—— 

— 
==n 
= 
=~ 
| 
— 


ie. 2. meee ie 2 ee Se oi 


tt a 


+ ¥ - ; 
LANDSCAPE ~~. 


ort on research into problems of reclaiming derelict land 
research team of the University of Newcastle upon Tyne 


Published by IPC Science and Technology Press Ltd 


LANDSCAPE 
RECLAMATION 


a report on research into problems of 
reclaiming derelict land 

by a research team of the University of 
Newcastle upon Tyne 


Volume 1 


SBN for complete set of two volumes: 902852 06 X 
SBN for this volume: 902852 03 5 


Published by IPC Science and Technology Press Ltd, 
IPC House, 32 High Street, Guildford, Surrey, England. 


Printed in England by Kingprint Ltd, Orchard Road, Richmond, Surrey. 


23 


32 


43 


57 


64 


70 


84 


100 


114 


124 


127 


Foreword 
Introduction 
Chapter 1 


Chapter 2 


Chapter 3 


Chapter 4 


Chapter 5 


Chapter 6 


Chapter 7 


Chapter 8 


Chapter 9 


Chapter 10 


Chapter 11 


Chapter 12 


Chapter 13 


Contents 


by the Right Honourable Peter Walker, M.B.E., M.P. 
Secretary of State for the Environment 


Landscape reclamation and the region 


Previous techniques of reclamation 
based on the work of C.J. Vyle 


Research sites 
by M.F. Downing 


Landform design 
by M.F. Downing 


Earthworks: outline of metnods used within the project 
by M.F. Downing 


Special problems 
based on the work of M.F. Downing and C.J. Vyle 


Land drainage 
by M.F. Downing 


Soil-forming materials—their nature and assessment 
by G.P. Doubleday 


Botanical studies of natural and planted vegetation on 
colliery spoil heaps 
by J.A. Richardson, B.K. Shenton and B.J. Dicker 


Practical techniques for establishing vegetation on derelict 
land 
by C.J. Vyle 


Contract procedure 
by |.S. Clarke 


Estimating and cost control 
by 1.S. Clark 


Visual assessment of reclaimed landscape 
based on the work of J.J. Ffennel and others 


Foreword 


he Right Honourable Peter Walker, M.B.E., M.P., Secretary of 


State for the Environment 


| welcome the opportunity afforded by this Foreword of stressing the 
importance which | attach to the clearance of derelict land. 


The scars left behind by industrial development of the past, the 
abandoned waste heaps, disused excavations and derelict installations and 
buildings no longer needed by industry, are an affront to our concept of 
an acceptable environment in the 1970s. The clearance of this 

dereliction can play a significant role in improving the environment in both 
a rural and an urban setting. 

More reclamation than ever is now being undertaken; local authorities are 
being asked for an all-out effort and there are good prospects that the 
greater part of the derelict land will be cleared away within the decade. 
But, of course, reclamation is not only a matter of allocating the necessary 
resources. We need to know how to make the best use of our resources, to 
examine techniques and to improve on them. 

| am therefore grateful for the growing volume and variety of research, of 
which this Report forms part, which will have great practical benefits for 
the work of reclamation. 


eet: 


Peter Walker 


Introduction 


The problem of derelict landscape is an important issue 
facing the nation. Britain, already short of land, will be in 
a worse situation as the population increases; it is 
therefore a matter of necessity, and many would say of 
urgency, for the majority of the 37,490 ha (93,920 
acres) of land now officially classed as derelict, to be 
restored to a state of good health and service in the 

total landscape and for the community. Because of the 
large area of derelict land and vast tracts which escape 
the official classification, the cost of reclamation will be 
considerable. If the reclamation work is allowed to 
proceed without a sure basis of research into the design 
and planning concepts, into the fundamental problems of 
soil formation and plant survival, and into the many 
techniques which will need to be worked out, this cost 
will be excessive. 


There are, of course, many kinds of landscape dereliction, 
such as derelict coal mines, gravel excavations and old 
industrial buildings. Each kind of dereliction is likely to 
require certain techniques in reclamation which are 
peculiar to its own particular problems. No single research 
programme can hope to provide all the answers, but an 
extensive one will be of general use in that it can 
establish principles as well as techniques. In the Landscape 
Reclamation Research Project of the University of 
Newcastle upon Tyne, we have sought to avoid going over 
ground already covered in previous studies, and this can 
be seen both in the work relating to the design principles 
and, at the other end of the scale, in the work on 
techniques for specific operations and circumstances. 


Important work has been undertaken in the period since 
the Second World War by some planning authorities faced 
with derelict land in their areas, and also by specialists 
working on problems like the establishment of trees on 
waste heaps. Among several problems which have been 
studied in the University Research Project was the central 
one of the design of landscape reclamation schemes in 
such a manner that the natural processes, which will 
eventually bring about a balance between drainage, 
erosion and vegetation cover, can be speeded up. Also, 
the objective was to achieve a new and healthy land- 
scape without tying the planning authorities’ hands to a 
particular land use. 


The University was particularly fortunate in having the 
opportunity to carry out much of the research work in 
what may be termed ‘outdoor laboratories’. These were 
eight selected areas with varying kinds of dereliction, and 


it was possible to plan the reclamation works for these 
areas with the additional advantages of including 
experimental techniques in specific places. In the chapters 
that follow, these techniques are described with the 
results achieved up to the present time. The work of 
assessment will, however, continue for many years and 
will form a part of a related research project into the 
problems of husbanding reclaimed landscapes beyond the 
initial stage. This latter project has been made possible by 


a generous grant to the University from the Natural 
Environment Research Council, and the results will be 
published in a second volume. 


The University’s interest is in the whole problem of 
changing derelict landscapes into healthy landscapes, 
although, within this major interest, the numerous 

special aspects also claimed appropriate attention. 
Consequently, the task of setting-up the research frame- 
work fell to the Landscape Design staff but the 
Departments of Botany and Soil Science have been 
essential to the work and have been most closely 
involved at all stages. Quite apart from the objectives of 
the research, a clear demonstration has been given that 
several disciplines in a University can make a contribution 
far outweighing that which would have been given by a 
single discipline. 

Those of us who have worked on the project readily 
acknowledge the guidelines that have been given by many 
persons and sources of reference in various countries. In 
particular, the study tours made by some of the research 
staff to the excellent landscape reclamation work in the 
Ruhr, and to some of the earlier work carried out by the 
County Planning Department of Lancashire, proved 
extremely valuable. In all of these contacts, examples of 
failures were given as readily as the demonstration of 
success. We would wish to make a special point of the 
important work of the Department of Botany who carried 
out the survey and analysis of both naturally occurring 
and artificially planted vegetation. This basic line of 
approach has always been associated with the discipline of 
Landscape Design in the University of Newcastle upon 
Tyne as an aid to deciding upon the types of vegetation 
cover and the particular tree, shrub, and grass species to 
be used. The survey, and in fact most of the work 
described in the ensuing chapters, has been written up at 
much greater length in the series of interim reports which 
have followed one another in quick succession during the 
course of the research work. 


A particular feature of the project has been the work of 
its Steering Committee, which met at monthly intervals 
for the first three years, and every other month 


subsequently. The membership is listed in detail elsewhere, 


but the Committee certainly gained much of its skill in 
guidance, advice and criticism from those members 
outside the University, including in the later stages 
persons concerned in the River Tyne Steep Slopes 
Research Project. The Steering Committee also served in 
some measure in place of a Director of the Project, this 
being a more appropriate arrangement in view of the 
involvement of several Departments of the University. 
The responsibility for the various parts of the research 
and for the material and views expressed in the several 
Chapters thus rests with the Authors, although in most 
eases, each Author has necessarily drawn upon the work 
and experience of his fellows in the Project. 


The scale of work can in part be measured by the fact 
that six research workers have been involved on a full 
time basis, five members of the teaching staff have given 
much time voluntarily, and valuable assistance came from 
the employment of students during some vacations. 
Again, the names of all concerned are listed elsewhere. 


The importance of landscape reclamation as a national 
objective, and of the need for it to be studied from all 
points of view, was discussed in a meeting called 
together in 1963 by the then Vice Chancellor of the 
University, Dr. C.I-C. Bosanquet, supported by a 
representative of the Ministry of Housing & Local 
Government and by the County Planning Officers of 
Durham and Northumberland and the Planning Officer of 
the City of Newcastle upon Tyne. Also present were 
representatives of University Departments likely to be 
concerned. Subsequently, the financial side of the work 
was made possible by the ready cooperation of the 
Ministry and the planning authorities, who were able to 
make available funds within the grant structure for the 
reclamation of derelict land. 


Finally, every credit is due to the members of the 
research team, including several members of the 
University Teaching Staff who contributed a great deal in 
a directive capacity. To Miss Jennifer Ffennell, a member 
of the Research Staff who also undertook the initial task 
of gathering together the Authors’ manuscripts for 
publication, Miss Jill Pagan who completed it and to 
Miss Anne Stokoe, who from 1965 to 1970 served as 
Secretary to the project, all of those concerned owe a 
special debt. 


Steering Committee 


.S.Clark, Messrs. Douglas Macara/Groves/ Associates, 
Quantity Surveyors, Newcastle upon Tyne. 

The County Planning Officer for Durham represented by 
R.Briggs, Reclamation Officer. 

The Engineer & Surveyor, Easington Rural District 
Council, represented by the late E.Crompton, 
Senior Assistant Engineer, W.McCrickard, 
Reclamation Officer, and W.Scanlan, Planning 
Officer. 

The Borough Planner and Engineer, Gateshead, 
represented by A.F.Barber. 


S.Hall (since retired), Surveyor, Crook & Willington Urban 
District Council. 

W.T.Kailofer, Engineer & Surveyor, Newburn Urban 
District Council, also represented by J.Grant. 

J.A.Mann, Director of Parks & Cemeteries Department, 
Newcastle upon Tyne. 

Ministry of Housing and Local Government, represented 
by R.U.Harper until 1968, and subsequently by 
J.W.Dickson. 

R.Morton, Surveyor, Felling Urban District Council, also 
represented by R.Whyte. 

The City Planning Officer for Newcastle upon Tyne, 
represented by Miss E.L.Elliott, Landscape Architect. 

The County Planning Officer for Northumberland, 
represented by F.E.Kerry, Reclamation Officer, and 
S.Manchee. 

The Borough Engineer & Surveyor, County Borough of 
South Shields, represented by K.Smith. 

The Borough Surveyor, County Borough of Tynemouth, 
represented by W.A.Charlton and M.Preston. 


Also certain other people who have attended from time to 
time, and the following members of the University Staff: 


B. Hackett: Professor of Landscape Architecture. 

M.F.Downing: Lecturer in Landscape Design. 

Miss J.Ffennell: Research Associate in Landscape Design. 

C.J.Vyle: Senior Research Associate in Landscape 
Design, assisted by J.Fuchs for one year. 

Miss J.Pagan: Research Associate in Landscape Design. 


P.W.Arnold: Professor of Soil Science. 

G.P.Doubleday: Senior Research Associate in Soil 
Science. 

Patricia Hill: Technician in Soil Science. 

Angela Bruce: Technician in Soil Science. 


Dr.J.A.Richardson: Senior Lecturer in Botany. 
Dr.A.W.Davison: Lecturer in Botany. 
Dr.O.L.Gilbert: Senior Demonstrator in Botany. 
R.Dicker: Research Associate 


Students working during Vacation 


Miss\ S.Lewis (Botany ) 

Miss S.McDonald (Botany) 

D.F Hardy (Botany) 

B.Shenton (Botany) 

D.J.Moffatt (Soil Science) 

A.H.Cosens (Zoology ) 

C.Hindmarch (Landscape Design) 
P.H.Goodchild (Landscape Design) 

Miss A.Stokoe: Secretary (to October 1970) 
Mrs H.Cox: Secretary (from October 1970) 


Note: in connection with further work to be published in 
Volume 2, the following have been involved in the 
Project: 


University Staff 
Dr.M.L.Luff (Agricultural Zoology ) 
Dr.B.J.Selman (Agricultural Zoology ) 


Students working during Vacation 


B.R.Hutson (Agricultural Zoology) 
M.I.Hinke (Agricultural Zoology) 


Chapter 1 Landscape reclamation and the 


region 


1.1. Introduction 


Preliminary investigations into the problems of landscape 
reclamation revealed the fact that the selection of sites 
on earlier programmes had been made in most cases on 
an ad hoc basis, and the evidence was that this situation 
still prevailed. The reasons included the availability of 
derelict land for purchase, the low cost likely to be 
involved on a project, and the demand fora particular 
land use in the area. Whilst the immediacy of these 
reasons must be acknowledged, the element of 
convenience which attaches to them is hardly appropriate 
to the vast expenditure now forecast over the next ten 
years or so. Thus, a study was made of the way a land- 
Scape reclamation policy could be related to the landscape 
pattern of the region in which derelict land occurs. It was 
not considered that a study of land use and derelict land 
from a regional point of view was part of the brief, 
although such a study is very proper to the work of a 
planning authority. 


The study which was undertaken brought out the need 

for reclamation schemes to be so designed that they fit 
into the ecology of the regional landscape - in other words 
they should restore the continuity of the landscape, and 
once again should become an integral part of the surface 
drainage and the soil and vegetation patterns, instead of 
constituting a landscape in isolation. 


1.2 Regional landscape plans 


Among those policies reviewed under which the 
objective of landscape continuity might be achieved, the 
establishment of a landscape planning framework was 
considered to be the most appropriate. This conclusion 
was tested by a study made by members of the research 
team on landscape reclamation on the Continent which 
had been carried out under landscape planning policies; 
reference is made to this study later. As a result of our 
findings, and bearing in mind the mediocre results in the 
past of many schemes prepared in isolation, it is 
recommended that analyses of the physiology and ecology 
of the regional landscape in which dereliction occurs, 
should be made available to individual authorities and 
designers of projects in order that these projects may 
accord with the basic landscape pattern disclosed by the 
analyses. These analyses could be made on a regional 
basis through the appropriate Ministry, or on a county 
basis through the planning authorities. 


1.2.1 Planning framework 


The importance of the above recommendation is brought 
out by some definitions of landscape planning, of which 
three examples are given. 


(a) “The substitution of the term landscape-planning for 
land planning makes a deliberate widening of the 
conception of planning to include appearance as 


well as use, pleasure as well as fertility, and the 
whole complex organic fabric of life, as well as 
man’s immediate needs” (Crowe in I.U.C.N. 1967). 


(b) “Within the concept of these landscape plans (for 
the Dutch countryside), the different aspects of 
landscape planning are taken into account. This 
involves preservation of valuable landscape features 
as well as the creation of new elements and the 
integration of a consciously designed new land- 
scape in the process of a multi-purpose land 
reconstruction” (Benthem in I.U.C.N. 1967) 


(c) “The objective of landscape planning is to ensure 
that landscape changes continue to provide habitat 
conditions that will accommodate the various forms 
of life, either in the existing pattern or, if the 
habitat conditions are changed, in a new pattern. 
Its definition embraces the need to reconcile and 
incorporate competing land uses in the landscape” 
(Hackett in I1.U.C.N. 1967). 


1.2.2 Investigations 


Among several detailed investigations made in the study 
of the relationship of a landscape reclamation policy to 
the landscape pattern of the region, three examples are 
summarised as follows: 


(a) Jnternational resolutions Several international 
resolutions concerned with the environment 
supported the regional approach of landscape 
planning. The Green Charter of Mainau of 1961 
stated that the creation of a sound landscape, which 
could support residential and recreational area and 
could sustain agriculture and industry, was 
indispensable. The UNESCO resolution of 1962 saw 
landscapes and sites as important factors in the 
economic and social life of countries. The Council 
of Europe in 1964 passed a resolution on regional 
planning and the conservation of nature and land- 
scape. 

(b) Dutch landscape planning The fact that over 50% 
of the land of Holland is subject to planned land- 
scape development clearly indicated that enquiries 
should be made whether this had led to better 
results socially, economically and aesthetically than 
under other systems of development control else- 
where. Also, the fact that some parts of the area 
were lands newly-won from the sea was of 
particular interest to our research into newly-won 
landscape from derelict land. The answers to 
enquiries and the research team’s own observation 
of several areas in Holland confirmed the generally 
held view that the new and the modified landscapes 
based upon landscape plans have been successful. 


(c) West Germany The reclamation of industrial 


dereliction in the Cologne brown coalfield and in 
the Ruhr has been widely praised. An investigation 


was made by the research team of the particular 
techniques used (see Chapter 2). Also examined was 
the manner in which the proposals of the mining 
companies must be related to regional plans which, 
in turn, must be worked out in association with 
landscape plans. An important point is that these 
landscape plans are based upon the structure of 
the landscape and its ecology. In the results 
observed by the research team, the value of 
planning in this way was abundantly clear in the 
upgraded environment of new open spaces, forest 
areas, and the riparian landscape. 


1.3 The situation in Britain 


It will have been noted that considerable emphasis is 
placed upon the need for landscape reclamation 

taking place in accordance with regional plans which 
have a strong landscape planning component. It is not 
surprising, therefore, that the situation in Britain, 

where no provision comparable with the Dutch and 

West German examples is made, should be the subject for 
comment and recommendations. 


The latest figures available for the extent of dereliction 
(which does not include areas which many people would 
consider derelict) are given in the following table: 


Derelict land - England and Wales in hectares (acres) 


Derelict land Reclaimed land Reclamation 


planned 
1964 39,636 (99,091) 992 (2,481) 
1965 43,006 (107,515) 957 (2,393) 1,579 (3,947) 
1966 44,435 (111,088) 737 (1,842) 2,117 (5,293) 
1967 44,971(112,428) 747 (1,867) 2,010 (5,026) 
1968 45,184 (112,961) 1,078 (2,695) 2,332 (5,829) 


No official figures are available for Scotland, but one 
estimate rates the figure at about 6,800 ha (17,000 acres) 
of derelict land. 


A significant point is that to date, completed reclamation 
projects are not bringing down the total area of dereliction, 
because new dereliction is outpacing reclamation. In view 
of the Government’s declared policy to clear dereliction 
within ten years, the programme at all levels from the 
National Government, through local Government, to the 
design team, and the contractors (who translate policy into 
projects) must be speeded up. As a first step, it is 
recommended that a study should be made, on the one 
hand, of the number of design and supervising staff, and 
supporting experts and, on the other hand, of the number 
of Ministry (now Department of the Environment) officials 
for approval and advisory purposes, who would be needed 
to make a substantial annual reduction to the total area of 
dereliction. Also, that ways and means of speeding up land 
acquisition should be studied, as this was found to 
constitute a particular difficulty in holding up projects. The 
experience gained from the several sites used for the 
research showed no lack of interest from contractors 
willing to undertake projects. 


The recent setting up by the Ministry of a derelict land 
reclamation group to provide central advice and information 
and to take a continuous overall view of the dereliction 
problem is welcome. But it is stressed most strongly that the 
gap will not be filled without establishing a sufficient 


number of designers, quantity surveyors, experts in Soil 
Science and other disciplines at the local level, backed by 
Ministry officials who recommend approval of suitable 
schemes. 


1.4 Industrial waste and dereliction 


During the course of the research a great deal of evidence 
was collected and studied on the restoration of landscape 
health and fertility under landscape planning policies in 
areas of dereliction in other countries. In addition to the 
particular matter of reclaiming derelict sites, the 
possibility of controlling and perhaps preventing, future 
dereliction was examined. It was concluded that if the 
planning for, and the control of, industry took place within 
landscape planning considerations grafted on to the 
existing statutory planning provisions, the problem of 
derelict land would be diminished for future generations. 


A particular problem is that if the planning conditions 

on the formation of new waste heaps or coal mines are too 
stringent, this may lead to the closure of a coal mine which 
is operating close to the margin of profit and loss. 
Nevertheless, when it is realised that the cost of subsequent 
reclamation of a waste heap involving earthmoving was in 
1970 in excess of £3,000 per hectare (£1,250 per acre), it 
is not unrealistic to take steps in the first place against the 
need for a subsequent expensive reclamation scheme. One 
possibility is to ensure that, when tipping, the less toxic 
materials are placed on the surface; such a scheme may then 
require a less intensive use of ameliorants in after 
management. 


A landscape plan for the dereliction problems of a region 
could include proposals for the economic use of materials. 
Forexample, colliery waste heaps could be assessed for: 


(a) Those minerals which, if removed, would reduce the 
fire risk. 


(b) The coal content which, if over 15%, can often be 
economically salvaged. 


(c) The red shale content which is often a suitable source 
of foundation material for nearby road projects (some 
black shale is also accepted for this purpose). 


(d) Other materials, like brick rubble, slurry and coke, 
may have a salvage value if present in sufficient 
quantity and adequate quality. 


However, in order for the above proposals to be effective, it 
would be necessary to bring them under planning control. 


1.5 Definitions 


In the course of the research work, the difficulty arising 
from the definition of derelict land which is acceptable for 
grant purposes became clear. The official definition used by 
the Ministry for grant award is “land which is so damaged 
by industrial or other development that it is incapable of 
beneficial use without treatment”. It has been widely 
suggested that this definition should be studied afresh, 
clarified and broadened because it does not appear to 

cover all the categories mentioned in the Acts, that is 
derelict, neglected and unsightly land. As an example of the 
difficulty, it can be argued that some sites, conforming with 
the definition, would make excellent adventure playgrounds 
with very little cost, and thus would be capable of fulfilling 
a “beneficial use”; such a site would not rank as derelict 
and no grant would be awarded for its visual improvement. 


Another example is the vast area of derelict landscape 
lying in small lots which once had some agricultural or 
other use, doubtless too small or badly located to attract 
the normal developer. (Collins and Bush, 1969) 


The wisdom of the Ministry decision allowing land 
adjoining derelict land to be incorporated into a reclamation 
scheme in order to achieve a better functional and visual 
solution was fully supported by the preliminary design 
studies made for the Roddymoor experimental site. 
Without this admissible extension of the narrow inter- 
pretation of derelict land, the overall result on many sites 
could be diminished. A convincing case however must be 
made for the inclusion of adjoining land. 


A difficulty that became evident in discussion with 
Ministry officials was the degree to which the reclamation 
works can be taken and how far they can provide for the 
use of the land after reclamation. The present basis for 
decisions is contained in the explanatory memorandum 
on grants (MOHLG 1967) as follows: 


(a) expenditure incurred in the acquisition of approved 
land, including legal and professional expenses 
properly payable in connection with the acquisition 
of the land, and the expenses of investigation or 


survey fees to determine its suitability for reclamation, 


and, 


(b) expenditure, including professional fees and 
administration expenses properly chargeable to loan, 
incurred in carrying out approved works of 
reclamation. The works which will be approved will 
depend on the scheme. Provided that the Minister is 
satisfied that they are required primarily for the 
purpose of reclamation the following works under- 
taken on approved land will be eligible: 

(i) demolition and removal of unwanted buildings and 
works; 

(ii) earth moving for the purpose of levelling, filling, 
spreading and grading; 

(iii) land drainage essential to the works of reclamation; 

(iv) the importing and spreading of top soil and grassing 
for amenity schemes; 

(v) tree or shrub planting where required for the 
purpose of soil conservation, or consolidation, or 
where planting is satisfactory and more economical 
than other methods of treatment. 


The reference to tree or shrub planting ((b) (v) above) 
supports experience on the first two experimental sites 
set up for research purposes - Northbourne Park and 
Egerton Gardens. On both these sites, extensive shrub 
planting on steep banks was recommended as providing 
the best solution under the conditions prevailing, but 
some months of discussion, supported by visual evidence, 
took place before this solution was accepted for grant 
purposes. The strict interpretation of works eligible for 
grant under (b) (v) above has been widened to include tree 
planting where there is a lack of trees in the locality or 
where it would upgrade a poor environment. 


Although many local authorities would welcome the 
extension of the works eligible for grant to include 
additional works related to a use of the land, the first task 

is to restore the health and fertility of the landscape over 
large areas of derelict land, instead of spending the same 
amount of money on a lesser number of projects taken to 

a state suitable for uses like public parks and fully-developed 


agricultural land. Some preliminary uses, like silage 
cropping and grazing are, of course, part of the works for 
restoring the health and fertility of the landscape. 


1.6 Regional considerations 


The eight derelict sites in the North East made available 
for research (two further sites were studied in some detail) 
were necessarily selected as far as possible to provide the 
greatest diversity of research problems. Also, wherever 
possible, the part that a reclaimed site could play in the 
region or locality was considered. In the early days of the 
research work, representatives of regional sport and 
recreational interests, of mineral salvage concerns, and of 
conservation bodies attended meetings of the Steering 
Committee and each scheme was commented upon in the 
light of these wider interests. It will be noted in Chapter 10 
that a survey of over 200 sites was made in the North East to 
discern any significant pattern of naturally occuring 
vegetation on derelict sites. At the Big Waters site, in 
particular, the wildlife, boating and fishing interests were 
studied to find ways of providing for them on the same 
area as a result of strong demand from all three. Finally, 
for each of the sites, the proposals and experiments took 
account of the physiology and ecology of the 

surrounding landscape. 


1.7 Conclusions 


In the light of the brief for the research concentrating on 
the design and technical problems of landscape reclamation, 
the conclusions on the investigations made into the wider 
aspects must necessarily be few and general in character. 
Nevertheless, the solution of the broader planning decisions 
may well be the solution of the nation’s dereliction 
problems: 


(a) There is a need for reclamation schemes to relate 
specifically to the landscape of the region and 
locality, and this can best be achieved through 
incorporating landscape planning into statutory 
planning. 


(b) Despite international resolutions and the Continental 
examples, there is little real evidence of landscape 
planning in Britain - if there was, the dereliction 
problem could be tackled more satisfactorily. 


(c) The weak link in the nation’s reclamation programme 
is the failure to set up an adequate establishment of 
design teams to initiate and carry through the 
technical and legal aspects of landscape reclamation 
schemes. The need for expanding education 
facilities must be pointed out in this respect. 


(d) The definition of derelict land requires amendment 
and extension to damaged and disfigured landscape in 
all parts of the country, with emphasis on the 
restoration of health and fertility to the landscape 
rather than on immediate uses. 


References 


Barnard, E. (1965) Developing the rural landscape to 
balance the increasing urbanisation of countries. 
‘A landscape plan for recreation areas’. JUCN 
Landscape Planning Committee Symposium. 
Newcastle upon Tyne. 


Benthem, RJ. (1961) Landscape planning in rural 
development. The Way d4head. Vol. X number 1. 


Civic Trust (1964) Derelict Land; a study of industrial 
dereliction and how it may be redeemed. 
London. 


Collins, W.G. and Bush, P.W. (1969) The definition and 
classification of derelict land. Journ. Town 
Planning Institute. Vol. 55, No. 3 


Council of Europe (1964) European Conference of 
Local Authorities, Resolution on Regional 
Planning and the Conservation of Nature and 
Landscape. 


The Countryside in 1970 Study Group 12. Reclamation 
and Clearance of Derelict Land. Royal Society of 
Arts, The Nature Conservancy, The Council of 
Nature. Garden City Press. 


Downing, M.F. (1967) Reclamation of derelict landscape. 
Planning Outlook, new series Vol. 3. pp. 38-52. 


Downing, M.F. and Vyle, C.J. (1966) Landscape 
Reclamation Research Project. University of 
Newcastle upon Tyne. Journ. Inst. Land. Arch. 
London. 


Durham County Council (1966) Formal application for 
approval of grant. Industrial Development Act 1960, 
Section 20, Rehabilitation of sites in Development 
Areas. 


Durham County Council (1966) Explanatory note. 


Green Charter of Mainau.(1961) Griine Charta von der 
Mainau. 


Hackett, B. (1964) The Landscape content of the plan. 
Planning Outlook. Vol. V1. No. 2. pp. 5-21. 


Hackett, B. (1967) Landscape analysis of urban fringe 
areas. Landscape Architecture, USA. 


10 


Institute of Landscape Architects (1967) Techniques of 
Landscape Architecture. Chapter 3. Site Survey 
and Appreciation, Heinemann Ltd. 


International Union for Conservation of Nature and 
Natural Resources. (IUCN) (1967) Part IL. Section 1. 
The significance of planned landscape development 
in thechanging conditions of human existence. 
Section 2. Methodology and experience in landscape 
planning to meet the need of environmental changes. 
IUCN Pubs. new series No. 8. 


Joint Consultative as to Regional Planning, technical 
sub-committee of planning officers. Derelict land in 
the North-East. 


Laurie, I.C. (1965) Tyne Landscape. Consultant’s Report. 


Ministry of Housing and Local Government (1967) 
Explanatory memorandum on grants for the 
reclamation of derelict, neglected or unsghtly land 
under the Industrial Development Act 1966 and 
the Local Government Act 1966. 


Oxenham, J.F. (1967) Land Reclamation. Town Planning 
Institute Journal. Vol. 53, No. 8. pp. 344-347. 


Riddell and Downing (Eds) (1967) Papers on landscape 
planning, survey and appreciation, Institute of 
Landscape Architects Conference. Planning Outlook 
New Series. Vol. IV. 


UNESCO (1962) Recommendations concerning the 
safeguarding of the beauty and character of 
Landscapes and sites. 


Vyle, C.J. (1968) Landscape planning approach to land 
reclamation. J. Inst. Parks Admin. Vol. 33 No. | 
pp. 22-24 and Vol. 33 No. 2 pp. 37-42. 


Vyle, C.J. and Degenhardt, C.C. (Eds) (1967) The 
evolution of the Natural Landscape in the Corbridge 
Area of Northumberland. Planning Outlook. Vol. 3 
pp. 53-70 


Chapter 2 Previous techniques of 


reclamation 


based on the work of C.J.Vyle 


2.1 The study by Knabe of reclamation in various 
countries 


An important review of completed reclamation projects in 
various countries was made by Knabe for the period 1950 
to 1964, and covered the following matters: 


2.1.1 Types of waste land 


These can result from: 

(a) Change by earthmoving equipment. 

(b) Cover by waste materials. 

(c) Disturbance in relation to ground water and drainage. 
(d) Effects of air pollution. 

(e) Dereliction as a result of an industrial neighbourhood. 


2.1.2 Reasons for the absence of vegetation or the 
development of an adequate cover 


Fresh disturbance by machines, lack of soil, stony soils, 

rate of weathering, absence of humus, value of other 
organic materials, nutrient deficiency, extreme soil reaction, 
toxic ingredients, adverse physical properties of waste, 
rising ground water table, erosion and air pollution. 


2.1.3 Aims of reclamation 


(a) Return to economic use by agriculture and forestry. 
(b) Development of facilities for outdoor recreation. 
(c) Protection against wind and water erosion. 

(d) Increased amenity of the area. 

(e) Housing developments. 

(f) Planning of new industry. 

(g) Road building etc. 


2.1.4 Lines of approach 


(a) After the waste land has been left by industry, some 
authorities accepted the site conditions as they were 
and planted the area with pioneer plants of low 
requirements. 

(b) Some improved poor sites by reshaping the contours 
and by adding soil amending substances before or 
after planting. 

(c) Others planned the future land use before disposing 
of the waste, and followed this by restoring fertility 
to the site. 


2.1.5 Examples of reclamation 


The principle examples cited by Knabe were: afforestation 
in the coal regions of USA; the Danish ‘Desert Arboretum’ 
on lignite spoil banks; planting trials on tin and gold mine 
waste and on pulverised fuel ash; topsoil management; 
reclamation schemes in Lancashire, United Kingdom; land 
reclamation in Germany; amelioration of toxic 
carbonaceous shale; advanced planning of land use in the 
brown coal area of Cologne; and others, 


2.2 Grass establishment on colliery shale 
in Lancashire 


Three members of the University research team - Doubleday, 
Downing and Vyle - undertook a study tour in 1966 of 
some representative reclamation schemes in Lancashire. 
The Project is indebted to the Lancashire County Planning 
Department for putting at its disposal their early 
experience, and enabling others to benefit from the 
examples of success and failure that were met in the course 
of the work. The sites visited were Bickershaw Reservoir, 
Whalley’s Basin, Pennington Green, Bryn Hall and 
Bamfurlong and Marsh Houses, and the report (Downing 
1966) is summarised below with respect to grading and 
grassing, and gives conclusions on alternative treatments 


2.2.1 Bickershaw Reservoir Site, Abram 


A detailed description of this site and the work undertaken 
is given as an example of the study made by the team. This 
is the oldest reclamation site undertaken by Lancashire 
County Council incorporating grading of the surface to 
achieve a useable piece of land (Fig. 2.1), and contrasts 
with earlier schemes which were concerned with planting 
unaltered pit heaps (Fig. 2.2). It has also been carefully 
documented by Coates (1960). The site is 4.05 ha (10 acres) 
and comprised low heaps, mostly black shale with some 
clinker and ash. The shale was derived from a colliery 
which closed in the mid 1920's. The initial reclamation was 
carried out in 1954. 


(a) Earthmoving. A D6 tractor with dozer blade and a 
4.6m3 (6 yd3) scraper attached was used for the main 
work, together with a D4 tractor with dozer blade 
for final grading. Depth of fill of colliery shale was 
from 0.3m-6.1m (1ft-20ft). For the ground and 


Fig 2.1 An early example of reclamation with grading to 
produce a useable piece of land at the Bickershaw Reservoir 
site in Lancashire (Courtesy of Lancashire County Planning 
Department). 


11 


surface preparation a 1.5m (Sft) rotavator set to work (c) Seeding. The optimum seeding rate appeared to be in 
at a depth of 100mm (4in) was found to be the best the region of 73kg/ha (65lb per acre), but this varied 
»nt for major cultivation. One chain harrowing according to the fertility of the spoil. The grasses 
was carried out before seeding and two after, and a and clovers giving the best results (and which were 
lat roll was also used agriculturally useful) were in order of preference: 
(b) Grass seeding. The seed was hand broadcast at 
SOkg/ha (45lb per acre) and contained Grasses Clover 
12% S.22 Italian Ryegrass S.143 Cocksfoot S.151 Early Red Clover 
14% S.23 Perennial Ryegrass S.53 Meadow Fescue S.100 White Clover 
50% S.143 Cocksfoot S.59 Creeping Red Fescue 
8% S.48 Timothy §.23 Perennial Rye Grass 
10% S.59 Creeping Red Fescue S.48 Timothy 
GS-15 Early sso Serdeie The best cover had been obtained by hand sowing or 
It was suggested by Coates ( 1960) that the lowest rate fiddle’, making two passes, the second at right 
on shale should be 45kg/ha (40lb per acre), that angles to the first. If the area was large, then a seed 
S6kgha (50lb per acre) would give better cover, and barrow would have to be used; sowing was again made 
the optimum cover on bare shale ofa level nature evinced above, 
would be around 72 kg/ha (65lb per acre). 
(d) Manuring. The application of an organic fertiliser 
. prior to cultivation should be looked upon as a 
2.2.2 Vegetation on colliery shale prime requirement. Any non toxic organic matter 
As a result of their experience on a number of sites, the would be useful, and the fact that it might be low 
Lancashire County Planning Department suggested various in available plant foods was very much a secondary 
principles and methods for establishing vegetation on consideration. The important factor was to choose 
colliery shale (Coates 1960). These are summarised: a substance which, by physically improving the 
(a) Chemical testing. Prior to site work, the site should eat would make it more'suitable for the promoniag 
be tested for toxic elements using indicator plants of growth. 
and laboratory tests. Chemical analysis should also The main attributes of organic matter in the spoil 
be undertaken to ascertain whether the amount of were considered to be: 
sulphate would in due course reach toxic levels. (i) Better control of air and water. 
(b) Cultivations. The best implements were found to be: (i) PS NON physics seucnne oes a 
(i)  Rotovator, 2-3 passes at7Smm-100mm (3in-tin) creation of adhesion between particles resulting 
setting. 5 a the binding together of the spoil. 
(ii) Subsoiler. Very useful to aerate the shale and (iii) boagneeetat of soil bacteria. 
break up hard impervious layers formed (iv) Plant foods. 
naturally or through the use of heavy earth The rate of application should be as high as 
moving equipment. 450mm (18in) was found economically feasible and would depend on the 
to be a satisfactory depth. substance chosen, for instance sewage sludge should 
(iii) Chain Harrows. Effectively create a top tilth be applied at a heavier rate than farm-yard manure as 
to receive theseed and the covering of the the latterhad a more pronounced physical effect. 
seed. No application should be at a rate lower than 
25 tonnes/ha (10 tons per acre), 50 tonnes/ha 
(20 tons per acre) being a more suitable dressing. 
It should be applied to the land before cultivations 
are begun. 
(e) Fertilisers. During the period up to the publication 
of the results of the Lancashire County Planning 
Department’s experience, it was considered that most 
plants grown on shale suffered from potash deficiency 
to some extent. A compound fertiliser was therefore 
used which had a fairly high potash content. A 
dressing of nitrochalk was made at the same time and 
the following rates were suggested: 
Compound (high potash) 376 kg/ha (3 cwt/acre) 
i.e. 10:10:18 units/cwt 
Nitrochalk 188 kg/ha (1% cwt/acre) 
ie. 21%N. 
These should be applied together immediately prior 
to seeding. 
:. (f) Lime. It was indicated that as colliery waste 


Fig 2.2 The Woodshaw Pit spoil heap in Lancashire is an 
early example of a reclamation technique involving planting 
on unaltered pit heaps (Courtesy of Lancashire County 
Planning Department). 


weathered it became gradually acidic, and toxic 
reactions had been obtained on the surface of heaps 
which had been exposed to the elements for over 
thirty years. Newly dug spoils might be neutral, but 


12 


this condition did not last long. When the pH reaction 


is not lower than 4.5, 7.5 tonnes/ha (3 tons/acre) of 


ground limestone will usually remedy the acidity 
The lime should be applied prior to the organic 
matter. 


2.2.3 Development of techniques in Lancashire 
since 1960 


Since 1960 a standard form of specification has been 
evolved in Lancashire for the ground and surface 
preparation and seeding. Also, the incorporation of a 
twelve month maintenance fertiliser and cutting period 
helps to establish the sward 


At Bryn Hall, for example, which was reclaimed over the 
period 1961-5, the following specification was used 


(a) Ground and surface preparation - This is described 

in the Bill of Quantities thus 

(i) Lime spreading (see under lime). 

(ii) Remove all brick stones, wood and metal and 
other materials likely to obstruct cultivations 

(iii) Cultivate (Heavy) i.e. 1SOmm (6in) 

(iv) Disc (Heavy). 

(v) Disc (Light). 

(vi) Distribute fertiliser (Spinner Broadcaster) 

(vii) Cambridge roll. 

(viii) Broadcast grass seed at 39.5 kg/ha (35lb per 
acre). 

(ix) Harrow roll. 


(b) 1/2 month maintenance period 
(x) Cut grass with forage harvester (twice). 
(xi) Broadcast fertiliser. 


~~ 


(c) Lime and fert r treatmer D> 
id | (4 ) 
tone 4 CaO 
(d) Fertiliser. Seedbed 628 kg/ha ( wt/acre) 
13:13:20 unit wit tertiliser. Maintenar 
376 kg/ha (3 cwt/acre) of a 13:1 0 unit 
fertiliser 
The units given in the text are percentage 
percentage P50 and K>0 
(e¢) Grass seed. Supply and deliver the following mixtur 
kg/ha = (Ib/acre) 
10 6 NZ Certified Mother Perennia 
Ryegra 
7.0 6 S23 Perennial Ryegra 
4.6 4 $43 Cockstoot 
4.6 4 S48 Timothy 
23 2 S50 Timothy 
4.6 4 S215 Meadow Fescue 
7.0 6 S53 Meadow Fescue 
0.6 2 S59 Red Fescue 
0.6 72 Alsike Clover 
0.6 ; Altaswede Late flowering red 
clover 
Hee, S184 Wild White Clover 
0.6 % $100 White Clover 
40.7 35 


2.2.4 The situation in 1966 on the Lancashire sites 


Following reclamation, site management is of the 

greatest importance. One of the sites visited in 1966, Marsh 
Houses, which showed excellent sward development, 
according to reports from Lancashire County 


Fig 2.3 Bryn Hall in Lancashire. A reclaimed site returned to agriculture with provision for shelter belts 


Council has since failed to live up to expectations because 
less effective management has been carried out. Bryn Hall, 
which showed less promise in sward development in 

1966, has since become superior to Marsh Houses because 
of more effective management. At Pennington Green, 
failure to provide field drainage as part of the farm 
management has meant waterlogging and invasion by 
rushes; steeper gradients could possibly have overcome this 
problem. 


At Bickershaw, since 1964, the land has received 25 
tonnes/ha (10 tons/acre) of farm-yard manure every other 
year and up to 502 kg/ha (4cwt/acre) of a high phosphate 
(12:18:12 units/cwt) fertiliser every year. Hay yield is 
reported to be approximately 4 tonnes/ha (1.6 tons/acre) 
with good aftermath grazing. 


(a) Nutrient status of shale spoil. The members of the 
Project who visited the Lancashire sites undertook 
a sample investigation of the nutrient status of the 
shale spoil and their observations were as follows 
(the Project is especially indebted to the Lancashire 
County Planning Department for their willingness 
to allow studies to be made on the various methods 
used): 


(i) pH and lime requirement. The surface 
materials on these sites presented a very wide range 
of pH values (2.2 - 7.9) whereas most agricultural 
crops can grow well only over a smaller range. For 
example, at Bryn Hall there was a very small area 
which had been covered with a boulder clay subsoil. 
Usually this material is slightly calcareous and 
therefore would not require the 10 tonnes/ha 

(4 tons/acre) of limestone it received. The pH of a 
sample taken from this area was 7.9. There was also 
on the same site a small area where black shale was 
exposed at the surface. A sample taken from this 
area was found to have a pH of 2.2 and a lime 
requirement of 30 tonnes/ha (12 tons/acre). 
Probably this sample missed the dressing of limestone, 
but even if it had been limed, the application was 
only a third of what it should have received. It is 
understood that a spillage of diesel oil occurred 
during the contract on this area; this would interfere 
with the growth of vegetation under normal soil 
conditions. 


(ii) Potassium. Analysis indicated that generally 
potassium was available to plants in quantities such 
that in future only light applications of potash 
fertilisers would be required. 


(iii) Phosphate. Though no analysis was successful at 
that time in determining the phosphate status of 

the soils, indications in the field suggested that 

there was frequently a severe deficiency of this 
nutrient. It was considered likely, and it has since 
been confirmed, that this was caused by the soil 

fixing the phosphate so that little of the applied 
fertiliser was available to plant roots. More frequent 
and higher applications of phosphate would therefore 
have been required. 


(b) Fertilisers. The fertiliser used on these sites 
contained 13:13:20 units/cwt, but it did not seem 
to be appropriate to shale soils. A fertiliser high in 
nitrogen and phosphate and lower in potash would 
have been better suited to the requirements of these 
soils. 


14 


(c) Profile developments. Four profiles were obtained of 
the Lancashire soils. Bickershaw and Whalley’s Basin 
showed soils from the early reclamations and Bryn 
Hall and Marsh Houses from more recent sites 
(Fig. 2.4). 


The profile at Bickershaw showed a deep, well 
structured soil, with root penetration down to at least 
200mm (8in). Organic matter was well incorporated, 
the abundance of earth-worms and small animals 
making a real contribution to this. The humus form 
was of a mull type and the whole profile reflected 

the high quality of reclamation and after-management. 


The profile from Whalley’s Basin, though of similar 
age, contrasted well with that of Bickershaw, the 
profile showing an impoverished and wet soil. Organic 
matter had accumulated on the surface, and the roots 
were confined to the upper 50mm (2in) of the soil. 
No sign of soil fauna activity was found in the 
sample. Generally the profile showed poor 
reclamation, and the vegetation a deficiency of 
phosphate. Installation of an efficient drainage 
system and careful management of the soil would be 
required to bring this soil up to the standard of 
Bickershaw. 


Over part of the Bryn Hall site, the surface material 
was boulder clay subsoil. The profile showed a 
structureless surface horizon with sparse vegetation 
and small restricted root systems. To improve this 
area, attention should have been given to the 
drainage of the soil and to improving plant growth. 
More vigorous root systems would themselves help 
to improve structure, and thus increase drainage 
through the profile. High levels of nitrogen in a 
balanced fertiliser programme would have helped, 
but other factors such as the conditions of grazing 
by farm animals would also be important. Profile 
development can be a self accelerating process if 
started correctly and followed with careful after- 
management. 


At Marsh Houses a well drained profile of a red 
shale soil was exposed. Vegetation was dense and 
hadroot systems which penetrated deep into the 
shale. Reclamation here and surface treatment of the 
soil had produced a material on which an excellent 
sward had developed. This profile showed that no 
additional cover of imported soil had been spread 
and gave an interesting comparison with Bryn Hall. 
It is also interesting to compare it with the 

profile from Whalley’s Basin. Although strict 
comparisons were not entirely valid, the soil from 
Marsh Houses indicated that drainage was most 
important and also that red shale might be a more 
suitable material for plant growth than black shale. 
Investigations have been continued to give more 
information on this point. 


2.2.5 Soil problems encountered on the Study 
Tour of the Lancashire sites 


It is necessary to point out that at the time the early work 
was done in Lancashire, various techniques of assessment 
now available had not been evolved (the techniques arising 
out of our work are referred to in Chapter 8). The most 
obvious conclusion to be drawn from the Lancashire sites 


Whalleys Basin 
1956 


Bickershaw 
1954 


is that the material forming these sites had a high potential 
for crop growth. The three difficulties most frequently 
encountered were waterlogging, nutrient starvation, and 
acidity and its associated toxicities. 


(a) 


(b) 


Waterlogging. This was generally caused by 
insufficient surface run off, together with low 
permeability of the ‘soil’. Drastic compaction 
occurred as a result of the movement of heavy 
machinery over the site. This can be alleviated by 
thorough subsoiling before surface cultivations start. 
Slopes of between | in 20 and | in 30 seemed to be 
well suited to this material for accommodating run 
off without serious erosion. 


Nutrient starvation. This was common on reclaimed 
sites where the reclaimed shales cannot be expected 
to be initially as fertile as a soil. Regular attention 


needs to be paid to the fertility status of shale soils, as 


they require high levels of nitrogen and phosphate, 


but may need only small quantities of potash. Should 


a deficiency develop in any of these, it is likely that 
the sward will immediately deteriorate and severe 
erosion will occur on all but the gentlest slopes. 


Acidity and associated toxicities. Falling pH was also 
common on these sites, and justifies a lime 


Marsh Houses 
1965 


Bryn Hall 
1965 


Fig 2.4 Soil profiles from four reclaimed sites in Lancashire. 


requirement test each season in the initial stages of 
reclamation. Red shale, in its immediate period 
after reclamation, seems frequently to be superior 
to black shale in supporting plant growth. 


Vigorously growing swards seemed to have the greatest 
beneficial effect on the soil which, at Bickershaw, showed 
rapid development when fertility was maintained. On this 
site, earthworms were abundant twelve years after the 
initial reclamation. It was also evident from our 
investigations of the Lancashire sites that ploughing the 
sward should be avoided until a stable structure has 
developed in the soil. No top soil or subsoil applications 
seemed to be required although large dressings of a bulky 
organic material are desirable. 


The seed mixture used, and its seeding rate, seemed adequate 
on the Lancashire sites, though one may question the 
dependence on clover for nitrogen. In the initial stages, 
nitrogen supplied artificially may be better. 


It should be stressed that the condition of sites transferred 
to other owners following reclamation is entirely 

dependent on the efficiency of the subsequent management, 
and this is reflected in the condition of a site at a 

particular time. Examples have been cited under Table 2.1 


15 


Table 2.1 Summary of Soil Findings encountered on Study Tour 


Sites 


Whalley’s 
Basin 


Bryn Hall 


Marsh 
Houses 


Bickershaw 


Pennington 
Green 


Water- Compac- Slope 

logging tion gradient 

Yes Not Shallow, 

ripped associa- 

tion with 
playing 
field use 

Small Near shale 

localised road 

areas 

None 1:20 - 
1:30 

None 

Yes Yes Slope 
shallow 
at 1:50 


Nutrient 
starvation 


N+P 


N.P.K. 
Localised 
area on 
black shale 


N 
Small 
area of 
clay 
over 
black 


None seen 


None seen 


Vegetation 


Root mat 
being 
formed. 
Impoverished 
soil. No 
faunal 
activity 


Bare 


Structure- 
less 

surface 
horizon 
with sparse 
vegetation 
and small 
restricted 
root system 


Good 
vigorous 
deep rooting 
sward 


Excellent 
vigorous 
sward. 
Deep well 
structured 
soil. Abun- 
dance of 
earthworms 
and animals. 
Mull humus 
form 


Invasion 
by rushes 


Management Acidity & Management 


deficiency 
toxicities 


Land 
drainage 
not insta- 
lled. Soil 
fertility 
not 
main- 
tained 


pH 6.4 


Lime 
requirement 
test. Extra 
fertility 
required 


pH 2.2 
possibly 


by contr- 
actor’s 


refuelling 


point 
Lime not pH 7.9 
required, 
High Nin 
a balanced 
fertiliser 
programme 


Lime pH 4.8 
requirement. 

Quality of 

initial sward 

has dropped 

due to less 

effective 


management 


Nil pH 6.4 


Land 
drainage 
not 
installed. 
Soil fert- 
ility not 
maintained. 
Poaching 
by cattle 


associated 


aggravated 


Land 


improvement scape 


factor 


Careful 
grazing by 
animals has 
greatly 
improved 
the quality 
of the 
sward. 
Balanced 
fert. prog- 
ramme has 
also helped 


High 

quality of 
management 
has given 
rise to 
excellent 
sward 


or 
land 
use 


Housing/ 
Recrea- 
tional 
open 
space 


Agricul- 
ture/ 
Shelter 
Belts 


Agricul- 
ture 


Agricul- 
ture 


Agricul- 


ture 


16 


Table 2.2 Financial implications. General breakdown of the five sites visited (Costs/unit area) 


Site Area Acquisition Earthworks Cultivations Total 

ha acres ha acre ha acre ha acre ha acre 
Whalley’s Basin 13 32 £295 £118 £859.5 £343 £1325 £53 £1285 £514 
Bryn Hall 17 180 £485 £194 £96 £38 
Pennington Green 14 34.25 £372.5 £149 £92.55 £37 
Bickershaw 4 10 £25 £10 £100 £40 £65 £26 £190 £96 
Marsh Houses 18 45 £83.25 £33.3 £435 £174 £825 £33 £600 £2403 


2.3 Afforestation in Germany 


A second study tour was undertaken by members of the 
research team (Doubleday and Vyle) to the Brown Coal 
and Ruhr areas of Germany in 1966. The species which 
have grown successfully are listed below, and the use of 
soil additives to help plant growth in areas of high 
pollution described. 


2.3.1 Brown Coal area 


K nabe (1964) described the species used in detail, and 
indicated that the best soil improving pioneer plants for 
afforestation were Alnus glutinosa and A. incana, 
Robinia pseudoacacia and perennial lupins. Hybrid poplars 
brought the highest yields on some but not all sites. 
Populus X euramericana and hybrids between European 
and American species e.g. P. nigra X P. angulata orX 

P. deltoides, were the main species used. Interest was then 
being shown in balsam poplars (P. tacamahaca) and the 
different hybrids between P. alba, P. tremula, and 

P. tremuloides, as well as new clones of tree willows. 


2.3.2 Techniques of afforestation in the Ruhr 
District 


The planting of conifers has been ruled out because of 
high levels of pollution. For example, the dust in the 
Ruhr contains fluorine, arsenic lead, zinc, beryllium 
seleniumphosphorus, ¥anadium and cadmium, and 
levels of 2-3 kg/100m2 each month are obtained. 
Barnard (1967) also reports that the sulphur dioxide 
content of the air is between 0.2 and 0.3 mg/cbm. The 
depth of dust accumulation in Essen has been measured 
at 10cm. These pollution levels may be compared with 
the legal limits for dust levels suggested by the Union of 
German Engineers (V.D.I.) at a maximum of 

+2 kg/100m2/month. 


It has been found that plant growth is related to an 
adequate depth of soil in areas of high pollution. 0.3m 
(1ft) of soil was given as an average figure for obtaining 
reasonable growth in such areas. The deciduous species 
of tree used were Acer pseudoplatanus, Alnus glutinosa, 
Populus spp., Quercus borealis maxima, Crataegus spp.., 
Robinia pseudoacacia and Tilia spp. Twelve year old trees 
were up to 7.5m (25ft) high; growth rates, however, 
50-80% slower than normal, have been recorded on the 
exposed slopes of heaps. A. incana and A. glutinosa 60% 
with Quercus borealis maxima, Robinia spp., Tilia spp., 
Fraxinus excelsior and Betula spp. was another successful 


mixture. Sorbus spp., Prunus spinosa and Rosa spp. were 
amongst the species used at the edges of plantations as 
part of the policy for landscape protection. Tree species 
planted elsewhere in the Ruhr district were Crataegus 
prunifolia, Populus tremula, PX berolinensis, Pyrus 
communis, Salix alba ‘Liempde’, and shrubs included 
Sarothamnus scoparius, Hippophae rhamnoides and 
Lycium sp. An important matter in the success of the tree 
planting was the employment of forestry officers by 
some mining companies who carried out species trials. 


The following conclusions were drawn from the policy and 
work of planting in landscape reclamation projects 
carried out under the Ruhr Regional Planning authority. 


The use of top soil in areas of high pollution should 
be considered. 

The use of jeciduous species of trees and shrubs to 
encourage the development of soil fertility should 
be a prime consideration. 

Berrying trees and shrubs should be used as part of 
the overall policy for protecting the landscape by 
helping to provide winter food for birds. 

Species trials of trees and shrubs should be undertaken 
to extend the range of suitable species, native species 
and their improved forms, with smaller quantities of 
exotics being included for investigation. 


2.4 Afforestation on colliery shale in Britain 


The history of planting on shale heaps goes back, at 
least, to the 18th century (e.g. Seaton Delaval in 
Northumberland), and a considerable body of experience 
is available from the work of some Planning Departments 
(e.g. Co. Durham). 


2.4.1 Observations by Wood and Thirgood (1955) 


The investigations carried out by Wood and Thirgood 
indicated that some colliery spoils are capable of producing 
quality class I growth e.g. Hawkwell Inclosure, Dean Forest, 
Gloucestershire. They also made some general observations 
relating to the species which could be grown on spoil and 
these are given below. Reporting on the conifers, it was 
noted that those preferring, or at best tolerating, near 
neutral conditions seem to have been most successful, 
Larix decidua andL. leptolepis, Pinus nigra vat calabrica 
and Pinus nigra had all done well. Pinus sylvestris, an 
adaptable species, had been widely used with some success, 
but it had com pared unfavourably with P. nigra var 


calabrica and P. nigra whenoccurring on the same heap. 
Alnvs glutinosa, Acer pseudoplatanus, Fraxinus excelsior 
and Populus spp. had all grown satisfactorily, Ulmus spp. 
and Tilia spp. had also performed well. Alnus incana had 
done well and it seemed likely that Alnus cordata would 
do well on spoil heaps. Many other species, including 
Salix spp, Robinia pseudoacacia, Sorbus aucuparia and 
Crataegus spp., had been recorded. 


Recommendations included the use of a high proportion 
of Alnus spp. on heaps weathering to clayey material, and 
on lighter bummed materials a higher proportion of Betula. 
Alnus and Betula were regarded as the safest pioneers, and 
with them Acer pseudoplatanus might be used on all sites. 
Populus spp. could be planted where there was adequate 
moisture; they should not be carried high on the slopes, 
and might best be confined to screens round the base. Care 
should be taken to choose canker resistant varieties; 
reliable clones of Populus x serotina, gelrica, robusta and 
eugenii were available. 


2.4.2 Planting in Lancashire - early conclusions 
by Casson and King 


Lancashire was among the pioneers of tree planting of 
colliery spoil, and an extensive investigation was 
commissioned by the Planning Department and carried 

out by Rees and Warwick of Birmingham University. This 
enabled some of the practical conclusions to be rationalised, 
and Casson and King (1960) reported on these 
investigations: 


(a) Colliery spoil heaps appear to be sufficiently fertile to 


maintain tree growth. 


(b) Sufficient moisture is usually available after establish- 
ment, although losses can be high in prolonged dry 
summers in the early stages. The choice of species 
must be governed by site factors, but atmospheric 
pollution does not rule out certain conifers. 

(c) Where pollution and exposure is severe, it is essential 
that a nurse species be extensively used, and where the 
site is bare, the main function of the nurse is to 
improve site conditions (i.e. shelter, stabilisation of 
the surface, shade and surface moisture, build-up of 
humus). Alder has been found to be the first choice 

in Lancashire. 


(d) Plants used should have a well developed fibrous 


root system and should be fairly small and sturdy. 


(e) Species. 

Alder is the first choice as it is the most successful, 
even where pollution and exposure are most 

severe or soil conditions detrimental. Common alder 
(Alnus glutinosa) is most satisfactory as a nurse 
because it develops a bushy habit which soon affords 
shelter and shade, although the height development 
is somewhat limited. Where alder is planted in 
mixture, grey alder (Alnus incana) should be utilised 
or used for beating up, because its foliage is not so 
heavy and it will continue to afford shade and 
shelter to a greater height. 


Birch (Betula) is difficult to establish on unburnt 
shale, but is more readily established and thrives well 
on burnt shale. 


18 


2.4.3 


White poplar (Populus alba) has been successful and 
thrives best when planted in loose material and is 
excellent for checking erosion. 


Qorsican pine (Pinus nigra var calabrica) has given 
excellent results where there has been sufficient 
shelter, although it has also done well in more 
exposed situations, especially where planted in 
mixture with a vigorous nurse. Recent work carried 
out by the Nature Conservancy at Merlewood shows 
that Corsican pine has exceptional qualities in 
building up soil nitrogen. 


Lodgepole Pine(Pinus contorta) has been used more 
recently than Corsican pine, and the indications are 
that it may be as good. 


Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) suffers considerably 
from dieback. Only after there is considerable shelter 
from the nurse species does it throw up a leading 
shoot, and it appears that it should not be used in the 
early stages of establishment. 


Beech (Fagus sylvatica), when planted at the same 
time as the nurse species, stands still for years, 
although odd trees have thrived on unexpected sites 
when there is some shelter. It may be that beech and 
sycamore, being rather demanding, suffer not only 
from exposure, but from soil comitions which are in 
the course of modification by the nurse. 


Japanese Larch (Larix leptolepis) has shown vigorous 
growth when planted in sheltered positions, but has 
shown a fairly high rate of failure during severe drought. 


Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) has failed on all sites and 
positions. Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) had only been 
planted on two sites, but results are encouraging. 


Common Osier (Salix viminalis) is the most useful 

species of willow, showing vigorous growth. Grey 

willow (Salix cinerea) on the other hand, has shown 

only slow growth. | 


Certain species, notably Spanish Chestnut (Castanea sativa) | 
as well as the ash, beech and sycamore, appeared to be 
establishing themselves satisfactorily in the first year, but 
showed severe die-back each year subsequently. From 
evidence obtained on some grass seeding experiments on 
shale elsewhere, it may be that shale breakdown has 

caused acidity and other chemical changes, creating soil 
conditions which may hold these species in check. 


Later conclusions on tree planting in 
Lancashire by Casson and King 


The following conclusions are based on the findings of 
Casson and King (1967), expanding upon and supplementing 
their findings of 1960. 


(a) 


(b) 


Size of plants. Plants must be selected. Small sturdy 


trees 0.3 - 0.45m (12in - 18in) high should be used 
to minimize the effect of wind damage. 


Planting method. The technique adopted in the early 


stages was to blanket the area under normal forestry 
practice using a nurse species of Alnus incana or / 


A. glutinosa, Betula and Salix caprea. 


(c) 


Application of fertiliser. Although composts and 


artificial manures to encourage growth had been 


experimented with at various times, no concrete 


(d) 


(e) 


(f) 


cacelusions had been reached. However, if fertiliser 
was used, it was recommended it should be mixed 
with a little soil and put in the planting hole, rather 
than spread on the heap with subsequent loss by 
wind and rain. The use of smaller quantities would 
save expense. 


Range of species planted. Many species had been 
planted, these included Alnus glutinosa and A. incana, 
Acer pseudoplatanus, Betula spp., Fagus sylvatica, 
Populus alba, Castanea sativa, Pinus mugo, Larix 
decidua and L. leptolepis, Fraxinus excelsior, Acer 
platanoides, Picea sitchensis, Ulmus spp., Quercus 
cerris, Pinus nigra vat. calabrica and P. contorta var. 
latifolia. 


Observations on blanket planting. It was noted that on 
some sites the growth of the nurse species had been 
insufficient to offer protection to the chosen final 
crop species, and this had resulted in the dying back 
of leading shoots and the death of many of the plants. 
On one particular spoil heap, the nurse species 
chosen had reached a stage after five growing seasons 
where it was offering a definite protection to the 
Pinus nigra var. calabrica, and if this protection had 
been there when the pine was planted, it is quite 
certain a lot of beating up could have been avoided. 
To overcome this on more difficult sites where it 
was known that protection would be a definite 
benefit, A/nus spp., Betula and Salix caprea were 
planted in groups or narrow belts. As and when 
these species became established and offered 
protection (which could be from 3-5 years), the 
remainder of the area was then planted up with the 
final crop species. The advantage of this is that a 
large area can be planted each year, and the cost of 
beating up and weeding is reduced considerably. 


Notes on the performance of individual species. 
Alnus glutinosa was most satisfactory as it develops 
a bushy habit which soon affords shelter and shade. 
It was observed that after the first few years of 
rapid growth a considerable amount of die back 
occurred and many shoots then sprang from the base. 
On investigation, holes were dug to ascertain what 
was actually happening to the root growth, and it 
was apparent that whilethe roots had gone down to 
a depth of 1.5 - 1.8m (Sft - 6ft) they were very few 
in number with very little fibrous roots and most 

of the root system was now dead or dying. However, 
while this was occurring a mat of fibrous roots was 
developing from the base of the tree to about 0.3m 
(ift) in depth and vigorous new shoots were now 
showing and forming a very effective windbreak. 
Within ten years Alder had reached a height of 

4.5 - 6m (15ft - 20ft). 


Betula species can be seen growing from natural 
regeneration on many spoil heaps. It is found to be 

a most difficult species to establish from transplants. 
It no doubt requires more careful siting and should 
only be used on shales that retain the moisture much 
longer and where, if possible, other vegetation has 
become established. 


Populus alba is a good species particularly where the 
site is dry and subject to erosion. It promotes root 
suckers which run many feet and form a retentive 
root mat. 


Acer pseudoplatanus, when planted at the same time 
as the Alnus glutinosa had shown only small growth 
each year. However, as soon as the Alnus provided 
some shelter, the Acer began to thrive, as did Fagus 
sylvatica. Pinus nigra var. calabrica and P. contorta 
had been most successful on all sites, even in areas 
of atmospheric pollution. Of the two, P. nigra var. 
calabrica showed the better growth, reaching a 
height of 3.6 - 4.5m (12ft - 15ft) within 10 years 
and again this species benefited from the shelter 
provided by the Alnus. At this stage the Alnus 
needed cutting back to relieve the Pinus. 


Larix leptolepis, while showing considerable growth 
in the first three to four years, did show a tendency 
to fail during severe drought and many also seemed 
to check and grow only 50 - 75mm (2in - 3in) for 

a couple of years. Once out of check, growth became 
normal again showing some 0.3 - 0.45mm (1 2in - 

1 8in) growth annually. 


It is interesting to note that Casson and King’s investigation 
of planted and naturally regenerated sites in the West 
Riding confirms the importance of considering rainfall and 
soil toxicity in the initial phases of planting and mainten- 
ence. However, while establishment may be more difficult 
there are indications that the prospects of producing 
effective timber crops may be better east of the Pennines. 


In 1966 the planting at Bryn Hall contained no coniferous 
species, the main species being Acer pseudoplatanus (36%), 
Alnus glutinosa (25%), and hybrid balsam poplars 

P. tacamahaca X trichocarpa, 32 hybrid poplars P X Serotina, 
and P X Robusta, Salix Caprea, the remainder being made 
up of Salix alba vitellina, S. purpurea, Quercus borealis 
maxima, and Acer platanoides. An example of a simpler 
planting plan is shown in Fig. 2.5. 


LANCASHIRE COUNTY COUNCIL g 

TREE PLANTING 1965/6 = 

SECTION 89 NATIONAL PARKS & ACCESS TO oy 
¥ 


rs 


THE COUNTRYSIDE ACT 1949 


BOARDMANS HEIGHTS 
WITHNELL U.D 


= 
z 
% 
A 
% 


CAider 


¢}| 600 
Sycame is 


scale 11250 
plan redrawn from 
no. DEV. 706 


Fig 2.5 An example of a simple planting plan for a spoil 
heap in Lancashire, using only deciduous species (Courtesy 
of the Lancashire County Planning Department). 


2.4.4 Planting in Durham 


Richardson et al describe the early success of planting in 
Durham. The post war planting has also been examined by 
them and is reported in Chapter 9. 


Up to 1954 a number of pit heaps and other waste heaps 
were acquired and afforested by various authorities and 
associations in the northern Region. It is thought that 
between 40 - 8F ha (100 - 200 acres) were dealt with, 
mainly in County Durham. From 1954 - 1960 Durham 
County Council itself undertook such planting and some 
43 ha (108 acres) of trees were planted on twenty four 
sites. Of these, four sites have since been graded out. Of 
the remainder which may be considered to be establishing 
successfully, there are 21 ha (53 acres) mainly on seven 
sites. Since 1960, with improved grants, the tendency 

has been to undertake grading and grassing, and of 6.8 ha 
(17 acres) planted only 1.6 ha (4 acres) remain. However, 
because trees are capable of making a valuable contri- 
bution to the landscape, the Botany Department undertook 
a survey as described in Chapter 9. The grading out of 
slopes to 1:8 allows for agricultural management and may 
allow for the incorporation of tree planting for shelter 
purposes. Where slopes must be steeper, afforestation 
techniques may be used but suitable access should be 
provided for possible liming and fertiliser maintenance. 


2.4.5 Financial implications 


Each site must be treated on its own merits, and costs may 
vary considerably, taking into consideration the cost of 
forest transplants as against larger stock. However, larger 
stock may soon over-top weeds and, provided competition 
is not too severe from the weeds, the cost of weeding may 
be much less than with forest transplants. It may be 
necessary to look after forest transplants for up to twenty 
years. Larger plant stock used in Lancashire such as 

Betula spp. and Salix caprea at 0.3m (10in) and Alnus spp. 
at 1.4m (4ft 6in) can thus make a contribution in 
reducing weeding and establishment costs. 


Neustein (1970) reports on small scale trials using the 
relatively simple method of pot planting, and concludes 
that satisfactory survival and early growth (and fair 
prospects of continuing health, assuming further fertil- 
isation) can be obtained on some types of parts of 
colliery spoil heaps. The main diagnostic factor appears to 
be the presence of natural vegetation - even in quite sparse 
amounts. It is presumed that natural vegetation reflects 
the age (degree of leaching), stability, and exposure of the 
site. Hence, as far as possible colonised spoil heaps should 
be planted undisturbed. Although the small scale of the 
trials precluded realistic costing, a reasonable estimate 
could be made in costs/unit area, based upon the 1970 
figures. 


acre ha 
Cost of transplants 1500 at £10 per 1000 = £15 £37.5 
Cost of pots £9 per 1000= £14 £35.0 
Cost of potting £12 per 1000 = £20 £50.0 


Cost of planting £20-£40 per 1000 = £30-£60 £75-£150 


Fertiliser- 
material and application 


£10 peracre = £10 £25 


£90-£120 £225-£375 


Fencing, supervisory overheads and transport are additional 
charges, but are not included because they vary in accord- 


20 


ance with the particular layout, shape of planted areas etc. 
Figures given by Lancashire indicate planting costs to be of 
a similar order, with the observation that fencing may be 
up to half the cost of the scheme. 


2.5 Allied research projects 


Early work has been undertaken by a number of Govern- 
ment Bodies such as the Commonwealth Agricultural 
Bureau, the Forestry Commission and the N.A.A.S. 
Individuals associated for many years with derelict land 
have made notable contributions, Stamp, Beaver, James and 
Oxenham to name but a few. The County Planning Depart- 
ments of Durham, Lancashire, and West Riding of Yorkshire 
have laid down trials and have also been responsible for the 
physical action needed to remove derelict land in their 
areas. Different Departments in a number of Universities 
have been co-operating with County Councils, County 
Borough Councils and other authorities to investigate 
certain problems. 


2.5.1 Past and present research projects 


Bibliographies have been prepared by Whyte and Sisam 
(1949), the Ministry of Town and Country Planning 
(1949) and Knabe (1957-8); other contributions to the 
bibliography on reclamation are set down at the end of 
this chapter. The Forestry Commission in their Research 
Branch Paper No. 17 (1955) described the character- 
istics of colliery spoil heaps, and make recommendations 
on the type of plant material, and method of planting. 
The N.A.A.S. have co-operated in the Swansea Valley 
Project. Regional-Offices of the N.A.A.S. in the West 
Riding and the Midlands have made valuable contribu- 
tions with regard to grassing recommendations and shrub 
collections. More details of these will be given in 
Chapter 10. 


Botanical studies have been undertaken by Birmingham 
University, particularly in relation to Pulverised Fuel 

Ash. Ph.D theses relating to this topic were by Sidrak 
(1955), Jones (1958) and Lewis (1961). Reed directed 

the project which was done at the instigation of the 
C.E.G.B. The University of Leeds, Department of 
Agriculture, has also conducted experiments on P.F.A. 
(1964). At Newcastle, work has been undertaken in the 
Botany Department over a number of years by Richardson, 
Greenwood, Shenton and Dicker, to mention a few, on 
various aspects of the problems of growing vegetation on 
colliery shale. Warwick (1958) of Birmingham University 
undertook a study of ‘Plant nutrition on Colliery Waste’ 
for a Ph.D thesis. The Lower Swansea Valley Project has 
been in the forefront of interdepartmental research 
projects with a wide range of discipline participating and 
co-operating with the Swansea C.B.C. The Report was 

first published in 1967, based on information available 

in the Autumn of 1966. The Department of Biology of the . 
University of York is co-operating with the West Riding 
County Council and advising on particularly different 
vegetational problems. Studies are also being undertaken 
on the chemical nature of the colliery shales and nutrient 
cycling. 


The Department of Civil Engineering at the University of 
Leeds is also collaborating with the West Riding County 
Planning Authority as previously indicated. 


——— 


2.6 Setting the guide lines for the project 


The Landscape Reclamation Research Project at the 
University of Newcastle started in 1964 with preliminary 
site selection, two sites each being selected from C. Durham, 
Newcastle upon Tyne, and Northumberland. The Landscape 
Design Section in the Department of Town and Country 
Planning drew up plans for six sites from 1965-1968, but 
because of difficulties two sites were withdrawn and have 
since been replaced with three further sites. Site descriptions 
are given in Chapter 3, and were based on engineering and 
soils assessments and upon landscape survey techniques 
described in Chapter 5. The plans, along with approximate 
estimates of costs prepared by a firm of chartered Quantity 
Surveyors, Douglas Macara/Groves/ Associates, were sub- 
mitted to the Ministry of Housing and Local Government. 
Following final approval, the Drawings were sent out to 
tender along with a Bill of Quantities and Specification. 
Tenders having been accepted by the respective Councils, 
work started on the sites and was supervised by the Land- 
scape Design Staff of the University. Physical and other 
problems encountered on the sites are described in Chapter 
6. Grass establishment on sites is an important aspect of 


visual improvement and for after-use of the sites, and to 
this end the Departments of Soil Science and Botany have 
co-operated actively and have been intimately involved 
over the period; their contributions are described in 
Chapters 8 and 9 respectively. The situation on the sites as 
at 30th April, 1970 is shown in Table 2.3. 


Grass mixtures, seeding rates and seeding techniques for 
agriculture, public open space, erosion protection and prior 
to forestry planting are described in Chapters 9 and 10. 
Species, size of planting stock, methods of planting and 
fertiliser treatments are also included in Chapters 9 and 10. 
Financial and contractural aspects are given in Chapters 11 
and 12. 


2.7 Conclusions 
(a) Good management after the initial contract work is 
essential, and studies of previous reclamation projects 
revealed examples where good grass coverage 

initially had failed to maintain quality because of poor 
management. 


Table 2.3 Landscape reclamation research project. The situation as proposed at 14th October 1966 and the real situation 


as at Ist March 1971 


Site Revised Sketch. Ministry Working Final Final L.A. Outto Contract Contract Defects 
brief Approximate provisional dwgs, Ministry approval tender start complete liability 
estimate. approval bill of approval period 
Approval by Qtys. 12 
L.A. months 
from 
issue of 
substan- 
tial com- 
pletion 
cert. 
Egerton Gardens Feb ‘66 Mar ‘66 July ‘66 21.11.66 Dec ‘66 Jan ‘67 Feb ‘67 Dec’67 Jan‘70 
July ‘66 Dec ‘66 Mar ‘67 Dec ‘68 
Roddymoor 31.10.66 30.11.66 26.2.67 Mar ‘67 April ‘67. May ‘67 June ‘67 = April/May 30.4.70 
Sept ‘67 1.1.68 ‘68 
30.4.69 
Haswell Nov ‘65 30.11.66 31.12.662 6.2.67 Mar ‘67 April ‘67. May ‘67 June ‘67 ~— April/May 
Colliery 8.12.66 Decision deferred Public inquiry into extractidn of Red Shale ‘68 
Site withdrawn Mar. ‘68 
Northbourne 28.2.67 31.3.67 April ‘67 May ‘67 June ‘67July ‘67 May ‘68 Jan ‘70 
Park 21.10.66 31.12 66 10.10.66 Mar ‘67 Not necessary April ‘67Mar ‘68 Jan ‘69 
Percy Pit 1.11.66 31.1.67 28.2.67 30.4.67 May ‘67. June ’67 = July ‘67 Aug ‘67 June ‘68 
April ‘66 From June ‘66 Private firm investigation into extraction of coal site 
Site withdrawn July ‘69 
Big Waters 31.1.67 28.2.67 May ‘67 June‘67 July ‘67 Aug ‘67 Sept’67 Aug ‘68 
Mar ‘69 May ‘69 May‘70 May ‘71 
Replacement 
Sites 
Felling May ‘70 Oct ‘70 June ‘70 Nov ‘70 1.2.71 31.3.72 31.3.73 
Nov ‘70 
Maria Colliery Oct ‘68 Dec ‘68 Dec ‘68 Dec ‘68 Jan ‘69 Sept ‘69 ? ? 


Jan ‘69 


$$$ — LL L_L_— 
2 


1 


(b) Land drainage problems are likely to arise from the 
compaction by heavy machines. Slopes of | in 20 to 
30 often accommodated run-off of surface water 
without causing erosion, and are an insurance against 
subsequent failure to install land drainage systems 
and against subsequent failure of such systems due to 
the ‘settling down’ of regraded land. 


(c) The new developing ‘soils’ of reclaimed sites should 
be analysed at frequent intervals to identify fertiliser 
ingredient deficiencies. 

(d) Coniferous planting should be avoided in heavily 
polluted areas. Above normal topsoil depths encourage 
growth in polluted areas. 

(e) The experience gathered from the study of sites else- 
where constitutes an important aid in clutivation, 


fertilising, seeding and planting decisions. For example, 


the alders stand out as trees with a high degree of 
success in growing in the particular conditions of 
reclaimed sites. 


References 


Barnard, E. (1967) ‘The contribution of the landscape 
planner to urban industrial and road development 
and outdoor recreation’. IUCN Tenth Technical 
Meeting Landscape Planning Committee, IUCN 
Publications, Morges. 


Blakely, R.D. (1964) Reference List for Reclamation of 
Strip Mine Areas. U.S. Dept. Agr. 


Bowden, K.L. (1961) A Bibliography of Strip Mine 
Reclamation 1953-1960. Univ. Mich. Dep. of 
Conservation, Ann Arbor. 


Briggs, R.A. (1966) Landscape Reclamation. 
Implementation. Inst. of Adv. Arch. Studies. York. 


Casson, J. and King, L.A. (1960) Afforestation of derelict 
land in Lancashire. Surveyor. London. 119. pp. 1080- 
1083. 


Casson, J. and King, L.A. (1967) Forestry in the Industrial 
West Riding. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sci., pp. 9-15. 


Coates, U.A. (1960) Experiments in grassland establish- 
ment on colliery shale, Bickershaw Reservoir Site. 
Lancs. C.C. County Planning Dept. 


Commonwealth Bureau of Soils (1965) Bibliography on 
spoil bank soils and their reclamation. (1965-1956). 
No. 1027CBS, 20. 


Downing, M.F. (Ed) (1966) Study tour of Landscape 
Reclamation sites in the Lancashire coalfield. 
Interim Report No. 2. Landscape Reclamation 
Research Project, University of Newcastle upon 
Tyne. 

Forestry Commission (1963) /ndustrial Waste Land and 


its Afforestation and Reclamation. A bibliography of 
British references. 

Funk, D.T. (1962) A Revised Bibliography of Strip Mine 
Reclamation. U.S. Dep. Agric. For. Service, Central 


States Forest, Experimental Station, Columbus, 
Ohio. 


22 


Goodman, G.T., Edwards, R. and Lambert, J.M. (1965) ) 
Ecology and the Industrial Society. Blackwell 
Scientific Publications, Oxford. 


Johnson, C. (1966) Practical operating procedures for 
progressive rehabilitation of sand and gravel sites. 
Project No. 2 1964-5. University of Illinois/National 
Sand & Gravel Association of America. 


Knabe, W. (1957-1958) Contributions to bibliography on 
reclaiming mined areas (in German, English 
Summary ). Wiss. Z. der Humboldt-Univ. Berlin, 
Math. Nat Reihe. VII. 291-304. 


Knabe, W. (1964) Methods and results of strip mine 
reclamation in Germany. The Ohio Journal of 
Science. 


Lancashire County Council (1962) Derelict Land problems. 
Lancs. C.C. 


Lancashire County Council (1965) Dereliction, Land 
Reclamation and Tree Planting in the Administrative 
County of Lancashire. Progress Report. 


Lancashire County Council Cultivation, liming, manuring 
and seeding of land at Bryn Hall and Bam furlong. 
Bill of Quantities. 


Ministry of Housing and Local Government (1957) 
Bibliography No. 107: Derelict Land: a select list 
of references. 


Ministry of Housing and Local Government (1963) 
Bibliography No. 107: a select list of references. 


Ministry of Housing and Local Government (1965) 
Bibliography No. 107. Addendum, London. 


Ministry of Town and Country Planning (1949) Country 
planning , reclamation of mined land. 
Bibliography No. 84. 


Neustein, F.A. (1970) Report on Forestry Commission 
trial plantings on Pumpherston shale bings. 


Oxenham, J.R. (1966) Reclaiming Derelict Land. Faber, 
London. 


Stamp, L. (1951) The reclamation of land disfigured by 
industrial uses .J. Roy. Soc. Arts. Vol. C. pp. 97- 122. 


Vyle, C.J. (1964) Industrial waste land - its afforestation 
and reclamation. A list of references. Landscape 
Reclamation Research Project. University of 
Newcastle upon Tyne. (Duplicated Typescript). 


Vyle, C.J. (1966) A collection of references on landscape 
reclamation. University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 
Landscape Rec. Res. Project. Duplicated Typescript. 


Vyle, C.J. (1967) Addendum to above. 


Whyte, R.O. and Sisam, J.W.B. (1949) The Establishment 
of Vegetation on Industrial Wasteland. Common W. 
Agr. Bur. Jt. Publ. No. 14 Aberystwyth. 


Wood, R.F. and Thirgood, J.V. (1955) Tree planting on 
colliery spoil heaps. For. Comm. Res. Br. Paper No. 
LZ 


Chapter 3 Research sites 


by M.F. Downing 


3.1 Historical background 


The history of coalmining in the north east of England 
dates back to the Romans and even during the middle 

ages coal was shipped to London and other places. By 
Tudor times shortages of timber had resulted in renewed 
efforts at exploitation of the mineral. As early as the 
seventeenth century mining at a depth of 400 ft was not 
uncommon, and by the nineteenth century depths of 
several thousands of feet were commonplace. The history 
of mining was one of hardship and degradation, punctuated 
by unspeakable disasters. The sites on which the project 
has operated are no exception and it is salutary to rememb- 
er that the legacy of dereliction represents an age and an 
industry careless not only of land and aesthetics, but also 
of human life and dignity. It would be fitting if some 

way of commemorating those who in past years have 
suffered and died so ignominiously in the cause of human 
progress could be incorporated in the new reclaimed land- 
scapes. 


Not all of the research project sites have been associated 
with coal mining, but six of the nine were the sites of 
working deep mine pits. The earliest of these is Heworth 
Colliery where boring to the high main seam commenced 
in 1763. This mine ceased operations so recently that the 
pit head winding gear was still standing in 1970. At Percy 
Pit, Newbu rn (Fig.3.1), the site was an operative coal 

mine but also served as a centre for the operations of the 
Walbottle Colliery Company which worked a number of 
other pits, inter-connected wagon ways, and pit railways. 
The nearby Duke Pit was sunk to the Brockwell seam in 
the late 18th Century and it is recorded that coal was 
being worked from the Beaumont seam in 1787. The 
Coronation, Wellington, Blucher and King Pits followed 
the Duke Pit, the Blucher Pit being opened in 1815. The 
lease on the Royalty was held until 1867 by Messrs. Lamb 
but in that year the colliery closed down. Stevenson & Co. 
who opened the nearby Isobella Pit in 1869 leased the 
Royalty in 1877 having sunk the Derwentwater shaft in 
1876. The Blucher Pit was re-opened in 1901 and operated 
by the Throckley Coal Company. The Percy Pit site was the 
centre of a web of wagon ways, tramways and mineral rail- 
ways linking the outlying pits to the public railway. Wagon- 
ways extended to Maria Colliery, apparently opened in the 
last quarter of the nineteenth century, North Walbottle 
Colliery and Throckley Colliery . The North Walbottle 
Wagonway was laid with iron rail to the Coronation Pit in 
1794. 


Haswell Colliery also has considerable historic interest, 
being the site of one of the many great tragedies of north- 
east mining. It is recorded as one of the first sites where 
sinkings were undertaken to prove coal below the magnes- 
ian limestone. This was undertaken in 1811 by Dr. William 
Smith. Twenty years later on 28th February 1931, the 
Engine Pit commenced. After excavating 54ft, this was 
abandoned because of running sand and the New Engine 
Pit was begun in the same year. This shaft was sunk first to 
the Hutton Seam, and on to the Beaumont seam by 1840. 
The first recorded shipment of coal was on 2nd July 1936. 


| 
(a) @ BIG WATERS \ 
\ 
est 
f a os 
é \ <n 
MARIA COLUERY = S } 7 River Tyne 
« “s ial 
© percy pir Newcastle Zp iX 
e e upon Tyne mn 
ANE SSS ST ANTHONY'S 
COPPERAS LANE SS 


EGERTON GARDENS 


@ winoyNoox / 
| a oats é 


‘“Sunderta 


River Wear 


10 km (16miles) 


Location of possible and actual research sites 
(a) in the area of Newcastle upon Tyne 
(b) in the area of Durham 


In 1844 on 28th September at 3 p.m. there occurred what 
was described in Fordyce’s History of Durham as “one of 
the most fatal cases of explosion on record”. This was 
described as taking place in the Little Pit at a point called 
Meadows Flat 1400 yd from the shaft. This tragic 
explosion resulted in the loss of 95 lives and this was attri- 
buted by Professor Faraday, who carried out an enquiry 
after the event, to suffocation by chokedamp. The winding 
engine house which still stands at the southern end of the 
site is regarded as a very fine early example of its kind. The 
walls are 8ft thick at the base and this has led to the 
suggestion that it dates from the very early years of the 
nineteenth century. If this is accepted it must be assumed 
that it was built in connection with Dr. Smith’s original 
borings. 


The pit was evidently worked for some years after the 
tragedy, as a reference to the pit with ventilation maps of 
the upcast and downcast pits occurs in the Proceedings of 
the North of England Institute of Mining Engineers for 
1859. The same Proceedings include a paper given on 8th 
December 1883 on “The Haswell mechanical coal getter, an 
invention for working coal without the need for gunpowder 
or explosive” by W.F. Hall. It is believed that the pit ceased 
operations around the turn of the century. 


23 


Roddym also has some claims to historic interest, notably 
nt which used to stand on part of the 
The Victoria County History of Durham records that 
Roddy 
Roddymoor in 1836 and that in 1844 a sinking was put 
wn by Mr. R.A. Heslop to work the Brockwell or Main 


\ et what 


moor Royalty were in progress at Old 


was known as the New Colliery The 
ke ovens w removed, bore a plaque with the following 


yvens are part of the first by-product coke 


ven plant erected in Great Britain. The original battery 
25 ovens was built for Pease and Partners Ltd. by 
Henry Simpson founder of Simon Garves Ltd., in 1882 


$ 
7 


1uously for more than seventy years’. 


It is hoped that the orginal battery may be re-erected at the 
Industrial Museum at Beamish Hall 


At Big Waters, the influence of the Pits surrounding and 
ndercutting the whole of this part of Northumberland has 
esulted in the subsidence of a large area creating a ‘mining 
flash’, a lake on the deadwaters of the Ouseburn. 


St Anthony’s Point at Walker has been renamed 
Northbourne Park after the Northbourne family which 
had estates in this neighbourhood for many years. It was 
the site of ballast dumping from ships coming up the 

ne, probably for many hundreds of years. St Anthony’s 
Point was at one time the site of a mansion and garden 
belonging to one Henry Ibbetson Esq. The house which 
had a farmhouse, cottage and outbuildings was probably 


built in the early eighteenth century and the walls of the 
original garden still remain on site, having been incorporated 
into the walls of a car park. From contemporary sources it 
appears that the mansion was a handsome and elaborate 
structure. Another house standing on the south east 

corner of the site was reputed to date from the fifteenth 
century. This was standing when reclamation began, but 
being in a Very poor state of repair was subsequently 
demolished. A large area was occupied in the nineteenth 
century by a lead works. At the western end of the site 

can be seen the remains of a slipway at which small trading 
ships used to transport millstone grit for milling. The river 
walls were constructed in 1842. 


Egerton Gardens is located in a part of South Benwell 
known as Paradise; part of the site was occupied by steep 
rows of terrace housing dating from the early nineteenth 
century. There is evidence also of industrial operations 
contemporary with the housing including a waste heap from 
a foundry. 


3.2 Site descriptions 


The tables included with this chapter give brief notes on 
the location, size, and climatic and pedological conditions 
of each site. The visual description and end use are also 
presented in these tables. This information is included to 
serve only as a broad introduction to the site. Detailed 
information on specific aspects of the individual sites is 
found in the appropriate succeeding Chapter. 


g. 3.1 Percy Pit: Newburn conical heap dominating miners’ terraced housing, now demolished. 


3.3 Selection of sites 


3.3.1 Original basis of project 


As indicated in Chapter 2, initial discussions on the setting 
up of a project began in 1963. The financial arrangements 
at that time proposed and those subsequently adopted, are 
also discussed in that chapter. From the outset the local 
authorities co-operated very fully and enabled the 
University to select six sites from a number offered, to give 
a useful range of research activities. 


The passing of time during negotiations and the changing 


nature of the project resulted in changes of the sites selected, 


as well as the University personnel involved. Originally the 
Departments of Botany, Civil Engineering, Soil Science, 
Surveying, and Town and Country Planning were to have 
been fully participating members of the project. Circum- 
stances forced Civil Engineering to withdraw, and Survey- 
ing was unable to participate as fully as at first envisaged 
although the continued and valuable support this Depart- 
ment has given should be recorded. 


3.3.2 Original sites and research interest 


It is interesting to record the six sites originally selected and 
the research interests on which the selection was based. They 
were as follows: 


(a) Trimdon Grange, Trimdon, Co. Durham.This was 
described as a ridge shaped pit heap with mostly 
recently tipped black shale. 


Problems and lines of research listed were: 

(i) Reshaping with consequent erosion slip and 
vegetation establishment problems. 

(ii) Investigation of possible coppicing, stool 
shooting, and other “unconventional” economic 
forestry practices. 

(iii) Concentrated examination of various approaches 
to limited areas for first phase treatment. (sic) 

(iv) Comparison of costs of reshaping and spreading 
approaches. 

(v) Drainage problems in relation to slip and 
vegetation establishment. 

(vi) Soil building processes. 


(b) Chester Moor, Co. Durham described as derelict areas 


in a village. 
(i) Study of immediate problem of improving 
appearance. 


(ii) Study of costs of alternative solutions e.g. 
removing remains of demolition, creating 
contoured surface using different materials. 

(iii) Soil development from different materials. 

(iv) Natural succession of plants and processes to 
speed this process on areas of demolished 
housing. 

(v) Future use of land. 

(vi) Comparison of costs for terracing and contour- 
ing. 

(vii) Surface drainage. 

(viii) Vegetation, the contribution of different 
species to the development of soil fertility. 

(ix) Establishment of grass sites after demolition of 
buildings. 


(c) Montague Colliery, West Denton, Newcastle upon 
Tyne. A medium sized pit heap in a restricted area 


amidst extensive urban housing development. This 
site offered the opportunity to investigate: 


(i) Operating plant on a restricted site, with the 
problems and potential nuisances to neighbour- 
ing properties which these would represent. 

(ii) Drainage of compacted hard surfaces which 
could not economically be removed. 

(iii) Selection of species and techniques to establish 
vegetation which will not be subject to severe 
damage particularly by children. 


(d) Egerton Gardens. Derelict land south of Egerton 
Street, Scotswood, Newcastle. This site was thought 
to offer the possibility of: 


(i) Investigation of the minimum level of inform- 
ation (drawings and specifications) to enable 
competitive tenders to be obtained and submit- 
ted for grant. 

(ii) Studies of the establishment of vegetation on 
derelict sites in active industrial areas. 

(iii) Species and techniques of planting for urban 
open spaces in the conditions of (b) above. 

(iv) Use of derelict material to form play and other 
surfaces. 

(v) Maintenance of soil fertility in active industrial 
areas. 


(e) Big Waters, Seaton Burn, Northumberland. The site 
as originally defined included 78 acres, and research 
problems were listed as: 


(i) Planting of reclaimed land to create wildlife 
habitat. 

(ii) Stabilization of flood waters to control lake 
level. 

(iii) Development of soil in areas of high watertable. 

(iv) Planning problems of providing active recreation 
facilities within a wildlife habitat. 


(f) Spoil Heap, Walbottle, Newburn, Percy Pit. 
This site was said to give the opportunity for 
investigations as follows: 


(i) Reshaping a heap that was a prominent shape 
in the wide landscape and which could not be 
totally removed. 

(ii) The establishment of vegetation on steep shale 
slopes where some pollution occurs. 

(iii) The development of soil in the same conditions. 


3.3.3 Final selection of sites and works 


Three of these sites (d,e and f) still form part of the project. 
However, by the time the financial basis of the research had 
been decided, nearly two years had elapsed and the first 
three sites selected were, for one reason or another, no 
longer available. These were replaced by Roddymoor at 
Crook, Haswell Colliery, and St Anthony’s Point. After the 
preparation of sketch plans, problems of acquisition resulted 
in Percy Pit and Haswell Colliery being replaced by the sites 
at Maria Colliery, Copperas Lane and Felling. These 
omissions and introductions resulted in some changes in the 
direction of enquiries, notably by the omission of the 
village improvement scheme at Chester Moor. This, with 
hindsight, is seen to be an advantage since, had this topic 
remained, it would have resulted in an undesirable broaden- 
ing of the basis of research. The final selection has channell- 
ed the development of research into a number of clearly 


25 


defined topics, with each site providing a different insight 
into a topic and its problems, rather than introducing new 
topics. Some sites have special features of interest and thus 
may be thought to give the lie to this generalisation. It is, 
in the main however, correct, and as the layout of chapters 
of this book indicates, the organisation of research into the 
general topics which are most significant represents a more 
coherent approach than the first tentative proposals. 


3.4 General research interests 


The subjects covered by the succeeding chapter titles and 
subheadings, for example, landform design, methodology 
of landform design, land drainage, soil-forming materials 
and botanical studies of natural and planted vegetation on 
colliery shale, can be studied on all the sites and the varia- 
tions in site conditions make it possible to see each problem 
more fully. Special problems which require particular treat- 
ment can also be seen in the context of the total pattern 

of reclamation procedures. 


3.5 Research interests associated with individual 
sites 

It is nevertheless possible to pick out subjects and aspects 
of the major research topics which are particularly associa- 
ted with, or specially suitable for study on individual sites 
because of situation, topography or land use requirements. 
These special lines of study and any specific trials related 
to them are listed site by site below. 


3.5.1 Northbourne Park, St Anthony’s, Newcastle 
upon Tyne 


This site (Fig.3.2) has provided the opportunity to investi- 
gate the development of soils on areas affected by industry 
and development other than coal mining. The aim of this 
work has been to raise sub-optimum soil conditions by 
contrasting methods, including the application of sewage 
sludge (3 in cover) to allow adequate plant growth and to 
compare the methods used. Field trials to test a range of 
plants and soil treatments in site conditions have been 
included on this site. The investigation of steep slope 
stabilization was originally envisaged as a major feature of 
this site but the establishment of the separate, but closely 
linked steep slopes research project, resulted in this aspect 
being omitted. An evaluation has yet to be made of the appli- 
cation of agricultural grass seeding rates to recreation uses 
as attempted on this site. 


3.5.2 Egerton Gardens 


The problems of extreme hard wear and vandalism as an 
influence on the design approach have been well illustrated 
on this site (Fig.3.3) and to a less marked extent at 
Northbourne Park. An experiment involving stooled plants 
to provide dense growth on embankments is in the course of 
assessment, though the com parative trials of three methods 
of grass stabilization by mechanical means were invalidated 
by a contractors error. Four methods of seeding were adopt- 
ed. 


(a) Hydromulching 

(b) Seeding bitumen spray 
(c) Seeding and P.V.A. 
(d) Seeding alone (control) 


Unfortunately the hydromulching sub-contractor sprayed 
the entire embankment, including an area which had been 


26 


Ca 


KEY 
2A FINISHED CONTOURS 


STANDARD TREES 


SHRUBS 


U/L DINGS 


25 50 m (160 ft) 


° 


“a 


1 


TAN 
PAS 
a 
Ss 


“9 


\ 


EY 
BF Z) 


WELL ROAD 


souTH BEN 


RAILWAY 


ED ABT ey 


Fig 3.2 Northbourne Park: plan of reclamation proposals 


EGERTON STREET 


KEY 


0 FINISHED ConTOuRS 


~~ SMALL Sémi MaruaRe Teees 

> 

. SS STANDARD rRers 
STORMED TeeESs 


CZ seuss 
E53 FORESTRY PLANTING 


—_—— www 
° 10 20 30m( 100) 


Fig 3.3 Egerton Gardens: plan of reclamation involving a series of terraces 


27 


acted, or indeed paid to do. The experi- 
red. Some parts of the site have been 


sown with experimental mixtures of grass and herbs to see 
as of interest requiring little maintenance could be 


eated. The assessment of these mixtures is as yet incom- 


3.5.3 Roddymoor, Crook, Co. Durham 


Extensive species tnals have been laid out on this site and 
nvestigations into the waterholding capacity, nutrient 
retention, the development of organic content and crumb 
structure as a result of maintenance techniques are under 
way. The results of this work are reported in the appropriate 
chapters of this volume The uses of topsoil, subsoil and 
dnft maternal as well as farmyard manure as spoil additives 

e being compared. Spoils left as surface materials include 
grey, black and red shales, hot shale, slurry and red shale 
mix, coke breeze and ash. This sort of experiment is 
central to the work of the project and is repeated on most 
sites, as are studies of vegetation (e.g. grass/legume) covers. 
The species trials have been laid down for trees and shrubs 
and include unrooted cutting trials. 


3.5.4 Percy Pit, Newburn 


A range of investigations on vegetation, soil development 
and stability would have been undertaken on this site had 
the work proceeded on the ground. One aspect which was 
studied carefully in the design stage was a special approach 
to the drainage of steeply sloping sites involving the creation 
of low surface water channels, collecting water to prevent 
the build up of large volume flows down the slopes, holding 
the water to prevent excessive flooding at the lowest point 
due to rapid concentration and releasing it to the main 
drainage system at a rate which the system could accept. 


The investigation, at the design stage, of the influence of the 


heap in the broader landscape and approaches to its 
remodelling, are design research topics dealt with at some 
length elsewhere in this volume. 


3.5.5 Haswell Colliery, Easington, Co. Durham 


The development of this site, curtailed by acquisition 
difficulties, would have afforded practical testing proposals 
for optimum slope and aspect for agriculture. The site 
would have provided a particular opportunity for the study 
of the creation of heath type, Nardus stricta Erica flora 

on areas to be used for picnicking and casual recreation. 
This flora had developed over a number of years on certain 
parts of the site. Both the speed of naturakand artificially 
stimulated development and the suitability of the naturally 
developing flora would have provided information of 
value. 


3.5.6 Big Waters, Seaton Burn, Northumberland 


As originally proposed, this site has offered the chance to 
plant a number of field trials of species suitable for wild 
life habitat. This is the only particular line of research 
within the compass of the project’s main objectives which 
is specific to this one site. A large number of unrooted 
cuttings have been included in these trials. The techniques 
of working areas of burning shale and preventing the spread 
of burning has been a particular practical problem. 


3.5.7 Windynook, Whitehills, Felling, Co. Durham 


This site (Fig.3.4) has provided particular difficulties of 
acidity and salinity of the parent material. In addition to 
the scientific interest, and the administrative difficulties 
which this condition introduces, the study of earthmoving 
calculation techniques has been particularly significant on 
this site where a large volume of material has been regraded 
on what is a relatively small area in compliance with 
certain criteria for slopes and angles for use and mainten- 
ance. The problems of surface water and deep under drain- 
age, stability and erosion can also be examined in detail. 


The problems of toxic shales and their treatment at this 
site and at Big Waters are dealt with at some length in 
Chapter 6, and will be the subject of continuing research 
over a number of years. 


28 


3.5.8 Maria Colliery, Newburn, Northumberland 


This small site, in the process of reclamation at the time of 
writing, is to be returned to industry. Methods of providing 
temporary grass cover at low cost on the varied spoils is 
included though this work is not yet complete. Otherwise 
no particular topics for research other than those common 
to all sites, have been defined for this site. 


3.5.9 Copperas Lane, Northumberland 


At the time of writing, only preliminary investigations 

and sketch plans have so far been undertaken, It is not 
anticipated that any particular problems will be encounter- 
ed on this small site, which is to be developed for casual 
recreation and open space. 


References 


Atkinson, J. (1859) Ventilation of Mines. 
North of England Institute of Mining 
Engineers. Transactions. Vol. Vil Andrew Reid, 
Newcastle upon Tyne, pp. 133-167 


Dodds, M.H. (1930) A History of Northumberland 
Vol. XIII Andrew Reid, Newcastle upon Tyne. 
pp. 25-26. 


Fordyce, W. (1857) The History and Antiquities of the 
County Palatine of Durham. Vol. 2. A. Fullerton 
& Co., Newcastle upon Tyne. pp. 360-62. 


Hall, W.F. (1884) On the Haswell Mechanical Coal 
Getter: an invention for working coal without 
the aid of gun powder or other explosives. 
North of England Institute of Mining and 
Mechanical Engineers Transactions. Vol XXXII 
A. Reid, Newcastle upon Tyne. pp. 37-59. 


Page, W. (Ed) (1907) The Victoria History of the County 
of Durham. Vol. 2. London,Constable. pp. 320 et seq. 


Ceeeeeee eee n ence ee 


Name of site Location 


Climate Area 


Visual description Soils Proposals 


1. ‘Northbourne Park’ 
St. Anthony’s Site ‘B’ 
Newcastle upon Tyne, 


St. Anthony’s 
Point, Walker 
Newcastle upon _ local 


Open and 6.07 ha 
exposed to (15.0 acres) 


The northern Surface Developed as a river 
boundary feature, material oriented park, 
the railway, acts underlain allowing for more 


Northumberland Tyne prevailing for a large part by glacial intensive use if this 
wind westerly of its length as drift. is subsequently 
along river a visual limit to Consists felt to be desirable. 
valley also to the site, which ofa 
cold east wind slopes south- mixture 
in winter. ward to the of natural 

Tyne ina soils and 
formation soils 
consisting dominated 
broadly of four by introduced 
terraces linked material - 

by loamy clay. 
embankments. 

2. ‘Egerton Gardens’ Whitehouse A 1.17 ha A small area of Clay, over- To provide a robust 

Newcastle upon Tyne, Road, prominent (2.9 acres) open space in a lain by design by the 

Northumberland Paradise, position part of building development of 

Newcastle upon in the Newcastle rubble, strong land forms 
Tyne Tyne Valley undergoing chemical with a linear 
on a favour- extensive waste feeling created by 
able south change. Good and the arrangement of 
facing slope. views across other contours and 
Com paratively the Tyne debris. artificial platforms. 
exposed to Valley and up Virtually 
prevailing the Derwent no 
winds down Valley. topsoil. 
the valley. 


Name of site Location Climate Area Visual description Soils Proposals 
3. Roddymoor One mile Relatively 56ha Before Soils Agricultural land, 
Colliery, Crook north west high (140 acres) reclamation derived with grazing of 
Co. Durham of Crook altitude the site from stock, woodland on 
of 183m consisted of boulder steep slopes and 
(600 ft) the massive clay shelter belts along 
and more pit heap, a overlaying the watercourse in 
above sea dominant coal the flatter area. 
level. element in measures. 
Generally the whole Slurry 
exposed valley land- ponds 
though the scape, and occupied 
main west- the associated a large 
east valley colliery and area of 
is coke plant the site. 
comparatively working areas, Burnt and 
sheltered. creating a unburnt 
degenerate shale, coke 
and depressing and ash. 
area. 
a 
4. Percy Pit, West of Position 12.95 ha A conical Gravel Western end 
Newburn, Lemington and (32 acres) heap within an workings incidental open 
Northumberland aspect old dry gravel at space, possible 
favourable, working at western development of an 
sheltered west end of end, into artificial ski slope 
from north site, and some which on the retained 
east winds. low tips and a the pit pit heap material. 
No danger flat area of heap Eastern end 
of frost colliery yard at material industrial 
pocketting. eastern end. was development. 
There is also an tipped, 
area of indicate 
allotments. the 
presence 
of a bed 
of river 
gravel and 
a resulting 
light soil. 
5. Haswell Colliery, South of Compara- 31.02 ha Much of the Some Sketch plans only 
Easington, Haswell tively (76.66 acres) worst visual areas of prepared. 
Co. Durham Village exposed, disturbance is natural Agricultural use 
occupying created by the soil either as a single 
a north/south opening up of remain small holding or 
saddle in vertical shale at attached to 
open country. faces by red northern — existing holdings. 
143m (470 ft) shale operators. end of 
above sea Established site where 
level at highest areas of tipping did 
point. vegetation, not occur. 
where 
undisturbed, 
attractive and 
extremely 
interesting 
botanically. 
6. Big Waters, West of A.1 Occupies 45.32 ha Picturesque Derives Nature reserve and 
Seaton Burn, at Six Mile a (112 acres) but much of from field study facilities 
Northumberland Bridge shallow the land is boulder for the Northumber- 
between depression without vege- clay over- land and Durham 
Seaton Burn in the South tation and the laying Naturalists Trust. 
and Wideopen East North- lake water and coal 
umberland Seaton Burn are measure 
Plain. Liable frequently rocks. 
to drainage of discoloured; in Spread 
cold air and particular the mixed burnt 
frosting in burn has nasty and unburnt 
still deposits on the shale appears 
conditions. banks. not 
particularly 
hospitable 
to plant 
growth. 


30 


Name of site Location Climate Area Visual description Soils Proposals 
7. Whitehills/ South and Highup 56ha Five distinct Limited Playing fields and 
Heworth/Windynook east of andvery (14Q0acres) areas of natural interesting open 
Felling Windynook exposed dereliction (with soils space for casual 
and Felling from its a character- derived recreation. 
north and istically typical from 
east aspect. appearance sandstone. 
It can be adjoining them). In some 
assumed this Views to south parts a 
high elevation and west are capping of 
mitigates the restricted, but to boulder clay 
effects of air the north and occurs. Burnt 
pollution found east a complete and unburnt 
elsewhere in panorama of shale, slurry, 
this area. Tyneside from washery waste 
the west side of and domestic 
Newcastle to refuse in the 
Tynemouth in quarry. 
the east is visible Extensive areas 
from numerous of fused shale. 
places on the 
site. 
8. Maria Colliery West of Open and 4.45ha Small conical Gravelly _ Industrial 
Throckley, Throckley/ exposed (11 acres) heap containing loam, development. 
Newburn on Tyne, Westerhope to all winds. about 57,000m3 textured 
Northumberland Road, a Cold air (75,000vd 3) brown 
quarter of a drainage free, of unburned earth, and 
mile north little evidence shale amongst unburnt shale. 
of Throckley of serious low heaps of 
atmospheric indeterminate 
pollution. age now largely 
vegetated. Over- 
looking open 
country of gently 
undulating nature. 
9. Copperas Lane At the Exposed 16ha An uneven and Limited Casual recreation 
Scotswood, southern end to (40 acres) badly drained natural and public open 
Newburn on Tyne, of Denton valley area of uncon- soils. space. 
Northumberland Dene, west winds in trolled tipping Soils 
of Newcastle the Tvne and brick waste developing 
City boundary Valley, and to the north on tipped 
heavy with steep banks material 
atmospheric of colliery waste are of high 
pollution. tip overlooking clay content. 


the river to the 
south and old clay 
pit to the west. 
Extensive views 
across the river 
and towards 


Stella Power Station 
and Percy Pit to the 


west. 


3 


Chapter 4 Landform design 


by M.F. Downing 


While future land use is perhaps the dominant factor which 
must be considered in the design of earth shaping on 
reclamation sites, itis by no means the only constraint 
which requires consideration. Some reclamation may in fact 
take place when the future land use is as yet undetermined, 
in which case the design must incorporate positive features 
permitting the widest range of options for the future 
development of the site. Where specific requirements are 
the result of particular end uses, they should only be 
carried out when they either do not preclude other end uses 
or there is no possibility of a change of plans. 


When discussing earth moving, the factors governing the 
design approach can be classified broadly under four 
headings. 


(a) Economics 

(b) Aesthetics 

(c) Topographical factors, including surface drainage and 
aspect etc. 

(d) Functional requirements of land use. 


It is unlikely that a given solution will be directed by only 
one of these factors. On the other hand, the different 
factors may frequently suggest contradictory solutions. 
However, this classification method can be used to establish 
some order in the setting down of the factors which limit 
the design. 


4.1 Economics 


The influence of economic factors is felt at every stage of 
the design process. A preliminary assessment of the 
possibilities of a site will include careful attention to the 
com parative costs of alternative methods of treatment. In 
general terms, the selection of special solutions, when these 
involve particularly expensive measures, will only be 
undertaken when a clearly defined demand exists. It is 
sometimes necessary to carry out simple exercises to test 
the strength of such demands. For example at Percy Pit, 
Newburn, there was a need for land industrial development. 
It became obvious very quickly that to develop the whole 
site for industrial purposes was likely to result in excessive 
costs. A simple study sufficed to show that the topography 
of the western portion of the site was such that, after 
regrading, only half could be made available as a flat 

area suitable for industrial development; the remaining 
area consisted of steep banks, which would be 

entirely non-productive and difficult to maintain. The need 
for space for industry was not strong enough to justify such 
extravagant use of land at the time and place of the 
enquiry. That is not to say that such a step might not be 
considered justified in other circumstances. 


Except in specific cases where particularly strong demands 
exist, economic factors play a significant role, not so 
much in determining the overall form of the reclamation, 
but in refining the effects of decisions based on aesthetics, 


32 


topography , and land use requirements, so that the 
solution can be achieved at least cost. Again, no designer 
can consider these other factors without appreciating 
their cost implications, so cost consciousness may be said 
to influence all aspects of the design approach, sometimes 
at an almost subconscious level. At every design decision 
stage the answer to two questions must be sought. The 
first is ‘what is the cost of the solution proposed?’ The 
second is, ‘is this the optimum return for the money 
outlaid or will any increase in expenditure result in 
significant improvements in the overall results?’ or 
conversely, ‘will further financial reductions result 

in limiting the potential of the site?’ The design solution 
should always keep open as many of the development 
options for the site as possible. 


4.2 Aesthetics 


The aesthetic factor is the next to be considered, and the 
point must immediately be made that this is closely 
linked to the other factors listed. Although the functional 
and topographical requirements of a site design may 
result in compromise with the original aesthetic purpose, 
it is the visual aspect of landscape work which causes, 

in the majority of cases, the most significant impact on 
the greatest number of people. If this is a somewhat 
limited reason for the development of subtle designs it is a 
more than adequate justification for the avoidance of ill 
proportioned and unsightly compositions. 


4.2.1 Natural or geometric forms 


The basic aesthetic decision which must be taken on each 
site concerns the aesthetic ‘idiom’ which will govern the 
design. The choice is between a design adopting naturalistic 
forms which will blend into the natural topography of the 
surrounding landscape and a consciously dominant 
geometric or architectural form. This must depend largely 
on the site and its environs. Hackett (1960) has suggested 
that the natural landscape should be the dominant influence 
in the design of new landforms, and arrives at the 
conclusion that artificial or architectural forms are 
acceptable only in the context of environment in which 
man made forms dominate. A contradiction to this 
statement is provided by the many historic examples of 
landform design, showing most patently the hand of man, 
which are to be found in settings of natural topography. 
A number of such examples can be found in England 
alone, notable among them being Silbury Hill and 

Maiden Castle. Hackett later (1964) suggests three 
principles governing the appearance of such artificial 
earthworks whichmake them visually acceptable. These 
may be summarised as: 


(a) Containment within the topographical framework 
(b) The use of simple forms resulting from primitive 
methods. 


(c) The relationship of earthworks to another 
humanised feature, eg defensive earthworks following 
the form of the city around which they were built. 
The form of the city will of course be set out with 
some regard to the topographical advantage to be 
gained from its site. 


Of these, the first two principles accept the dominance 

of natural forms in a rural situation, the third offers a 
justification for architectural or formal design elements 
being acceptable in the context of an architectural 
background. Perhaps a fourth principle should be added to 
the three previously quoted when attempting to explain 
the success of many obviously artificial earthworks which 
are acceptable in natural surroundings. This is the 
relationship of objects of similar scale. 


4.2.2 Scale 


For example while the form of a feature such as Silbury 
Hill is totally foreign in the rural environment of 
Wiltshire, the rightness of its scale within the surrounding 
landscape makes it completely acceptable. 


4.2.3 Antiquarianism 


The acceptability of some historic examples such as the 
Cerne Giant of Dorset or the White Horse of Uffington, 
Wilts is enhanced because they have a readily 
comprehensible shape and an obvious historic significance, 
certainly for the amateur of landscape. Both these man 
made features keep clearly within the topographical 
framework, but both display an excellent scale relationship 
with their respective, and similar, landscapes. Antiquarian- 
ism as it affects the way in which people look at landscape 
is one of the aspects dealt with in an amusing article by 
Lowenthal and Price (1965), which also makes clear that 
landscape tastes are not static for all time but subject to 
subtle fluctuations of emphasis. 


Two examples of the successful creation of landform 
designs related to dominant artefacts are for the Oldbury 
Power Station in Gloucestershire, and the nuclear research 
stations at Harwell in Berkshire, both by Geoffrey 
Jellicoe. The former the designer describes as geometric 
and the latter organic (Jellicoe 1966). At Oldbury the 
landform design achieved a compromise between the 
pattern of the existing landscape, a humanised but 
traditional pattern of the past, and the vast scale of the 
geometry of the age of technology. In so doing it has 
taken some of its form and its scale from each of these 
elements. At Harwell, nature dominates in the flow of 
the Berkshire downs, and the shaping of the land forms is 
based on the conscious study of the natural forms. These 
entirely different solutions by the same designer are 

both acceptable because the eighteenth century 
picturesque tradition, which is still the aesthetic 

criterion by which landscape is judged today, demanded 
the acceptance of the genius of the place. 


4.2.4 Design aspirations 


Jellicoe reminds the Peader of the aspirations towards the 
creation of a self sufficient art form which must be the 
landscape architect’s ideal, over and above the functional 
requirements of good craftsmanship. This is related to the 
effect on human beings which is, he says the ultimate 
objective of all landscape design. He quotes observations 


made by Barbara Hepworth (1952) who, speaking of the 
response of visitors to the design and proportions of the 
Piazza San Marco in Venice, said people “grouped 
themselves in unconscious recognition of their importance 
in relation to each other as human beings.” This 

spiritual stimulation is the ultimate achievement of design 
and one which is most poignantly desirable in areas of 
industrial depression where landscape reclamation works 
are predominantly carried out. 


4.2.5 Application to research sites 


The project has been concerned with three sites where 
artificial forms have been positively accepted as the 

correct idiom for landscape reclamation. These were 
Northbourne Park (Newcastle), Egerton Gardens (Newcastle) 
and Percy Pit (Newburn). Of the other sites, the proposals 
for Roddymoor, Haswell Colliery and Big Waters involved 
regrading to contours compatible with the natural 
topography, while at Felling the design departs to some 
extent from its naturalistic basis as a result of the require- 
ments for playing fields which result in terracing. Maria 
Colliery site is designed so that it and the adjoining land 

are returned to the natural contours of the land before both 
tipping and excavation for clay occurred, as nearly as 

these can be ascertained. 


The acceptance of geometric forms on the three sites first 
mentioned, arises in each case from a different cause. At 
Northbourne Park, the form of the site was dictated by 
the existing strong terrace pattern resulting from 
residential and industrial uses in the eighteenth and 
nineteenth century, and from the tipping of ballast from 
ships arriving in the Tyne. This was an established and 
accepted part of the Tyne landscape and was retained with 
only minor modifications where function or stability 
factors made it necessary. 


At Egerton Gardens, the urban setting, in an area where 
care for the landscape could not be expected to be of a 
high order, called for a design based on an artificial 
arrangement of planes and embankments (Fig.4.1). 
Such a design would reflect the vigour of the human 
environment and at the same time resist the worst 
depredations of vandalism. 


Fig 4.1 Egerton Gardens: cardboard model prepared as a 
design check. 


33 


The , t Percy Pit was one in which the aesthetic 
s \\ ” S ctors. The site 

ad ours, or it could 
s was C ca pit heap 

R ( S)t | ourse was 
Pi vas S sted, but‘ there should be 
\ seque eduction of scale 
" hiss " cently in key witl 


f the power station and the 
wers i chimneys, the breadth of the Valley, 


eht of the surrounding hills.” 


i not find universal support and, particularly, 


residents were strongly opposed to the retention of 
nething which, to those who lived in its shadow, had a 
physically overbearing presence and provided a 
permanent reminder of past social evils: The design 
ion proposed by the project involved the 
e 1odelling of the heap to provide a feature which was 


ificant in the valley landscape without overdominating 


34 


its immediate surrounds. A series of south-facing viewing 
platforms were to be created commanding the valley 
(Fig.4.2). It was possible to arrange the design in such a 
way that the new artificial shape dominates only from the 
valley bottom where, Laurie has suggested, it would be 

in Keeping with other large scale industrial objects. From 
some positions outside the immediate river valley, the 
conical heap had appeared totally out of place and the 
proposed regrading would have resulted in the creation of 
apparently natural contours well matched to the large 
scale of topography revealed in distant views along the 
higher slopes of the Tyne valley in this area. The early 
studies made into the influence of the heap in the Tyne 
valley and the neighbourhood are discussed in greater 
detail in Chapter 13. 


4.3 Topographical factors 


Aside from the influence that topography exercises on the 
design aesthetic, which has already been discussed, it plays 


Z 


SE SI se 


Ny 


tS 


va 
7 


es eee oo ee 


Fig 4.2 Percy Pit: plan of reclamation proposals. 


SSS 


s 


a significant part in deciding the disposition of regraded 
material. It is essential to establish a healthy new landscape 
over the reclaimed area and this must be done so that the 
ecological balance of adjoining and otherwise inter- 
dependent areas is not disturbed. 


4.3.1 Drainage 


The designer must therefore pay attention to the watershed 
characteristics of the area to be reclaimed, and this should 
include detailed drainage considerations. 


It is also necessary to consider the interior measures for 
the safeguarding of such areas in the event of adverse 
weather conditions during the operations period and while 
the site is becoming established. Many of the problems 
which Curtis (1969) has shown to result from strip 
mining in Kentucky,U.S.A., are commonly found on 
disturbed land particularly when reclamation of mining 
waste is in progress. Thus, operational land and land 
awaiting revegetational cover is subject to accelerated 


KEY 
Je 
ae. > opiainal CONTOURS 
B----" > peoposen new LEVELS 
60 PROPOSED 16'0" STANDARD TREES 


EXISTING SHRUBS 
PROPOSED SHRUBS 


ci 


ro) 25 50 m(160 ft ) 


runoff and erosion with resultant turbidity in natural 
water-courses, silting up of basins, and in extreme cases 
gully erosion in existing stream beds. 


4.3.2 Water quality effects on adjoining land 


In addition to the effect of quantities of water, the 
quality of water emanating from reclamation areas is an 
aspect that should be carefully considered when natural 
drainage systems are involved. Downstream sections of 
water catchment areas can be seriously affected by the 
drainage of polluted water from strip mining or the 
deposition of spoil. In this country, the majority of this 
kind of dereliction occurs in close proximity to centres of 
population and industry, and either the effluent is taken 
into piped sewage systems or it is discharged into water- 
courses already heavily polluted by other industrial 
effluents. Where water quality is politically considered 
important, often the only solution available is to pipe the 
effluent away from the locality to prevent it from entering 
the natural drainage system. 


4.3.3 Free drainage 


The foregoing assumes attention to details of topography 
which ensures that the reclaimed landscape will drain 
adequately and that there are no areas where water will 
stand in storm conditions, unless this is by design, and no 
parts of the site are excessively damp. This involves 
ensuring that the design allows the free passage of water 
down and through or away from the site into the drainage 
system of the area, whether it be a natural stream and river 
drainage pattern or a piped sewer system. 


4.3.4 ‘Water table’ 


The behaviour of a soil ‘water table’ is dependent on a 
number of factors - the topography, the type of soil, and 
the volume and intensity of precipitation according to the 
time of year. The regrading of pit heap areas is liable to 
have an effect on the watertable of the adjoining land and 
this can be particularly significant where the natural 
watertable of the area is high in relation to the surface of 
the ground. Any such possible alteration to the water- 
table and its consequences must be carefully studied before 
any regrading takes place. This is particularly important in 
relation to standing timber of any size. The conditions at 
the surface of regraded material will also be significant 
since the porosity of the ground surface will affect the 
percolation of water into the soil, affecting both water 
table level and subsequently the water availability in 
times of comparative drought. 


4.3.5 Ground water movement 


There are circumstances in which it is possible that a 
reduction in natural ground levels to form an even grade 
with opencast mine waste may result in the creation of a 
new springline, where the watertable has been artificially 
heldup by an impervious stratum. Similar conditions can 
occur when waste material is laid down on impervious 
strata. The flow of water will follow the falls of the 
natural ground and a spring line is likely to develop 
along the lowest part of the deposited material. A 
situation such as this is one requiring extremely careful 
investigation and a sound knowledge of the engineering 
principles of the design of earth structures to ensure that 


35 


in 


a stable situation is created (Tschebotarioff 1951, Krynine 
& Judd 1957, Capper & Cassie 1954). The same careful 
attention is necessary for the treatment of natural spring 
lines or even water courses likely to be covered over by 

fill material. It can hardly be necessary, after the lesson 
of Aberfan, to underline the dangers of flow slides 
resulting where deposition occurs on sloping sites 
undermined by ground water. 


4.3.6 Frost drainage 


The consideration of drainage extends to ensuring, as far as 
possible, the unimpeded drainage of cold air on the site, 
regardless of the afteruse. Thus undrained hollows or the 
placing of vegetation screens where cold air flows might 

be impeded must be avoided. 


4.3.7 Shelter 


Consideration, and the solution, of this problem will 
depend to some extent on the specific afteruse intended. 
Also affected by the afteruse will be the consideration 
of shelter provision, though this is also determined to a 
large extent by the dominant surrounding topography 
(Cabo 1965). Shelter belts can be used to diminish the 
effect of wind on soil, both in its cooling effect and by 
wind erosion of soil particles in ploughed arable land, 
with a resultant improvement in the microclimate of the 
area of the shelter belt. In addition we now have a 
reasonable understanding of the effects of shelter belts on 
snow in terms of shelter and drifting (Caborn 1967), and 
the possibilities of planting to divert frost and cold air 
drainage from areas requiring special protection. The 
creation of new landforms offers unique possibilities of 
combining favourable arrangements of ground formation 
with shelter planting to create ideal climate situations. 
This design work is influenced by the framework of the 
existing topography and its consequent local climatic 
variations. 


4.3.8 Engineering requirements 


The critical structural requirements of earth banks and 
similar structures only enter the scope of topographical 

or functional factors as here defined when either 

aesthetic decisions, or the functional requirements of 

land use,dictate the creation of steep banks and sharp 
angles. It is nevertheless important that the construction 
of new features out of deposited material must be 
structurally stable, and this involves investigation of the 
substrata and its relationship to ground water as previously 
indicated. It also involves ensuring that the surfaces of 
materials are stable which means that the angle of repose 
of the material must not be exceeded; on those sites where 
there is a large clay fragment in the shale, care must be 
taken to guard against rotational slip conditions developing 
(BSI Earthworks 1959). In fact the design usually 
formulated for regrading according to natural contours 
results in slopes very well below the structurally acceptable 
limits. The steepness of slopes is more usually dictated 

by other factors, the establishment of vegetation and 
minimising of slope erosion for example, or the economic 
maintenance of embankments which require slopes well 
below the critical structural level. 


4.3.9 Application to research sites 


The interaction of the dominant topography and the 
land use requirements of sites is demonstrated in section 


36 


5.4.7 where the application of both aspects to the 
research site is discussed. 


4.4 Functional requirements of land use 


The design of areas of regraded colliery waste material 

may be undertaken with any one of a number of end uses - 
in mind. The most desirable end use for a site within 

a particular area may not have been determined. The 
possibility must be allowed for changing circumstances 
between the time of reclamation and subsequent site 
development resulting in changed land use requirements. 


This presents two alternative possibilities as design 
approaches. The first as previously discussed is the 
creation of a site which has characteristics enabling it to be 
used for a number of purposes with a reasonably high 
degree of efficiency and convenience, while the second 
tailors the new landform and design details to one particular 
use, with the likely result that its adaptability is reduced. 
Before these extremes are reached there are anumber of 
factors general to many, if not all, likely afteruses which 
need to be taken into consideration. It should be under- 
lined here that the discussion refers to the climatic 
situation of the north east of England, and the range of 
afteruses which are possible in this climate and in the 

soils to be found here. Some limitations are also imposed 
as a result of human tradition and economics which 
dictate the choice of afteruse to conform with the pattern 
of development of an area. Investigation of nonconforming 
uses might well suggest that these could be established 
satisfactorily and such investigations should perhaps be 
encouraged. Except in those cases where an industrial, 
housing, or similar high density use is proposed for a site, 
it can be assumed that what is required is to create the 
best possible conditions to support plant growth, as this 
both indicates and is conducive to the development of 
landscape health. Buckman and Brady (1960) list 6 

factors influencing plant growth as: 


(a) Light 

(b) Mechanical Support 
(c) Heat 

(d) Air 

(e) Water 


(f) Nutrients 


It is therefore desirable to attain in all site developments 
the best conditions possible for plant growth under the 
listed headings. 


The study of these factors supports the general conclusion 
that better, and particularly earlier, growth is achieved 
from plants growing on south facing slopes as a result of 
longer and more intensive exposure to sunlight. The 
advantages of this improved growth are most likely to be 
found with land in agricultural use, either pasture or 
arable, and particularly with horticultural crops. Soils 
which, because of favourable aspect, offer ‘early bite’ 

are much favoured by farmers, and standard 
recommendations for the siting of orchards emphasise the 
advantage of a south and south west aspect. In addition 
the increased warmth of such an aspect improves the 
environment for human occupation for both industry and 
habitation. 


In the case of forestry on shale, on the contrary, experience 
has shown that with young trees better growth occurs on 


north facing slopes, for reasons thought to be connected 
with soil moisture tension (Richardson 1967). 


Attention to aspect is particularly important when 
dealing with areas intended for sitting, walking and 
picnicking where the landform is frequently used to 
provide suitable sites in full sun and out of the wind for 
casual family and social gatherings. Other more specialist 
landforms can be developed for theatrical and musical 
presentations and arenas for sport where the raised sides 
can be used to accommodate the audience. The develop- 
ment of this type of feature in the north east of England 
calls for attention to the maximum provision of shelter and 
the optimum use of sunlight which implies careful 
consideration of aspect in the design. 


4.4.5 Angle of slope 


Detailed land form design is governed by slope angles and 
direction which are dictated by the nature of the spoil 
material and by the way the site is to be used. A theoretical 
optimum angle of slope is that angle at which adequate 
surface drainage occurs without any erosion of soil 
particles. This occurs at an angle of between 1:40 to 1:50 
dependent on soil or spoil type. At angles above this 
erosion begins to assume significant proportions, while 
below it natural drainage does not take place. In field 
conditions the requirements of end uses usually dictate 
that this slope should be varied, necessitating the employ- 
ment of either artificial drainage or measures to combat 
excessive erosion. Where reclaimed land is to be used for 
pasture, giving a comparatively low return on capital 
expenditure, the expense of providing field drainage is 
frequently considered unjustified and slopes of 

between 1:30 and 1:40 are usually employed. These have 
been successful on the research project. Even at these 
slopes, without careful management, there is a danger that 
cattle will poach the ground, which can cause particular 
problems in the poorly structured ‘soil’ of reclaimed land. 
Where land is to be used for playing fields a shallower 
slope must be achieved to provide a surface which is 
sufficiently flat for ball games. This means that an 
artificial drainage pattern must be installed to ensure that 
excess water is taken away from the surface so that there 
is a good growth of grass and the playing surface is in a 
suitable condition for use in the wintertime, when the 
heaviest use is generally to be expected. 


On the majority of sites the large volume of material to be 
disposed necessitates the construction of some 
embankments. In open spaces for casual recreation, 
picnicking and nature study, the design may incorporate 
small hills. 


The design of such features must be undertaken within 
certain limitations of slope. Experience in Durham has 
suggested that an angle of slope greater than 1:5 to 1:6 
should not normally be adopted, as anything greater than 
this will not easily merge into the natural topography 

and will create problems of surface water drainage. Where 
a downward slope of this high angle approaches the 
boundary of a site, N has been the practice to reduce it 

to 1:20 so that the rate of flow of surface water is reduced. 
This helps the cut off ditches and drains to work efficiently 
and prevents flooding of the adjoining land. These points 
are discussed further in Chapter 7. 


In certain cases it may be desirable to create slopes 
Steeper than 1:5 to 1:6, and this may be possible in 


certain circumstances by the use of special techniques, 
some of which are discussed in Chapter 6. Although 

there are many examples of the satisfactory establishment 
of steep slopes on roadsides and in similar situations, it 
must be remembered that shales have their own particular 
problems of stability and chemical content. In general steep 
slopes need to be planted to maintain stability and tree 
planting undertaken to provide shelter and to eliminate or 
rather reduce the maintenance liability. It is important 
that species are selected with a light canopy which will not 
smother the shrub and ground cover layers necessary to 
maintain the surface stability of the slope. For certain 
special uses, notably artificial ski slopes, steeper slopes 

up to 1:2% are required, and these can be adopted in 

the knowledge that the artificial cover afforded by the 
skiing surface will provide some stabilization of the soil. 


The operating capabilities of machinery may be a more 
realistic limiting factor than the visual requirements on 
agricultural land. Where agricultural machines are to 
operate efficiently an angle of slope not greater than 1:10 
should be adopted. It is possible to make use of grass 
maintenance equipment which will operate on short 
slopes as steep as 1:1. The machine which can do this is 
a flail which can cut up or down a short slope from a 
tractor with a long arm standing on flat or near flat 
ground. The situations in which this type of equipment 
can be operated are obviously limited, and their use 

is only warranted where amenity overrides economic 
considerations. The use of grass cutters operating on the 
‘hovercraft’ principle are affected by the same limitations. 
They can be operated on slopes of 1:2. The steepest 
slope acceptable for reasonably efficient operation of 
standard grass cutting equipments is 1:34, well below 
the angle of repose of engineering soils other than organic 
soils or soils in an exceptionally wet condition (BS C.P. 
2003 1959 Table 3). This will be reasonably stable so 
long as the surface is held by some means, though this 
sort of slope can only be justified for small areas and 
where costly maintenance can be accepted. Even where 
forestry is to be undertaken on these slopes they may 
need special stabilising techniques and should in general 
be kept to a minimum. Particular precautions in the form 
of cut off drains need to be taken to prevent the 
flooding or silting of land at the bottom of slopes, but 
the expenditure and trouble involved is frequently well 
repaid by the greater area of land with favourable 

aspect which can consequently be developed. 


4.4.6 Nature of material 


Reference has been made to the nature of materials 

met on areas of colliery waste and their effects on the 
adjoining land, and on the watershed in which they exert 
their influence. The very varied chemical and physical 
properties of shale found on all coal sites may have a 
critical effect on decisions relating to the finished formations 
and the land use of individual sites. Some assessment of 
the material and its potential must be made at an early 
planning stage, before any proposals for land use or final 
landform. Details of the behaviour of various materials in 
relation to plant growth are given in Chapter 8. In 
addition to these limitations the liability to combustion in 
the material, dependent on combustible content, sulphides 
and air, will affect the suitability of the material, and thus 
the site, for certain uses. 


37 


Development of colliery land for industrial or housing 
SES S » undertaken only on heaps of 
al deriv more efficient washery 
The difficulties of assessing the contents of heaps, 
ature irements, and special 
s required to prevent combustion are discussed 
greater length in Chapter 6. It must however be said 
e that until further research can be undertaken into 
s aspect of the behaviour of colliery waste material, the 
t stringent precautions should be observed 
The wa which the nature of the shale may dictate the 
1 andform design has already been mentioned. Some 
iaterial may need to be buried and other material used as 
iressing. The nature of some spoils may be so 


lent to plant life, as to make their exposure 
ndesirable and this must be ascertained by investigations 

before any designing is undertaken. Similarly the presence 

large areas of fused material, in which single blocks 

can be many cubic metres in volume, presents problems 

of design (Fig.4.3). It is often not possible to break 

this material down, it is not susceptible to explosives, and 

it is frequently difficult to move by reason of its size. 

Consequently the design has to be manipulated to leave 

such material in place, with the limitations this imposes. 


The nature of material on site also affects the cost of 
earth moving operations, and this may be significant in 
determining in some cases the final landform of any 
design. Simple operations which can be undertaken with 
one machine.e.g. a scraper, working homogeneous material 
varying from loam to gravel particle size, are the ideal 
processes for efficient low cost reclamation works. The 
presence of wet material, slurry, fused material, or hot 
material, all of which are common in pit refuse, introduce 
complexities which slow down the operational cycle 

or involve additional machinery and handling, and 
increase costs. Often economics can dictate that such 
difficult materials should be left undisturbed. 


4.4.7 Economic operation of plant 


Wherever possible the cost factor also enters into the 
detailed design of new land form. A design which can be 
completely carried out using a scraper, without any 
ancillary equipment, to form embankments for example, 


will be cheaper to carry out than one in which additional 
machinery is required to complete the final shaping and 
placing of material. Hackett (1964) suggested that designs 
involving undulating landform are less expensive to carry 
out than designs consisting of geometric terracing , and 

that on any site over 0.1 ha (% acre) the cost differential 

of different design approaches is significant. Landform 
designs should therefore take account of the maximum 
operational angles, the turning circle, and performance data 
of the type of machine which, from its method of operation 
and size, is thought to be the most appropriate for the site 
to be developed. 


It is evident that any aspect of the design which causes 
any check in the free operational flow of the earthmoving 
process, or causes the introduction of special apparatus or 
a special process, must have a particular significance in the 
final design concept for it to be allowed to remain on 
economic grounds alone. 


4.4.8 Application to research sites 


The sites under treatment by the project offer a number of 
examples of the way in which the topographical framework 
of the site, and the proposed land use, control the design 
of earth shaping. Northbourne Park, Newcastle, can be 
quickly dismissed, as the earth shaping was a minor 

feature in an already strongly defined landform which 
suited admirably the recreational purposes related to 

river activities, for which the park is intended to cater. The 
site was one of the early schemes undertaken within the 
Project and did not involve any colliery waste. The 
proposal to leave the landform as existing and use trees 
and shrubs to further stabilise the bariks (1:1% gradient), 
was not at first received kindly by the Ministry of Housing 
and Local Government, and at one stage in the proceedings, 
the Inspector suggested regrading over the whole area. An 
exercise was carried out and this showed an average gradient 
of 1:4 would result and hence the area would be difficult 
to use for its intended purpose of public open space and 
also be difficult to maintain. It was finally agreed that by 
leaving the terraces and slopes in their present landform, 
areas of useable open space would be left. The use of 

trees and shrubs as acceptable reclamation elements for 

the stabilisation of steep slopes was eventually accepted 

for this site. 


Fig 4.3 Felling: conical heap and lumps of fused burned shale. 


38 


ond Nee 


— 


_At Egerton Gardens, the general topography of the area 
enabled the development of the site to the best functional 


advantages. The north slopes of the Tyne Valley at this 
point rise at an angle of approximately 1:10. Topography, 
function and aesthetics all combined to suggest a design 
with a series of platforms separated by steep banks. South 
facing sitting areas, with views across the valley are 
sheltered by being tucked into the banks. The site is free 
draining, discharging into the municipal sewers, and there 
were no problems of inhospitable parent material. The 
bank along the southern part of the site is at an angle of 
about 1:2. It has been thickly planted, and seeded with 
rough grass. An experiment to compare the merits of 
bitumen spraying and hydromulch techniques was 
unfortunately invalidated as a result of a contractor’s error, 
as previously indicated, but the establishment of vegetation 
on slopes has been successful, except where limited 

human interference has occurred. An experiment making use 
of P.V.A. (poly vinyl acetate) as a method of covering a 
section of slope after seeding resulted in poor germination 
and growth which it has not been possible to explain 
satisfactorily, though it has been used successfully 
elsewhere. The angle of slope of the platforms is 1:50 to 
1:60 and this appears to drain freely over the limited 

areas though it is assisted by the presence of some cut off 
drains at the base of embankments. 


Percy Pit site (Fig.4.3) involved a design which for the 

heap area combined one artificial aspect with a naturalistic 
one, as has already been shown in Chapter 3. The use of 
this part of the site for open space providing sheltered 
viewing platforms overlooking the Tyne valley, dictated 
the form of the design. Drainage of the site introduced 
some problems discussed further in Chapter 7, but as the 
site was drained into the main sewer system, no dangers 

of watercourse pollution arose. The angles of slope adopted 
in the design were well below those critical for slope 
stability, though sufficiently steep to necessitate the 
provision of special open channel cut off drains fo collect 
and hold storm water in severe cases until it could be 
carried away at the capacity of the sewers. The average 
slope was in the region of 1:7 to 1:9, while in one sector 
the provision of an artificial ski slope resulted in steeper 
angles, approximately 1:5 being proposed (Downing 1968). 


The eastern sector of the site, subject to com paratively 
minor regrading to provide two almost flat terraces for 
industrial development, was entirely dominated by 
functional requirements. Industrialists generally require 
flat sites for the development of factories and 

regrading for this purpose should obey these demands. 
Where some delay may occur between reclamation and 
development it may be necessary to grade to a slope of the 
order of 1:70 so that some drainage of surface water 

will occur naturally. This was carried out in the Percy 

Pit designs; obviously temporary tile drainage was 
unjustified, but some way of limiting standing water was 
also called for. It was also important to minimise the 
excavation required for later development. Hence the 
slope was selected to give run off of surface water 
without excessive regrading at the industrial development 
Stage. 


At Haswell Colliery, the design was dictated by the 


fincttonat requirements of agricultural pasture, but this 
has to be carefully combined with the topography of the 
site and neighbourhood. The site is in a watershed 


position, between streams draining to the west and east. 
The shale has been deposited for many years and there 
was little to suggest that surface water leaching through 
the site would result in watercourse pollution. Detailed 
investigations of this aspect were not completed due to the 
cessation of design work for the site. The position of the 
main bulk of material enabled the development of a 
small low hill with a long southerly slope at an angle of 
1:30 suitable for grazing land without underdrainage 
(Figs 4.4a and 4.4b). This would have enabled the site 
to be drained naturally into the two existing watercourses 
and resulted in a steep northerly slope on which shelter 
belt treeplanting would have been established. The 
higher areas, being more freely drained, were expected 
to provide good pasture throughout the year. Some 
parts more nearly at the surrounding ground level were 
expected to provide more lush summer pasture, but to 
be less suitable for winter use. Some form of mulch to 
maintain surface moisture and prevent excessive 
temperatures during the establishment of grass would 
have been included on southerly slopes. 


At Roddymoor the design proposals were predominantly 
influenced by the topography of the area: the major glacial 
valley divided into a series of small stream valleys, and 

a north-south and a west-east valley system united within 
the site area. The maintenance of this natural drainage 
pattern was a prime consideration in the design work and 
this has been extended into the adjoining National Coal 
Board opencast area whose restoration will maintain this 
feature, returning the whole area to a simulation of the 
natural drainage pattern. The proposed use of the land was 
for agriculture, and this involved obtaining the best southerly 
aspect for the largest possible area, leaving northern slopes 
of 1:3 to 1:4 for shelter belt planting. The angle of slope 
on areas of pasture has varied between 1:30 to 1:10 
resulting from the grading down of the main heap toa 
gentle rounded hill formation. The drainage of the site is 
into the natural stream pattern of the area and though 
some pollution downstream has developed, no serious 
complaints have been received. Some of the damage may 
be attributable to the excavation of material on the 
opencast site which has not been so long exposed to 
weathering as that of the reclaimed area. One example of 
the influence of site material on the-course of the design 
was the case of the slurry material which had to be dug 
out and spread in thin layers. This involved using light 
machines, constructing a red shale haul road and covering 
the spread slurry with 0.75 m (2 ft 6 in) red shale. 


It is interesting to note that at Roddymoor the farmer 
has selected the land with a south westerly aspect in the 
face of the prevailing wind in this locality as the most 
suitable part of the site on which to dry a crop of hay 
Other aspects of the site are apparently suitable for grass 
silage, except where the uneven settlement of the ground, 
due principally to burning material below the surface, 
makes the use of machinery impractical. On some parts of 
the land till erosion has resulted in an uneven surface 
which inconveniences the operation of machinery. 


The Seaton Burn, Big Waters site developed from a 
mining flash in the typically flat glacial plain of south-east 
Northumberland. The site is enclosed by shallow ridge 
lines to north and south. The Hartley Burn flows from the 
south west into the flash area pond. The watertable is high 
and this, coupled with the extremely shallow gradients 


39 


/ 


| 
eee 
YW 
/) G 
Se ee 


\ 
—_ 
, ‘ 
pas 


‘> 


yO ORIGINAL CONTOURS, 
\ “nee 7s ggg PROPOSED NEW LEVEL 


SEMI MATURE TREES 


- Aebtetbd er  —ISTING SHRUBS 


50 m(160ft) 


Fig. 4.4 (a and b) Haswell Colliery: plans for reclamation proposals. 


on site, makes it very wet. The site generally falls towards 
the burn and the pond at gradients between 1:36 and 1:250. 
The conditions prevailing before reclamation had resulted 
in the development of a fauna population of considerable 
interest, and the high watertable related to the lake level 
is being maintained so that the site develops as an area of 
interest to naturalists. The regrading of the eastern part 
of the site to form a low hill with shallow slopes rising 

6 m (20 ft) above the level of the lake, fits in with the 
gentle contours of the area and provides well drained 
pasture land. The lake glimpsed behind this new hill will 


40 


provide an interesting scenic incident on the new 
Wideopen By-Pass motorway. A portion of reclaimed land 
on the eastern side of the motorway will be devoted to 
forestry planting to screen the backyards of Wideopen. 


The Windynook site at Felling comprises several separate 
and distinct areas. As previously stated the attempt here 
has been to echo the natural character of the landscape of 
the area, though in some parts the development of areas 
suitable for playing fields has resulted in some dilution 

of the design ideal. Drainage of the site is entirely to the 


KEY 
PP ORIGINAL ConTOUms 


S wags PROPOREO Naw LEVELS 


~-? 


R 


DORR 5 Ro 
5 2 5Om a60rt) 


Stat MATURE TeEEs 


EXISTING, |ROAD 


existing piped mains and the elevated position of the site 
means that surface water is easily and rapidly dispersed. 
Minor damp areas of low lying ground have been identified 
but these can be drained without difficulty. Some 
attempts have been made to create shelter for parts of the 
Windynook Quarry and Whitehouse Farm areas by 
mounding of spoil on the north sides of these sites. This 
will be reinforced by treeplanting on the northern slopes. 
The Windynook Quarry area is to provide open space for 
casual recreation and this involves sheltered south facing 
areas of gently sloping land at an angle (1:30 approx.) 


TO BE ; [REMOVED -’ 


& 


ee el oe 


£ 


which will drain freely over the surface. The adjoining 
washery material area is to be reduced to original ground 
level for speculative housing development. The northerly 
aspect and the angle of slope (1:10 to 1:12) however 
render it somewhat short of the ideal for housing 
development. Both the Heworth Colliery Site and the 
Whitehouse Farm area are required as future playing 
field areas. In the former case, the topography prevents 
the achievement of a southerly aspect, though this is 
attained on the latter site. The National Playing Fields 
Association's recommendations for the slopes of winter 


41 


playing surfaces include ideal gradients of 1:60 to 1:80 
with the steepest maximum desirable slope in any direction 
given at 1:60(Gooch 1963). On the Felling site the 

lateral falls have been designed at 1:10 which, with 
underdrainage on reasonably permeable shale, should 

result in a serviceable surface in most conditions. 


At Maria Colliery the functional requirements of the use 
of the main site for industrial purposes, and the regrading 
of the pit material to a reconstruction of the original 
ground level of the clay pit, combine the functional and 
topographical aspects once more. The site is one where 
drainage is simple and there were no problems of aspect or 
steep slopes. 

The design for Copperas Lane is not yet sufficiently far 
advanced for comments to be made on the proposals. 


4.5 Conclusion 


The general conclusion suggested at the beginning of this 
chapter was that besides afteruse, both aesthetic idioms and 
topographical features must play a part in governing the 
design of the site. Beyond this it is difficult to draw out 
any general conclusions other than the truisms that 


(a) Landform and runoff are inseparable in design 
problems. 


(b) Landform design is a major influence in the 
development of the pattern of vegetation on a site. 


(c) The nature of the material is an important factor in 
design. 


Some sites can be reclaimed with a multi purpose potential, 
others have their dominant use ineradicably stamped upon 
them. The process of design is different in every case. The 
common denominator is the need to work with the site 
rather than against it, either suppressing undesirable 
characteristics where this is possible, or emphasising its 
strong features. The new topography should not limit the 
aesthetic or functional development of the site, neither 
should afteruse or aesthetics impose on topography. 

J.O. Simonds’(1961) statement that “for every site there 

is an ideal use. For every use there is an ideal site” indicates 
the need to study the qualities of each site and make one’ 
decision on landuse only after gaining information from 
site or landscape surveys. Following this course will 

result in designs which are visually acceptable, simply and 
economically executed, and functionally efficient. 


References 


British Standards Institute (1959) Earthworks. B.S. Code 
of Practice No. C.P. 2003 Section 4. Embankments. 
pp. 34-44. B.S.I. London. 


Buckman and Brady (1960) Nature and Properties of Soil. 
6th ed. Macmillan. 


Caborn, J.M. (1965) Shelter Belts and Windbreaks. Faber 
and Faber. London. 


Caborn, J.M. (1967) Planting against snow and winds. 
Roads in the Landscape Conference. M.O.T. 
British Roads, Keele University. 


42 


Capper, P.L. and Cassie W. Fisher (1854) The Mechanics 
of Engineering Soils. 2nd ed. E. & F. N. Spon., 
London. 


Challenger, S. (1967) The effects of air pollution on tree 
growth - a literature survey. Newcastle upon Tyne. 


Curtis, W.R. (1969) The effects of strip mining on the 
hydrology of a small mountain watershed. Proc. In.. 
Symp. on Ecology and Vegetation of Drastically 
Disturbed Area. 


Downing, M.F. (1968) Artificial Ski Slope Study, Percy Pit, 
Newburn on Tyne. University of Newcastle upon 
Tyne Landscape Reclamation Research Project. 


Gooch, R.B. (1963) Selection and Layout of Land for 
Playing Fields and Playgrounds. 2nd ed. N.P.F.A., 
London. 


Hackett, B. (1960) Basic Design in Land Form. Journal 
of I.L.A. No. 49, pp. 7-9. 


Hackett, B. (1964) Land Modelling. Public Works and 
Municipal Service Conference. 


Hackett, B. (1964) Landform Design and Cost Factors. 
Landscape Architecture. Vol. 54, pp. 273-275. 


Hepworth, B.(1952) Carvings and Drawings. Lund 
Humphries and Co. Ltd., Chapter 6. 


Jellicoe, G. (1966) Studies in Landscape Design. Vol. Il. 
Oxford. 


Krynine, D.P. and Judc, W.R. (1957) Principles of 
Engineering Geology and Geotechnics. McGraw Hill, 
London. pp. 591-635. 


Lake, J.R. (1968) Unburnt Colliery Shale - Its possible 
use as roadfill material. Road Research Laboratory 
M.O.T. Crowthorne. 


Laurie, I.C. (1965) Tyne Landscape. Consultants Report. 
Unpublished. 


Lowenthal and Price (1965) English Landscape Tastes. 
Geographical Review. Vol. IV, No. 2. pp. 186-222. 
American Geographical Society, N.Y. 


Richardson, J. A. and Greenwood, E.F. (1967) Soil 
moisture tension in relation to plant colonisation of 
pit heaps. Proceedings of the University of 
Newcastle upon Tyne Philosophical Society. 

Vol. 1, No. 9, pp. 129-136. 


Simonds, J.O. (1961) Landscape Architecture. lliffe Books, 
London. 


Stacy (1957) Increase in dry weight of plants related to 
temperature. Agronomy Journal. 


Stoughton, R. H. (1955) Light and Plant Growth. 
R.H.S. Journal. 


Tschebotarioff, G.P. (1951) Soil Mechanics, Foundations 
and Earth Structures. McGraw Hill, London. 
pp. 169-199. 


Underwood, C.V. (1967) Mechanical Grass Maintenance. 
Roads in the Landscape Conference. M.O.T. 
British Roads, Keele University. 


Chapter 5 Earthworks: outline of methods 
used within the project 


by M.F. Downing 


5.1 Introduction 


The foregoing chapter has attempted to indicate the factors 
which influence the design of earth work operations in the 
creation of a new landform design. It is now necessary to 
look at some of the techniques adopted in the project in the 
preparation of schemes for design, and at some methods 
used by others. There is considerable divergence in the 
methods adopted in the field of landscape reclamation. This 
extends to the degree of accuracy and detail considered 
desirable for survey and for design, for calculation of 
quantities, and even to the scale at which design work is to 
be undertaken. Some general discussion on this aspect may 
well be appropriate here as an introduction to the more 
detailed information in subsequent sections. The degree of 
accuracy and detail adopted for the survey and calculation 
should be the highest possible taking into consideration the 
inherent limitations in precision of site operations. If 
operations on site are to be undertaken by earthmoving 
machinery which is vertically accurate only to 0.1 m, there 
is obviously no advantage in calculating everything to 

0.01 m. Additionally, it is well known that the calculation 
of very precise quantities and very accurate measurements 
of height and area in plan often involves a greatly 

increased outlay in terms of man power, and therefore 
cost, than a survey to less rigorous standards. The 
limitations of machinery operating on site are not the only 
factors apart from increased survey costs, which limit 

the degree of accuracy and detail at which it is necessary 

to operate for design purposes. Everyone experienced in the 
commonly used methods of plan reproduction is aware of 
the limited reliability that can be placed on the accuracy 
of these documents. Whyte (1969) suggests that since it 

is difficult to plot on paper actual measurements smaller 
than 0.2 mm it is pointless to measure more accurately in 
scale on the ground. At scale 1:500, 0.2 mm represents 

0.1 m so this may be adopted as the appropriate level of 
accuracy providing this is applied to any dimension and no 
cumulative error ensues. This, of course, does not allow for 
errors arising from shrinkage, expansion etc. of paper, 
negatives, and copy negatives. 


5.2 Survey 


The gathering of survey information for derelict land 
reclamation follows the common pattern adopted before 
major designs can be undertaken. It includes the 
topography of the site and its adjoining area, the significant 
landscape features on and off site including vegetation, 
geology, soil types or types of deposited materials, 
drainage - in short all the factors which have already been 
outlined in Chapter 4 as influencing landform design. In 
addition to this, the presence of services, rights of way, 

or easements over the site obviously must be established and 
recorded. The future use of a site is determined to a large 


degree by its existing features, but these are not the only 
factors, nor in the case of derelict pit heap landscapes 
when a complete revision of the topography is due to take 
place, are these as important as they would be on a more 
normal site. A great number of social or economic 
planning considerations also dictate the land use decisions, 
and these can outweigh the landscape factors with the 
result that the proposed land use may be less than ideal 
from a landscape point of view. 


5.2.1 Topographical survey 


The delineation of the topographical features of a site is the 
most important basic requirement for the carrying out of 

a design. This information may be obtained either from a 
team of surveyors working on the ground or by photo- 
grammetric methods of aerial survey. Both methods are 
liable to some inaccuracy. Ground methods of surveying 
are based on selecting average readings, whether in triangula- 
tion or in the mapping of contours through a grid of 
levels, whilst photogrammetry is subject to scale inaccuracy 
in the plan preparation stage. But a very high degree of 
accuracy is not necessary since this would exceed the 
operating accuracy of the contract works. For further 
discussion of the “needless refinements of figures” see 
Clark (1949). It will be obvious that for small sites, or 
those with low rates of topographical variation, surveying 
can be undertaken by a team of field surveyors using 
triangulation, or more rarely plane table methods and 

grids of spot levels. The use of a grid with the individual 
spot level on the grid representing an average height of 

the area of land surrounding it introduces the element of 
averaging already mentioned. The accuracy of this method 
obviously depends on the size of the grid selected and this 
is influenced by the rate of change in topography and 
minor irregularities of the land surface. Where there are 
very large changes in gradient and the surface is 

extremely broken, a close grid will be necessary to 

achieve even an approximation of the topography. This 
will involve many changes of station and tedious operating 
over steeply sloping terrain. The smallest grid likely to 

be adopted on limited sites with complex surface 
characteristics is 10 m square (imperial measure used 

25 ft). For one hectare (2.47 acres) this would involve 
taking 1000 spot levels, and even then the accuracy of 
interpolated contours, or of the average height assumption, 
is highly questionable. There are many derelict sites where 
the changes in level which may occur in a distance of 


10 m (33 ft) could make the spot level chosen totally 
unrepresentative. Where this situation occurs only locally, 
it is possible to take intermediate levels, but this is 

plainly not conceivable all over a site where a reduction to a 
5 m square grid would quadruple the number of readings 
while only marginally increasing the accuracy of the 

survey. These limitations apply no matter what method of 


43 


assessing levels is chosen, since there is an inherent plus or 
minus error in photogrammetry, and because of this 
extreme sophistication of calculation is invalid. 


On larger sites, 50 ha (125 acres) or more, a grid of 50m 
squares (equated with 150 ft) may be adopted, this being 
the maximum acceptable grid size even on land with 

little topographical variation, and would involve over 300 
grid point spot levels. If a grid of 25 m (82.5 ft) is used 
(which is a useful mean for grids on all but the largest sites, 
but see Fig.5.3) this will involve taking over 650 individual 
readings on a site of 50 ha (125 acres). The marginal 
advantage in accuracy of a 20 m (66 ft) grid is outweighed 
by the additional readings necessary ; for a 50 ha (125 
acres) site the total number would be in excess of 1000. 
Under normal ground conditions it is estimated that for 
small sites ground survey methods are cheaper than 
photogrammetric methods; Whyte (1969) quotes 5 ha as 
being the point at which aerial survey may start to be 
cheaper than field survey work. Calculations of aerial 
survey quotations made in the early years of this 

project suggest that the breaking point is considerably 
higher than 5 ha (12.5 acres). In the case of highly 
contorted derelict land, however, the figure may be well 
below this amount for a ground survey involving a great deal 
of time to obtain the required number of levels. There 

are however so many variables that these together with 
changing costs for labour and machine operations make it 
extremely difficult to make any firm general statement of 
comparative costs which would have any meaning. 


Aerial survey methods are now being adopted in this 
country by the Ordnance Survey for the revision of some 
features of its existing maps, the scale for the work 

being 1:1250. This scale has been found convenient for 
many reclamation sites particularly where the land is to 
be returned to agricultural use. For small sites, and where 
closer attention to detail is required, a scale of 1:500 may 
be adopted and gives a more accurate delineation of the 
site. The following table is based on information set down 
by Whyte in a table on vertical photography for planning 
and engineering works. It shows the relation of scale of 
finished plan to photography commonly used, the 
vertical and hoizontal accuracy and the minimum 
possible contour interval which can be depicted. 


Table 5.1 Levels of accuracy and detail for aerial 
survey plan reproduction (after Whyte 1969) 


Plan Photo Flying Accuracy Minimum 
scale scale height plan Spot- possible 
(above (m) height contour 
ground) (m) interval 
(m) (m) 
1:500 1:3000 450 +015 +009 05 
1:1000 1:4000 600 +020 +012 O05 
1:1250 1:5000 750 +0:25 +015 0-75 
1:2500 1:10000 1500 +051 +030 1:5 


S———<<—{${$$—$_—$——————— ——————— 0 


This represents the best conditions of reproduction; semi 
dry copying will undoubtedly reduce the accuracy of 
scaled distances. The theoretical minimum possible 
contour interval is seldom reached except on even sites, 
and in many cases it is often desirable when complex 
topography results from deposition and subsequent 
shale extraction to select contour intervals 

sufficiently far apart to give a legible expression of the 
topography. Thus, for clarity, it is frequently desirable 
to select 5 ft intervals for contours at 1:500 scale rather 
than | ft or even 2 ft intervals (Figs 5.1 and 5.2). S.I. 
equivalents would be 2 m and % m for the two latter 
closer intervals. Where subtle changes in levels, or very 
accurate land forming is needed, for example adjoining 
existing property, it may be necessary at this scale to 
introduce 4 m contours, although this can only be 
done for a limited area. 


At 1:1250 scale a vertical interval of 2 ft (0.6 m) is 
normally adopted. Here again the complexity of some 
sites may lead to the adoption of a 5 ft (2 m) interval 
(Fig.5.3).The same contours can be used at 1:2500 
scale ( Fig.5.4). 


The majority of sites with which the project has been 
concerned were designed at 1:500 scale using 5 ft 
contour intervals (the nearest S.I. equivalent being 2 m) 
based on photogrammetric surveys. On some smaller sites, 
notably Maria Colliery, 2 ft (0.6 m) contour intervals 


ly \y 


Fig. 5.1 1 ft contours at scale 
1:500 are often difficult to 
read when abrupt changes in 
topography are to be 
delineated, and less detailed 
contour plans may give a 
clearer overall picture. 


Fig. 5.2 This shows a plan at 
1:500 scale with 2 ft contours. 
Even this degree of detail may 
be too great for some 
purposes and a 5 ft contour 
distance accepted. 


Fig 5.3 Plan scale 1:1250, 
contour interval 2 ft produces 
a mass of barely legible detail. 


Fig. 5.4 Rough plan at 
1:2500 scale with 5 ft 
contours. 


45 


were used. At Roddymoor, where the site was to be 
returned to agricultural pasture land, the scale chosen 

was 121250. At Big Waters, survey information was 
compiled from enlargements of the Ordnance Survey with 
the contour information obtained by means of a field 
survey conducted by the University Department of 
Surveying. 


5.2.2 Landscape survey 


A limited form of landscape survey is of value in the 
preparation of earthworks drawings, and at this stage use is 
frequently made of the information collected for the final 
design stage. In reality it is difficult to separate the parts 
of the design process into watertight compartments, and 

it is readily accepted that all the principles of the design 
must be established before the details of one aspect, such as 
earthmoving, can be investigated. In many cases the 

design of a new landform is so much the major part of a 
reclamation scheme as to comprise virtually the whole 
design. The landscape survey must include the information 
already mentioned on the topographical features of the 
landscape surrounding the site, the drainage pattern of the 
area, and the soils and geology of the district. It must also 
include, for example, climatic factors such as shelter, 
freedom from frost, and air drainage, and liability to 
pollution from atmospheric sources. Techniques of land- 
scape survey are set out in a number of standard works and 
have been the subject of papers by Barnard (1965) Vyle 
(1967) and discussion (Riddell and Downing 1967). 


The landscape survey should also include an assessment of 
existing vegetation on site, the positions of which will 

have been noted in the topographic survey. This information 
will provide a most useful guide to the status of material 

in the heap and in its vicinity. 


Derelict sites frequently call for particularly careful atten- 
tion to discover the presence of unsuspected objects. Many 
sites date from the era of the private coal operator, and 
while the National Coal Board provides the most accurate 
information it has available about pit shafts in particular, 
and old buildings, foundations and other structures, it 

is always advisable to proceed cautiously on site, since the 
accuracy of old maps and surveys cannot be guaranteed. In 
addition to knowledge of the exact location of shafts, 
details of the method of capping or filling of the shaft 

and the level at which this has been carried out, may be 
vague and require some site investigation. Additionally, 
close investigation of the structures and foundations on 
site may reveal problems of demolition and removal 

not readily detected during superficial inspection. Some 
allowance must be made for this sort of unforeseen 
contingency in costing projects. Such a contingency 
occurred at Maria Colliery where an extra payment was 
granted for the demolition of a foundation, the extent and 
complexity of which were impossible to foresee. 


At Haswell Colliery information regarding the presence of 
shafts was obtained from the Estates Branch of the 

National Coal Board, who were able to indicate the position 
of shafts including balance weight staples, all of which 

had been filled by the N.C.B. in 1952. 


At Roddymoor, while some of the coke ovens on the site 
were visible and had in fact been carefully dismantled, 
another rank buried under the shale of the heap was only 
discovered during operations. 


These notes show that the landscape survey needs to be 
extended to a careful investigation on site and by searches 
with the appropriate authorities to establish the position 
of any features which are not obviously visible and can 
lead to additional work or danger. 


46 


5.2.3 Services and easements 


On all sites in the project involving spoil movement it has 
obviously been necessary to plot services, particularly 

those which lie underground, as accurately as possible. Not 
only is there a danger of disrupting services during excava- 
tion with the dangers this presents, but there is also a 

very real maintenance problem when the services are to 

be buried more deeply than originally laid. The accuracy of 
information from statutory undertakers needs always to be 
regarded with some caution. Where any doubt exists the 
authority should be asked to mark the line of the service 
on site. Statutory undertakers usually stipulate very 
precise depths of cover to be maintained over services 

and this can act as a limiting factor in regrading since 
re-routing major services is prohibitively expensive. The 
profile of an extensive area of the site at Copperas Lane has 
been closely controlled by the line and elevation of a 

30 in water supply main crossing the site. 


5.2.4 General information 


Other information has to be gathered to build up a 
complete picture of the site and its surroundings, both at 
the time of the survey and later during development. The 
local planning authority’s preference for the development 
of an area is usually expressed in local development plans 
in which appropriate forms of development for the site to 
be reclaimed are indicated if not specifically, then by 
general development proposals for the area. Experience on 
the project has shown that it is unwise to embark on 
design projects on land which has not already been 
acquired by the local authority. It is, of course, possible for 
a local authority to undertake work on land it does not 
own and which is to remain in private hands, but this is 
eligible for grant only under very special circumstances. 
Difficulties of acquiring land for reclamation work have 
been experienced on two project sites: Percy Pit and 
Haswell Colliery. On the first site difficulties arising from a 
leasehold agreement led to a stalemate over agreement for 
compensation, whilst on the second, local authority 
compulsory purchase was opposed by the lessees, who were 
shale extractors. The Ministry agreed that the Local 
Authority’s intention to reclaim the land was not 
sufficiently urgent to override the need to extract the 
mineral. 


When ownership is established, the presence of any 

public footpaths, rights of way or easements, whether 
public or private, needs to be ascertained. The presence of 
squatters on derelict land is quite common, and it is 
possible that by virtue of length of establishment on a 

site some rights will have been acquired by the squatter. 
Agricultural tenancies may also present problems in 
relation to the progress of reclamation of the land. It is as 
well that the presence of tenants and squatters is clearly 
established at an early stage, so that the appropriate 

action may be taken. At St. Anthony’s (Northbourne Park) 
there was a tenant with an unexpired lease who had to be 
given adequate notice to quit. The contractor co-operated 
by working around the area of the tenancy, completing the 
works when the tenant was finally evicted. This is not, 
however, a happy situation and relies heavily on the 
goodwill of the contractor. 


Where parts of sites adjoin public highways, it is clearly 
desirable to obtain information from the local highway 
authority so as to take account of any proposals for 
present or future road widening, highway control lines and 


where appropriate, lines of sight. With the development of 
the design proposals, the information may be extended 

to cover enquiries as to suitable sites for depositing 
material from the site to be reclaimed, or sources of 
covering material. At Maria Colliery the design problem 
was solved by removing the heaps into an adjoining clay 
pit. At Felling, it initially appeared that a satisfactory design 
could not be achieved without exporting considerable 
quantities of the shale. It was necessary to investigate 

the possible sites for deposition, and their distance from 
the reclamation site together with methods of transport- 
ation and the costs. Methods such as rail, road and even 
hydraulic pipeline were investigated in relation to the need 
for fill for a riverside area about eight miles from the site 
at Jarrow Slake. The proposed alternatives were all 
prohibitively expensive and this investigation was 
discontinued. Subsequently investigations into the 
importation of material to act as a top dressing for the 
very acid shale were put in hand. This involved clay and 
topsoil from existing road and building works near to 

the site where the material could be obtained and 
transported reasonably economically. 


The economic use of material from derelict sites should 
not be entirely ignored. In most cases, sites with 
recognised or suspected economic value are not made 
available by the owners or lessees without protest and 
one can generally assume that a site released by the 
National Coal Board has no economic worth. 
Nevertheless the possibility that some economic 

return may be obtained to offset the high costs of 
reclamation should always be borne in mind, particularly 
in a world in which demand and economic circumstances 
can change so rapidly. 


5.3 Geochemical investigations 


The variation in shale materials, both physical and 
chemical, is dealt with in detail in Chapter 8 of this volume. 
It is sufficient to mention here that standard procedures 
have now been evolved whereby the chemical and physical 
properties of the shale can be assessed for its potential to 
support plant growth and form soil. This is important 
since the quality of shale in different sectors of a site may 
affect the regrading proposals. Some materials may need to 
be deeply buried because they are toxic or have a high 

coal content; others because they are composed of lum ps 
of fused material which cannot be broken down either 
mechanically or by erosion. Some red shales, on the other 
hand, appear to have excellent soil forming and plant 
supporting qualities, and can be used as a top dressing 

over other less suitable materials. 


It has become common practice to employ specialists 

to undertake a specific series of tests on the materials on 
site to establish its likely future behaviour and potential 
and this practice has been followed on the research 
project. This is not so much from the point of view of 
its soil forming potential, which is established by a series 
of soil science tests discussed in Chapter 8 and carried 
out by a soil scientist, but to establish its stability, 
combustibility, sulphur content, and the presence of 
gases. This is usually undertaken by the setting out of a 
grid to give surface samples which can provide a 
representative picture of the material covering the site. 
Deep bore hole samples are also taken at varying depths at 
selected points on the site. These are chosen where the 


Table 5.2 Check list of survey information used for 
design of earthworks for reclaimed landscape, 
particularly oriented to colliery spoil areas. 


Information Source 


Aerial survey, 

OS plan or ground survey 
plus ground spot level 
survey. 


1. Contours 


either 


2. Landscape survey 

a) Existing vegetation species Site observations 
age and condition. 

b) Shale types (visual 
classification) 

c) Vegetational cover 
of shales. 

d) Natural soil types 
(Where present) 


N.A.A.S. or simple 
classification. 


e) Geology Geological survey. 
f) Surface water drainage Site observation (see also 4) 
pattern 


g) Aspect, shelter 
exposure, etc. 

h) Visual aspects, views, 
areas of containment, 
ridges, dominant 
features 

i) Structures and 
foundations on site 


” ” 


3. Features on site not readily visible 

a) Pit shafts National Coal Board 
Area Chief Surveyor 

b) Counter balance weight ai i 

staples 

c) Coke ovens 

d) Structures 

e) Foundations 


4. Services 
a) Electricity Underground (C.E.G.B. & 
" Overhead Area Board 
b) Gas Underground Area Board 
c) Water Underground Local Water Authority 


d) Telephone Underground Post Office 
Overhead 
e) T.V./Radio Underground’ Rediffusion 
f) Main sewers Local Authority 
g) Other underground Local Planning Authority 
pipelines (oil etc.) 
h) Surface water 
culverts 


National Coal Board, Area 
Chief Surveyor. 
Local Authority (see also 2) 


5. Landownership etc. 
a) Land ownership Local Authority 
Ministry of Agriculture 


Land Registry 


b) Tenancies Landowner 
c) Public Rights of Way Local Planning Authority 
d) Easements Landowner 


e) Highway control lines 
of adjoining roads 


Local Highway Authority 


6. General Information 
County or District 
planning proposals 
for area of sites 


7. Geochemical Site 


Local Planning Authority 


Specialist consultants 


Investigation 
8. ‘Soil’ condition Soil Science Department of 
Investigations University. 


—— 


47 


material is thickest or where some particular problem 
may be encountered. For surface samples, a site of some 
16 ha (40 acres) might be adequately covered by 100 
samples, as was the case at Felling area 3. This, it will 

be appreciated, is a figure which can be greatly varied 

to suit different sites. Generally, it is possible to detect 
superficially the major changes in the composition of 
material, and the grid will be constructed so that each 
change is adequately represented in the samples.Deep 
boring is an expensive operation and so the num ber of 
sam ples that can be taken in this way is very limited. 
This introduces a large element of chance into the 

sam pling due to the heterogeneous nature of the contents 
of most shale heaps. Unless large sums of money are to 
be expended initially this has to be accepted, and if 
problems are revealed it may be necessary to undertake 
further boring to get a clearer picture of the inside of 
the heap. 


5.3.1 Heat 


One of the first questions for investigation in the survey 

of a pit heap is the temperature within the heap. The 
presence of hot material in a pit heap will clearly direct 
the method of working to avoid aggravating the condition, 
and mean that additional work may be involved to cut 

out the heating area and render the heap relatively harmless 
after regrading, which would not be the case were any 

hot pockets allowed to remain. The presence of severe 
heating can be detected by the use of a surface probing 
thermometer with a probe approximately | m in length 
which can be plunged into the surface of the material. 
This may, however, only indicate surface heating, as was 
experienced in a series of small heaps at Big Waters. In 

this case, the surface of the heap reached high 
temperatures, and smoke and flames were frequently to be 
seen, whereas the centre of the heap was known to be 
almost completely unaffected by heating. Use can be made 
of the boreholes drilled to provide core samples to give 


temperature readings of the interior of the heap at different 
levels. This is done using a thermocouple lowered into the 
borehole which is then plugged. Some time is allowed to 
elapse for the temperature reading to become steady, as 

it is liable to be affected by the drilling operation and 

the passage of air into the heap, and the temperature is 
read at 15 minute intervals until stable. From the readings 
taken it is sometimes possible to build up a reasonably 
com prehensive picture of the temperature regime inside a 
heap. The presence of serious heating problems may call 
for prolonged investigation and the retention of thermo- 
couples in the heap to detect trends, such as serious rises 
in temperature or spread of the areas of heating. Methods 
of dealing with hot areas are discussed in Chapter 6. 


5.3.2 Gas analysis 


It has been found desirable to carry out additional tests in 
some circumstances, particularly where heating is occurring, 
to determine the presence of toxic gases such as carbon 
monoxide and dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and hydrogen 
sulphide, all of which could be dangerous to operatives 
working on the heap. It is likely that gas analysis will need 
to be carried out on all sites; early investigations of pit heaps 
have established which gases are likely to be encountered, 
and it may only be necessary to undertake tests where a 
specific hazard is anticipated. Even then the gases likely to 
be responsible for these dangers are, with the exception of 


48 


carbon monoxide, to be easily detected. Carbon monoxide 
can be guarded against by the wearing of sensitive discs 
by operatives where its presence is suspected. 


5.3.3 Materials 


The physical nature of materials found on site has been 
determined by the standard procedures of the grading 
analysis (by sieving), the index classification test, and the 
sedimentation analysis using the pipette sampling method 
(BS 1377 test 12), all of Which are described in standard 
textbooks of Engineering Soil Mechanics (BS 1377:1967). 
These provide information on the strength and stability of 
spoil materials which may not be immediately relevant 
except where construction is proposed on site or where the 
material is to be shaped into steep banks or considered for 
load bearing bases. They may also provide valuable 

records for future reference, particularly where a change to 
some more intensive use is proposed. It is also desirable to 
test samples for moisture content. 


5.3.4 Combustibles 


Tests have also been applied to samples to establish the 
presence of combustible materials, either by determination 
of free coal as on earlier sites, or by total combustibles 
from loss of weight on ignition at 800°C. 


5.3.5 Sulphates 


Simple tests have been used to determine the free sulphur 
content and the sulphur trioxide content of shale soils. 
The value of these tests is questionable in the light of the 
very complex chemical regime of coal shales. At present 
work in a number of centres on the status of pyrites is 
aimed at arriving at more conclusive understanding of 

the availability of sulphur in various forms under differing 
conditions of spoil. The simple tests may, however, be 
adequate for the assessment of the effect of the materials 
on concrete and bricks used in drainage and building 
construction. Further discussion of this topic is found in 
Chapter 8. 


5.3.6 pH 


Experiments on the project and on other shale sites have 
shown that it is necessary for pH tests to be undertaken, 
using pH meters with glass electrodes, to obtain accurate 
readings of the low pH commonly discovered on shales. The 
use of the British Standard method of pH test involving 

a colorimetric technique which does not give a reading 
below pH 4 is of no value except at the initial field 

testing stage, and should be specifically excluded from the 
required works. 


5.4 Earthwork computations 


Clark (1953) classifies the methods of calculation of 
volumes according to whether the solid to be measured is 
defined by (a) cross sections, (b) spot levels or (c) contour 
lines. Writing before the development of computers, he 
favoured the cross section method and suggested that using 
spot levels is useful occasionally where large excavations 
are concerned, but that the method of contours is suitable 
only for rough calculation. This argument will be well 
known to engineers and surveyors. 


Roberts and Stothard (1968) have shown how recent work 
with computers at the Road Research Laboratory, and 


studies of alternative road design calculation methods, have 
suggested that a grid of levels may be the most appropriate 
method for calculating earth movement for highway 
design. It is well within the required scale of accuracy for 
this work, and has the advantage that regular grids may be 
transferred direct from the original aerial survey to the 
computer data bank (Craig and Burns 1967). The 
application of this type of system to reclamation 
calculations is at present under study. The degree of accuracy 
which is obtainable from a grid of levels on exceptionally 
broken ground, such as is frequently met on reclamation 
sites, may not favour the use of this approach on such sites, 
a point already made in relation to field surveys of sites. 
Different sites within the project have made use of 
different methods of earthworks calculation depending on 
the size and topography. 


5.4.1 Grid method 


The use of the grid method, despite the limitations in 
relation to existing ground which have already been 
expressed, has been adopted at several project sites 
particularly for preliminary design calculations, with the 
final calculations being undertaken by another method. 
Where the existing topography was sufficiently even to 
enable the method to provide the final design quantities, 
as at the Big Waters site, a grid interval of 100 ft (30 m) 
was adopted. The calculation of the major earthworks was, 
in this case, achieved with a grid of 108 spot levels. This 
scale of grid is adopted by the National Coal Board for 

its opencast works and it may well be that while potential 
error is satisfactory in relation to the very large volumes of 
material moved in open cast operations, a greater degree of 
accuracy is required where the depth of material moved is 
small and the potential margin of error is large in 
proportion to the volume of excavation and deposition. The 
steepness of the sides of the heap and the changes of 
gradient of the material at Roddymoor meant that, even 
with careful centring of the grid, the use of the 100 ft 

(30 m) interval resulted in considerable errors. 


At Maria Colliery and Haswell Colliery, a 30 ft (9 m) grid 
was adopted. In the first of these sites this appears, from 
the finished levels and comparison of the contractor’s spoil 
movement records with the calculated quantities, to have 
oie a reasonable degree of accuracy. Haswell Colliery, 
owever, was a case where shale extraction operations 
had taken place, and the ground surface was exceedingly 
uneven with the result that the volumetric result obtained 
has to be considered with some caution. Despite the problem 
of accuracy, this method is a very useful design system 
enabling the designer to obtain a quick approximation of the 
volumetric consequences of new grading proposals. Even 
if this has subsequently to be checked by other methods 
and final amendments made, it is still worth doing to 
reduce calculation complexity in the formulation of the 
design. At Maria Colliery, the quantity surveyor undertook 
an independent check by means of cross sections of the 
volumetric calculations obtained by the grid method and 
reached a close enough agreement for the volumes to be 
accepted for contract purposes. At Percy Pit, where the 
pattern and areas of movement of material were very clear 
and simple, with a conical pit heap to be reduced and 
large specific areas of cut and fill, a grid of 30 ft (9 m 
approx.) was adopted as being reasonably representative of 
the changes in topography on site. This meant reading over 
900 spot heights, and possibly a larger grid could have 


been used without significant loss of accuracy. The simple 
shape of the heap on site enabled the use of the contour 
method for balancing the cut and fill, as it was possible to 
balance the fill quantities required against a cut of 
varying thickness of the cone until a reasonable balance 
was achieved. 


5.4.2 Computer application of the grid method 


Indications have already been given in this chapter of the 
application of computers to the calculation of earth work 
volumes in the design of highways in which a grid of levels 
is the basis of the method. The accuracy obtainable with a 
rigid grid, which may not reflect detailed changes in level, 
is a limiting factor to its use on reclamation sites, which as 
already indicated, may have very broken topography. Set 
against this is the fact that the square grid has great 
advantages in ease of recording, storing and recalling data. 
Craig and Burns (1967) indicate that the accuracy of this 
type of grid is a function of the spacing adopted, and 
recommend a method involving variable spacing according 
to the topographical requirements. Work on grid 
accuracies is still in progress at the Road Research 
Laboratory, but from Craig and Burns’ work, Roberts and 
Stothard were able to suggest relationships between grid 
point spacing and contour and ground shape which give an 
acceptable accuracy. This may be used as a guide in both 
computer and manual operations of the grid method of 
volume calculations. 


Table 5.3 Grid point spacing related to ground & contour 
shape (after Roberts & Stothard). 


General ground shape (average slopes) 


Contour shape 1:100 1:50 1:25 1:10 
Regular 150 100 75 50 
(50) (35) (25) (20) 
Uneven 100 75 50 25 
(35) (25) (20) (10) 
Very irregular 75 50 25 25 
(25) (20) (10) (10) 


Table originally published in feet, S.1. equivalents (m) in 
brackets. 


The fact that the requirement for accuracy of finished 
levels on reclamation sites is so much less critical than 

on highways may make the system acceptable, in spite 

of the inherent inaccuracies, because of the ease of use. A 
series of exercises to compare the acceptable levels of 
accuracy with those actually achieved with different 
methods of computation would provide a valuable insight 
into the methods available, and might even suggest those 
most suitable for general application. 


Craig and Burns (1967) indicated the value of investigating 
a columnar method of calculating earth volumes in 
highway work and particularly at traffic interchanges. An 
interesting adaptation of this use of a regular grid on a 
reclamation site was that used by Messrs. Costain Mining 
Ltd., for the Acorn Bank open cast site at Bedlington, 
Northumberland. Here the land was to be restored to 
agriculture after the extraction of the coal. Rigorous 
requirements in relation to the level of the adjoining land, 
angles of slope, and drainage were in force, and the firm’s 


49 


operational research department were able to make use of 
computer operations to provide a series of solutions giving 
finished levels in which the relationship of adjoining and 
adjacent grid points satisfied a mathematical relationship. 
Concurrently it was possible to select the solution giving 

the minimum oversite transportation of material. The 
computer programmes used have not been published but 

the method was described in a paper given at the Operational 
Research Society's annual conference, Sept. 1966 (Caruthers 
and Canvin 1966). It should be noted, however, that such 
areas are usually less complex topographically than are 
colliery spoil areas, and therefore do not involve the 
calculator with a multiplicity of measurement. 


5.4.3 Contour method 


It is widely accepted that this method is suitable only on 
certain sites where the existing topography is reasonably 
simple and clearly defined. The system, depending on 
measurement with a planimeter and defining areas of cut 
and fill, will be familiar to all surveyors. The ease of design 
manipulation afforded by this method commends it on 
those sites where the topography permits easy identification 
of cut and fill sectors and measurements of areas. Its 
limited application needs little emphasis and it has not 

been suitable for computer use. 


5.4.4 Cross section method 


This method is as well known as the others previously 
mentioned and requires no description. 


A good example of the way in which this method is used 
is provided by notes prepared by the planning department 
of Lancashire County Council. Two systems are in use, 
the second being strongly based on a physically defined 
centre line or base line from which measurements can be 
taken at all times on site. The following notes prepared by 
Lancashire County Planning Department describe the 
method very clearly. Original measurements in fact are 
retained throughout. 


Reclamation work 


Notes on the preparation of contract documents with 
particular reference to the balancing of cut and fill 


Methods adopted in preparation of Bryn Road and 
Careless Lane schemes 


1. Survey of site-contours at one foot vertical interval 
plotted to 1/500 scale. 


io] 


. Sections at 50 ft intervals - directly from contours on a 
print of site surveys to indicate existing ground levels. 
These sections are drawn to scale one inch to 10 ft 
vertically and 1/500 horizontally. 


3. After giving consideration to existing ground levels 
immediately outside the site boundary and the invert 
levels of any culverts, drains or watercourses which may 
exist, tentative new ground levels are fixed and proposed 
contours are also drawn on the print of the site survey 
referred to in item 1. 


4. Sections through the proposed ground level are 
projected directly from the print of the site survey 
(referred to in items 2 and 3)\which now indicates 
existing and proposed ground levels on to the section 
referred to in item 2. 


50 


5. Quantities of cut and fill are obtained from the sections, 
referred to in item 4, by means of planimeter. A 
suitable allowance is made for bulking or compaction 
dependent upon the type of material and a trial 
balance is made. 


6. Ifa balance is not achieved within an acceptable limit 
(being the equivalent of 1% in over the area of the site, 
or 200 yd? per acre) then some adjustment of the 
proposed level of the whole area is effected by drawing a 
new contour line on the print of the site survey at such 
a fraction of the distance that will raise or lower the 


level of the surface as is necessary in multiples of 1 Y, in, 
i.e. 11), in equals I, of a foot, therefore a new contour is 
easily positioned within /;, 1/,, 7/;, or !/, the distance 
between any two of the tentative ground level contours. 

7. The sections in item 2 are now redrawn and fresh 
quantities of C (cut) and F (fill) computed. If at this 
stage an unacceptable difference exists, then a minor 
adjustment of levels over a small area of the site may 
give a balance. 


Present method now undergoing trial 
Stoney Land site (1968) 


1. The boundary of the site and any features thereon are 
surveyed and plotted to 1/500 scale. 


2. A base line is set out across the site by instrument in 
such a position that all or most of it is accessible. The 
position of the line is fixed at boundaries and other 
convenient positions by 4 in dia. steel bars set in 
concrete. The line provides the base from which 
subsequent levelling operations, setting out, and 
checking of actual contract operations may be 
controlled. The position of the base line is then recorded 
on the outline survey, item 1. 


3. At intervals of SO ft along the base line, instrument 
stations are established and by means of theodolite lines 
at right angles to’ the base line, i.e. section lines, are 
established and ground levels are taken thereon at 
all changes of level or gradient. The levels are reduced and 
their values are plotted directly along section lines which 
are drawn in their true position on the outline survey. 


4. A print of the information now recorded is obtained 
and rough contours of the existing ground at S ft 
intervals are now pencilled in to show the humps or 
hollows. This is intended as a guide only to the ground 
configuration, and may be dispensed with if a careful 
visual inspection of the site is made from all possible 
vantage points. After giving consideration to the 
factors referred to in item 3 under heading Bryn Road/ 
Careless Lane tentative new ground levels are drawn. 


5. Sections are drawn by direct projection from the print 
referred to in item 4 which now contains both existing 
and proposed ground levels. Cut and fill quantities are 
obtained from these sections and the trial balance 
effected with any necessary allowances for compaction. 


6. If a balance is not achieved see methods of obtaining an 
acceptable limit in item 6. 


The operation of these methods obviously depends on the 
ease of surveying and availability of staff to do the 
subsequent drawings and calculations. Under circumstances 


where staff are available, and where surveying on site is an 
appropriate method of gaining survey information, it 
appears from the Lancashire experience that the method 
gives satisfactory results economically and it therefore 
deserves consideration when the method of operations is 
to be chosen. 


Cross sections have been used in this project as a check 
method on a number of sites, with measurements based 
on scaled drawings and planimeter reading. This method 
is obviously subject to errors resulting from the 
difficulties of drawing sections accurately but has proved 
adequate for a number of small contracts, notably 
Egerton Gardens, where it was the only method used, and 
Maria Colliery. 


5.4.5 Computer applications of cross section 
method 


The selection of a particular method when using the 
com puter to carry out the calculations will depend upon the 
aspects previously discussed. It will also depend on the 
availability of a suitable computer programme, assuming 
that there is not the volume of work to justify the 
composition of a new programme. At the time that the 
volumetric calculations were beginning on sites of this 
project, inquiries were made as to the practicability of 

/ Various methods and it was concluded that for ease, 
convenience and economic reasons the use of the road 
programme devised by Sir Robert MacAlpine & Sons Ltd 
was the most suitable available method. In this case the 
work required of the computer is not the solution of the 
design, which is undertaken in some computer operations, 
but the comparatively simple, arithmetical calculation 
of the volume of cut and fill and their relative balance 
over the site. Even for such an apparently simple task the 
computer has advantages. Human calculators would be 
involved in tedious arithmetic, and the expenditure of 
skilled man power in this way should be avoided whenever 
possible. As indicated, calculations are based on end areas 
obtained by the delineation of cross sections at 
selected intervals along a centre line which represents 
the centre line of road. When this system, embodied in the 
com puter programme chosen is used on a reclamation 
site, the limitations of the programme may make it 
necessary to divide the site into two or more parts each 
with its own centre line. This is because the computer, 
designed to measure a linear feature is only programmed 
to accept 18 measurement points or ground points at a 
maximum offset of 999.99 linear units on each section for 
either existing ground level or for the regraded surface. It 
is in selecting the placement of the centre line, and 
establishing the best and most representative position for 
the cross sections that time and skill are required; this is 
true irrespective of the use of a computer or human 
agents. Indeed, where some degree of simplification of 
calculations is desired the section lines are commonly set 
at equal intervals, making the selection of representative 
positions more difficult. Where end areas are to be 
measured without com puter aid, it is desirable that 
existing and proposed ground points should coincide. 


Alternatively the method of drawing sections and 
measuring the area by planimeter is adopted. Both of 
these methods involve time, and both are liable toa 
degree of inaccuracy. In the first case this is due to the use 
of simplified formulae and compromise in the selection of 


ground points when the error is endemic and in the 
second case to the liability to error in the reproduction of 
section drawings in which case care can minimise error. The 
computer method suffers from neither of these specific 
limitations. No formula within the capacity of the 
programme is too time consuming. The accuracy of the 
result still, however, depends on the selection of the most 
representative sections and points and on the survey itself. 
Were the method not dependent on the errors of 
reproduction of the survey drawing, a greater degree of 
accuracy could be obtained: thus a data sheet prepared 
using original ground survey readings made on site or a 
direct reading of aerial survey material would show the 
highest possible degree of accuracy of calculation. A 
number of computer systems now are dependent on 
photogrammetry making use of a stereo plotter working 
direct on the original survey photographs. The co- 
ordinates produced by the stereo plotter are recorded and 
stored in the computer in the form of a digital ground 
model and any complexity of ground form can be 
calculated. By the introduction of these techniques some 
people believe that the need for contour plans is 
completely eliminated in highway work, and this might 
well be the case for existing contour plans in reclamation 
projects; however, the cost and availability of computer 
time and the possibility of the need for re-runs must not be 
discounted. 


Present experiments within the project, however, have 
been limited to the measurement of ground points from 
the aerial survey plans prepared from the original flight 
material. Once the centre line has been selected, sections 
at random intervals to give the best and most accurate 
approximation of topographical changes are taken. 
Section points are then selected to reflect most 
accurately, within the limitations of the numbers of 
points available, the changes in topography. It is then 
necessary to translate this information from the plan to the 
data sheet, recording the height of the point and the offset 
distance from the centre line. This work can be done 
relatively speedily, and it has been estimated that one 
section, comprising 36 height and 36 offset measurements 
can be completed in 20 minutes. Ground point data is 
recorded on one sheet, and regraded level points data (in 
the road programme referred to as ‘Road Formation 
Points Data’) on another, as will be seen from the 
examples (Figs 5.5, 5.6). 


It will also be seen that while the section lines are the 
same for each series the section points bear no relationship 
to each other but are recorded quite independently. 


When the information is fed into the computer the 
print-out information includes: 


(a) The co-ordinates of the points of intersection of the 
side slopes with the original ground at each specified 
cross-section. 

(b)The cut and/or fill areas at each cross-section. 

(c) The cut and/or fill volumes between adjacent cross- 


sections, using the “end area” method. It also 
accumulates those volumes to the end of the roadway. 


(d)The topsoil volume between adjacent cross-sections, 
keeping topsoil in cut areas separate from topsoil in 
fill areas. It also accumulates these volumes to the 
end of the roadway. 


51 


Se ALE 8 RE LD ANE AIOKRIED COMPARE 


COMPUTER ROADWORKS SYSTEM 


SHEETING csvset 


GROUND POINTS DATA 
CONTRACT 


OFFSET LEVEL OFFSET 


3\ 3 ——_ © 


nM 


1d La 


LEVEL 


OFFSET | 


LEVEL 


OFFSET LEVEL OFFSET LEVEL | OFFSET LEVEL =} 
l 
SS) 56 0} 6) —— 6s] 7o]/71 % 


{ 
r 
| 
| 
] 
| 


“— 


Fig. 5.5 (By courtesy of Sir Robert McAlpine and Sons Ltd.) 


Det ALPINE & SON LTD AND ASSOCIATED COMPANIES 


COMPUTER ROADWORKS SYSTEM 


SHEET No\cists/erreeeree 


ROAD FORMATION POINTS DATA 


contract. Harceeh( Gu 


OFFSET LEVEL 


T 


OFFSET 


,0,0°0 Olf, ¢S°0 olf, 3 3° 0, 1%, ¢S° oa, 12, 


.8,8°2,24,3,9" 2, Bele ege eos pec eat 


] 


c lth S+0.01 
ia 
14-1 (| 


©.0/230°0O% S O° 00|2,07° xe) 


38= 


a 


MEF: CAS (F) 


Fig. 5.6 (By courtesy of Sir Robert McAlpine and Sons Ltd.) 


52 


(e) The area of side slopes on both sides of the roadway 
between adjacent cross-sections, and accumulates 
these areas to the end of the roadway (McMillan 1965). 


The information is printed out in two reports, only one of 
which is relevant to the regrading of reclaimed land. This 
contains the information indicated under items |, 2 and 3 
(Fig.5.7). The separate recording of cut and fill between 
sections, as well as the accumulated total, makes it 
possible, when a balance has been achieved, to apportion 
the excess material in one section to appropriate adjacent 
sections and present this material in a table in the bill of 
quantities for the guidance of tenderers (Fig.S.8). This is 
related to a plan on which lettered sections are shown. 


In the case of Haswell Colliery site, for which the first 
exercise was carried out, the total was twenty-seven 
sections on the plan. The balance was not achieved on the 
first attempt, and a redesign which achieved a balance 
involved revising and rerunning seventeen of these 
sections, the total cost of the calculation being £44. This 
method has been used on the Windynook/Whitehills site 
at Felling where the ratio of surface area to spoil resulted 
in critical slope angles and volumes and created the need 
for a high degree of accuracy, while at Maria Colliery 

sim ple cross-sections with end area calculations have 
provided a sufficient degree of accuracy. 


A more sophisticated computer programme offering SO 
ground points is under trial with Northumberland County 
Council. This will undoubtedly allow of a more flexible 
approach and result in greater accuracy in assessment of the 
volumes. Additionally it is intended ultimately to provide 
alternative design solutions as well as calculating volumes 
of material moved. 


5.4.6 Comparison of calculation methods 


The use of a particular method of calculation clearly must 
depend on the type of site, and the availability of staff. 


On small sites with simple topography, a grid of levels will 
give an adequate result; alternatively a series of cross- 
sections may be taken and the volumes measured with a 
planimeter. In some circumstances, notably when the areas 
of cut and of fill are large and easily defined, not necessarily 
simply shaped but with bold gradient changes, the use of 
contour methods for the measurements may be adopted. As 
already indicated this could well be suitable in a case like 
Percy Pit where a conical heap was to be reduced and the 
surrounding area raised, and cut and fill are clearly defined. 
More complex and larger sites require the use of sections 
and the end area formula. The question is then whether 
this is to be undertaken by computer method or by hand. 
The investigations carried out originally for the project 
suggested that the expense of writing a special programme 
for a limited amount of work was not justified, but where 

a suitable programme was available its use could result in 
time saving in a busy office as well as the possibility of 
some economic advantage. It is difficult on the information 
available to make any straight comparison of the economics 
of the manual and the computer approach, but work 

which would involve measurement and calculation manually 
for periods of five to six weeks can be completed in the 
same number of days when the computer is employed. 
Making use of an existing programme the cost is £1 per 
section to obtain the information previously listed. In the 
case of amendments to the contours to obtain a cut and 

fill balance it is possible to rerun as few or as many sections 
as desired, and so no excessive costs are entailed. The 
computer cross-section method then appears to be certainly 
as cheap as hand methods, undoubtedly more accurate, and 
to allow of simple checking in the event of any query. 
Other methods are in process of investigation and 
refinement, but at present this system is probably the best 
approach available, without the expense of writing a 
programme for special use. It is hoped that the current 
Highway Construction approach using digital ground 
models direct from the original aerial survey, and 


Station Cut Vol Fill Vol Acc.Cut Acc. Fill CutArea_ Fill Area Intersection Points 
Left Right 
(yd3) (yd3) (yd3) (yd3) (ft2) (ft?) x Y x 
x x x x 
0. 312. 7366. 312. 7366. 89.12 535.39 121.00 425.00 183.38 422.62 
75 2236. 13618. 2548. 20984. 135.58 4768.10 224.17 432.17 389.13 418.13 
150. 4783 12230. 7331. 33214. 474.59 5037.13 288.22 430.22 388.11 419.11 
225 8891 12844. 16223. 46058. 1969.26 3768.52 290.63 434.37 388.21 423.79 
300. 23882 13538. 40104. 59596. 4432.41 5479.44 291.22 444.22 387.14 425.86 
375. 24788 14553. 64893. 74149. 12762.31 4267.81 304.46 449.46 387.08 425.95 
450. 13649 16496. 78542. 90645. 5085.36 6210.45 309.30 441.30 386.05 433.97 
525. 12904 16667. 91446. 107312. 4741.99 5666.45 362.95 440.93 385.04 437.04 
600. 14147 19674. 105593. 126986. 4548.94 6333.96 380.28 447.28 385.11 448.11 
700. 10528. 11413. 116121. 138399. 3090.62 4290.11 559.02 444.98 384.07 451.07 
800. 11268. 6108. 127389. 144507. 2594.47 1872.79 467.02 449.98 383.06 454.94 
900. 12926. 20021. 140315. 164538. 3490.06 1425.64 457.07 454.07 383.12 441.12 
1100. 3578 21193. 143893. 185721. 0.00 3980.04 431.00 460.00 381.02 444.98 
1300. 3901. 5179. 147794. 190900. 966.05 1742.05 375.00 450.00 383.04 436.04 
1400. 6741. 2670. 154534. 193570. 1140.28 1054.48 321.03 467.97 352.03 435.03 
1500. 4629. 4689. 159163. 198269. 2499.62 387.14 225.00 460.00 326.52 434.48 
1600. 3 © 4808. 159184. 203067. 0.00 2145.05 166.18 455.84 295.47 432.53 
1700. 182. 4903. 159366. 207970. 11.09 451.30 92.06 454.94 257.33 435.33 
2000. 72,17 77946 21.72 431.32 41.00 454.00 91.06 446.06 
231474 285916 


Fig. 5.7 The cut and fill volumes for individual cross sections and the accumulated totals are the significant figures for 


earthworks. 


53 


eee ny [a | 
CUT and FILL TABLE 
all quantities shown are in cubic yards 


TOTAL apportionment apportionment TOTAL 
CUT FILE 


Sections BB/Embankment 
NIL 


from BB/CC 535 
from CC/DD 


Sections BB/CC 
535- 535 to BB/Emb. 


from CC/DD 
from DD/EE 


Sections CC/DD 


4,305- 3,258 to BB/Emb. 
1,047 to BB/CC 


from DD/EE 
from EE/FF 


Sections DD/EE 


12,328 - 11,344 to BB/CC 
984 to CC/DD 


Sections EE/FF 


39,363- 6,429 to CC/DD 
7,956 to DD/EE 

12,513 to EE/FF 

8,615 to FF/GG 

3,850 to GG/HH 


Sections FF/GG 


74,227- 2,673 to GG/HH 
4,867 to HH/JJ 
3,445 to JJ/KK 
2,428 to KK/LL 
8,186 to LL/MM 
11,364 to MM/NN 
18,921 to NN/OO 
20,214 to OO/PP 
2,129 to PP/QQ 


Sections GG/HH 


22,445 - 13,666 to PP/QQ 
8,779 to QQ/RR 


from EE/FF 


from EE/FF 


from EE/FF 


from EE/FF 
from FF/GG 


Sections HH/JJ 
3,158- 3,158 to QO/RR 

Sections JJ/KK 

10,816 - 10,816 to QO/RR 

Sections KK/LL 


22,533- 2,383 to QQ/RR 
20,150 to RR/SS 


from FF/GG 


from FF/GG 


from FF/GG 


Fig. 5.8 Table showing the movement of volumes from section to section. 


54 


subsequently to draw a new contour plan or a series of plans 
based on requirements of topography and aspect by 
computer, will ultimately be adapted to land reclamation. 
The perfecting of such a programme may well need to be 
undertaken as an academic study because the costs of this 
sort of research may be beyond the means of designers or 
may not seem to be economically advantageous, but it 
should be available for use by all where it is considered an 
advantage. 


Additionally, comparative tests could be made on a site or 
sites where earthworking has been undertaken, where the 
values for compaction or bulking can be accurately 
assessed. Photographs from before and after reclamation 
are available for a number of sites; the actual volume 
changes can be determined accurately by the use of 
digital ground models and against this various methods of 
calculations of volume could be tested. These should be 
preferably assessed not only for accuracy but also for the 
time taken and level of skill needed to operate them. 

The assessments could also be compared with any 
contractor’s records of material movement. 


5.5 Machinery for regrading 


5.5.1 Scrapers and the other machines 


It is accepted that the ideal machine for the regrading of 
pit heap material is the wheeled scraper which comes in a 
variety of shapes and sizes and may carry from 10 to 45 
yd3 (7-5 - 33 m3) of material. On small sites, or sites 
where space is restricted, smaller scrapers towed by 
crawler tractors may be substituted, and this may be the 
case where other difficulties such as high temperatures and 
wet conditions prevail. The advantage of the scraper is that 
it can handle the complete cycle of material movement by 
itself, and when the cost of machines has to be borne in 
mind, smooth operation and quick handling are a major 
consideration. The use of face shovels or draglines may 

be necessary in certain circumstances where particular 
difficulties prevail, but this immediately involves 
additional machinery to transport the material and regrade 
it at its destination, and adds considerably to both the 
complexity of the operation and its cost. The use of this 
type of equipment is thus clearly limited to those occasions 
where there is a long haul off the site, or possibly for 
handling slurry materials or burning shale. Experience at 
Roddymoor in the handling of hot shale with temperatures 
of up to 450°C showed that burning pockets could be 
opened up with a bulldozer blade and the material spread 
over the adjoining surface where it quickly cooled to a 
temperature at which it could be handled by the 

scrapers. Exceptionally large hot pockets might require 
some special treatment devised to suit the circumstances 
but the degree of combustion to be encountered would be 
ascertained by the specialised survey undertaken before 
the commencement of works. 


When scrapers are employed it has been found advisable 
to follow normal civil and highway engineering practice 
and ensure that the grade is kept even and smooth by 
running over the operational area with a blade grader. 


At Maria Colliery, the contractor operated with a front 
bucket loader with % yd? capacity which he used with four 
lorries of approximately 6 yd3 capacity. A small site, 

Maria Colliery involved earthm ovement of 80,000 yd3 
over a round trip of about a quarter mile,and this proved 


to be an economic proposition. The use of scrapers would 
have involved the construction of a special haul road which 
crossed a brook at one point. With a length of haul in 
excess of approximately 100 yd, scrapers towed by tracked 
vehicles are inappropriate except for special conditions 
such as handling hot material, slurry or possibly for 
breaking up fused material. The use of the bucket loader 
and four lorries at Maria involved a throughput of up to 
1500 yd3a day. The ease of operation in this case has 
depended on the original method of deposition. Excavation 
from the base of the heap starting with the newest 

material working back to the oldest meant that the 
material fell easily towards the loader. One complication 
introduced by using the tipping method at the point of 
deposition is that compaction is much less and the 

volume of fill is much greater. In the case of Maria this 
was, fortunately, not critical. 


In terms of cost, one significant advantage usually 
encountered in colliery waste sites is the open condition 
and easy drainage of the material. This has meant that 
operations can be undertaken in conditions when the 
normal clay soils which predominate in the British Isles 
would make plant operations totally impossible. A great 
deal of shale regrading work provides employment at a 
time of year when machinery would otherwise be standing 
idle, and this is advantageous to both client and contractor. 
Contract timing should be considered with this factor very 
much in mind. 


5.5.2 Compaction and bulking 


Calculations of material regrading to be done by scrapers 
must make allowances for loss of volume resulting from 
compaction on respreading. This rather variable factor, 
which depends on the types of machine in use, the nature 
of the material, and the way in which it was deposited, 
has generally been assumed to be about 12%%. In 

County Durham it has been found that with the smaller 
and lower heaps, compaction may be up to 25%, while in 
larger heaps the figure will be between 10 and 15%. 


Where other methods of deposition are adopted, for 
example a dragline with only the surface graded by 
bulldozer, the compaction factor will be quite different, and 
indeed in certain conditions the regraded material could 

be left bulked. This occurs for example where land is 
regraded after highwall coalmining in Pennsylvania, where 
the spoil is excavated and thrown back by dragline and the 
surface subsequently regraded with bulldozers. The 

increase in height immediately after restoration is often 
from 5 - 10% of the depth of the excavation. 


5.6 Summary 


The chapter includes a suggested checklist for landscape 
survey for derelict landscapes, and observations on 

suitable scales and contour intervals for different sites and 
conditions based on the experience of the research 

project. Some general conclusions from the various sections 
of the chapter can be made as follows. 


(a)Survey. The aerial method of survey, which is continually 
improving, is likely to be best for derelict landscapes 
which are topographically complex to obtain the 
desired degree of accuracy and detail. By the 
simultaneous flying of a number of sites the cost per 


55 


hectare can be brought down to a level which might be 
competitive with ground survey in average conditions. 


(b) There is particular reason to investigate underground and 
overhead services as these may limit the extent of 
regrading. The presence of old colliery workings and 
other unmapped objects needs special attention. 


(c) Particular emphasis is laid on the need for careful study 
of geochemical conditions, and the early employment 
of geotechnical and soil science consultants in 
reclamation projects is strongly recommended. 


(d)Except on small sites with simple problems, calculation 
of regrading is most efficiently undertaken using a 
cross-section method adapted to computer use. The 
application of other methods to the computer and its 
extension into the field of design is under study in a 
number of centres. 


(e)The most appropriate machine for regrading colliery 
shale is the rubber tyred motorised scraper, different 
sizes being selected according to the site. 


References 


Barnard, E. (1965) A Landscape plan for recreation 
areas. ‘Developing the rural landscape to balance 
the increasing urbanisation of countries’. 1.U.C.N. 
Landscape Planning Committee, Newcastle upon 
Tyne, pp. 6-9. 


Carruthers and Cowan (1966) Planning the restoration 
of an open cast coal site, paper to the Operational 
Research Society, Annual Conference. 


Clark, David (1949) Plane and Geodetic Surveying.(4th 
ed. revised and enlarged by Glendinuing) Vol. 1. 
Constable & Co. London. pp. 374-413. 


Cowling (1968) Highway Design. Jour. Inst. Highway 
Engineers. pp. 33-40. 


56 


Craig Johnson (1965) Practical Operating Procedures for 
Progressive Rehabilitation of Sand and Gravel Sites. 
University of Illinois National Sand and Gravel 
Association Project No. 2. 


Craig, W.G. & Burns, J. (1967) Digital Ground Models 
in Highway location and Geometric Design - a 
review of types of models and studies of accuracy of 
the square grid type. Road Research Laboratory. 
T.N. No. 151. 


Hackett, B. (1967) Earthworks and ground modelling. 
Institute of Landscape Architects. Techniques of 
Landscape Architecture. A. Weddle Ed. London 
Heinemann, pp. 55-72. 


Lowe, Young & Lister (1967) A computer system for 
highway design. Journal of Institution of Highway 
Engineers. pp. 28-36. 


MeMillan, T.C.S. (1965) Computer Roadworks System. 
Sir Robert McAlpine & Sons Ltd. 


Middleton & Chadwick (1955) A Treatise on Surveying. 
6th Edn. Vol. 1. E.F.N. Spon. London. pp. 368-376. 


Richardson, J.A. & Greenwood, E.F. (1967) Soil moisture 
tension in relation to plant colonisation of pit heaps. 
Proceedings of the University of Newcastle upon 
Tyne Philosophical Society. Vol. 1. No. 9. pp. 129-163. 


Riddell & Downing (Eds) (1967) Papers on landscape 
planning, survey and appreciation, presented to the 
Institute of Landscape Architects Annual Conference, 
1967. Planning Outlook, New Series, Vol. IV 92 pp. 


Roberts & Stothard (1968) Use of computers for road design 
Journal of Institute of Civil Engineers. Paper No. 
7133. pp. 105-127. 


Vyle, C.J. (1967) Information Sheet concerning Landscupe 
Survey and Analysis. Newcastle upon Tyne. 


Whyte, W.S. (1969) Basic Metric Surveying. Butterworth, 
London. 


Chapter 6 Special problems 


based on the work of M.F. Downing and C.J. Vyle 


The largest part of the research effort by the University 
team was directed to the problems likely to be met on 
many sites in spoil movement, the development of a soil 
cover, and to surface drainage and vegetational cover. These 
are the subject of other chapters in this Volume. Neverthe- 
less, several special problems came to light which, although 
not common to all sites as with the aforementioned, were 
considered to be sufficiently important to justify including 
them in the research programme. 


6.1 Spoil materials 
6.1.1 Fused materials 


Much colliery waste has high levels of combustible and 
pyritic material giving rise to high temperatures and 
subsequent ignition of the waste heaps to form red shale. 
Where this shale contains quantities of siliceous material, 
the intense heat of burning may result in the formation of 
large volumes of material fused together (Fig.6.1). The 
problems of dealing with hot and burning material are 
dealt with in section 6.4. 


Fused material is extremely difficult to handle by machine, 
and laborious to break down by hand. In the sites allocated 
for research purposes, such material exists at Haswell 
Colliery and Windy Nook. The former site had to be with- 
drawn from the research programme because of administra 
tive difficulties, and work had not progressed to grading 
stage on the latter site at the time of writing. At the other 
sites, the fused material, when present, was in sizes which 
could be handled or broken down by machines. It is 
expected that it will be possible to report further at a later 
date when the work at Windy Nook is in progress. 


The investigations that were made on sites elsewhere 
indicated that fused material cannot easily be broken 
down by earth moving machines, the blades rebounding 
from the material. Where explosives have been used, the 
explosion has been absorbed in the material without much 
effect upon it. One method that has been successful is to 
saturate the fused material with water prior to anticipated 
frosts, leaving frost action to do the work. Bearing these 


difficulties in mind, it is recommended that, where possible, 


the design for the reclaimed landscape should be such that 
the fused areas are covered with other material, perhaps to 
form high places in the new topography and thus obviating 
the need for the saturation technique. 


At the Windy Nook site, there is evidence that some of the 
fused material is in the form of independent masses or 
‘boulders’, and may be dislodged in the course of grading 
operations, and thus endanger men and machines. The 
solution to this problem lies in adequate precautions on 
the part of the contractor when handling the material. The 


grading of the majority of sites is likely to be sich that 
small changes of level and easy gradients are achieved. If 
special land form effects are required, it would be necessary 
to take precautions regarding the dislodgement of large 
masses of fused material. 


6.1.2 Sandy materials and slurry 


A well known hazard in earth moving operations is the 
presence of running sand or material consisting of particles 
with a low absorbency rating, either because of its unstabk 
characteristics when excavated or deposited, or because of 
the difficulty of transporting non-cohesive material. At the 
Roddymoor site, this type of material was met in 
excavating a watercourse, and movement by dragline, 
instead of the pushing action of a bulldozer, was found to 
be successful. 


Slurry, a very fine material with a coal dust content which 
settles in slurry ponds with the recirculation of water in coal 
washing plants, is difficult to handle because of its clay- 
like properties; its presence would normally suggest that the 
basic rates for earth moving should be increased unless it 
can be kept dry. An experiment was carried out at the 
Roddymoor site using red shale, deposited 0.75m (2ft 6in) 
in thickness, to form a haul road around the perimeter of 
the slurry area; the machines were then operated without 
undue difficulty from the haul road inwards, scraping the 
shale into the slurry area. 


6.1.3 Materials from demolition 


Materials from derelict buildings and engineering plant are 
likely to be dealt with in accordance with normal demoli- 
tion practice. But two special problems occurred on some 
of the research sites, for which experiments were instituted 
to find solutions. First, during the expected lowering of new 
water-course beds as they performed the task of collecting 
and taking surface water away, foundations or bulldozed 
sections of walls came to light beneath the spoil and altered 
the flow of water so that erosion started in the sides of the 
water-course (Fig. 6.3).The situation was aggravated by 
flash floods arising from open-cast coal operations on an 
adjoining site. The recommendations for dealing with this 
sort of problem are given in Chapter 7. Second, several 
tunnels formerly carrying surface water, and no doubt 
pumped water from the mine, were encountered in the 
course of grading and cultivation operations at the Roddy- 
moor site. The best machine for dealing with this problem 
was found to be a bladed bulldozer with subsequent 
tamping (Fig. 6.2). This was followed by scraping and 
grading spoil material over the tamped brickwork of the 
tunnels to a depth which is recommended at 0.3m (1 ft Oin) 
minimum and a preferred depth of 1.0m (3ft Oin). 


57 


Fig.6.1 Fused material lying in a dangerous position at the Fig 6.2 Bulldozer spreading thin layer of coke breeze over 
Windy Nook site. The dislodgement of large masses needs _ consolidated brick tunnels Foreground shows sections of 
to be handled with particular care in grading operations. tunnel still requiring to be broken and covered. 


4 


~ 


> ae 


Fig. 6.3 An example of the exposure of old foundations during the erosion process of a new watercourse. Recommendations 
for dealing with this problem are given in Chapter 7. 


58 


6.1.4 Conveyance of materials 


There will be occasions when the removal of some spoil 
material from the site may be a solution to a regrading 
problem, especially when the material is of greater use 
elsewhere. At the Windy Nook experimental site, one 
possible design solution depended upon the removal of 
some material to fill a riverside dock some 12.8 kilometres 
(8 miles) away. This idea was eventually abandoned, but as 
a result of investigations, the following matters arose: 


(a) Transport of large quantities by road may meet with 
objection from residents, the local authority and the 
police. Even the transportation of 1000 yd3 of 
material is likely to generate 200 return journeys with 
their attendant noise, dirt and danger. 


(b) The transportation of spoil material by pit railway is 
likely to be cheap, but only if there is an existing 
direct link between point of loading and point of 
deposition. 


(c) The transporting of spoil material in water by pipe 
line is an economic proposition compared with re- 
moval by other methods, if land can be made 
available for the pipeline, and the material is 
sufficiently fine. If the spoil has to be crushed before 
passing into the pipeline, the cost is likely to render 
this method of transportation too costly. The 
economics of the method depend on having a relative- 
ly valuable material in sufficient quantity. A coal 
plant in Ohio operates a pipeline of this nature trans- 
porting fine coal in suspension over 60 miles. 


6.2 Topsoil preservation 


Topsoil and subsoil preservation, although a simple tech- 
nical problem on conventional sites, is difficult and tedious 
on most derelict sites. Frequently, the topsoil has been 
masked with other debris and is not easily recognisable, but 
proper soil surveys should overcome this problem. When 
good soil is available, it is often in small areas and laden 
with debris. Also, in areas where colliery spoil has lain 
undisturbed for a number of years, it is probably beginning 
to develop qualities associated with conventional soils. 
Thus, the specification should identify separately these 
various areas in order to ensure the soils are notlostin the 
mélée of operations and should make it clear that small 
machines are to be used, possibly with some handwork, 
although the latter can be costly. The importance of 
retaining every cubic metre of spoil material which has 
some degree of soil fertility cannot be over emphasised; 
even 25mm (1 in) thickness of such material can in theory 
assist the development of a sward. The spreading of such 

a small thickness however, would require expensive 
distribution techniques, such as the initial preparation of 

a smoothly graded surface and the careful planning of the 
use of plant to avoid mixing the fertile material with the 
spoil material to a depth where its benefit is lost. 


6.2.1 Topsoil stripping and spreading 


In the various handling operations for topsoil stripping and 
spreading that were observed at the various research sites, 
the following difficulties were met and the manner in which 
they were overcome is also described: 


(a) At the Roddymoor site, the starting date in the 
winter gave low tender prices because of the diffi- 


culty of working elsewhere on normal sites, but as a 
result the topsoil was stripped and stacked when in a 
frozen condition. Thus, when spreading took place, 
the material was extremely wet and difficult to 
handle. To avoid this problem, particular care needs 
to be taken to avoid stripping during frosts, although, 
as at Roddymoor, it is not always practicable to 
arrange the phasing to avoid likely frost months. 


(b) Enquiries made into the particular circumstances 
arising from the working conditions on reclamation 
contracts over large areas indicated that, even if the 
frost conditions referred to could be avoided, it is 
unlikely that the various operations can be phased 
to bring topsoil stripping and spreading within fine 
weather periods. Thus, material may often be wet 
and heavy to handle. If the timing of a project is 
such that topsoil stripping must take place in the 
summer and remain in a heap all winter, the temp- 
orary covering of the heap with a grass and clover 
crop would improve the handling qualities of the 
soil, and incidentally reduce weedgrowth. 


The assessment made of the use of different 
machines showed that the use of tractor-drawn 
scrapers gave an even distribution of topsoil. At 

the Big Waters site, stripping and spreading took 
place during May to July; even so, it was found that 
the wheeled tractors had a ‘bouncing’ action when 
distributing the topsoil in thin layers. In some places 
this led to smearing and compaction with a damaging 
effect on soil structure, requiring a ripping operation 
to break up the resultant pan. 


(c) Over one part of the Roddymoor site, the nature of 
the spoil material left at the surface after grading 
was considered unlikely to produce conditions suit- 
able for plant growth after the various treatments 
resulting from the experimental work described in 
Chapter 8. It was possible to arrange for some 
boulder clay drift to be imported from an adjoining 
opencast site for use as a top layer which provided a 
suitable medium after fertiliser and cultivation 
treatments. 


6.3 Dust blow 


Wind, rain and the physica! nature of the spoil material are 
variants upon which the likelihood of dust clouds will 
depend (Fig 6.4). For example, whereas difficulties were 
anticipated at Roddymoor because some of the material 
(especially the red shale) was fine enough to give rise to dust, 
the damp winter months when the earth moving was carried 
out contributed to the fact that the fine material did not 
blow away. A combination of both wind and rain is likely to 
assist working when there is a potential dust hazard coupled 
with steaming from hot areas. The greater problem on the 
Roddymoor site was the steaming effect due to the damp 
atmosphere upon the warm spots as they were exposed (Fig 
6.5). 


Some spoil materials are also prone to produce dust during 
cultivation, but this was found to be lessened by selecting 
weather conditions of light rain and little wind. On sites 
which are very close to densely built-up areas, the dust 
problem can be reduced by lightly spraying a mist of water 
from a mounted container in front of the path of the culti- 
vation equipment. 


59 


the design of the reclaimed landscape; for 


unds at the perimeter or by locating the 


spread of available topsoil in areas from which dust would 


adjoining areas. Design limitations of this 
ture will, however, require careful consideration in case 


they lead eventually to a less satisfactory landscape. 


mended that provisional items should be put in 


act to cover (a) restricting operations up to an 
nit while dust blow conditions are unfavourable 
machines from one part of a site to open 
up another part until conditions are more favourable and 


(c) providing mobile water spray vehicles. 


irawl 


6.4 Hot areas and combustion 


A study of the literature revealed that while a great deal is 
known about the conditions leading to spontaneous 
combustion in coal mines, there is little documentation on 
spontaneous ignition in waste heaps. Most heaps associated 
with coal mining contain carbonaceous shale, and coal in 
the form of dust and small lumps, as well as hard stone. The 
most likely situation for spontaneous ignition occurs in 
pockets of loosely-packed material with a substantial coal 
content along with iron pyrites and/or organic residues. 


6.4.1 Investigations 


The necessity for investigating and making available know- 


ledge about this particular problem is evident in the danger 
to men working on reclamation contracts, in the possibility 
of fires breaking out after the work is complete, and in the 
effect of fumes upon people, animals and vegetation in the 
surrounding areas. 


The surveys of existing conditions at the experimental sites 
were supplemented by investigations specifically concerned 
with heating in heaps, made by Consulting Engineers. These 
included: 


(a) Observations of heating and ignition by studying the 


conditions over the surface. 


(b) Temperature readings at the surface, and taken in 


shallow boreholes Im (3ft 3in) deep at regular dis- 
tances. 


(c) Deep bore holes to ascertain temperatures within the 


waste material. These should be carefully back-filled 
and consolidated after taking the temperature readings 
to avoid creating a chimney effect, allowing air to 
increase heating or start ignition. 


(d) An analysis of exuding gases. 


Fig. 6.5 A dramatic example of the steam clouds which can arise from hot areas as 
they become exposed during damp atmospheric conditions. 


Fig. 6.4 A temporary problem with grading operations in some reclamation projects is the raising of dust clouds by earth 
moving machines. This illustration indicates the considerable distances over which the nuisance may occur. 


60 


(e) The content of the waste heaps as revealed by the 
material from the boreholes. 


(f) Moisture content, loss of weight on ignition, total free 
sulphur, and sulphur trioxide tests. 


In the case of (b) it was found that the prevailing weather 
conditions had a marked effect upon the temperature read- 
ings due to very great fluctuations at the surface, and this 
fact must be taken into account in assessing the ignition 
problem. The temperatures varied considerably in different 
places and at different depths on the sites investigated, the 
highest being 410°C at a depth of 1.8m (6ft Oin). 


6.4.2 Ignition 
It is advisable to regard all waste heaps arising from the coal 


industry as having the potential for ignition. Some unburned 


heaps may have rising internal temperatures over several 
decades before ignition becomes apparent externally. At 
Tanfield Lea, near Stanley, Co. Durham, a low heap ignited 
after 40 years lying dormant, apparently as a result of slow 
heating to ignition temperature. Other heaps may not 
ignite until after spoil moving operations have taken place 
when pockets of a high coal content may be the sources 
for ignition to occur. Nor should it be assumed that an 
apparently burnt heap - to all intents and purposes red 
shale or other burnt material - is free of pockets of coal or 
carbonaceous shale. 


Attention is also drawn to the potential danger of levelled 
spoil heaps which provide what appears to be a flat area 
suitable for housing or industry. The following examples 
explain the latent danger. 


(a) In a housing area on a levelled spoil heap at Barlow, 
between Winlaton and Blaydon, Co. Durham, an 
occupier lit a bonfire which led to a general con- 
flagration of the ground in his garden. 


(b) Paint waste burnt on a paint factory site adjoining 
Ouston East heap at Birtley, Co. Durham, set the 
heap on fire. 


(c) On the Big Waters Experimental site, surface fires 
which broke out from time to time were attributed 
to children lighting small fires for camp cooking. 
These had to be extinguished by the Fire Brigade. 


The information produced by the investigations referred 
to is essential at the design stage in order that provisions 
may be made in the design to reduce the fire risk to a 
minimum, and to aid contractors in assessing to what 
extent the fire risk must be taken into account in their 
methods of working. 


6.4.3 Precautions to reduce fire risk 


The first problem likely to be met in landscape reclamation 
when fire risk is present is that of disturbing the status quo. 
In some situations, it may be anticipated that a spoil heap 
will burn slowly over a long period of time, as was the case 
near Stanley where the heap has burned for over 30 years, 
despite determined attempts to prevent this by quenching 
with water by the N.C.B. Once disturbance takes place, the 
process can be aggravated to an extent where earth moving 
operations may have to be suspended before atmospheric 


conditions for those living in the district became intolerable, 


or excessive dangers to the plant operators are incurred. 
When excavating hot or burning heaps it is inadvisable to 
work over the top of underground fires; besides the dangers 


of fumes, including those of gas explosions and restriction 
of visibility, there is the likelihood that cavities may be 
created as the result of combustion of the carbonaceous 
material. On the other hand, excavation at the base of the 
heap may result in permitting the updraught of currents 
through it, in such a way that heating and ignition is stim- 
ulated. Nevertheless, this may be the safer way of excavation 
provided falls of material can be avoided. Lateral excavation 
at different levels, preferably at the side sheltered from the 
seasonal prevailing wind at the time of operation, may be a 
satisfactory solution. 


6.4.4 State of spoil heaps 


If, as a result of temperature borings, it is established that 
the spoil heap is at a temperature below the ignition stage, 
then any re-distribution of the spoil is best handled from 
the top of the heap downwards, thus avoiding the creation 
of draught effects. If there is a likelihood of ignition, the 
temperature may be kept down by pumping water on to 
the surface as the work proceeds, though this often gives 
rise to steam, making conditions uncomfortable to work in 
and reducing visibility. Water pumped on to hot heaps 
may also give rise to steam explosions, when an accumul- 
ation of steam takes place below the surface. 


The physical condition of spoil heaps alters with the stage 
of burning. First, before ignition, they are more or less 
physically stable, depending on the method of deposition 
and degree of compaction. Second, during and soon after 
ignition, voids may develop. Third, some years after burn- 
ing has ceased, the voids may have filled through settle- 
ment and the heap becomes comparatively stable. In the 
second condition, the normal method of operating 
machines from the top downwards can be particularly 
dangerous, as there is the possibility, already indicated, 
of men and machines falling into the voids, coupled with 
danger from fumes. Burning material should be quenched 
and distributed in 300mm (1 ft) thick layers with 300mm 
(lft) thick sealing layers of lime, chalk or clay between. It 
is stressed that sand is not sufficiently impermeable to be 
used as a sealing material. 


6.4.5 Roddymoor 


At the Roddymoor site, investigations into the spontaneous 
ignition situation forecasted that temperatures of about 
200°C would be experienced in a small part of the waste 
heap, and of about 150°C generally over large volumes of 
material - mainly between boreholes 2 and 4. Also, that 
this hot material would cool rapidly after exposure. It 

was, therefore, considered advisable to use a long-boomed 
dragline or face shovel, though with care a tracked machine 
could be used. Machines with rubber tyres were not 
recommended. In fact, it was possible to use a tracked bull- 
dozer to push out the hot material and spread it to cool. 
Within only a few minutes of spreading, it was cool enough 
to be transported by tractor-towed scrapers. 


6.4.6 Percy Pit 


Unless the precaution is taken of layering combustible 
material the potential danger that fires may break out in 
the newly-contoured landscape is likely to remain. One 
solution is to remove the combustible material by screening 
and washing, but this is expensive unless the contractor can 
be certain that the coal content is sufficient and can be 
disposed of quickly at a price giving a reasonable return for 


61 


his outlay, taking account of the delay to the reclamation 
contract. This possibility was investigated at the Percy Pit 
site and was found to be uneconomic as a separate opera- 
tion, largely because it would have been necessary to move 
the greater proportion of the material twice in order to 
achieve a satisfactory land form due to the restricted nature 
of the site. 


6.4.7 Big Waters 


Another method for overcoming the problem of spontan- 
eous ignition was investigated at the Big Waters site. The 
experiment consisted in the isolation of a burning area by 
means of a ditch 2.4m (8ft) wide dug down to the original 
ground level. The ditch was filled with clay, and a cover of 
a similar inert material laid over the isolated area to a 
minimum depth of 1.8m (6ft). This experiment has proved 
successful. An interesting small point is that a small 
amount of hot material from another part of the site was 
removed to the experimental area and spread on the larger 
burning areas, before the clay cover, thus restricting the 
need for remedial work to one location. 


6.4.8 Safety measures 


On the results of various trials in regard to the procedure 
for grading in hot areas, we recommend that the following 
safety measures be taken: 


(a) Acontractor experienced in the movement of 
burning heaps should, if possible, be employed. 


(b) High temperature reading thermometers should be 
kept on site. 


(c) Warning disc badges should be worn by plant opera- 
tives to detect carbon monoxide, a further disc being 
mounted on the instrument panel in the operating 
cabin. Badges should also be worn by site personnel 
who are liable to go near areas of hot material. The 
badges are similar in style to the types worn by 
personnel in the nuclear industry and are inexpen- 
sive. 

(d) Care should be observed with fuel on machines 
operating in hot areas, and in the use of rubber tyred 
vehicles. Manufacturers’ recommendations indicate 
that most scraper tyres can be used where tempera- 
tures do not exceed 200°C. Few contractors will 
need to be reminded of the need for care with scraper 
tyres in view of their high cost - of the order of 
£1000 each for larger scrapers. 


(e) Operators and personnel should have a basic know- 
ledge of the hazards of toxic gases as well as the 
symptoms and initial treatment when affected, no 
matter how remote the likelihood may appear. 


(f) Special care should be exercised in warm still weather 
when working hot areas. 


(g) Thermocouples should be inserted into the area when 
it is reduced to its designed level, if any particular 
dangers are anticipated, to a depth of about 1.2m 


(4ft). The number would depend on the site condition. 


Daily readings should be taken and recorded as the 
scheme proceeds. 


(h) On completion of the scheme an experienced observer 
should visit the site monthly for a period of a year, 
and thereafter at longer intervals for a period of up to 


62 


five years. The presence of heating 1s often shown by 
damage to the herbage, which may become discolour- 
ed and quickly die off; this is usually the result of 
the release of gases. 


6.5 Toxic gases 


Associated with the problem of spontaneous combustion is 
that of the toxic gases which are often generated in waste 
heaps. The main gases occurring on the experimental sites 
were: 


(a) Carbon dioxide, which is dangerous in concentration 
since it dilutes the available oxygen supply to the 
lungs, and has no smell. In the open, however, little 
hazard is presented. 


(b) Sulphur dioxide and trioxide, which in diluted 
quantities will irritate the lungs and are liable to 
cause pneumonia; however, because of the irritant 
character, the gases are self advertising when inhaled. 


(c) Hydrogen sulphide, even in diluted concentrations, is 
characterised by its smell of rotten eggs, and therefore 
makes its presence self-evident. It is almost as toxic 
as hydrogen cyanide (prussic acid gas). In very diluted 
concentrations over a period of time it can cause head- 
aches and various other symptoms. 


(d) Carbon monoxide, which is described as a toxic gas 
capable of destroying the red blood cells; its effect is 
more lasting than the dioxide. In diluted concentra- 
tions, it produces the symptoms as hydrogen sulphide. 
It has the disadvantage of having no smell and a 
cumulative effect. 


There is likely to be a considerable dilution of the gases on 
sites, but plant operators should be warned about the 
dangers, and a strict watch kept on the situation and a 
strict control on the periods of working. 


6.6 Pollution 


Although such sources of pollution as burning from spon- 
taneous ignition and chemical action may be controlled or 
physically contained, there is always the possibility that the 
water draining from a site may be polluted through the 
seepage of water down through the waste material and 
eventually to the water-courses draining the site. It has 
been found, for example, that polluted water from a waste 
heap material can upset the biological balance of sewage 
treatment plants and the chemicals leaking out can, if in 
sufficient concentration, kill off the bacteria which break 
down the sewage. The best way of preventing this type of 
pollution is through careful design of the reclaimed land- 
scape. The slopes and disposition of materials should be 
such that surface water is unlikely to reach a source of 
pollution and then be able to surface again without a long 


journey through virgin subsoil or strata which act as filters. 
This problem was particularly important at the Big Waters 
site where one objective was to produce and maintain 
conditions to support fish and other types of wildlife. To 
date, the design of levels and layers of inert material have 
proved successful, and the only observable pollutant comes 
from a nearby project which drains into a stream entering 
the site. 


6.7 Procedural problems 


During the course of setting up the experimental sites, a 
number of procedural problems arose. These are not 
directly relevant to the design and technical problems of 
the research, but are listed for information: 


(a) 
(b) 


(c) 


Services and other undergound elements may be 
encountered for which no record exists. 


The contractor may take risks by departure without 
permission from a precaution adequately covered 

in the specification. The contractor is clearly respon- 
sible for the risk but frequently this involves pro- 
tracted discussion and extra work by the ‘engineer’, 
the client and other affected bodies. 


The procedures for giving notice of works to be 
carried out to all the many persons and authorities 
concerned are involved. To obviate omissions a check 
list similar to that of the Reclamation Section of the 
Durham County Planning Department is a wise 
provision to ensure that all likely persons and author- 
ities are notified. 


6.8 Conclusions 


(a) 


The materials likely to found are so variable that site 
surveys including a large number of boreholes may 


(b) 


(c) 


(g) 


(h) 


not give a representative picture of the contents of 
heaps. 

Appropriate design of reclaimed landscape can often 
reduce the problems caused by difficult materials. 


If it were possible to disclose by survey every under- 
ground hazard, the cost would be prohibitive. If 

extra expenditure is incurred in the contract work 

on some sites through the presence of objects undetec- 
ted at the survey stage, it should be recognized that 
even the most exhaustive surveys may fail to bring 

all potential hazards to light. 


The preservation and spreading of topsoil, even if 
only small quantities are available, is of paramount 
value in the creation of a medium for plant growth. 


The unpleasant effects of noise and dust during 
reclamation operations can often be mitigated by the 
design and by operational techniques. 


Further research is needed into the problems of 
controlling ignition in waste material, and into fore- 
casting the likelihood of ignition. 

Safety measures at the highest standards should be 
adopted for operatives using plant on waste material. 


Pollution arising from within reclaimed sites can 
often be minimised or even eliminated by suitable 
design measures. 


63 


Chapter 7 Land drainage 


by M.F. Downing 


7.1 Introduction 


It has needed comparatively little investigation of other 
reclamation schemes and experience on research project 
contracts to establish that attention to the adequate 
drainage of reclamation sites is a primary requirement of 
any design for returning the land to a fertile state. The 
final drainage pattern of sites is, however, not the only 
drainage problem which needs to be considered. The char- 
acteristics of the material and drainage of the site must be 
foreseen and catered for at all times, from the inception of 
operations to the consolidation of a mature landscape, and 
this involves a changing or phased drainage plan. 


Surface water and subsoil drainage requirements in normal 
ground conditions are set out in principle in the British 
Standard Code of Practice No. 303 (1952). 


Engineers will be aware of the seven subheadings set out in 
Paragraph 103 of the code, entitled “exchange of inform- 
ation’, enumerating the basic information necessary before 
drainage work is carried out. 


7.1.1 Adaptation of standard information 
requirements to reclamation sites 


The relevance of some of the information as listed in the 
code may not initially appear to be so direct and import- 
ant in the case of reclamation sites. For example, the water 
table of derelict mounds and valleys of deposited material 
may bear no relation to the natural ground watertables or 
to the future water status of the regraded site. Also, the 
nature of the strata of natural ground underlying the site 
may appear to have little relevance to the regrading. This 
however, is not the case, and although the factors may vary 
in importance on reclaimed sites it is just as necessary to 
take account of them all as when dealing with the drainage 
of natural forms. The effects of regrading and perhaps 
covering impervious strata can result in the development of 
spring line conditions, or of wet and unstable areas. The 
movement of water within the material can result in erosion 
and internal collapses, and this will happen where lateral 
water movement is induced as a result of the influence of 
the underlying strata. It is not necessary to underline the 
need to deal adequately with known streams or watercourses 
which may be affected by the regrading, though the fact 
that some of them may be seasonal and therefore not 
immediately apparent during initial site inspection should 
be emphasised. 


The watertable of adjoining land and of the land in 
question is a matter which needs particular attention. The 
regrading of material will inevitably have some effect on the 
water table around the site, and this must be studied for its 
effect on soil and water status, particularly its indirect 
effect on existing trees which could be adversely affected 
by either raising or lowering the watertable. 


64 


7.1.2 Phases of reclamation site drainage 


Site drainage on reclaimed land can be considered within 
three distinct phases as follows: 


(a) Drainage during contract operations. 


(b) Special provisions to ensure simultaneous mainten- 
ance of stability and free drainage during site 
establishment. 


(c) Terminal drainage. 


If the framework of the terminal drainage system of a site 
can be so designed that it provides adequately for the main- 
tenance of good site conditions in the intervening contract 
and establishment periods, this is an ideal solution. Initial 
drainage provision will consist of open ditches, easily 
cleared of silt and these may be left as such in the final 
state of the design, or may be filled with rubble or add- 
itionally piped. 


7.1.3 Instability of colliery waste 


Sir John Russell (1950) has enunciated the principle that 
‘the success of drainage operations depends on the stability 
of the soil’. This statement has particular relevance when 
dealing with regraded land involving waste material. 

Natural land forms in the majority of Great Britain, and 
certainly with minor exceptions in the north east of 
England, have achieved a reasonable degree of geological 
stability and may be described as being predominantly in 
the compaction stage of the denudation and deposition 
cycle described by geomorphologists (Bundred 1969). The 
processes of weathering and denudation effected by wind, 
water and extremes of temperature are well described in 
standard textbooks of geology. The principle that erosion 
will continue towards the creation of a flat plane, in any 
situation where the downward flow of water or the effect 
of gravity can overcome the stability of the surface material, 
is commonly understood. The fact that colliery waste is 
evidently highly subject to erosion may be due to its being 
inherently less stable than natural soils or to the high degree 
of impermeability of material when compacted by contract- 
ors heavy plant causing a high percentage run off. It follows, 
however, that in any situation where work with colliery 
waste is involved, a particularly careful watch must be kept 
on the design of slopes and situations which are especially 
liable to erosion. These will be dealt with in some detail in 
the following paragraphs. 


7.1.4 Impermeability of colliery waste 


In the operational stage the amount of percolation is very 
low and run-off is high. A surface covered with vegetation 
such as grass is generally regarded for drainage calculation 
purposes as having a run off of approximately 10% of the 


total rainfall. In many cases, however, during operations, 
the run off from shale will be more nearly comparable with 
the theoretical percentage impermeability of footpaths, 
namely between 50 and 75%. Indeed many designers prefer 
to base their calculations on the assumption of 100% run 
off as allowed for buildings. Apart from the characteristics 
of impermeability or run off arising from the nature of the 
soil and the vegetational cover, the ratio of run off to 
percolation depends on the rate of precipitation, and the 
angle of slope. It is therefore necessary to ensure that the 
angles of slope provided are satisfactory both in the long 
and short term. 


7.1.5 Calculations of run off 


It is important to emphasise that calculations of drainage 
provision should be based on the worst conditions anti- 
cipated on the site during the operating and subsequent 
establishment period involving a greater provision than 
would be required for the established site. This over 
provision is greatly preferable to the damage which can 
follow inadequate initial drainage measures. A number of 
formulae exist for the calculation of run off from areas of 
land, and here again engineers are familiar with problems of 
run off, rainfall intensity and storm duration, and will 
select their methods to suit their purposes. It may be useful 
to draw attention to the precise run off values given by the 
American writer Seelye (1951) which differentiate between 
clay, loam and sand, dependent on the vegetation cover. 


Related experience on reclamation sites has emphasised the 
need to calculate using a high coefficient of run off 
approaching that of buildings as indicated in the previous 
section, and certainly not less than that for roads and pave- 
ments if trouble is not to be experienced in the initial 
establishment period. 


7.2 Drainage during contract operation 


Attention to drainage conditions on the site during the 
operation of the contract is important from two points of 
view, first the protection of works and second the protec- 
tion of adjoining property. 


7.2.1 Protection of works 


The efficient operation of the works can be badly impeded 
by poor drainage, standing water, the formation of erosion 
gulleys, and the deposition of silt in low lying areas. Failure 
to take adequate precautions during the operational period 
when the site is likely to be completely devoid of vegetation, 
and run off potential is at its highest anticipated level, can 
result in this type of damage, as has been stressed. Where 
excavation of material results in temporary steep slopes or 
sheer faces, sudden high volume precipitation can result in 
flow slides or slips. Most of the precautions necessary for 
this type of work are well known to those concerned with 
earthworks. Experience in Durham County indicates that 
the worst period for run off and erosion is after grading and 
spreading of top soil and before the establishment of vege- 
tation. 


The dangers of soil creep, slides of fragmental detritus and 
rock, and deep rotational shear slips, and methods to pre 
vent their occurrence and rectify their effects, are set out 
in the British Standard Code of Practice for Earthworks. 
All these or very similar phenomena may occur in the arti- 
ficial conditions of deposition of colliery waste, and may 
indeed be aggravated by its peculiar liability to erosion. 


7.2.2 The protection of adjoining property 


During the operational period damage by run off can be 
caused to adjoining land. It is advisable to consider what 
would be the likely effect of the worst possible rainfall 
conditions, based on a 1 year cycle of records, and to plan 
the site operations accordingly. A higher degree of safety 
would be achieved by the use of a longer cycle but such a 
counsel of perfection is not always possible and some ele- 
ment of calculated risk is acceptable. 


On very large sites, for example those exceeding several 
hundred hectares, it may be desirable to adopt a higher 
standard of safety based on a longer cycle of rainfall 
records, say 7 to 10 years. In practical terms, on urban 
sites where the drainage is into main sewers, the capacity 
of these will strongly influence the design of the site 
drainage. A limited surcharging of the main surface water 
sewage system may be accepted, provided that the antici- 
pated discharge does not exceed the capacity of the 
system by too great an amount; the risk to adjoining 
property is comparatively remote and the provision of 
on-site stilling ponds permits the temporary retention of 
water on site. A high degree of care is needed where, on 
reclamation sites adjoining urban areas, steep slopes make 
for a high potential rate of run off. 


Consideration of the duration of the operation, and the 

time of year, from which anticipated rainfall can be gauged, 
are further factors which help to give a balanced picture of 
the precautions which are required to be taken. Other risks 
which might occur in special situations, and must be toreseen 
and assessed, are: the washing of heavy metal or toxic water 
into water catchment areas, or on to agricultural land; the 
silting up of agricultural drainage channels and even the 
flooding of excavations into adjoining opencast coal 
workings. 


Prevention of damage and flooding on adjoining land can 
usually be achieved by the temporary provision of bunds 
which operate in the same way as the stilling ponds and 
behind which storm water can be stored or diverted to drain 
away slowly depending on the flow capacity of the available 
drainage outflows. Frequently this requires no more than 
the limited operation of a bulldozer blade to create a 
shallow v-shaped ridge and furrow to cut off the flow of 
surface water from high ground to outfall. On such large 
sites or extensive slopes it may be necessary to construct 
several such ditches. The permanent protection of adjoining 
property often calls for the digging of cut off ditches along 
the boundary line of a reclamation site and this work can 
generally be carried out as an early item in the reclamation 
works so that some protection is given by it during oper- 
ations. This is possible because it is desirable in practically 
all cases to grade reclaimed areas to merge with existing 
ground levels on adjoining land. The presence of such a 
ditch, and open ditches across the site does not obviate the 
necessity for stilling ponds and may in severe storm condi- 
tions make such holding devices even more essential. The 
ditches will tend to speed up the movement of water from 
the far corners of the site to the outfalls causing greater 
concentration than there would be without them. 


The necessity for protection during the contract operations 
is underlined by the experience recorded at Brancepeth heap 
near Crook, Co. Durham, where high rainfall occurred at a 
time when the top-soiled areas of the site had just been 
seeded. Conditions were such that very high run off occurr- 
ed and this was discharged into the local drainage system. 


65 


Due to a combination of local circumstances, the volume 
was too great for the system and the water flowed over the 
lower parts of the site temporarily flooding the village street. 


7.2.3 Application to research sites 


The maintenance of satisfactory site conditions during the 
operation of a contract is principally the responsibility of 

the contractor. This is clearly set out in the conditions of 
contract in so far as any loss, damage, or injury is concerned, 
whether to persons or to property. Any specific protective 
measures required both during the period of the contract or 
while the site is becoming established should be fully explain- 
ed to the contractor particularly when adjoining property is 
concermed. 


As far as the operation of the contract is concerned the 
contractor will naturally adopt what he regards as the most 
efficient and workmanlike procedures necessary to ensure 
unimpaired working. This may involve the digging of temp- 
orary diversion channels and ditches if the site becomes very 
wet, and, of course, ensuring that as far as possible no areas 
of low lying land capable of temporary flooding are allowed 
to remain any longer than operationally necessary. No major 
problems of this nature have been encountered on research 
sites during the earth moving operation periods of the vari- 
ous contracts. Some problems were met at Roddymoor due 
to the presence of slurry material which when wet is diffi- 
cult to handle and this points to the need to make special 
drainage provision for slurry ponds during contract opera- 
tion. 


7.3 Special provisions during establishment 


The drainage characteristics of both immature and mature 
sites are dependent on the earthshaping design and to a 
lesser degree on the physical properties of the material 
being regraded. In the establishment period, i.e. the period 
immediately after operations when the grass sward .and 
other vegetation is neither dense nor robust enough to 
ensure the stability of the site under all but exceptional 
conditions, the damage which cna result from steep slopes 
and high run off conditions is more extreme than will be 
the case in the mature landscape as has already been stress 
ed. The site and the soil are both less stable than they will 
be when the landscape matures, but the problem is basically 
the same in both situations. It has never been considered 
desirable to construct final tite undeérdrainage systems until 
regraded land is completely settled, and in any case closed 
systems of underdrainage, which rely on the percolation 
of water through the soil,do not adequately control the 
conditions of high run off and consequent erosion which 
occur at this stage. It has also been found that rubble 
drains, if completed before vegetation cover is established, 
are subject to severe silting. It is, however, essential to ensure 
that surface water run off does not result in excessive vol- 
umes or high flow speeds over the surface. This means that 
drainage by temporary open ditches is employed to reduce 
the area of local catchment and prevent the build up of 
surface water flows. (Fig.7.1). The ratio-of-percolation to 
run off discussed earlier is the significant factor which 
changes from the operational stage through the stage of 
establishment to the developed conditions of the site. 
Mention has been made in Chapter 4 of the theoretical 
optimum slope below which no drainage takes place and 
above which erosion occurs, and it has been indicated that 
land use requirements make the attainment of such slopes. 


66 


which theoretically ensure perfect drainage, most 
uncommon in practice. On all but steep embankments the 
rate of percolation can be assisted during the establishment 
period by opening up the surface with deep-tined equip- 
ment, and this should be considered even though the effect 
may be of limited duration as has been suggested by some 
workers. This is almost invariably necessary where the 
surface has been laid down using the types of heavy earth- 
moving machinery now available and commonly employed. 


7.3.1 Temporary drainage to cortform to the 
permanent pattern 


The creation of open channels or similar devices to control 
run off of water during the establishment period has already 
been discussed, the layout of this work ideally being such 
that the channels will ultimately form the submains of the 
underdrainage system. Open channels can also be used in 
association with the piped system to act as a check on the 
water flow and can be constructed with check dams along 
their length where the falls and flow potential make this 
necessary. Where check dams are used some special constru- 
ction may additionally be necessary to prevent scour of the 
banks or bed of the channel. 


7.3.2 Protection of channels 


It is particularly important when designing temporary or 
permanent open channels that the instability of shale 
materials is taken into account. It is frequently necessary to 
take special precautions to ensure that erosion does not take 
place in the channels. Where this has not been done, storm 
water has cut deeply into the shale in a very few days (see 
7.3.4). 


The placing of selected materials such as brick rubble, 
breeze blocks, stone or concrete in the channel to form a 
hard solid bottom not subject to erosion can overcome this 
problem and such material is often available on site either 
from demolished buildings or from colliery waste heaps. 
This method has been adopted in the design of channels at 


Percy Pit in particular, and similarly used for remedial works 


at Roddymoor as discussed in section 7.3.4. 


It is sometimes desirable to open up temporary channels to 
counter flash flooding in positions where they are not 
subsequently to be incorporated into the final under-drain- 
age pattern. In this case it is probably adequate to create 
shallow v-shaped trenches or make a furrow with a single 
furrow plough, with the furrow on the uphill side of the 
field, to check and direct the flow of water, though this 
may be difficult where there is a high stone content in the 
shale. These temporary features will be kept open for only 
one year and allowance should be made in the contract bill 
for them to be filled and grassed over during or towards the 
end of the maintenance period. There may also be a need 
to make similar arrangements for permanent drains which it 
is felt desirable to leave open as ditches during the estab- 
lishment period, and to complete these after one or two 
growing seasons. 


7.3.3 Tile drainage and plastic drains 


As already indicated it is not generally regarded as desirable 
to lay permanent drains on regraded land, for example, after 
opencast mining, until it has settled, and this often means 
waiting for five years or more from the time of regrading. 
Without very careful control the compaction of material on 


— 


regraded sites is not of guaranteed uniformity such as would 


: a 7.3.4 Research sites 
be acceptable for structural engineering purposes. The use 


of heavy machinery, so common nowadays, achieves a It has been necessary to carry out a number of remedial 
degree of consolidation which exceeds that on much activities on site to assist the establishment of vegetation 
natural ground, and it may well be that with a minimal and to counter erosion. In particular on the Roddymoor 
improvement of supervision a reasonable uniformity of site, the erosion of channels formed in shale has proved to 
compaction can be achieved to allow drains to be laid with- be severe in places. This was particularly so where a large 
out delays for settlement. This possibility may be assisted discharge of water had been received from higher ground 

by the use of plastic drain pipes in long lengths in place of being worked for the extraction of opencast coal. In the 
traditional tile drains. main channel, deep erosion had been experienced (Fig. 7.3), 


Fig.7.1 Roddymoor, Crook: Temporary open ditches to check surface water run off 
N.C.B. (Opencast) Site. 


Fig. 7.3.Roddymoor reclamation site: Severe 
Fig. 7.2. Roddymoor: Matting laid on bank of main channel to prevent erosion erosion on main drainage channel. 


67 


and the channel which was excavated at 1.2m wide x 0.9m 
deep (4ft wide x 3ft deep) has now eroded in places to a 
depth of 3.3m (11ft) below original ground level with an 
increase in width varying from 0.6m to 4.8m (2ft to 1 6ft). 
The channel has now been lined with large rocks in places 
and sand bags, and gabions filled with whinstone have been 
used to prevent further erosion in the most seriously 
affected lengths of the stream. The use of polypropylene 
matting has proved successful in controlling erosion on 
embankments, stream banks (Fig.7.2) and, in the case of 
small channels with intermittent flows, on the actual 
stream bed. This material is laid in sheets secured by 
galvanised pins and has a wearing life of several seasons. 

As it rots, the intention is that the vegetation will grow 
through it to act as the permanent stabilising medium. 
Further experiments in the use of this material are contin- 
uing. Experience at Roddymoor had underlined the need 
to counter scour at points where flow is impeded by 
isolated large objects in the stream or channel bed. In these 
circumstances silting occurs above the object and scouring 
takes place immediately down stream of it. Alternatively, 
scouring may act laterally into the stream bank if there is 
any weakness at a point where flow is impeded. 


7.4 Permanent drains 


The permanent drainage system of a reclaimed site must 
ensure that no damage occurs in the event of a sudden 
storm. It must also be adequate to the task of removing 
excessive soil water from the site so that the soil may 
remain open and healthy, capable of supporting good plant 
growth and human and animal use as required. The degree 
of underdrainage provision will depend on the use, angle of 
slope and elevation in relation to surrounding ground of the 
site in question. For forestry no underdrainage is required, 
any problems of damp low lying land are usually adequately 
dealt with where it is possible to regrade land to a slope 
which enables water to run into ditches at field boundaries. 
This it is suggested is a gradient of not less than 1:30 or 
1:40. Open ditches may be cut when planting is undertaken, 
at suitable intervals of, say, 30 to50 m,and can be left open 
permanently. 


7.4.1 Use of tile drains 


It is only where playing fields are to be constructed that it 
is necessary to lay tile drains extensively, because of the 
need to achieve relatively flat surfaces which do not allow 
for easy surface water run off. Where a long term future use 
is to be agricultural arable land then some tile drainage may 
be contemplated for a later date. 


A good case has been made out by Doubleday (1968-9) for 
the inclusion of underdrainage in the early stages of reclam- 
ation where a high degree of salinity is encountered in red 
shales as occurred at Felling. The provision of underdrainage 
will allow leaching to take place at an enhanced rate. When 
this occurs it is necessary to delay sowing for a season or 
more by which time salinity levels should have dropped to 
an acceptable level. The status of the material should, 
however, be tested continuously. In areas where there is to 
be development for casual recreation, nature reserves, forest 
and woodland planting, and special uses such as ski slopes, 
variations in topography may call for special drainage 
measures. 


68 


7.4.2 Embankment drainage 


Where terraces are separated by embankments it is desirable 
to protect the head of the embankment, introducing hill 
grips on the actual slopes, and ensuring that the foot is 
adequately drained. At the head of embankments and on 
steeply sloping terraced sites, the device of a wide shallow 
channel acting as a storm bund and collecting water from 
the terrace to convey it into the underdrainage system, 
may be adopted. These channels may be-designed with tile 
drains back filled with rubble in the-base-or-with gulleys 

at their lowest point. The hill grips consist of rubble drains, 
generally without tiles, not less than 450mm deep (18in), 
dug at forty five degrees to the line of maximum slope. 
These are connected to a collecting tile drain at the base of 
the slope. Experience so far at Roddymoor suggests that 
when the slopes are 1:5 or less there is no need for hill grips, 
though there may be some advantages in including some 
connected to cut off drains at the base where the slope is 
particularly long (Fig.7.4). Even with these gradients some 
danger exists during the establishment period. At the base 
of embankments, tile drains with rubble back fill should be 
provided to prevent the development of damp spots. On 
some banks the use of flumes to channel water from the 
higher level to the lower level may be adopted (Fig.7.5). 
This involves careful attention to the detail of the collecting 
area at the top of the flume or the system may otherwise 
be rendered useless by erosion channels which bypass the 
flume. 


Subsequent proposals for Felling have introduced a series 

of drains parallel to the contours and connected with 

closed pipe drains at selected points down extensive slopes, 
in place of 45° angled hill grips. These, left open at the early 
stage of the contract, and then back filled with rubble and 

a pipe are now thought to be more efficient. 


Where the frequency of field boundaries permits, the 
drainage of a site can be achieved with open ditches. In this 
case it is only at the outfall, if it is into a main sewage 
system, that any major construction will occur with the 
need for a cross wall with a final piped length and a silt trap. 


On many sites a new topography consisting of terraces and 
embankments will make the laying of drains to a consistent 
or near consistent fall a difficult matter though care for this 
aspect must be a major consideration in the landscape 
design. 


7.4.3 Silt traps 


The problem of silting is particularly prevalent in reclaimed 
colliery waste and there is a need to make complete prov- 
ision for silt trap inspection chambers. Additional traps may 
be desirable where changes in the rate of flow occur from 
fast to slow, and where silt may be deposited. The need for 
continual and frequent inspection and clearance of silt traps 
especially during the early part of the site development is 
discussed in Chapter 6. 


7.4.4 Legal requirements 


The legal requirements of surface water drainage schemes 
are set out briefly in the B.S.C.P. 301 (1952). The powers 
of local authorities and rights of owners and occupiers of 
property are derived from the Public Health Act 1936. 
Where no publicly-owned sewers exist, drains may be dis- 
charged into streams or soakaways, provided no nuisance is 
caused and no pollution of any watercourse occurs. In such 


Fig.7.4 Roddymoor: Main drainage channel. 


circumstances, and, in fact, in every case where discharge of 
water from reclaimed land is concerned the precise details 
of the problem should always be discussed with the Local 
Authority and the Water Authority concerned. 


7.4.5 Research sites 


It is as yet too early to provide any conclusion based on the 
permanent drainage characteristics of the research sites. It 

is hoped that more useful data may have been obtained by 
the time of publication of the second research volume. More 
work is, however, still required as indicated in the conclu- 
sion. 


7.5 Conclusions 


Among the important findings of the project are those 
concerned with the very significant part played by drainage 
operations in the development of any site. Not only must 
the site be designed with its ultimate drainage needs in mind 
but ample provision must be made for the short term or 
development stage of the landscape. This will frequently 
result in the inclusion of drainage measures considerably in 
excess of those needed for the permanent drainage of the 
site, simply to ensure its satisfactory establishment. These 
will range from temporary ditches to more substantial tile 
drains. In particular, the provision of silt traps to prevent 
silting of main drainage systems and watercourses is req- 
uired, again principally during the short term development 
period of any site. Drainage channels too, must be capable 
of being easily cleared in the event of silting. 


More work is required by hydrologists into the problems 
of pollution emanating from pit heap materials and its 
effect on watercourse flora and fauna. The possible dangers 
of the discharge of serious pollution on the anaerobic bac- 
teria of sewage works should not be ignored. Similarly, 


Fig.7.5 Roddymoor: Concrete flume built 
on steep slope. 


additional detailed studies of the erosion of shales under 
site conditions would be a valuable contribution to know- 
ledge on landscape reclamation. Measurements to assess 
the relationship between precipitation and run off, under 
different conditions on shales in unvegetated, partially 
vegetated, and completely vegetated conditions would 
provide useful information for future drainage calculations. 
Information could bé@gained by survey and observation of 
the gradients of drainage channels related to volumetric 
capacity and degree of compaction of the material, also 
affected by related catchment and rainfall intensity and 
applied to the design of channels which will not erode 
seriously. 


References 


British Standards Institute ( 1952) B.S. Code of Practice 
no. 303. Surface Water and Subsoil Drainage. B.S.1. 
London. 


British Standards Institute (1952) B.S. Code of Practice no. 301. 


Building Drainage. B.S.1. London. 


Bundred, J. (1969) Basic Geology for Engineers. 
Butterworth, London. 


Doubleday, G.P. (1968) Report on the Windynook, 
Whitehills Site. Shale Analysis and Suggested 
Reclamation Techniques. Unpublished report. 


Doubleday, G.P. (1969) Preliminary report on the Soil 
Forming Potential of the shale on the Windynook, 
Whitehills Site, Felling. University of Newcastle upon 
Tyne, Dept. of Soil Science 


Russell, Sir EJ. (1950) Soil Conditions and Plant Growth. 


Chapters 19 pp. 346-361, 20 pp. 372-384, 22 pp 
384-397. 8th ed. Longmans Green, London 


Seelye (1963) Design. Data Book for Civil Engineers Vol. 1, 
Section 5, Drainage. John Wiley, N.Y. 


69 


Chapter 8 Soil forming materials: 
their nature and assessment 


by G.P. Doubleday 


8.1 Introduction 


On many derelict sites, especially those concerned with 
colliery waste, there may be some difficulty in establishing 
and maintaining vegetation. This problem can be overcome 
either by making the plants ‘fit’ the soil or by making the 
soil *fit’ the plants. In the former method the choice of 
plants may be narrowed down to a few species or even to a 
specially selected ecotype; in the latter approach, as 
outlined in this chapter, a diagnosis of the underlying soil 
problems is made, coupled with management practices 
which encourage the normal healthy growth of a wide 
range of plant species. 


On most colliery waste the development of a useful soil 
only begins at reclamation and unless the process is 
controlled in the succeeding years, the site will tend to 
revert to its original condition. 


8.2 Materials found on derelict sites 


Once a site becomes derelict it is frequently used as a 
dumping ground for refuse, most of which is totally 
unsuitable as a soil forming material. Items such as broken 
foundations, scrap iron and timber, domegtic waste etc. 
should be removed or buried at a depth so that normal 
cultivation practices may proceed without unduly risking 
machinery. 


This chapter will be confined to the reclamation of stored 
soil and shale, these being the most important plant 
growth media on sites examined in the project. Of these 
two materials, the reclamation of shale is considered more 
fully as the problems of reclaiming stored and poor 
condition soils have already received considerable attention 
in open-cast restoration research. 


8.3 Problems associated with the use of stored soil 


Many reclamation schemes aimed at returning a derelict pit 
heap site to agricultural land follow the same basic 
pattern, see Fig. 8.1. The top and sub soils from areas 
adjacent to the pit heap may be stripped and then stacked 
for periods of several months. After the tip has been 
graded out over the stripped areas the soil is returned to 


cover as much of the new shale surface as possible. When top 


and sub soils are stacked in compact heaps, they undergo 
changes which normally involve some deterioration in their 
physical condition. Hunter and Currie (1956) examined 
these changes in fine textured soils and observed that when 
the material was respread it would: 


(4a) poach badly under cattle and machinery 
(b) give a poor or unstable tilth 
(c) be subject to erosion 


70 


(d) allow only shallow rooting of plants 

(e) be subject to cracking in dry weather 

(f) _ resist the introduction of earthworms 

(g) require a starter application of 3cwt/acre single 
superphosphate per acre (i.e. 54 units POs ) in the 
first year 

(h) require no potash and little nitrogen in the first 
year but heavy applications subsequently. 


In order to minimize the physical damage, a soil should be 
kept stored in a heap for the shortest possible time. When 
the material is respread it will require special management 
and cannot be expected to behave as if it had never been 
disturbed. 


8.4 Colliery shale as a soil-forming material 


8.4.1 The formation of pit heap materials 


The commercially valuable Coal Measures were formed 
during the latter part of the Carboniferous System, some 
220—280 million years ago. At that time what is now 
Northern England was a generally subsiding area periodically 
covered by the sea. Although submergence was by a sea, 
probably not more that “a few tens of feet deep” 

(Westoll, 1968), conditions led to the deposition of 
calcareous material which later formed limestone strata. 


pit heap 


top soil 


sub soil 


Fig. 8.1 Stages of regrading showing the distribution of 
top soil. (Not to scale.) 


With the generally south westerly advance of a delta 
complex served by rivers from land blocks to the North 
and East (Wills, 1951), much argillaceous sediment was 
subsequently deposited over the calcareous sea floor. Pons 
and Zonneveld (1965) point to the ubiquitous association 
of organic material with argillaceous sediments. In 
stagnant waters this led to reducing conditions favouring 
the formation of finely disseminated iron sulphides. The 
orgamic material and sulphides gave the sediment the 

grey or black colour so familiar in pit heap shales. 


With the seaward advance of the delta front the marine 
cover became shallower, reducing conditions changed to 
oxidising conditions, and the argillaceous sediments gave 
way to sandy material. As the delta formed, deposits 
became more heterogeneous, ranging from muddy banks to 
pebble and sand filled channels. No doubt the paths of the 
distributaries changed from time to time producing 
interbedded and reworked material. 


Vegetation grew wherever possible, roots and rhizomes 
being incorporated into the primitive soil. Aerial growth 
was occasionally preserved as peat deposits but was 
frequently removed by shifting watercourses or during 
inundation by the sea, and incorporated into a new 
deposit elsewhere. The frequent reworking of the delta 
surface and incorporation of the organic debris gave rise 
to the material which subsequently formed the 
seatearths often found below coal seams, Moore (1968). 


The surface pH of the material would have been 4.5 to 

5.5, being conducive to a high rate of biological activity 

for which the necessary mineral nutrients would still 

have been present. Continued fresh water leaching, 
especially in the presence of organic complexing agents, led 
to the removal of many cations and to changes in the 
mineralogy involving a relative increase in the percentage 
of kaolinitic clay minerals. With time, deltaic conditions 
became stabilized with only the occasional brief 
inundation by the sea. 


As the process of leaching and base removal continued, the 
pH fell and at a level of 3.5 to 4.0 microbiological 

activity became very sluggish. Organic material 
accumulated, later becoming coal. These areas were often 
slowly subsiding basins so that acid swampy conditions 
developed in which dead organic material only partially 
decomposed. 


Several times the whole delta area and coal swamp became 
submerged below the sea again so that the sequence of 
limestone, shale, sandstone and coal was repeated. This 
sequence is called the Yoredale cyclothem. If submergence 
was not sufficient to allow the limestone to form as with 
the near shore sequence, the Millstone Grit cyclothem 
(shale—sandstone—coal) evolved. The complete system of 
deposition, from near shore to open sea is shown in Fig. 8.2. 


The Yoredale cyclothem was first described explicitly by 
Miller (1887) and latterly in an idealised but much more 
detailed form by Johnson (1959). 


The full Yoredale cyclothem according to Johnson (1959) 
is: 


COAL 

(x) Coal, ganister or seatearth, and some of: sandstone, 
flags, shales, limestones or marine shales 

SANDSTONE 

(ix) Sandstone, often current bedded 

(viii) Thin bedded sandstones, flags, shales and siltstones 

SHALE 

(vii) Relatively unfossiliferous ferruginous shale 

(vi) Dark pyritic shale 

(v)  Fossiliferous calcareous shale 

(iv) Dark blue fragmental limestone, marl bands and 
partings 

LIMESTONE 

(iii) Light grey bioclastic limestone 

(ii) Dark blue-grey muddy limestone 

(i)  Fossiliferous marine shale and sandy shale 


COAL BELT CYCLOTHEMS 


— YOREDALE FACIES— 


OPEN SEA FACIES 


zone 4 
limestone 


zone 3 
shale and limestone 


zone 2 
coal, sandstone, 
shale and limestone 


NEARSHORE FACIES 


zone 1 
coal,sandstone and shale 


hinterland 


Fig. 8.2 Schematic section indicating some of the features of variation of sedimentary succession in a single Yoredale 


Cyclothem. (After Johnson, 1961; Westoll, 1968.) 


71 


A wide range of post-Carboniferous rocks will be excavated 
during the sinking of a mine shaft, but even during the 
subsequent mining solely within the Coal Measures, a 

wide variety of rocks will be encountered. Though any 
material within the Yordalian cyclothem may be included, 
most colliery waste will come from strata neighbouring the 
coal seams. As Johnson showed, these neighbouring seams 
are heterogeneous consisting of “seatearth, and some of: 
sandstone, flags, shales, limestones or marine shales.” 


8.4.2 Mineralogy of pit heap materials 


The majority of pit heap material is composed of the 
following minerals: 


aluminosilicates such as illite, 
muscovite, Kaolinite 


Clay minerals 


Muscovite 

Quartz Si0> 

Felspar e.g. orthoclase KAISi30g 
Hematite, magnetite Fe703, Fe304 

Goethite Fe(OQH)O 

Iron pyrite FeS> 


Other minerals in small amounts have been identified, 
e.g: 


Tourmaline borosilicate of aluminium 
containing alkali metals or iron and 
magnesium 

Siderite FeCO3 

Jarosite KFe3(SO4)>(OH)¢ 


(a) The clay minerals The principal clay minerals in pit 
heap materials are of kaolinitic and micaceous types. A 
fireclay seatearth will contain a high percentage of 
kaolinite but shale deposited in marine conditions will 
contain illite and muscovite as well as kaolinite. 


(b) The formation of iron sulphides A common feature 

in the formation of Coal Measure shales was the association 
of high levels of organic material with the fine grained 
mineral sediments. Though the marine fauna would have 
made some contribution, probably most of the organic 
material came from the lush vegetation in the neighbouring 
delta region. 


With the onset of bacterial decay of the organic component 
in the waterlogged or submerged muddy sediments, a highly 
reducing environment was established. Under these 
conditions bacteria such as Desulphovibrio desulphuricans 
(Kuznetsov et al., 1963) reduced sulphate ions from the 

sea water in contact with the sediment (Kaplan er al., 1963). 


In essence the following reaction took place: 
SOz~ + 2CH,0 —- H»S_ + 
seaw ater organic matter 


2HCOZ 


Either the bicarbonate ions were lost from the sediment or 
they partially decomposed and precipitated out as 
carbonates. The sulphide ions reacted with a variety 

of iron minerals initially forming the extremely insoluble 
iron sulphide, mackinawite, FeS (Berner, 1967a). 


At pH 6-9 2HFeOz + 3H7S — 2FeS + S0+ 4H50 
goethite mackinawite 


72 


Mackinawite would combine with further quantities of 
sulphur forming greigite Fe3S4 and eventually pyrite 
(Berner, 1967b) 


FeS = 8 s0 =: Fe 384 
mackinawite greigite 

Fe3S4 + 280 -, 3FeS, 

greigite pyrite 


Where there was insufficient sulphur to complete the 
conversion to pyrite, sulphides of composition intermediate 
between FeS and FeS> would have exisged in the sediment 
but would have slowly formed pyrite and another iron 
mineral (Goldschmit, 1958). 


Fe3S4 = 2FeS + FeS5 

greigite mackinawite pyrite 
followed by 

2FeS + 1CO3 —  FeCO3 + FeSz 22 
mackinawite siderite pyrite 


Because of their instability it is most unlikely that either 
mackinawite or greigite could now be found in black 
shale. 


Pyrite is therefore by far the most common iron sulphide 
found in Coal Measure shales, but marcasite FeSj may 
also have been formed. In addition there is some 

evidence of the presence of pyrrhotite FeS in these shales. 


(c) The weathering of iron sulphides The weathering of 
iron sulphides may proceed along any of several 
multistage- pathways. According to Mapstone (1954) the 
following products can be formed: ferrous mono-sulphide, 
ferrous sulphate, sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen 
sulphide and elemental sulphur. Ferrous mono-sulphide is 
unstable and is not likely to persist as such in a pit heap. 
Ferrous sulphate is found in the ground water of a shale 
tip and also as efflorescences on the weathered veins of 
iron pyrites. The very low pH of many shales indicates the 
presence of sulphuric acid. The gases sulphur dioxide and 
hydrogen sulphide are given off in readily identifiable 
quantities when a pit heap burns, and in the same 
circumstances crystalline elemental sulphur is frequently 
found condensed on the relatively cool shale surface. 


Temple and Delchamps (1953) pointed to the role of 
autotrophic bacteria in the weathering of sulphides. 
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans oxidises ferrous sulphate to 

ferric sulphate while Thiobacillus thiooxidans oxidises 
sulphur to sulphuric acid. Russian workers.(Kuznetsov et al., 
1963) have reviewed the physiology and ecology of these 
and other autotrophic bacteria. 


Ferric sulphate hydrolyses rapidly and if allowed to go to 
completion, forms a ferric hydroxide gel. If hydrolysis 
is incomplete basic ferric sulphate results (van Beers, 1962). 


The ferric hydroxide gel is not stable as such and 
crystallises out at geothite or lepidocrocite which forms 
crusts or stains on shale fragments. Sometimes in an acid, 
potash rich environment, jarosite, KFe3(SO4)9(OH)¢, is 
formed as a lemon yellow powder or stain found within 
cleavages, or on the surface of shale fragments. Possibly 
natrojarosite NaFe3(SO 4)(OH)6¢, and alunite 

K A1l3(SO4)(OH)¢could also be formed. 


The weathering of iron sulphides gives rise to two problems 
of importance in plant/soil relationships; firstly the 


development of extreme acidity and secondly the 
fixation of phosphate. 


The abundance of hydrogen ions in the shale proto-soil 
causes a high proportion of hydrogen on the exchange 
site; this leads to the very rapid loss of bases when the 
material is leached, followed by the breakdown of illitic 
clay minerals. Muscovite, chlorite and kaolinite are more 
stable in acid conditions. As the illitic material disintegrates 
large quantities of aluminium are liberated into the soil 
solution. At these low pH values manganese is also 

released from manganese containing minerals. Plant growth 
is inhibited on these very acid shale soils largely as a 

result of the toxic levels of manganese and aluminium. 


Though many shale soils are acidic, fortunately not all are. 
Fig. 8.3 shows the percentage frequency of samples falling 
within pH units from 2.0 to 9.0. Taking pH 6.5 as ideal, 
just over 25% of the samples were above that value. 


Hall (1957) reported that shales are neutral or alkaline 
when tipped but after 100 years become very acid, burned 
shales showing an accelerated trend. This is a very 
simplified view as some shales are already acid when tipped 
(Moffatt, 1966) whereas other shales have relatively stable 
high pH values. A burned shale, exposed to weathering 

for twenty years at DonningtonColliery, Northumberland, 
was found to contain free carbonate and to have a pH of 
8.6. This variability of soil reaction is to be expected from 
geochemical considerations. 


The physiological aspects of plant survival on acid soils 
are reviewed by Jackson (1967). Liming usually corrects 
the direct and indirect effects of acidity or at least makes 
their solution much easier. 


The other main problem arising from the weathering of 
iron sulphides is phosphate fixation. When phosphorus is 
added to a shale much of the nutrient reacts with the iron 
to form a highly insoluble precipitate, the solubility 
product of ferric phosphate being pK.,33—35 (Chang and 
Jackson, 1957). In acid soils the greatly increased 

amounts of labile aluminium also fix phosphate, aluminium 
phosphate having a solubility product of PKyp28—32 
(Chang and Jackson, 1957). Reviews of phosphate fixation 
are given by Russell (1961) and Kardos (1964). 


Preliminary results with shales indicate that phosphate 
requirement is closely correlated with pH, low pH values 
being associated with high phosphate requirements. 


"te FREQUENCY 


Fig. 8.3 The % frequency of pH values of shale. (The 

information was based on 168 measurements made on 
shale from 44 sites which were mostly in the northern 
coalfields.) 


Theoretically, raising the pH should increase the 
availability of phosphate in iron and aluminium compounds 
but in practice an increase of 10% or less is achieved. 
Phosphate added after the pH of the shale is raised is 

fixed to a smaller extent so it is important that a site is 

first limed, then fertilized and not vice versa. 


8.4.3 Salinity in shales 


Salinity in the coal forming delta and the prodelta was likely 
to have been heterogeneous. Some material will have been 
leached with fresh water, while depressions in the delta 
were likely to be inundated periodically with sea water 
leaving rich deposits of salt after evaporation. 


In an intermediate position would be vast areas of poorly 
drained sediments frequently inundated with brackish 
water giving the resulting shale a substantial salt content. 
As well as the sediments formed in deltaic conditions, there 
were considerable quantities of fine textured submarine 
deposits whose present salt content must reflect their 
environment during formation. 


The salts contained in shales will be those left by sea water 
plus other salts originating from processes occurring at the 
time of deposition or later. The major salts formed during 
evaporation are sodium chloride, potassium chloride, 
magnesium chloride, magnesium sulphate and calcium 
sulphate. Whittig and Janitsky (1963) outlined a system 
operating in deltaic and estuarine environments whereby 
calcium, magnesium and sodium carbonates are formed 
together with iron sulphides. It is likely that this system 
would also operate in coal forming environments. 


As soon as a fragment of a saline shale is exposed to 
weathering the soluble salts are rapidly released. High 
levels of salts in the soil solution adversely affect the 
vegetation in the following ways: 


(a) Salinity increases the minimum soil moisture 
content at which plants are able to extract sufficient 
moisture (Wadleigh and Ayers, 1945). 

(b) High sodium levels cause dispersion of the soil and 
a most difficult physical soil condition develops. 

(c) Certain ions precipitate other specific ions and 
reduce their availability in the soil, e.g. high 
levels of bicarbonate precipitate calcium and 
magnesium ions as carbonates to such an extent 
that there is an unfavourable balance of sodium and 
potassium in the soil solution. Phosphate can be 
precipitated by calcium, iron or aluminium, 
depending on pH, leading to phosphate deficiency 
symptoms. 


(d) High levels of one cation cause an imbalance in the 
uptake of other cations by ionic com petition e.g. 
high levels of potassium suppress the uptake of 
magnesium. 

(e) Direct injury to vegetation follows from excess of 
certain ions, e.g. boron at 2 ppm in the soil solution 
will inhibit plant growth (Reeve and Fireman, 1967). 


Soil salinity can be estimated in a number of ways, but the 
normal method is by measuring the electrical conductivity 
of the saturated moisture extract (see section 8.5.6). The 
units of measurement are milli mhos per centimetre and an 
interpretative scale is given (U.S.S.S.S., 1954). 


Salinity problems have been encountered on a number of 
reclamation sites in the Northumberland and Durham 


73 


coalfield. Where a saline pit heap is regraded the new 
surface will have come from well inside the pit heap where 
the shale has the highest salinity. 


At the Roddymoor site, Co.Durham , electrical conductivity 
values for the saturated moisture extract of surface 

samples immediately after regrading ranged from 1 to 25 
m.mho/cm. On much of the site, test germination of 

S24 ryegrass was as low as 5%. 


Salinity values at Roddymoor immediately after regrading 


Salinity level m.mho/cm % of total shale surface 
25°C 

non saline o-2 4 

very slightly saline 2—4 13 

moderately saline 4-8 35 

strongly saline 8— 16 36 

very strongly saline 16+ 12 


In such a situation a period of leaching by rainwater is 
essential before sowing is undertaken. In the summer 
months evaporation from the soil often exceeds the 
rainfall so there is a net upward movement of salts which 
may be left as efflorescences at the surface. The only 
times of the year when there will be effective leaching 
are late autumn, winter and early spring. 


Fig. 8.4 shows the variation in salinity for three areas of 

the Roddymoor site from early March 1968 (when regrading 
was completed) to November 1968. Coupled with this is a 
histogram for net water movement based on rainfall 

figures for the City of Durham and evapotranspiration 
figures for N.W. Durham. The estimated net moisture 
movement is not entirely accurate as the rainfall figures 
were measured 13.5 km (8.5 miles) from the site and at 
150m (SOOft) lower altitude. Also the evapotranspiration 
data assumes a vegetation cover. The data does not take into 


Electrical conductivity 
saturated moisture 
extract mmno 


Net moisture deficit 


Net percolation 


z 
3 
E 
= 
2 


Earth mo 


Bu FEB MAR APR may «(JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV 


——— South facing shallow shale 
—&—4 South facing deep shale 
———-_ North facing deep shale 


Fig. 8.4 Variation of salinity with water movement at 
Roddymoor. March — November 1968. 


74 


account any difference between the microclimate and the 
average for the district on which the figures are based. For 
each month Fig. 8.4 probably underestimates net 
percolation by about 18mm and overestimates the net 
moisture deficit by the same amount. 


The figure indicates the strong link between net percolation 
and a lowering of salinity and vice versa. When the 
electrical conductivity values fell to 4 m.mho/cm sowing 
was undertaken. 


When a saline tip has been regraded it is important for the 
material to be thoroughly ripped to depth especially on 
the ‘fill’ areas. An effective drainage system should be 
employed to encourage efficient leaching and removal of 
saline ground water especially along potential spring lines. 


8.4.4 General nutrient status of colliery shales 


(a) Nitrogen To a large extent nitrogen governs the level 
of plant growth. Shales can supply little or no 
nitrogen so that all requirements of non nitrogen- 
fixing species of vegetation must be met by additions 
of fertiliser. Most plant residues rotting down on the 
soil surface use up nitrogen and unless plenty is 
available for both residues and living plants, the 
vegetation will suffer from nitrogen starvation. In the 
initial stage of reclamation high levels of this nutrient 
should be applied to allow both adequate crop 
growth and rapid humification of dead plant 
material. High levels of nitrogen tend to kill out the 
clover content of a sward, largely by shading out the 
shorter species. Frequent cutting of the sward helps to 
preserve the clover and also encourages greater 
tillering of the grass. 


Nitrogen should be split over several applications, but 
given at a low level at the end of the growing season 
as it reduces the potential winter hardiness of the 
crop. 


(b) Phosphorus There is little or no available phosphorus 
in colliery shales, and much of the added phosphorus 
is fixed in an unavailable form. Phosphate should be 
applied at a rate that allows for both fixation and 
plant requirements. Data from a limited number of 
analyses indicate that phosphate requirements can be 
as high as 2500 units P>Os5/acre for the<2mm 
material (this figure, worked out on the < 2mm fraction, 
should be proportionally decreased to allow for the 
coarser, less reactive component of the total sample). 


A deficiency of phosphate leads to stunted growth 
and loss of vigour. Ryegrass grown on phosphate 
deficient shale takes on a growth habit similar to 
that of Festuca ovina. 


The effect of phosphate deficiency may be seen by 
comparing PgKg with P) Kg and PoK, with P) Ky 
in Fig. 8.5. Not only is the aerial growth stunted 
but the root systems are restricted, this being 
significant because shale has a poor water holding 
capacity and roots must penetrate to depth to 
obtain sufficient moisture. Rooting will be 
confined largely to the shale which has received 

an application of phosphate so depth of application 
is important. Deep cultivation after phosphate is 
applied is important but it is even better on ‘fill’ 
areas to have several broadcast applications during 
placement of the last 18 inches of shale. 


PK factorial trial NFS/2. Black shale; first harvest PK factorial trial BRU. Red shale; first harvest 


me, 
coms 
Po Ki rnK = 
eae C | 
PK factorial trial BRS. Red shale; first harvest PK factorial trial BBS. Black shale; first harvest 


Fig. 8.5 Response of S24 Ryegrass to potash and phosphate fertilisers in a factorial trial on black and red (burned) colliery 
shale soils. 

Po no phosphate applied 

P1 phosphate applied (150 units P20¢/acre) 

Ko no potash applied 

Ky potash applied (100 units K20/acre) 


All soils limed to pH 6.5 and given optimum nitrogen. 


On acid sites either rock phosphate or basic slag may should be split over two or more applications. Total 
be applied though they are only slowly soluble and annual applications should not exceed 120 units 
may not supply phosphate at a sufficient rate for K>50/acre 


fast growing vegetation. On neutral sites the efficiency 
of these cheaper fertilisers is greatly reduced and 
superphosphate should be used (Cooke, 1967) 


(d) Calcium Calcium is unlikely to be in short supply on 
neutral or alkaline shales but might be deficient on 
very acid material. As liming would be undertaken 

(c) Potassium Together with nitrogen and phosphorus, anyway, a calcium deficiency would be rectified 
potash completes the group of major nutrients most 
often deficient in soils. Greenhouse trials with shale 
soils have indicated that there is seldom any great 
lack of available potash and additions occasionally 
depress plant grow th. Comparison of PoKo with 
PoK}, Py Kp with P; Ky indicate the effect of added 
potash on a sward (Fig 8.5) 


(e) Magnesium Extensive factorial greenhouse tnals with 
magnesium and potassium showed no response to 
magnesium even when high levels of potash were 
applied. It is possible that a strongly weathered acid 
shale limed with a pure calcium limestone and given 
high levels of potash and ammonium nitrogen might 


show magnesium deficiency. The use of a limestone 


Recommendations of potassic fertiliser for shales ontaining a little magnesium would avoid this 
are based on potassium removed by crops. For situation 

example, a hay crop of 35 cwt/acre dry matter 

containing 2% K>5,O removes 88 units K5O/acre (f) The trace elements As far as is known, there are n 
This figure represents the approximate level of published analyses of the trace elements in colliery 
potash required where one hay crop per year is shales of North East England. Namurian shales 
removed. The total amount of potash to be applied similar to those in the Northumberland/Durham 


“i 


Ww 


coalfield outcrop in other parts of the British 

Isles and have been examined in places. High levels 

of molybdenum and selenium have been reported in 
the Namurian shales of Co. Limerick, Eire (Webb and 
Atkinson, 1965; Thornton ef al, 1966). Similar results 
have been found with the Namurian shales outcropping 
in the Southern Pennine area (Webb et al., 1968). 


Samples of a grass/clover sward grown on colliery 
shale at the Roddymoor (Co. Durham) site have been 
analysed* for the following elements; cobalt, 

nickel, molybdenum, iron, lead, tin, zinc, vanadium, 
titanium, chromium, copper, manganese, barium, 
strontium, aluminium, boron and silicon. None of 
these elements was present in the herbage at levels 
likely to cause either toxicity or deficiency symptoms 
in farm animals (Scott, 1970). 


The reclamation of extremely acid shales necessitates 
the use of high levels of lime and phosphate. It is 
possible for these treatments to induce deficiencies of 
various trace elements which, though present in the 
shale, become unavailable to plants. An induced 
deficiency of iron has been encountered under these 
circumstances and it seems possible that deficiencies 
of zinc and copper could also occur. 


Sewage sludge, which is frequently advocated as 
bulky organic fertilizer, sometimes contains toxic 
levels of zinc, especially where the sludge comes 
from highly industnalised areas. 


8.5 The assessment of soils and shales and the 
treatment necessary for their reclamation 


8.5.1 Sampling methods for soils and shales 


The most skilful laboratory analysis is of little value in 
advisory work unless the conclusions drawn from the 
operation can be applied to a volume of soil in the field. 
This step from laboratory data to field recommendations 
is possible only when the sample analysed accurately 
represents the field soil or has a known and measured 
bias from it. Jackson (1958) outlines the theory and 
practice of soil sampling and the normal procedure for 
handling samples. 


The procedure for sampling is as follows: a number of 
samples are taken from the volume of soil in the 

field (field subsamples ), and these are bulked together 
and thoroughly mixed (bulked samples), laboratory 
analyses are performed on appropmiately sized 
subsamples (lab. subsamples) withdrawn from the bulked 
sample. 


There are three possible stages where errors can be 
introduced making a laboratory figure misrepresentative. 


(a) Misrepresentation of the field by poor field sampling 

(b) Misrepresentation of the bulked field sample by poor 
subsampling 

(c) Variation of analytical figures for the laboratory 
subsample 


Any errors involved in (b) and (c) are usually relatively 
small com pared with (a) so that very careful attention 


* Analyses kindly carried out by Dr R.O. Scott, 
Macaulay Institute for Soil Research 


76 


should be given to obtaining representative field samples. 
Each bulk sample should represent one volume of soil 
thought to behomogeneousfor the purposes of the 
intended analyses. Sufficient core samples should be taken, 
and from properly distributed locations over the whole 

soil volume 1.e. at random or on a strict grid system. 

Reed and Rigney (1947) suggest that normally 20 to 30 
subsamples from one area, when bulked together, reduce 
the field sampling error to the same order as that of (b) and 
(c). Each core of soil should have uniform cross-sectional 
dimensions. 


The bulked field sample is usually air dried before analyses 
are undertaken though some determinations such as pH 
and available potash are best done on the moist sample. 
Drying should be slow and at a temperature not 

exceeding 35°C. Once the soil is dry enough to handle 
conveniently further drying is unnecessary unless long 
term storage is envisaged. 


Atterberg (1912) proposed a system for classifying soil 
texture which is accepted by the International Society of 
Soil Science. 


Coarse sand 2.0 —0.2 mmdia. 
Fine sand 0.2 —0.02 mm dia. 
Silt 0.02 — 0.002 mm dia. 
Clay below 0.002 mm dia. 


Soil particles exceeding 2.0 mm diameter are classed as 
gravel or stones according to size (British Soil Survey Staff, 
1960; U.S. Soil Survey Staff, 1951) and being comparatively 
inert can be regarded as diluents. After drying the bulked 
field sample, the material is sieved through a mesh having 

2 mm apertures. The finer fraction is retained for analysis 
and its proportion of the total sample is calculated. With 
soils, gentle grinding may be necessary to break up soil 
aggregates which would otherwise be retained in the 

stone fractions. 


The bulked and sieved field sample should weigh several 
kilos but individual analyses are usually on 5 to 25 g 
subsamples. A system of quartering ensures that laboratory 
subsamples are representative of the bulked sample, see Fig. 
8.6. 


AIR ORY SAMPLE 


After thorough mixing, the 
sample is spread ot over 
a clean smooth surface 


Pe 


os 


then quartered 


i —— 


Two opposite quadrants 
is ore mixed together 


By ne 
i ' 
quartering is repeated etc. 3 Ps 
a 
a = 
a ; 4 


The sequence is repeated until the > 
somple is sufficiently recuced in size i 


Fig. 8.6 A system of quartering for reduction in sample size. 


The diagnosis and treatment of shale material must be 
based on the detailed inspection of all materials on each 
site. Coal bearing strata vary considerably along their 
length as well as vertically up the geological column 
(Hemingway, 1968), so that generalisations cannot be 
made even for one particular stratum of shale. Varying 
lengths of weathering on inherently variable material 
makes each colliery tip individual, requiring individual 
assessment and treatment. 


8.5.2 Measurement of pH applicable to soils and 
shales 


(a) Special apparatus and chemicals Laboratory pH meter 
with combination glass-reference electrode and 
temperature compensating probe e.g. Pye universal pH 
meter and millivoltmeter Gallenkamp Cat. no. 11067. 


Buffer solution tablets for pH 4.0, 7.0 and 9.15. 


(b) Procedure Although there are many procedures for 
determining pH the following method is in common use 
and is suggested. 10 g of air dry soil (<2mm material) 
is placed in a SO ml beaker and 25 ml of distilled 
water added. The suspension is periodically stirred for 
half an hour and the pH of the agitated suspension is 
then measured. The figure obtained must be labelled as 
for a 1:2:5 aqueous suspension. 


8.5.3 Lime requirement 


Modified from Shoemaker et al. (1961). Applicable to 
soils and shales. 


(a) Chemicals 
Paranitrophenol 
Triethanolamine 
Potassium chromate 
Calcium acetate 
Calcium choloride dihydrate 
Sodium hydroxide solution 1.0 N approx. 
Hydrochloric acid 1.0 N approx. 


(b) Procedure 

(i) Preparation of the buffer 1.8 g paranitrophenol, 
2.5 ml triethanolamine, 3.0 g potassium chromate, 
2.0 g calcium acetate, and 53.1 g calcium chloride 
dihydrate are placed in approximately 800 ml 
distilled water contained in a 1000 ml beaker, and 
stirred until dissolved. The solution is made up to about 
950 ml with distilled water and the pH adjusted to 
exactly 7.5 with sodium hydroxide solution or 
hydrochloric acid as appropriate. The buffer solution is 
transferred to a 1000 ml volumetric flask and made up 
to the mark with distilled water. 


(ii) Measurement of lime requirement 10.0 g air dry soil 
(<2mm fraction) is placed in a 100 ml beaker and 
25 mil distilled water added, the suspension is stirred 
periodically for half an hour when the pH of the 
agitated solution is measured. If the pH is below 6.0 
a lime requirement test is used, the procedure being 
as follows. 


The soil suspension is transferred to a shaking bottle and 
15.0 ml of the buffer solution is added by pipette. The 
bottle is stoppered and shaken overnight (17 hours at 
room temperature) and the pH is measured. By 
referring the soil/ouffer pH to the standard curve in 


Fig. 8.7 the appropriate lime requirement can be 
estimated. If the soil/buffer pH is below 5.5 the 
procedure should be repeated with half the quantity of 
soil. 


Values obtained from the standard curve are for the 
<2mm fraction and in terms of pure calcium carbonate, 
and adjustments should be made for these factors. 
Normally not more than six tons per acre of limestone 
should be applied at one time. 


(iii) Specimen calculation 
10.0g< 2mm soil (87.50% oven dry matter) used in test 
<2mm fraction constitutes 95.3% total sample 
pH of soil/buffer suspension = 5.9 
Limestone to be applied has a calcium carbonate 
equivalence of 91% 


From the standard curve, lime requirement = 
= 2.8 T/A pure CaCO 3 


adjusted for true weight of sample = 
= 2.8 x 100 T/A pure CaCO3 
87.5 


adjusted for % >2mm material, regarded as a diluent = 
= 2.8 x 100 x 95.3 T/A pure CaCO3 
87.5 100 


Lime requirement = 3.4 tons/acre ground limestone 


8.5.4 The determination of available phosphate and 
potassium 


The determination of available potassium is appropriate 
for both soils and shales but the available phosphate 
technique can be applied only to the soils. Phosphate and 
potassium are extracted by shaking the soil with 0.5 N 
ammonium acetate in 0.5 N acetic acid solution for half an 
hour. Phosphate in the extract is determined using the 
molybdate blue method of Murphy and Riley (1962), 

and potassium by flame photometry. 


LIME 
REQUIREMENT 
5 


pH of soil/buffer suspension vs. lime requirement 


73 ? 65 e $s s ae 


oH OF SOIL /BUFFER SUSPENSION 


Fig. 8.7 Lime requirement of pH values of soil/buffer 
suspension, 


77 


Extraction of available nutrients (N.A.A.S. 1966) 
(a) Chemicals, 1 


Glacial acetic acid (analar) 

Ammonia solution S. gr. 0.880 (analar) 
2.0 N sodium hydroxide solution 

1.0 N hydrochloric acid 
Phenolphthalein indicator solution 


Methy! red indicator solution 


(b) Procedure, 1 
(i) Preparation of extracting agent A 2 N acetic acid 


solution is prepared by standardising it against 2.0 N 
sodium hydroxide using phenolphthalein as an 
indicator. A 1.0 N ammonia solution is prepared by 
standardization against 1.0 N hydrochloric acid with 
methyl red as an indicator. Equal volumes of the 2.0 N 
acetic acid solution and the 1.0 N ammonia solution 
are mixed; this is the extracting agent. 


(ti) Extraction of available nutrients 10.0 g of air dry<2 mm 


fraction material of known oven dry matter content is 
transferred to a shaking bottle and 50.0 ml of the 
extracting solution is added by pipette. The bottle is 
stoppered and shaken briefly, the stopper removed to 


release any pressure developed, replaced and shaking 
continued for 30 minutes on a reciprocating shaker. 
At the end of this period the suspension is filtered 
through a 12.5 cm Whatman No. 2 paper in a 6.5 o.d. 
funnel. The clear filtrate is used for available 
phosphate and potassium determinations. 


Determination of phosphate in the extract (Murphy and 
Riley, 1962) 
(c) Chemicals and equipment, 2 


Ammonium molybdate (analar) 

Antimony potassium tartrate (analar) 
Sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1.84 (analar) 
Ascorbic acid 


Spectrophotometer e.g. Unicam SP 600 


(d) Procedure, 2 
Preparation of the standard curve 12 g of ammonium 


molybdate is dissolved in 250 ml of distilled water. Both 
dissolved reagents are added to 1000 ml of SN sulphuric 
acid (148 ml concentrated sulphuric acid per litre), 
mixed thoroughly and made up to two litres. This 
solution is designated “Reagent A’ and should be stored 
in a Pyrex container in a cool dark place. 


1.056 g of ascorbic acid is dissolved in 200 ml of 
‘Reagent A’. This solution is “Reagent B’. As this 
reagent deteriorates rapidly after 24 hours it should be 
prepared as and when required. 


About 2 g of potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate is 
dried in an oven at 110°C for an hour, then allowed to 
cool in a desiccator. 1.7576 g of this salt is placed ina 
200 ml volumetric flask and dissolved in distilled 
water. 5 ml of 2N hydrochloric acid is added and the 
solution made to volume with distilled water. One drop 
of toluene is added and the solution which contains 
2000 ppm P and 2525 ppm K is then stable for up to 
six months. This solution is designated ‘Solution C’. 

10 ml of ‘Solution C’ is diluted to 2 litres with distilled 
water. 0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0 ml of this solution are 
placed in six 50 ml volumetric flasks and diluted to about 
40 ml with distilled water. 8 ml of “Reagent B’ is added 


78 


to each flask, made to volume with distilled water and 
mixed thoroughly. The flasks contain 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 
0.6, 0.8, 1.0 ppm P solutions respectively. After 
allawing ten minutes for full colour development the 
optical density of each solution is read in a 1 cm cell 
using light of 8801 m wavelength. The colour is stable 
for at least one day. Distilled water is used in the blank 
cell of the spectrophotometer and optical density of the 
zero phosphorus concentration solution is deducted 
from all other density readings. A standard graph of 
corrected density readings is drawn against phosphorus 
concentration. 


Measurement of phosphorus in the extract 


(e) Procedure, 3 
An appropriate volume of the soil extract is placed in a 
50 ml volumetric flask and diluted to about 40 ml with 
distilled water, 8 ml of ‘Reagent B’ is added. The 
solution is made to volume with distilled water and the 
optical density determined in a 1 cm cell at 880pm. 
after at least 10 minutes. The standard graph is used to 
calculate the phosphorus content of the 50 ml aliquot. 


This procedure is repeated for a similar aliquot of the 
original extracting solution and any phosphorus detected 
is deducted from the phosphorus level in the soil 
extract. 


(f) Specimen calculation 


Optical density of phosphorus solution 0.311 
Optical density of unused extracting solution 0.002 
Volume soil extract made up to 50 ml 2.5 ml 
Total volume of extract 50.0 ml 
Weight soil used 10.0 g 


Corrected optical density = 0.311 — 0.002 = 0.309 


From standard curve optical density of 0.309 = 0.2 ppm P 
Weight of phosphorus in total soil extract = 0.2 X 50 X 50 
2.5 
Available P as pgP/g soil =_200= 20 
; 10.0 


Available phosphorus (P) = 20 ppm 


(g) Interpretation of results Interpretation of results will 
vary from region to region; the following system has been 
found satisfactory for N.E. England (Hunter, 1967). 


Available P ppm Category Phosphorus application 


required 
O-— 5 low 2 x standard P application 
6—12 medium 1 x standard P application 
13 — 20 good 
above 20 high little response expected 


Determination of potassium in the extract 


(h) Chemicals and equipment, 4 
2N Hydrochloric acid 
Potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate (analar) 
Toluene 


Flame analyser e.g. Gallenkamp Cat. No. FH-500 
Air compressor e.g. Gallenkamp Cat. No. AF-510 


(i) Procedure, 4 

(i) Preparation of a standard curve 100 ml of ‘Solution C’ 
(see prep. of standard curve — available phosphorus) 
is diluted to 252.5 ml. This.solution now contains 
1000 ppm K. 0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, 10.0 ml of this 
solution is diluted to 100 ml aliquots, which will 
contain 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 ppm K respectively. A 
series of flame photometer readings for these 
solutions are obtained and plotted on a graph of 
photometer reading versus concentration of 
potassium. 


(ti) Measurement of potassium The original extracting 
reagent is tested for potassium and any found is 
deducted from levels in the soil extracts. The soil 
extract is tested for potassium and by relating the 
photometer reading to the standard curve the 
potassium content of the soil extract may be 
calculated. 


(j) Specimen calculation 
Weight soil = 10.0 g 
oven dry matter content = 96.3% 
<2 mm fraction = 88.1% total fraction 
Photometer reading 40.5 


From standard curve the photometer reading of 40.5 
corresponds to 23 ppm K therefore the 50 ml extract 
contained 1150 ug K 
Weight soil = 10.0 X 96.3 = 9.63 g 
100 
Available K = 1150ugK/9.63 g sample 
= 119.4ugK/g (or ppm) 

Available K for total fraction = 119.4 x 88.1 

100 
(Where >2 mm material regarded as a diluent) 

= 105.2 ppm 


(k) Interpretation of results Interpretation of results will 
vary from region to region. The following system 
has been found satisfactory for North East England 
(Hunter, 1967). 


Available K ppm Category K application required 


0-35 low 2 x standard K application 
36 — 83 medium 1x standard K application 
84 — 104 good 1 x standard K application 
above 104 high No K response 


8.5.5 Phosphate requirement of shales (Modified 
from Ozanne and Shaw, 1968; Murphy and 
Riley, 1962) 


As there is little or no available phosphate in colliery shales, 
extraction techniques are unsuitable. A more appropriate 
method for assessing phosphate requirement is the one 
Ozanne and Shaw (1968) advocated. It measures how much 
phosphate must be applied to the shale to increase the 
available phosphate to an acceptable level. 


(a) Chemicals 
Calcium chloride (analar) 
Calcium tetrahydrogen diorthophosphate 
Sulphuric acid specific gravity 1.84 (analar) 
Ascorbic acid 


Ammonium molybdate (analar) 


Antimony potassium tartrate (analar) 


(b) Procedure 
(i) Standard curve (Phosphate measurement by the method 


of Murphy and Riley, 1962) 12 g of ammonium 
molybdate is dissolved in 250 ml of distilled water. 
0.2908 g of antimony potassium tartrate is dissolved in 
100 mi of distilled water. Both dissolved reagents are 
added to 1000 ml of SN sulphuric acid (148 ml 
concentrated sulphuric acid per litre) mixed thoroughly 
and made to 2 litres. This solution is ‘Reagent A’ and 
should be stored in a Pyrex container in a dark, cool 
place. 1.056 g of ascorbic acid is dissolved in 200 ml of 
‘Reagent A’ mixed, and is designated ‘Reagent B’. This 
reagent should be freshly prepared when required as it 
is unstable after 24 hours 


1.0170 g of dried (80°C) analar calcium 

tetrahydrogen diorthophosphate is dissolved in distilled 
water and made to 500 ml; 10.0 ml of this solution are 
transferred to a litre volumetric flask and diluted to 
volume with distilled water. This solution contains 5 ppm 
P. 0.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, 10.0 ml of the solution are 
placed in six 50 ml volumetric flasks respectively, 
distilled water added to make up to the mark. 


The six flasks contain P at 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 

ppm concentrations respectively. 8 ml of ‘Reagent B’ is 
placed in each of the six 50 ml flasks and made up to 

the mark with the 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 ppm P 
solutions in turn. After allowing 10 minutes for colour 
development the optical density of the solutions is 

read ina 1 cm cell at a wavelength of 880um. A graph 

is plotted optical density against phosphorus concentration 
(i.e. corresponding to 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 ppm P). 


(ti) Measurement of phosphate requirement Four or five 


portions of the air dry<2 mm fraction material are 
weighed out,each sample containing exactly 6.0 g 

oven dry material, The samples are transferred to 125 ml 
shaking bottles and 60.0 ml of the Ca(HPO4)5.H30 

in 0.01 N CaCl solution added. The phosphate 
contents of the 60.0 ml aliquots are chosen so that 

after equilibrium with the shales they cover the range 
0.1 — 1.0 ppm P in solution. One drop of toluene is 
added to each bottle which is then stoppered and shaken 
for two half hour periods each day for twenty days. 

The suspensions are then filtered through a Whatman 
No. 2 paper into a SO ml volumetric flask which contains 
8 ml of ‘Reagent B’. Enough filtrate is added to bring 
the volume up to the mark. The optical density is 
measured as detailed above and by reference to the 
standard curve the phosphorus concentration in the 
suspension filtrate is calculated. By subtracting 
phosphorus in solution from phosphorus added, the 
level of sorbed phosphorus as pgP/g shale can be 
estimated. This is done simultaneously for the four 

or five suspensions and a graph of phosphorus sorbed 
(units P70 5/acre) against phosphorus (ppm) in the 
liquid phase is drawn up. | pig P sorbed/g shale is 
approximately equivalent to 4.1 units P7Os5 sorbed per 
acre to plough depth. 


Ozanne and Shaw (1968) showed that for pasture plants, 
phosphate required = phosphate sorbed (at the 0.3 

ppm P level in solution) with a correlation coefficient 
of r= +0.96. Various authors use different phosphate 


79 


levels in the supernatant liquid; Beckwith (1965) used 
0.2 ppm P as a basis for phosphate requirement as 

did Fox ef al. (1968). As far as is known, no work has 
yet been undertaken with pasture plants growing on 
colliery shale in a temperate maritime climate. Until 
this data is available Ozanne and Shaw's level of 

0.3 ppm is favoured. 


Phosphate required = 
= phosphate sorbed X %<2mm in total fraction 
(0.3 ppm level) 100 


8.5.6 Measurement of salinity Applicable to soils 
and shales Jackson (1958) 


The salt level in shale soils is frequently high enough to 
inhibit plant growth. Estimates of salinity are made on the 
saturated moisture extracts by measuring the electrical 
conductivity of the extracted solutions. The salinity hazard 
can be directly interpreted from electrical conductivity 
measurements. 


(a) Chemicals and special apparatus 
Potassium chloride 
2, 1lem Hartley 3 section Buchner funnels 
11cm Whatman No. 50 filter papers 


Filtration tube with side arm (i.d. 30—35mm, length 
100—1 10mm) 

Specimen tubes (i.d. 25mm, length75mm) and 
polythene closures 

Conductivity cell e.g. Mullard type E.7591/A 
Conductivity bridge 


(b) Procedure 

(i) Saturated moisture extract 
About 100ml of the<2mm fraction air dry material is 
placed in a 250 m] Pyrex beaker, and saturated with 
deionised water. Saturation moisture content is 
defined as the maximum amount of water held in the 
puddled soil without free water collecting in a depression 
in the soil mass (Scofield, 1932). Preferably the water 
should be added in spaced increments so the soil 
colloids can imbibe moisture before further water is 
added. Should too much water be applied a little extra 
soil may be added to soak up the excess. As many 
shales contain slowly soluble salts, an equilibrium time 
of two hours is required before the soil mass is 
transferred to an 11cm Buchner funnel fitted with a 
Whatman No. S50 filter paper, see Fig. 8.8. A vacuum is 
applied to the system and the clear extract is collected 
and used for salinity and pH measurements. 


(ii) Measurement of electrical conductivity 
Standardisation of the conductivity cell The specific 
conductivity at 25°C of a 0.020 N KCI solution is 2.39 
m.mho/cm. The conductivity cell is placed in a 
0.020 N KCI solution at 25°C and the conductivity, 
E.C. is measured. The cell constant, k, is given by 
Raed. 

E.C.35°¢ 
Conductivity measurements will vary with temperature 
and must be adjusted to the standard temperature of 
25°C by using the correction factor f;, see Fig. 8.9 
E.C.959¢ =E.C,Xf, 
where E.C.75°c is the electrical conductivity at 25°C 
E.C., is the measured electrical conductivity at iC 
f; is the correction factor see Fig. 8.9. 


80 


saturated soil 


—filter paper 


—p to vacuum pump 


clear extract 


Fig. 8.8 Apparatus used for saturation moisture extraction 
and the determination of moisture equivalent. 


Measurement of specific conductance of a standard 
moisture extract The conductivity cell (cell constant k) 
is placed in the saturated extract at temperature ft, and 
the conductivity E.C., measured. 

Specific conductance = E.C., Xk-X fy. 


(c) Interpretation of results 


Specific conductance Salinity level Effect on 
(25°C) of saturated vegetation 
moisture extract 
m.mho/cm 
O-2 non saline negligible damage 
2-4 very slightly yield of very 
saline sensitive crops 
reduced 
4-8 moderately 
saline 
8-16 strongly yield of many 
saline crops restricted 
only tolerant 
crops yield 
satisfactorily 
germination 
seriously affected 
16+ very strongly only few very 
saline tolerant crops 


yield satisfactorily 


(d) Osmotic pressure and salinity 
Moisture is available to a plant while at tensions between 
0 and approximately 15 atmospheres. At about 15 
atmospheres soil moisture tension, plants wilt as they 
are not able to extract any more water from the soil 
(Baver, 1961). Salts dissolved in solution give the 
solution an osmotic pressure which reduces the range of 
tensions over which plant roots can extract moisture. 


=—— _amanine 


The salts likely to be derived from shales e.g. NaySO4, 
CaSO4, FeSO4 have similar effects on the osmotic 
pressure i.e. approximately 0.3 atm. per m.mho/cm 
electrical conductivity (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 
1954). For example if the specific conductance of the 
saturated moisture extract is 10.0 m.mho/cm the 
maximum moisture tension at which the plant can 

still remove water from shale soil will be 12 atmospheres. 
At such a reduced moisture content the osmotic pressure 
will probably exceed the 3 atmospheres to further reduce 
the available moisture range in the material. 


8.5.7 Percentage<2mm fraction Application to 
shales and stony soils 


The %<2mm material in the total sample is an indication of 
the degree of weathering and to a large extent the value of 
the shale as a growth medium. Extremely low values are 
given by materials that can retain neither moisture nor 
nutrients. Extremely high values may suggest that 
although moisture and nutrient holding capacities are good 
there may be tilth problems involving an im permeable 
material which roots cannot easily penetrate. Agronomic 
values cannot be assigned to %<2mm figures with any 
certainty until considerable field work has been completed 
but for the initial stages of reclamation values of 40 — 60% 
are probably optimal. Fig. 8.10 shows the frequency of 
occurrence of values for %<2mm material. 


Many analytical figures for the<2mm fraction must be 
readjusted when estimates are made for the complete soils. 
Procedure 

About 8 — 10 kg of air dry material is sieved 

through a mesh with 2mm apertures and the % by weight 

of the<2mm material in the total sample is calculated. 


8.5.8 Moisture equivalent, Bouyoucos (1935) 
Applicable to soils and shales 


The moisture equivalent of a soil is the % moisture held by 
the soil when under a tension of one-third atmosphere; this 
moisture content approximates to field capacity. Its 
determination can be conveniently linked with the 
saturated moisture extraction procedure as used in shale 
salinity testing. 


ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY CORRECTION 
FACTOR VS TEMPERATURE 


TEMP °C 
30 


Le J Bl eo oe 
f 


(Based on dete from Jackson 1958) 


Fig. 8.9 Electrical conductivity correction factor vs. 
temperature. 


i’ FREQUENCY 


le -2mm 
MATERIAL IN 
TOTAL SAMPLE 


Fig. 8.10 Distribution of % 2mm material in 92 samples. 
(From 30 sites mostly in N.E. England.) 


(a) Procedure 


The method is the same as for saturated moisture content 
except that the tension applied must be controlled. A 
tension of 610mm (25in) of mercury is applied to the 
soil in the Buchner funnel for 15 minutes. At the end of 
this period a small amount of the moist sample is 
removed, weighed and dried in an oven at 105°C for 

24 hours. The moisture content of the moist sample is 
calculated, this being approximately equal to the moisture 
equivalent of the<2mm material. This figure is used as 
the basis of the moisture equivalent of the total fraction, 
the following adjustments being made: 


(i) Areduction to allow for the>2mm fraction which 
holds little moisture under tension. 

(ii) | An allowance for the moisture held within the 
>2mm particles. An average figure of 4.6% 
moisture is assumed for wet shale particles. 

(iii) An allowance for moisture held between the 
<2mm and>2mm particles. An average figure 
of 0.069% moisture per %>2mm fraction 
in the total sample. 


(b) Specimen calculation 


Moisture equivalent of <2mm fraction = 13.8 g water 
contained by 100 g moist soil 
<2mm fraction = 33.4% total fraction 


apparent density = 1.10 g/cm} 


Moisture content of a saturated shale fragment = 4.6% 
— adjustment (ii) 


Moisture held between > 2mm and <2mm shale particles 
= 0.069% moisture 
per % > 2mm material — adjustment (iii) 


Reduction for effect of >2mm material 
adjustment (i) 13.8 x 33.4 = 4.6% w/w 
100 


Moisture held in > 2mm material 
adjustment (ii) 4.6 x 100—33.4 = 3.1% w/w 
100 


Moisture held by pore spaces between > 2mm and < 2mm 
material 


adjustment (iii) 0.069 x (100—33.4)= 4.6% w/w 


Moisture equivalent w/w = (i)Hii)+iii)= 12.3% wiw 
On v/v basis = 12.3 x 1.10= 13.5% 


Moisture equivalent of total soil = 13.5% v/v 


81 


(c) Interpretation of results 

Average values (Pringle, 1969) are sandy soils 15% 
loams 30% 
clay soils 45% 

The figures represent the moisture content, once 

gravitational water has moved out of the previously 

saturated material and approximate to field capacity. 

Values for shales are generally low indicating a 

small reserve of water available for plants. 


8.6 Summary 

The surface of a regraded colliery site usually consists 

of freshly exposed shale with or without a thin.covering 
of soil. The special problems associated with soil that has 
been stored in heaps for any length of time before being 
respread are listed in section 8.3. The methods of soil 
testing as given in section 8.5 can be used to determine 
the nature of treatments necessary to improve the 
fertility of the soil. 


Section 8.4 deals with the nature and origin of colliery 
waste materials. Acidity and its associated effects, phosphate 
fixation, salinity and nitrogen deficiency are the major 
chemical problems likely to be encountered in reclamation 
schemes in Northem coalfields. Methods for both the 
diagnosis of these problems and the selection of 
ameliorative treatments are given. Low water holding 
capacity, excessive stoniness and over compaction of 

the shale by heavy earth moving machinery are the physical 
problems most frequently occurring during the reclamation 
of colliery tips. Methods for identifying these problems are 
given in section 8.5. 


Volume 2 of this report will include examples of site 
investigations together with an evaluation of the success of the 
ameliorative treatments used. 


Fig. 8.2 is reproduced by courtesy of Dr G.A.L. Johnson 
and acknowledgements are given to the publishers of his 
article (1961) in which the figure originally appeared — 
Geologisch Bureau voor het Mijngebied; to the publishers 
Oliver & Boyd Limited and editors Dr Murchison and 
Professor Westoll of the article ‘Coal and Coal-Bearing 
Strata’ in which the figure also appeared. 


References 


Atterberg, A. (1912) Die Mechanische Bodenanalyse und die 
Klassification der Mineralboden Schwedens /nir. 

Mitt. Bodenk., Vol. 2, 312—342. 

Baver, L.D. (1961) Soil Physics (3rd ed). Wiley, London, 
283—285. 

Beckwith, R.S. (1965) Sorbed phosphate at standard 
supernatant concentration as an estimate of the 
phosphate needs of soils. Aust. J. exp. Agric. Anim. 
Husb. Vol. 5.52—58. 

Berner, R.A. (1967a) Diagenesis of iron sulphide in recent 
marine sediments. Estuaries edit. G.H. Lauff. Am. 
Assoc. Adv. Sci. Publ. 83, Washington 268—272. 

Berner, R.A. (1967b) Thermodynamic stability of 
sedimentary iron sulphides. Am. J. Sci. Vol. 265, 
773—785. 

Bouyoucos, G.J. (1935) A comparison between the suction 
method and the centrifuge method for determining 
the moisture equivalent of soils. Soil Sci. 40, 165—171. 


82 


British Soil Survey Staff (1960) Field Handbook. Soil 
Survey of Great Britain. Rothamsted. 12. 

Chang, S.C. and Jackson, M.L. (1957) Solubility product of 
iron phosphate. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. Vol. 21, 
265—268. 

Cooke, G.W. (1967) The Control of Soil Fertility. 

Crosby Lockwood. London, 125—129. 

Fleet, M.L. (1965) Preliminary investigation into the 
sorption of boron by clay minerals. Clay Minerals. 
Bull., Min. Soc. London. Vol 6, 3—16. 

Fox, R.L., Plunkett, D.L. and Whitney , A.S. (1968) 
Phosphate requirements of Hawaiian latosols and 
residual effects of fertilizer phosphorus. 9th Int. 

Congr. Soil Sci. transactions, Adelaide. 2, 301—310. 

Goldschmidt, W.M. (1958) Geochemistry. ed. Muir, O.U.P., 
London. 530. 

Hall, 1.G. (1957) Ecology of Pit Heaps. J. Ecol. 45, 689-720. 

Harder, H. (1961) Einbau von Bor in detritische tonminerale. 
Experiments zur Erkarung des Borghaltes toniger 


sediments. Geochim et Gosmochim. Acta 21: 284—294. 


Hayward, H.E. and Wadleigh, C.H. (1949) Plant growth on 
saline and alkali soils. Adv. in Agron., 1, 1—38. 

Hemingway, J.E. (1968) Sedimentology of the coal bearing 
strata. Coal and Coal Bearing Strata. ed. Murchison 
and Westoll, Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh. 43—69. 

Hunter, F. (1967) Private com munication. 

Hunter, F. and Currie, J.A. (1956) Structural changes during 
bulk soil storage. J. Soil Sci. Vol. 7.1. 75—80. 

Jackson, M.L. (1958) Soil Chemical Analysis. Constable, 
London 10—37. 


Jackson, W.A. (1967) Physiological effects of soil acidity 
Soil Acidity and Liming. ed. Pearson and Adams. 


Monograph No. 12 Am. Soc. Agron., Madison. 43—124. 


Johnson, G.A.L. (1959) The carboniferous stratigraphy of 
the Roman Wall district in Western Northumberland. 
Proc. Yorks. Geol. Soc. Vol. 32, 83—130. 

Johnson, G.A.L. (1961) Lateral variation of marine and 
deltaic sediments in cyclothemic deposits with 
particular reference to the Visean and Namurian 
of Northern England. C. r. 4 Int. Congr. Strat. Carb. 
Heerlen, 1958. 2, 323—330. 

Kaplan, I.R., Emery, R.O., and Rittenberg, S.C. (1963) 
Distribution and isotopic abundance of sulphur in 
recent marine sediments off Southern California. 
Geochim et Gosmochim. Acta. 27, 297—331. 

Kardos, L.T. (1964) Soil fixation of plant nutrients — 
phosphorus. Chemistry of the Soil. ed. Bear, 
Reinhold, London. 369—382. 

Kuznetsov S.I., lranoy, M.V. and Lyalikova, N.V. 

(1963) Introduction to Geological Microbiology. 
ed. Oppenheimer, trans. Broneer, McGraw-Hill, 
New York. 

Mapstone, G.E. (1954) The weathering of pyrite. Chem. 
and Ind. No. 20, 577—578. 

Miller, Jr., H. (1887) The geology of the country around 
Otterburn and Elsdon. Mem. geol. Surv: U.K. 

Mitchell, R.L. (1964) Trace elements in soils. 

Chemistry of the Soil. ed. Bear. Reinhold, London. 


Moffatt, D.J. (1966) A field study into the soil forming 
factors operating on colliery shales. Rep. 4, Land. 
Recl. Res. Proj., Univ. Newcastle upon Tyne. 13. 


aay YE 


Moore, L.R. (1968) Some sediments closely associated 
with coal seams, Coal and Coal Bearing Strata. 
ed. Murchison and Westoll, Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh 
10S5—123. 

Murphy, J. and Riley, J.P. (1962) A modified single 
solution method for the determination of phosphate 
in natural waters. Anal. Chim. Acta. 27, 31—36. 

National Agricultural Advisory Service (1966) Determination 
of available phosphate and potassium in soil. Rep. of 
Analyst Technical Committee, M.A.F.P. 

Ozanne, P.G. and Shaw, T.C. (1968) Advantages of the 
recently developed phosphate sorption test over the 
older extractant methods for soil phosphate. 9th Jnt. 
Congr. Soil Sci., transactions, Adelaide, 2, 273— 280. 

Pons, L.J. and Zonneveld, I.S. (1965) Soil ripening and soil 
classification. Publ. 13. /nt. Inst. Land Recl. and 
Impro., Wageningen. 25—27. 

Pringle, J. (1969) Private communication. 

Reed, J.F. and Rigney, J.A. (1947) Soil sampling from fields 
of uniform and non uniform appearance and soil 
ty pe. J. Am. Soc. Agron., Vol 39, 26—40. 

Reeve, R.C. and Fireman, M. (1967) Salt problems in 
relation to irrigation. /rrigation of Agricultural 
Lands, ed. Hagan, Haise and Edmunster. Am.Soc. 
Agron., Monograph No. 11. Madison 988—995S. 

Russell, E.W . (1961) Soil Conditions and Plant Growth. 
9th ed. Longmans Green, London, 481—489. 

Scofield, C.S. (1932) Measuring the salinity of irrigation 
waters and of soil solutions with the Wheatstone 
Bridge. U.S.D.A., Circ. 232. 

Scott, R.O. (1970) Private communication. 


Shoemaker, H.E., McLean, E.C. and Pratt, P.F. (1961) 
Buffer methods for determining lime requirement 
of soils with appreciable amounts of extractable 
aluminium. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. Vol 25. 
274-277. 


Temple, K.L. and Delchamps, E.W. (1953) Autotrophic 
bacteria and the formation of acid in bituminous 
coal mines. Appl. Microbiol. Vol. 1, no. 5, 255—258. 

Thornton, I., Atkinson, W.J., Webb, J.S. and Pool, D.B.R. 
(1966) Geochemical reconnaissance and bovine 
hypocuprosis in Co. Limerick, Ireland. /rish J. Agric. 
Res. Vol 5, 280—283. 

United States Soil Salinity Staff (1954) Diagnosis and 
Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils, Handbook 
no. 60, U.S.D.A., Washington. 

United States Soil Survey Staff (1951) Soil Survey 
Manual, Handbook no. 18, U.S.D.A. Washington 
205—233. 

van Beers, W.F.J. (1962) Acid Sulphate Soils. Bull. 3 Int 
Inst. Land Recl. and Imp. Wageningen. 31 pp. 


Wadleigh, C.H. and Ayers, C.H. (1945) Growth and 
biochemical composition of bean plants as conditioned 
by soil moisture tension and salt concentration. 

Plant Physiol. Vol. 20, 106—132. 


Webb, J.S. and Atkinson, WJ. (1965) Regional geochemical 
reconnaissance applied to some agricultural problems 
in Co. Limerick. Nature Vol 203, 1056—1059. 


Webb, J.S., Thornton, I, and Fletcher, K. (1968) 
Geochemical reconnaissance and hypocuprosis. Nature 
Vol. 217, 1010—1012. 


Westoll, T.S. (1968) Sedimentary rhythms in coal bearing 
strata. Coal and Coal Bearing S trata ed. Murchison 
and Westoll, Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh. 105—123. 


Whittig, L.D. and Janitzky, P. (1963) Mechanisms for the 
formation of sodium carbonate in soils. 1. Manifestations 
of Biological Conversions. J. Soil Sci. Vol 14. 322—333. 


Wills, L.J. (1951) A Paleogeographical Atlas of the British 
Isles and Adjacent parts of Europe, Blackie, London. 
26-27. 


83 


Chapter 9 Botanical studies of natural and 
planted vegetation on colliery spoil heaps 


by J.A. Richardson, B.K. Shenton and R.J. Dicker 


9.1 Introduction 


In Britain most waste ground which is not contaminated 
by toxic material is quickly invaded by plants from the 
surrounding countryside. It is well known that some form 
of plant cover is often developed in under a decade on such 
places as derelict building sites, deserted fields and 
footpaths, disused ship-yards, abandoned railroads, brick 
fields, quarries and other neglected sites. For pit heaps on 
the other hand, it may take seven times as long before the 
colonizing vegetation is sufficiently well grown to mask 
the ugliness, and this is due mainly to their shape and 
height and to the physical and chemical properties of the 
surface layers. 


From time to time, believing that those who extract the 
nation’s coal supplies should not be forced to live 
permanently amongst the depressing spoil heaps, men have 
tried to retrieve the former beauty of the landscape by 
planting spoil heaps with trees and shrubs. Notable success 
was achieved in County Durham at Lambton in the 

early 1850's, at St. Helens Auckland in the 1920’s, and at 
Houghall in the 1930’s where trees were planted on pit 
heaps for the sake of amenity. Whyte and Sisam (1949), 
Wood and Thirgood (1955), have written reports of work 
done elsewhere in Britain and abroad. Three main 
advantages accrue from establishing a vegetative cover on a 
pit heap. First, there is the improvement of the landscape 
by planting with suitable quick growing plants (and fenced 
in the first instance, and then, later, perhaps opened as a 
natural playground, or given special treatment to make 

it into a park). Secondly, there may be the possibility of 
some financial return from the growing of trees for timber, 
or the sowing of grass for grazing stock. Thirdly, and 
possibly the most important advantage for some villages 
would be the elimination of a constant source of dust and 
grit which, in a dry summer, fill the air and make life 
miserable. Nevertheless, the amount of derelict ground on 
which vegetation has been established by artificial means 
is negligible, and the presence of trees and grasses on 
disused spoil heaps is mostly due to natural immigration 
from adjacent areas. 


A principal aim of investigations into the physiology 
and ecology of plants growing in waste places, which 
started in Newcastle in 1952 and continued in the 
present Project, was to provide information useful to 
those people concerned with reclaiming the landscape. 
The account which follows summarizes relevant 
results. 


9.2 Natural vegetation 
9.2.1 Coionization 


Some of the propagules (fruits, seeds and spores) 
produced by mature plants in the neighbourhood are 


84 


transported by the agency of wind and animals to the 
surfaces of spoil heaps. Under favourable conditions they 
may germinate and produce adult plants from which a 
plant population may develop. 


Weathering of the pit heap material 

Newly tipped colliery waste often consists of a mixture of 
large rocks (SOOmm dia.), which forms the bulk of the 
material, together with smaller fragments (2mm dia.) and 
very fine material (0.002mm dia.). The breakdown of the 
shale by physical and chemical weathering into small 
particles has been described by Richardson (1957), who 
pointed out that whereas some pit heap surfaces produce a 
layer of small hard plate-like shales, on others a surface 
layer rich in clay particles is developed. The latter type 

of surface tends to puddle when wet, leading to 

poor penetration, much run-off and erosion; the former has 
no cohesion, penetration of rainfall is high and water 
holding capacity is low. Neither of these surfaces 
encourages the growth of plants and it was shown that 
those heaps which produce an intermediate surface, with a 
mixture of small shales and clay particles, are the ones on 
which plants spread most rapidly. In the early stages of 
weathering when fine particles are easily dispersed by wind 
or rainfall, and there is no protection from vegetation, even 
the smallest run-off of water will cause loss of soil-forming 
particles. Until sufficient particles have accumulated within 
a range 2.0mm to 0.002mm it is unlikely that plants will 
succeed because it is in the pores (capillaries) that exist 
between small soil particles that water available for plant 
growth can be held. Greenwood (1963) performed 
mechanical analyses on samples of surface material and 
found that when the fine fraction, i.e. that which passed 
through a 20 B.S. sieve (100mm2 holes), exceeded about 
43% of the sample the ‘receptive stage’ had been reached 
and colonization occurred; on surfaces with less than 35% 
of fine material seeds germinated but the seedlings did not 
survive. Brierley (1956) for pit heaps in Derbyshire, 
Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire and Pickersgill (1971) in 
Durham found that pit heaps were devoid of vegetation 
when most of the surface was composed of fine clay 
particles. Vegetation appeared on these clay surfaces when 
they included sufficient fragments which were retained on 
a 20 B.S. sieve. Beneath the surface layer of pit heaps 

(say 60 mm) the coarse material may show little change 
from the time of tipping except to contain some finer 
material carried down from the surface. It was commonly 
found (Greenwood, 1963) that while the surface 60 mm 
had 55% the next 120 mm had a coarse fraction of 94%. 


Clearly these observations made under natural field 
conditions are relevant to artificial planting and they were 
drawn on when artificial planting procedures were planned 
(see section 9.3.1). 


Density of incoming fruits and seeds 

The natural vegetation of pit heaps (and other derelict 
places) is related to the local flora; Richardson (1956) 

has described plant communities which can develop on pit 
heaps in Durham, e.g. a heather moorland at Haswell 

(NZ 375448), a Deschampsia grassland at Springwell 

(NZ 287588), a birch woodland at Urpeth (NZ 248555) 
and many grass—herb communities elsewhere. There was a 
good correlation between the pit heap communities and 
the presence of seeding species in the vicinity, their 
distance and compass bearing, their numbers and abundance 
of seeds, their seed dispersal mechanisms and the weight of 
each seed. 


The density of incoming seeds is critical because of the 
heavy losses which occur amongst those seeds which are 
deposited on pit heaps. Brierley (1956) reported that, for 

a four week period when seed dispersal was high, about 
2,000,000 seeds per ha (800,000 seeds per acre) arrived 

on the south west slope of a pit heap. Accepting this as a 
typical figure, Greenwood (1963) collected samples of 
surface material from a comparable pit heap at Ravensworth 
(NZ 260582) and spread them thinly on sterilized soil in 
the greenhouse under ideal conditions for germination. 

He found that the seeds which germinated represented a 
seed density of about 272,000 per ha (110,000 per acre) or 
one-seventh of the amount of seeds reaching the heap 

from the local countryside. Greenwood further found that 
although the greenhouse figure corresponded to about 24 
seeds per m2 (20 seeds per yd?) on the pit heap, the plants 
were not more frequent than one per m? (one per yd? ) when 
the observations were made. 


Clearly, there is a high casualty rate amongst the incoming 
seeds for which high temperature and drought could be 
important causes —see section 9.2.1(b) and (c). 

Also important are high winds which lift seeds off the 
slopes of pit heaps, and an open texture which allows the 
small airborne seeds to be carried to considerable depths in 
the heap. 


Experiments using Agrostis tenuis and Dactylis glomerata 
were carried out in 1961 on north east facing slopes at 
Ravensworth which were largely protected from high 
winds, high temperature and drought (see Richardson and 
Greenwood, 1967). The ground was fairly compact and 

the seeds were either spread over the surface of the plots, or 
spread lightly, covered with small shales, and then 

firmly pressed down. Briefly, the results showed that with a 
seed rate of 34.0 g per m2 (1 oz per yd2) the survival was 
94% on raked and firm plots and only 10% on unraked 
plots. When the seed rate was reduced to 3.0 g per m2 
(1/12 oz per yd2), i.e. to the agricultural rate for grass 

seed mixtures, the survival was reduced to 14% on raked- 
firm plots and to 1% on unraked plots. Greenwood gave 
details of the damage caused to surface germinated 
seedlings during the first winter and he has compared the 
heavy losses with the light losses sustained by seedlings 
developed from seeds well established just below the 
surface. These results confirmed the earlier findings 
(Richardson, 1956) that the ‘receptive stage’ on a pit 

heap, i.e. when the immature soil is suitable for the 
germination of incoming seeds and for the development of 
seedlings, depends on the conjunction of a suitable soil 
texture, adequate rainfall, and suitable seed density. Up to a 
point it appears that a deficiency in one condition can be 
compensated for by an excess in one or both of the others. 
For example, a coarse textured soil with a low water 


holding capacity will lose seeds carried downwards in 
drainage water, and will lose seedlings in summer owing 
to drought — see section 9.2.1(c). A high seed rate plus a 
high rainfall in any given year could compensate. 


The rate of growth is important in the first season; if it is 
high the young plants could be sufficiently well rooted to 
survive summer drought. In the artificial planting of 
grasses and herbs steps must be taken to make the spoil 
heaps receptive and to allow for the compensation 
mentioned to be applied; reference to how this was done 
is made in section 9.3.1. 


Factors affecting germination and survival 

(a) pH values, toxic substances and essential minerals The 
characteristics which develop during the growth of plants 
are not determined solely by the factors of inheritance 
contained in the protoplasm but are also controlled by the 
conditions of the environment, e.g. by temperature, 

light intensity, acidity, water content, oxygen content, 
etc. For many years it has been known that pH is a factor 
almost as important as temperature in many plant processes. 
Growth of plants is only maintained between certain 
limits of pH; for example, good growth may occur between 
pH S and 8, but outside this range, in pronounced acid or 
alkaline soils, plant growth is at first retarded and finally 
arrested (see Richardson 1964 for details). 


On many pit heaps when weathering processes have been 
acting for 4 — S years and the receptive stage has been 
reached, the soil reaction is neutral or even slightly 
alkaline. It appears that in midland and south country 
coal fields (Hall, 1957) newly tipped shales tend to have 
higher pH values, e.g. pH 8.8 in Somerset and pH 8.7 in 
North Staffordshire, than those for northern coalfields, 
e.g. 6.9 for Durham and Northumberland (Richardson, 
1956). As the plant cover develops from the pioneer 
herb—grass stage to a grassland, heather moorland, scrub 
or woodland, there is a marked fall in the pH of the 
surface material and most surface layers become distinctly 
acid after about 80 years. Likely changes of pH in this 
period have been reported as follows: pH 7.0 — 3.5 
(Richardson, 1956); pH 8.8 — 3.4 (Hall, 1957); pH 8.0 — 
3.5 (Greenwood, 1963). Shenton (1967) examined 237 
sites and found that naturally occurring and planted 
species grew and flourished on pit heaps where the pH 
values were between pH 7.0 and 3.0; the distribution of 
sites and pH values was as follows: 


pH 1046.0) 45) 4.0 3.0 
%ofsites O.8 91 25.0 40.6 24.5 


The pH varies with depth below the surface as well as 
with age. In a 100 year old heap at Birtley (NZ 279554) 
on which a mixed deciduous woodland had developed 
the values down the profile were as follows: 


Depth Organic pH 
(mm) content 
(%) 
Oo— 50 17.6 5.3 
50 — 100 6.4 5.8 
100 — 200 2.3 6.1 
200 — 300 1.5 6.1 


Here the pH change (0.8 units) with depth was small 
compared with differences of 2.0 units (pH 4.4 — 6.4) 
reported elsewhere. 


85 


The changes in the pH of spoil heap material are influenced 
by burning (see below), by erosion and by the type of 
vegetation but they also depend very much on the sulphur 
content of the shale’s waste coal. Pit heap spoil contains 
three forms of sulphur; pyrites, sulphates and organic 
pyrites (or marcasites) and in shale large amounts of 
sulphur may be present as sulphates or in the pyritic form. 
In the north of England the total sulphur content of 

waste coal and shales varies from zero to about 12% and 
there are wide differences from heap to heap and between 
places on the same heap. 

During weathering and as a result of moist oxidation of the 
sulphur bearing rocks, quantities of free sulphuric acid, iron 
sulphates and ferric hydroxide appear in the surface 


layers of spoil heaps. Briefly, the presence of these substances 


in toxic quantities, together with the low pH values 
produces a medium in which growth of plants is often 
impossible (for some details of the effect of sulphur on 
colonization of eight pit heaps see Richardson, 1957). pH 
values in the region of pH 2 are common on pit heaps with 
pyrites bearing rocks at the surface and this condition may 
persist for over 40 years. Vegetation gains a foothold on 
these pit heaps when the toxic products of oxidation are 
leached out of the surface layers and cease to accumulate. 


When there are large amounts of sulphur (e.g. 6%) in 
surface layers which also possess either very high or very 
low permeability to water (see: ‘Weathering of the pit heap 
material’), conditions exist which may permanently 
prevent natural colonization or the success of artificial 
planting of trees and grasses. Clearly special problems 
attach to reclamation of pit heaps containing pyritiferous 
waste, and experiments are in progress to discover how 
ameliorating procedures can be practised on a large scale; 


these include liming, sealing with subsoil and turf, and burning. 


It has been argued (Richardson, 1956) that the presence 

of large amounts of pyrites encourages the heating processes 
which lead to burning of pit heaps. Whether or not this is 
the case, it is true to say that when burning occurs much 
sulphur is removed from the heap and hard masses of 
clinker are produced below the surface. At the surface 

there are, characteristically, either layers of small, 

brittle, brick-red platey shales or light brown (or apricot) 
coloured material which weathers rapidly to a fine powder. 


Physically, the range of surface material is as wide on 

burnt as on unburnt heaps. Immediately after burning 

the surface contains the products of oxidation of pyrites 
and these leach out rapidly (and are not replaced as happens 
in unburnt heaps, see above) to provide a less toxic 

medium than unburnt shale. 


Shales and the young soils which develop from them are 
not normally rich in essential mineral elements compared 
with arable land or permanent pasture. Nevertheless most 
pit heaps in Durham support some vegetation after 40 
years (section 9.2.2) and many of them have closed 
communities after 60 years. In some experiments surface 
material was removed from young heaps to the Botany 
Experimental garden and sown with seeds of recognised 
pit heap grasses. Provided the material was watered to 
bring the moisture content to near field capacity (section 
9.2. lc) the seeds germinated and mature seeding plants 
were supported by over 90% of the samples. Added 
nitrogen, phosphorus and potash increased the yield. 


(b) Temperature Pit heaps often have slopes of up to 43° 
and with all possible aspects. The amount of solar radiation 


86 


angle between the incident rays and a perpendicular to the 
surface, and, therefore, it is not surprising to find that 

on many summer days southern slopes of pit heaps may 
receive up to ten times the energy falling on north facing 
slopes. It is also well known that black surfaces are better 
absorbers of solar radiation than light coloured ones, and 
consequently one might expect that black shales would have 
higher daylight temperatures than lighter ones. It was 
shown (Richardson, 1953, 1958) that the combined 
effect of spoil colour, slope and aspectcould result in 
very high temperatures on south facing slopes in summer. 


In autumn and spring, southern slopes of pit heaps were 
found to be covered with germinating seeds and seedlings 
of grasses and herbs. This is because the south facing \ 
slopes, even in winter, have equable temperatures when | 
the northern slopes are little above freezing point 
(Greenwood, 1963). However, in the summer on bare 
southern slopes, temperatures as high as 57°C were 
recorded and the young plants withered and died. It : 
was common to find surface temperatures exceeding ! 
50°C lasting for several hours around mid-day in June, 4 
| 
' 


reaching a surface is proportional to the cosine of the 
‘ 
‘\ 


July and August. Below the surface, at 75mm (3in) the 

maximum temperatures reached were about 32°C, and at 

150mm (6in) not more than 25°C. Protoplasm only 

maintains its normal powers within a certain temperature i 
range; and it is not only temperature but also its duration ‘ 
which determines whether fatal results will follow. It 

follows that the absence of plants from the bare south facing 
slopes might be attributed to the quantity of heat ' 
(temperature and duration of exposure combined) acting 

directly on the shoot and root tissues at surface level, ' 
causing desiccation and subsequent death. Alternatively ; 
it can be argued that the heat caused sufficient loss of 
water in the surface layers to reduce the amount of 
water available for absorption by roots — see this section 
(c). When this available water is less than that lost in 
transpiration, loss of turgor and death of the plant 
follows. 


It is well known that a plant cover, or a dry mulch at the 

soil surface, reduces the daily temperature fluctuations 

in the layers below the surface. The extent of this ' 
ameliorating effect of Agrostis tenuis, Holcus mollis and 

Calluna vulgaris was investigated on several pit-heaps near 
Chester-le-Street. When adjoining bare shale had daily 7 
temperature ranges of 45°C (8°C to 53°C) at the surface, 

a grass—herb cover reduced the range to about 1236 


(12°C to 24°C). 


Similar insulating properties were possessed by the layers 
of moss and lichen, about 15mm thick, which occasionally 
form an important part of the pit heap flora. When surface i 
temperatures were over 50°C, the temperatures directly 
underneath were nearer 25°C; in other words the heat 

exchanges were concentrated in the thin boundary layer 

of moss and lichen which served to keep the shale at a 

reasonable temperature in summer and to conserve the 

water present. The successful colonization of the pit 

heap at Custon (NZ 267548) by Holcus mollis was 

attributed to the presence of the moss—lichen layer. 


(c) Available water For successful growth in any habitat, 
plants must possess properties which meet the demands 
of transpiration as well as the limitations of soil water 
supply without incurring harmful water deficits. There are 
generally recognised limits to the water content of a soil 


profile in which plants will grow. The upper limit, called 
the field capacity, is the amount of water held in fine 
capillaries of a soil after rainfall when drainage from the 
soil reaches zero; the lower limit, the wilting point, is 

the water content at which turgor cannot be maintained 
and permanent wilting occurs. At the wilting point 

water is held by the soil with great tenacity; the moisture 
tension is about 15 atmospheres, or pF 4.2 on the 
logarithmic scale of tenacity. At field capacity water 

is less tenaciously held than at the wilting point and on the 
oF scale moisture.tensionis pF 2.5. The water held in 

soil between field capacity and wilting point is available 
to the plant for growth. Greenwood (1963 ) followed 

for over a year the changes in the moisture tension which 
occured at three depths on four aspects of a large conical 
pit heap at Custon (NZ 267548). There was little 
difference with aspect in the percentage of values above 
pF 4.2 which occurred on the surface or 25mm (lin) 
below the surface. However at 75mm (3in) depth there 
was clear evidence that the S.E., S. and S.W. slopes were 
generally about half as moist as the N.E. and N. slopes. 
(Parts of the graphs showing pF variations recorded 
between February 1961 and February 1962 are given in 
Richardson and Greenwood, 1967.) These results were 

in harmony with the distribution of plants on the heap 
where the south, south east and south west remained bare 
compared with the vigorous growth that occurred on the 
north and north east slopes. It appears that in their 

first year seedlings on spoil heaps may be subject to long 
periods of high soil moisture tension. Their duration 

and frequency will be the controlling factors in 
determining the success of invading species. A succession 
of dry summers with high soil temperatures and high pF 
values would retard colonization just as several wet ° 
summers, with low pF values, would favour the process. 
It is also clear from the results that any species with high 
tates of root elongation, which takes the extremities 
quickly down to depths greater than 75mm (3in) (see 
above) will have increased chance of survival on pit heaps. 
Slow growing herbs and grasses sown in spring would be 
at a disadvantage compared with comparable seeds sown in 
autumn. On the other hand trees and shrubs with long 
roots can be artificially planted, say, down to 230mm (9in) 
at which depth even in very dry weather the moisture 
content does not fall below wilting point. Information is 
accumulating for many mesophytic species indicating that, 
provided the roots are in moist soil, the leafy shoots can 
endure mid-day tem peratures of up to 60°C. 


9.2.2 Plant succession 


Pioneer, intermediate stage and climax species \n order to 
trace probable stages in plant succession one can 
investigate the flora of heaps of three or more age groups. 
Early stage plants may be studied on heaps up to about 20 
years old, later stages on heaps from 25 to SO years old 
and probable climax vegetation on heaps of 80 years and 
over. It is an advantage if observations are made on 
neighbouring heaps which are in two or three of these 
arbitrary classes. In general, the most sheltered 


positions, and therefore the last to dry out (section 9.2.1(c)) 


after rainfall, were colonised first. Hollows and gullies 
which faced north-east were such positions and from 
them plants spread out slowly over the heap. All 
previous work suggested that pit heap communities 
contained plants found in the immediate vicinity e.g. 


plants of woodland, moorland, pasture and hedgerow, 
together with an assemblage of ‘waste place’ species. The 
physical and chemical properties of the heap limits the 
number of species which can initially act as colonists. 
Later, as edaphic conditions are modified, other species 
invade the still open communities, In the west of Durham 
the climax of the vegetation is often a heather moorland 
with some birch, while in the east of the county deciduous 
woodland is likely to occur. 


In order to examine more closely the distribution of 
species primary data (see below ) was collected from 54 
collieries in County Durham. Any one pit heap complex 
composed say of several ridges might be arbitrarily divided 
in 5 or 6 distinct areas based on age, aspect, slope or 

nature of the shale. There were 237 such areas and they 
were spread over the coal field from the western upland, 
around the 240m (800ft) contour, eastwards into the Wear — 
Tyne lowlands and finally to the coastal strip where the 
Coal Measures are overlaid by Magnesian Limestone. Equal 
numbers of areas were examined in each of the three 
divisions of the county (see Fig. 9.1). In each case the 
species were recorded and an assessment of quantity was 
given using the following scale; (p) present — 1—20% cover; 
(f) frequent — 21—40% cover; (a) abundant — 41—60% 
cover; (d) dominant — 61—100% cover. Tables 9.1, 9.2, 

9.3 summarise the occurrence of grasses, herbs, shrubs and 
trees in the 237 areas. 


River Tyne 


HARTLEPOOL 


REDCAR 


> 
ns Bem (10 mites) 


AREA | Western Uplands 
2 Wear-Tyne Lowlands 
3 East Durham Lowlands 


. Site of pit heap 


Fig. 9.1 Map showing position of heaps examined and the 
position of these heaps in three physical areas of Durham. 


87 


Table 9.1 Occurrence of grasses on 237 pit heap areas in Table 9.2 Occurrence of herbs on the 237 pit heap areas 


County Durham in County Durham (all species rated (p)) 
Species Occurrence (%) Species Occurrence(%) 
Agropyron repens 5 Achillea millefolium 1 
Agrostis canina (p) 25 Artemisia vulgaris 8 
Agrostis stolonifera (p) 1 Calluna vulgaris 6 
Agrostis tenuis (p) 34 Carlina vulgaris 22 
Agrostis tenuis (f) 28 Centaurea nigra 40 
Agrostis tenuis (a) 14 Cerastium arvense 1 
Agrostis tenuis (d) 6 Chamaenerion angustifolim 76 
Aira caryophyliea (p) 1 Chrysanthemum leucanthemum 7 
Aira praecox (p) 1 Cirsium vulgare 12 
Alopecuris pratensis (p) 2 Digitalis purpurea 2 
Ammophila arenaria (p) 1 Empetrum nigrum 1 
Anthoxanthum odoratum (p) 1 Equisetum arvense 1 
Arrhenatherum elatius (p) 44 Galium saxatile 2 
Avena fatua (p) 1 Heracleum sphondylium 1 
Brachypodium sylvaticum (p) 1 Hieracium pilosella 68 
Dactylis glomerata (p) 38 Hieracium umbellatum 40 
Dactylis glomerata (f) 17 Hieracium perproprinqguum 43 
Dactylis glomerata (a) 7 Hypochaeris radicata 1 
Dactylis glomerata (d) 2 Lathyrus pratensis 1 
Deschampsia caespitosa (p) 1 Linaria vulgaris 3 
Descham psia flexuosa (p) 48 Lotus corniculatus 1 
Festuca ovina (p) 6 Luzula campestris 1 
Festuca rubra (p) 4 Melandrium album 1 
Holcus lanatus (p) 21 Myostis arvensis 1 
Holcus lanatus (f) 9 Plantago lanceolata 27 
Holcus lanatus (a) 3 Potentilla reptans 3 
Holcus mollis (p) 1 Potentilla erecta 1 
Lolium perenne (p) 4 Pteridium aquilinum 6 
Molinia caerulea (p) 7 Ranunculus acris 1 
Nardus stricta (p) 4 Ranunculus repens 1 
Poa annua (p) 1 Reseda lutea 7 
Poa pratensis (p) 2 Reseda luteola 11 
Vulpia bromiodes (p) 1 Rumex acetosa 5 
Ce Rumex crispus 7/ 
Rumex acetosella 16 
The chief grasses found on pit heaps in County Durham are Senecio jacobaea 16 
bier See ae sigan tiahlt a Sete Sh if aise lanatus. Sea tes : 3 
Arrhenatherum elatius, 44%, and Deschampsia flexuosa, Tanacetum vulgaris 3 
48%, are widely distributed but are only rarely the Taraxacum officinale 1 
adr henge rain er ea MM 
abundant or dominant on 20% of the areas and altogether it Trifolium pratense 1 
occurs on 82% of them. For Dactylis glomerata the Tussilago farfara 61 
corresponding figures are 9% and 64%. iia digies 4 
Vaccinium myrtillus 1 
Vicia cracca 1 


The main herbs were Centaurea nigra, Chamaenerion 
angustifolium, Hieracium spp. (H. pilosella, 

H. perpropinquum, H. umbellatum) Plantago lanceolata 
and Tussilago farfara, all of which occurred on more than 
a third of the 237 sites. 


88 


Table 9.3 Occurrence of trees and shrubs on the 237 pit 
heap areas in County Durham 


Species 


Occurrence(% ) 


Acer pseudoplatanus 
Alnus glutinosa 

Betula (B. pubescens, B. verrucosa) 
Crataegus monogyna 
Ligustrum vulgare 
Pinus sylvestris 
Populus nigra 

Pyrus aria 

Rosa spp. 

Rubus spp. 

Salix spp. 

Sambucus nigra 
Sarothamnus scoparius 
Sorbus aucuparia 

Ulex europaeus 

Ulmus montana 


—N 
o-—-2£-"O0NNN 


— 


ry 


-_ Cl 
NNN WO 


The principle trees and shrubs found commonly on the 
pit heaps (Table 9.3) were: Betula, Crataegus, Rosa, Rubus, 
Salix, Sarothamnus and Ulex. 


The primary data for each area was entered first on a pro 
forma and then the information was transferred to a 
punched card. Thus a total of 237 cards was used in the 
analysis of the vegetation and each card contained the 
following information: 


(a) Species occurring on the heap 

(b) altitude in 6 categories between 0 and 275 m 
(900 ft) 

(c) aspect in 5 categories: N, S, E, W or flat 

(d) slope in 4 categories: level, O—10°, 10—20°, 20—35° 

(e) nature of surface in 5 categories? black shale, red, 
cinders, humus present or absent 

(f) surrounding vegetation in 4 categories 

(g) age of area in 3 categories: O—25 yr, 25—80 yr, 
over 80 yr 

(h) amount of plant cover in 6 categories; 0, O—20%, 
20—40% , 40-60%, 60-80%, 80—100%. 


In addition, the occurrence of grasses Agrostis tenuis, 
Dactylis glomerata and Holcus lanatus was recorded on a 4 
point scale, present, frequent, abundant, dominant and the 
number of legume and umbellifer species on a 5 point scale. 


Having selected a particular species, e.g. Dactylis glomerata 
(f), cards containing this plant were removed from the pack 
of 237 in the approved manner. Qut of the 237 cards 39 
(or 16.5%) were removed i.e. D. glomerata (f), occurred in 
39 areas. Further selections were then made from the 39 
cards for all the variables listed above. The chi-squared 

test was used to determine whether or not the observed 
values varied from those expected if the distribution of 

D. glomerata (f) was random and the calculations were 
performed by a KDF9 English Electric computer (Shenton, 
1967 for details). Initially 25 of the most commonly 
occurring species were selected from Tables 9.1, 9.2, 9.3 
for analysis; each species occurred on ten or more areas. 
Eleven species (out of the 25) showed some apparent 
dependence on altitude and these were: Agrostis 


canina, A. tenuis (p), Arrhenatherum elatius, Calluna 
vulgaris, Centaurea nigra, Hieracium perpropinquum, 
Holcus lanatus, Plantago lanceolata, Rubus spp., Rumex 
acetosella, Tussilago farfara. 


It is not proposed to describe and account for each of 
these species, but to consider two examples: 


(a) Agrostis tenuis is related to altitude when it occurs 
as a ‘present’ species and it appears to grow at lower 
altitudes 30m to 100m (100 — 400ft) rather than at 
150m to 275m (S00 — 900ft). However, in contrast, 
there was no correlation between A. fenuis with 
‘frequent’ occurrence and altitude. One could conclude 
that colonization by A. tenuis is more likely to be 
favoured by low than by high altitudes, but that once 
it is established there is no variation with altitude. 


(b) The case of Calluna vulgaris is interesting because the 
analysis showed it was favoured by habitats at 150m 
(500ft) but not by lower ones; it was significantly 
absent from any of the 237 areas at 30, 60 and 120m 
(100, 200 and 400ft) above sea level. However, at 
Plawsworth 90m (300ft), Haswell 100m (350ft) and at 
other places under 120m (400ft) not included in the 
237 areas, C. vulgaris is found on pit heaps. Heather 
moorlands in Durham are largely found above the 
140m (450ft) contour, and the open spaces of newly 
formed shale heaps, being in the vicinity of large 
quantities of seeds, offer suitable habitats for young 
plants. Below 140m (450ft) C. vulgaris is absent except 
for a few isolated places and most pit heaps are outside 
the range of its seeds. However, when a pit heap is 
formed near to a small piece of moorland, as at 
Washington and at Haswell, not only C. vulgaris but 
also other moorland species (Richardson, 1956) take on 
the role of colonists. 


Example (b) may be used in support of the view that the 
local seeding plants are probably more important than other 
environmental factors in determining the flora of pit heaps. 


This notion was supported by the analysis of the 
distribution of 35 of the commonly occurring species from 
Tables 9.1, 9.2, 9.3 with respect to aspect. Not one of the 
sets of data showed any correlation with aspect (N, S, E, W 
or flat, see above); nor was there any uniform correlation 
with age. Betula was found as a colonist on some heaps 
and as a late-comer on others. The same applies to 
Chamaenerion angustifolium, Centaurea nigra, Hieracium 
spp., Linaria vulgaris, Reseda luteola and Ulex. In contrast 
the following species appear later in the succession, after 
about 25 years when there is some humus in the surface 
layers: Carduus nutans, Plantago lanceolata, Rosa spp., 
Rubus spp., Senecio jacobaea, Acer and Crataegus. 


9.2.3 Conclusions which relate to artificial planting 


The results emphasize that pit heaps are often extremely 
unfavourable habitats because of their physical and 
chemical properties, their slope and their aspect. Neverthe- 
less, very few shale tips are completely sterile, and, given 
time, closed plant communities usually develop. The main 
conclusions are: 

(a) Clearly the list of naturally occurring species 
detailed in Tables 9.1, 9.2, 9.3 (together with their 
frequency of occurrence and the stage in the 
succession when they appear) is a basis for any 
planting programme, whether this takes place on 


89 


existing heaps, or on partially or fully reclaimed 
heaps 

(b) The surface of the heap must be neither too compact 
nor too loose and it must contain both sand-sized 
(2mm) and clay-sized (0.002mm) particles. 

(c) The pH value must not be too low -nor the amount of 
toxic substances too high. 

(d) The seed rate must be high to allow for casualties, 
especially on south-facing slopes. 

(e) Again, mainly with respect to southern slopes, 
precautions should be taken to insulate the surface 
of the heap from the heating and drying power ot 
the sun. 


9.3 Planted vegetation 


9.3.1 Grass and herb planting experiments 


Plants growing on bare but non-toxic flat surfaces on pit 
heaps are not subject to the same stresses as those 
growing on the slopes, particularly on south facing slopes, 
and it is relatively easier to establish a grass—herb 
community on flat areas. Except for control plants most 
of the experiments reported here were performed on 
30—40° slopes. Given moist conditions in spring or 
autumn, seeds sown either on the surface or just below 
the surface (by light raking) germinate well. If conditions 
in the following summer are moist and cool the seedlings 
generally grow into substantial well-rooted plants. 


Small scale planting 


(a) Kibblesworth (NZ 242563) The surface on the slopes 
of the bare heap was composed of a mixture of loose, 
unburnt shales and small coal, with little clay content. 
Rainfall scarcely penetrated and ran off rapidly so that 
after rain the pF of the surface layers quickly approached 
pF 4.2 (wilting point). Furthermore, the pH was low 

(pH 4.0 — 2.5) and pyritiferous material was present. 
Briefly, only those plots which were heavily limed 
beforehand, given a layer of clay or peat, and seeded at 
34.0 — 65.0g per m? (1—2oz per yd”), supported a 
reasonable sward. Agrostis tenuis was the most successful 
colonist and it responded well to light dressings 16.0g per 
m2 (%oz per yd”) of bone meal and of hoof and horn. 


(b) Ravensworth (NZ260582) In contrast to Kibblesworth 
the bare south slopes at Ravensworth had good water 
holding properties, the pH was around pH 6.8 and the total 
sulphur only amounted to about 0.2%. Seeds were sown in 
plots and lightly raked and rolled. Agrostis tenuis did well, 
closely followed in abundance by Dactylis glomerata and 
Deschampsia flexuosa. Festuca rubra did moderately 

well. Seed rates as low as 8.0g/m? (%40z/yd?) 

produced good results and all grasses responded to light 
dressing with fertilizer (see above). 


(c) South Moor (NZ 193516) The bare slopes did not have 
the low water holding capacity of the Kibblesworth 

slopes, but also they did not contain appreciable amounts 
of sulphur. Seeds of A. tenuis, D. glomerata and D. flexuosa 
were sown at rates from 8.0g to 15.0g per m2 (%4—1%4oz 
per yd?) and raked in. The ground was made as firm as 
possible. Following autumn sowing, germination and 
growth of the seedlings was encouraging. However, in the 
following spring and summer, drought conditions caused 
excessive water loss from the top 50mm (2in) and heavy 


90 


casualties occurred. Once again plants of A. tenuis and to 

a less extent D. glomerata, did well in adverse conditions 
but generally their root growth was insufficient to carry 

the extremities down to moist levels in the heap. The 

herbs Lupinis alba, Medicago sativa, and Melilotus alba were 
also sown together with seeds of Ulex, but all of these never 
gained more than a foothold as colonists. Finally, four years 
after the original planting, all the species (herbs and grasses) 
were reduced to a few representative plants. Control plants 
grown on shale in the Botany Experimental Garden and 
well-watered produced massive growth. 


The plants on the slopes of South Moor did not survive 
because there was excessive drying from the loose, 
unprotected surface. At Ravensworth the surface texture 
helped the conserve moisture, and at Kibblesworth the 
layer of clay or peat performed the same function. These 
experiments emphasize that unless it is possible to water 
young herbs and grasses on newly planted slopes in dry 
conditions, special care should be taken to protect the 
surface against drying out. Further experiments showed 
that water could be conserved by covering the surface 
with dry mulches of peat, straw and wood cellulose after 
the seeds were sown. As the observations with Holcus 
mollis had shown (section 9.2.1(b)) a thin layer (e.g. 
10mm) was sufficient to insulate the soil against the sun’s 
radiation and to keep moist the roots of seedlings. Dry 
materials applied to the surface have the disadvantage of 
being blown about in even slight winds and therefore 
experiments were carried out to find a method of 
holding the mulch in position. Fine-mesh hemp nets were 
ideal for the purpose and were suitable for fairly large 
areas as well as for small plots. Experience suggested that, 
whereas dry mulches were suitable for small trial areas, 
they would be costly if applied to large reclamation 
areas. Liquid mulches such as Unisol 91 and various wood 
cellulose pastes were compared with controls on the pit 
heap at Ravensworth and were found to increase the 
survival of seedlings by up to 100%, The wet mulch was 
applied to the heap surface by means of a coarse type of 
‘stirrup-pump’ and although this was satisfactory for 
small plots it was evident that more powerful apparatus 
would be required for steep slopes of large area. One 
possibility was to employ the ‘hydromulching’ method in 
which a soft paste of the selected mulch is sprayed from a 
water-cannon mounted on a lorry tanker. This method 
was adopted at Roddymoor (see below). 


Large scale planting 


Roddymoor (NZ 155364) The north and north east slopes 
were levelled and compressed by bulldozer to give a firm 
surface in which there were adequate amounts of small 
clay and silt particles. The texture closely resembled that 
at Ravensworth (see above) and further rolling was not 
considered necessary. Water holding capacity was 
generally good and there was no evidence of waterlogging. 
The material was mainly neutral having pH values between 
pH6.5 and 7.2. For ease of application and to provide a 
surface insulating layer the seed mixtures were sown in a 
paste of wood cellulose to which fertilizers were added (see 
below ). 


The north and north-east banks of the heap were 
divided into fourteen plots of about 0.2 hectares (half an 
acre) each which were seeded with a mixture of grass 
seeds at various rates of application (see Fig. 9.2). Two 


4 eee = 


existing 
scrub 


cut off ditch 


ee 
N 


————— 
O 25 50 75 100m (330ft) 


Fig. 9.2 Plan of north and north east slopes at Roddymoor. 


methods of application were used to apply seeds to the 
bank. 


Referring to the plan of the different seeding plots on the 
bank, plots C to N were seeded by the ‘hydromulching’ 


method and only plots A and B were seeded by the ‘glob’ 


seeding method. Plot A unlike plots B to N, which were 
seeded with a mixture containing only grass species, 
contained only one grass species, the rest of the mixture. 
consisting of tree and herb species. All seeding was on the 
bare shale which had had no topsoil added to the surface. 


The seed mixture for plot A consisted of the following 
species and its rate of application is given below. 


kg /ha (Ib/acre) 
Festuca rubra 16.8 (15) 
Trifolium repens 9.0 (8) 
Alnus glutinosa 2.2 (2) 
Fraxinus excelsior 11 (1) 
Acer pseudoplatanus 1 (1) 
Betula pubescens 1.1 (1) 
Total 31.3 (28) 


Plots B to N were all seeded with the same type of seed 
mixture using three rates of seed application of 84, 112, 
168 kg/ha (75, 100 and 150 lb/acre). At these three rates 
the grasses making up the total seed mixtures were as 
shown in Table 9.4. 


watercourse 


N M 


1 | 
The thirteen plots (B—N) shown in Fig. 9.2 were seeded as 
in Table 9.5. 


Table 9.5 Seed rates employed on the plots at 
Roddymoor 


Plot Method Rate of application 
kg/ha (Ib/acre) 

B Glob 85 (75) 
G Hydromulching 170 (150) 
D * 85 (75) 
E 112 (100) 
F 112 (100) 
G 112 (100) 
H 85 (75) 
I . 170 (150) 
J - 85 (75) 
K ae 112 (100) 
E ~ 85 (75) 
M st 85 (75) 
N 85 (75) 


Table 9.4 Composition of seed mixtures used at Roddymoor 


Rate of application kg/ha (ib/acre) 


Species 84 (75) 112 (100) 168 (150) 
Agrostis tenuis (3.75) 5.6 (5) 8.4 (7.5) 
Dactylis glomerata $.137 4.2 (3.75) 5.6 (5) 8.4 (7.5) 
$.143 4.2 (3.75) 5.6 (5) 8.4 (7.5) 
S.26 4.2 (3.75) 5.6 (5) 8.4 (7.5) 
Festuca rubra S.59 38 (33.75) 50.4 (45) 84.6 (75.6) 
F. rubra communtata 15.3 (13.125) 19.6 (17.5 29.4 (26.25) 
F. tenuifolia 15.3 (13.125) 19.6(17.5) 29.4 (26.25) 


srass seeds, fertiliser, and mulch were mixed and 
1 the top of the spoil heap down on to the 
*s of the north bank. The mulch consisted of wood 
cellulose applied at 760 kg/ha (681 Ib/acre) giving 
theoretical depth of 1.6mm (one sixteenth of an inch) 
This application of a mulch with the seeds was to afford 
some conservation of water and insulation against the sun’s 
rays to the surface of the spoil heap on the slope. The 
seeds on the north and north-east banks were sown on 
23—26 August 1968 with 500 kg/ha (4 cwt/acre) of 
Fisons 53 fertiliser (N12-P24-KO), except plot M which 
not have any fertiliser applied at the time of sowing. 
4 further application of fertiliser, Fisons low nitrogen 55 
(8—20—16), was applied to the north slope, but not to 
plots M and N, at a rate of 250 kg/ha (2 cwt/acre) during 
May 1969 


ulG 


Sam ples of shale taken from various sites on the north bank 
were air dried and sieved through a size 6 mesh, and then 
subjected to close examination to see whether the shale 
contained any remains of the cellulose mulch used for 
hydromulching. None of the shales appeared to have any 
remains of the mulch as could be expected if micro- 
organisms were present in the soil which were active in 
breaking down the cellulose to its basic constituents. This 
indicated that the shale was in some respects fertile or 

was becoming fertile. 


Table 9.6 Occurrence of grasses and herbs at Roddym oor 
1 year after sowing 


A number of sites 1m X 1m were chosen at random; the 
species of plants and their approximate distribution were 
recorded. These sites were marked by means of labels 

fixed on posts placed in the shale in order that the sites 
could be revisited occasionally to record the performance 
of the different grasses. Observations were made on 14 July 
1969, and these are given in Table 9.6. 


From the table it can be seen that the species list, both 
herbs and grasses, is much longer than the planted species 
list. The most obvious species not expectedto be in the 
seed sown in August 1968, but growing strongly on the 
north bank in July 1969 was Lolium multiflorum. It 

can be seen in the photograph (Fig. 9.3) that the tall dense 
Italian rye grass growing on the right of the picture 
finishes in line with the seeding plot post at the top left of 
the photograph. Although the rye grass occurs on all the 
north bank in different frequencies, the greatest cover is at 
the west end of the slope. This grass flowered during the 
summer of 1969 and set seed which was viable; at the end 
of August the seeds germinated on large areas of shale 
which previously had little or no grass cover, as well as in 
the grass sward already present. This grass L. multiflorum 
was the most prolific seed-setting grass on the whole heap, 
and may prove to be a successful plant on spoil heaps during 
the first years of growth of a grass sward. 


Site number 
1.23 4557657 S839) 00) 1s 


Species 


12 13 


14 


Agropyron 
repens p - -- -- - - 
Agrostis 

tenuis PpPppppp 
Dactylis 

glomerata 

(flowering) ——-—-Tr p—--Ipp —- 
D. glomerata 
(non-flowering) 
Deschampsia 
flexuosa - r — _ 
Festuca rubra 

commutata —-------pppp - 
F. rubra rubra 


F. tenuifolia 


| 
cy Oo 
RS 

| 

| 


Holcus lanatus —fppp 
Lolium 

mul!/tiflorum fi —— pi fip if ft ipp ot. id 
Phleum 
bertolonii 


Poa annua 
Capsella 
bursa-pastoris 
Ranunculus 
acris a ee eS ae = 
Reseda 


luteola 


Rumex 
obtusifolium Pp =: = =a 


Trifolium 
repens ee ee 


a ee 


92 


P 


at Roddymoor. 


Fig. 9.3 Growth of Lo/ium multiflorum on a steep slope 


Agrostis tenuis, one of the first natural colonisers of pit 
heaps, and one of the most commonly found grasses on 
heaps also proved itself to be a successful plant when 
seeded on to spoil, at least during the first year of growth 
observed at Roddymoor. It set seed quite profusely but no 
observations were made to see whether or not this seed 
was Viable. 


Dactylis glomerata during the summer was observed to be 
varying in performance in different localities on the north 
bank. Some plants were seen to be flowering and some 
were not. The non flowering plants seemed to have poorer 
growth than the flowering plants (see Table 9.6). This 
could show that the grass was not as suitable as A. fenuis 
for spoil heap colonisation, at least, in the first few 

years of the production of a grass sward. 


On nine of the sites chosen for the observation of the 
performance of the grasses, Festuca rubra commutata 
seemed to be absent; in contrast F. rubra rubra had taken 
well and was growing strongly on eleven out of fourteen 
sites; F. tenuifolia was only found on three of the sites. 


Several additional species of grass (which were not in the 
original mixtures) were observed; they were probably 
being introduced by the action of wind from neighbouring 
areas and this was also true of several herb species (see 
Table 9.6). 


The glob seeded plot (plot A) which was seeded with only 
one grass species and the rest of the mixture consisting of 
tree and shrub species was observed during the whole of 
the spring, summer and autumn, but no tree seedlings 
were observed to have successfully germinated during 
1969. This plot, as mentioned above, was covered with a, 
tall vigorous growth of Lolium multiflorum. 


9.3.2 Tree and shrub planting 


Small scale experiments Early records of trees. andshrubs 
growing on pit heaps in Durham (e.g. Harrison, 1937, 
Richardson, 1956) showed that Betula, Crataegus, Rosa, 
Rubus occurred most frequently and this was confirmed 
by Shenton’s extensive researches (see Table 9.3). Detailed 
examination of sites showed that on most Betula was a 
pioneer plant on both burnt and unburnt heaps and, 
where there was a nearby source of seeds e.g. at Urpeth 
(NZ 248555), there was rapid spread of this tree to form 
an almost pure stand of birch. Furthermore, Betula was 
able to survive in exposed positions and often reached the 
tops of high slopes. Acer was frequent in very old heaps 
which were low mounds, and in sheltered places on 
unburnt heaps. The position of Alnus as a pit heap plant 
is important. Alnus glutinosa Gaertn. is described by 
Harrison and Temperley (1939) as a native in north- 

east England, occurring by stream sides and in wet places 
and low country. There is no example known to the 
present writers of this plant acting as a natural colonist 
of pit heaps in County Durham. Nevertheless, it has long 
been recognised here that this plant (as its introduced 
cogenor A. incana was later recognised) could do well on 
poor soils, and indeed it was one of the species used in 
1928 on the old pit heap at Houghall (section 9.1) and 
elsewhere (see Whyte and Sisam, 1949). 


Small scale experiments were set up on pit heap slopes at 
Ravensworth (NZ 260582) Kibblesworth (NZ 242563) 
Ouston (NZ 267548) Harraton (NZ 291539) and Urpeth 
(NZ 248555). Plots were laid out on 30° to 40° slopes 


which were (a) bare and about 8—16 years old, (b) with a 
plant cover of about 50% and 25—30 years old. The 
following conclusions were made: 


(a) The ground vegetation must be well established before 
a ‘slit’ method of planting can be usefully employed. 
Deep hold planting (using spades) was more satisfactory 
and three variations were employed. Most heaps contain 
enough moisture to support colonising or planted 
species provided the roots penetrate to the appropriate 
depth (section 9.2.1(c)). To improve the water-holding 
capacity of the shale a spadeful of loam soil was 
placed in the hole below the roots and another spadeful 
above the roots before the soil was firmed around the 
stem. This procedure stimulated root growth in the 
first year and treated plants made increased growth 
compared with those placed directly on to the shale. 


It was time-taking, awkward, and wasteful of soil to 
apply soil from buckets or sacks carried along steep.., 
unstable slopes. The following procedure was therefore 
adopted. The tree roots were surrounded by soil 
contained in hessian sandbags tied at the neck. This 
operation was performed at convenient points along the 
top or bottom of the steep slopes and the bagged trees 
were then easily transported e.g. by sledge, to the 
prepared holes. 

(b) Asa result of the small scale tree planting experiments 
carried out at the 5 sites listed, it was possible to 
classify the performance of the species used as follows: 


(i) good growth Alnus, Betula; 

(ii) moderate growth Crataegus, Sorbus aucuparia; 

(iii) poor growth Acer, Populus, Sambucus, 
Ulex. 


It was not uncommon to find that all the Acer and 
Populus had died back after a few years in which time 
Alnus and Betula had grown on strongly. 


The experiment demonstrated the im portance of 
selecting the best possible specimens for planting on 

pit heap slopes. The ideal sapling is probably one which 
is about three feet tall and possesses a well developed 
root system. On these difficult sites the planting of 
‘whips’ and ‘wolves’ could be inviting a heavy 
beating-up programme. 


(c) In the first years after planting there was often damage 
to the stems of trees due to friction caused by movement 
in the wind. Also there could be high transpiration losses 
from leafy shoots at a time when new root growth was 
just beginning and this could lead to wilting which, if 
prolonged, resulted in the death of the sapling. Much 
benefit was derived from cutting back the young 
trees to a height of under two feet; this produced a 
better balance between root and shoot, and eliminated 
the causes of damage as indicated above. 


(d) Much benefit accrued from the quick transfer of trees 
from the nursery to their permanent places on the pit 
heap. It was clear that in a large scale planting scheme 
small batches of trees taken direct from nursery to 
site, eliminating any temporary ‘heelingin’, would assist 
quick establishment and also eliminate the delay and 
cost of beating-up. Pit heap slopes are usually very 
exacting habitats and it should be strongly emphasized 
that extra special care (even at some additional cost) 
should be given initially along the lines suggested in the 


93 


sections above. This will lead to better tree growth, 
early establishment of a green cover, and will probably 
save time and money in the long run. 


Large scale planting The Durham County Council made a 
notable contribution to landscape improvement when it 
acquired a number of abandoned pit heaps, and, largely 
between 1956 and 1959, planted them with trees. In 
1966 it was decided to examine a number of these heaps 
and to report on the growth and development of the 
planted species with some reference also to the naturally 
occurring species. Some attempt was made to correlate 
the observed growth with the chief environmental 
factors. An ideal analysis would involve a comparison 
between past and present plant species, but unfortunately 
no records were made of the vegetation present before 
tree planting commenced or of detailed beating-up. The 
following nine sites were selected for inspection from a 
total of thirty because they provided a wide range of 
geographical position, parent material, and surrounding 
species (map references and areas planted, in hectares 
and acres, are given): 


(1) Littleburn (NZ 257397) 5.366 ha 
(2) Croxdale (NZ 263374) 5.554ha 
(3) South Moor (NZ 192516) 2.303 ha 


(13.26 acres) 
(13.70 acres) 
( 5.69 acres) 


— 


(4) Tursdale (NZ 302363) 3.568ha ( 8.57 acres) 
(5) Twizell (NZ 223523) 1465ha ( 3.62 acres) 
(6) East 

Tanfield (NZ 196550) 1.578ha_ ( 3.90 acres) 
(7) Gloucester 

Road (NZ 115507) 3.84Sha ( 9.50 acres) 
(8) High Spen (NZ 138597) 1.457ha ( 3.60 acres) 


(9) South Pelaw (NZ 270527) 3.841ha ( 9.49 acres) 
Establishment of plantations When the trees were planted 
strict precautions were taken. The bundles of trees were 
loosened and heeled into good soil at the base of the spoil 
heap, and steps were taken to prevent damage by vermin. 
Unplanted trees were carried in sacks in order to prevent 
wind damage to the roots. Trees were kept out of the 
ground for the shortest possible time and were planted 
when the ground was not frozen. Pits were dug in the heap 
and the tree roots were spread outwards and downwards 
before they were firmed in. All trees were planted to the 
depth of the root collar. The heights of the principal 

trees were as follows: 


Conifers 0.45m (18in) Acer pseudoplatanus 0.9—1.5m 
(3—Sft) Betula 045—0.76m (18—30in) Alnus incana 
0.45—0.76m (18—30in) Quercus robur 0.30—0.45m 
(12—18in). 


Except where otherwise stated all of the softwoods were 
grown for two years in one soil then a further year in 
another (i.e. 2 + 1). The trees were planted 1.22 X 1.22m 
(4 x 4ft) apart, at approximately 6660/ha (2700/acre). 

As a general rule mixtures of hardwoods and softwoods 
were planted in groups of nine or sixteen in alternate lines. 
All natural tree seedlings and saplings were retained and 
preserved, but occasionally top growth was cut back to 
allow satisfactory tree planting. More trees were planted 
on some areas of the heap than on others as the number of 
existing trees varied. Not only were the trees carefully 
planted but at intervals of time replacement of failures 
was carried out (beating-up). The same 1.22 X1.22m 


94 


(4 x 4ft) distance of planting was used in beating up as in 
the original planting. Because the species used in beating up 
operations occasionally varied from those in the initial 
planting, the final pattern of trees on the heap varied 
considerably in some cases from that first designed. 


In order to prevent death of planted trees by intense 
competition from existing species many of the heaps 

were periodically weeded and this involved cutting back to 
ground level all herbaceous and shrubby growth along the 
rows of trees, and particularly over a radius of 0.45m 
(18in) around each tree. 


Observations were made at all of the selected sites in 
August 1966 and the primary data were filed with the 
Landscape Reclamation Project Office and the Durham 
County Council. In order to illustrate the type of pit 
heap planting carried out, one site, Littleburn, 

was selected for detailed description. 


Table 9.7 Species planted and areas covered at Littleburn 


Area Size Species 
ha (acres) 
A, 1.17 (2.89) Populus x robusta inter- 
Ap 0.61 = (1.50) Populus x euramericana spersed 
P. ‘Serotina’ with 


P. ‘Celrica’ edi 


A3 0.08 (0.20) P. “Eugenei’ 
B 0.32 (0.78) Pinus contorata (1+1) 
Cc 0.17 (0.41) Pinus nigra var. calabrica 
3 rows Quercus borealis fringe 


D 0.16 (0.39) Acer pseudoplatanus 25% 
Pinus nigra var. calabrica 75% 
E 0.25 (0.61) Pinus nigra var. 50% 
Larix leptolepis 50% 
F 0.21 (0.52) Larix leptolepis 


Pinus contorta 
G 0.13 (0.32) Pinus contorta 
H, 0.09 (0.22) Pinus contorta 
(0.16) Pinus contorta 
H3 0.01 (0.02) Pinus contorta 
Hg 0.012 (0.03) Pinus contorta 
J 0.19 (0.48) Pinus contorta 331/;% 
Quercus 331/3% 
Acer pseudoplatanus 331/3% 
0.4 (1.00) P. contorta (1+1) 
0.09 (0.24) Betula pendula 
0.11 (0.27) Betula pendula 


K 

i 

M 

N1 0.34 (0.83) Pinus nigra var. 

N2 0.13 (0.32) Pinus nigra var. 

P 0.112 (0.28) A/nus 50% Betula 50% 

Q 0.32 (0.80) P. contorta 10% Quercus 10% 
Acer 10% Betula 70% 


R 0.15 (0.36) Betula 25% P. nigra var. 
calabrica 75% 

S 0.25 (0.63) Acer 50% Betula 50% 

X 0.14 (0.35) Planted in 1964 with a 


mixture of P. nigra, 

P. contorta, P. sylvestris, 
Laris, Picea abies, Alnus, 
Betula 


; 


River Bro = 


«. 


6 25 DD 5 100m (330 ft) 


i ane! 


Section through heap 


/, Main railway (LNER) 


Fig. 9.4 Sketch plan of the pit heap at Littleburn. 


(. 


o = 50 75 100 m (330 ft) 


Fig. 9.5 The pattern of planting at Littleburn in 1956. 


95 


Littleburn heap This complex heap lies between the main 
Newcastle—London railway line and the River Browney at 
Meadowfield. The heap is situated on ground which falls 
steeply from west to east and is composed of a number 

of flat-topped ridges with sides which slope at angles of 
between 30—45°. Generally the ridges are only a few feet 
above the surrounding land at their western ends but, 
because of the contours of the land, the spurs at their 
eastern ends tower up to a hundred feet above the flat river 
banks (Fig. 9.4). The long west and north west end of the 
heap complex was flattened for factory building and much 
building rubble lies marginally around this part of the site. 


The pattern of planting for the Littleburn heap is shown in 
Fig 9.5 and Table 9.7 gives the species and the area in 
1956. 


An account of the subsequent beating-up and weeding 
can be summarised from the record as follows: 


Date Record 


May 1957 Survival of Pinus fair; Acer and 
Alnus satisfactory; Quercus and 
Populus poor; smaller sized 
P. contorta doing remarkably well. 
No Larix seen. 
Nov — Dec 1957 30% beating up of original species 
(Populus inadvertently omitted). 
P. contorta, 1300; Salix daphnoides, 
275; Acer, 250; Betula, 100; Quercus, 
100. 


January 1960 Beaten up with P. contorta, 1200; 
P. nigra, 1300; Alnus incana, 3000; 
Acer, 2800; Betula, 700; Area 
beaten up includes 0.4 ha (1 acre) 
burned in August and 1.6 ha 

(4 acre) originally planted with 
Populus which has completely 
failed. 


December 1961 Beaten up with A /nus incana, 2000; 


Acer, 800. 


Weeding was carried out in 1957, 1958, 1959, 1961, 1963, 
1964 and 1965. 


General conclusions from the survey at Littleburn 

(a) Pinus nigra var .calabrica was the most successful 
conifer planted on the heap. It tolerated not only strong 
south-westerly winds but also steep ‘south facing 
slopes. Indeed this tree did better on steep slopes 
(areas N1, E and F), reaching 3—3.6m (10—12ft) in 
ten years, than it did on the flatter areas (e.g. area N2). 

(b) Pinus contorta was less tolerant of exposure and was 
not well developed on areas B, H1 and H2. It was also 
sensitive to shading, and if planted where there is a 
good tree cover, as a ‘beating-up’ plant, it did not fully 
develop. 

(c) Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies,recently planted on areas 
X and Y showed moderate growth, seemed to be well 
established and about to enter a period of more rapid 
growth. Larix leptolepis was the least successful of all the 


96 


conifers and flourished only on the sheltered east side 
of area F at the bottom of the slope; Larix was also 
very poor on areas X and Y. 


(d) Alnus incana and Betula pendula showed the best 
growth amongst the hardwoods with the former not 
quite achieving the high yearly increment of Betula. 
Salix, Populus and Acer did badly on the actual spoil 
heaps (although they did fairly well on the scrubland at 
the base of the heap, e.g. Acer and Salix attained 
satisfactory growth in area J). Quercus robur was 
largely unsuccessful but Q. borealis, planted on shale in 
area C, showed good growth. 


Vandalism had occurred along part of area F with some 
Larix uprooted and others chopped down — the initial 
failure of Populus in area Al may have been due to this. 
Nevertheless, as Fig 9.6 shows, there was not much 
damage by vandals when the trees were well established. 
Littleburn heap being remote from the village, coupled 
with diligent beating-up, are probably the main factors 
responsible for the excellent result. There was no 
evidence in favour of weeding for hardwoods whichwere 
0.6 — 0.9m (2—3ft) at the time of planting. However, for 
the conifers, much less in height at planting, weeding in a 
circle around each plant was beneficial. If the 

colonising herbs and grasses are otherwise left undisturbed 
they help to bind the soil and increase its fertility. 


In common with conditions on many sites the ‘soil’ varied 
greatly from place to place on the site at Littleburn. In 
some places the shale was red and burnt, in others grey/ 
black and unburnt. Within these two groups the soil 

varied from raw shale to shale mixed to a depth of 

76mm (3in) with dead and decaying organic matter. 
Similarly the pH ranged from values of 3.2 to 6.0, and the 
soil water available to plants for their grow th varied from 
8% to 24%. Furthermore, the aspect and slope of the 

heap changed from place to place, e.g. area N1 faced south 
east with a steep slope of 35°—40°; area B faced west 
with a gentle slope of 10°. Clearly with a uniform soil 
throughout the site some firm conclusions relating, say 

to the effect of slope and aspect on the growth of the 
different planted trees might have been made. However, 
with the large and random varieties which existed only very 
broad conclusions may be drawn. In some ways the position 
was clarified when all the nine sites listed above were 
considered collectively and this is done in the discussion 
below. All the sites were examined in the same way as 
Littleburn and the results were similarly recorded. 


9.3.3 Conclusions on tree planting 


There are only eight tree and shrub species which occur 
commonly and naturally as early colonists on pit heaps in 
Durham, and these are Betula, Salix, Crataegus, Quercus, 
Rosa, Rubus, Ulex and Sarothamnus. In the tree-planting 
experiment on nine sites now reported, eighteen species 
were employed, of which only four (Betula, Salix, Quercus 
and Rosa) are in the list of colonists. The remaining 
fourteen ‘introduced’ species are listed in Table 9.8. 


Each of the nine sites listed above was divided into smaller 
areas for planting out. For example, at Littleburn there 
were 25 areas (A to Y, seeTable 9.7) making up the whole 
site of 5.5 ha (13.6 acres) and at Gloucester Road the 

site of 3.84 ha (9.5 acres) was divided into 5 areas. 
Altogether the 9 sites contained 38.0 ha (94 acres) and, in 


Fig. 9.6 Growth of planted trees at Littleburn. 


round figures, 203,000 trees were planted on the nine 
sites either at the main planting or in the later beating-up 
operations. The total number of each species planted 

was between 100 for Rosa and 86,000 for P. contorta (see 
Table 9.8) and clearly the large variation in numbers will 
have to be taken into consideration when conclusions 

are drawn about the degree of success. 


Classification of the growth made by the trees was done by 
means of the following arbitrary categories and was based 
on ten years growth on the pit heaps 


(i) height greater than 2.1m (7ft) — good (G) 

(ii) between 2.1m and 1.4m (7ft and 4.5ft) 
(M) 

(iii) between 1.4m and 0.9m (4.5ft and 3ft) 

(iv) less than 0.9m (3ft) - poor (P) 


moderate 


fair (F) 


Measurements of twenth-five trees of each species in an 
area were used to give the information contained in Table 
9.9. Where there was less than 20% survival the plantation 
was described as sparse 


The most successful hardwoods were Alnus and Betula, both 
of which were planted in large quantities (25,000 and 
15,000). The percentage survival was good and the growth 
rate satisfactory. Populus, Acer, Fagus, Prunus, Quercus 
robur must be considered as failures both in numbers which 


survived and in growth rate of individual trees. Salix and 
Robinia had low survival rates but individual plants, 

once established, did fairly well. Quercus borealis (3350) 
planted) survived in encouraging numbers, and, after slow 
initial growth, formed a useful addition to the list of 
successes. Rosa (100 planted) was not used in large enough 
numbers to allow any conclusions to be made 


An important experiment was carned out at Tursdale 

where the following species were planted in 10 lines running 
across the heap from west to east, a distance of 137m (150 
yd): Larix leptolepis, Pinus contorta, P. nigra var. calabrica, 
P. sylvestris, Acer pseudoplatanus, Alnus incana, Betula 
pendula, Fagus sylvatica, Quercus borealis, Robinia 
pseudoacacia. There were 100 trees in each line and the 
pattern was repeated five times to give a total area planted 
of 1.18 ha (2.92 acres). 500 each of the 10 species were 
planted. The trees were examined in 1966, 6% years after 
planting. Fagus and Acer were represented by a few plants 
showing poor growth butno R 


hand Alnus and Betula survived in staisfactory numbers and 


binia survived. On the other 


the average height attained in 6% years was 1.8m (6ft). The 


best specimens had grown to between 3.7m and 4.6m 


(12 and 1Sft). Quercus borealis survived in small numbers 


and showed a low growth rate. A similar picture was 
presented at South Moor where Pinus contorta (1600), 


P. sylvestris (400), Betula (150), Acer (500) and Robinia 


™~ 


© 


Table 9.8 Tree planting at nine sites in County Durham 


Species Total Littleburn Croxdale South Tursdale Twizell East Glou High Sth 

Numbers Moor Tan. Rd. Spen  Pelaw | 
Pinus contorta 86,882 Pp ) p p p ) p p p 
P. nigra var. calabrica 22,635 Pp Pp Pp ) x x p p x 
P. sylvestris 6600 Pp x x Pp p x x x x 
Larix decidua 4106 Pp x p p p x p p x 
Picea abies 406 p x x x x “8 x x x ; 
P. sitchensis 135 x Pp x x x x x x x 
Acer pseudoplatanus 21,012 p p P p Pp p p p p 
Populus spp. 13,093 x x x x x x % ) x 
Salix daphnoides 375 p x Xx x: p ne x x ze 
Betula pendula 16,651 p p Pp Pp x x p p p 4 
Alnus incana 24,459 Pp Pp x Pp p Pp Pp p p , 
Quercus borealis 2350 Pp Pp p p x ne OBS p p i 
Q. robra3 2066 p p x x p x x P x } 
Fagus sylvatica 8800 x p p p p x x p x 
Prunus avium 850 x p p p x p iS x 
Robinia pseudoacacia 750 x p p p p x x x x 
Fraxinus excelsior 1500 x x 4 x p p p x x 
Rosa spp. 100 x x x x x p x x x 


LT 


Table 9.9. Growth of trees classified by height and frequency 
(see text) 


_——————L ST 


Species Number Areas in each class Areas 
of areas G M F ¢ designated 
planted sparse 

Pinus contorta 38 10 11 12 5 0 

P. nigra var. 

calabrica 23 7 8 3 4 1 

P. sylvestris 7 1 Ss 1 2 1 

Larix decidua 4 - 1 1 2 3 

Picea abies 2 = 2 - = 0 

P. sitchensis 1 - - - 1 1 

Acer 

pseudoplatanus 26 1 1 4 20 10 

Populus spp. 1 - - - 1 1 

Salix 

daphnoides 5 2 1 1 1 2 

Betula pendula 31 17 9 2 3 2 

Alnus incana 28 17 4 6 1 1 

Quercus 

borealis 20 2 2 8 8 5 

Q. robur 8 2, 2 2 4 

Fagus sylvatica 5 = - 5 3 

Prunus avium 7 - - - 5 3 

Robinia 3 3 3 

pseudoacacia 3 - - - 4 3 

Fraxinus 

excelsior 2 = = 1 1 1 

Rosa spp. 1 - - - 1 


98 


(150) were planted in rows across the top of the flat heap 
running from North to South. After eight years Acer and 
Robinia were totai failures whereas Betula and the two 
species of Prunus were surviving well and had reached a 
height of between 0.9m and 1.5m (3ft and Sft). 


The most successful softwoods were Pinus nigra and 

P. contorta. They were equally at home on both north and 
south facing slopes where they showed better growth at the 
base and mid points of slopes than at the flat tops of 

heaps, e.g. an average height of 3.0m (10ft) in 10 years, on 
the lower slopes compared with 1.5m (Sft) on the tops. Both 
species required seven or eight years before they began to 
show a high growth rate. For example, in 1965, the growth 
rate of Pinus nigra growing on slopes had increased from 
about 0.08m to 0.46m (3 to 18in) per year, and for trees 

on the tops to 0.2m (8in) per year. Similar results were 
obtained for Pinus contorta and for this species there was 
some evidence that, in situations exposed to the prevailing 
wind, its growth rate was less than that of P. nigra. Pinus 
sylvestris which was not planted in such quantity (and then 
sometimes only in beating-up) showed it could become 
established fairly quickly, for example, in areas X, Y at 
Littleburn, the east slope at South Pelaw and at South 

Moor. 


The amount of damage to the trees by vandals varied from 
site to site. It appeared to be slight at Croxdale and 
Littleburn where the pit heaps were some distance 1.6km 
and 3.2km (1 mile and 2 miles) from the nearest village. In 
contrast, at places like High Spen and South Pelaw, where ; 
the pit heaps were beside the houses, vandalism was severe ' 
and notices warning off maurauders were largely ignored. 

At South Pelaw an area of approximately 44m by 22m 

(40 yd by 20yd) on the south facing slope nearest the 

houses was protected by means of 1.5m (Sft) chestnut 

fencing. This precaution produced noteworthy results 

(see Fig. 9.7) and it suggests that simple fencing carefully 

sited could be effective in urban areas. 


eas, ents os 


Fig. 9.7 The fenced and unfenced parts of the pit heap at South Pelaw. 


9.4 General conclusion 


Pit heaps are often intransigent habitats where a number 
of environmental factors act to retard plant growth. 
Some of the main obstacles to the development of 
vegetation on the steep slopes of pit heaps have been 
investigated using physiological and ecological procedures 
and ways have been suggested for ameliorating the 
conditions. The main conclusion from the work reported 
here must be that each pit heap (or derelict site) 
scheduled for full reclamation should be first investigated 
thoroughly by a person competent to advise on living 
plants. It is unlikely that all sites will be identical or that 
they should be given the same treatment to encourage 
plant growth. The suggestion is that each reclamation site 
should be treated separately, its physical and chemical 
properties studied and the species available for planting 
considered. 


Some heaps will require considerable treatment, others 
much less, but all should be treated as special cases. The 
deeper the investigation leading to the formulation of the 
final treatment the heap is to receive, the greater will be 
the chances of success. 


References 


Brierley, J.K. (1956) Some preliminary observations on 
the ecology of pit heaps. J. Ecol. Vol. 44, 383. 


Greenwood, E.F. (1963) Studies in the Spread of Plants 
on to Pit Heaps. Thesis, Univ. Durham. 


Hall, 1.G. (1959) The ecology of disused pit heaps in 
England. J. Ecol. Vol. 54, 689. 
Harrison, J.W.H. (1937) An old pit heap. Vasculum, 


Vol. 23, 53. 

Harrison, J.W.H. and Temperley, G.W. (1939) The three 
Northern Counties of England. Ed. Headlam, C. 
Gateshead. 

Pickersgill, B. (1971) Growth of Plants on Derelict Pit Heaps. 
Thesis, Univ. Newcastle. 

Richardson, J.A. (1953) A portable automatic soil 
temperature recorder. J. Ecol. Vol. 41, 388. 

Richardson, J.A. (1956) The Ecology and Physiology of Plants 
Growing on Colliery Spoil Heaps, Clay Pits and 
Quarries in County Durham. Thesis, Univ. Durham. 

Richardson, J.A. (1957) Derelict pit heaps and their 
vegetation. Planning Outlook, Vol. 4, 15. 

Richardson, J.A. (1958) The effect of temperature on the 
growth of plants on pit heaps. J. Ecol. Vol. 46, 537. 


Richardson, J.A. (1964) Physics in Botany, London 
Richardson, J.A. and Greenwood, E.F. (1967) Soil 


moisture tension in relation to the colonization of 
pit heaps. Proc. Univ, Newcastle Phil. Soc. 
Vol. 1, 129 


Whyte, R.O. and Sisam, J.W.B. (1949) The Establishment 
of Vegetation on Industrial Waste Land. Comm. 
Agric. Bur, No. 14. Aberystwyth. 


Wood, R.F. and Thirgood, J.V. (1955) Tree planting on 
colliery spoil heaps. Forestry Res. Paper. Vol. 17. 


99 


Chapter 10 Practical techniques for 
establishing vegetation on derelict land 


by C.J. Vyle 


10.1 The suitability of materials to sustain 
plant growth 


In the light of experience in this project, the reasons for the 
absence or sparsity of vegetation on derelict land are listed 
as the dominance of rock material or stones, impermea- 
bility of the soil to air or water, high water table, exposure 
to extreme climate, atmospheric pollution, lack of plant 
nutnents, inability to hold nutrients in soil, inability to 
retain moisture in soil, toxic levels of chemicals, and 
salinity. Some of these problem conditions can be over- 
come through the design of a modified landscape, for 
example, to offset inability to retain moisture by new 
landform design which retards run-off. It is also possible 
to plant vegetation of low nutrient requirement, e.g. cer- 
tain grass—legume mixtures and trees with ‘pioneer’ 
characteristics, and to ameliorate the site conditions with 
lime and fertilisers so that agricultural and other ‘advaneed’ 
species may be grown. 


The conditions prevailing around the experimental sites pro- 
vided a range of experience of problems often found in areas 
in which derelict sites are located. Atmospheric pollution is 
one of the most frequent of these. At Roddymoor, 
however, no problem of this kind occurred and to a 

degree this site served asa control. At Big Waters, 

local sources of pollution in the form of burning pit 

heaps are in the process of being removed. At Northbourne 
Park, the nearby coal by-products plant emits fumes which 
have given a tarry deposit on trees at the eastern end of the 
site. 

Exposure is a problem on the top of the Roddymoor 

heap, which lies in open country at an altitude of 
182—212m (600—700ft) above sea level, and at 

Windynook, Felling which is 91—167m (300—SSOft) 

above sea level. The Big Waters site, at only 6lm 

(200ft) o.d., is nevertheless also exposed to strong 

winds crossing the fairly open country to the west. 


10.1.1 Lime requirements 


(a) Roddymoor The shales encountered at Roddymoor 
were black, grey, red, and mixtures of red and black; 
other materials were slurry, coke breeze, building 
foundations and stacked drift, subsoil and topsoil. 

The shales were stony and had been heavily compacted 
by earthmoving machines. Only a small amount of 

lime was considered necessary for the Roddymoor site 
as the pH levels of different parcels at the seeding 

time were generally reasonable for grass establishment 
for agricultural use. 


(b) Big Waters The surface materials at Big Waters 
were ash which had been used for agriculture, black 
shale with a high coal content overlain with soil, 
black shale with mixed shale and soil, and black 


100 


mixed shale with red mixed shale. These shales were 
stony, but impermeability to air and water was not a 
problem over most of the site. Areas of high water 
table were present because of the levels at the bound- 
aries of the site in relation to the water level in the 
subsidence flash. 


At Big Waters, the pH of the shales before regrading 
varied between 2.8 and 3.8, and during regrading these 
rose to 3.5—4.4. The agricultural ash area had a pH of 
6.7 which rose to 71 on regrading. The imported 
Dinnington shale had a pH of 8.0 to 8.5 with free 
calcium carbonate present. Lime was applied to the 
north area west of the road prior to the placing of 
the Dinnington shale, and 2 ha (5 acres) to the south 
was similarly treated. 


Salinity has not been a problem on Big Waters and has 
never exceeded the designated safe limit of 4 m.mho/cm. 


At Big Waters, lime was applied at the appropriate rate 
to achieve optimum conditions for plant growth at the 
surface and part neutralisation of the sub-surface. The 
pH of the black shale surface after liming was 7.0, and 
the pH levels of the Dinnington shales after placement 
were 7.7, 7.3 and 6.9 (parcels 3,4,5). The incorpo- 
ration of lime to neutralize or part neutralize the sub- 
surface may help to prevent deep rooted species from 
going into check when their roots meet the less favour- 
able medium. 


(c) Maria Colliery Soil tests relating to lime and nutrient 
requirements were made, and it was recorhmended that 
shales with a low pH would be best buried under material 
which would be less of a problem from the point of view 
of management of the vegetation established on it. Pro- 
vided that the more favourable shales were used, no 

lime would be required. 


(d) Northbourne Park The soil tests at Northbourne 
Park revealed impoverished parent materials, including 
some areas with a pH of 3.5. 


10.1.2 Fertilizer requirements 


(a) Roddymoor The shales were found to require 
nitrogen and phosphate, but potassium was present 

at an adequate level to sustain plant growth. The fer- 
tilizer to meet the situation was applied at 500 kg/ha 

(4 cwt/acre), yielding 48 units nitrogen (N)—96 units 
phosphorus (P705)—0 Potassium (KO) units/ 

acre in 1968 to the seed bed. The first 

application was not planned to meet the full deficiency, 
and further applications (e.g. 80 units/acre and 100/ 
220 units/acre PyO5) in 1969 and 1970 respectively) were 
made. 


(b) Big Waters In two areas there was a severe lack of 
phosphorus (427/470 units P>Os/acre), possibly owing to 
the particular fixing properties of the acid parent 
materials, 


Those areas on shale which were sown with grass in the 
Autumn of 1969 received 112 units PyOs/acre as basic 
slag, and in addition 440 kg/ha (3% cwt/acre) of a com- 
plete compound fertiliser yielding 35—70—70 units/acre, 
bringing the total units in the seed beds to 
35—182—70/acre. 


The area previously used for agriculture had 
35—70—70 units/acre applied. 


Other areas which included subsequent tree planting 
had 355 kg (7 cwt) of basic slag, yielding 1 12 units 
P05; this was ripped into the 610 mm (2ft) surface 
dressing of mixed red shale. 


It is becoming apparent with increasing experience of 
shale soils that phosphorus is a limiting factor, and may 
help to explain why trees planted on some heaps have 
remained in check. 


(c) Maria Colliery The after use of the site for industry 
will mean that the vegetational cover will be temporary, 
and fertiliser treatments have been designed to ensure 
that the sward is maintained until the time the site is 
required for its intended use. In the seed bed 

500 kg/ha (4cwt/acre) yielding 48—96—0 units/acre 
was suggested, with two applications each of 

500 kg/ha (4cwt/acre) yielding 160—80—80 units/acre 
for the establishment period. 


(d) Northbourne Park The main aim at Northbourne 
Park was to re-establish a self-perpetuating soil fer- 
tility cycle on existing grass areas by applying a high 
level of a complete compound fertiliser. 1000 kg/ha 
(8 cwt/acre) were applied to the existing cover, 
yielding 80—120—80 units/acre. On areas with less 
requirement 500 kg/ha (4 cwt/acre) were applied, 
yielding 32—80—66 units/acre. On newly exposed 
ash surfaces with little mechanism for fertiliser 
retention, treatment with sewage sludge was under- 
taken and this was followed by a fertiliser at a higher 
rate. Where the material was particularly impover- 
ished an additional application of a PK fertiliser was 
made at 376 kg/ha (3ewt/acre) yielding O-60—60 
units/acre. The limed area was covered with soil in 
depths between 100 mm (4in) and 305 mm (12in) and 
the soil fertilised at the high rate. 


(e) Egerton Gardens At Egerton Gardens 880 kg/ha 

(7 ewt/acre) of a complete compound fertiliser, yield- 
Jing 105—105—105 units/acre was used. The aim in the 
case of fertilising for recreational uses was to give a boost 
to the existing grass cover and a good start to new grass. 
During the course of maintenance, the grass cuttings 

left on site will help to re-establish or establish a soil 
fertility cycle, and minimal application of complete com- 
pound fertiliser was made during the establishment 
period. 


10.1.3 Fertilisers — general comments 


Where tree planting was the aim following autumn grass 
establishment, no extra fertiliser was applied until the 
spring of the following year, the intention being to main- 


tain grass cover but not to cause undue competition with 
the trees. Particularly on newly reclaimed sites, plans for 
fertiliser applications should be flexible. Bearing in mind 
the widely differing characteristics of shale soils and other 
materials found on derelict sites, soil testing is imperative 
and lime requirement tests should be included, especially 
on those materials where there is a likelihood of increas- 
ing acidity. In these circumstances such a test should be 
undertaken as a matter of routine at least over the first 
five year period. Nutrient requirement tests are also 
vital, adjustments being made according to the type of 
management which is to be adopted. 


10.1.4 Fertilisers for trees and shrubs 


On Roddymoor, apart from the fertiliser referred to in 
10.1.2(a), all blocks received 57 g (20z) per plant of 
basic slag, except for the D planting. Block B received 
four treatments, three of which were superimposed on 
the initial treatment of 57 gice. 

treatment 1 

57 g (2 02) basic slag 
treatment 2 

S57 g+57¢2 
treatment 3 

57 g+ 170g (6 oz) 
treatment 4 

57 g + 283 g(100z) 


i.e. 114 g (4 02) basic slag 
1.e. 227 g (8 02) basic slag 
i.e. 340 g (12 02) basic slag 


D planting on the north slope and on the north east 
slope received: 


Autumn (1969) 

57 g (2 0z) + 113-g (4 0z) bone meal 
Spring (1970) 

57g +1132 hoof and horn 


On Big Waters, basic slag was ripped into the surface prior 
to seeding. Phosphorus deficits are to be made up with 
applications of triple super phosphate and basic slag. 
Recommended site preparation on sites showing severe 
phosphate deficiency and at suitable gradients e.g. 400 
units deficiency might include 1250 kg/ha (10 cwt/acre) 
high grade slag ripped to a depth of 460 mm (I8in), 
followed later by an application of 375 kg/ha (3 ewt/ 
acre) triple super phosphate cultivated to 225 mm 

(9in) depth and finally finishing up with a complete 
compound fertiliser harrowed into the seed bed prior 

to grass sowing. 


At Northbourne Park, no fertiliser dressing has been used 
on the vegetated banks. Basic slag at 57 g (20z) and 

113 g (402) could help to encourage more vigorous 
growth of plants. Other trees were planted in grass 

areas which had received varying levels of fertiliser in 

the seed bed or for upgrading existing cover, but no 
additional fertiliser to the trees has been applied. 


10.2 Cultivation, preparation and grass 
establishment 


10.2.1 Seed bed preparation 


(a) Ripping The most effective operation used in the 
research for relieving compaction of existing and re- 
graded surfaces was found to be ripping. This was to be 
carried out at 915 mm (3ft) centres xX 610 mm (2ft) 
depth. At Roddymoor under this specification, the 
ripper tended to rise out of the ground, while at Big 


101 


Waters the same phenomenon occurred, leaving a 

jepth at which ripping was effective of only 305 mm 
(1ft) deep. Durham County Council have suggested 
that this specification does not provide adequate cones 
of shattering which meet, and they now specify ripp- 
ing at 610 mm (2ft) centres X 610 mm (2ft) deep. It 
was found, however, on the research sites that if the 
machine operator drove slowly, using a Drott with its 
three tines set at 915 mm (3ft) apart, adequate depths 


of ripping were achieved 


(b) Stone picking The removal of firstly, large stones, and 
then smaller stones was undertaken. The tracking of 
loaded trailers on damp soil and shale was a problem as 

it led to wheel compaction, which in turn led to water 
running down the tracks and eventually opening up small 
gulleys (Fig. 10.1). 


Fig. 10.1 Wheel track damage by stone picking trailers may 
lead to small gulley formation which may be hazardous 
later to tractor drivers and stock if not treated. 


(c) Removal of hollows The hollows left by the removal 
of the larger stones were smoothed out and filled in by 
scrubbing. Spring tine and fixed tine cultivators have 
also been used with success in removing hollows. 


(d) Cultivation The normal processes of discing, harrow- 
ing liming and fertilising were used on the research sites. 
The application of lime before ripping had the advantage 
of achieving a better distribution through the profile, and 
thus helped to neutralize acid formed in the top 610 mm 
(2ft). Basic slag incorporated in this way is also benefi- 
cial for deep rooting species, and, in this respect, culti- 
vating with fixed or spring tine cultivators can help to 
incorporate basic slag to between 150 and 225 mm 

(6 in and 9 in) depth. 


Whilst accepting the normal practice of avoiding ferti- 
liser and seed distribution at one and the same time, one 


Fig. 10.2 Hydroseeding without mulch of a shallow 
gradient area on ash over building foundations. CP2 mixture 
was used. This method may have application where 
conventional seeding cannot be undertaken because 
underlying foundations would prevent cultivation by 
normal agricultural implements. 


Fig. 10.3 Eroding surface on the north facing slope at Roddymoor. Rills were in evidence prior to seeding. Mulch held the 


slope surface until the grass became established. 


102 


area seeded in the cooler Autumn had a low nitrogen 
fertiliser application preceding it on the same day, and 
no subsequent damage occurred to the young seed- 
lings. 


10.2.2 Grass seed broadcasting 


The conventional broadcasting machinery was used on 
Roddymoor and Northbourne Park, i.e. a tractor- 
drawn, spinner type. On Big Waters, distribution was 
made by a hand-cranked broadcaster from the back of 
a tractor-drawn trailer on areas where the seeding rate 
was very low. With regard to rolling operations after 
seeding, flat rolling was carried out with seed sown in 
May 1969 at Roddymoor, and was found to give better 
contact between the seed and the soil than with harrow- 
ing alone. Flat rolling was not, however, used after 
sowing in the Autumn. 


10.2.3 Grass hydroseeding with mulch 


At Roddymoor, a wood cellulose mulch, mixed with 
water fertiliser and seeds, was distributed via extension 
pipes to the least accessible parts of the north slope 
The mulch helped to bind the eroding surface 

(Fig. 10.3) and provided a favourable environment for 
seed germination. High seeding rates and special seed 
mixtures were used (see section 10.4. for details of 
seeding rates and mixtures). 


10.2.4 Grass hydroseeding without mulch 


The application of seed and fertiliser, using water as 
the medium for application, was also undertaken on 
flatter areas where the slopes were not less than 1:15. 
The machine used is shown in Fig. 10.2. Problems 
were experienced because of ground conditions and 
the weight of the machine (14 tonnes) leading to 
bogging-down and rutting up to 305 mm (12in) depth 
in some places. In these circumstances, harrowing of 
the agricultural areas to cover the seed was undertaken. 


10.2.5 Turf laying and herbaceous plants 


Although the use of turves for establishing a grass cover 
is unlikely to occur in reclamation projects, except in 
special circumstances, an experiment was set up at the 
west end of the north slope at Roddymoor. Erosion in 
this position had acted against the establishment of a 
seeded grass cover. It was also decided to assess the 
ability of various grass and herbaceous species, grow- 
ing originally under conditions of high altitude or 
extreme exposure in Scotland, to establish in colliery 
shale. The turves were 460 mm (18in) x 305 mm 
(12in) X 100 mm (4in) deep, the shale being excava- 
ted and the bottom of the hole forked over prior to 
receiving the turves, which were laid so that they 

were level with the surrounding shale (see section 
10.6). 


Experimental plantings of vigorous herbaceous plants 
were undertaken on the stream banks at Big Waters, 


although as in the case of turves, the occasions when 


such plants are likely to be used in reclamation pro- 
jects are limited. 


10.3 Planting trees and shrubs 


Several types of tree and shrub nursery stock were 
planted on the sites, including forestry transplants, 
oversized forestry stock, whips, ‘coppiced’ or stooled 
seedlings, standards and semi-mature trees. 


10.3.1 Trees 


The different planting techniques used for experimental 
and comparative purposes were the standard forestry 
practice: mattock planting on areas with ‘natural’ 

soils; pit planting for the oversized forestry stock; the 
poplars at Roddymoor and Big Waters; and the stan- 
dards. The semi-mature trees at Egerton Gardens were 
planted in accordance with B.S. 4043:1966. 


10.3.2 Shrubs 


Shrubs were planted at Northbourne Park into the exist- 
ing vegetational cover, at Egerton Gardens into shale, at 
Roddymoor into the shale surface, and at Big Waters into 
shale or existing grass cover. The method used was the 
conventional hole, large enough for the roots to be 
spread. As anticipated, the shale ‘soils’ were particu- 
larly subject to frost heave, and frequent attention to 
firming in is recommended. 


10.3.3 Cuttings 


Considerable experimental work in planting was carried 
out at the sites with cuttings, some being collected in 
the countryside by local conservation bodies and by the 
research staff, and some being obtained from the experi- 
mental station at Long Ashton. Both kinds of cutting 
were planted at Roddymoor and Big Waters into exist- 
ing vegetated shale or spoil, and directly into shale. A 
460 mm x 12 mm dia. (ISin x 4in dia.) spike was driven 
into the different materials to depths between 225 mm 
and 305 mm (9 in—12in) and the cutting inserted to 
the appropriate depth using a hormone dip of naphth- 
alene acetic acid with fungicide, Captan. At Roddy- 
moor the hormone was applied to both Populus spp. 
and Salix, but at Big Waters in half of the plot areas 
cuttings were untreated. Salix spp. have rooted sat- 
isfactorily without hormone, but standard practice 
with Populus spp. is to use a dip. 


10.4 Selection of species for grassland 


10.4.1 Seed mixtures used and rates of application 


Rates of seeding: 


(a) Very low (V.L.) represents a low agricultural rate 
associated with fertile soils. Up to 20 kg/ha 
(18 Ib/acre). 

(b) Low (L) represents a generous agricultural rate. 
Up to 35 kg/ha (32 Ib/acre). 

(c) Medium (M) represents approximately twice the 
agricultural rate. Up to 75 kg/ha (66 Ib/acre). 
(d) Heavy (H) represents three times the agricultural 

rate. Up to 105 kg/ha (96 Ib/acre). 
(e) Very heavy (V.H.) represents five times the agri- 
cultural rate. Up to 175 kg/ha (160 Ib/acre). 


The seed mixtures used are coded as G. (grass mixture) 
or G.L. (grass—legume mixture). H indicates that the 
mixture was applied by hydroseeding. 


103 


G.L.1 Recreational use on building debris covered with 
100mm N 300mm (4in N 12in) soil 


——_—_———————————— TT 


Rate (M) 
Species 
kg/ha Ib/acre 
Lolium perenne N.Z. 13.3 12.0 
Phleum pratense S.50 6.7 6.0 
Festuca pratensis S.53 ie lee 10.0 
Festuca rubra S.59 5.0 4.5 
Trifolium repens S.100 1.1 1.0 
Trifolium hybridum 1.8 1.5 
39.0 35.0 


G.L.2 Parkland, recreation and forestry cover on shale 
LD 


Rate 1 (M) Rate 2 (H) 

Species 

kg/ha Ib/acre kg/ha _ Ib/acre 
Lolium perenne S.24 13.3 12.0 27.0 24.0 
Phleum pratense S.48 6.7 6.0 13.3 12.0 
Festuca pratensis S.215  =11.1 10.0 22.0 20.0 
Festuca rubra S.59 5.0 4.5 10.0 9.0 
Trifolium repens S.123 1.8 1:5 3.4 3.0 
Trifolium pratense S.184 1.1 1.0 2:3 2.0 

39.0 35.0 78.0 70.0 


eS ————  h——— 


G.L.5 H.5 Plant cover, prior to tree planting on mixed coke 
breeze; shale with 100mm subsoil over building foundations; 
shale (low maintenance) 


Rate (M) 

Species 

kg/ha Ib/acre 
Agrostis tenuis 5.6 5.0 
Festuca rubra commutata 19.7 17.5 
Festuca tenu/folia 19.7 17.5 
Trifolium repens S.100 3.4 3.0 
Trifolium pratense S.123 5.6 5.0 

54.0 48.0 


G.L.6 H.6 Plant cover prior to tree planting on shale 
(low maintenance) 


Rate (M) 

Species 

kg/ha Ib/acre 
Agrostis tenuis 5.6 5.0 
Festuca rubra S.59 19.6 17.5 
Festuca tenuifolia 19.6 17.5 
Trifolium pratense S.123 132 12.0 

58.0 52.0 


a a 


G. H.4 (with mulch) Plant cover prior to tree planting, on 


mixed shales — erosion protection 


104 


Rate 1(H) Rate 2(V.H.) Rate 3 (V.H.) 

Species 

kg/_ |b/ kg/ Ib/ kg/ Ib/ 

ha acre ha acre ha acre 
Agrostis tenuis 42 oD 5.6 5.0 8.4 7/5) 
Dactylis glomerata S.37 AD 315 5.6 5.0 84 7.5 
Dactylis glomerata S.3143 4.2 3.75 5.6 5.0 8.4 7.5 
Dactylis glomerata S.26 AVA) hy 5.6 5.0 8.4 7.5 
Festuca rubra S.59 37.8 33.75 50.4 45.0 75.6 67.5 
Festuca rubra commuta 14.7 13.125 19.6 17.5 29.4 26.25 
Festuca tenuifolia 14.7 13.125 19.6 17.5 29.4 26.25 

84.0 75.000 112.0 100.0 168.0 150.0 


[a 


G.L.7 H.1 Plant cover on coke breeze, to prevent 
erosion (low maintenance) 


Rate (L) 

Species 

kg/ha Ib/acre 
Festuca rubra S.59 16.8 15.0 
Medicago /upulina 9.0 8.0 
(substituted for: 
Lotus corniculatus) (9.0) (8.0) 

25.8 23.0 


G.L.18 Agricultural pasture on shale. A Lancashire C.C. 
(L.C.T.) mixture 


Rate (M) 
Species 
kg/ha Ib/acre 

Lolium perenne S.24 11.1 10.0 
Lolium perenne N.2Z. Ti 10.0 
Dactylis glomerata S.341 7.9 7.0 
Dactylis glomerata S.37 5.6 5.0 
Phleum pratense S.48 3.8 3.5 
Phleum pratense S.51 7.9 Flas 
Festuca pratensis S.215 5.6 5.5 
Festuca pratensis $.53 7.9 7.5 
Trifolium repens S.100 > dS 2.5 
Trifolium pratense S.123 3.8 3.5 

~s 67.0 60.0 


G.L.9 Cockle Park (C.P.) mixture. Agricultural pasture on 
stored soil (Rate 1) and shale (Rate 2) 


Rate 1 (M) Rate 2 (M) 
Species 
kg/ha Ib/acre kg/ha _ Ib/acre 
Lolium perenne S.24 15.7 14.0 31.2 28.0 


Dactylis glomerata S.37 7.9 7.0 15.6 14.0 
Phleum pratense S.51 4.5 4.0 9.0 8.0 
Trifolium repens S.100 2.3 2.0 4.5 4.0 
Trifolium pratense $.123 3.4 3.0 6.7 6.0 


33.8 30.0 67.0 60.0 


G.L.10 Parkland, low maintenance on imported Dinnington 
shale 

Rate 1(V.L.) Rate 2 (V.L.) 
Species 

kg/ha Ib/acre 


Ib/acre kg/ha 


Phleum pratense S$.50 9.0 8.0 13.3 12.0 
White Clover S.100 2.3 2.0 3.4 3.0 


11.3 10.0 16.7 15.0 


G.L.11 Agricultural mixture — Northumberland 


Rate (L) 
Species 
kg/ha Ib/acre 
Lolium perenne §.23 22.0 20.0 
Festuca rubra S.59 5.6 5.0 
Agrostis tenuis 2.3 2.0 
Trifolium repens S.100 1.1 1.0 
Trifolium repens Wild white 1.1 1.0 
Trifolium hybridum 1.1 1.0 
33.2 30.0 
G.L.12 Plant cover prior to tree planting 
Rate (L) 
Species 
kg/ha Ib/acre 
Lolium multiflorum Westerwolds 10.1 9.0 
Dactylis glomerata S.143 13.3 12.0 
Poa trivialis 3.4 3.0 
Festuca rubra 3.4 3.0 
Trifolium repens S.100 fat 1.0 
Trifolium repens Wild white 1.1 1.0 
Trifolium hybridum 1.1 1.0 
33.5 30.0 


10¢ 


G.L.13 Agricultural mixture — Derbyshire, on shale 


Rate (M) 

Species 

kg/ha Ib/acre 
Lolium multiflorum Danish 22.0 20.0 
Lolium perenne S.23 33.0 30.0 
Trifolium repens N.Z. 3.4 3.0 
Trifolium repens Kentish wild 1.1 1.0 

59.5 54.0 


as, 


G.L.14 Temporary use on mixed topsoil and shale area 


Rate (M) 

Species 

kg/ha Ib/acre 
Festuca rubra S.59 112 10.0 
Lolium perenne S.23 16.8 15.0 
Phleum pratense S.48 3.4 3.0 
Trifolium repens S.100 72 2.0 
Poa pratensis 3.4 3.0 
Agrostis tenuis 5.6 5.0 

42.6 38.0 


10.4.2? List of grass and legume species 


Latin name 


Lolium perenne 
Lolium multiflorum 
Dactylis glomerata 
Festuca rubra rubra 


F. rubra commutata 
F. Tenuifolia 

F. pratensis 
Agrostis tenuis 
Phleum pratense 

P. bertolonii 


Poa pratensis 


Trifolium repens 


T. pratense 
T. hybridum 
Lotus corniculatus 


Medicago /upulina 


English name 


Perennial Rye-grass 
Italian Rye-grass 
Cocksfoot 


Creeping Red 
Fescue 


Chewings Fescue 
Hard Fescue 
Meadow Fescue 
Bent 

Timothy 

Small Timothy 


Rough Stalked 
Meadow Grass 


White clover 


Red clover 
Alsike clover 
Birdsfoot Trefoil 
Black Medock 


Strains 
$23, S24, N.A. 
Mother 


Westerwolds, 
Danish 


$37, S341, 
$143, S26 


S59 


$215, S53 


S48, S51 
S50 


Kentish wild, 
N.Z., S100, 
S184, wild 


$123 


106 


10.4.3 Performance of seed mixtures after 
12 months 


(a) G.L.1 

Origin Based on a Lancashire mix (cocks- 
foot element omitted). 

Site Northbourne Park 


Use Recreation 


Comment Successful at medium rate 
Dominant 
species Rye-grass 
(b) G.L.2 
Origin As above 
(i) 
Site Northbourne Park 
Use Recreation 
Comment Successful at medium rate 
Dominant 
species Rye-grass, some patches of white clover 
(ii) 
Site Big Waters 
Use Parkland 
Comment Successful at medium and high rate 
Dominant 
species To be assessed 
(c) G.L.S, H.5 
Origin Based on suitability of individual species 
Site (i) Roddymoor 
(ii) Big Waters 
Use Cover prior to forestry planting 
Comment Successful at medium rates for cover 
Dominant 
species Part Red clover dominant 


N.B. Part red clover dominant, may suppress trees below 
450mm (1i4ft). 600mm (2ft) transplants and larger 
unaffected. Suggest red clover removed from low 
maintenance mixtures to be cut, or where small transplants 
to be used. 


(d) G.L.6, H.6 


Origin As above 

Site As above 

Use As above 

Comment As above 

Dominant 

species Suggest red clover substituted with 
white clover 

(e) G.L.7, HI 

Origin As above 

Site Roddymoor 

Use Erosion control 

Comment Successful at low rate 

Dominant 

species Fescue mainly dominant some areas 
Medick dominant 

(f) GHA 

Origin As above 

Site Roddymoor 

Use Erosion control on steep slope 

Comment Successful at heavy to very heavy 
rates. Excellent cover over majority 
of site. Cover disappears from area 
with pH 3.5 

Dominant 

species Agrostis tenuis 

(g) G.L.8, L.C.T. 

Ongin Based on experience of Lancashire 
County Planning Department on 
performance of seeds in mixtures 

Site Roddymoor 

Use Agriculture 

Comment Problems were met due to inade- 
quate ripping depth, late sowings 
and under surface heating 
(350° C at 1.5m depth). Eventually 

successful at medium rates. 

Dominant 

species In parts Timothy, and white clover 
on areas of under surface heating 

(h) G.L.9, CP. 

Origin As above 

Site (i) Roddymoor 
(ii) Big Waters 

Use Agriculture. Cover prior to 
forestry planting 

Comment Grass successful at medium rate 

Dominant 

species Rye-grass under agriculture. 

Clover in forestry areas at 

Wahi. 

Origin Based on species used in a horti- 
cultural ley for sowing down 
orchard 

Site Big Waters 

Use Minimum maintenance 

Comment Mixture successtul at very low 


rate associated with good horti- 
cultural soil 


Dominant 

species Timothy. White clover 

(i) GLI 

Origin N.A.A.S. (Newcastle) 

Site Northumberland C.C. sites 

Use Agriculture 

Comment Low rate recommended 

(k) G.L.12 

Origin As above 

Site As above 

Use Cover prior to forestry planting 

Comment Low rate recommended 

(1) G.L.IZ 

Origin N.A.A.S. (Derbyshire) 

Site Derbyshire sites 

Use Agricultural 

Comment Successful at medium rate 

(m) G.L.14 

Origin Based on suitability of individual species 

Site Maria Colliery 

Use Cover prior to industrial use 

Comment Apart from a small area on good top soil, 
weed growth has severely limited the 
growth of grass 


10.4.4 Comments on seed mixture performance 


(a) Roddymoor Whilst areas with a natural soil cover 
were seeded with G.L.9 at a normal agricultural rate 
(C.P.1), the shale areas were seeded at double the 
standard agricultural rate with two mixture (C.P. 
Rate 2 and LCT). The results on areas of red 

shales plus mixed shales, and which were also 
exposed, suggested that a seed mixture with a wide 
range of species would be more appropriate. 


The grass seed mixture G (H4) and seed mixtures 
hydroseeded together with tree seed mixture 

(H2 and H3) were sown at various rates to provide 
protection against erosion on slopes, and as a cover 
to assist in the subsequent establishment of trees. 
The success of individual species in the seed mix- 
ture G, at different sowing rates, is recorded in 
Chapter 9. 


Seeding at Roddymoor was undertaken during the 
last week in August, and during September 1968, 
the last sowing being made on October 4 on the 
exposed Parcel 10. (Fig 10.4) Although there was 
no sign of heating detectable by thermometer, 
steaming became obvious during the winter months, 
showing a high state of oxidation. Surface temper- 
ature readings ranging between 50°C and C and 
ambient were recorded with an air temperature of 
0°C. A white clover sward now 


107 


(“og 


¥) 


Ww O07 OG ool 


ANUS 


gLI9 1 490 


yvonne ata 


pwrornnog 4110 


G1944) MIN OMCdCds 


SROO1NOD TyNIOInO 


Aas 


/ 
t 
\ 
‘ 

‘ 


‘seaiue pajuejd Buimoys uejd yNOAey “IOOWAPPOY p'OL ‘BIg 


108 


dominates some of these areas of high activity. Over 
the rest of the site the clover content of the sward 
is markedly reduced from what it should be. 

6S (Fig 10.4) was sown in May 1969 and the 
incorporation of farmyard manure in the seed bed 
may have helped the seedlings over a difficult 
moisture stress period. Elsewhere, seedlings on 
shale suffered from drought, many of the seed- 
lings being killed; some seed remained dormant 
until Autumn and helped to infill some of the bare 
areas. 


(b) Big Waters Areas which were to be agriculturally 
useful were sown with standard agricultural 

mixtures at a generous rate (C.P. Rate |) and at 
double rate (C.P. Rate 2). 


Areas to be planted with trees were sown with an 
agricultural mixture (C.P. Rate 1). The mixture was 
found to be difficult to maintain around the trees 
and is not recommended for cover prior to planting 
unless wide spacings allow for, say, hay cropping as 
a maintenance procedure. 


(c) Maria Colliery The use of the site after grass 
development will be of a temporary nature, pending 
permanent uses, thus it was decided that soil diff- 
erences need not be meticulously observed in the 
selection of a seed mixture. 


(d) Northbourne Park The areas for open space used 
on Northbourne Park were sown at agricultural rates 
(LCT). The rate was a generous agricultural appli- 
cation but at about a third of the usual rate for open 
space sowings. Species liable to form tufts (cocks- 
foot) were omitted from the mixture (G.L.1 and 
G.L.2). Areas sown for later tree planting had a 
mixture of fine-leaved species sown at low rates, 

but sufficient to give a good plant cover. 

For areas to be planted later with trees or shrubs, 

a fescue/bent mixture was used to give minimum 
competition. 


The May 1968 seeding of G.L.1 and G.L.2 germinated 


very rapidly and gave excellent cover within six weeks. 


Areas sown in November 1968 did not germinate until 
Spring 1969. Spring sowings were made in 1969, 
again in May, on two ash areas; one took and the 
other failed. 


10.5 Selection of tree and shrub species 


The factors taken into account in species selection 
were soil type, aspect, water table, use of the area 
planted, ecological and visual appropriateness, 
availability, and the need to include a wide range 
for experimental purposes. 


In the course of the experimental work, a consid- 
erable number of species was planted, and records 
kept of the materials into which the planting was 
carried out, and into the subsequent perform- 

ance. Because of the complexity of this inform- 
ation, the major findings are summarised; these 
inevitably include damage by vandalism etc., as well 
as ‘natural’ failures. 


10.5.1 Species used 


Latin name 


English name 


Average 
percentage 


success after 
12 months 


on all sites 


(a). Standard trees (planted at between 0.9 and 3.0 m 


(3ft — 10ft) high) 


Alnus glutinosa 
Alnus incana 

Alnus cordata 

Alnus rubra 

Acer platanoides 
Acer pseudo-platanus 
Betula pendula 
Crataegus monogyna 
Fraxinus excelsior 
Populus alba 
Populus canescens 
Populus trichocarpa 
Salix alba 

Salix vitellina 
Sorbus aria 

Sorbus aucuparia 
Sorbus domestica 
Sorbus intermedia 
Tilia platyphyllos 


Common alder 
Grey alder 
Italian alder 


Norway maple 
Sycamore 

Silver birch 
Hawthorn 
Common ash 

White poplar 

Grey poplar 
Western balsam poplar 
White willow 
Golden willow 
Whitebeam 
Mountain ash 
Service tree 
Swedish whitebeam 


Lime 


71 
90 
90 


(b) Semi mature trees (planted 6m — 7m (20ft — 24ft) high) 


Acer pseudo-platanus 
Betula pendula 
Sorbus aucuparia 


Sycamore 
Silver birch 
Mountain ash 


0 
0 
0 


(c) Forestry transplants or tree seedlings (planted 0.4m — 
1.2m (1ft 4in — 4ft) high for 1 year + 1 year; 0.6m — 1.4m 
(2ft — 4ft 8in) high for 2 years + 1 year) 


Alnus glutinosa 
Alnus incana 

Betula pendula 
Crataegus monogyna 
Fagus sylvatica 


Pinus nigra Var. austriaca 


Pinus nigra vat .calabrica 


Pinus sy/vestris 
Populus alba 

Pinus X berolinensis 
Populus canescens 


Populus tacamahaca 
x tuchocupa 


Prunus avium 
Prunus padus 


Common alder 
Grey alder 
Silver birch 
Hawthorn 
Beech 
Austrian pine 
Corsican pine 
Scots pine 
White poplar 
Grey poplar 
Balsam poplar 


Gean 
Bird cherry 


109 


Salix alba White willow 80 
Salix alba ‘Liempole’ - 80 
Sorbus aria Whitebeam 90 
Sorbus aucuparia Mountain ash 83 


(d) Stooled trees (planted cut back to 0.15m — 0.46m 


Sam bucus nigra Common elder 7h} 
Sambucus racemosa Red elder 90 
Sorbus aucuparia Mountain ash 95 
Prunus cerasifera Myrobalan plum 85 
Robinia pseudoacacia Common acacia 100 


(6in — 1ft Gin) high) 


Betula pendula 
Fraxinus excelsior 
Fraxinus ornus 
Populus alba 
Sorbus aucuparia 
Salix vitellina 


(e) Shrubs — pot grown (planted 0.2m — 0.9m (8in — 3ft) 


high) 


Cotoneaster simonsii 
Hedera hibernica 


Hypernicum calycinum 
(f) Shrubs — transplants (planted 0.4m — 1.4m (1ft 4in — 


4ft 8in) high) 


Berberis vulgaris 


Cornus stolonifera var. 
flaviramea 


Cornus mas 

Cornus alba sibirica 
Cotoneaster simonsit 
Hypericum calycinum 
Mahonia aquifolium 
Malus sylvestris 
Ligustrum vulgare 
Polygonum 
baldschuanicum 

Rosa moschata 

Rosa canina 

Rosa wichuriana 
Rosa rubiginosa 

Rosa spinossissima 
Rosa rugosa 


Rosa multiflora 
Japonica 


Rubus ‘Malling 
Promise’ 


Rubus deliciosus 
Rubus fruticosus 
Rubus spectabilis 
Salix purpurea 
Salix cinerea 
Salix caprea 


Salix viminalis 


110 


Silver birch 
Common ash 
Manna ash 
White poplar 
Mountain ash 


Golden willow 


Irish ivy 
St. John’s Wort 


Yellow-bark dogwood 


Cornelian cherry 
Red-bark dogwood 


St. John’s Wort 
Applestock 


Privet 
Russian vine 


Sweet Briar 


Scotch rose 


Common blackberry 
Purple osier 
Grey willow 
Goat willow 


Common osier 


39 
86 
60 
77 
60 
30 


75 
75 
90 


100 


N/A 
N/A 


(q) Shrubs — stooled (planted 0.46m — 1.2m (1ft 8in — 
4ft) high) 


Corylus avellana Hazel 0 
Cornus alba sibirica Red-bark dogwood 54 
Salix caprea Goat willow 70 


N/A signifies that an assessment has not been possible to 
date. 


10.5.2 Performance of various species 


(a) Standard trees In general over all sites, trees 
planted as standards survived and made growth. Alder 
spp., poplars and Sorbus spp. being particularly 
successful, while the most doubtful species were 

ash and birch, although vandalism was a factor in 

this respect. A special point is made in respect of 
the Big Waters site where very dry weather con- 
ditions prevailed during the Spring and early Summer 
after planting, but after an initial check, the survi- 
val rate was very high, due no doubt to the high 
standard of planting carried out by the forestry 

staff of the Northumberland County Council. 


(b) Semi mature trees These were used experi- 
mentally on one urban site Egerton Gardens, and 
the total loss was due entirely to vandalism. It is 
unfortunate that on urban sites, where trees planted 
initially at a large size are desirable, failures due to 
external circumstances are most likely to occur. 


(c) Forestry transplants Despite the likelihood of 
more failures than with the ‘individually’ planted 
standard trees, the results from the species selected 
were encouraging. Although the percentage of 
success over all the sites for alder was lower than 
for some other species, Alnus glutinosa was very 
successful. Willows and poplars proved their use ful- 
ness on reclaimed sites, and Scots pine was noted as 
a successful conifer. Birch again proved an uncer- 
tain species. 


(d) Stooled trees Site conditions produced consid- 
erable variation in the performance figures, but 
mountain ash and white poplar were generally 
regarded as successful. Despite the low figure for 
willow, this genus is likely to perform well under 
the stooling technique. 


(e) Shrubs — pot grown The results were variable. 
For example, the first planting of Hypericum had a 
poor survival rate, but a second attempt in the follow- 
ing year was successful. 


(f) Shrubs — transplants Dogwood proved the most 
reliable shrub, whilst Rosaspp. also proved useful 
and gave visual interest at an early stage. 


(g) Shrubs — stooled The results were achieved on a 
site subject to much vandalism and atmospheric 
pollution, and were sufficiently good to justify 

this technique as worthwhile. 


10.5.3 Cuttings 


Several experimental plantings were made with tree 
and shrub cuttings planted directly into the soil 
material. This is a cheap and useful method of 
developing a tree and shrub cover, and the follow- 
ing summarises our experience to date. 

Cuttings planted in a meadow habitat at Big Waters 
suffered from grass competition, vandalism and 
trespass by cows. 


The Populus cuttings suffered from grass competition, 
high water table and waterlogging during the growing 
season. Areas where grass cover was sparse helped 

cuttings of Salix and also cuttings of Cornus sanguinea 
by making them less visible to vandals and by shading, 
providing a more favourable microclimate for the 

establishment of cuttings during the hot spell in June. 


Populus cuttings at Roddymoor on the shale gave a 
40% take. Where they were planted in meadow the 
grass overtopped them and killed them. Salix cuttings 
from Witton-le-Wear Nature Reserve were successful 
giving an overall take of 66% with some plots giving 
100%, the worst performance being 20%. The 
Gosforth Park Willows especially the S. cinerea type 
performed poorly, giving complete failure in some 
cases and in no case was the take above 48%. 

S. Fragilis gave a 92% take. The Salix from Long 
Ashton were in the poorest material, ash over build- 
ing foundations, and performance was varied. 

S. cinerea failed completely, S. purpurea ‘Iretto’ 
gave a 58% take, S. daphnoides ‘Oxford Violet’ 
52%, S. viminalis ‘Mealy Tops’ 52%, S. viminalis 
*Gigantea’ 30%, S. purpurea ‘Dicky Meadows’ 

32%, S. daphnoides ‘French Purple’, S. triandra 

and S. daphnoides X caprea all gave takes under 
15%. The best performance was from a 19mm 
(0.7Sin) by 380mm (1ft 3in) viminalis type cutting 
from Witton-le-Wear which put out two leaders, 
one growing to 152Smm (5ft) and the other to 
1170mm (3ft) in the season of planting. 


10.6 Experimental turf plantings (see 10.2.5) 


A number of turves from high altitude sites in the 
north of Scotland were laid on an area at the 
Roddymoor site. 


(a) The western part of the area Here the surface 
material was bare or sparsely vegetated shale, and 
the dominant species in each turf and the place and 
altitude of origin were as follows (reading from east 
to west): 


Nardus stricta (Slochd (S) 390m (1 300ft) ), Poa 
trivialis (Corrischullie 330m (1100ft) ), Festuca 
tenuifolia(S), Holcus lanatus (S), Phleum pratense 
(S), H. mollis (S), Festuca ovina (Dalmagerry 271m 
(904ft) ), Festuca rubra (S),Galium saxatile (S), 


Poa pratensis (S), Agrostis tenuis (Tomdhu 195m 
650ft), Agrostis canina Carrbridge (a) 330m 

(1100ft) ), Deschampsia flexuosa (Ca), Anthoxanthum 
odoratum (S), Trifolium repens, Vaccinium vitis- 
idaea, Luzula spicata (S). 


The results of this experiment were generally success- 
ful. The dominant species in each turf now varies 
from being ‘present’ on the turf to being ‘dominant’. 
For example Nardus stricta and Festuca tenuifolia 
were found to be frequent on their respective turves, 
but Vaccinium vitis-idaea was found to be only present 
on its turf. 


(b) The eastern turves were laid on a bare slope from 
which the sown grass had died out. This bare area was 
found to have a pH of 3.4 and a phosphorus deficit 

of 400 units at the end of 1969, thus the turf species 
have been subjected to severe conditions. Six rows of 
turves were planted across the slope, two thirds down 
the slope to help prevent erosion. The number of 
turves in each row varied from four to eleven. 


The rows are numbered from the top of the slope (south) 


to the bottom of the slope (north) and the dominant 
species in each turf are listed reading from east to west 
across each row. 


(i) Rubus chamaemorus 2, Salix herbacea 4 (Dunnet 
Head, Pentland Firth 120m (400ft) ) 

(ii) - Vaccinium vitis-idaea 3 (S), Trifolium repens 2 
(S), Betula nana Hills of N.W. of Rogart, 
Sutherland 360m (1200ft) Vaccinium myrtillus 
3(S) 

(iii) Lathyrus montanus 4 (Nethy Bridge (N.B.) 210 m 
(700ft) ), Veronica officinalis 2 (Lecht Mt. 
Tomintour 422m (140S5ft) ) 

(iv) Trifolium pratense 2, N.B., Ranunculus flammula 
2, N.B., Lotus corniculatus 2, N.B. and Tulloch, 
Potentilla erecta 3 (Boat of Garten (B.G.) Tulloch 
240m (800ft) ), Polygala vulgaris 2, B.G. 

(v) Galium saxatile, 2, B.G., Luzula campestris, 3 
(Bridge of Brown Tomintour 427m (1424ft) ), 

P. erecta 2, B.G. Polygala vulgaris 1, B.G. 

(vi) Rubus chamaemonis, 4. 


The results of this experiment as regards the dominant 
species were similar to the turves referred to in (a) 
above. Only one species had, after two years, started 
to colonise the shale around, this being Trifolium 
pratense. Betula nana, Vaccinium myrtillus, Rubus 
chamaemorus, and Vaccinium vitis-idaea survived and 
show’slight signs of growth. Galium saxatile, Polygala 
vulgaris and Ranunculus flammula appeared to be 
dying off. 


Turfing is an expensive operation and on the large 
scale would be impracticable; however, for small areas 
with specific erosion problems it is possible to use 
turves as has already been described. The western 
turves at Roddymoor closed the foot gap between 
them in a season and trapped wind-blown and water- 
washed seed uphill and downhill giving visual con- 
tinuity in the small scale within three months. The 
eastern turves have not closed the gaps, presumably 
due to low pH (3.4) and severe nutrient deficiency. 
They have, however, remained intact and formed a 
useful barrier to rill erosion. 


10.7 Experimental herbaceous plantings (see 10.2.5) 


These were planted at the Big Waters site in a neutral 
shale with relatively good nutrient characteristics in 
April 1970. The initial impact was minimal. However, 
after a dry summer until August, the results by the 
end of August were good, both as to survival and 
appearance. The species were as follows and 45 plants 
of each were planted in groups: 
Species Performance 
Alchemilla mollis 

Artemisia palmeri 

Baptisia australis exaltata 
Brunnera macrophylla 

Centaurea steenbergii 
Cynoglossum sp. X 

Epimedium perralderianum 
Festuca glauca 

Geranium armenum 

G. ‘Claridge Druce’ 

G. grandiflorum alpinum 

G. ibericum 

G. sylvaticum album 

G. wallichianum 

Hosta fortunet 

H. undulate erromena 

Inula hookeri 

Lamium galegobdolon florentinum 
Lysimachia punctata 

Polygonum reynoutria 

Salvia superba 

Spartina pectinate aurea 

Stachys byzantinus 

Stipa gigantea 

Symphtum caucasicum 

Tellima grandiflora purpurea 
Tradescantia subaspera montana 


All species sur- 
vived well into 
the first year 
after planting, 
despite a dry 
initial Summer. 
Many of them 
have already put 
on growth 


10.8 Conclusions 


The most important aspect in vegetating derelict 
sites is to treat each site on its own merits. The 
following general principles are put forward: 


(a) The first essential is to assess the waste material 
as a soil forming agent, and to undertake lime and 
major nutrient requirement tests, particularly 
phosphorus and potassium. 


(b) The preparation of the site must ensure adequate 
relief from compaction by heavy ripping. If the 
site has a history of industry, then the foundations 
or other waste should be covered with at least a 
915mm (3ft) depth of suitable material so that 
ripping could provide a reasonable medium for 
plant growth. If possible at the design stage the 
incorporation of slopes no greater than 1:8 will ensure 
maintenance problems are reduced to a minimum by 
allowing agriculture to take place. If steeper slopes 
are designed, then access to allow for mechanical 
fertilizer spreading should be built into the design. 


(c)Removal of stones and preparing the seed bed so that a 
favourable environment for plant growth is created is an 


essential part of the process. Deep ripping with lime and 


112 


basic slag, deep cultivation with triple superphosphate, 

and harrowing-in of a combined complete fertiliser in a 
phosphorus deficient material should help to reduce the 
possibilities of plants going into check. 


(d) Having assessed the soil forming capabilities of the 


(e) 


(i) 


material and made good any deficiencies of the major 
nutrients, suitable seed mixtures can be selected and 
applied at the appropriate rates. The more fertile the 
material, the nearer to an agricultural rate of sowing. One 
and a half times should be adequate, but under adverse 
physical conditions twice the rate Would be more 
appropriate. Three times the agricultural rate should be 
sufficient for the most rapid cover on slopes prone to 
erosion or for general use. 


Grass and legume species performing successfully for 
different uses on the project sites 


Agriculture 

$24 Perennial Rye Grass 
S51 Timothy 

S100 White clover 


Lolium perenne 
Phleum pratense 
Trifolium repens 


(ii) Forestry and woodland areas 


S59 Red Fescue 
Black Medock 
Creeping Bent 
$100 White clover 
$123 Red clover 


Festuca rubra 

Medicago lupulina 
Agrostis tenuis 
Trifolium repens 

T. pratense (seed heads 
overwintering give 
brown effect apart from 
vigour which may tend 
to swamp small trans- 


plants) 
(iii) Recreational areas 
S.24 P.R.G. Lolium perenne 
E.Z. Mother P.R.G. L. perenne 
S.59 Red Fescue F. rubra 
S.184 White clover T. repens 
(iv) Parkland 
S.S0 Timothy Phleum bertolonii 


S.100 White clover T. repens 


(f) Shrub species which have performed successfully 


(i) 


Flowers, fruit, erosion protection 
Rosa and Rubus spp. 


(ii) Spring colour, erosion protection 


(iii) 


Salix spp. 


Erosion protection, winter colour 
Cornus spp. 


(g) Hedgerow species. Crataegus monogyna, Prunus padus, 


(h 


P. avium and Sorbus aucuparia all performed well. 


) Standard trees. Sorbus aria made the best 

contribution. Sorbus aucuparia and Crataegus monogyna 
did well. Acer pseudoplatanus, used to replace dead 
species which had not be vandalised, did not suffer as 
badly from vandalism as the Populus tacamahaca 
substituted for the P. canescana at Northbourne Park. 
Alnus glutinosa also did well. 


(i) Stooled trees. Sorbus aucuparia made the best 


contribution, but Populus alba and Betula pendula also 
did reasonably well. 


(j) Forest transplants. Alnus glutinosa established the best , 
Sorbus aucuparia established satisfactorily and Salix alba 
established well in some parts of Roddymoor. Pinus 
sylvestris did well, Betula could be regarded as failed. 


(k) Nursery stock. Sorbus aucuparia established the best 
and Robinid pseudoacacia, Crataegus oxycantha, Prunus 
padus, P. cerasifera and Malus communis (Apple stock) 
all did well. 


(1) Cuttings. Salix spp. established well, Populus less well. 
Alnus apical cuttings 460mm (18in) rooted in a shaded 
silty area. 


It should be emphasised that the tree and shrub species 
selected should take account of the individual site 
conditions, such as the physical nature of material, exposure, 
local climate etc., and also note should be taken of the 

local hedgerow and tree species so that the vegetational 


cover produced relates to or extends the range of species 
in a harmonious manner. This approach will help to 
integrate the reclaimed landscape with the surrounding 
landscape. 


References 


Barkley, D.G., Blaser, R.E. and Scmidt, R.E. (1965) 
Effect of mulches on microclimate and turf 
establishment. Reprint Agron. J. Vol 57 189-192. 

Boyce, R. (1965) Grass and Legume species. 
Commonwealth Bureau of Pastures & Field Crops, 
Hurely, Nr. Maidenhead, Berks. 

Breeding, C.H.J. (1961) Crown vetch as an aid to strip 
mine reclamation. Reprinted Mining Congress J. 

Button, E.F. (1964) Establishing slope vegetation. 
Reprinted from Public Works Magazine. 

Button, E.F. and Pothurst, K. (1962) Comparison of 
mulch material for turf establishment. Reprinted 


from J. Soil and Water Conservation. Vol 17, 
No 4, 166-169. 


113 


Chapter 11 Contract procedure 


by |.S. Clark 


11.1 Introduction 


This chapter examines and considers the various aspects of 
contracts for land reclamation including forms of contract, 
the competitive element, modifications to standard 
conditions, specification, bills of quantities and 
administration of contracts. 


All the schemes executed as part of the research project 
were carried out for local authorities receiving government 
grant but the procedures examined in this chapter are 
considered in broad terms and not restricted to local 
authority reclamation schemes. 


11.2 Contracts generally 


It is as well at the outset to consider the types of contract 
procedure and their application to reclamation before 
proceeding to examine the specific details of a land 
reclamation contract document. 


11.2.1 Types of contract 


It is convenient to consider contracts under two heads: 
(a) Incentive and risk bearing contracts in which the 
contractor is awarded the contract either by competition 
or negotiation, estimated against the background of 
market prices ruling at the time. In this case the 
contractor has a high incentive to lower his costs and 
thereby increase his profit. 


(b) Cost reimbursement contracts in which the 
contractor is paid his prime cost plus either a percentage 
or a fixed fee for site management, overheads and profit. 
Incentive and risk is low in this procedure. A contractor 
has no incentive to decrease cost, indeed quite the 
reverse with a percentage fee. 


A method which falls between the incentive risk-bearing 
contract and cost reimbursement contract is the target 
cost contract where the contractor is given a partial 
incentive for any cost reduction he can make by sharing 
this in an agreed proportion with the employer. 


The ideal procedure from the point of view of the 
employer is one where the contractor has a low element of 
risk, together with a financial incentive to reduce cost and 
is given the maximum opportunity to do so without 
detriment to the standard of workmanship. There is, of 
course, a limit to the amount of incentive which can be 
provided and the degree to which risk can be eliminated. 


11.2.2 Competition 


Excluding pure cost reimbursement contracts, all other 
types relate to the competitive market for their basis of 
pricing. It follows therefore that it is necessary to test 
market conditions. In competitive tender contracts the 
market is tested for each individual contract, whilst in 
negotiated contracts there is a tendency for a 
degeneration into a cost reimbursement situation unless 
recourse is made from time to time to the competitive 


114 


market. This does not preclude negotiation of a string of 
serial or continuation contracts but it does suggest that 
running concurrently with these there should be similar 
contracts based on competitive tenders to provide 
comparisons of negotiated price with market trends. 


11.2.3 Application to reclamation 


Having examined the types of procedure and their 
relationship in respect of competition generally they can 
now be considered specifically in relation to their 
application to land reclamation. 


Whilst land reclamation has been carried out in this country 
for many years, such as restoration of land as part of open 
cast mining operations, reclamation as the prime intention 
of a contract is relatively new. Simply stated, it is a 
combination of landscape and civil engineering contracting 
and yet the earthworks encountered are generally of a 
magnitude beyond the normal scope of a landscape 
contractor and the constructional work in the sense 
normally associated with civil engineering contracts does 
not exist. It is not surprising therefore that a number of 
rates and prices will differ greatly from those normally 
encountered in landscape or civil engineering contracts, and 
it follows that it is highly desirable to carry out a thorough 
test of market conditions by ‘open’ or ‘selective’ tendering 
prior to the introduction of other procedures. 


Open and selective tender contracts 

The ‘open’ tenders, or more properly tenders sought by 
public advertisement, have the advantage of providing in a 
short time a good indication of the scope, nature and price 
range of the market. In the long term they have the 
distinct disadvantage of the lack of selectivity and a 
tendency to make the market stale by attracting the cut- 
price firms, who often execute one contract and 
disappear, and discourage more reputable firms. 


During the course of the research project it was found that 
tenders sought by the ‘open’ procedure usually resulted in 
keener tenders than those by the ‘selective’ procedure; 
however, it was evident that some of the firms submitting 
the lowest tender in the ‘open’ procedure were not ideally 
equipped either administratively or with suitable plant to 
execute the work satisfactorily. This was not so in those 
contracts using the ‘selective’ procedure where careful 
consideration could be given to the capabilities of the 
firms chosen to tender. 


To some extent the ‘select’ tender also provides indications 
of market conditions. An indication of the scope and the 
nature of the market can be achieved by public advertise- 
ment seeking firms interested in this type of project, but 
since only a select number will be invited to tender for each 
project the price range of the market will not be evident 
immediately. Two essential factors emerge from this: 
firstly, that a list of competent firms must be made, with 
details of their capabilities in terms of size and nature of 


TE ar 


q 


project that each can handle, and secondly, that a 
comprehensive list of price levels and market trends must 
be kept up to date. In respect of the latter there is possibly 
scope for the employment of the central agency to 
collect, analyse, and publish such cost information 
relating to reclamation schemes. 


The adoption of a selected list of approved contractors 
from open tender experience does not preclude the 
addition of new firms to the list. In fact this is essential 
to maintain a healthy and competitive market. 


The list of firms so compiled should be in categories 
related to plant and management capabilities, or, more 
simply stated, in terms of cost. At first sight it might 
appear that three categories could be usefully employed, 
namely small, medium and large. However, considerable 
difficulty has been experienced in the classification of 
firms in each category and it is submitted that for 
reclamation schemes two categories suffice to meet 
normal requirements: 


Contracts up to £25,000 in value 
Contracts over £25,000 in value 


Up to £25,000 suggests the smaller landscape scheme with 
more emphasis on minor grading work using relatively 
small machines rather than heavy earth moving equipment. 
Over £25,000 usually involves the use of these heavier 
machines and firms with the organisation and the type 

of machines necessary to carry out such works are 
invariably capable of executing contracts ranging from 
tens to hundreds of thousands of pounds in value. 


Within each category the number of firms listed should be 
of sufficient number to avoid the necessity of inviting the 
same firm to tender for several schemes which could 

give one firm more than its fair share. There is also the 
danger of price rigging between tenderers if the list is 
small. 


Great care is required in selecting tenderers from the list 
to ensure genuine interest, that they have operatives, 

plant and management facilities available for such a 
project, that the value and nature of the work is within 

the price range and scale of works they normally 
undertake and that a sufficient number of firms are 
invited to provide an adequate element of competition. 
This does not necessarily guarantee the lowest possible 
tender, but providing care is taken in selecting the tenderers 
it does ensure a competitive and reasonable tender from a 
firm known to have the required capabilities and standards 
of workmanship. It is suggested that a useful guide to the 
number of tenderers can be obtained from the codes of 
procedure for selective tendering for the building and 

civil engineering industries and for most schemes six or at 
the most eight selected firms should provide an adequate 
degree of competition. 


The lists of approved firms in each category will require 
constant revision to take account of new firms entering the 
market, existing firms withdrawing or changing from one 
category of work to another. The maximum number of 
firms in each category need not be fixed but the minimum 
should be related to the average number of schemes in each 
category sent out to tender each year to ensure the 
availability of a different list of firms for each project in a 
category during any one year. 


It is evident that a three-phase procedure could usefully be 
adopted by an organisation contemplating reclamation on 


a large scale. The first to establish market conditions by 
‘open’ tender; the second to introduce ‘selective’ tendering 
once market conditions have been satisfactorily tested and 
established; and third to introduce serial or continuation 
contracts to reduce contract risk and promote incentive 
cost reductions by planned capital investments in plant. 


An employer with a major reclamation programme could 
well adopt a series of continuation contracts with a number 
of selected contractors based on the following procedure: 


(a) Selection of contractors The contractors invited to 
participate would have to be selected from a carefully 
compiled list. Experience of individual contractor’s 
performances gained from the open and selective 
procedures would greatly assist in this selection. 


(b) Scope The number and value of the schemes offered 
would have to be sufficient in monetary value and period 
of time over which they are to be executed, to provide the 
contractor with the necessary incentive. The attractions 
must be for the purchase of plant almost specifically for 
the schemes and its use over a period of time would greatly 
reduce the risk element of the investment in expensive 
machinery. This in turn would have a marked effect on 
unit rates because plant rates for normal contracting work 
contain a large element for lost-working or non-working 
time and are therefore inflated to cover this element. 


(c) Tender procedure The tender procedure would 
require careful consideration. Essentially an element of 
competition should be introduced for each series of 
contracts, either by inviting selected contractors to 
submit a schedule of rates and percentage addition for 
on-costs and profits expressed against a specified lump 
sum, or alternatively tender for a specific project split 
into (a) lump sum for the works (b) lump sum for on-costs, 
preliminaries and site management and (c) a lump sum for 
head office charges and profit. The sums for (b) and (c) 
can then be expressed as a percentage for following 
contracts in the series. 


(d) Safeguards Safeguards in the form of penalties for 
termination of the series would be required in the event of 
the chosen contractor not providing an acceptable 
standard of performance, in effect the provision of a 
‘break’ clause between each contract in a series. 


(e) Fluctuations Provision would be required for 
fluctuations in rates of wages, cost of materials and all 
other costs, taxes etc., varying between contracts in a 
series. 


(f) Form of contract The form of contract would not 
differ greatly from a normal lump sum contract and 
existing forms would be readily adaptable. 


The above is possibly an over simplified statement of a 
possible procedure and other factors would require 
consideration, these include: careful programming of 
future projects to guarantee contract continuation in the 
series; early employment of the contractor's expertise 

in design and methods of working, thereby increasing his 
incentive to reduce cost; whether limitations are to be put 
on the scope of each contract in a series, that is whether 
certain sections of the work such as surface treatments 
and planting etc., are to be included or excluded from the 
contract. 


115 


‘Package deal’ contracts 

All the above procedures are based upon the employer 
retaining control of the design either himself or through 
professional consultants. 


‘Package deal’ contracts, that is where the contractor 
assumes responsibility for part or the whole of the 

design as well as the construction have been usefully 
employed in the building and civil engineering industry 
where the employer appoints the contractor to execute a 
scheme involving work for which the contractor has 
designed and developed a system to perform a given 
function. An example of this is industrial building where 
the contractor’s design service is an essential part of his 
employment. At the present time little if anything would 
appear to be gained by adopting such a procedure for 
reclamation. Certainly in the case of serial or continuation 
contracts the contractor’s expertise from the design point 
of view is a factor to be considered but even in these 
circumstances loss of the employer’s design control would 
be a disadvantage. 


11.2.4 Form of contract 


The form of contract used for any scheme, whether of a 
building or civil engineering nature, has little bearing on 
the tender procedures used. 


Choice of the form to use ona particular scheme depends 
largely on the nature of the work involved. Most of the 
contracts executed as part of the research project were of 
a civil engineering nature and were eminently suitable for 
execution under the I.C.E. Form of Contract. Generally, 
schemes predominantly of a bulk earthmoving nature with 
associated drainage etc. are best catered for by the I.C.E. 
form, since these schemes fall basically into a civil 
engineering category and attract civil engineering contractors. 
This form of contract, whilst complex and obscure to a 
degree that has produced judicial conflict in court actions, 
does in practice work reasonably satisfactorily and 
preserves a fair balance between employer and contractor. 
There is reason to believe that in the not too distant future 
a new form of contract will emerge which will, it is hoped, 
improve interpretation rather than policy. The tender 
documents for one scheme in the project (Egerton 
Gardens) were based on the I.L.A. Form of Contract. This 
was a small scheme with only minor grading and more 
emphasis on soft landscaping. No difficulties were 
encountered in the administration of this contract but no 
particular advantages were found in the use of the I.L.A. 
form. 


11.3 Conditions of contract 


Since the 1.C.E. Contract is applicable to most reclamation 
schemes, only amendments relating to the conditions of 
this contract are considered below, although similar 
modifications will apply to other forms of contract. 
Further, only amendments relating specifically to reclam- 
ation are considered since other amendments vary 
extensively, depending on the individual organisations or 
authority’s normal practice. 


It should be noted that in keeping with the normal usage 
of terms in the I.C_E. Contract, the word ‘engineer’ is used 
to describe the person responsible for the design, direction 
and supervision of the works. This function was performed 
by a Landscape Architect on schemes executed as part of 
the Research Project. 


116 


11.3.1 Amendments to conditions of |.C.E. 
Contract 


Clause 24 - Accident or injury to workmen 

It is incumbent upon the contractor to indemnify the 
employer against all claims for injury to persons other 
than arising by an act or default of the employer, his 
servant or agent (this incidentally can be construed as 
applying to the engineer as agent of the employer). 


To draw the contractor’s attention to the specific hazards 
in respect of reclamation of pit heaps, it is of assistance 

to a contractor when assessing his responsibility to add a 
sub clause headed ‘unusual hazards’ in which specific 
reference is made to damages from concealed fire or cavities 
and explosion risk, abandoned shafts etc. and the 
contractor’s obligation to indemnify the employer against 
all claims, demands, proceedings, damages, costs etc. 

arising from such hazards. It is doubtful whether this in any 
way increases the contractor’s responsibility under clause 
24 but it does serve to draw his specific attention to the 
dangers. 


Clause 29 - Interference with traffic and adjoining property 
The wording of this clause to some extent conflicts with 
clause 22 (c) which limits the liability of the contractor. 

It is normal in civil engineering contracts to expand and 
develop this clause but in addition, for reclamation schemes, 
it is advisable to require the contractor to take all reasonable 
steps by watering or otherwise to abate nuisance which 

may arise through wind action blowing dry materials from 
the working plant in dry ground conditions. 


This nuisance has been experienced in those projects close 
to residential areas, resulting in complaints from inhabitants. 
It is doubtful however whether the above wording is 
sufficiently specific since there might be circumstances 

in which damage to an adjoining owner’s property or trade 
could be severe. In such circumstances more stringent 
wording could be adopted, if necessary to a point of 
requiring the contractor to suspend work in certain 

weather conditions. 


Clause 41 - Commencement of work 

Unlike many other forms of contract the time for 
commencement is not to be found in the form of tender 
or form of agreement but is notified to the contractor 
after the contract has been let. This is not a satisfactory 
arrangement in days of rising prices, particularly in 
contracts where weather or seasonal considerations may 
affect price. More consideration is given to this question 
in section 11.5. A further matter relating to this clause 


is that the wording ‘an order in writing’ can be construed under 


clause 15, as being effected if served on the site agent, 


since it is unlikely that the site agent would be installed at 
this time the intention is not clear. An amendment of 
wording changing ‘an order’ to a ‘notice’ would appear to 
correct this anomaly as a notice under clause 68 (1) ‘shall 
be served at the contractor’s principal place of business’. 
This applies to any civil engineering contract where a 
contractor is not permitted to enter the site until he 
receives instructions to proceed. 


Clause 42 - Sub-clause (2) wayleaves etc. 

Access to a site is of prime importance to the economics 
of engineering contracts but the emphasis in this sub-clause 
must be on the word ‘special’ which indicates other than 
normal access. In fairness to tenderers the access of the 


eee eer 


site and any restrictions should be fully described in the 
specification section of the document. 


The effect of this clause is therefore to place upon the 
contractor financial responsibility for negotiating private 
wayleaves. In respect of reclamation schemes this invariably 
relates to adjoining land (very often agricultural) which 

the contractor might wish to use for soil dumps. It has been 
normal practice in these projects to impose a responsibility 
upon the contractor to properly reinstate such areas outside 
the site to ‘the satisfaction of the Engineer’, unless the 
landowner or his agent issues instructions to the contrary. 
It is doubtful whether this clause has any legal validity 
unless the employer is the Local Planning Officer who has 
jurisdiction over such temporary works. In other cases the 
decision will be by private arrangement between contractor 
and landowner (as a third party) who in turn might be 
controlled by local planning, but in any event would be 
outside the authority of the employer or his engineer. 


Clause 49 - Definition of ‘period’ of maintenance 

This clause defines the ‘period’ as being the period of 
maintenance, named in the tender from the date of 
completion of the works. The I.C.E. condition is obscure 
in its meaning of completion but in this chapter it 
undoubtedly means ‘substantial completion’, when under 
clause 60 (2) half of the retention monies are released. 
This is important since at this stage the risk of damage to 
the works passes from the contractor to the employer, 
alw ays excluding damage to the works occasioned by the 
contractor during the maintenance period whilst 
fulfilling his obligation to repair defects. 


Bearing in mind that it is the intention that the major 
works in reclamation contracts will be carried out by 

civil engineering contractors fully conversant and 
competent in their field, it is also highly desirable that the 
specialised work in respect of surface treatments and 
planting should be carried out by a firm fully conversant 
with the problems relating thereto and competent in 

their field. To ensure that the employer has the necessary 
control over this part of the work it is advantageous either 
to make it the subject of a PC sum in the bills of quantities 
or exclude it completely from the main contract. In 
either case special provisions must be made in respect of 
maintenance. 


Firstly, in the case of a PC sum for surface treatment 
seeding and planting, since the execution of this work is 
closely related to seasons it naturally follows that 
maintenance of the completed works should commence 
from the completion of these works. A typical addition 
to sub-clause 49 (1) as used on some schemes is as follows: 


“The contractor shall be responsible in respect of 
maintenance of the earthworks, drainage seeding and 
fencing for a period of 12 months from completion of 
seeding and in respect of planting for a period of 12 
months from completion of the planting.’ 


It must be admitted that certain confusion has been 
created by the word ‘completion’ in this clause by reason 
of the obscurity of its meaning in other clauses. The 
intention here is ‘the completion of the whole’ of the 
seeding or planting as the case may be, rather than 
substantial completion, that is nearly but not wholly 
com plete. It is suggested that the wording of this clause 
should be amended to clarify this point. It should be 
remembered that it does not preclude nine out of ten 


fields being accepted as complete for purposes of the 
maintenance period. The period for the tenth field will 
then commence from its seeding completion. Provision 
is made for partial completion in clause 48, Maintenance 
in the context of this clause is again not correctly used 
but this will be examined later. 


Secondly in the case of complete exclusion of the seeding 
and/or planting work an amendment on the following lines 
has been used: 


‘The Contractor shall be responsible for the maintenance 
of the site for a period of 12 months from the date of 
completion of the sowing except that this period shall be 
deemed to be completed in the areas of woodland at the 
date of commencement of the Council's tree planting 
contract, should this occur before the expiration of this 
period.’ 


The comments above in respect of completion apply also to 
this clause but in addition it should be noted that the 
employer is relinquishing his right to order repair of 
defects under clause 49. This again hinges on the use of the 
word maintenance. It is suggested that this word is used 
incorrectly in this context since the contractor should 
remain liable for latent defects, such as subsidence due to 
insufficient or incorrect compaction during the earthworks. 
The intention should be to relieve the contractor of his 
‘additional works’ liability, that is responsibility for grass 
cutting, fertilising and other works relating to 
establishment of the sward. 


In the opening remarks under this clause it was stated that 
the risk of damage to the works passes from contractor to 
employer; this has an important bearing in relation to 
maintenance. 


After completion (that is substantial completion ) has been 
certified, by the engineer, the contractor’s responsibility, 
subject to outstanding works, is reduced to responsibility 
for defects only. However it is essential on reclamation 
schemes to ensure adequate establishment of the grass and 
plants, such as cutting, further fertiliser applications and 
weeding. In addition it will be necessary to ensure the 
drainage works function correctly by clearing silt from 
grit chambers, ditches etc. These are not maintenance works 
in relation to defects, but additional works resulting out of 
the execution of the contract. It would appear possible 
therefore to hold a contractor liable for de-silting ditches 
etc. as part of his general obligations before substantial 
completion, but thereafter such work can be construed 

as being ‘additional works’, or ‘outstanding works’ 
depending on whether they are referred to in the 
specification or bills of quantities. The contingencies of 
both outstanding and additional work are provided for in 
clause 48 and 49(3) respectively. The methods of 
incorporating these items in the tender document are 
examined in section 11.4. 


Clause 55 and 56 - Quantities and works to be measured 
The crucial fact emerging from clause 55 is that the actual 
and correct quantities are not those shown in the bills. It 
follows therefore that there can be a departure from the 
bills of quantities without there being a departure from 

the ‘actual and correct quantities of the Works’ that is, such 
a departure is not necessarily a variation under clause 51. 
Further it is submitted that inclusion of provisional 
quantities in the bills serves no more than to emphasise even 
more strongly that such quantities are not the ‘actual and 


117 


correct’ quantities. They are used in bills for work which is 
not reasonably predictable in quantity, for example an item 
for breaking up hidden foundation. The wording of clause 
$6 implies that it is at the engineer's discretion alone 
whether any section of the work should be remeasured, but 
by reason of the wording of clause 66 which expressly 
gives an arbitrator the power to ‘open up, review and revise 
any decision of the Engineer’, it is submitted that this 

gives the right to either party to demand recalculation if it 
is thought a mistake has been made. However, it must also 
be pointed out that the engineer’s position is protected 
where a contractor fails to present himself upon invitation 
to agree calculations by the words ‘should the contractor 
not attend’. This would appear to extend protection-even 
to arbitration or the courts where power to open up and 
review would be limited to valuation and not measurement. 
This is essential since alleged quantities of work covered up 
cannot be re-checked. 


The above, whilst not exclusively pertaining to 
reclamation, is important when considering the following 
matter under clause 57. Before proceeding to examine 
these matters it is of interest to note under clause 56 the 
wording *. . . give notice to the contractor. . .” (meaning 
to the contractor’s principal place of business) illustrates 
the point made in respect of ‘order’ and ‘notice’ in the 
examination of clause 41 above. This serves to illustrate 
the unaccountable differences and obscurities of wording 
in the I.C_E. form and the care required in drafting 
amendments. 


Clause 57 - Method of measurement 
It has been the practice to add the following to this clause: 


‘Except that the quantities in the appropriate Bills against 
the item referring to the bulk excavation of material from 
the waste heap have been calculated from the existing and 
the proposed contours shown on the Contract Drawings, 
with no allowance made for bulking or compaction. It is not 
proposed to re-survey the heaps and the Contractor shall 
before tendering satisfy himself as to the adequacy of the 
quantities listed against these items. 


‘He shall then price and extend this item and the resultant 
sum shall constitute a Lump Sum Tender not subject to 
measurement and this sum shall not be varied unless the 
Engineer instructs a departure from the proposed contours 
shown on the Contract Drawings. Even though a Lump Sum 
Tender is to be submitted for the bulk excavation work 

the Contractor is also required to indicate his unit price 
against this item. 


‘In the event of any departure as aforesaid the revised 
quantity will be agreed and the Sum revised according to 
the tendered rate. Such revised sum shall also stand as a 
Lump Sum and not be subjected to measurement.’ 


The intention behind this amendment is self evident although 
there is some doubt as to whether the phrase ‘lump sum’ is 
used correctly in this context. It might be argued that this 
clause runs against the intention of the I.C.E. conditions in 
that the quantities are not to be taken as ‘actual and 
correct quantities of the Works’. However the tenderer 

is given the opportunity and all the necessary information 
to check and satisfy himself as to the accuracy of the 
quantities at tender stage and should he consider the 
quantities incorrect he is at liberty to insert a sum based 
upon his own calculations. The disadvantage in such 


118 


circumstances is that the unit rate would be derived from 

his sum and the billed quantities thereby indicating a false 
unit rate; for example if a tenderer considers the quantity 
in the bills to be high compared with his own, the rate so 

derived would be set at an artificially low level. 


Should the engineer then find it necessary to order 
additional excavation under the terms of the second 
paragraph of the amendment the contractor would then 

find himself at a distinct and possibly considerable 
disadvantage depending on the difference between the 
correct and artificial rate. It can be seen therefore that all 
possible care should be exercised in the preparation of such 
quantities and in the event of a large error being discovered 
then serious consideration should be given to the withdrawal 
and correction of the tender documents. 


Assuming the calculations are correct another complication 

can arise in respect of errors in the proposed or original 

contour drawings and indeed there is always the imponder- 

able question of the amount of bulking or compaction 

likely to be experienced. In any event the unit rate will 

represent an average price for all the bulk excavation, 

that is an average of long and short hauls. Circumstances 

could easily arise where it was necessary for the engineer } 
to order additional excavation and deposition at the point 
of the longest haul. It is submitted under such circumstances 
and notwithstanding the third paragraph of the amendment 
that a contractor could justify a claim under clause 52 (2) 
for additional remuneration over and above tender rate. 

This could also apply where the additional quantity is of 
such a magnitude that the contractor is entitled to an 
extension of the contract under clause 44. 


In the past it has been found that the schemes executed with 
the amendment to clause 57 incorporated operated 
satisfactorily providing all possible care was exercised in the 
preparation and checking of the bulk earthworks quantity, 
and fair consideration was given to the possibility of rate 
amendment in the event of a variation materially affecting 
the basis upon which the rate was calculated. 


It should be noted that in adopting this amendment 
reference should also be made under clause 55 to this 
amendment and that certain quantities are deemed to be 
‘actual and correct’. 


The main disadvantage of leaving the clause unamended is 
the physical task of recalculating from site measurement in 
the event of the contractor challenging the accuracy of the 
quantities and/or drawings. This could mean a re-survey 

of the site before and after the earthwork operations with 
attendant disadvantages of delays in commencement whilst 
the former survey is carried out. 


Experience on a number of recent projects, however, has 
tended to weigh favour toward deletion of the ‘Lump Sum’ 
amendment to clause 57. This has arisen mainly through 
the problems created by varying compaction factors, 
necessitating variations in bulk earthwork quantities. 


Additional clauses 

It is common practice to include additional clauses in 
relation to allowances for travelling expenses, overtime, 
fluctuations, site offices and welfare facilities. These 

are not essential but they do serve to set out more 
explicitly the sometimes oblique references to such matters 
in the other conditions of contract. 


In relation to care of the works the following clause again 
serves to draw the contractor’s attention to more specific 
problems which might arise in respect of reclamation: 


‘The Contractor shall allow for keeping the trenches, 
excavations and works free from water, mud or slop 
arising from any source whatsoever during the progress of 
the works by pumping, baling or other means of providing 
all requisite appliances, etc. 


‘During the course of stripping and stacking top and 
sub-soil the mass excavation of the materials in the waste 
heap and the spreading and regrading of this waste on to 
adjoining land, the Contractor shall construct and 
operate, until the permanent drainage framework has been 
completed, a temporary drainage system of adequate 
dimensions as may be necessary to prevent the 
accumulation of standing water in ponds and flooding and 
damage from taking place in the surrounding communities 
and to the contract site itself or other surrounding areas, 
from the effects of heavy rainfall or water run off from 
snow or spring water.’ 


The phrases ‘standing water in ponds’ and ‘flooding and 
damage from taking place in surrounding communities’ 
have special significance in relation to local authority’s 
schemes, where in addition to the contractor’s 
responsibility to take all adequate steps to prevent damage 
and pay compensation in event of his failure, the local 
authority owes a duty to the public at large to take all 
adequate steps to prevent damage. This therefore is 
pertinent in respect of the potential dangers of such a site 
because of its attractions to small children and also flooding 
dangers to nearby properties or lands. 


11.4 Specification and bill of quantities 


The specification and bill of quantities are complementary 
and are therefore best considered together. The specification 
should be a comprehensive description of materials and 
workmanship without unnecessary or lengthy detailed 
descriptions of location or quantities which are self evident 
from the drawings and bills of quantities. The bill 
descriptions should be concise with sufficient detail to 

make the intention clear without repeating information 
contained in the specification. All too often too much 
reliance is put upon clause 12 (1) ‘sufficiency of tender’ that 
all the works described in the specification are included in 
the bill rates and sums. The drafting of both specifications 
and bills should be such that it makes it clear to tenderers 
which items are deemed to be covered in his rates and which 
are specifically subject to measured items or provisional 
sums. The judicious use of the phrase ‘the Contractor is to 
allow in his rates for compliance with the foregoing’ is 
often a useful tool where the intention is obscure. 


11.4.1 Format of specification and bills of 
quantities for reclamation schemes 


For most reclamation projects the specification and bills 
will require sections for demolition, earthworks, drainage, 
surface treatment and fences. In addition the specifications 
should contain a ‘description of works’. This section which 
lists the drawings as required by clause 1(3) and describes 
the scope of the works and access thereto, has an important 
function in that both scope and access should be precisely 
defined to give full contractual effect to clause 22 ( damage 
to persons and property) and clause 42 (possession of the 


site). Any information regarding land acquisition should be 
included in this section, as this will have a bearing on the 
programming of the works, and possession of the site under 
clause 42 in respect of delays and expenses incurred from 
failure of the employer to give possession. This is examined 
in more detail under section 11.5. 


The first section of the bills contains the preliminaries, and 
provides the contractor with the facility to price separately, 
if he should so desire, the cost of complying with the 
provisions of the conditions of contract. 


It has been the practice in a number of schemes to include 
an item in the preliminaries for ‘maintenance’ works in 
respect of de-silting ditches etc. As suggested in section 11.3 
(clause 49) the use of the word maintenance in this context 
is incorrect. In any event it is now considered that such 
‘works’ should be contained in the section to which they 
relate. 


11.4.2 Sections of work in specifications and bills 
of quantities 


It is not proposed to examine each section in detail but to 
consider those aspects which relate to reclamation in 
particular. 


Demolitions and site clearance ‘Foundations shall be 
broken up to a depth of 0.9 m below the finished surface.” 


This clause is essential to ensure the finished surface is 

free of obstructions to cultivations. It is impossible to assess 
the quantity for this item before work commences. 
‘Provisional’ quantities in the bills for breaking up brick, 
plain and reinforced concrete indicate to the contractor that 
there could be a substantial difference between the quantities 
stated and the actual quantities. The actual quantity will 

be measured and agreed as work proceeds but this will not 
constitute a variation under clause 51. 


A problem sometimes arises in respect of hidden foundations 
within 0.9 m of the surface that do not become apparent 
until after substantial completion has been certified. This 
invariably means that the contractor has not carried out the 
ripping of the surface in accordance with the specification 
contained in the surface conditioning and seeding section and 
in such cases the additional works required can be construed 
as defects under clause 49 (3), payment for which will be 

at the rates inserted in the bills against the provisional 
quantities. Claims for additional reimbursement, such as the 
cost of returning plant to site, are not admissible because 

the work arose from the failure of the contractor to 

carry out his contractual obligations. 


Excavations and earthworks The following general clause is 
inserted: 


‘The Contractor is deemed to have satisfied himself by 
inspection, tests or otherwise as to the exact nature of the 
materials to be encountered in the parts of the site where 
excavation is to take place and shall include in his price 

for excavating any materials likely to be found there such as 
shale, stone, bricks, clay, soil, earth, sand, gravel, or other 
substances likely to have been associated with coal mining. . .” 


This, on the face of it, would appear to be in conflict with: 


‘Notwithstanding the general description given previously 
for the type of material to be excavated, if hard material 
is encountered during these operations in ledges or solid 
masses or large detached pieces exceeding 1 m3 normally 
or 0.5 m3 in trenches, all of which can only be removed 


119 


by compressed air tools or similar means this work will be 
paid for separately as an extra over item for thatgiven 
for normal excavation.’ 


This is however a valid clause because in any event the 
contractor has recourse to clause 12 (2) in respect of 
‘physical conditions . . . not reasonably foreseen’ and the 
above clause assists in defining the nature of the ‘condition’. 
It should be noted the above is entirely separate from the 
provision in ‘demolition’ for breaking up foundations for 
which no size limits are mentioned. It would appear 
unnecessary to apply limits in respect of foundations 

as by definition they indicate a mass of brick or concrete 
rather than small isolated pieces of rubble. This is not to 
imply that the latter is not a problem. Indeed brick and 
concrete rubble can at times be a greater problem than 
large isolated foundation bases. It is difficult to suggest a 
simple solution in terms of specification and quantities 
to this particular problem as the solution will vary 
depending on the quantity of rubble encountered and 
availability of a blanketting material. 


It is of coursealways within the power of the engineer 
to order such work as is warranted in any particular case. 


It is customary to insert the following clause in respect of 
red shale encountered in the course of earthworks: 


‘Should red burnt colliery shale be encountered in the 
mass excavation of the waste heap, which in the opinion 
of the Engineer is of sufficient quantity and satisfactory 
quality for use during the operations for the final covering 
of the respread and regraded black shale, then it shall be 
separately excavated as directed, stacked in suitable 
positions for use as may be required for the roads or the 
working of this material as a top covering to the regraded 
black shale.’ 


This as it stands is a perfectly good clause but it does leave 
the contractor in doubt as to whether he is to allow in his 
rates for excavating an indefinite quantity of shale 
hauling and stacking an indefinite distance. This clause 

is improved by the addition of the following: 


‘This work will be paid for separately as extra over that for 
the mass earthworks.” 


Provisional quantities can then be included in the bills of 
schedules of additional rates to enable the contractor to 
price this item. 


It has been practice on these schemes to specify compactions 
as follows: 


‘The materials in the filling areas shall be deposited in layers 
not to exceed 0.3 m in thickness and shall be well compacted 
and consolidated by the passage of the earth moving plant 
and equipment over the site.’ 


To a large extent this clause has been framed around the 
assumption that the machines used will be tyred scrapers 
but it has been found that lack of compaction has occurred 
on sites where tracked vehicles alone have been used. There 
is no doubt that in the majority of cases the tyred box 
scraper is the efficient earthmoving machine for most 
reclamation projects, but one hesitates to be too categoric in 
a specification on the basis of the maxim ‘specify what but 
not how the work is to be done’. Limiting the contractor to 
a particular type of machine could possibly saddle the 
engineer with a burden of responsibility which in the strict 
terms of the contract belongs to the contractor alone. 


120 


However, a possible solution to this problem is presented 
by the addition of the wording *. . . equivalent to that 
achieved by a tyred box scraper’. This defines the degree 
of compaction without limiting the contractor to the use 
of a particular machine. 


Drainage The specification and bill items follow those 
normally found in civil engineering contracts, but special 
mention should be made in respect of works to be 

carried out in the maintenance period. These apply 
generally to two items, the provision for filling temporary 
ditches formed to cope with the initial rug-off problems until 
vegetation is established and the provision for the proper 
management of the ditch and piped drainage system to 
ensure efficient working during the maintenance period. An 
item in the specification describing the nature of filling 

to the temporary ditches and the time when such filling 
should take place, usually as directed by the engineer, 

and supported by a measured quantity in the bills would 
appear to adequately cover the first item above. 


As previously indicated it is preferable to include items in 
relation to management of the drainage system in the 
drainage section rather than in the preliminaries. The 
specification should specifically state the contractor’s 
responsibility on the following lines: 


‘The Contractor shall undertake during the maintenance 
period all necessary work in respect of the clearance of silt 
and other obstructions from streams, ditches, pipes, flumes, 
chambers and outfalls to maintain the efficient w orking of 
the system. 


‘In fulfilling this responsibility he shall at regular intervals 
(a particular interval could be specified) inspect the system 
and organise such work as is necessary. 


‘Prices shall include for any additional insurances, use and 
maintenance of plant and tools, superintendence and 
inspector’s time, overhead charges and profit unless included 
elsewhere.’ 


Alternatively, a provisional sum can be included for this 
work to be ordered by the engineer at such times he considers 
necessary, and paid for on a daywork basis. 


The last paragraph is possibly superfluous in that clause 12 
(1) requires the contractor to satisfy himself that ‘rates and 
prices . . . cover all obligations . . . for proper maintenance 
and completion’. However, it does serve to remind the 
contractor that these are additional works rather than 
maintenance of defects. 


Whilst considering work during the maintenance period, it 

is well to mention that it is often necessary to carry out 
additional drainage works, that is additional ditches, drains 
etc. to ensure the efficient drainage of the site. Requirements 
of this nature can of course extend for a time far beyond 

the main contract and final completion, but in respect 

of the maintenance period it is submitted that the engineer 
has power to order such additional essential works. 


However such work must be essential to the proper 
completion and functioning of the works and, if thought 
likely, is best included as provisional quantities or a 
provisional sum in the bills. 


Major additional works should be made subject to a 
separate contract as works done during the maintenance 
period do not extend the said period and therefore the 
employer has little protection against defects. 


Surface treatments, seeding and planting This is possibly 
the most difficult section to specify precisely since the 
cultivation, lime and fertiliser requirements will depend on 
the nature of the surface material. It is necessary to provide 
a concise framework for the contractor to price, drawn up 
in a form that gives the engineer latitude to amend the 
specification to suit site conditions. A loosely worded 
specification such as ‘cultivate to a tilth approved by the 
engineer’ does little to indicate to the contractor the 
precise requirement or give the engineer a basis for 
amending the specification. It is preferable to schedule 

the engineer's requirements on the following lines: 


“Upon completion of liming and spreading topsoil where 
applicable the Contractor shall undertake the following 
operations over the shale areas in the order shown unless 
amended by the Engineer in writing: 


Cultivate (heavy 150 mm) 

Disc (heavy ) 

Remove all bricks, stones, wood, metal or other 
materials larger than SO mm diameter brought to the 
surface during cultivation 

*Scrub’ to remove hollows left after 3 above 

Disc (light) 

Distribute fertiliser (spinner broadcaster) at prescribed 
rate (500 kg/ha on red shale, 750 kg/ha on black shale) 
Broadcast seed at prescribed rate 

Harrow roll 


wn~e 


on aust 


The above is not intended as a recommended treatment for 
any particular material since each must be considered 
individually for the cultivation likely to provide the 
required surface, but it does serve to illustrate a framework 
for a contractor to assess accurately the cost of the 
operations necessary. It further provides the engineer 

with the facility to add, omit or rearrange cultivation 
operations as site conditions dictate. The inclusion of a 
single cultivation operation in the schedule of rates 
provides the necessary framework in assessing the values 
of such variations. 


Item 3, stone picking, whilst perfectly clear in its intent for 
the cultivation of normal soils, does create problems on 
reclamation sites. The nature of material encountered, 
varying from hard stony shales to fine friable shales, will 
have a marked effect on the amount of stone picking 
required, and therefore cost. The specification calls for 
materials brought to the surface during cultivations to be 
removed. This, however, does not include material brought 
up to the surface by weather action and erosion. 


It is impossible to frame a specification to cover all these 
possibilities without imposing an unfair burden upon the 
contractor, yet it would be unstaisfactory to cover all such 
work by a daywork provision. It is submitted that whilst 
this specification is inadequate in scope there is provision 
within the conditions of contract clause 52 (2) for an 
engineer to vary the rate for additional work, and under 
clause 52 (3) to order additional work on a daywork basis. 
Further, there is protection for the contractor under clause 
12 (2) against adverse physical conditions. 


In practice it has been found that conditions of excess stony 
material in isolated areas on a site are best overcome by a 
blanket layer of more suitable material. 


Since lime and fertiliser requirements are not known until 
after soil analysis, a provisional sum for the supply of these 


materials is inserted in the bills. In schemes where part or 
all the land is to be reclaimed for agriculture it has been 
customary to include a clause in the specification requiring 
the contractor or his supplier to claim lime and fertiliser 
subsidies, the net cost of such materials then being charged 
to the contract. It appears however that this procedure is 
incorrect since under the Agricultural Lime Scheme 1966 
and Fertilisers (United Kingdom) Scheme 1969 claims can 
only be accepted from occupiers of agricultural land. The 
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food have stated 
the view that under the terms of the Acts, derelict land 

is not agricultural until it is restored and as such does not 
rank for subsidy. 


As for drainage, it is preferable to include items for 
management during the maintenance period. The full 
description of the requirements for cutting, fertilising etc. 
are included in the specification and measured in the bills 
of quantities. It has been the practice to describe the bill 
item as, ‘Cut and maintain seeded areas all as described 
during the maintenance period’. Whilst the intention is clear 
the use of the word ‘maintain’ is unfortunate and in fact 
incorrect in the context used. This work is not maintenance 
as defined in the conditions of contract but is additional 
work. It is suggested therefore that the following wording is 
preferable: 


‘Cut grass and carry out establishment work as described 
during the maintenance period.” 


The problems in respect of maintenance liability created 

by the letting of separate contracts for planting and seeding 
has been examined in section 11.3, (clause 49) but from the 
experience gained on the larger schemes of this project 
there is little doubt that the cultivation, seeding and planting 
work are so foreign to the main earthworks and drainage 
contract that they are best executed as a completely 
separate contract. To avoid overlapping of maintenance 
responsibilities, cultivations are best commenced after 
completion of the main contractor’s defects period. This 
divides the work into neat compartments but does create 

a difficulty in respect of the possibility of severe surface 
erosion during the main contractor's twelve month 
maintenance period. However, if adequate precautions 

are taken to reduce erosion by the provision of temporary 
cut-off ditches, and it is accepted that a modicum of 
erosion repair will be required, there is a great deal to 
commend this arrangement. It is also submitted that 

the adoption of separate contracts removes the need for a 
twelve month maintenance period for the main contract. 
Six months would appear to be reasonably adequate to show 
up defects in the bulk earthworks and drainage works. 


Fences No special provisions are required in the specification 
or bills of quantities for this work but some difficulty has 
been experienced in respect of obstructions in post holes. 

It is impossible to cater for such obstructions in the 
specification and should their occurence appear likely 

they are best covered by provisional quantities similar 

to those included for hidden foundations in the demolitions 
and site clearance section. 


Schedule of rates These fulfill the normal function of 
giving the engineer additional pricing information on 
composite items in the bills of quantities which the 
engineer might require at some time during the period 
of the contract. 


121 


The main use in reclamation is to provide a breakdown of 
the composite items for cultivation in the ‘surface treatment’ 
section. This intention should be made clear in the documents 
since the rates inserted in this section on a number of 
schemes have borne little relationship to the composite 
items. It has been found that the insertion of unrealistic 
rates can be avoided by providing ‘provisional quantities’ 
against these items for the contractor to price, extend 

and carry forward to the main summary. The work thereby 
forms part of the tender and as such requires proper 
consideration by tenderers. 


11.5 Administration 


The management of reclamation contracts differs little 
from other civil engineering contracts, but certain aspects 
are worthy of comment. 


11.5.1 Post-contract obligations 


Under the I.C.E. Form of Contract obligations, in respect of 
production of a programme, securing bond and insurances 
are post-contractual obligations of the contractor and not a 
condition of the contract coming into being. Further under 
this form no date for commencement of the work is 
prescribed by the Form of Tender or Form of Agreement. 


Programme of works Clause 14 provides for submission of 
a programme at the request of the engineer. This clause is 
admirable in that it recognises the much higher degree of 
interest and control an employer has in engineering as 
against building contracts, but unfortunately there is no 
sanction or machinery provided for its enforcement other 
than in a very serious case, the drastic remedy of determin- 
ation under clause 63. 


Difficulty in obtaining a programme has been experienced 
on a number of the schemes, and has been an impediment 
to the engineer in exercising his control and planning 
function. 

It is submitted that a sufficient sanction could be applied 
if the programme had to be supplied, either at tender stage 
or before entering the site, or interim payments could be 
witheld until the programme is furnished. The first method 
has pitfalls in that the contractor is not likely to consider 
a detailed programme seriously at this stage; in any 

event such a programme would tend to be optimistic 
because it is considered at tender stage. 


It might appear that the second method is the most 

suitable and the programme could be made enforceable by 
its inclusion in the form of tender, as an undertaking on the 
part of the contractor. However, a severe disadvantage 
occurs in the possible delay in commencement since the 
employer, by witholding entry, delays commencement, 
which could work against his interest as well as that of the 
contractor. 


The third method has distinct advantages in that a delay 

in answering the engineer’s request brings monetary 
repercussions. A sub-clause to this effect could be added to 
clause 41 of the conditions of contract. The engineer can 
request the submission of a programme before ordering 
commencement in the normal way but he then has the 
necessary machinery to enforce compliance with his 
request should the contractor he dilatory. 


Guarantee bond The acquisition of an approved bond has 
proved to be a problem on a number of the schemes. The 


122 


provision of a bond is not a condition precedent to 
commencement and the methods suggested above to 
expedite the production of a programme can also be 
applied to the bond. In many cases, however, the problem 
is not the failure by the contractor in attempting, to 
secure a bond, but his failure to find a bondsman. This 
mostly arises in ‘open tender’ when there is a large number 
of tenders and a big margin between lowest and highest 
tender. The position is further aggravated if the lowest 
tender is submitted by a relatively small firm with limited 
financial resources. This aspect of the problem is largely 
removed by adoption of ‘selective tendering’, and is a further 
argument in favour of its adoption. 


Jnsurances In the case of insurance, in particular third 

party insurance, clause 23 (1) clearly defines this obligation 
as a condition subsequent to the execution of a contract, 
and it is sensible for the employer, or the engineer, on 

the employer’s behalf, to satisfy himself that such insurances 
are adequate, before work commences. 


The provision of insurances has not created any major 
problems on schemes in the project, but unlike programme 
and bond, it is advisable to ascertain that the type and 
terms of the contractor’s insurances are adequate before 
work commences. Application of a monetary sanction to 
the provision of a programme and bond, is, it is submitted, 
adequate to enforce the provision, but in respect of 
insurance the risk of damage or injury starts with the 
contractor’s first moment on the site. It would appear 
prudent therefore to ensure that the contractor’s 
insurances, particularly third party insurances, are adequate 
before entry is permitted. This should be made clear in the 
tender document by a suitable amendment to the 
insurance clauses. 


Commencement and possession of site As commented in 
section 11.4, clause 41 of the conditions of contract 
provides for notification of time for commencement after 
the contract is let. Unfortunately all too often this 

clause is used unfairly by the employer in delaying the issue 
of the instruction to proceed. 


It has been the practice in the project to endeavour to 
indicate the likely starting date, but this has purposely been 
loosely worded and more emphasis is placed on an instruc- 
tion that ‘tenders are to remain open for acceptance for a 
period of three months . . .. This is not satisfactory because 
the only reliable information that the contractor can deduce 
from this is that commencement could be any time between 
the date for submission of tender and three months plus 
fourteen days from that date. This is not satisfactory on a 
scheme where weather and seasonal considerations play 
such a big part and when the cost to a contractor of 
reserving plant whilst awaiting this instruction can be 
considerable. It must be understood that what is unsatis- 
factory is not the length of period, so much as the 
uncertainty of a starting date. It would be infinitely 

better to state a definite date for commencement, for 
example, ‘two months from the date for submission of 
tenders’. This would not in any way affect normal 
processes of consideration and acceptance of a tender 

but it would provide the successful tenderer with 
information to plan his plant, staff and management 
requirements prior to commencement, and greatly 

reduce the risk of plant standing idle. 


Clearly the adoption of such a procedure imposes a 
responsibility upon the employer to ensure that the site 
becomes available for entry at the date specified, and 
failure on his part renders him liable under clause 42 (1) 
for the contractor’s loss and expenses incurred. This 
additional responsibility would not be acceptable to some 
employers, but it is suggested that it is fair and reasonable 
to accept in the light of the imposed responsibility upon 
the contractor to commence within fourteen days and 
complete within the time specified. After all, failure on the 
contractor’s part in these respects brings forfeiture or 
monetary sanctions by way of liquidated damages; should 
not the employer have similar responsibilities? 


Depending upon the amendments made to enforce the 
provision of programme, bond and insurances, any 
specified commencement date will be subject to the 
requirements of such amendments 


11.5.2 Supervision 


The supervision of reclamation schemes follows the normal 
pattern for any civil engineering project, but it is worthy of 
note that these schemes need more site supervision through- 
out the contract than most civil schemes of a comparable 
size. It has been found that the services of a clerk of 

works can be usefully employed under the provision of 


clause | (d) to carry out day to day site inspections, tests 
and examine materials used and workmanship. However, 

it must always be remembered that the use of a clerk of 
works in no way relieves the engineer of his duties. 

The clerk of works’ duties should, therefore, be clearly 
stated and undertsood by all parties at the outset, and it is 
suggested that these duties be restricted to the terms stated 
in clause 2, that is ‘watch and supervise’ thus ensuring 

that the requirements of the specification are fulfilled and 
that materials and workmanship conform to description, and 
that plant returns, dayworks, site works etc. are properly 
recorded and certified. 


11.5.3 Financial control 


The financial control in respect of remeasurement, variations 
and valuation differ little from any other civil engineering 
contract. However special care was exercised on all the 
project schemes to ensure that the employer was kept 
informed of variations in cost and the overall effect on the 
contract sum, by submitting financial statements at regular 
intervals. 


Since the early schemes were executed as pilots for the 
many schemes to follow, a careful watch was kept on price 
trends to assist in more accurate estimating. The application 
of this cost information in estimating cost planning, and 
cost control, is examined in detail in Chapter 12. 


123 


Chapter 12 Estimating and cost control 


by I.S. Clark 


12.1 The relation of estimate to cost plan 


Estimating is an essential part of the pre-contract work. It 
is upon the proposed design and estimated cost that the 
decision is made to proceed to the tender stage of a project 
and it is the estimate which provides the basis of cost 
control. Comparative cost exercises for alternative designs 
or solutions to the design brief form the basis of the cost 
plan, culminating in an estimate of cost. 


Cost planning is a system which relates design to cost, so 
that the solution to the design brief not only provides the 
answer in terms of function and appearance but also an 
economic solution within a pre-determined cost limit. It 
is unrealistic to attempt to set exact pre-determined cost 
limits on reclamation schemes since rarely do two projects 
have the same problems, but the principles still apply in 
terms of reaching an economic solution. 


12.2 Estimates for reclamation projects 


Estimates for reclamation projects are readily broken down 
into the main elemental sections of work to be carried out 
on site. These sections also conveniently provide the basic 
sub-divisions of the bills of quantities in the tender docu- 
ment and thereby provide quick comparison of cost when 
tenders are received. 


12.2.1 Preliminaries 


These we best covered as a proportion of the total estimated 
amount, 5% on the smaller projects (£20,000 to £50,000) 
down to 2% or less on the larger projects (£100,000 and 
over). In most instances, preliminaries, works, site super- 
vision, plant etc. are included in the unit rates. The pro- 
vision of huts, off site management, notice boards, welfare 
facilities for the men are usually adequately covered by the 
above percentage additions. 


12.2.2 Demolition and site clearance 


There is always a certain amount of demolition and site 
clearance associated with these projects since the derelict 
area usually contains industrial buildings of one sort or 
another in various stages of dilapidation. There are no 
criteria to apply, each site being taken on its own merits, 
but generally the cost of this section is small in comparison 
with the total. In addition, it is found that contract rates 
for this work are generally at a low level as most of the 
material arising from the demolition can be accommodated 
on site. The large earthmoving equipment used on these 
schemes disposes of the buildings, debris etc. very quickly. 


A problem found on the majority of the sites is hidden 
concrete and brick foundations. On many schemes, there 

is little or no information available to give positions of 
bases,culverts, foundations and the like. The first know- 
ledge of the existence of such items comes when the Con- 
tractor commences work in the area. The breaking up of 
these foundations is invariably the only solution, albeit 
costly if discovered at this stage of the works. It has become 


124 


increasingly apparent that every effort should be made to 
ascertain the nature of the ground conditions where filling 
is not contemplated or where filling is no more than a few 
feet thick, and if possible make provision for adequate fill 
cover of any areas suspect, also ensure cultivation and 
drainage works are not impeded by such items. 


Prior knowledge of a difficult area at the estimate stage 
enables consideration to be given to alternatives; that is, the 
cost of breaking up as against the cost of a design change to 
provide a blanket of shale or similar material of a sufficient 
depth to obviate the necessity of breaking up. This is an 
example of cost planning in relation to design to arrive at a 
practical as well as an economic solution. 


12.2.3 Earthworks 


This section forms the largest part of most reclamation 
projects. It comprises stripping and stacking available top 
soil and subsequent respreading, bulk earth movement and 
grading to proposed contours. From the point of view of 
cost this section usually accounts for 50% to 80% of the 
total and is, therefore, extremely critical. 


Stripping, stacking and replacement of top soil is relatively 
easily assessed from the proposal drawings. In practice, it is 
found that the depth and location of the respread material 
within reasonable limits has only a marginal effect on cost; 
quantities are, therefore, assessed on a cubic metre basis. 


The bulk earthworks quantity and costing is by far the most 

critical. Generally one million cubic metres or more are to 

be expected on sites of forty hectares or over (total value 

of scheme around £100,000). It is essential on schemes of 

this size to carry out accurate earthworks calculations to 

ascertain firstly that balance of cut and fill can be achieved 

within reasonable limits, without drastically amending the 

proposed design, and secondly to provide an excavation 

quantity for pricing; a 10% error on a million cubic metre 

scheme could represent £5,000 in cost (methods of earth- 

work calculation are discussed in Chapter 5.). Having 

achieved a satisfactory result in the bulk earthwork cal- 

culations, it is then necessary to apply a suitable unit rate 

to ascertain the cost. In practice, a tendering contractor 

would assess his plant requirements with due regard to site - 
conditions, type of material, topography of the site and 

plant availability. This, together with his calculated average 

time for haulage distance enables him to assess the number 

of machines and time required whieh, computed against 

his known costs and overheads, results in his total cost. This 

is possibly a simplified statement of the Contractor’s pricing 
process, but it serves to illustrate the particular difficulty at § 
the estimating stage when the type of machine to be used is 
not known, although one might make an intelligent assump- 

tion. The state of the market whether busy or slack is also : 
an important factor. This factor has detectable trends, the 

seasonal trend being the most obvious. Contractors’ plant 

can be kept fully employed on remunerative work during ; 
the drier seasons, such work as motorways, bridges, dams 

and civil engineering projects generally. Winter working on 

these projects can result in a 50% loss of output or more. fl 


The nature of the material often encountered on reclama- 
tion schemes is such that all weather working is possible. 
They offer, therefore, attractive winter working for a Con- 
tractor, where his machines can earn their keep over a period 
which he would normally expect to be unremunerative. For 
this reason contracts let in late autumn reflect this trend and 
the likely date for commencement of a contract must be 
taken into account when preparing the estimate. 


A further, more subtle, trend occurs through “Contract 
experience”. Contyactors adjust their pricing in the light 

of experience on similar previous projects. Hitherto few 
contractors in this country have had previous knowledge or 
experience on the specific difficulties of reclamation work. 
The basic advantage to contractors on reclamation schemes, 
other than the all weather aspect mentioned above, is quick 
turnover. The bulk earthworks on a million cubic metre 
scheme - if properly programmed, with suitable machines - 
can be executed in six months or less. Any unforeseen con- 
tingency delaying this programme can have an adverse effect 
on profitability where rates are keen and profit margins are 
small. A price difference is often noticeable in the compar- 
ison of tenders obtained by way of open and selective pro- 
cedures. The former procedure provides the opportunity 

for new firms to enter the field and prices on the whole tend 
to be keener. Whether the tender is to be ‘open’ or ‘selective’ 
must be borne in mind when preparing the estimate. 


12.2.4 Drainage and services 


Each project has its own particular difficulties associated 
with the particular land form and requirements for drainage, 
water supply and diversion of public services. Costs of pub- 
lic service diversions can usually be obtained for estimating 
purposes from the public undertaking concerned. Drainage 
for these schemes usually follows a conventional pattern of 
ditching, tile and piped drains with associated catch pits and 
manholes. 


The proposed land form will have a considerable bearing on 
drainage requirements. The cost implication of alternative 
landforms with attendant drainage requirements should be 
considered early in the design proposals to arrive at the most 
economic solution. In this respect care must be exercised 
when considering an open ditch construction against a 

piped drain alternative. The open ditch is not necessarily the 
cheapest solution when consideration has to be given to 
lining the ditch with a concrete flume, gabion mattress or 
similar lining to prevent erosion and scour. 


Maintenance after completion is essential to keep the drain- 
age system in sound working order. Work involved in de- 
silting drains and chambers can be considerable in the 
twelve months after completion of the scheme during which 
time the drainage system requires regular checking and 
attention. An allowance of 1% - 2% of the total estimated 
drainage cost has generally been found to be adequate. 


12.2.5 Surface treatments, seeding and planting 


This section comprises cultivation, fertilisation and seeding 
of the reclaimed areas and associated land affected, soil 
stabilisation treatment of slopes, tree and shrub planting. 


The cost level of general cultivations and seeding is much 
higher than for normal agricultural work, as would be expec- 
ted considering the nature of the soil. A cost allowance of 
£150 - £175 per hectare plus £50 - £60 for ripping and 
removing rubbish has been generally found to be adequate 


for agricultural cultivations and seeding. The rate for cultiv- 
ating and seeding areas covered with a good depth of top and 
sub-soil will be at the lower figure, working up to the higher 
for bare shale areas, Allowance must be made on slopes of 
1:6 or 1:5 for heavier seed rates and over 1:5 (i.e. going up 
to 1:3) hydromatic seeding and mulching treatments are 
often used. The cost of the latter can be anything from £250 
to £750 per hectare depending on the area involved and seed 
application rates. 
Lime and fertiliser treatments vary depending on the 
chemical nature of the material. Preliminary analyses of 
surface and bore hole samples by the University Soils 
Department were a very useful guide at the estimating stage 
to assess the likely requirements. The costs of these treat- 
ments are best expressed as a provisional sum in the estim- 
ate. 


Careful consideration should be given to the landform and 
surface treatment requirements since the cost of surface 
treatment tends to rise as the gradient of slope increases. 
Other factors such as drainage and land use requirements 
also affect the issue, but it is of interest to note that whilst 
a steeper slope increases surface treatment cost, reducing the 
slope, however, can produce a disproportionate increase in 
excavation cost. In a ‘cut’ situation (that is all excavation 
without fill) a finished slope of 1:3, mulched, hydromati- 
cally seeded, and forestry planted, will generally show a 
saving on a 1:5 slope covered with 0.3m (1 2in) of soil and 
seeded for agricultural use. This saving will increase almost 
directly in proportion to the height of the slope; thus in the 
above example if the saving on a Sm high slope amounts to 
£500 per hectare then the saving on a 10m high slope would 
be £1,000 per hectare. No account, of course, has been 
taken of the establishment and maintenance costs and also 
the after value of the land. The maintenance costs on steep- 
er slopes are bound to be higher and the monetary return 
from the agricultural land could easily make the extra 
capital expenditure worthwhile; however, the sums used in 
the above example are indicative of the savings which can 
be achieved. 


Planting varies from forestry planting (for slope stabilisation 
and shelter belts on the larger agricultural schemes) to shrub 
and tree planting (on smaller parks or public open spaces). 
The costing for estimating purposes is much the same for 
any landscape project, but special provision is normally 
made for ‘establishment’ and after care costs beyond the 
normal maintenance period. A sum to the value of 100% of 
the total planting cost is inserted for a five year establish- 
ment period, although there is no information available as 
yet as to whether this amount is representative of the actual 
cost. 


12.2.6 Fencing 


These follow conventional lines of estimating for the types 
required, commonly post and wire or post and rail agricul- 
tural. Difficulty has been experienced in driving posts in very 
stony ground or where remains of foundations are a few 

feet below surface. Generally the extra cost of fences erec- 
ted on such ground is insignificant for estimating purposes 
unless a large proportion of the fencing is so affected. 


12.2.7 Roads and paths 


These usually fall into the categories of ‘farm roads’ or 
public footpath diversions. They are usually of a hardcore 
base and gravel or shale surfacing. They present little diffi- 


125 


culty from the estimating point of view. The basic materials 
are generally available on site and costs are low. 


12.2.8 Other miscellaneous items 


Other items such as contingencies, professional fees, land 
acquisitions, administrative costs, aerial and other surveys 
ete are included as required. 


12.3 Cost control 


To exercise the control of cost, it is essential to have a 
measure of cost planning from the outset. 


12.3.1 Pre-contract cost control 


The most important tool of estimating is cost levels and 
trends. In the building industry there are large volumes of 
information published by the R.I.C.S., other professional 
bodies, building and allied trade organisations. This inform- 
ation is up-dated monthly or quarterly and takes account of 
market trends. labour availability and material cost vari- 
ations, and gives information on changes from detailed, item- 
ised units to complete buildings of all types. Such inform- 
ation is essential for accurate cost forecasting, planning and 
estimating. 


From the mass of information available, it is possible to 
produce reasonably accurate estimates for all types of build- 
ing On a square metre or square foot basis, relating type, 
design, locality and other factors to known cost analysis, up 
dating the information to take account of increased costs 
and latest market trends (i.e. if the market is busy, prices 
will tend to be high and vice versa). 


In the landscape contracting field, and in particular reclam- 
ation, the amount of cost information available as yet is 
very limited. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and 
the National Association of Agricultural Contractors do 
publish, from time to time, cost information and broad 


trends in the industry for cultivation, seeding etc. These, 
however, have limited application in the reclamation field. 
Cost information compiled from reclamation projects, 
completed or at present being executed, has enabled us to 
build up a limited cost information guide. This, however, 
can only be taken as a very rough guide unless extreme care 
is exercised in assessing the effects of the quantity compar- 
isons of such items as the bulk earthworks, drainage, treat- 
ment and general site conditions. In view of the limited 
amount of information available it is doubtful whether this 
approach at present warrants the effort involved as a far 
more reliable guide is obtained from approximate quantities 
measured from the preliminary scheme drawings and costed 
out, using prices extracted and compounded from the cost 
analysis of previous schemes. 


Ideally cost control commences at the same time as the 
design work when a cost limit is set according to the client’s 
brief requirements. This is rarely possible for reclamation 
schemes. Preliminary or outline design proposals must be 
carried out initially to provide a basis for an outline esti- 
mate. From this estimate more detailed work can proceed, 
analysing alternative proposals to arrive at the final design 
proposals and estimate. 


12.3.2 Post-contract cost control 


A properly cost planned project should present little 
difficulty in the tender and post-contract stage in terms of 
costing. 


The control of cost during the progress of the work is 

equally, if not more, important than the pre-contract | 
planning to keep the Engineer and employer fully abreast 

of the financial state of the project at all times. Ideally a 

running account of all variations should be kept together 

with an estimated valuation of other changes and works 

remeasured. Collation of these records enables cost fore- 

casts to be made at regular intervals. 


126 


Chapter 13 Visual assessment of 


reclaimed landscape 


based on the work of J.J. Ffennell and others 


13.1 Appreciation of landscape 


Clearly one objective of a policy for the reclamation of 
derelict land is to improve its appearance, and this objective 
has been supported by the level of grants made for reclam- 
ation in areas designated for economic growth, the improve- 
ment being held to be a factor in attracting new industries. 
On the other hand, it is true to say that there are examples 
of dereliction for which claims are made about their 
aesthetic interest. In fact, it is very difficult, if not imposs- 
ible, to measure visual improvement with any accuracy or 
in a manner which is universally acceptable. Response to 
landscape varies, for example, with the cultural and econ- 
omic background of the observer. The middle classes in the 
19th century were attracted by the picturesque aspect of 
squalor and poverty when portrayed in a painting, but no 
such response was made by those who lived and worked in 
these conditions. Similarly, persons brought up in areas of 
landscape dereliction find it difficult to accept a pit heap 
as a form in the landscape, and to dissociate it from all it 
represents in social and economic history. An example of 
this conflict in response to the appearance of a pit heap,.is 
referred to later in this chapter. 


Fines (1968) write thus of the many factors that relate to 
visual assessment: 


“in its relationship to the observer landscape is multi- 
dimensional. The total experience whether pleasant or un- 
pleasant obtained by the observer is not dependent solely - 
or even mainly - upon the response to visual beauty in the 
purest sense of the harmony of form, colour and texture in 
a single three dimensional pictorial composition, but upon 
interplay of sensory, psychological and sequential exper- 
iences”’. 

Those responsible for the design of the reclaimed landscape 
of the various sites of the research project took into 
account the generally accepted principles of relating the 
proposals to the surrounding landscape and of the location 
and arrangement of the different elements with care and 
sensitivity. But, in particular, it was considered important 
to investigate the results at an early stage in order to 
ascertain what particular elements, and arrangements of 
them, made the greatest impact upon the observer in the 
way of early visual improvement. 


13.2 Methods of analysis 


Great interest is now being shown in methods of analysis 
of landscape in visual terms, and some references are given 
at the end of the Chapter. In general, however, the greater 
part of the work of visual analysis has been on the analysis 
and classification of large areas of rural landscape, whereas 
the various sites of the project, and perhaps the majority of 
derelict sites, lie in landscapes which are commonly 
accepted as of no more than average quality. 


13.3 Government policy towards the environment 
of the North East 


In the paper The North East published in 1963, the Govern- 
ment stated the problem of the area to be principally one of 
adjustment, and recognised there was a clear need for 
special help to shorten the period of adjustment and ease its 
difficulties. It was stated that the aim should be to promote 
a steady rise in economic activity as the basis for the con- 
tinued growth of employment in the region and that “this 
action would be directed over a period of years towards an 
increase in the level of activity throughout the region as a 
whole rather than towards the relief of unemployment in 
particular localities”. The reclamation of derelict land and 
the reduction of pollution were included in the Govern- 
ment’s programme. 


The Northern Economic Planning Council (1966) followed 
this up by pointing out that the reclamation of derelict land 
is an important part of rehabilitating the whole environment 
in the region’s old industrial areas. Unemployment cannot 
easily be relieved without a new environment, as new 
industries are unlikely to move into the old one, and a new 
environment cannot be provided without the reclamation of 
derelict land. 


13.4 Visual results of landscape reclamation 


In May 1970, members of the Steering Committee of the 
research project looked at four sites which had either been 
reclaimed or were in the process of reclamation by the 
University. These were Northbourne Park, Big Waters, 
Roddymoor and Egerton Gardens. From the observations 
made by the members certain conclusions can be drawn. 
The surroundings of any site were particularly prominent 
in the observations of the members because, if there is 
disorganised clutter around a reclamation scheme, the 
smoother surfaces of a newly reclaimed site have a strong 
impact by contrast (Fig 13.1). In addition, panorainas are 
often exposed by the regrading, and these usually 
constitute the main visual change and must be taken into 
consideration. 


13.5 Questionnaire on visual analysis 


In January 1970, a simple questionnaire was sent out to 
forty-three people living adjacent to the Roddymoor, 
Northbourne Park and Egerton Gardens reclamation sites. 
In order to eliminate any risk of suggesting answers, the 
questionnaire was a postal one; replies were received from 
twenty-one people who either lived or worked in these 
areas. 


13.5.1 Attitudes to the sites before reclamation 


All except one person disliked the sites before reclamation, 
and the one exception felt indifferent. Everyone disliked 


127 


the sordid appearance, and about a third also disliked the 
dirt, smell, danger and unavailability for productive use. It 
had been wondered if people would have a sentimental 
association for the sites through having used them as an 
adventure playground during their youth, but this was not 


So. 


13.5.2 Attitudes to the sites during reclamation 


Despite the noise of night working, all twenty-one thought 
the reclamation worthwhile, even if there was some incon- 
venience. There were requests, however, for a cessation of 
work between midnight and five in the morning. In about a 
quarter of the cases, inconvenience was suffered from dust 
and to a lesser degree from dirt, smell, noise and, in one 
case only, traffic. 


13.5.3 Attitudes to the sites since reclamation 


Everyone felt the reclamation was worthwhile and there 
was satisfaction that the sites were at last being used for 
some worthwhile purpose. The improved appearance was a 
strong factor and, to a considerably lesser degree, lack of 
dirt, lack of smell, reduction in danger and availability for 
use for walking, sitting and playing. 


Nine people considered the change in the shape of the land 
and heap to be the more important, while nine others 
considered the new cover of grass and trees to be the more 


important. The remainder said both were equally important. 


13.5.4 Suggestions for improvement 


People at Roddymoor wanted more footpaths. They said 
there had been a few before reclamation which had been 
lost, and they felt that now the site was in a condition to be 
more available for public use, then more footpaths should 
be provided. 


The questionnaire explained that there was intensive tree 
planting on all three sites and that in most cases the trees 
were small and would take some considerable time to make 
a show, but eleven people felt there should be even more 
trees. In one case, more grass was wanted, while in another 
case less grass was wanted. 


The new views made a great impact, and nineteen people 
felt there was a significant improvement, while one respon- 
dent at Roddymoor felt the increase in sunlight to be a 
stronger point (Fig 13.2). One said the improvements were 
of equal value, but it was interesting to note how very 
strongly people preferred the visual improvement to the 
overall environmental one. 


13.5.5 Questionnaire on visual analysis 


1. Did you like or dislike the site before reclamation? 


like nil 
dislike 20 
indifferent ] 
2. What did you most dislike about the site before 

reclamation? 

dirt 8 
smell] 5 
danger 8 
appearance 20 
unavailability for use 5 
other reasons (please specify) none given 


128 


‘oe 


10. 


HE 


Did you like the site before reclamation because: 
of its sentimental association 

of its use as a children’s playground 

it was a large area of no activity e.g. industry, 

: farming 
you thought it looked pleasant 
(nil return, see ‘1’) 


Do you, on balance, prefer the site since reclamation? 


yes 21 
no nil 
indifferent nil 


What do you like most about the site since 
reclamation? 


lack of dirt 6 
lack of smell 4 
reduction in danger 5 
appearance 21 
availability for use (walking, etc.) 6 


other factor mentioned: that the site is being used 


What do you dislike about the site since 
reclamation? 


the use of land after reclamation nil 
you are no longer allowed to use it 1 
its appearance 1 


Which do you consider to be more important? 
the change in the shape of the land (heap) 

the new cover of grass and trees 

equal 


Nw Oo 


Would you like to see: 
more trees (the trees are at present very small 
and will grow much larger) 11 


fewer trees nil 
more grass area 1 
less grass area 1 
any other improvement - please state 

more footpaths 2 


Do you consider there to have been any significant 
improvement in: 


the view 19 
direct sunlight 1 
both 1 


Did you suffer any inconvenience during the work 
from 


dust 6 
dirt 4 
smell 3 
traffic 1 
noise 5 


Do you think this could have been lessened in any 
way, and if so how? 

less work between midnight and 5.0 a.m. (night work 
is usually excluded from contracts, unless there are 
special circumstances) 


In spite of temporary nuisance do you now think that 


the reclamation was worth while? 
yes 21 
no nil 


13.6 Assessment of individual sites 


The observations of members of the Steering Committee and 


the answers to the questionnaire have enabled us to make 


Fig.13.1 This photograph taken soon after the completion 
of the Northbourne Park site illustrates the extent to 
which the contrast between poor quality or untidy develop- 
ment adjacent to a reclaimed landscape emphasises by 
contrast the visual impact of the smooth grades of the 
latter. 


Fig 13.2 (a & b) Photographs taken before and after 
reclamation at the Roddymoor site. The comparison 
demonstrates the increase in sunlight and view, which were 
improvements favourably commented upon by persons 
answering the questionnaire on visual improvement. 


the following generalised assessment of individual sites, bear- 
ing in mind that either the Contracts had only been comp- 
leted a féw months previously or were still in progress. 


13.6.1 Roddymoor, Crook, Co. Durham 


Roddymoor is now an example of a soothing rural landscape 
(Fig 13.3). The harsh points of the pit heap have gone, the 
whole site having been moulded gracefully into the rolling 
countryside, and it is now virtually impossible to pick out 
Roddymoor from the surrounding environment. The 
‘feeling’ of the pit heap has also been removed, for example 
the houses previously shielded from the low winter sun now 
enjoy improved daylight conditions all the year round 


129 


The site has now been returned to agricultural land for 
stock-grazing, with woodland on the steeper slopes. The 
agricultural area has been orientated towards the south 
where practicable to give a more favourable aspect. The 
steeper northerly slope forms one side of the valley and this 
asymmetrical form of a ‘one-sided’ valley is a feature 
commonly found in this part of Durham. 


The planting has not been designed in the block form- 
ations usually used for research purposes, which would be 
unsightly when overlooked from the surrounding hills. 
Instead the trees have been planted in long lines, following 
the contours of the land. 


Points to be learned from this scheme are that steep banks 
are very prominent in the period immediately following 
reclamation and that fencing should be in sympathy with 
the surrounding countryside as it forms an important 
element in the early stages. Harsh fencing lines with neither 
trees nor shrubs can spoil the desired natural look, although 
their effect can be slightly softened by having a road or 
other ‘line’ weaving through the scheme. .Also, the 

design of the new land form must take into account the 
possible screening of surrounding areas of low visual value 
in the landscape, and conversely the exposure to view of 
elements like overhead wires that were previously hidden, 
which may occur. 


13.6.2 Egerton Gardens, Newcastle upon Tyne 


The result of the reclamation was described by one 
observer as an example of ‘stimulating sequential urban 
landscape’ (Fig 13.4). Bold earth moulding was designed to 
give something decisive which stands out from its surround- 
ings, even if vandalism is so bad that planting and other ele- 
ments are partially destroyed. 


The southerly aspect provides views over the Tyne valley 
and also gives shelter. Planting on the lower slopes when 
growth has increased will screen nearer industrial sites in 

the valley bottom, and help to stabilise the steep banks. The 
site stands out well from Whickham across the valley. 


It was noted that the experience on this site indicated the 
need for adequate topsoil cover in an urban setting in order 
to produce a hard wearing green cover, incidentally needing 
a higher standard of maintenance than in a rural area. 


13.6.3 Big Waters, Seaton Burn, Northum berland 


The site is to be a nature reserve and provide study facilities 
for the Northumberland and Durham Naturalists’ Trust. The 
mass planting of the trees even at this early stage of growth 
is beginning to give the area a feeling of enclosure, and 


contrast in scale is emphasised between what can be seen up 


to the ridge and the surrounding landscape beyond. This 
emphasises the improvement that has been made. The fact 
that the scheme includes a large body of water and a stream 
is a great visual asset in the early stages of reclamation. 


13.6.4 Northbourne Park, Walker, Newcastle upon 
Tyne 

The site has been developed as a river-orientated park with 

space for strolling, informal recreation, and watching, as 

well as provision for boats, fishing etc. The design allows for 

more intensive use if this is subsequently felt desirable. 


The scheme shows that care must be taken in running hard 
footpaths and roads along existing terraces or sloping up 
between them, as the result can be harsh and aesthetically 
unsatisfactory until the planting develops. Such roadways 
may be more sympathetic if they are varied in width and 
perhaps have bays to take seats here and there. 


Care must also be taken not to use too much paving in 
prominent positions as this can look out of place if the 
reclaimed landscape is not on formal lines. 


13.6.5 Percy Pit, Newburn, Newcastle upon Tyne 


Plans were drawn up on the basis of a study done by 
Hackett and Vyle in 1966, but it has not been possible to 
carry them out. The spoil heap on the site had been 
recommended for retention as a landscape and industrial 
archaeological feature in the Survey of the Tyne Landscape 
(Laurie, 1965), but the local inhabitants were not in 

favour of retention. The University research team was 
asked to appraise the two recommendations, and the find- 
ings are reproduced in full: 


Fig.13.3 Part of the reclaimed landscape at the Roddymoor 
site, which now constitutes a soothing rural landscape 
merging into the surrounding countryside. 


130 


Fig.13.4 The Egerton Gardens site after reclamation. 
This was referred to by one observer as constituting a 
‘stimulating sequential urban landscape’, standing out 
from its surroundings. Such a design policy can be 
described as ‘improvement by means of contrast’. 


13.6.6 A Report on the alternative schemes for the 
redemption of Percy Pit, Lemington, in the 
urban district of Newburn, incorporating 
recommendations relating to the redemp- 
tion of the heap 


(a) Terms of reference An appraisal of the schemes has been 

requested; they are briefly: 

(i) _ the leaving of the shape of the heap as it is, as envisa- 
ged in Mr. Laurie’s Survey of the Tyne Landscape. 

(ii) | the removal of the top third of the heap and tying into 
the existing land form as a spur. 

Other possible schemes are: 

(iii) minor landform alternatives. 

(iv) drastic re-shaping of the heap and surroundings. 

The following is an abstract from the Survey 

“Large scale tree planting and grassing is required to cover 

partially the unsightly surface of the main conical waste 

heap of Percy Pit and the Copperas Lane Site, but there 

should be no lowering of height with consequent reduction 

of scale in the waste heap which is so magnificently in key 

with the monumental quality of the power station and the 

cooling towers and chimneys, the breadth of the valley and 

the height of the surrounding hills. The crests of both 

waste heaps and existing hills should be laid out as ‘viewing 

areas’.”” 


(b) Visual appraisal of the heap - and possible effects of 
various land form alterations and different types of revege- 
tation. Key viewing points at various distances from the 
heap were selected, and an assessment of the impact of the 
heap was made. The possible effects of various land form 
alterations and different types of revegetation were also 
considered. 


Viewing Point I 


DUNSTON (ROAD - A6081) 
Approximate distance from heap: 6.4 km (4 miles) 


(i) Comments - visual appraisal 
The colour of the heap was such that it merged 
completely into the landscape. 


(ii) The effects of various land form alterations 
Land form alterations would have little impact from 
this distance. 


(iii) Effects of different types of vegetation 
Grassing and tree planting would have little impact 
from this distance. 


Viewing Point 2 


WHIC KHAM THORNS (SWALWELL ROAD) (A6081) 
PHOTOGRAPH No. 1 (Fig. 13.5) 
Approximate distance from heap: 5.23 km (3.25 miles) 


(i) Comments - visual appraisal 
The heap fitted into the landscape well, forming a 
visual stop to the gradually sloping hills, the back- 
ground green fields forming a prominent feature. The 
heap itself contrasted well with the cooling towers, 
partially blackened at their tops. 


Fig. 13.5 


(ii) 


(in) 


The effects of various land form alterations 

The present shape of the heap forms a pleasant 
feature. However, in order that it might be laid out 

as a viewing area and for it to be more readily access- 
ible, a certain amount of rounding off might be accept- 
able. By removing the top third of the heap, the line 
of the surrounding hills would be uninterrupted and 
the interesting feature lost. 


Effects of different types of vegetation 

Grassing the heap might emphasise its present shape 
in an unfortunate way, bearing in mind the almost 
luminescent quality of the background fields. 

Tree planting would merge with the existing tree 
planting of the background. 


Viewing Point 3 


STELLA STAITHS 
PHOTOGRAPH No. 2 (Fig. 13.6) 
Approximate distance from heap: 1.45 km (0.9 miles) 


i) 


Comments - visual appraisal 

The heap does not make as great an impact as from 
the previous viewing point, both chimneys and cooling 
towers tend to diminish the visual importance of the 
heap. 


Fig. 13.6 


132 


(ii) The effects of various land form alterations 

By removing the top third, a spur could be formed 
which would merge with the surrounding hills. Slight 
rounding off would leave the heap as an interesting 
feature as envisaged in Mr. Laurie’s report. 

(iii) Effects of different types of vegetation 

tree planting 

Tree planting in front of the heap would merge into 
existing tree planting and hedgerow systems. 


Viewing Point 4 
SWALWELL - RYTON ROAD (A695) 


(i) | Comments - visual appraisal 
Glimpses of the heap through the trees gave the 
appearance of it fitting in with the landscape. 


Viewing Point 5 


NEAR WYLAM 
PHOTOGRAPH No. 3 (Fig.13.7) 
Approximate distance from heap: 5.8% km (3.25 miles) 


(i) |Comments - visual appraisal 
The heap is situated reasonably well in the bowl of 
the valley. The distance is such that it almost merges 
with the landscape even in its present form. 


(ii) The effects of various land form alterations 
There is no strong case for the retention of the heap 
in its present form or for its reduction in height by 
one third to give a spur. 

(ii) Effects of different types of vegetation 


Tree grouping on the heap might give rise to an 
untidy appearance. 


Viewing Point 6 


NEAR HEDDON (ROAD - A69) 
PHOTOGRAPH No. 4 (Fig.13.8) 
Approximate distance from heap: 4.7 km (2.9 miles) 


(i) | Comments - visual appraisal 
This is probably the most significant distant view 
point, the heap forming a visual stop to the sloping 
land. 


Fig. 13.7 


Fig. 13.8 


(ii) The effects of various land form alterations 
By removing the top third and tying the heap in as a 
spur, an interesting feature would be lost. 

(iii) Effects of different types of vegetation 
Tree planting would merge into existing tree planting 
and tend to reduce the height of the heap. 


Viewing Point 7 

NEWBURN ROAD (A608S5) 

Approximate distance from heap: 1.2 km - 0.8 km 

(0.75 - 0.5 miles) 

(i) Comments - visual appraisal 
Viewed as one journeys along this road, the heap 
‘sank’ into the landscape and made its ‘re-appearance’ 
at intervals. 


Viewing Point 8 


NEAR TERRITORIAL HALL’ NEWBURN 
PHOTOGRAPH No. 5 (Fig.13.9) 
Approximate distance from heap: 0.8 km (0.5 miles) 
(i) Comments - visual appraisal 
From this view point the heap is not too dominant 


(ii) The effects of various land form alterations 
Removal of the top third would reduce its impact. 


(iii) Effects of different types of vegetation 
Tree planting at the base of the heap would have 
little impact from this view. Tree planting on the open 
space opposite the school adjacent to the Territorial 
Hall would reduce the dominance of the pit heap from 
this view point. 


Viewing Point 9 


NEWBURN ROAD (NEAR CHURCH) 
PHOTOGRAPH No. 6 (Fig.13.10) 
Approximate distance from heap: 0.72 km (0.45 miles) 


(i) Comments - visual appraisal 
The pit heap is a dominant element in the landscape; 
derelict houses appear at the left of the picture and, 
in the middle-ground , industrial concems contribute 
as much to the air of dereliction as does the heap 
itself. Cleaning-up round the base of the heap would 
help, but equally as important is the cleaning-up of 
dereliction outside the boundary of the site. 


(ii) The effects of various land form alterations 
A certain amount of removal and rounding of the top 
of the heap would make the heap more acceptable 
from close to. 


(iii) Effects of different .ypes of vegetation 
Tree planting at the base of the heap and on adjacent 
industrial sites would diminish the impact of the heap 
from fairly close to. 


Viewing Point 10 

NEWBURN (HIGH STREET) 

PHOTOGRAPH No. 7 (Fig.13.11) 

Approximate distance from heap: 0.48 km (0.3 miles) 


(i) Comments - visual appraisal 
The heap again dominates the view. 


(ii) The effects of various land form alterations 
Slight reduction in height and rounding of the heap 
should reduce its overwhelming impact on the 


residents to an acceptable degree 


(iii) Effects of different types of vegetation 
Tree planting at the base would also reduce the 


133 


Fig. 13.11 


impact of the heap. Screening of the Walker 
buildings would reduce the heap’s impact still 
turther. 


Viewing Point 11 

NEWBURN (TYNE VIEW) 

PHOTOGRAPH No. 8 (Fig.13.12) 

Approximate distance from heap: 0.96 km (0.6 miles) 


(i) Comments - visual appraisal 
The view is dominated by the heap and part of the 
Tyne Valley is obscured by it. 


(ii) The effects of various land form alterations 
Removal of the top third and tying in with the 
surrounding land form is a solution which would 
reduce the impact of the heap from this view point, 
but at the same time would remove a feature of a 
wider landscape setting. Rounding of the heap keep- 
ing the original form would help to reduce the 
impact. 


(iii) Effects of different types of vegetation 
Tree planting at the base of the heap would also 
help to reduce the heap’s dominance. 


Viewing Point 12 


NEWBURN (LLOYD STREET) 
PHOTOGRAPH No. 9 (Fig.13.13) 
Approximate distance from heap: 0.32 km (0.2 miles) 


Fig. 13.13 


134 


Fig. 13.12 


(i) 


(ii) 


Comments - visual appraisal 

The heap, although a dominant feature, appears to 
be more acceptable in its setting than from the 
previous view point. 


Effects of different types of vegetation 


Tree planting round the base of the heap would help 
to reduce its impact. 


Viewing Point 13 


LEMINGTON (UNION HALL ROAD) 
Approximate distance from heap: 0.96 km (0.6 miles) 


(i) 


(ii) 


Comments - visual appraisal 
The impact of the heap was not too overpowering. 


The effects of various land form alterations 

The retention of the heap in its present form would 
be acceptable from this view point. Reduction in 
height by one third and tying into the surrounding 
land form as a spur would be equally 

acceptable. 


Summary recommendations: Bearing in mind the 

several matters considered in the above, our 

recommendation is that the heap should be : 

(i) rounded off at the top (as shown in Scheme 3) 

(ii) kept largely unplanted and ungrassed, particul- 
arly on the upper slopes, 

(iii) tree planting around the base and if possible 
outside the site boundary. 

(iv) ancillary earthworks around the base towards 
the site boundary. 


We make one qualification to the above recommend- 
ation that we will wish to investigate methods of 
holding fine dust particles where the heap is not to 
be grassed. 


13.7 Conclusions 


Landscape can be contrived or uncontrived, and contrived 
landscape can fall into two classes - soothing or stimulating. 
The experience which relates from landscape depends upon 
the sensory, sequential and psychological experience, and 
the latter need not always be constant. 


An environmental image, or landscape, is not experienced 
on its own, but in relation to the context in which it 
appears, whatever has happened immediately before, and 
even in relation to past memories, This was particularly 
important at all the sites, and Roddymoor and Egerton 
Gardens are good examples of it. 


The replies to the questionnaire showed the interest taken 
in the reclamation of landscape by people either living or 
working in the vicinity, and their deep appreciation of 
their environment is shown in the satisfaction they have 
indicated that the land is now being used for something 
worthwhile. The continuing Government policy of adjust- 
ment to a better environment is appreciated, but people 
frequently express the wish that the programme would 
move quicker. 


13.7.1 Elements and effects giving visual impact 


(a) In the early stages of a project, maintenance of 
clearly defined and closely mown areas, e.g. the flat 
terraces at St. Anthony’s with other areas uncut, 
gives emphasis to the land form of a reclamation 
scheme. 


(b) Footpaths are especially important as their appear- 
ance is very dominant, particularly when the reclaimed 
landscape is young and with little vegetation. 


(c)  Terracing effects give visual interest to slopes which 
may otherwise be reticent in a view. 


(d) Low walls help in the early stages to give interest. 


(e) If there is disorganised clutter around a reclamation 
scheme, smooth surfaces of a newly reclaimed site 
have a strong impact by virtue of contrast. 


(f) Terraces built on a curve emphasise the terrace effect. 


(g) Standard trees of large size (as at Big Waters) show up 
quite prominently against the bare shale soil, but 
might be ‘lost’ against grass. 


(h) Deep cut streams are prominent and add much 
interest to the early barren stages of reclamation - as 
the landscape develops, their impact will be less. 


(i) One large level platform (cf. Egerton Gardens) does 
help to emphasise the modelled landforms elsewhere 
on the site. 


(j) The sharp angle between the slope and the plateau 
(Roddymoor) clarifies the modelling, particularly 
when the site is in a young state. 


(k) A dense growth of clover adds variety to the usual 
cover of grass over a project. 


(1) The surrounding countryside can be dramatised by 
the new landform design. 


(m) The exposure of panoramic views constitutes the 
main visual change on many sites, and the effect of 
regrading to achieve this, with the screening of 
undesirable views, should be taken into consideration. 


References 


Appleyard, D., Lynch, K. and Meyer, M. (1966) The 
View from the Road, M.1.T. Press, Cambridge, 
Massachusetts, U.S.A. 2-18. 


Branches, D.M. (1969) Critiques of K.D. Fines: Landscape 
Evaluation. A research project in East Sussex. 
Regional Studies. Vol. 3, No. 1. 91-92. 


Clark, $.B.K. (1968) Landscape survey and analysis on a 
national basis. Planning Outlook. Vol. 4, 15-17. 


Fines, K.D. (1968) Landscape Evaluation: A research 
project in East Sussex. Regional Studies. Vol. 2, 
No. 1, 41-55. 


Hackett, B. and Vyle, C.J. A report on the alternative 
schemes for the redemption of Percy Pit, Lemington, 
in the Urban District of Newburn, incorporating 
recommendations relating to the redemption of the 
heap. Unpublished 6 pps. 


H.M.S.O. (1963) The North East. H.M.S.O. 5-7. 


Laurie, I.C. (1965) Tyne Landscape. Consultants Report. 
Unpublished. 

Lewis, Philip H. Jr. and Associates. (1968) Regional 
Design for Human Impact. Thomas, Wisconsin, U.S.A. 
1-105. 

Lynch, K. 1964 (1960) The Jmage of the City. M.1.T. Press, 
Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. 1-13. 


Northern Economic Planning Council (1966) Challenge of 
the Changing North. H.M.S.O. London 23-26. 


Sargent, F.O. (1967) Scenery Classification. Vermont 
Resources Research Centre, U.S.A. 


135 


for this volume: 902852 03 5 


» SBN for complete set of two volumes: 902852 06 X 
yee" 


PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE 
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET 
ED 


UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY