 78 375 290 235 252 276 260 75 614 412 94 351 285 245 204 251 245 255 76 609 429 70 330 283 212 187 235 240 220 77 610 384 76 341 278 228 219 250 255 78 580 402 70 341 268 209 227 245 233 79 672 414 82 362 278 239 190 243 280 250 80 616 460 66 350 274 240 190 242 265 255 APPENDIX 179 No. Height Breadth Length, breadth Ht. Dact. Ht. Knee Ht. Mall. Biacr. Crist. Troch. Mamin. Foot Spin. Th-widtL 81 640 420 92 344 274 211 200 244 268 280 82 660 426 80 355 270 245 220 243 258 248 83 627 398 76 340 282 205 205 231 272 220 84 627 400 73 344 269 219 186 241 275 220 85 591 398 70 341 263 240 245 248 240 86 605 425 81 380 290 220 223 254 278 241 87 656 4Q5 70 340 271 221 249 258 238 88 564 407 85 347 295 222 170 239 280 235 89 624 412 68 357 272 209 250 236 249 243 90 635 417 75 341 280 230 175 238 262 225 91 663 439 69 350 295 260 242 280 250 92 567 407 76 345 289 218 181 228 280 230 93 602 431 86 310 275 216 215 228 255 222 94 603 414 67 370 286 227 201 257 268 241 95 562 390 75 339 254 219 160 227 250 225 96 585 400 90 335 281 250 262 247 227 97 592 390 76 341 284 229 . . . 239 279 235 98 622 422 66 347 279 243 241 270 234 99 585 423 85 365 262 218 . . . 247 262 255 100 603 420 70 341 275 250 239 270 238 180 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY Sitting heights Measurements of face and head No. Tli- depth Sht. Vprm. Inst. Aero. Hlth. Hbth. Frbth. In orb. Zybrth. i 1 1 904 651 594 587 188 149 100 34 120 2 861 631 569 547 101 143 101 28 121 3 880 629 562 556 184 137 99 28 115 4 825 605 551 531 184 150 106 32 125 5 830 581 527 522 184 152 106 30 116 6 885 645 587 561 190 149 100 31 124 7 852 639 555 548 186 J148 107 30 122 8 857 612 550 536 188 148 103 30 116 9 853 608 563 560 191 146 96 24 111 10 875 617 570 563 191 146 106 31 125 11 836 611 537 526 175 146 99 29 112 12 897 643 589 565 193 139 98 34 119 13 953 710 636 629 196 141 101 28 116 14 870 632 569 569 185- 148 105 31 111 15 868 634 585 584 188 140 111 30 126 16 835 1 590 568 557 180 141 103 26 90 17 890 628 565 562 181 149 102 29 120 18 875 628 577 567 187 151 106 32 124 19 840 601 533 527 186 146 102 31 112 20 827 589 540 525 196 154 103 33 121 21 803 658 608 598 187 144 104 31 125 22 890 643 583 562 193 151 104 35 119 23 889 646 583 561 188 155 108 33 118 24 869 640 562 561 189 140 96 29 111 25 861 637 561 556 183 145 100 28 116 26 868 628 558 539 185 151 97 30 118 27 903 655 589 585 194 143 101 28 120 28 864 628 576 539 186 144 99 29 116 29 833 592 529 508 177 148 105 33 113 30 861 630 549 543 178 145 102 27 112 31 843 600 539 520 182 148 103 32 114 32 861 640 571 551 185 146 107 29 123 33 867 629 555 537 187 150 99 27 113 34 172 914 668 618 589 188 146 104 30 123 35 173 821 591 537 510 191 150 97 29 121 36 144 825 582 541 514 194 143 99 30 109 37 182 896 666 603 579 187 147 105 34 122 38 165 843 621 546 545 180 148 104 30 115 39 168 860 613 559 555 183 147 96 33 115 40 165 853 623 552 529 193 150 100 30 120 APPENDIX 181 Sitting heights . Measurements of face and head No. Th- depth Sht. Vprm. Inst. Aero. Hlth. Hbth Frbth. Inorb. Zybrth. 41 175 847 623 549 510 180 147 104 30 118 42 183 883 627 572 552 194 153 103 32 107 43 184 843 623 555 525 187 146 106 33 124 44 192 853 611 559 530 196 144 104 34 121 45 215 873 638 581 555 187 150 104 30 124 46 179 781 634 569 545 192 152 108 32 123 47 175 863 629 562 539 185 147 97 31 106 48 171 889 649 582 556 189 143 103 29 124 49 168 908 680 595 575 188 146 105 27 123 50 180 840 620 547 537 182 146 92 29 111 51 172 849 613 578 545 174 151 95 28 110 52 185 854 622 556 534 180 143 105 30 113 53 149 885 629 569 678 188 145 102 36 116 54 171 861 629 570 533 181 147 99 31 115 55 208 885 635 584 555 197 145 102 32 122 56 230 877 632 585 555 202 155 109 28 125 57 197 939 700 616 590 188 151 107 33 123 58 160 836 622 562 520 173 150 99 34 114 59 179 920 676 604 567 183 147 99 28 117 60 165 833 612 545 516 194 146 97 32 115 61 167 839 607 550 530 186 142 95 30 ' 109 62 173 884 636 581 546 187 144 98 29 111 63 166 824 599 552 523 174 144 100 25 109 64 175 840 613 530 530 185 142 96 27 116 65 175 848 620 551 539 185 142 97 28 116 66 169 834 609 538 525 184 147 104 30 119 67 139 855 607 554 550 180 145 103 31 114 68 170 836 610 540 520 188 150 103 30 119 69 168 880 640 565 548 193 153 107 33 121 70 167 880 634 590 554 192 152 110 31 121 71 160 860 627 555 529 190 147 97 30 104 72 176 840 607 528 518 190 140 104 27 117 73 179 916 677 627 587 190 146 100 31 118 74 174 899 637 584 554 186 154 107 31 121 75 185 878 640 567 551 196 156 108 36 122 76 175 842 600 535 506 187 150 104 32 114 77 171 839 610 541 526 178 140 101 30, 109 78 168 830 581 526 512 181 145 101 30 109 79 165 907 660 585 561 185 148 106 34 120 80 180 893 638 593 577 200' 157 114 35 133 182 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY Sitting heights Measurements of head and face. No. Th- depth Sht. Vprm. Inst. Aero. Hlth. Hbth. Frbth. Inorb. Zybrth. 81 182 873 641 560 540 191 150 102 29 116 82 173 840 622 555 540 183 147 102 28 108 83 165 846 602 550 535 185 149 100 35 113 84 176 892 641 590 575 178 149 103 33 118 85 180 856 621 556 534 186 150 97 35 113 86 175 887 630 558 525 194 145 98 29 117 87 161 897 661 591 541 192 150 102 34 116 88 160 855 620 545 527 180 143 98 32 114 89 154 842 621 546 519 176 144 102 32 123 90 160 851 614 546 521 173 146 94 28 106 91 190 893 663 603 597 191 150 120 30 130 92 139 811 600 530 515 189 145 101 30 114 93 154 824 592 534 514 186 146 104 31 118 94 185 885 636 576 552 189 152 107 32 119 95 165 824 579 526 526 184 138 97 30 110 • 96 167 856 626 570 570 132 142 103 32 104 97 167 835 613 557 547 187 144 101 36 115 98 182 856 627 572 544 183 143 101 31 117 99 165 947 608 543 500 192 144 111 30 107 100 j 187 841 820 542 j 542 181 149 103 35 114 APPENDIX 183 Measurements of head and face Color of No. Brdth. BMML Chin to hair Chin to nas. Nas- I'fOS. Lth. nose Brdth. nose Lth. ear Brdth. ear Eyes Hair Skin 1 . 94 174 Ill 62 48 32 64 32 11 10 7 2 106 163 98 62 44 28 59 31 5 4 6 3 96 173 110 73 53 31 62 34 13 7 7 4 104 164 108 71 50 35 58 27 7 5 8 5 97 175 111 69 52 33 56 30 12 8 3 6 102 189 119 76 54 31 60 29 14 8 3 7 99 169 110 67 52 33 58 27 6 10 7 8 96 172 116 73 53 29 59 28 4 5 8 9 99 174 111 69 49 30 56 35 14 8 9 10 102 172 108 69 49 31 60 30 3 5 9 11 94 176 110 69 49 31 56 31 15 9 9 12 98 174 119 72 51 32 55 33 15 8 3 13 101 172 113 72 55 33 63 30 4 7 9 14 90 172 107 67 42 30 58 29 13 9 7 15 109 175 110 72 46 33 62 30 14 12 9 16 86 173 108 71 48 26 61 28 16 8 2 17 90 180 110 70 50 30 56 26 13 5 9 18 108 190 120 72 52 34 60 30 15 11 10 19 98 180 115 72 52 33 57 25 7 5 11 20 106 183 119 73 48 31 64 30 16 22 9 21 96 174 108 68 50 34 55 25 12 5 9 22 106 181 115 67 48 32 56 29 15 9 2 23 99 180 115 71 52 32 59 28 6 5 7 24 94 171 110 69 51 28 58 28 7 8 3 25 99 169 111 72 56 33 58 31 4 5 3 26 99 189 132 82 . 58 30 53 28 8 5 7 27 101 185 123 78 58 33 64 33 12 7 3 28 98 175 117 72 53 28 59 30 6 7 11 29 . 95 166 108 69 55 34 52 30 7 8 3 30 93 196 124 79 55 25 60 29 5 7 10 31 97 182 118 72 58 30 56 30 12 13 3 32 108 165 117 70 53 31 64 31 7 4 10 33 97 169 113 75 58 31 54 31 15 7 7 34 103 168 113 75 53 38 59 32 3 5 11 35 97 175 112 75 56 37 57 31 6 5 10 36 105 180 117 72 53 29 56 32 11 12 3 37 96 163 109 72 56 31 54 29 7 8 14 38 89 189 118 76 59 29 60 29 7 8 7 39 98 169 109 71 54 33 55 27 12 8 3 40 103 185 122 75 57 36 60 30 8 9 8 184 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY No. Measurements of head and face Color of Brdth. mand. Chin to hair Chin to nas. Nas- pros. Lth. nose Brdth. nose Lth. ear Brdth. ear Eyes Hair Skin 41 90 170 110 67 53 29 52 32 15 4 12 42 101 185 115 78 55 32 56 27 12 10 3 43 101 175 112 69 51 32 61 31 4 5 7 44 93 171 115 75 54 32 59 28 12 9 10 45 107 162 110 63 50 35 60 30 4 5 7 46 105 173 118 76 57 34 56 30 13 7 3 47 100 175 120 74 56 33 54 28 7 8 10 48 101 171 121 75 58 28 55 27 14 8 3 49 105 185 123 78 59 31 60 31 3 5 7 50 103 172 116 74 55 30 55 29 10 5 9 51 94 175 112 67 49 33 57 30 13 8 7 52 100 160 108 69 53 33 62 32 5 5 12 53 99 176 118 62 51 31 58 30 15 7 7 54 98 179 123 73 52 31 59 30 8 4 10 55 99 181 125 74 55 35 65 33 15 26 11 56 103 187 126 83 59 36 59 28 6 5 12 57 102 169 115 74 56 33 59 31 12 7 11 58 97 177 113 69 51 34 54 30 3 5 11 59 97 176 115 71 51 34 58 28 13 8 3 60 97 175 114 73 55 30 57 30 8 8 8 61 94 163 108 69 49 31 55 26 4 5 11 62 98 179 116 73 56 31 59 33 13 9 3 63 95 167 110 70 51 30 62 30 13 7 7 64 95 188 122 76 60 28 58 29 15 8 3 65 96 185 122 76 60 29 58 31 15 8 3 66 99 170 118 71 53 29 49 26 5 4 13 67 94 168 111 73 56 29 62 30 13 7 10 68 99 167 120 75 55 30 62 26 13 8 7 69 97 177 122 77 57 34 61 27 5 9 12 70 102 180 119 75 56 32 63 31 5 6 11 71 91 180 123 74 51 32 58 29 13 8 3 72 104 176 112 68 52 30 56 26 7 9 7 73 108 181 122 76 56 37 60 30 8 26 7 74 104 183 123 75 57 32 60 30 5 5 10 75 109 171 119 75 55 36 58 30 4 4 12 76 86 187 125 74 53 31 57 25 5 6 3 77 93 184 118 76 56 28 64 30 15 8 11 78 84 165 110 73 55 30 55 25 15 25 9 79 97 182 120 76 55 33 56 29 4 7 13 80 108 184 122 75 55 34 62 30 8 9 11 APPENDIX 185 Measurements of head and face Color of No. Brdth. mand. Chin to hair Chin to nas. Nas- pros. Lth. nose Brdth. nose Lth. ear Brdth. ear Eyes Hair Skin 81 84 186 127 76 55 30 56 33 15 8 3 82 98 175 112 71 56 29 55 30 13 7 7 83 85 182 117 74 55 33 57 31 15 8 11 84 101 168 104 65 49 35 59 28 11 6 10 85 90 176 113 72 52 33 57 28 4 4 14 86 100 185 125 73 54 35 64 30 15 9 10 87 99 184 119 72 57 30 57 34 15 9 10 88 96 179 113 73 55 35 61 29 7 5 10 89 104 165 104 65 47 33 57 31 6 13 11 90 97 177 • 119 72 55 33 59 30 8 8 10 91 105 183 118 69 44 33 58 29 12 7 12 92 97 165 115 74 55 32 62 29 16 7 7 93 100 171 110 71 51 31 61 27 5 9 11 94 100 183 118 76 55 32 58 28 10 10 3 95 94 162 109 67 48 29 54 32 3 5 13 96 89 175 115 71 55 31 65 33 3 5 12 97 97 173 113 72 52 33 65 29 8 4 8 98 99 187 121 73 52 32 67 31 16 8 3 99 88 186 121 77 56 28 56 27 9 5 11 100 94 170 110 67 49 32 52 26 10 8 3 INDEX Acanthion, 42, 47 Acetabulum, diameters of, 112 Acromion, 152, 155 Acropodion, 152 ADACHI, B., 4, 7, 105, 107, 109, 136 ADACHI, MME, 4, 136 Alare, 151 Alveolo-condylar plane, 37 Alveolon, 42 Angle, or angles, facial, 4, 36, 71 mandibular, 53 of calcaneus, 142 of femur, 128 of hutaerus, 84-87 of inclination of ilium, 114 of inclination of pelvis, 115 of inclination of sacrum, 115 of pelvis, 114 of radius 101, 102, 104 of sacrum, 121 of scapula, 82 of skull, 69-76 of talus, 139 of tibia, 133-135 of ulna, 92, 94, 95 on head of living subject, 159, 160 sub-pubic, 114 An thropo meter, It. 12, 13 Anthropometric instruments, list of, 8 Apollo Belvidere, 1 Arithmetical mean, 29 Asterion, 42 Auric ulare, 42 Auriculo-bregmatic height, 50, 54 Average, 29 B Basilo-bregmatic height, 50 Basion, 43 Basion-bregma height line, 55, 57 Basion-lambda line, 58 BERTILLON, A., 2, 9, 10 Biauricular breadth, 54 Bicondylar breadth, 52 Bigonial breadth, 52 Bimastoid breadth, 50, 54 Biometric methods, 26-33 Biorbital breadth, 54 Bizygomatic breadth, 50 BOLK, 62 BOULE, 80 Brain weight, percentage of to cranial capacity, 62 Bregma of living, 151 of skull, 40, 43 Bregma position line, 56, 58 BROCA P., 1, 5, 13, 25, 37, 40, 48, 75, 87, 145 C Calcaneus, 140 angles of, 142 indices of, 142 measurements of; 140, 141 Calipers, 9 Bertillon's type of, 10 Flower's type of, 10, 11 Calvarial base, 57 Calvarial height line, 56, 58 CAMPER, P., 4, 5, 36, 71 Carpus, 108,109 Cervicale, 152, 163 Challenger expedition, 2, 4, 110 CHARLES, H., 135 Cheilion, 151 Cheirometry, 35 Clavicle, measurements of, 83, 84 CLOQUET, J., 37, 38 Clothing, weight of, 162 Coccyx, 163 Coefficient of variation, 32 Collo-diaphyseal angle, of femur, 128 Collo-diaphyseal angle, of radius. 101, 102 Condylion laterale, 43 Condylion mediale, 43 Condylo-diaphyseal angle, of femur, 128 Conjugata diagonalis (skeleton), 111 Conjugata externa (skeleton), 111 Conjugata vera (skeleton), 111 Control skull, 19 Coronale, 43 187 188 INDEX Coronion, 43 Cranial arc, total, 55 Cranial breadth, maximum, 49 Cranial capacity, 52, 59-61 Cranial height, 50 Cranial length, maximum, 49, 56 Cranio-basal length, 57 Craniometer, 9 Craniometry, 35, 40 Craniophore, 10, 39 Craniophore, cubic, 20, 21, 40 Crinion, 151 Cristal breadth, 29, 30, 31 Cubital angle, of humerus, 86 CUNNINGHAM, 78 Cushion for holding skull, 22, 40 CzEKANOWSKi, 3 D Dacryon, 43 Dactylion, 153, 155 DE HOYOS, 3 DERRY, 116, 118 Deviation, 30 average, 31, 32 standard, 32 Diagraph, of Martin, 24 Diameters, of pelvic basin, 111 Dioptograph, of Lucse, 23, 24 Dispersion, coefficient of, 33 Divergence of ilia, 115 DUCKWORTH, 3, 7, 87, 158 DWIGHT, 123 E ECKER, 38 Ectocanthion, 151 EctoconcHon, 43 Ectomolare, 43 Endinion, 45 Endocanthion, 151 Endomolare, 44 Euryon of living, 151 of skull, 41, 44 Extremum occiput, 47 Face, of living, land marks of, 151, 152 Facial angle, 4, 36, 71 depth, 57 length, superior, 57 total, 58 Femur, angles of, 128 curvature of shaft of, 129 indices of, 125-128 measurements of, 122-124 Fibula, indices of, 136 measurements of, 136 Finger-print system, 2 FISCHER, E., x, 4, 7, 54, 88, 89, 90, 94, 95, 97, 98, 102, 104, 105 Flower's type of caliper, 10, 11, 82 Foot, skeleton of, 136, 137 Frankfort horizontal, 38, 40, 47, 48 FRASSETTO, F., x, 3, 156, 158 FREDERIC, 7 French horizontal, 38 Frequency curves, 27 Frontal arc, 55 breadth, greatest, 50 least, 50 chord, 55, 58 perpendicular, 58 Frontomalare orbitale, 44 temporale, 44 Frontotemporale of living, 5, 151 of skull, 44, 47 G G ALTON, F., 2 GARSON, J. G., 38, 82 Geneva, international agreement of, 157, 158 Genion, 44 GlUPFRIDA-RUGGERI, 3 Glabella, of living, 151 of skull, 40, 44, 47 Glabella-inion length, 49, 53 Gnathion, of living, 151 of skull, 44 Gnathion-basion length, 54 GODIN, 3 GOLDSTEIN, 38 Goniometer, clamp-on type of, 14 Mollison's, 14-16 stationary, 5 Gonion, of living, 151 of skull, 44 Greatest frontal breadth, 50 H HAMY, 3, 49 Hand, bones of, 105-109 HASEBE, 4, 78, 137 INDEX 189 Head of living, landmarks of, 151, 152 HENNIG, 110 HENRY, E. R., 2 HERVE, 3, 49 HlLLEBRAND, 3 Hip-girdle, 109 His, 38 Holder, universal, 22 HOLTBT, 122 Horizontal circumference of skull, 52, 54 needle, 21 Horizontals used in orientation of skull, 35-40 Hormion, 45 HRDLICKA, 3 Humerus, angles of, 84-87 indices of, 84 measurements of, 84 HUMPHREY, 1 HUNTINGTON, G. S., 105 HUXLEY, 69 Ilia, divergence of, 115 Iliocristale, 153 Iliospinale anterius, 153 Iliospinale posterius, 153 Ilium, length-breadth measurements, 112 Inclination angle of pelvis, 115 of sacrum, 115 of ilium, 114 Indian skulls, Southern New England, 169, 170 Indices, derived from the median sagittal craniogram, 68 intermembral, 144-147 method of computing, 26 of calcaneus, 142 of cranium, 62-65 of face, 65-67 of femur, 125-128 of fibula, 136 of humerus, 84 of living body, 164-167 of patella, 130 of pelvic brim, 110, 113 of sacrum, 118-121 of scapula, 82 of talus, 138 of tibia, 131, 132 of weight and capacity of cranium, 69 pelvic, 113 Indices, pilastric, of femur, 125, 126 platycnemic, of tibia, 131 platymeric, of femur, 125, 126 showing relations between cranium and face, 67, 68 Inferior facial depth, 57 Infradentale, 45, 46 Inion, of living, 151, 163 of skull, 40, 45 Intermembral indices, 144-146 International Congress of Anthropolo- gists (1906) ix, 3, 7, 38, 48, 49, 158 International Congress of Anthropolo- gists, (1912), 157, 158 Interorbital breadth,* 51, 54 Intertuberal breadth, 111 Ischium, length of, 1 12 Joint-axis angle of ulna, 94 K KLAATSCH, H., 122, 136 Klition, 45, 48 KNIGHT, MARIAN V., 169, 170 KOGANEI, 4, 89, 110 Labio men tale, 153 Labrale inferius, 151 Labrale superius, 151 Lacrimale, 45 Lambda, 45 Lambda calvarial height, 58 LAMONT, 129, 135 Landmarks, of head and face, 151, 152 of skull, 40-48 of trunk and limbs, 152-155 Lateral divergence angle of ulna, 95 LAZARUS, 136 Least frontal breadth, 50 LEHMANN-NITSCHE, 4, 89, 99, 122, 131 Length of limb bones relative to stature, 147 Limbs of living, landmarks of, 152-155 Linguale, 46 Lingulare, 46 LISSAUER, 3, 23, 49 Living subject, angles of head of, 159 calculated measurements of, 163, 164 girths on head of, 159, 160 190 INDEX Living subject, indices of, 164-167 landmarks of, 151-155 measurements on head of, 158, 159 measurements of trunk and limbs of, 160-162 weight of, 162 LrvoN, 82 LOHR, 116 Lordosis, 76 LOTH, E., 3, 143 LUCAE, 23 Lumbale, 1 63 Lumbar , 77 LTJSCHAN, v., 3, 49 . >r v M MACCURDY, G. G., 3 MALL, F. B., 96 Mandible, height of body of, 53 thickness of body of, 53 Mandibular angle, 53 length, 55 MANNERS-SMITH, 4, 137, 143 MANOUVRIER, 3, 62, 147, 166 MARRET, 3 MARTIN, x, 11, 17, 18, 20, 21, 24, 25, 61, 63, 66, 82, 86, 87, 129, 130, 136, 145, 146, 151 Mastoidale, of living, 151 of skull, 46 Maxillary breadth, 55 Maxillo-alveolar breadth, 51 Maxillo-alveolar length, 51 Maxillofrontale, 46 MA YET, 3 Mean, arithmetical, 29 Measurements, calculated, of living sub- ject, 163, 164 of calcaneus, 140 of femur, 122-124 of fibula, 136 of head of living, 158-160 of humerus, 84 of living, technique of, 155-158 of patella, 129, 130 of trunk and limbs of living, 160-162 of sacrum, llti-118 of scapula, 80-82 of skull, 49-55 of talus, 1 8 of tibia, 130, 131 Mentale, 46 Mesosternale, 151, 153 Metacarpale laterale, 153 Metacarpale mediale, 153 Metatarsale laterale, 153 Metatarsale mediale, 153 Metatarsals, 143 Metopion, 152 Midvalue, of a group, 29 MOCHI, 3 Mode, in a frequency curve, 29 MOLLISON, 14H6, 82, 131 Monaco, international agreement of, x, 3, 48, 49 MORTON, ix MUSGROVE, 3 N NAGEL, 96 Nasal breadth, 50 Nasal length, 50 Nasion, of living, 152 of skull, 47 Nasion-basion line, 50, 55 Nasion-gnathion line, 50 Nasion-inion line, 54 Nasion-lambda line, 58 Nasion-prosthion line, 50 Nasospinale, 42, 47, 48, 50 Novara Expedition, 2 O Obelion, 47 Obturator foramen, diameters of, 112 Occipital arc, 55 Occipital breadth, 55 Occipital chord, 55, 58 Occipital foramen, length and breadth of, 51 Occipitale, 47 Olecranal fossa, perforation of, 87 Olecrano-coronoid angle, of ulna, 92 Omphalion, 153 Ophryon, of living, 152 of skull, 47, 48 Opisthion, 47 Opisthocranion, of living, 152 of skull, 44, 45, 47 Orale, 47 Orbital breadth, 51, 54 Orbital height, 51 Orbitale of living, 152 of skull, 47 INDEX 191 Orbito-alveolar height, 51 Orientation of skull, 35-40 Os coxa), length and breadth of, 112 Os pubis, length of, 112 OSAWA, 4, 110 Ossa coxa), 109, 110-116 Ossa innominata (see Ossa coxae). Osteometric board of Broca, 13 Osteometry, 35 Osteophore of Wetzel, 22 Otobasion inferius, 152 Otobasion superius, 152 Palatal breadth, 51 Palatal length, 51 PAPILLAULT, ix, 3, 49, 158 Parallelograph, 16-19 Parietal arc, 55 Parietal chord, 55, 58 Parietal perpendicular, 58 PARSONS, 83, 122, 123 Patella, indices of, 130 measurements of, 116 Peabody Museum, Harvard University, 54 Pelvic basin, depth of, 112 angles, 114 brim index, 110, 113 height, breadth, and depth, 110 indices, 113 , skeleton, 109 Pelvimeter, 10, 110 Pelvis, sexual differences in, 116 Perigraph of Lissauer, 23, 25 PFITZNER, W., 105, 107, 137 Phalanges, of foot, 143 of hand, 107, 108 Phalangion, 153 Physiological length, of femur, 122 of radius, 98 of tibia, 134 of ulna, 88 Pilastric index, of femur, 125, 126 PITTARD, 3, 49 Platycnemic index, of tibia, 131 Platymeric index, of femur, 125, 126 Podometry, 35 Pogonium, 47 Porion, 47 Position of living subject, 155-158 Postaurale, 152 Pozzi, 3, 49 Preaurale, 152 Pronasale, 152 Prosphenium, 47 Prosthion, of living, 152 of skull, 45, 47, 48 Prosthion-basion line, 50 Pternion, 153 Pteryon, 41, 47 Pubic symphysis, length of, 112 R Radiale, 1^4, 155 Radius, 9o A05 RADLAUER, 4, 117, 118, 119, 120 RAHON, 149 Ramus of mandible, breadth, 52 Ramus of mandible, length, 52 REICHER, 4, 137, 140, 141 Rhinion, 48 Ribs, 80 RIVET, 3, 158 Rod compass, 12, 13 ROLLET, 147 8 ST. HILAIRE, G. DE, 36, 37 Sacral inclination angle, 115 Sacrum, 109 angles of, 121 indices of, 118-121 measurements of, 116-118' Sagittal cranial arc, 51 SAWALISCHIN, MARIE, 65 Scapula, angles of, 82 indices of, 82 measurements of, 80-82 SCHLAGINHAUFEN, O., X, 3, 21, 54, 158 SCHWALBE, G., 6, 7, 58, 70, 80 Sciatic tuber, 163 Sculptors of Greece and Rome, 1, 4 SERGI, G., 3, 6, 49 SEWELL, S., 4, 137, 139 Sexual differences in pelvic bones, 116 Skull, angles of, 69-76 horizontals of, 35-40 landmarks of, 40-48 acanthion, 42, 47 alveolon, 42 auriculare, 42 192 INDEX Skull, landmarks of, basion, 43 bregma, 43 condylion laterale, 43 condylion mediale, 43 coronale, 43 coronion, 43 dacryon, 43 ectoconchion, 43 ectomolare, 43 endinion, 45 endomolare, 44 euryon, 44 frontomalare orbitale, 44 frontomalare temporale, 44 frontotemporale, 44, 47 glabella, 44, 47 gnathion, 44 gonion, 44 hormion, 45 infradentale, 45, 46 inion, 45 klition, 45, 48 lacrimale, 45 lambda, 45 linguale, 46 lingulare, 46 mastoidale, 46 maxillofrontale, 46 mentale, 46 nasion, 47 nasospinale, 47, 18 obelion, 47 occipitale, 47 ophryon, 47, 48 opisthion, 47 opisthocranion, 44, 45, 47 orale, 47 orbitale, 47 pogonion,! 47 porion, 4? prosphenion, 47 prosthion, 47, 48 pteryon, 47 rhinion, 48 sphenoidale, 48 staphylion, 48 stephanion, 48 subspinale, 48 supraglabellare, 48 tylio , 45, 48 vertex, 48 zygion, 48 zygomaxillare, 48 measurements of, 49—55 Skull, norms of, 39, 40 orientation of, 35-40 Smith College students, measurements of, 171-185 SOLLAS, 3 Somatometry, 35 Spherion, 154 Spinal breadth, 111 Spino-symphyseal plane, 110 Standard deviation, 32 Stereograph, of Broca, 25 Sternum, 80 Stomion, 152 Stylion, 154, 155 Subaurale, 152 Subnasale, 152, 163 Subpubic angle, 114 Superaurale, 152 Superior facial length, 57 Supracondyloid notch, 87 Suprasternale, 154, 163 Symphyseal height, of mandible, 52 Symphysion, 154, 163 Table, leveling, 22 Talus, angles of, 139 indices of, 138 measurements of, 138 orientation of, 137 Tape measure, 13 Tarsus, 142, 143 Thelion, 154, 156 THOMSON, 135 Tibia, angles of, 133-135 indices of, 131, 132 measurements of, 130, 131 Tibiale, 154 TOPINARD, 25, 75 TOROK, A. v., 5, 7 Torsion, of femur, angle of, 128 of humerus, angle of, 84 of radius, angle of, 104 Tragion, 152 Tragus, 163 Transverse cranial arc, 52 Trichion, 152 Trochanterion, 154 Trunk of living, landmarks of, 152-155 Tuberculare, 152 TURNER, W., 4, 76, 77, 78, 82, 88, 99, 110, 113, 114, 122, 145 Tylion, 45, 48 INDEX 193 u UHLBACH, 105, 107, 108, 136 Ulna, 88-98 Variation, coefficient of, 32, 33 range of, 31 VERNEAU, 3, 49 Vertebrae, volume of, 78, 79 Vertebral column, 76 Vertex, 48, 152 VIBCHOW, H., 137, 144 VOGT, 75 VOLKOV, 3, 4, 136, 143, 144 Volume, of cranial cavity, 19 of orbit of eye, 19 of vertebrae, 78, 79 W WALDEYER, 3, 49 WASHINGTON, MARGARET, 171-185 Weight of body, 19, 20, 162 of clothing, 162 WEISSGERBER, 3 " WELCKER, H., 61, 75 WENTWORTH, B., 2 WETZEL, 22, 78 WHITE, 1 ZAAIJER, 110 Zygion, of living, 152 of skull, 48 Zygomaxillare, 48