4^

ri/

A

LATIN GRAMMAR

TfHEWITT KEY, M.A. F.R.S.

LATE PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON,

NOW PBOFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR, AND

HEAD-MASTER OF THE SCHOOL.

, tott!) Xtto (Corrections anK 'atJotttons.

LONDON :

BELL & DALDY, YORK ST., COVENT GARDEN.

CAMBRIDGE : DEIGHTON, BELL, AND CO.

1871.

[The right of Translation is reserved.']

PREFACE.

THE chief changes which have been made in the present
edition are as follows :

1. The principle involved in the new section, marked
451. 1, has led to the introduction of forms which without
explanation might offend the eye of the scholar, viz. dic-
1 say/ due- <draw,'/d- trust,' ntib- 'veil,' 8d- or ddi- 'take
an aversion to.' Yet these forms are as legitimate for the
Latin language, as AITT- (eXnrov) * leave,' 0vy- (e^vyov) ' fly,'
in Greek grammars. Precisely as from these bases are de-
duced the imperfect tenses XCITT-W, Xenr-etv ; 0evyw, 0e vy-f.iv j
so we may likewise deduce in the sister language from the
short bases the imperfect tenses dic-o, duc-o, fld-o, nub-o, and
a perfect ddi, forms which are no longer inconsistent with
malidfcus, fatidwus ; dux duds, redux reduds, educare ; fides
perfidus ; conntibium, pronuba ; or ddium.

2. It has been thought desirable to attach references to
the quotations employed in the Syntax.

3. Some difference of arrangement has been made in the
' principal parts' of the verbs, and in the syntax of the dative.

4. Attention has been drawn to some inseparable prepo-
sitions which represent the Greek ava in form and power, as
well as to an inseparable preposition int&r, of like origin and
no way related to the ordinary preposition inter ' between'
( 834 b. and d. 9 1308. 1, 1342. 1). It may here be noticed,
that in order to retain as far as may be the original numerical
headings of the paragraphs, such new paragraphs as were re-
quired have been distinguished by added digits, which havo
the appearance of a decimal notation. Instances have just
been given.

IV PREFACE.

5. To the crude forms a hyphen has been affixed (as in
the Smaller Grammar), so as to imply that an addition to the
word must be made before it is entitled to take a place in a
Latin sentence.

6. The defence of the crude-form system, which appeared
in the Preface of the first edition, has been enlarged and trans-
ferred to an Appendix.

7. A second Appendix touches on some new views, which
were thought to be not sufficiently mature for admission into
the body of the Grammar.

It will still be found that much which is important to
the Latin scholar is wanting in these pages. But in reply to
some objections on this head, it may truly be urged that a
grammar is not the proper receptacle for the notice of pecu-
liarities, which should find a place in the dictionary alone.
The special office of grammar is to deal with general laws ;
and it was with justice that Caesar gave to his work on this
subject the title of Analogia Latino,. There has therefore
been an error on the side of excess in the admission of much
matter relating to the prepositions, the excuse for which is
the very unsatisfactory condition of our dictionaries in this
department.

Lastly, the writer has to express his acknowledgments to
Mr. John Power Hicks, of Lincoln College, Oxford, and to
his son Mr. Thomas Key, of Lincoln's Inn, for much valuable
assistance in the preparation of this edition.

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON,
Feb. 15, 1858.

LATIN GRAMMAR.

ALPHABET.

1 THE Latin language was spoken in Rome and Latium, and after-
wards spread with the Roman conquests over Italy, Sicily, and
the greater part of France and Spain.

2 The alphabet consisted, as Cicero tells us (Nat. Deor. n. 37, 93),
^ of twenty-one letters. These must have been: abcdefghikl

m no p q r stu and x, without any j v w y z. That the alpha-
bet ended with x is implied in Suetonius (Aug. c. 88). J'and z
were introduced at a late period from Greece, and for a long time
limited to Greek or foreign words.

3 The vowels were i e a o u t to follow the natural* order of
their sounds.

4 The liquid consonants, following the natural order of their
formation from the back of the mouth towards the lips, were
r I n m.

5 X is a double consonant, sounding as Jcs.

6 K is only used before , as its modern name implies ; for ex-
ample, in the proper names Kaeso, Volkanus ; and in kalendae,
dedikare.

Q is used only before u, as its modern name implies ; for ex-
ample, in sequor ; and in old inscriptions, pequuia, <fec.
Ph, ch, th, rh were not used in old Latin (Cic. Or. 48).

* See Professor Willis's experiments as detailed in the Cambridge
Philosophical Transactions, vol. i. for Nov. 24, 1828 and March 16, 1829.

PRONUNCIATION.

PRONUNCIATION.

7 The true proutmciation of the Latin language is no longer
known. The vowels were probably pronounced as they now are
in Italian.

x In England the words are commonly pronounced nearly as they
would be in English.

!) When i before a vowel commenced a syllable, it was called by
the Romans i consonans; but was in fact a vowel i very shortly
pronounced, like our y in you. But the English in such cases
change it into a /. Thus i u n i o r (yunior) yourger is commonly
written and pronounced 'junior/

10 When u before a vowel commenced a syllable, it was called
u consonans ; but was in fact a vowel u very shortly pronounced,
like our w in we. But the English change it into a v. Thus,
u i n u m (winum) wine is commonly written and pronounced
' vinum.'

11 C and g were probably always pronounced as in cat and j?0oe,
even before i and e. But the English follow their own rule. Thus
Cioero, the Roman orator, is commonly supposed to have called
himself Sisero.

1 -2 The diphthongs, ae, oe, are generally pronounced as e.

13 A short syllable is pronounced rapidly, and is sometimes
marked by a crescent (") over the vowel, as the i in dominus
master.

14 A syllable or vowel is said to be long by nature, when the voice
dwells upon the vowel, as verus true.

15 A syllable or vowel is said to be long by position, when the
vowel is followed by two consonants which do not both belong to
the next syllable, as mfignus great, sunt they are, et mater and
the mother.

If; A straight line (~) over the vowel is sometimes used to denote
a long syllable, as verus true, mugnus great.

\ ~ A diphthong is nearly always long by nature, as aurum gold,
aes bronze, proelium battle. The few exceptions consist of words
in which the diphthong is immediately followed by a vowel, as
praeustus burnt at the end.

18 A vowel followed by a vowel in the next syllable is nearly
always short, as fillus son, filla daughter, aureus golden. The ex-
ceptions consist of words in which the long vowel has taken the

PRONUNCIATION. 3

place of a diphthong, or of two vowels, as f 10 (for faio) 1 become,
nulllus (for nulloius) of no one, alms (for aliius) another's : so
especially with foreign names, as Darius (for Dareius), Medea
(for Medela).

19 A short vowel followed by a consonant should generally be
pronounced with that consonant, as pat-er father.

A long vowel followed by a consonant should generally be pro-
nounced separately from the consonant, as ma-ter mother.

21 If a vowel, itself short, be followed by two consonants which
can be pronounced at the beginning of a syllable, as jt?r, cr, tr ;
br,gr, dr ; andjp, there are often two ways of dividing the word.
Thus fiinebris connected with a corpse is pronounced in prose
fu-nS-bris ; but in verse it may be pronounced fu-neb-ris. In the
comic writers, however, such a syllable is always short.

A syllable which is sometimes long and sometimes short is
said to be common, and is marked ( " u ) or (~ ) over the vowel, as
funebris or funebris.

22 If the last syllable but one be long, it has the accent, as uinum
wine, arcus low, regina queen, sagitta arrow.

2 3 If the last syllable but one be short and the last syllable but
two be long, this long syllable has the accent, as filia daughter,
auonculus a mother's brother.

24 If two or more short syllables, exclusive of the last syllable,
come together, the second of them (counting from the beginning
of the word) has its vowel nearly dropped* in pronunciation. Thus
6p8ra work should be pronounced almost as op'ra; mlsSrla
wretchedness, as mis'ria; exISrat he had gone out, as exi'rat ;
1 c r ii m a tear, probably as la'r'ma.f

25 If the syllable to be so dropped be an i (or e) or u, pronounce
the i (or e) like y, the u like w. Thus m u 1 1 e r woman should be
pronounced mulyer ; arle'tis of a ram, arye'tis ; perllmus we
are ruined, perylmus ; fluuI5rum0/ rivers, fluuy6rum ; P u t S-
5 1 i name of a town, Piity 61i ; r e s 1 1 1 u 6 r e to set up again, restit-
wSre.

26 A long word has sometimes more than one accent : as, immor-
talis immortal ; re'ctipe'rare (rec'perare), to recover, to get back.

* See Bentley's Terence ad Eun. ii. 2. 36 ; Hermann de Re Me-
trica, speaking ofmiserum, p. 206.
t Compare the French larme.

WORD-BUILDING.

Enclitics are little words pronounced and sometimes even
written with the word preceding : as, quS and, mater-que and
the mother; u6 or, mat4r-uo or the mother ; nS in asking ques-
tions, as inater-ne abiit ? is the mother gone away ? Prepositions
placed after a noun are of this kind : as, altis-de montibus down
from the high mountains.

Proclitics are words pronounced and sometimes even written
with the word following. Prepositions are of this kind : as, in-
ter-nos between us, inter-se between them, in-primis among the first,
a-me from me.

Elision. When one word ends with a vowel or a vowel and an
m, and the next begins with a vowel or an h, the final vowel and
m of the first word are not pronounced in poetry : thus,

Monstrwwi horrendwm informs ingens cti! lumen Sdempttim
should be read,

Monstr', horrend', inform', ingens cul lumen adSmptum.
Unearthly, ghastly, shapeless ; reft of an eye immense.

WORD-BUILDING.

30 The simplest words consist of one syllable : as the verbs dtic-

draw, &g- drive or put in motion ; or the substantives pSd- foot,

6X1- salt.

These are called roots.
3*2 A suffix is a syllable which is added to the end of a word and

adds to or alters its meaning : as, due-* draw, duc-to- drawn;

&g- drive, ag-mSn- a drove.

33 A short vowel, generally , seems sometimes to be inserted
before the suffix : as in a>-Mi- c>i*i!>/ put in motion, active.

34 Several suffixes may be added one after another to the same
root : as, g- put in motion, S.g-1-li- active, aglll-tat- activity, S-gl-
Utat-fs of activity.

Words formed by suffixes are said to be derived.

35 A prefix is a syllable which is placed before a root, and adds to
or alters its meaning : as, due- draw, dS-duc- draw down ; S,g-
drive, ex-Tg- drive out.

* For the quantity see $ 451. 1.

NOUNS.

Words formed by prefixes are said to be compounded.
36 In the derivation and composition of words the letters are
sometimes slightly altered : as, &g- drive, ac-to- driven, ex-Ig-
drive out ; opgs- work, tfper-is of work.

NOUNS.
i. e. SUBSTANTIVES AND ADJECTIVES.

37 The Latin language has no article, so that a Latin substantive
may be translated in three ways : 1. without an article, as mulier,
woman ; 2. with the indefinite article, as mulier, a woman ; 3.
with the definite article, as muligr, the woman.

38 With Latin substantives there are three questions to be asked :
What is the gender ? What is the case ? What is the number ?

39 The genders are two, masculine and feminine. If a noun be of
neither gender, it is called neuter.

< See tables of genders, 191, &c.

40 Little suffixes with the meaning of prepositions are added to
nouns. Thus Sulmon- was the name of a town in Italy. Add
the suffix em to it, and e-o Sulmon-em means / am going to Sul-
mon. Add the suffix i, and Sulmon-l hSblt o means / reside at
Sulmon.

41 A noun, before these suffixes are added, is said to be in the
crude form. A crude form is here printed with a final, hyphen.

42 The word made up of a noun and one of these suffixes is called
a case.

43 There are five suffixes, which being added to a crude form
make five cases : the nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and
ablative. To these is generally added the vocative.*

44 The nominative is commonly formed by the suffix s : as, tr&b-
a beam, nom. trabs.

The nominative marks the quarter from which an action pro-
ceeds, i. e. the agent. Thus, in the sentence, 'the master strikes
the slave,' the blow comes from the master : this word master in
Latin would be in the nominative case.

* The case so called is in reality, so far as the Latin language is con-
cerned, a nominative ; except perhaps in the singular of the o declension,
viz. au&. But even with this compare the nominatives iste, HIS, ips2.

BfOTTNS.

The nominative is called the subject in English grammar.
The vocative is used in addressing people.

45 The accusative is formed by the suffix em : as, trab- a beam,
ace. tr&b-em.

46 The accusative answers to the question whither? or marks the
quarter to which an action is directed : as, eo Sulmonem, I am
going to Sulmon. Or again in the sentence, ' the master strikes
the slave,' the blow goes to the slave : this word slave in Latin
would be in the accusative case. *

The accusative is often used with prepositions : as, In urbem
venit, he came into the city.

The accusative is called the object in English grammar.*

47 The genitive is formed by the suffix ius or is : as, quo- who,
gen. quo-iiis ; trab- beam, gen. trab-ls.

The genitive answers to the question whence ? or signifies /rowi :
as, cSlor sol-is, the heat from the sun. It is commonly translated
by of: as, calor soils, the heat of the sun; or by the English suffix
's : as, calor soils, the sun's heat."^

48 The nominative and genitive both signify from : but they differ
in this ; the nominative belongs to a verb, the genitive to a noun.

49 The dative is formed by the suffix bi or I : as, i- this, I-bi in
this place ; trab- beam, dat. trab-i.

The dative answers to the question where ? and is translated
by at or in : as, Sulmon-i, at Sulmon ; ll-bi, in another place. It
is used also for to, if there is no motion : as, haeret tibi, it clings
to you.

/>(.) The ablative has two very different meanings, and perhaps two
different origins. Sometimes it answers to the question whence ?
sometimes, like the dative, to the question where ? In the former
sense it had originally a final d, as, from Gnaivo-, the old form of
the praenomen Cneio- (Cneius), abl. Gnaivod. This form became
quite obsolete. In the classical writers the ablative in form, what-
ever be its sense, is very like to or identical with the dative ; but
the I is often changed into an & : as, trab- beam, abl. trS,b-6 ; or
lost altogether, leaving the preceding vowel long : as, ala- wing,
abl. ala.

* The English language has the accusatival suffix in him, the accusa-
tive of he ; and in whom, the accusative of who.

f* The English language has the genitival suffix in his, the genitive
of he ; and in whose, the genitive of who.

CONSONANT DECLENSION.

The ablative sometimes signifies from, as, CdYintho- Corinth,
abl. Corintho from Corinth : sometimes it agrees ill meaning with
the dative, as, riis- country, D. rtir-1, or Ab. rur-e', in the country ;
D. Sulmou-i, or Ab. Sulm5n-e, at Sulmon.

51 The ablative is often used with prepositions : as, ex urbS, out
of the city ; cum reg-e", with the king ; In urb-e, in the city.

52 Number. The plural is generally marked in English by s or
en, as, dogs, oxen; in Latin sometimes by s, sometimes by um.
These suffixes are added to the case-suffixes ; as in the genitives
servo-r-um for servo-'s-um, of slaves ; re-r*-um for re-'s-um, of
things ; or in the datives, vo-bl-s, re-bii-s.

53 In adding these case-suffixes and plural-suffixes to the crude
forms, some changes take place, particularly if the crude form end
in a vowel.

54 These changes depend chiefly upon the last letter of the noun.
Nouns are therefore divided, according to the last letter, into
classes called declensions.

55 CONSONANT (or THIRD)t DECLENSION.

MASCULINE AND FEMININE NOUNS.

Latin C.F.
Gender.
English.

Trab-
fem.
tree, beam.

Princep-
masc or fern.
first, chief.

Aucep-
masc-. or fern.
bird-catcher.

Reg-
masc.
king.

Ntic-
fem.
nut.

Singular.
Nom.

VOG.

Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

trabs
trabs
trabem
trabis
trabl
trabg

princeps
princeps
principem
principis
principi
principe

auceps
auceps
aucupem
aucupis
aucupi
aucupe

rex
rex

regem
regis
regi
regg

nux
nux
niicem
nucis
nuci
nticS

Plural.
Nom.
Voc.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

trabes
trabcs
trabes
trabura
trabibus
trabibus

principes
principes
principes
principum
principibus
princlplbus

aucupes
auciipes
aucupes
aucupum
aucupibus
aucupibus

reges
reges
reges
regum
regibus
regibus

|

nuces
niices
niices
micum
niicibus
nucibiis

* The r for * in the genitive is seen in the English genitives her and
their.

f The numbers of the declensions are given, because they are so
arranged in nearly all grammars and dictionaries.

CONSONANT DECLENSION.

MASCULINE AND FEMININE NOUNS (continued).

Latin C.F.

Lapid-

Custod-

Ariet-

Corn-Tt-

Aetat-

Gender.

masc.

masc. or fern.

masc.

masc. or fern.

fem.

English.

a stone.

guard.

ram.

companion.

age.

Singular.

Nom.

lapis

custos

aries

cSmes

aetas

Voc.

lapis

custos

aries

c5mSs

aetas

Ace.

lapidem

custodem

arietem

cSmitem

aetatem

Gen.

lapldls

custodis

arietis

c5raitis

aetatis

Dat.

lapidi

custodl

arieti

cSmiti

aetati

Abl

lapidg

custodg

ariStg

cSmlte

aetatg

Plural.

Nom.

lapides

custodes

arigtes

cSmites

aetates

Voc.

lapides

custodes

arietes

cSmltes

aetates

Ace.

lapides

custodes

arigtes

c5mites

aetates

Gen.

lapidum

custodum

ariStum

c5mitura

aetatum

Dat.

lapidibus

custodibus

arietibiis

c6mitibus

aetatibiis

Abl.

lapidibus

custodibus

arietibus

c3mitibus

aetatibus

Latin C.F.
Gender.
English.

Mos-
masc.
custom.

Pulvls-
masc.
dust.

Pater-
masc.
father.

CUlmor-
masc.
shout.

Hiem-
fem.
winter.

Singular.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

mos
mog
mofl;m
morts
mori
morS

pulvis
pulvls
pulvgrem
pulvSris
pulvgri
pulvgrg

patgr
patgr
patrem
patrls
patri
patre

clam5r
clam5r
clarnorem
clamoris
clamor!
clamorS

hiemps
hiemps
hiemem
hiemis
higml
higmS

Plural.

Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

mores
mores
mores
morum
moribus
morlbus

S

2

1
'*

patres
pfitres
patres
patrum
patrlbus
patribus

clamores
clamores
clamores
clamorum
clamoribiis
clamoribus

hiSmes
hiSmes
higmes
higmum
higmlbus
higmibus

* An ace. pulveres in Horace.

CONSONANT DECLENSION.

MASCULINE AND FEMININE NOUNS (continued}.

Latin c F.
Gender.
English.

851-

masc.
sun.

Consvil-
masc.
consul.

Ration-
fern.
account.

Ordon-

masc.
rank.

Sanguin-
masc.
blood.

Singular.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

sol
sol
solem

solis
soli
sole

consul
consul
consulem
consults
consul!
consiile

ratio
ratio
rationem
rationis
ration!
ration^

ord5
ordo
ordinem
ordinis
ordm!
ordm

sanguis
sanguls
sanguinem
saugumis
sanguln!
sanguine

Plural.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dot.
Abl.

soles
soles

soles
*

consules
consules
consules
consulum
consullbiis
consulibiis

rationes
rationes
rationes
rationum
rationibus
ratiombus

ordmes
ordines
ordmes
ordinum
ordmibus
ordmibus

g"

2
1

solibus
solibus

56 NEUTER NOUNS.

Neuter nouns differ from others only in the N. V\ and Ace.,
which are always alike. In the singular these cases are nearly al-
ways short in the last syllable, and in the plural always end in a.

Latin C.F.
English.

Nomgn-
name.

Opes-
work.

Frigos-
cold.

Robor-
hardness.

Caput-
head.

Singular.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

nomen
nomgn
nomSn
nominls
nomin!
nomlnS

Spiis
Spiis
Spiis
opens
5pSr!
Sperg

frigus
frigus
frigus
frig-Sris
fr!g5rl
fr!g5re

robur
robur
robur
rob5ris
rob5r!
robSrS

caput
caput
caput
capitis
capiti
capite

Plural.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

nomma
nomma
nomma
nominum
nomimbiis
nomimbus

6pgra
opSra
SpSra
operum
(5pSrIbus
SpSribus

frlgSra
fr!g5ra
frigSra
frlg5rum
fr!g5ribus
frigSribiis

rob5ra
robSra
robSra
robQrum
roborlbus
rob5ribus

capita
capita
capita
capitum
capitlbus
capitlbus

* Not found.

10

CONSONANT DECLENSION.

NEUTER NOUNS (continued).

Latin C.F.

English.

Uber-
stream.

Os-

mouth.

Oss-

bone.

Crus-
leg.

Cord-
heart.

Singular.

Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

ubSr
fiber
fiber
uberis
ubeii
ubere

OS
OS
OS

oris
or!
ore

5s
5s
5s

OSS1S

ossT
ossS

crus
crtis
crus
eruris
crQri
crur

c5r
c5r
c5r
cordis
cord!
corde

Plural.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

ubera
ubera
ubera
uberum
ubenbus
uberibiis

ora
ora

ora

ossa
ossa
ossa
ossmnrf-
ossibus
ossibus

crura
crura
crura
crurum

cruribus
cruribus

corda
corda

corda
*

oribus
oribus

cordlbus
cordibus

57

Remarks on the Consonant Declension.

The nominative, as has been already said, is most regularly
formed by the addition of s : as, trab- beam, N. trabs.

58 If the crude form end in g or c, x is written instead of gs or
cs : as, reg- king, N. rex ; nuc- nut, N. nux.

59 If the crude form end in d or t, this letter is omitted : as, lapld-
stone, N. lapis ; comlt- companion, N. comgs.

CO If in Greek words the crude form end in ant, ent, or unt, the
Nom. will end in as, Is, or us respectively.

61 Even in Latin words, this change is sometimes found : as, in-
fant- infant, N. infans or infas.

62 If the crude form end in r or l t the s is omitted : as, patgr-
father, N. pater ; consul- consul, N. consul : if in n, either the n
or the s is omitted, as sanguln- blood, N. sauguls, or in old writers
sanguen.

63 If the crude form end in on or on, both n and 5 are omitted : as,
ho'md'n- human being, N. homo ; ration- an account, N. ratio. In
Greek names in on or ont, the n is often retained, but not by the
best writers : as, Lacon-, Xgnophont-, N. Lacon, X6n5phon ; better
Laco, Xentfpho.

* Not found. f Observe the irregular i.

CONSONANT DECLENSION. 11

64 If the crude form end in * or ss, only one * is left at the end of
the nominative : as, mus- mouse, os- mouth, oss- bone ; N. mus,
os, 5s.

05 If the crude form end in II, rr, or rd, the second of these con-
sonants is omitted in the nominative : as, mell- honey, farr- spelt,
cord- heart ; N. mel, far, c5r.

66 If the word be neuter, the s is not added : as, alec- pickled
herring, N. ale"c. Many adjectives however take the ? even for
the neuter K V. Ac. : as, feroc- haughty, praesent- present ; N.
V. Ac. neut. fgrox, praesens.

67 Neuters in mat, borrowed from the Greek language, imitate
that language in dropping the t in the N. V. Ac. : as, poemat- a
poem, N. V. Ac poema".

68 If the crude form has a short i before the final consonant, this
is often changed in the N. into $ : as, milit- soldier, N. mile's.

69 If the crude form end in Ss or ds, the N. and V. generally pre-
fer us: as, venes- beauty, corpus- yfcsA, body ; N. and V. venus,
corpus. Neuter words retain the us in the Ac. also. Greek words
prefer ds in tho N. V. Ac. of neuters.

70 The crude form of comparative adjectives ends in os; whence
the neuter N. V. Ac. end in us, the masculine and feminine N.
and V. in 6r : as, melios- better, N. and V. m. and f. metier, N. V.
Ac. neut. melms.

71 *When the nominative is left with a single consonant at the
end, the quantity of the preceding vowel generally remains as in
the crude form : as, salut- safety, custod- keeper, N. salus, custos ;
and again, anat- duck, lapid- stone, patSr- father, have in the N.
Sujls, Iftpls, patgr.

72 But the crude forms in or have a short nominative : as, tlmor-
fear, N. tlmor. Yet such a form as tlmor also occurs.

73 Crude forms in s coexist for the most part with crude forms in
r : as, arbSs- or arbor- a tree, 5dos- or <5dor- scent. Of these, the
form with r is preferred in those cases where a vowel follows : as,
G. arbtfris of a tree, odoris of the scent.

* In old writers, such as Ennius, Plautus, Terence (and occasionally
even Virgil), nominatives, which should be short according to this rule,
are at times long : as, pater, like the Greek Trarrjp. So the nominatives
aer, sSnipes, abies, aries, paries, Ceres, sangius, pulvis, from the crude
forms aer-, soniped-, ahiet-, ariet-, pariet-, Ceres-, sanguin-, pulvis-, have
some of them always, others at times, a long vowel.

12 CONSONANT DECLENSION.

74 If the crude form end in &, 8r takes its place in those cases
where a vowel follows : as, pulvis- dust, G. pulvSrls.

75 If the crude form end in tin, $n, ut, &c., the short vowel is
often changed into I in those cases where a vowel follows : as,
ordon-nm, c&piit- head, G. ordinis, c&pltls. CarSn-yk^ drops
the vowel altogether in those cases : as, G. carnls.

76 V. Greek words in ant form the V. in a : as, Atlant- Atlas,
N. Atlas, V. Atla.

77 Ac. Greek words often form the Ac. in d : as, Pallad- the
goddess Pallas, N. Pallas, Ac. PallSda ; a6r- air, Ac. aer& ; aether-
the region of fire (ahove the air), Ac. aethera.

78 G. Greek words often form the G. in os or us : as, Pall&d-, G.
PalladSs.

79 D. The dative sometimes takes an 8 instead of an I : as, aes-
bronze, D. aerl, and rarely aere.

80 D. Greek words sometimes form the D. in If : as, Pall&d-, D.
Palladi.

81 Ab. The ablative sometimes takes an I instead of an <?: as,
c&piit- head, Ab. capItS, and rarely caplti.

82 N. and V. pi. Greek words often shorten the last syllable of
the N. and V. pi. : as, rhetSr- orator, N. and V. pi. rhetdre's.

83 N. V. Ac. pi. Greek neuter nouns whose crude form ends in
8s form the N. V. and Ac. pi. in ea or e : as, Spes- an heroic poem,
N. sing. 6p8s, N. V. Ac. pi. epeS, or 6pe.

84 Ac. pi. Greek words often form the Ac. pi. in as : as, rhetbr-
orator, Ac. pi. rhetSr&s.

85 G. pi. There is an old form of the G. pi. in 8rum : as, nuc-
nut, G. pi. niicerum.

86 D. and Ab. pi. Greek nouns in mat often form this case in
mdtls, rather than in mdtibus: as, poemat- a poem, N. sing. poe"ma,
D. and Ab. pi. poematlbus, or poematis.

87 D. and Ab. pi. Greek nouns sometimes form the D. and Ab.
pi. in sin or si, with the final consonant of the crude form omitted,
so as to leave the preceding vowel short : as, Troad- a Trojan wo-
man, N. sing. Troas, D. and Ab. pi. Troasln or Troasl.

13

VOWEL DECLENSIONS.
1. MASCULINE AND FEMININE NOUNS.

Last let.

a

i

u

e

Declen.

1

2

3

4

5

Latin.
Gender.
English.

Ala-
fern.
wing.

Auo-
masc.
grandfather.

Aui-
fem.
bird.

Acu-
fem
needle.

Re-

fem.
thing.

Sing.
Nom.

ala

auos, auus

aulsj

acus

res

Voc.

ala

aug

auis

acus

res

Ace.

alam.

auom, auum

auim, auem

acum

rem

Gen.

alae

am*

auis

acus

re% re

Dat.

alae

auo

aul

acui, acu

rel, re

AU.

ala

auo

aul, auS

acu

re

Plural.

Nom.

alae

am

aues

Scus

res

Voc.

alae

aui

aues

acus

res

Ace.

alas

auos

auis, aues

acus

res

Gen.

alarum

auorum

auium

acuum

rerum

Dat.

allsj

auis

auibiis

acubiis

rebus

AU.

alls

auis

aulbus

acubus

rebus

* The o of the crude form may be traced even in those cases which
appear commonly without it. Compare the gen. sing, guo-ius with the
Homeric Ao 7 o:o ; the old nom. pi. oloe for illl with the Greek \oyoi ;
the dat. and abl. pi. duobiis, and oloes for illis, with the Greek \oyois.

t The a of the crude form is visible through all this declension except
in the dative and ablative plural. That it once existed here also is proved
by the old forms equabus, &c., and by the Greek dative p.ovaais.

J Compare this declension with the Greek iro\t-, N. iro\is.

The a of these cases was perhaps at first long, like Greek x>
ffroa, ArjSa. So aguila, Enn. Ann. 148; sancta, filia, Liv. Andr. ap.
Prise, vi. 42 ; liberd, Plant. Ep. in. 4. 62; especially in Greek words, as
Ilurica, Trin. iv. 2. 10; epistula, Asin. iv. 1. 17 ; Canthara, Ep. iv. 1. 40.

14

VOWEL DECLENSIONS.
2. NEUTER NOUNS.

Last letter.
Declension.

a

1

2

i
3

u
4

e
5

Latin.
English.

There are no neuters of this declensicm.

Bello-
war.

Mari-
sea.

Cornu-
horn.

There are no neuters of this declension.

Singular.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl

bellum
bellum
bellum
belli
bells
bello

mare*
marS
marS
marls
marl
marl

cornu
cornu
cornii
[corn us]*
cornul, cornu
cornu

Plural.

Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

bell&
bellX
belli

bellorum
bellls
bellls

maria
maria
maria
marium
marlbus
maribus

cornua
cornua
cornua
cornuum
cornubus
cornubus

Remarks on the First, or A Declension.

90 A very large number of feminine adjectives are of this declen-
sion, while the masculine and neuter forms end in o : as, bona-
f. goody b5no- masc. and neuter.

91 N. Four words add an e to make the feminine nominative :
quae ; haec ; istaec ; illaec. In the last three the c has nothing
to do with the case-suffix.t

92 N. The nominative in Greek proper names sometimes has an
s: as, Aenea- Aeneas, N. AenSas ; but the best prose writers pre-
fer the N. and V. in a : as, Aristagora.

03 V. The vocative of Greek proper names sometimes has a long
a : as, Aenea-, voc. Aenea.

94 Ac The accusative of Greek proper names sometimes has an
n : as, Aeuoa-, ac. Aenean ; MaiS,-, ac. MaiSn.

95 G. The genitive has an old form in i : as, alai.

9(5 G. The genitive sometimes takes an 5 : as, f&mllia- (fam'lia)
a gang of slaves, an establishment of slaves, gen. f&mllias.
* Not found. t See 289.

VOWEL DECLENSIONS. 15

97 D. The dative has an old form in i : as, alai.

98 G. pi. The plural genitive sometimes has a short form : as,
caellcftla- inhabitant of heaven, G. caelicolum, instead of caellco'la-
rum ; amphora- a measure of content, G. amphSrum. And in foreign
proper names on, as in Greek, is sometimes written instead of um.

99 D. and Ab. pi. The dative and ablative have an old form in
bus: as, Squa- mare, D. and Ab. gquabus. This form is often re-
tained to distinguish the sex ; otherwise, equo- horse, and Squa-
mare, would have the same dative and ablative plural ; so also
dua- f. two, amba- f. both, have D. and Ab. duabus, ambabus.

Remarks on the Second, or Declension.

100 The Greek words Tro- a Trojan, and hero- a demigod, are de-
clined like Greek words of the # consonant declension.

101 If the crude form end in 8ro, the e is often dropped in those
cases where a vowel follows the r : as, HbSro- the inner bark of a
tree, a book, X. and V. llbSr, Ac. librum, <fec. See 124. 1.

102 N. and Ac. The nominative and accusative prefer an o, if u
precede, as auo- grandfather, N. &u5s, Ac. uom : otherwise
u is preferred, as hamo- hook, N. hamus, Ac. hamum. But if
the crude form end in quo, then cus and cum are preferred to quus
or quos, and to quum or quom : as, Squo- horse, N. Sous, Ac. Scum ;
antique- old, N. antlcus, Ac. anticum.

103 N. Tn Greek words o is preferred to u : as, Delo- the island
Delos, N. Delos.

104 N. and V. If the crude form of a masculine noun end in ro,
the N. and V. often drop the letters that follow r : as, llbero-
book, N. and V. liber ; ulro- man, N. and V. ulr.

105 N. Three nouns form the N. in 8: ipso-self, N. ipsus, more
commonly ipsS ; isto- that near you, N. ist ; illo- yonder, N. ille.
If nominatives so formed take after them the enclitic cS, look or
lo, they have an i instead of an e : hence ho- this, N. h!c ; isto-,
N. istlc; illo-, N. illlc.

106 V. The vocative from proper names in io contracts te into I :
as, Antonio- Antonius or Antony, V. Anton!. So gSnio- a guardian
spirit, V. gem ; fllio- s'm, V. fill.

107 V. Meo- mine contracts the V. into ml.

108 V. The nominative is sometimes used as a vocative : as, Deo-
God, N". or V. Detis.

109 Ac. Greek proper names sometimes form the accusative with
n : as, Delo- the island Delos, Ac. Del8n.

16

VOWEL DECLENSIONS.

110 G. and D. The following adjectives form their genitives in
ius, their datives in I, for the masculine, feminine, and neuter,
though some of them have occasionally the more common forms.

C.F.

G.

D.

C.F.

G.

D.

eo-
quo- or
cu-

ejus
quoius or
cuiiis

el
quoi, cut*
or cm

ipso-
alio-
altSro-

ipslus
alms
altSrius

ipsi
alii
alter!

utgro-

utriiis

utri

uno-

unms

unl

neutSro-

neutrius

neutri

ullo-

ullius

ulli

ho-

huiiis

hui-c*

nullo

nullius

null!

isto-

istms

isti

solo-

solms

soli

fflo-

illius

illl

toto-

totlus

totlf

111 Many of these genitives in ius are found in poetry with a short
penult, as illius ; but the genitive Sftiis (contracted from aliius) is
always long. Altertiis with a long i is found in old writers ( Ter.
And. iv. 1. 4 and Enn. ap. Donat. ad Ter. Ph. n. 2. 25) : in prose
it is usual to pronounce the i short : alteriiis.

112 G. Substantives in io contract il into i: as, otio- leisure, G.
oti. This final i is sometimes written so as to overtop the other
letters, as OT!.

113 G. Greek words sometimes form the genitive in u : as, M6n-
andSro- the poet Menander, G. Mgnandrii.

114 D. Names of places form a dative in * with the meaning at :
as, Mlleto- the town Miletus, D. Miletl at Miletus ; so humo-
ground, D. hiimi on the ground ; domo- house, D. domi at home ;
bello- war, D. belli in war : and some adjectives in certain
phrases, as quint! die on the fifth day, &c.

115 N. pi. The old nominative ended in e: as, oloe from olo-
yonder, instead of illl from illo-. So also in Greek words : as,
Adelpho- brother, N. pi. Adelphoe.

110 1ST. pi. Deo- God has the plural N. Del, Dil, or more com-
monly Dl ; and eo- this or that has a plural N. il, 1, or more
commonly hi.

117 N. and Ac. pi. Duo- two and ambo- loth have for the mas-
culine N. du5 and ambo, Ac. duos or duo, ambos or ambo ; for
the neut. N. and Ac. du5 and ambo.

* Pronounced as monosyllables : cui (ki), huic (hik).

f These words may be recollected by the following rhymes :

ius and I from alio- altero-, I eo- and quo-, uno- and ullo-,
solo- toto-, utero- neutSro-, I ho- isto- illo-, ipso- and nullo-.

VOWEL DECLENSIONS.

17

118 G. pi. The genitive sometimes has a short form, especially in
numbers weights and measures : as, duo- two, G. pi. duorum or
duum ; mo'dio- a bushel, G. pi. medium.

119 G. pi. Greek words form the G. pi. in on : as, Georglco- be-
longing to agriculture, G. pi. Georgicon.

120 D. and Ab. pi. The dative and ablative of duo- and ambo-
are in the masculine and neuter duobus, ambobiis.

121 D. and Ab. pi. An old form of the D. and Ab. pi. is in es :
as, oloes from olo- yonder, instead of illls from illo-.

122 D. and Ab. pi. Deo- has in the D. and Ab. pi. Dels, Dils, or
more commonly Dls ; and eo- has els, ils, Is, or more commonly
his.

123 Four neuters in o have a d in the N. and Ac. singular : quo-,
quod ; isto-, istud ; illo-, illud ; alio-, aliiid.

124 Ho-, isto-, illo-, when compounded with the enclitic c8, look or
lo, take neither d nor m in the N. and Ac. neut. : as, hoc, istSc or
istuc, illoc or illuc.

124.1

IRREGULAR DECLENSION.

Latin C.F.

Puero-

Viro-

Libero-

Filio-

Equo-

Gender.

masc.

masc.

masc.

masc.

masc.

English.

boy.

man.

inner bark.

son.

horse.

Singular.

Nom.

puSr

mr

UbSr

fllius

Setts*

Voc.

puer

uir*

liber

fill

Squg

Ace.

puerum

uirum

Itbrum

filium

Scum*

Gen.

puSri

uiri

llbri

f ilil or fill

8qui

Dat.

puero

uiro

libro

filio

quo

Abl.

puero

ulro

llbro

filio

Squo

Plural.

Nom.

puSri

uiri

llbri

fllil

gqul

Voc.

pue'rl

uiri

llbri

filii

equi

Ace.

puSros

uiros

Itbros

filios

gquos

Gen.

pugrorum

uirorum

llbrorum

filiomm

gquorum

Dat.

puSiis

uiris

libris

filiis

SquTS

Abl.

pueiis

uMs

libris

flliTs

fiquls

* So our best Mss. for the best authors ; but editors in their timidity
generally print equus, equwn.

18 YOWEL DECLENSIONS.

Remarks on the T/iird, or I Declension.

125 Many words belong partly to the i declension, partly x> ohe
consonant declension : as, sorti- or sort- a lot or ballot. In such
words the singular is generally formed according to the consonant
declension, the plural according to the i declension. (See 148. 1)

126 Many words belong partly to the i declension, partly to the e de-
clension : as, aede- or aedi- temple. (See 148. 1) The forms from
e are seldom used except in the nom. and voc. But fame- or fami-
hunger has an Ab. fame with the e long, as in the e declension.

126. 1 N. Although neuter nominatives of this declension commonly
end in , poti- possible has for the neuter in old writers potis, as
well as p5tS.

127 N. and V. If a crude form end in ri, the letters which should
follow r are often dropped in the nom. and voc. : as, lintgri- a wherry,
N. and V. linter ; Arari- a river in Gallia, N. and V. Ar&r or Araris.

128 N. and V. Some adjectives ending in eri have both forms : as,
acSri- sharp, N . and V. acer for the masculine, acris for the femi-
nine ; but aciis is sometimes used even for the masculine.

129 If the crude form end in &ri, the e is often dropped in those cases
which do not end in er : as, linteri- wherry, G. lintrls.

130 N. and V. If the crude form ends in li, the letters which should
follow I in the N. and V. are sometimes dropped : as, vlglli- a night-
sentinel, N. and V. vigil. This word is in origin an adjective.

131 N. V. Ac. If the crude form of a neuter substantive end in
dri or dli, the N". V. Ac. generally drop the final 8 and shorten the
a : as, calcari- spur, N. V. Ac. calcar. These words are in origin
neuter adjectives.

132 N. and Ac. Three pronouns form the neut. sing. N. and Ac.
in d : qui- quid ; i- Id ; ali- alld.

133 Ac. Some few substantives are found only with the Ac. in
im : as, vi-m force, siti-m thirst ; but em is in more general use.
With adjectives em alone is found, as from leni- smooth, Ac. nuisc.
and fern, lenem.

134 Ac. Greek words often form the accusative in n : as, P&ri-
Paris, N. Paris, Ac. Farm.

135 G. Greek words sometimes form the gen. in os : as, m&thesi-
knowledge, G. mS-theseos.

136 Ab Neuter substantives (with the exception of names of
towns) and also adjectives of all genders prefer the ablative in I :

VOWEL DECLENSIONS.

19

as, mari- sea., Ab. mSri ;* leni- smooth, Ab. lenl. But adjectives
used as masc. or fern, substantives admit the Ab. in .- as affini-
a relative by marriage, Ab. affinS. Participles in enti- when used
as substantives, and also in the construction called the ablative
absolute ( 1013), require the form in e.
136. 1 Ac. pi. A form in eis (=ls) also occurs in inscriptions.

137 G. pi. Some nouns drop the i in the G. pi. : as, cani- dog,
3\WQm- young man, celeri- quick ; G. pi. canum, juvenum, celgrum.
This is often the case in poetry : as, agresti- of the country, G. pi.
agrestiuin, or in poetry agrestum ; and generally with those adjec-
tives which have no neuter plural : as, Inop- helpless, G. pi. inopum.

138 G. pi. Greek words sometimes form the G. pi. in on : as,
metamorphosi- change of form, N. sing, metamorphosis, G. pi.
mgtamorphoseon.

139 G. pi. Plural names of festivals often form the G. pi. as if from
a C.F. in io : as, Baccanali- of Bacchus, N. pi. BaccanaliS,, G. pi.
Baccanalium or Baccanaliorum.

139.1

IRREGULAR / DECLENSION.

Lat. C.F.
Gender.
English.

Lintgri-
fern.
wherry.

Vigili-
masc.
a night-
sentinel.

Affini-
mas. or fern.
relative by
marriage.

Animali-
neut.
living being.

Calcari-
neut.
spur.

Sing.
Nom.
Voc.
AcCj
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

lintSr
linter
lintrem
lintris
lintri
lintri or
lintre

uigil

Ulgll

uigilem

UlglllS
Ulglll

uigili or
uigile

affmis
affinis
afFmem
affinis
affini
affmi or
affme

animal
animal
animal
animalis
animali
animall or
animale

calcar
calcar
calcar
calcaris
calcari
calcari or
calcare

Plural.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.

Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

lintres
lintres
lintris or
lintres
lintrium
lintribiis
lintribus

uigil es
uigiles
uigilis or
uigiles
uigilumf
uigilibus
uigilibus

afflnes
affmes
affinis or
affines
affmium
affinibus
affinibus

animalia
animalia
animalia

animalium
animalibus
animalibus

calcaria
calcariS
calcaria

calcarium
calcaribus
calcaribus

* But mare as an abl. occurs in poetry after prepositions : as, e mare
Lucr. i. 162, demure Qv. Trist. v. 2. 20.

f Observe the omission of the i before the u.

20 VOWEL DECLENSIONS.

Remarks on the Fourth, or U Declension.

140 Two monosyllabic nouns, su- a boar or sow, gni- a crane, are
not contracted like the longer nouns of this declension, and are
therefore declined as in the consonant declension ; but su- has
both sub us and suibus in the D. and Ab. pi.

141 Many crude forms in u coexist with crude forms in o : as, lauro-
or lauru- laurel. Hence the genitives Senati, tiimulti, &c. as well
as Sgnatus, tumultus, <fec. are found. See 148.1.

142 G. From ,nu- an old woman the uncontracted Gen. anuls is
used.

143 G. pi. One u is sometimes omitted in the G. pi. : as, curru-
chariot, G. pi. curruum, or in poetry currum.

144 D. and Ab. pi. Many words change the penult u into i : as,
cornu- horn, D. and Ab. pi. cornlbiis.

Remarks on the Fifth, or E Declension.

145 Many crude forms in e coexist with crude forms in a : as,
matgria- or materie- timber. See 148. 1.

146 G. Old forms of the genitive, such as dies and dil from die-
day, are found.

147 G. and D. The penult e in the G. and D. was originally long
in all the nouns of this declension ; but if no i precede, it is consi-
dered to be short in prose : as, from fide- faith, G. and D. fldel ;
but from die- day, G. and D. die!.

148 Few nouns in e have a plural, and still fewer a G. D. and
Ab. L

148.1

MIXED DECLENSIONS.

21

Consonant and i.

t and e.

Ltitin.

urb- or

part- or

nubi-

torqui- or

urbi-, /.

parti-, /

or nube-,/.

torque-,m-or/.

English.

city.

part.

cloud.

twisted chain.

Sing.

Nom.

urbs

pars

nubes or

torques or

nubis

torquis

Voc.

urbs

pars

nubes

torques

Ace.

urbem

partem*

nubem

torquem

Gen.

urbis

partis

nubis

torquJs

Dat.

urbi

parti

nubi

torqui

AU.

urbe

part

nubS

torque 7

Plural.

Nom.

urbes

partes

nubes

torques

Voc.

urbes

partes

nubes

torques

Ace.

urbis or

partis or

nubis or

torquis or

urbes

partes

nubes

torques

Gen.

urbium

partium

nubium

torquium

Dat.

urbibus

partibus

nubibus

torquibiis

AU.

urbibiis

partibus

nubibus

torquibus

Latin.
English.

e and a.

a and o.

o and u.

materia- or materie-,/
timber.

b5no- or bona-
good.

f Ico- or ficu-, /.
fig-tree.

Sing.

Nom.

mate'ries or materia

ficus

Vnr

Acc.

matSriem or materiam

flcum

Gen.

-fX '

Ul

f ici or f Icus

XllciuCl Id"

T)nt

Abl.

materie or materia

<D*

f Ico or f Icu

O

Plural.

0>

Nom.

f

f Ici or f Icus

Voc.

9

to

Acc.

*a

r^

flcos or f Icus

Gen.

1

f Icoruni or f Icuum

Dat.

F

ficis or f Icubus

AU.

ficis or f Icubus

* Rarely partim unless used adverbially.

DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR NOUNS.

149 Some nouns are not declined : as, nihll nothing, Us permitted
by Heaven, nequam good for nothing, quSt how many, tot so many,
many numerals. See Numerals, 252. Substantives unde-
1 Jd are seldom used except as nominatives or accusatives.

Some want the plural : as, senectut- old age, ver- n. spring,
superbia-^rwfe, prole- offspring, auro- n. gold, oleo- n. oil.

Some want the singular : as, tensbra-, N. pi. tgn-brae dark-
ness; castro- ., N. pi. castrammp; anno- n., N. pi. armS, arms
Puteolo-, N. pi. Puteoll Little wells, the name of a town.
152 ^ Some have both singular and plural, but with different mean-
ings : as,

SING - PLUR.

. .

aedi- or aede- a room or temple, aedes a house.

Squa- water, s quae medicinal springs.

auxKlio-rc. help, auxtlia allied troops .

abundance, copiae military forces.

end > fines boundaries, territory.

fortune, fortunae property.

gratia- favour, gratiae thanks.

a letter of the alphabet, llterae a letter w epistle.

work, assistance, Spgrae labourers or Aired ie.

153 Some nouns are deficient in one or more cases : thus, vie- turn
has no N. or D. sing. ; 6p- help has no nominative.

154 Some nouns form their cases partly from one crude form, partly
from another. Thus, volgoV n. mob supplies a N. V. Ac. sing
volgus, and volgo- n. the G. volgl, D. and Ab. volgo ; Jter- n. route
supplies a N. V. Ac. sing, iter, and Itmer- n. the other cases ;
praeclp- head-foremost supplies praeceps for the N. and V. sing, of
all genders and the Ac. neut. sing., the other cases being formed
from praeclplt- ; vas- n. a vessel is declined in the singular along
with vaso- n. in the plural.

155 Some nouns have one gender in the singular, another in the
plural. Thus,

die- day is m. or/, in the singular, but m. in the plural
caelo- air, sky is n. m ,
freno- bridle is n. ^ or ^

rastro-rofc is n. j? ^ op n>
iSco- joke ism. ?> w> or ^ ^
Wco- place ism. ^ or ^

DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR NOUNS.

156 Some adjectives are deficient in gender. Thus, memor- mind-
ful pauper- earning -little, have no neuter ; victrlci- or victrlc- victo-
rious is only fern, in the sing., only fern, or neut. m the plur.

Some Irregular Nouns declined.

157 B5u- ox or cow, N. V. bos, Ac. bouem, G. White, D. Wul, Ab bSue.

PL N. V. Ac. bSues, G. bSuum or bourn, D. and Ab. bob

158 Veo*God, N. V. Deiis, Ac. Deum, G. Dei, D. Ab. Deo. PI. N. V.

Del, 'Dii, more commonly Dl, Ac. Deos, G. Deorum or I eum,
D Ab. Dels, Dils, more commonly Dis.

159 Domo- or domu-/., house, N. V. domiis, Ac. domum, G. domus,

D domul, domo, with doml at home, Ab. d6mu or domo. PL
N. V. domus, Ac. dSmus or d6mos, G. domuum or domorum,
D. Ab. domlbiis.

160 lou-plter- (= pater-) Jupiter, N. V. lupplter or lupiter, Ac. I5uem,

G. ISuis, D. ISul, Ab. louS.

161 lus-iurando- *., oath (really two words), N. V. Ac. msmrandum,

G iurisiurandi, D. iurliurando, Ab. iurgiurando.

162 Nig- or nlu- snow, N. V. nix, Ac. nluem, G. nluis, D. nXui, Abl.

niue. PI. N. Ac. nlues, Ab. nluibfis.

163 Re- P ublica- commonwealth (really two words), N. V. res-publlca,

Ac. rem-publicam, G. D. rel-publicae, Ab. re-publica. PL Ac.
res-publicas, G. rerum-publlcarum, Ab. rebus-publlcis.

164 S6nec- or sen- an old man, N. V. senex, Ac. senem, G. sgnls, D.

sem Ab. s6n6. PL N. V. Ac. senes, G. sgnum, D. Ab. senibus.

165 Vlsi- uis- or m- force, N. V. uls, Ac. uim, G. uls, D. Ab. ul. PL

N. V. Ac. uires, G. ulrium, D. Ab. uiribus.

Some Foreign Proper Names declined.

166 Aima- Aenea- Aeneas, N. Aeneas, V. Aenea, Ac. Aenean or -am,

G. D. Aeneae, Ab. Aenea.

167 Avyto-a- or - r Anchlsa- or Anchlse- Anchises, N. Anchlses, V. An-

chlse or -a, Ac. Anchisen or -am, G. D. Anchlsae, Ab. Anchlsg

168 Op^- Oreste- or -to- Orestes, N. Orestes, V. Orest&, Ac. Oresten

or -em, G. D. Orestae, Ab. Oreste.

169 M*rtpo- Menandgro- Menander, N. Mgnandros or -drus or -dgr,

DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR NOUNS.

V. Menandrg or -dgr, Ac. Mgnandrifn or -drum, G. Mgnandrtt
or -drl, D. Ab. Menandro.

170 UavBoo- Panthoo- Panthus, K Panthus, V. Panthu, Ac. Panthun

or Panthum, G. Panthi, D. Ab. Pantho.

171 A0co- Atho- or Athon- (and perhaps Ath5-) Mount Athos, N. Athos,

Ac. Athon Atho Athonem (and perhaps AthSn), G. D. Atho,
Ab. Atho or Athong.

172 AfiSoi- Didoi- Dido, N. V. Ac. Dido, G. Dldus, D. Ab. Dido. Also

from Dldon- N. V. Dido, Ac. Dldonem, &c.

173 Koo>- or K<a- Coo- the island Cos, N. Cos, Ac. Coon or Con, G. Col

or Co, D. Ab. Coo or Co.

174 Uapi- or Uaptd- PSri- or Parfd- Paris, K Paris, V. PSris or Parl,

Ac. Parim or -In, Paridem or -d&, G. Paridos or -dis, D. Paridl
or -dX, Ab. PSrldg.

175 A^tAXe/- Achilleu- or -le- Achilles, N. Achilles, V. Achille, Ac.

Achillen or -Ian or -lem, G. AchilleSs -lei -Us and in the best
prose Achilll, D. Achillel or -lei or -ll, Ab. Achille.

176 P 06f- Orpheu- or Orpheo- Orpheus, N. Orpheus, V. Orpheu, Ac.

OrpheS, or -eum, G. Orpheos or -el or -ei or -1, D. Orphel or -ei
or -eo, Ab. Orpheo.

177 iXiovef- Ili5ngu- Jlioneus, N. Ilioneus, V. Ilioneu, Ac. Ilionea, G.

Ili8ne5s or Ilionei, D. Ilionel or -ei or -eo, Ab. IliSneo.

178 Uepo-ef- Persgu- or Perse- Perseus, like OrphSu- : but also N.

Perses, V. Perse, Ac. Persen, G. D. Persae, Ab. Perse or -sa.

179 2aKpaTor- Socrates- or Socr&te- Socrates, N. SocrStes, V. Socrates or

-tes or -te, Ac. Socraten or -tern, G. Socratls or rather Socratl.
D. Socratl, Ab. SocrSte.

180 UepiKXeeo- Pgrlcle- Pericles, N. Pgrlcles, V. Pericles or -cle, Ac.

Pgrlclea or -clem, G. Perlclis or rather PgrXcli, D. Pgrlcll, Ab.
Pgrlcle.

181 Ba^T- Th&let- or Th^lg- Tholes, N. ThSles, V. Thales or -le, Ac.

Thaleta" or -tern, Thalen or -em, G. Thaletls Thails or -ll, D.
Thaletl or Th&li, Ab. ThSletg or Thaie.

182 A- Aty- Atys, N. Atys, V. Aty, Ac. Atyn or Atym, G. AtySs or

Atyls or Atys, D. Atyl or Aty, Ab. Atyg or Aty.

GENDER.

183 It has been already stated that there are two genders, mascu-
line and feminine, and that those nouns which are of no gender
are called neuter.

184 The gender may be determined partly by the meaning, partly
by the suffix or termination.

Gender determined by Meaning.

185 Males, months,* winds, and rivers, are generally masculine.

186 Females, countries,* islands,* and trees, are generally femi-
nine.

187 Nouns undeclined, as fas right, ngfas wrong, gummi gum; words
belonging to the other parts of speech used for the time as substan-
tives, as hoc ipsum * diu' this very word f diu 1 ; sentences used as
substantives ; and the produce of trees, are generally neuter.

188 Many substantives denote both the male and female, and are
therefore called common : as, sacerdot- priest or priestess. These
are for the most part really adjectives.

189 Sometimes there are two different words or two different ter-
minations, one for the male, the other for the female : as, tauro-
butt, vacca- cow ; equo- horse, equa- mare.

190 At other times the natural gender of animals is forgotten for a
fanciful gender. Thus, the words uolpe- fox, cani- or c&ne- dog,
Sn^t- duck, are generally considered to be feminine. On the con-
trary, ansSr- goose, IgpSs- hare, are masculine. Those words which
under one grammatical gender are applied to both male and female
are called epicenes. If the real gender must be noticed, the words
mS,s- male, and femlna-/<?mafc, are added.

* The names for the months are really adjectives agreeing with the
masculine noun, mensi- ' month,' understood. The names of countries and
islands are also often adjectives agreeing with the feminine nouns, terra-
4 land,' and insula- ' island.' So the names of ships (naui- understood)
and plays (fabula- understood) are treated as feminines.

Gender determined by Suffixes.

MASCULINE SUFFIXES.

191 The following suffixes produce masculine nouns,
arranged alphabetically according to their last letters.

They are

Suffix

Added
to

Gives a

subst.
meaning

Thus
from

English

Is derived

English

a*

verbs

a person

incol-

inhabit

incol-a-

inhabitant.

ta

a person

naui-

ship

naiu-ta-

sailor.

1C

uort-

turn

uort-ic-

eddy.

on

subst.

man

naso-

nose

Nas-on-

Big-nose.

on

verbs

man

bib-

drink

bib-on-

tippler.

on

verbs

turba-

whirl

turb-6n-

whirlwind.

of

verbs

act

liid-

play

lud-o-

play.

iof

verbs

flu-

flow

fluu-io-

river.

Blot

verbs

little

tum-e-

swell

tum-ulo-

mound.

tilof

nouns

little

foco-

fire

foc-ulo-

a little fire.

culof

nouns

little

frater-

brother

f rater- ciilo-

little brother.

inof

little

as-ino-

ass.

v>

lltflo

\j v/

crO

terof

verbs

in tic
means

col-

cnt^ dig

nurn-cro
cul-tero-

11 it Tnoer
ploughshare.

tot

verbs

one ed

lega-

depute

lega-to-

deputy.

or

verbs

state

time-

fear

tim-6r-

fear.

tor

verbs

man

ara-

plough

ara-tor-

ploughman.

tor

subst.

man

ianua-

gate

iam-tor-

gatekeeper.

tu

verbs

ing

audi-

hear

audi-tu-

hearing.

192 It would be a useful exercise to collect examples of each suffix.
Thus, for the suffix a, from verbs, denoting a person :

conulu-a- a messmate or guest, from c8n together and uiu- live.

adugn-a- a stranger,
scrib-a- a secretary,
parrlcld-a- a parricide,
transfug-a- a deserter,
caellc&l-a- heaven-inhabiting,
ignlggn-a- fire-lorn.

M to and ugn- come.
scrlb- write.

pS,ter- father and caed- slay.
trans across and fug- fly.
caelo- sky and c61- inhabit.
igni-_/?r and gn- produce.

* Words of this class may perhaps be considered as common, but the
masculine is generally meant.
f See the neuter suffixes.
J These are really masculine participles.
These are often called supines.

GEXDER.

27

193

FEMININE SUFFIXES.

Suffix

Added-
to

Gives a

subst.
meaning

Thus
from

English

Is derived

English

a

verbs

act

fag-

fly

fug-a-

flight.

a

male

female

hospit-

stranger

hospit-a-

female stranger.

ia

subst.

collective

famulo-

slave

famil-ia-

family.*

ia

people

a country

Gallo-

a Gaul

Gall-ia-

Gallia.

ia

adj.

quality

misero-

wretched

miser-ia-

wretchedness.

itia||

adj.

quality

amlco-

friendly

amic-itia-

friendship.

ela

verbs

act

quer-(r.)

complain

quer-ela-

complaint.

ela

subst.

state

client-

vassal

client-ela-

vassalage.

tela

verbs

act

tue- (r.)

protect

tu-tela-

protection.

iila

nouns

little

anima-

breath

ani:n-ula-

little breath.

cula

nouns

little

soror-

sister

soror-cula-

little sister.

ma

verbs

act

fa-

speak

fa-ma-

report.

ma

pate-

be spread

pat-ina-

dish.

ina

male

female

reg-

king

reg-Ina-

queen.

Ina

verbs

act

ru-

rush

ru-Ina-

downfall

bra

verbs

late-

lie hid

latg- bra-

hiding -place.

era

.

pate-

bespread

pat- era-

bowl.

iira

verbs

act

h g -

model

fig-ura-

shape.

turaf

verbs

act

p'g-

paint

pic-tura-

painting.

ta

verbs

act

UlU-

live

ui-ta-

life.

ta

adj.

quality

iuueni-

young

iuuen-ta-

youth.

Ici

-torf

female

uic-tor-

conqueror

uictr-ici-

conqueress.

e

verbs

act

fid-

trust

fid-e-

faith.

itie

adj.

quality

tristi-

sad

trist-itie-

sadness.

ti

verbs

act

mor- (r.)

die

mor-ti-

death.

don ||

verbs

quality

dulce-

be sweet

dulce-don-

sweetness.

gon||

verbs

act

ori- (r.)

rise

ori-gon-

origin.

tudon

adj.

quality

longo-

long

longi-tudon-

length.

ion

verbs

act

opina-(r.) fancy

opln-ion-

opinion.

tion

verbs

act

dic-

speak

dic-tion-

speaking.

tat||

nouns

quality

ciui-

citizen

cim-tat-

citizenship.

tut

nouns

quality

seruo-

slave

serui-tut-

slavery.

* Literally, * a slave- gang.'

+ Perhaps more immediately from nouns in tor, as from pictdr-
painter,' pictura- ' painting.'

J i. e. a substantive in tor. \\ See Appendix II.

But -ion as a suffix of material objects is masculine, as :

ion I verbs
subst.

little
little

pug-
caballo-

pierce
horse

pug-ion- I dagger
caball-ion- | hippocampus

28

GENDER.

194

NEUTEK SUFFIXES.

Suffix

Added
to

Gives a

subst.
meaning

Thus
from

English

Is derived

English

li*

subst

anima-

life

anima-li-

animal.

ri*

subst.

pulumo-

cushion

puluina-ri-

shrine.

en

verbs

ungu-

anoint

ungu-en-

ointment.

men If

verbs

instrument

teg-

cover

;eg-men-

covering.

verbs

iug-

yoke

mg-o-

yoke.

io

verbs

act, &c

gaude-

rejoice

gaud-io-

joy-

itio

nouns

seruo-

slave

seru-itio-

slavery.

iilo

verbs

nstrument

iac-

throw

iac-ulo-

dart.

iilo

nouns

little

paulo-

a little

paul-ulo-

a very little.

bulof

verbs

instrument

uena-

hunt

uena-biilo-

hunting-spear

bttlof

subst.

instrument

tus-

incense

turi-bulo-

censer.

cfiloj

verbs

instrument

ueh-

carry

uehi-culo-

carriage.

culo

nouns

little

opes-

work

opus-culo-

a little work.

ino

reg-

king

reg-no-

royal power.

e"ro

verbs

instrument

scalp-

scratch

scalp-ro-

graving-tool.

b'rof

verbs

instrument

cer-

sift

cri-bro-

sieve.

c'rof

verbs

instrument

sepel-

bury

sepul-cro-

burial-place.

t'ro

verbs

instrument

rad-

scrape

ras-tro-

rake.

to

verbs

thing done

lega-

leave

lega-to-

legacy.

to

trees

collective

arbos-

tree

arbus-to-

vineyard.

eto||

trees

collective

quercu-

oak

querc-eto-

oak-grove.

ento

verbs

ungu-

anoint

ungu-ento-

ointment.

mento

verbs

instrument

orna-

equip

orna-mento-

equipment.

8r

verbs

it- or i-

90

Tt-er-

route.

iner

verbs

it- or i-

go

it-iner-

route.

ttr

verbs

fulg-

shine

fulg-iir-

lightning.

es

verbs

gen-

produce

ggn-es-

race, birth.

OS

verbs

fng-e-

be cold

fiig-os-

cold.

inos

verbs

fac-

do

fac-mos-

deed.

195 The tables of suffixes here given are far from sufficient to de-
termine the gender of all words. Indeed, some of the suffixes

* These are really neuter adjectives, and the two suffixes are closely
related ; pululndri- being preferred to pululnali- because the word has
already got an /.

f bulo and Vro are probably the same suffix, the latter being pre-
ferred after a preceding /. See Appendix II.

J The same may be said of culo and cVo, and perhaps fro.

But es, as, as, us, together with er, ur, or, ur and /, are mere varie-
ties of the same suffix. So also tner, Inos, mor, &c. are of one origin.
Compare the last three with the Greek rffj.fi/ea-- ' sacred ground.'

|| More strictly eclo, the first syllable of which is the diminutival ec,
see 207. 1. Indeed the form ecto is preserved in ulrecto- n., cdrecto- n.

H See Appendix II.

GENDER. 29

will bs found common to the masculine and neuter tables : as, o,
io, ulo, Ino, ero, tSro, to.

193. 1 Suffixes which denote an abstract quality or act are at times
used in the sense of collective nouns, as from

equita- ride, Squita-tu- m., a body of riders, cavalry.

Italo- an Italian, Ital-ia- the body of Italians, Italy.

sequ- (r.) follow, sec-ta- a body of followers, a school.

ggn- produce, gen-ti- or gent- a race.

multo- many, multl-tud5n- a multitude, a mob.

18g- choose, ISg-ion- picked men, a legion.

ciui- citizen, cml-tat- a body of citizens, a state.

nobtii- noble, noblli-tat- a body of nobles, a nobility.

iuueni- young, i mien-tut- a body of young men, youth.

consul- consult, cousil-io- n., a body of persons consulting.

196 It will be observed that a large number of substantives in a
are feminine. But the rule is far from universal ; as may be seen
in the masculines : Belga- a Belgian, Sulla- the Roman dictator,
Matrona- m. the river Marne, Hadria- the Hadriatic, riauta- sailor,
incola- inhabitant.

197 The nouns in i occasion much trouble. The majority are femi-
nine, but the exceptions are numerous. These may perhaps be
remembered by the following acrostic :

M asculml gengris crini-
A mni-* axi- funi-* fini-*
S enti-* denti- calli-* colli-
C auli- fasci- fusti- folli-
V t'ri- uent'ri- uermi- assi-
L eni- posti- torri- cassi-
I gni- imb'ri- pisci- ponti-
N atali- uecti- fonti- monti-
E nsi- mensi- pani-* orbi-
S angui- angui-* ungui- corbi-.

197. 1 Lat. C.F. Norn. English,

amni- amnls river

angui- anguis snake

assi- as

Lat. C.F. Norn. English.

axi- or axis or axle or

assi- assls pole

calli- callis path

* Many e'en of these, as fini-,
Are also generis femimni.

30

DIMINUTIVES.

Lat. C.F.

Nom.

English.

Lat. C.F.

Nom.

English.

cassi- (pi.)

casses

net

mensi-

mensis

month

cauli-

caulis

stalk

monti-

mons

mountain

colli-

collls

hill

natali-

natalls

birthday

corbi-

corbis

basket

orbi-

orbis

round

crlni-

dims

band of hair

pani-

panls

loaf

ensi-

ensls

sword

pisci-

piscis

fish

fosci-

fascls

bundle

ponti-

pons

bridge

fini-

finis

end

posti-

postis

door-post

folli- (pi.)

folles

bellows

saugui-f

sanguis

blood

denti-

dens

tooth

senti-

sentis

thorn

fonti-

fous

spring

torri-

toriis

brand

funi-

funis

rope

uecti-

uectis

pole

fusti-

fustis

club

uenteri-

uenter

belly

igni-

ignis

fire

uermi-

uermis

worm

imbeYi-

imber

shower

uiigui-

unguls

nail

leni-*

lenis

wine-press

uteri-

ut6r

skin.

FORMATION AND GENDER OF DIMINUTIVES.

198 Diminutives denote strictly small size, but are also used to
denote sometimes contempt, sometimes affection.

198.1 The gender of a diminutive is the same as that of the noun
from which it is formed : as, fratgr- m. brother, fraterculo- m.
little brother ; corona- f. a circular wreath or chaplet, corolla- f. a
small chaplet ; corpSs- n. body, corpusculo- n. a small body.

] 99 Hence the gender of a diminutive will often assist the memory
to the gender of the primitive or word from which it is derived.
Thus tuber-ciilo- n. a little lump proves that tubSr- lump is neuter.

200 If the noun be of the first or second declension, that is, if it
end in a or o, the diminutive ends in ula or ulo (older form Sla,
$lo). Thus from Snlma- breath or life, dim. Snlmiila-.

201 If the letter before o and a be u, e or i, olo and tila are pre-
ferred. Thus from seruo- slave, linea- line, serudlo-, llneola- are
derived.

202 If the letter before a and o be an r, I, or n, a contraction gene-

* Leni- = A7?'o-, whence Lenaeus ' the God of the wine-press, Bacchus.'
t Hence nom. sangws, ace. sangnem, Inscr. Or. 2270, 5054, the
diminutive sangui-culo- m., and the adj. ex-sangui- 'bloodless.' Other-
wise sanguin-^ nom. sanguis, &c. is in use.

DIMINUTIVES. 31

rally takes place producing a termination lla or llo. Thus from
pugra- girl, foulo- eye, umo- wine, are derived (pugrela-) puella-
f., (ocelulo-) flcello- m., (uinulo-) uillo- n.

203 If the letter before a or o was an I, and that I was itself pre-
ceded by a long vowel or diphthong, the diminutive ends in xilla
or xillo. Thus ala- wing, axilla- armpit ; mala- jaw, maxilla- ;
paulo- n. little, pauxillo- n. ; palo- m. stake, paxillo- m. ; talo- m.
ancle, taxillo- m. ; uelo- n. sail, uexillo- n. flag.*

204 If the noun be not of the first or second declension, the dimi-
nutive generally ends in cula or culo (older form ctta, celo). Thus
from cani- f. dog, fra-te'r- m. brother, ggnu- n. knee, spe- f. hope,
are derived cS,nlcula- f., fraterculo- m., geniciilo.- n., specula- f.

205 But if the noun end in c or g, t or d, the form ula or ulo is
generally preferred. Thus from cornlc- f. crow, reg- m. king,
c&put- n. head, lapld- in. stone, are derived cornlcula- f., regulo-
m., capltulo- n., (lapldulo- contracted into) lapillo- m.

206 If the noun end in on or 6n, the o is changed into u. Thus
from hSmon- man, ration- f. account, are derived hSmunciilo- m.,
ratiuncula- f.

206. 1 If the noun end in any of the five terminations os, or, os, 6"r, 8s,
this syllable becomes us. Thus from rumos- or rumor- m. report,
arb5s- or arbor- f. tree, opes- n. work, are derived rumusciilo- m.,
arbuscula- f., opusculo- n.

207 These rules for forming diminutives are applicable to adjectives
also : as, pauper- poor, pauperculo- ; mlsSro- wretched, misello- ;
uno- one, ullo- j molli- soft, molliculo- ; paruo- little, paruolo- ;
aureo- golden, aureSlo-.

207. 1 Diminutives are also formed by the addition of suffixes 2c or
ic, e or i, and w.f Thus from sen- an old man (which forms ac.
seYiem, gen. senis, &c.) comes sen-ec- a little old man (with nom.
snex). " Many of these diminutives have wholly superseded the
primitives whence they were derived, so that the latter have dis-
appeared : as, cul-go- m. gnat, clm-ec- m. lug, pul-gc- m.flea, sal-ic-
f. willow, rad-lc- f. root, torqu-i- or torqu-e- f. twisted chain, &p-i-
f. bee, an-u- f. old woman, ac-u- f. needle, rnan-u- f. hand, gen-u- n.
knee.

* In these nouns a guttural has probably been lost before the /. Com p.
pauco- 'few,' and tela- u web' from tex- ' weave.'

f These suffixes correspond to our English suffixes ock ; ie or ee ; ew,
ue, and ow : as seen in hillock, bullock ; lassie, knee, tree ; shrew, crew ;
clue; sparrow, willow, crow. See Phil. Soc. vol. iii.

32 DIMINUTIVES.

207. 2 A diminutival suffix leo also occurs. Thus from Squo- or gco-
horse, 8culeo-. So also there are Sciileo- m. a sting, mal-leo m.
a mallet. Probably deo in hordeo- or fordeo- barley is virtually
the same suffix, added to the root far- spelt.

207. 3 Diminutives may be formed from diminutives : as cista- a box,
cistula- a little box or casket, cistella- a little casket, cistelliila- a
very little casket. So from Sculo- an eye (itself formed from an
obsolete 5co-)* come tfcello- a little eye, and Scelliilo- a dear little
eye.

208 The feminine diminutives in io declined like neuters, as Gly-
cgrio- N. Gly cerium, from Glycera- /Sweet one, belong to the Greek
language.

209 To the same language belong the masculine diminutives in isco
and astfro : as, Syrisco- N. Syrisciis little Syrus, paiasltastgro- a

210 Many adjectives are used as substantives, the real substantive
being understood. Thus :

Medicina-, arti- art understood, the art of healing.
Arithmetlca-, arti- art understood, the art of numbers.
Medlcma-, taberna- shop understood, the doctor's shop.
Agnlna-, caron-^sA understood, lamb's flesh, lamb.
Bellona-, dea- goddess understood, the goddess of war.
Africa-, terra- land understood, the land of the Afri.
Annona-, copia- supply understood, the year's supply.
CSrona-, uitta- fillet understood, circular filet, chaplet.
Compgd-, catena- chain understood, foot-chain, fetter.
Monica-, catena- chain understood, hand-chain, hand-cuff.
Annali-, llbgro- book understood, year-book.
Natali-, die- day understood, birth-day.

De'cembgri-, mensi- month understood, the tenth month (from
March), December.

StStuario- m. (a man) of statues, a sculptor.
Praetorio- n. (the place) of the praetor, the general's tent.
Granario- n. (the place) for grain, granary.
Oulli- n. (the place) for sheep, sheep-fold.

210. 1 Such compounds in io as trienn-io- n. (from tri- three, anno-
year) a space of three years, interlun-io- n. (from intSr between,

* Compare OKK.O- or 0000- and the German auge.

ADJECTIVES.

33

lima- moon) the time when no moon is
neuter adjectives.

, are probably in origin

ADJECTIVES.

211 Adjectives are declined like substantives.

212 Adjectives with crude forms in o for the masculine and neuter,
in a for the feminine, are often called adjectives of three termina-
tions.

213

Bono- m. and n., b5na- f. good.

' Singular,
Masc. Fern.

Neut.

N. bftnvis b5na bSnum

F. bo'nS b5na bSnum
Ac. b5num bonam bonum

G. b5m bftnae b(5ni
D. bftno bonae bono
Ab. b5no . bona b5no

Masc.

Plural.
Fern.

Neut.

N. boni bSnae b5na

F. b5ni bSnae b5na
Ac. b5nos bSnas b5na

G. b5nomra bSnarum bSnorum
D. b5ms bSnis btfnis
Ab. b5ms bSnis bSnis

214

Atgro- m. and n., atera- f. UacJc.

Masc.
N. ater

F. ater
Ac. atrum

G. atri
D. atro
Ab. atro

Singular.

Fern. Neut.

atra atrum

atra atrum

atram atrum

atrae atri

atrae atro

atra atro

Plural.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

N. atri atrae atra

F. atri atrae atra
Ac. atros atras atra

G. atrorum atrarum atrorum
D. atris atris atris
Ab. atris atris atris

215

Aspgro- m. and n., aspgra- f. rough.

Masc.
aspgr
F. asper

Singular.

Fern.
aspera
aspera

Neut.
asperum
aspSrum

Ac. asperum asperam aspSrum
G. aspeii asperae asp^ii
D. aspgro asperae aspSro
^16.aspero aspera aspSro

216 Adjectives with crude form in i are often called adjectives of
two terminations.

Plural

Fern.

asperae

asperae

aspSras

asperorum asperarum aspgrorum
aspgris aspeiis aspSris
ris asperis aspSris

Masc.
aspSri
asperi
ros

Neut.
asp8ra
aspera

ADJECTIVES.

Singular.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

N. tristis tristis tristS

V. tristis tristis tristS
Ac. tristem tristem tristS

0. tristis tristis tristis

D. tristi tristi tristi

Ab. tristi tristi tristi

Tristi- litter.

Plural

Masc. Fern. Neut

N. tristes tristes tristia

F. tristes tristes tristia
Ac. tristis or -es tristis or-es tristia

G. tristium tristiurn tristium
D. tristibus tristibus tristibus
Ab. tristibus tristibus tristibus

218 Aceri- sharp

Singular.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

N. acSr or acris acris acre

F. acSr or acris acris acre
Ac. acrem acrem acrS

G. acris acris acris
D. acri acri acri
Ab. acri acri acri

Plural.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

acres acres acria

acres acres acria

acris or acres acris or -acres acria

acrium acrium acrium

acribus acribus acribus

acribus acribus acribus

218.1

Singular.
Masc. Fern.
N. cSlSr or celeris

i- quick.

Neut.
celere

V. cSleror celeris celere

Ac. celerem celerem cele're'

G. cele'ris celeris celeris

D. celerl celerl celerl

Ab. celeri celerl celerl

Masc.
cSlSres

Plural.
Fern.

celSres

Neut.
ceieria

F. cgleres celSres cSleria

Ac. c8lris or cSleris or cSleria
cSleres cSlSres

G. celerum celerum celfirum
D. celeribus celSribus celSribus
Ab. cSleribus cgleribus celeribus

219 Adjectives with one crude form in a consonant, and another in
i 9 form the singular chiefly from the former, the plural from the
second : as,

Praesenti- or praesent- present.

Singular.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

praesens praesens praesens

praesens praesens praesens

Ac. praesentem praesentem praesens

G. praesentis praesentis praesentis

D. praesenti praesenti praesenti

Ab. praesenti or -t8 praesenti or -to praesenti or -te

N.
V.

ADJECTIVES.

Plural.
Masc.
N. praesentes

F. praesentes

Ac. praesentis or -tes

G. praesentium
D. praesentibus
Ab. praesentibiis

219. 1 Nouns in tor are often used as masculine adjectives ; nouns in
tnci or trie as feminine adjectives, and also in the plural as neuter
adjectives.

Fern.
praesentes
praesentes
praesentis or -tes
praesentium
praesentibiis
praesentibiis

Neut.
praesentia
praeseutia
praesentia
praesentium
praesentibus
praesentibiis

Victor- and u
Singular.
Masc. Fern.
N. uictftr uictrix
F. uictSr uictrix
Ac. uictorem uictrlcem
G. uictoris uictricis
D. uictori uictrlci
Ab. uictorg uictrlcg

Lctrlci- or uictric- conquering.
Plural.
Mase. Fern. Neut.
N. uictores uictrlces uictricia"
F. uictores uictrlces uictricia
Ac. uictores uictrlces uictricia
G. uictorum uictncium uictricium
D. uictoribiis uictricibus uictricibus
Ab. uictoribus uictricibus uictricibus

220 Adjectives with the crude form in a consonant are sometimes
called adjectives of one termination.

221 VetSs- old.
Singular.

Masc. Fern. Neut.
N. uSttis uetus uSttis

F. uetus uStiis uStus
Ac. uSterem uStSrem uStiis

G. ugtgris ugtgris ugteris
D. ugtgri ugtgri uSten
Ab. utSr or ueterS or ugtere or

ugtSri uetgri ugteri

Masc.
ueteres
ugtSres
uetSres
uStSrum
uetSribus
ugtgribiis

Plural.
Fern.

ueteres
ugtSres
uetgres
uSterum
uetgribiis
ugtSribus

Neut.
ugtSra
uStgra
ugtgrS,
ugterum
ugtgribiis
ugtSribiis

221.1

Masc.
N.- dmgs

F. diuSs
Ac. diuitem

G. dmitis
D. dmiti

Diuit- rich.
Singular.

Fern.
dmgs
diugs
diuitem
dmitis
dmiti

Neut.
diugs
diugs
diugs
diuitis
dmiti

Ab. dluite or dmiti diuitg or dmiti diuitg or diuiti

3C

ADJECTIVES.

Masc.

N. dmites
V. dmites
Ac. dmites
Gf. dmitum
D. dmitibus
Ab. dmitibus

Plural
Fern.
dilutes
dmites
dmites
dmitum
dmitibus
dmitibus

Neut.
not found.

dmitum
diuitibus
dmitibus

There is also in the poets a contracted form, dit- or dlti- ;
whence N. m. f. dls, Ac. m. f. ditem, &c. ; but for the neuter of
the N. V. Ac. sing, dlte, plur. dltiS.

222

Tristios- or tristior- more bitter.

Masc.

N. tristiSr
F. tristiSr
Ac. tristiorem
0. tristioris
D. tristiori
Ab. tristiorg*

Masc.
JV. tristiores

F. tristiores
Ac. tristiores

G. tristiorum
D. tristioribus
Ab. tristioribus

Singular*

Fern.
tristitfr
tristiSr
tristiorem
tristioris
tristiori
tristiorS*

Plural.
Fern.

tristiores
tristiores
tristiores
tristiorum
tristioribus
tristioribus

Neut.
tristiiis
tristius
tristiiis
tristioris
tristiori
tristiore*

Neut.
tristiora
tristiora
tristiorS
tristiorum
tristioribus
tristioribus

223 Adjectives whose crude form ends in a consonant rarely have
a neuter plural.

224 Some adjectives have a crude form in i as well as that in o or
a: as,

yoked-two-together or Miugi-

cheerful hllari-

weak imbecilli-

unarmed ,, inermi-

unbridled ,, infreni-

of -one-mind

* Seldom tristidrl.

bliugo-

hll&ro-

imbScillo-

mermo-

infreno-

SUFFIXES OF ADJECTIVES.

37

| -o "
S ;g e

^" -

.

.

i

.So

"
'So^j "So 2 S

323

6C be bO
S C .S
'5>*S>'S)

iniilii .ii i

Cco .otuoo

ill

gajoo

I

33

SUFFIXES OF ADJECTIVES.

T

5

222 ^

bo bo bO O

.S S .S I

'Sa'Sb'S) ,

"0^0 *S 'Qfa-aJ + sP'Sag I "I

o - s '"i JS *3 *S "I

S TS P H B

II

t'a
a

o xi >a O a 3 = o ^

SUFFIXES OF ADJECTIVES.

39

-2 85 -2.2
s 5

: . .. .

li!lllli!i fll ^11 ti

illltll I III 111 1 1 2 -si

o,

cr A

tt

. k

um si.i i in

.

332 3333 3

ll.l^.sl.s.s 5 *

*3a So fee 'SfSb'Bj tb o 'So o

-S^^^^^-S

JSSI 12122 1'sS'sSS 1

.

S^.^U

JX ^

See 230.
Contracted into
Of cru-or-, cru*

Instead ofpro-imo-.
See J3 231.
These are called part
See Appendix 11.

40 ADJECTIVES.

226 Of these suffixes many are closely connected: as, dc and oc ;
li, ri, and rio ; llli and beri ; estri and esti ; nco, luo, uo 9 and io,
from verbs j oso and coso, &c.

227 In adding the suffixes, the last vowel of the preceding word
must not be neglected. Thus, with the suffix Ino or no, the
following derivatives are formed :

Roma- Rome, Roma-no- of Rome.

porno- apple, &c. , Pomo-na- (goddess) of fruit.

mari- sea, marl-no- of the sea.

tribu- tribe, tribu-no- (commander) of a tribe, tribune.

ege- (verb) want, ege-no- in want.

228 Or, with a slight change :

diuo- a god, (diuoino-) diuino- belonging to a god.

ulpe'ra- a viper, (uiperaino-) ulperlno- belonging to a viper.

229 And, lastly, since o is readily interchanged with a :

Pompeio- Pompey, Pompeia-no- belonging to Pompey.

230 Now, as by far the greater number of Latin nouns end in a or
o, and the latter itself is often changed to a, the result was, that
of the adjectives formed with the suffix ino or no, a large majority
were found to end in ano. Hence ano was itself mistaken for a
suffix, and from mont- mountain was formed montano- belonging
to the mountains, &c.

231 Again, as the nouns ending in o or a, when the suffix %no is
added, often suffer a contraction so as to form adjectives in ino,
and as the same termination resulted from adding the same suffix
to nouns in i, the consequence was that Ino was mistaken for a
suffix. Hence from ansSr- goose was formed ansSrluo- belonging
to a goose, &c.

232 Similarly, with the suffix li, or after a preceding I, ri are
formed :

ancSra- anchor, aucora-li- of the anchor.

puella- girl, puella-ri- girl-like.

fliiuio- river, fluuia-li- of the river.

pflpiilo- state, p8pula-ri- of the same state.

ciui- citizen, clul-li- like a citizen.

tribu- tribe, trlbu-li- of the same tribe.

fide- faith, f Ide-li- faithful.

233 Again, of adjectives so formed, the greater number will be

ADJECTIVES. ' 41

found to end in dli or dri. Hence these were mistaken for suffixes ;
and, accordingly, from capita- head, uirgon- maid, reg- king, <fcc.
were formed capiit-ali-, uirgin-ali-, reg-ali-.

234 In the same way drio was supposed to be a suffix in place of
rio, and from carbon- coal was formed carbon-ario- coal-dealer.

235 Adjectives are also formed as follows : a. By prefixing a par-
ticle to a substantive : as,

from In not, genti- or gent- nature, in-genti- unnatural, immense.
,, se apart, cord- heart, se-cord- senseless.

,, se apart, cura- care, se-cu.ro- unconcerned.

,, con together, muni- share, com-muni- common.

236 b. By prefixing a substantive or adjective to a substantive : as,
from c&pero- goat, ped-/0o, capii-ped- aoat-footed.

[quadr-] four, ped-foot, qu.Mru-p$d- four-footed.
centum hundred, m&im- hand, centl-mano- hundred-handed.
magno- great, S,nlmo- mind, magn-anlmo- great-minded.
,, mlsSro- wretched, cord- heart, mlsSrl-cord- tender-hearted.

237 c. By prefixing a particle to an adjective : as,
from In not, utili- useful, Xn-utili- useless.

,, p&r thorough, magno- great, per-magno- very great.

-pY&Q preeminently, claro- bright, prae-claro- very illustrious.

238 d. By prefixing a substantive, adjective, or particle to a
verb : as,

from tuba- trumpet, can- sing, tubl-cen- trumpeter.

,, parti- part, cap- take, partl-cep- partaking.

caron- flesh, uora- devour, carul-uftro- flesh-eating.
[beno-] good, gen- produce, beni-g'no-* generous.
malo- bad, dic-t speak, mall-dico- abusive.

de down, sed- sit, de-sid- slothful.

c8m with, [it- obs., go] c8m-it- accompanying.

239 Adjectives are also formed from prepositions. See the tablo
of words derived from prepositions, 838.

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.
The suffixes which form the Comparatives and Superlatives are
so much used, that they must be spoken of more at length.
21 k The simple adjective is said to be in the positive degree : as,
longo- or -a- long.

* Literally well-born. f See 451. 1.

42

ADJECTIVES.

241 The comparative degree takes the suffix ids or ior : as, long
ios-* or long-ior- longer or more long.

242 The superlative degree takes the suffix umo^ or imo, issumoi
or issimo : as, long-issumo-* longest or most long.

243 If the adjective ends in ero, $ri, or er, the superlative suffix:
is slightly changed : as, nlgero- black, niger-rumo- blackest; llbero-

/ra,llberrumo-; acZri- sharp, acerrumo-; celeri- quick, celerrimio-;
pauper- poor, pauperrumo- ; ugtes- old, ugterrumo-.

244 If the adjective ends in tti, the superlative suffix is slightly
changed: as, facili- easy, fScil-lumo- easiest; difficlli- difficult,
difficillumo-; gracili- slender, gracilluino- ; simtti-ft/k?, simillumo- ;
dissimili- unlike, disslmillumo-.

245 The following comparatives and superlatives are irregular :
Pos. Comp. Sup.

bSiio- good, melios- better, optiimo- best.

malo- bad, peios- (=ped-ios-) worse, pessumo- worst.

mag-no- great, maios- ( = mag-ios ) greater, maxiimo- greatest.
paruo- little, minos- less, mlnumo- least,

multo- much, plus-I n. more, pluriimo- n. most.

multo-|| pi. many, plur- pi. more, pluriimo- 1| pi. most.

See also the table of words derived from prepositions, 838.

246 Sometimes one or more of the positive, comparative, and su-
perlative are deficient : as,

Pos. Comp. Sup.

oc-ios- quicker, oc-isstimo- quickest.

nequ-ios- worse, nequ-issumo- worst.

nouo- new, nou-issiimo- newest.

falso- false, fals-issiimo- most false.

ingenti- immense, ingent-ios- more immense.

desld- slothful, desld-ios- more slothful.

iuuSni- young, iimios- younger.

S6nios- older has no corresponding positive : see 207. 1.

* In adding the suffixes of the comparative and superlative the vowels
a, o, i, at the end of the crude form of the positive are discarded.

f The forms with u are the oldest. They were used by Terence, &c.,
down to Cicero, inclusive.

J From pie- ' full,' the root of pie-no-, is formed ple-ios- contracted
into pious- and plus-. Compare the Greek Tr\e-ioi> and TrAe-o^.
|| These are used in the singular in poetry.

43

NUMEKALS.

247 Cardinal numbers answer to the question, qu5t ? (undeclined)
how many ? as, one, two, three, &c. ; or tSt (undecl.) so many.

248 Ordinal numerals state the place occupied in a rank or series.
They answer to the question quoto- or -ta- N. quStus, -ta, -turn ?
occupying what place in the series ?* answer, first, second, third,
&c. ; or t5to- or -ta- occupying such a place.

249 Distributives answer to the question, quoteno- or N. pi. qu5-
teni, -ae, -a ? how many at a time ? one at a time, two at a time,
&c. ; or the preposition by may be used, by twos, by threes, &c. ;
or the word each, as, two each, three each, &c.

250 The numeral adverbs answer to the question, quotiens or
quSties ? how often ? once, twice, thrice, four-times, &c. ; t5tiens
or tSties so often.

251 Roman Symbols. The symbols for 1, 10, 100, 1000, seem to
have consisted of one, two, three, and four lines respectively : viz.
I, X, C, M ; for the last two of which the more easily written
symbols, C, and /<t\ or /t\, were afterwards substituted. The
mark for 1000 seems to have suggested those for 10 000, 100 000,
&c. viz. /?fct/^b, or ^ ^, <fec. The next step was to find sym-
bols for the halves of these numbers, and the most easy course
was to take the half of the symbols themselves. Thus, V, L, h
or K, f^ or fc,, h or ^, severally denoted 5, 50, 500, 5000,
50 000. Lastly, modern printers found it convenient to use the
existing types for letters, to avoid the expense of new types for
the numerical symbols. Hence, in modern Latin books, we find
the letters I, V, X, L, C, D, M, and the inverted 0, all used in
the representation of Latin numerals. It was probably an acci-
dent, that of these seven letters, two were the initials of the words
for which they stood : viz. C and M, of centum and millg.f

* No single English word corresponds to quoto-. Such a form as
what-th, \\kejif-th, six-th, would best suit it.

f When a symbol of a smaller number precedes one of a greater, the
smaller is to be subtracted, as IIX = 8, IX = 9, XXIX = 29, CD = 400.
Further, a bar over a symbol denotes multiplication by 1000 : thus
V = 5000.

44

NUMERALS.

Distributive.
Masc. N. pi.

""3 O I^H ^ 'S ZH fl lS C; ._- ^ ^ '3 S '^ "S "5

3 |- 3 gil -3 a-isg s ts

2 ,3 a> ^ ^ iS M o JO iS fl " " "

55,a- CT'CT'M S o CTi p

0*0*

s a

SS.SS-TH c 5 ^

w 1 t! 1 ! "8 Q.

K 38 s 3 "

o j s s -2

fl. 3 .'o

ji 3 S

II

c4

NUMERALS,

a^tj >o S >3

o
-S

! I

&

.3 "3

tf.s

S bD

lii

a> s

xe iS ^

i^sr^

^-Soort-SC?,^^

g|ll^| e >Sg-a

S^.S o'-^-J ^^3 S.g g
-*jc^ ( cr l tflcoc3S* o''tj

88

!> CO

da

t

I

II

If

1

I .

S o

s

.J

O, O

a,

2 *

I S

CJ g

1 S

* 4-4-1-=

46 NUMERALS.

253 Cardinal Numbers. Those from quattuor to centum, both in-
clusive, are not declined. Mili- is both substantive and adjective.
If no smaller number accompany it, it is more commonly used as
a substantive. Hence the phrases mille hSmlnum or mille homi-
nes ; tria milia homlnum, tria milia trecenti hSmines.

254 The three first numerals are declined. Uno- one makes G.
unius, D. uni. The other cases are regular. The plural is used
with those substantives which with a plural form have a singular
meaning : as, N. pi. una castra one camp.

255 Duo- dua- two is declined thus : Plur. N. duo duae du5, Ac.
du5 or duos, duas, duo, G. duorum duarum duorum or m. f. n.
duum, D. and Ab. duobus duabus duobus. In the same way
is declined ambo- amba- both, except as to the quantity of
ambo.*

256 Tri- three is declined regularly.

257 Milli- or mlli- thousand is declined : Sing, for all casqs mille,
Plur. N. V. Ac. miliS, G. milium, D. and Ab. mllibus.f

258 From 13 to 19 there occur also dScem et tres, &c. Between
20 and 100 there are two forms, viz. ulginti unus or unus et
ulgintl, <fec. Above 100, the greater number precedes : as, tr8-
centl sexaginta sex or trScenti et sexaginta sex.

259 The practice of prefixing the smaller number to the greater
in order to denote subtraction, as IV (one from five), IIX (two
from ten), extended also to the names. Hence duSdeulginti, 18 ;
undeulgintl, 19 ; duodetnginta, 28 ; undetriginta, 29 ; duSde-
qu&draginta,, 38 ; undequadraginta, 39 ; and so on to dutfdecen-
tum, 98 ; undecentum, 99. Series of the same kind belong to the
ordinals, distributives and adverbs.

260 The high numbers were chiefly required for representing
money. Here abbreviations were found convenient. Thus mil-
lions of sesterces were commonly denoted by adverbs alone, the
words centena milia being omitted : as, dgciens ten times (a hun-
dred thousand) sesterces, that is, a million sesterces ; uiciens twenty
times &c., or two million sesterces.

201 Ordinal Numbers. From 13 to 19 there are also sometimes
found dgcumus tertius and decumus et tertius, <fec. Between 20

* See Prof. Ramsay's Latin Prosody. Yet duo, Plant. Mil. iv. 9. 7.
t A single / was preferred before the vowel i : so that from uilla- ' a
farm' comes ultico- m. * a farm-bailiff.'

NUMERALS. 47

and 100 there are two forms, uicensumus quartus or quartus et
uicensumus, <fec. For 21, 31, 41, <fcc , units et uicensumus, una
et uicensuma' or unetulcensuma, <fcc. frequently occur.

262 Distributive Numerals. These are also used as cardinal num-
bers with those nouns which with a plural form have a singular
meaning : as, N. binae aedes two houses, binae litterae two letters
or epistles. Duae aedes, duae litterae, would signify two temples,
two letters of the alphabet. With uno- there could not be the same
confusion : hence una littera, unae KttSrae, signify respectively
one letter of the alphabet, one letter or epistle. The distributives*
are often used by the poets for the cardinals.

263 Adverbs. Between 20 and 100 there are three expressions :
bis et uiciens, ulciens et bis, ulciens bis. Bis ulciens would
mean twice twenty or forty times.

264 There is a series formed from plica- a flat surface or fold,
answering to quotu-plici- or -plgc-, N. quotuplex how many
fold? viz. sim-pllci-t, du-plici-, tri-pllci-, quadru-plici-, quincu-

pllci-, , septem-pllci-, , - , decem-pllci-, and

centum-pllci-.

265 There is a series of similar meaning, with crude form end-
ing in plo- (to our full) and answering to quotiiplo- ? viz. sim-

plo-, diiplo-, triple , quadruple-, quincuplo-, , septuple-,

octuplo-.

266 There is a series with suffix rio formed from the distributives,

containing two, three, &c. : viz. , binario-, ternario-, qua-

ternario-, qumario-, senario-, septenario-, octonario-, &c.

267 There is a series with suffix no, formed from ordinal series,
belonging to the first, second, &c. : viz. primano-, secundano-, ter-
tiano-, &c. These terms are chiefly used to denote the legion to
which a soldier belongs. Hence, in the higher numbers are found
such forms in the nom. as tertia-decuma-nus, tertia-et-uicensuma-
nus ; where the feminine form of the first part seems to be deter-
mined by the gender of the Latin word Iggion-.

268 Fractions are expressed by the ordinal series with parti- or

* The distributives are also used in phrases of multiplication, as quater
quini ' four times five men.'

f Not from sine plica, but from an old root sim or sum ' one ;' which
is also found in sinyulo-, simplo-, simili-, sincero-, semel, simul ; Gr. a^a,
ovSa/j.0-, OTrAoo-; Eng. same ; Germ, sammhing, &c.

48 PRONOUNS.

part- part expressed or understood: as, nom. , tertia pars; f,
tres septumae.

269 But many shorter forms were employed. Thus, when the
numerator is one less than the denominator : as, nom. f, duae
partes, two parts out of three ; f , tres partes, three parts out of
four, &c.

270 Again, when the denominator is 12, the unit or whole being
represented by assi-, N. as (our ace), the parts are

Yg uncia- (our ounce and inch)
T 2 5 or sextanti-, nom. sextans
--% or ^ quadranti-, n. quadrans
~5 or | trienti-, n. triens
-JTJ quincunci-, n. quincunx
-fir or 5 semissi-, n. semis

^ septunci-, n. septunx

T 8 5- or f bessi-, n. bes

5^- or | dodranti- (from de-quadranti-)

if or f dextanti- (from de-sextanti-)

% de-unci-, n. deunx

271 Fractions were also expressed by the addition or multiplication
of other fractions : as, nom. tertiS, septuma, of |, or ^\ ; tertia et
septuma, + 1 or ^.

272 Mixed numbers were denoted by the Latin for the fractional
part accompanied by that number of the ordinal series which ex-
ceeds by unity the given whole number. Thus, nom. 3 is quadrans
quarttis; 5, semis sextiis; 3, semis tertiiis, or rather, by con-
traction, sestertius. The last quantity, viz. 2 1, was represented
in symbols by adding s, the initial letter of semis, to the symbol
for two, with a line running through the whole symbol, as in our
own lt>, , for pounds ; thus, 4iS-. But printers have found it
convenient to substitute the letters HS.

PRONOUNS.

273 Pronouns are, strictly speaking, substantives, adjectives, ad-
verbs, <fec., and therefore belong to those heads of grammar ; but
it is convenient to discuss them separately, partly because they
SDmetimes exhibit the suffixes in a more complete, sometimes in
a less complete form than other words belonging to the same parts
of speech, and partly because they are so much used.

PRONOUNS.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

274 FIRST PERSON.

C.F. not known,* /, &c.

Sing. Plur.

N. eo nos

V.

Ac. me nos

G. mei nostrum or -ri

D. mihiormi nobis

Ab. me nobis

275 SECOND PERSON.

C.F. tgb- thou, cv.

Sing. Plur

N. tu uos

V. tu uos

Ac. te uos

G. tui uostrum or -ri

D. tibi uobis

Ab. te uobis

276 For the pronoun of the third person, viz. he, she, it, the several
parts of the adjective eo- or i- are used.

277 The nominatives of these pronouns are not expressed unless
emphatic, because the personal suffixes of the verbs already denote
the persons.

REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS.

278 Reflective pronouns refer to the person or thing expressed in
the nominative case. In English the word self is used for this
purpose.

279 Reflective pronouns, from their very nature, can have no no-
minative 6r vocative.

280 In the first and second persons, the common personal pronouns
are used, viz. me, mel &c., te, tu! &c. For the third person the
several cases formed from the crude form seb- self are used with-
out any distinction for number or gender, to signify himself, her-
self, itself, themselves.

C.F. sSb-f self.
Ac. se, G. sui, D. sibi, Ab. se.

Remarks on tlie Pronouns EGO, Tu, SE.

281 Ac. Med and ted are used by old writers, as Plautus, for me
and te. Me, te, se, are also doubled, as meme, tgte, sese. The
two first are rare, and only used to give emphasis. Sese is not
uncommon. Mehe is an antiquated form for me.

* Probably egomet (corresponding to the Sanscrit asmat), or rather
mg%mSt. Compare too the Greek ^uer- (for typer-) of ^uercpos, implied
also in (^/xees) r)fj.eis.

f The same as the old English adjective sib ' related,' still preserved
in Scotch. In Greek the form is <re^-, whence (r<f>e, aQfrcpos, &c.

50

282 G. Mis and tis are antiquated forms, found in Plautus.

283 D. Ml is rarely used in prose writers. Me, te or tlbe, sibe,
are severally antiquated forms for mini, tibi, slbi.

284 Ab. Med and ted are found in old writers

285 G. pi. These are merely genitives of the possessive adjectives
noste'ro-, uostSro-. Indeed nostrorum, uostrorum for the m ? and
nostrarum, uostrarum for the f., are found in old writers. Vestrum,
uestrl, with an e, are used by later writers. The genitives nostn,
uostrl are used only in the objective sense. (See 927.) Nostrum,
nostrum are required in partitive phrases. (See 922.)

285. 1 D. and Ab. pi. Nis for nobls is given in Festus.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

286 The three demonstrative pronouns are adjectives, which point
as it were with the finger to the place occupied : as, ho- this near
me, isto- that near you, illo- that yonder.

2S7 Illo- (older form olo-* or olio-) that yonder.

Plural.

Masc. Fern* Neut.

N. ill! illae ilia

Ac. illos illas ilia

G. illorum illarum illorum

D. illis illis illis

Ab. illis illis illis

288 In the same manner is declined isto- that near you.i

289 To the three demonstratives, and to the adverbs derived from
them, the demonstrative enclitic cS or c (look, lo) is often added
for the sake of greater emphasis.

Singular.

Masc.

Fern.

Neut.

XT. illS

ma

illud

Ac. ilium

illam

illud

G. illffis

illms

illms

D. illi

ill!

ill!

Ab. illo

ilia

illo

200

Illo- with enclitic c.

Singular.

Masc. Fern. Neut.
N. illic illaec illoc or illuc
Ac. illunc illanc illQc or illuc
G. illiuscS illluscS illluscS
D.\ illic illic illic
Ab. illoc iliac illoc

Plural.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

N. illlcS illaec illaec

Ac. illoscS illasee' illaec

G. illorunc illarunc illorunc

D. illiscS illisce illiscg

Ab. illiscS illiscS illiscS

* See 1173.1.

f i'he Mss. often drop the t, as Hr. Ep. n. 2. 163, nempg mSdo sto.
(See Lachmann'a Lucretius.) Istus as a nom. m. is in PI. Mil. iv. 6. 18.
The dative illic is onlv used aaa.n adverb.

PRONOUNS. 51

291 In nearly all those cases which end in c, the e may be added :
as, Ac. m. illuncS, <fec.

292 In the same manner is declined isto- with eg,

293 If, besides the enclitic ce, the enclitic ng whether is also added,
the first enclitic takes the form cl throughout : as, illlclne illae-
clng illtfclng &c. ; istlcmg istaecmg latticing &c. ; hieing haeclue
hScmg &c.

294 Many of the cases from ho- alone, have disappeared from the
language, their places being supplied by those formed from ho-
with eg. Hence in part the irregularities of the following de-
clension.

295 Ho- this, partly with, partly without the suffix eg.

Singular.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

N. hlc haec hoc

Ac. hunc hanc hoc

G. hums hums hums

Z).* huic huic huic

Ab. hoc hac hoc

Plural.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

N. hi hae haec

Ac. hos has haec

Gr. horum harum horum

D. his his his

Ab. his his his

296 Those cases which do not end in c, as here declined, may have
that enclitic added: as, Gr. huiuscg; N. pi. m. hlcg, f. haec6 or
haec ; Ac. hoscg, &c. An old N. pi. is hisce, PL Mil. m. 6. 9.

297 An old form of the D. or Ab. pi. is hlbus.

298 The adverbs from illo- (or olo-) are illo or illoc or illuc to yonder
place, thither ; illim or illinc from yonder place ; illl or illic in
yonder place, yonder, there ; ilia or iliac by yonder road, along that
line; and olimf formerly or hereafter, in those days. See also
Table of words derived from prepositions.

299 The adverbs from isto- are, isto or istoc or istuc to the place
where you are, to your part of the country ; istim or istinc from the
place where you are; istl or istic where you are; ista or istac along
the place or country where you are t

300 The adverbs from ho- are, hoc or hue hither, towards me;
hinc hence, from me, from this time ; hlc here, near me ; hac along
this road, by me; and si (very rare), more commonly sic, so, thus,
in this way.

* Hlc is the form of the dative when used as an adverb,
f Unless olim be the equivalent in form of our rjhilcm, an old dative
of while, and signifying ' at times.'

52 PRONOUNS.

LOGICAL PRONOUNS.

301 Logical pronouns refer only to the words of a sentence. To
these belong i- or eo- this or that, and qui- or quo- which, &c.

302 I- 0* eo-* this or that.

Singular.
Masc. Fern. Neut.
N. Is ea id
Ac. eum earn id
G. eius eius eius
D, el el el
Ab, eo ea eo

Plural.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

N. ii or I or rather hi eae ea
Ac. eos eas ea

G. eorum earuin eoruni

D. feis iis or is or rather his for all gen-

Ab. \ ders.

303 Old forms are N. h!s,t Ac. im or em, D. or Ab. pi. Ibus and
eabiis.

304 The adverbs from i- or eo- are, eo to this or to that place or
degree, thither ; indg (in compounds im or in, as exim or exin)

from this* ,from that , thence ; Ibi in or at this , in

that , there, then; ea along this or that line or road ; Ita" thus,

so ; iam now, already, at last.

305 Qui- or quo- which, what, who, any.

Singular.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

N . quls or qui quae or qua quid or qu<5d

Ac. quem quam quid or qu5d

G. quoius or emus/or all genders
D. quoi or cui or cm for all genders

Ab. quo or qui

qua or qui

quo or qui

Plural.

Masc.

Fern.

Neut.

N.

qui

quae

quae or qua

Ac.

quos

quas

quae or qua

G.

quorum

quarum

quorum

D. Ab. quibus or quisyb/' all genders.

* An older C.F. was in, whence in-d$ adv. * from this place.' Com-
pare the Greek ev-6ev, as illustrated by oiKo-Oev, e^e-Oev.

f Fest .sub voce ' Muger.'

J For the blanks insert time, place, $c., as it may be.

An older C.F. was quin or cun, whence un-dS (for ctinde, compare
sl-cunde) ' from what place.'

PRONOUNS.

53

306 Of the double forms, qul N. and quSd are adjectives ; quls
commonly a substantive, rarely an adjective ; quid a substantive
only.

307 Qui- or quo- is called a relative when it refers to a preceding

word, as, the person who , the thing which , the knife with

which 9 & c . To the relative belong all the forms except quis

quS, and quid.

308 It is called a direct interrogative when it asks a question, as,
who did it ? and an indirect interrogative when it only speaks of
a question, as, we do not know who did it. To the interrogative
belong all the forms, except qua.

309 It is said to be used indefinitely when it signifies any. In this
case it is placed after some word to which it belongs ; very com-
monly after si, ne, num, ec, Sli. All the forms are used in this
sense, but qua is more common than quae.

310 N. Ac. Quis and quern in old writers are sometimes feminine.

311 G. D. Quoius and quoi are older than the other forms. They
appear to have been used by Cicero. An old genitive cul occurs
in the word cul-cul-m5dl of whatever kind.

312 Ab. Qul is the older form, and is only used by the later
writers in particular phrases : as, 1. qulcum = quocum m. or n. ;
2. without a substantive in the sense wherewith; 3. as an in-
terrogative, by what means, how?

313 N. pi. Ques is a very old form.

314 D. and Ab. pi. Quls, sometimes written queis, is the older
form of the two.

315 The adverbs from quo- or qui- are, quo whither, to what ;

unde (formerly cundg) from what , whence; iibi (formerly

ciibi) in what , where, when ; qua along what road or line, &c.

316 The conjunctions from quo- or qui- are, quoin quum or cum
when; quando when; quam how; quare (qua re) quur or car

' ; ut (formerly cut) or tttl how, that, as ; quod that, because, <fcc.

OTHER PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, &c.

317 The following adjectives are derived from quo- or qui- : quanto-
how great; quali- like what, of what kind; quot (undeclined) how
many (whence quotiens how often)', quo" to- occupying what place
in a series.

318 From an old root, to- this, are derived the adjectives, tanto- so
great; tali- like this, of this kind; t5t (undecl.) so many (whence

54 PRONOUNS.

ttftiens so often) ; tSto- occupying this place; also the adverbs tnm
so ; turn or (with the enclitic eg) tune then.

319 Of pronominal origin are, nam thus or for, and num now
(Greek wv), an old word still used in gtiam-num even now, still,
and in nudius tertiiis now the third day, two days ago. In com-
mon use the enclitic ce is always added, as, nunc now.

320 Ali is prefixed to many of the relative forms : as, aliqui- any,
some (emphatic), declined like qui- any ; N. n. allquantum some,
a considerable quantity ; allqu5t (undeclined) some, a considerable
number, &c.

321 EC is prefixed: as, ecqui- &c. whether any? ecquando whether
at any time ?

322 Hum whether, si if, ne not, are also prefixed : as, numqui-

9 whether any, siqui- if any, nequi- lest any. N. numquis, slquls,
nequis, &c.

323 Of the adverbs formed from aliqui-, nequi-, numqui-, slqui-,
many take the old initial c, as all-cubi, Sll-cunde', &c.

324 Vtero- (originally cu-tero-) generally an interrogative, which
of the two ? and sometimes a relative, he of the two, who ; and after
si, either, as, si ut^ro- if either has G-. utrlus, D. tttrl. Hence
neute'ro- N. neuter, <fec. (formerly ne-cut6r) neither.*

325 Ipso- ipsa- self, very, is declined, N. ipsiis or ipsS ipsS, ipsum,
Ac. ipsum ipsam ipsum, and the rest like illo-.

326 The N. ipsus is found only in old writers, as Terence. Apse"
or 'pse undeclined is sometimes found in old writers instead of
the proper case of ipso- : as, re-apse for re-ipsa, eampse for earn
ipsam, <fec.

327 Alio- one, another, has Gr. alms, D. a"lil, and N. and Ac. neut.
sing, aliiid, and the rest like illo-. From a crude form Sli- are
derived the old N. m. f. alls, n. alld, and the adverbs alibi else-
where, Sllt8r otherwise.

* The plural of those words which have the suffix tero must be care-
fully distinguished from the singular. Thus,

N. sing, uter which of the two individuals.

N. pi. utrl which of the two classes, parties, nations, armies, &c.

N. sing, alter one of the two individuals.

X. pi. alien one of the two classes, parties, nations, armies, &c.

N. sing, uterquehoih of the two individuals.

N. pi. utrlquS both of the two classes, parties, nations, armies, & c.

N. sing, neuter neither of the two individuals.

X. pi. neutri neither of the two classes, parties, nations, armies, &c.

PRONOUNS.

55

328 When alio- is used in- two following sentences, it is translated

by one f another ; or some , others : as, alius

rldet, alius lacriimat one laughs, another cries ; S,lios caedit, alios
dmrittlt he kills some, and lets others go.

329 When alio- is used twice in the same sentence, that sentence is
commonly translated twice over : as, aliud alio tempore one thing
at one time, another at another ; or by each other : as, alii aliis pro-
sunt they do good to each other.

330 Altero- (from ali-) one of two, another of two, the second, has G.
alteriiis, D. altgr! ; but altgrlus occurs in poetry.*

331 When altero- is used in two following sentences, it is trans-
lated by the one , the other : as, alter rldet, alter lacriimat

the one laughs, the other cries.

332 When altero- is used twice in the same sentence, it is com-
monly translated by each other : as, alter alterum uoluerat each
wounds tJie other.

333 As ali- and qui- form allqui-, so from altgro- and iitero- is
formed alter-utero- one of the two, which is declined in both parts ;
but elision generally takes place if the first part end in a vowel or
m : as, N. alterutgr altgr'iitra altgr'utrum &c., but G. altgrius-
utrlus.

334 Ullo- any (a diminutive from uno- one) has G. ulllus, D. ulll
<fec. It is accompanied by a substantive, and is used only in nega-
tive sentences. Hence nullo- none, declined like ullo-.

335 Many enclitics are added to the pronouns to give emphasis to
them: viz.

336 Quidem : as, gquldem, for egS quldem I at least.

337 Met : as, ggSmet / myself ; uosmgt you yourselves. It is com-
monly followed by ipse : as, suisme't ipsl praesldils they themselves
with their own troops.

338 Te, only with the nominative tu : as, tutS thou thyself.

339 C8, only with the demonstrative pronouns. See 28G-300.

340 PotS : as, ut-pote inasmuch as, as.

341 Ptg, in certain old forms : as, mihiptS, meptS ; and above all
with the ablatives, meoptS, meapte, suoptS, suapte, <fec.

342 Dem, with the pronoun i- or eo- : as, i-dem the same. The
N. m. drops the s, but leaves the vowel long ; the N. and Ac.
neut. take no d, and have the vowel short. In the Ac. sing, and

* See note p. 54.

56 PRONOUNS.

G. pi. the final m becomes n before d. Thus, N. idem ea-dem
Idem, Ac. eun-dem ean-dem Idem &c. So also with t5t, t5ti-
dem (undecl.) precisely as many ; and with tanto-, N. m. tantus-
dem, &c. of the same magnitude.

343 Dam, with quo- or qui-. N. qui-dam quse-dam quid-dam or
quod-dam, Ac. quen-dam quan-dam quid-dam or quod-dam <foc.
a certain person or thing. It is used when a person cannot or
will not state whom or what he means, and often serves to soften
adjectives which would express too much: as, dlvlnS, quaedam
eloquentici a certain godlike eloquence, a sort of godlike eloquence,
I had almost said a godlike eloquence. From quidam is derived
quondam at some former or future time, formerly, hereafter.

344 Quam, with quo- or qui- : as, N. quisquam quaequam quid-
quam or quicquam <fec. any, in negative sentences. It is Cvm-

monly used without a substantive. See ullo- above. From quisquam
are formed the adverbs umquam or unquam (originally cumquam)
ever ; from whence nunquam never, ne-qulquam in vain, haudqua-
quam in no way, l>y no means, neutiquam or rather nutlquam in
no way, by no means, usquam any where, nusquam no where.

345 Piam (probably another form of preceding suffix), with quo-
or qui- : as, N. quispiam quaepiam quidpiam or quodpiam &c. any
(emphatic). .From qui-piam comes the adverb uspiam any where.

346 Nam : as, N. quisnam or qulnam quaenam quidnam or quod-
iiam &c. who, which ? in interrogations (emphatic) ; and N. uter-
nam which of the two? in interrogations (emphatic).

347 Quo (this enclitic is probably a corruption of the relative
itself) : as, N. quisquS quaequS quidque or quodquS &c. every,
each ; whence the adverbs iibique' every where, undlquS/rora every
side, iitlquS any how, at any rate, usque 7 every step, every moment;
also N. uterquS utr&quS utrumquS each of two, both.

348 Quisque in old writers is used in the same sense as quicunque.

349 Quisque is generally placed 1. after relatives and relative
conjunctions : as, ut quisquS uenit as each arrived ; 2. after reflec-
tive pronouns : as, pro se quisquS each for himself ; 3. after super-
latives and ordinal numerals : as, optumus quisquS all the best
men, dScumus quisqug every tenth man, quStus quisquS 2 (every
how manyet ) how few?

350 Cumqug or cunquS (an old variety of quisque') : as, N". qui-
cunque quaecunquS quodcunquS <fec. whoever, whosoever, whichever,
whatever: so also N. utercunqug utr&cunquS iitrumcunquS etc.

PRONOUNS. 57

whichever of the two ; N. m. quantuscunque" <fec. how great soever,
quandocunquS whensoever &c. CunquS may be separated from the
other word : as, qui me cunque uldit whoever saw me. QuicunquS
is rarely used as an indefinite, any whatever.

351 Vis (thou wishest, from uol- wish) : as, N. qululs quaeuis quid-
uls or quoduis <fec. any one you please (the best or the worst), a
universal affirmative ; whence quamuls as muck as you please, no

matter how , though ever so ; and literals iitrauis utrum-

uls whichever of the two you please.

352 Liibet or libet (it pleaseth) : as, N. m. qullubet <fec. any one you
please ; and N. m. uterliibet &c. whichever of the two you please.

353 Relative forms are often doubled. Thus, qui- doubled : as, N".
m. quisquis,* n. quidquld or quicquid whoever, no matter who;
whence cuicuimodl, a genitive, of whatever Krcc?,and quoquo mSdo
in any way whatever.

355 Quanto- doubled: as, N. m. quantusquantus &c. how great
soever, no matter how great.

356 Quali- doubled : as, N. m. qualisqualis &c. whatever-liJce, no
matter what-UTce.

357 Quot doubled : as, quotqu5t (undeclined) how many soever,
no matter how many.

358 So also there are the doubled adverbs or conjunctions : quam-
quam however, no matter how, although, and yet ; iitut however ;
no matter how; quoquo whithersoever; undeunde whencesoever ;
ubiubi wheresoever ; quaqua along whatsoever road.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

359 Meo- mea- mine, my.

Tuo- tua- thine, thy, your, yours (referring to one person).
Suo- sua- his, hers, her ; its ; theirs, their.
Nostero- nostSra- ours, our ; N. noster nostra nostrum &c.
Vostgro- uostera- or uestero- uestera- yours, your (referring to
more than one) ; N. uoster uostra uostrum &c.
Cuio- cuia- whose.

360 These are all declined regularly, except that the m. V. of meo-
is ml.

361 Suo- is a reflective pronoun, and can only be used when it re-
fers to the nominative (see 280). In other cases his, her or its
must be translated by the genitive eius from i-, and their by the
genitive eorum or earum.

* NO snecial form for the feminine in use.

PRONOUNS.

362 The adjective cuio- is rarely met with, the genitives cuius,
quorum, quarum, being used in its place.

363 The possessive pronouns, if not emphatic, are placed after the
noun they belong to. If they are emphatic, they are placed before it.

364 From the possessive pronouns are derived :

Nostrati- or nostrat-, N. nostras of our country.
Vostrati- or uostrat-, N. uostras of your country.
Cuiati- or cuiat-, N. cuias of whose country.

365 Formed in the same way are inftimati- belonging to the loicest,
summati- belonging to the highest. All these are declined like
Arplnati- or Arplnat- belonging to Arpinum.

366

TABLE OF PRONOMINAL ADVERBS.

Ending in

bi or I, dat.

o (=om) ace.

dg( = 6 w)
old gen.

a, abl. fern.

Meaning

where

whither

whence

along what
road

ho-

hie

ho,t hoc 3 t hue

hinc

hac

isto-

isti, istic

isto, istoc,t istuc

istim, istinc

ista, istac

illo-

ilh, illic

illo, illoc,: iUuc

illim, illinc

ilia, iliac

i- or eo-

ibl

eo

indS

efi

i- or eo- + dem

ibidem

eodem

indidem

eadem

qui- or quo-

iib!

quo

unde

qua

utero-

utrob!

iitro

iitriudS

iitra

alio-

Sllilbi

alio

Sliundg

alia

ali-

Sllbf

altgro-

altro

altrindS(?)||

neutSro-

neutrub!

neutro

ali- + qui- or quo-

allcub!

aliquo

allcunde

allqua

si + qui- &c.

sicub!

siquo

sicundg

siqua

' ne + qui- &c.

necub!

nequo

necuiidS

nequa

uum + qui- &c.

numcub!

numquo

qui- doubled

ubiub!

quoquo

undeunde

quaqua

qui- or quo- + uls
qui- &c. + liibet

ubluis
iibilubet

quouis
quoliibet

undeuls
undglubet

quauis
qualubet

qui- &c. + qug

ubique

quoquell

undlqug

HtSro- + qu6

iitrobiqu6

iitroquS

utrinquS

utraqu6

qui- <fcc. + quam

quoquam

quaquam**

qui- &c. + nam

ub!nam

quonam

quanam

* See 790.

f Occurring in horsum for ho-uorsum ' hitherwards.
J Less used than the other forms
Occurring in altro-uorsiis ' towards the other side.'
|| Virtually occurring in allrinsecus ' from the other side.'
IT In quoqueuorsus ' in every direction.'
** in nequdquam and haudqudquam 'in no way, by no means.'

VERBS.

367 An active verb denotes action, that is, movement : as, caed-
fell, cut or strike, cur- run.

308 The person (or thing) from whom the action proceeds is called
the nominative to the verb.

309 The object to which the action is directed is called the accusa-
tive after the verb.

370 A verb which admits a nominative is called personal : as, caed-
striJce ; whence uir caedit the man strikes.

371 A verb which does not admit a nominative is called impersonal :
as, tona- thunder ; whence tonat it thunders.

372 A transitive verb is one which admits an object or accusative
after it : as, caedit pugrum he strikes the boy.

373 An intransitive verb is one which does not admit an accusative :
as, cur- run ; whence currlt he runs.

374 The object of a transitive verb may be the agent himself: as,
caedo m6 I strike myself, caedis te you strike yourself, caedit se he
strikes himself, &c. A verb is then said to be used as a reflective.

375 In Latin a reflective suffix is added to a transitive verb, so as
to give it the reflective sense : as, uerto I turn, uertor I turn my-
self ; uertis you turn, uertSrls you turn yourself ; uertlt he turns,
uertltur he turns himself.

376 A reflective verb then denotes an action upon oneself, and in
Latin is conjugated in the imperfect tenses with a suffix s or r.*
It will be denoted by an r between brackets : as, uert-(r.) turn
oneself.

377 The perfect tenses of a reflective verb are supplied by the verbs
6s- and fu- be, united with the participle in to-.

378 An intransitive verb is generally in meaning reflective : as,
ciir- run i. e. put oneself in a certain rapid motion, ambula- walk

* This suffix is no doubt the pronoun se ' self,' which, as it is not limited
in number and gender, was probably at first not limited in person. In
some of the Slavonic languages the same pronoun is actually applied to
all the persons ; and in the Lithuanian the reflective verb is formed from
the simple verb through all the persons by the addition of s. The inter-
change of s and r has been seen already in the nouns; another example
presents itself in nerter-ts, which is formed from iterfts, precisely as the
gen. puluer-is from the C.F. pulitis, and the old pi. gen. nucer-um (see
80) from the sing. gen. nucis. So also lapiderum, regerum (Charisius.
p. 40 P. tech.), bouerum ,Cato R. R. 62).

60

VERBS.

i. e. put oneself in a certain moderate motion ; but as the object in
these cases cannot easily be mistaken, no reflective pronoun or
suffix is added.

379 When the source of an action (i. e. the nominative) is not
known, or it is thought not desirable to mention it, it is common
to say that the action proceeds from the object itself. A reflective
so used is called a passive : thus uertltur, literally, he turns him-
self, is often used for he is turned.*

380 This passive use of a verb with a reflective suffix is more
common than the proper reflective use.

381 The nominative to the passive verb is the same as the accusa-
tive after the transitive verb, caedunt puerum they strike the boy,
or caedltur puer the boy is struck.

382 Hence passive verbs can be formed only from transitives.

383 An impersonal passive verb however is formed from intransi-
tivesf : as, from noce- do damage, ntfcetur damage is done; from
resist- stand in opposition, offer resistance, resistitur resistance is
offered. When the intransitive verb can be thus expressed by an
English verb and substantive, the passive impersonal may be trans-
lated by what is also strictly impersonal, the person who does the
damage, or offers the resistance, <fec. not being mentioned. At
times this is impracticable, and it is necessary to use the word
they or people with the active, as from i- go, ittir they go.

384 Transitive verbs also may form a passive impersonal : as, from
die- say, diciturj they say ; but in this case the words of the sen-
tence that follow dlcitiir may perhaps be considered as a nomina-
tive to it. See Syntax, 1240.

* Many European languages will afford examples of this strange use
of the reflective; as the German: Das versteht sich vort selbst, 'that is
understood of itself;' the French: Le corps se trouva, 'the body was
found ;' the Italian : Si loda Vuomo modesto, ' the modest man is praised ;'
the Spanish : Las aguas se secaron, ' the waters were dried up.' There
is something like this in our own language : the chair (jot broken in the
scuffle. Nay, children may often be heard to use such a phrase as the
chair broke itself.

f Where the action of an intransitive verb is to be expressed without
mentioning the nominative, the artifice of supposing the action to proceed
from the object is of course impracticable, because an intransitive verb
has no object. Here a second artifice is adopted, and the action is sup-
posed to proceed from itself ; thus, nocetur, literally translated, is * damage
does itself.'

J In Italian, si dice ; in Spanish, se dize. In German it is expressed
by man sayt, 'man says;' from which the French have literally translated
their on dit, originally horn dit.

VERBS.

385 A static verb denotes a state : as, 6s- be, dormi- sleep, iace- lie,
uiglla- be awake, m6tu-/mr.

386 Static verbs generally end in e, by which they are sometimes
distinguished from active verbs of nearly the same form and
meaning: as,

iac- or iaci- throw, iace- lie.

pend- hang or *M*pn</, pende- hang or 5<? suspended.

sld- (side-re) a%A* or *w, sede- sit or fe smted.

cap- or capi- tafc, h ^be- hold or Aat*.
possld- enter upon possession, posslde- possess.

feru- boil, ferue- fo Miny /ictf.

[cand- set on fire], cande- Jta, & cale- fo Ac*,

tend- stretch, strain, tene- hold tight.

alba- whiten, albe- be white.

387 A static imperfect is nearly equivalent to the perfect of an
active : as, possedlt Ae 7is taken possession, and possldet A<J pos-
sesses or is i?i possession; possederat he had taken possession, and
possidebat he possessed or was in possession; possederit he will
have taken possession, and possidebit he will possess or be in pos-

session,

388 Hence many static verbs in e have no perfect ; and even in
those which appear to have one, the perfect by its meaning seems
to belong to an active verb. Thus frige- be cold is said to have
a perfect frix-. The compound rSfrixit does exist, but not with
a static meaning : thus uinum rgfrixit the wine got or has got
cold again. The form of the perfect itself implies a present re-
frig-, not refrlge-.

389 Hence two perfects from active verbs are translated as static
imperfects : as, gno- or gno-sc- examine, whence perf. gnouit he
has examined or he knows, gnougrat he had examined or he knew;
consue- or consuesc- acquire a habit or accustom oneself, whence
perf. consueuit he has acquired the habit or is accustomed, consue-
uerat he had acquired the habit or was accustomed.

390 Two verbs have only the perfect in use, and these translated
by English imperfects of static meaning, viz. od-*, memln-, whence
odit he hates, oderat he hated, odgrlt he will hate; mgmlnit he

* These imply an imperfect crude form U- or odi- ' take an aversion
to,' whence odio- sb. n. hatred ;' and men- 'mind' or ' notice,' whence the
sb. f. men-ti- or ment- ' mind.'

62 , VERBS.

remembers, mSmlngrat he remembered, memlngiit he will remem-
ber.

391 Static verbs are for the most part intransitive ; but some are
transitive, as those which denote possession, habe- hold, tgne- hold
tight, keep, posslde- possess, sci- know ; and verbs of feeling, as,
ama- love, time- fear.

IRREGULARITIES OP FORM AND MEANING.

392 A static intransitive has sometimes a reflective or passive per-
fect. Such a verb is commonly called a Neuter -Passive : as,

Lai.

English.

Pres. Spers.

Perf. 3 pers. masc.

aude-

dare,

audet

ausus est.

gaude-

rejoice,

gaudet

gauisus est.

fid-

trust,

fldlt

f isus est.

s61e-

be wont,

sSlet

solitus est.

393 To the same class belong several impersonal verbs of feeling,
&c. : viz.

mlsSre- denoting pity, mlsSret mlsgrltum or mfsertum est.

piide- shame, pudet puduit or pudltum est.

plge- ,, reluctance, plget plguit or plgltum est.

taede- ,, weariness, taedet taeduit or per-taesum est.

lube- pleasure, lubet liibuit or lubltum est.

pl&ce- approbation, placet placuit or pl^citum est.

lice- ,, permission, licet Hcuit or llcltum est.

394 Some transitive verbs are used without a reflective pronoun or
suffix, yet with a reflective or intransitive meaning : as, fortunS,
MQri^r^i fortune had turned i.e. had turned herself. In these cases
the pronouns me, te, se &c. are said to be understood.

395 This use of a transitive form with a reflective or intransitive
meaning is more common in the perfect tenses : as, rguortitur he
returns, rguortebatur he was returning, rguortetur he will return;
but reuertit he has returned, rguertgrat he had returned, rSuertgrlt
he will have returned. So deuortltur he turns out of the road into
an inn, but deuertit (perf.) he has done so ; planglttir he beats him-
self, but planxit he has beaten himself.

396 Some of the principal verbs which are thus used with both
a transitive, and reflective or intransitive meaning, are the fol-
lowing :

VERBS.

Lat. Trans.
in Sue- move,
auge- increase,
laxa-
laua-

muta- change,
sta- set up,
ru-

Intrans.
move,
increase,
get loose.

put in violent rush,
motion,

Lat.

plang-
inclpi-
inclina-

Trans.

slant,
keep away,
again,

Intrans,
beat oneself,
begin,
slant,
abstain,
relax.

wash. abstine-

change. remit-

stand. suppSdlta- keep filling up, abound.

praecipIta-ZArow headlong, rush head-
long.'*'

397 In some verbs the transitive meaning, though originally be-
longing to the word, has become nearly or quite obsolete, as in
prSpera- hasten, trans, or in trans., propinqua- make near or ap-
proach.

398 The reflective form seems to have been originally given to some
verbs to denote reciprocal action : as,

amplect-imiir we embrace each other.

conulcia-mur we abuse each other.

fabula-mur we talk together.

loqu-imiir we talk together.

lucta-mur we wrestle together.

oscula-mur we kiss each other.

parti-miir

rixa-mur
sola-miir
sorti-mur
sauia-miir

we share together.
r 'we fight each other,
we snarl at each other,
we comfort each other,
we cast lots together,
we kiss each other.

399 Many reflective verbs are translated by an English intransitive :
as, pr5flc-isc- (r.) set out, laeta- (r.) rejoice, which have still a re-
flective sense. These are called Intransitive Deponents.

400 Many reflective verbs have so far thrown off the reflective
meaning, that they are translated by an English transitive and
take a new accusative : as, mira- (r.) admire, ugre- (r.) fear, am-
plect- (r.) embrace, indu- (r.) clothe oneself, put on, sgqu- (r.) follow,
Imita- (r.) make onself like, imitate. These are called Transitive
Deponents.

401 Some intransitive verbs, by a slight change of meaning, are
used transitively : as, from horre- bristle or shudder, horret t6n6-
bras he dreads the dark; m&ne- wait, mSnet aduentum ems he awaits
his arrival; Sle- smell, 51et unguenta he smells of perfumes. This

* It is in this way that ft-, only a shortened form of fad-, first sig-
nified 'make myself,' and then 'become' or 'am made.' It is indeed pro-
bable that the c in J 'ado was not always pronounced. This would account
for its disappearance in the Italian infinitive fare and French faire; and
would also account for the fact that./? is commonly long before a vowel,
as/i-o ' I am made,' for/ai-o.

64 VERBS.

is particularly the case with some neuter pronouns : as, from
labora- labour , id l&borat he is labouring at this. (See 909.)

402 Intransitive verbs may have an accusative of a noun which has
the same meaning : as, uitam iucundam uluit he is living a de-
lightful life. This is called the Cognate Accusative ( 894).

403 Intransitive verbs when compounded sometimes become transi-
tive : as, ufid-* go, euad- go out, escape; whence euadgre peri-
ciilo or ex perlculo to make one's way out of danger, or guadSre
periculum to' escape danger ; ueni- come, conueni- come toge-
ther, meet; whence conuenire Sliquem to meet one, to go and see
a person; grad- or gradi- (r.) march, egrgd- or egredi- (r.)
march out, leave; whence egredi urbg or ex urbg to march out of
the city, or egredi urbem to leave the city.

404 Some transitive verbs when compounded take a new transitive
sense, nearly allied to the original meaning, and thus have a double
construction : as, da- put, circumda- put round or surround ;
whence circumdare murum urbl to throw a wall round the city, or
circumdare urbem muro to surround the city with a wall ;
ser- sow or plant, inser- plant in, graft ; whence inse're're' plrum
orno (dat.) to graft a pear on a wild ash, or inserere ornum piro
(abl.) to engraft a wild ash with a pear; du- put, indu- put
on, clothe ; indue're uestem Slicu! to put a dress on one, or indue're
Sllquem uestg to clothe one with a dress.

405 The verb then has two forms or voices : the simple voice (com-
monly called the active), which does not take the reflective suf-
fix; the reflective voice (commonly called the passive), which does
take it.

PERSONAL SUFFIXES TO VERBS.

406 In English the pronouns I, you or thou, he, she, it, &c. are
prefixed to a verb. In Latin, as in Greek, little syllables with the
same meaning are attached to the end of a verb so as to form one
word with it.

407 The Greek verb in its oldest shape formed from the pronouns
me- me, su- or tu- thou, and to- this, the three suffixes ml, si, tl,
or, with a short vowel prefixed, 6ml, <M, etl.^ Now the Latin lan-
guage has its personal suffixes not unlike these : viz. dm, Is, It.

* See 451.1.

f Compare the old verb 6t/ (e<r-/Ki), eo--<rt, e<r-n, with the old reflec-
tive verb Tt/TTT-o/i-ot, rvirr-eff-ai,

VERBS. 65

408 The suffix dm, belonging to the first person, is but little altered
in sum (=gs-urn) I am, or in inqu-am* I say.

409 More commonly the suffix om undergoes one of two changes.
Either the m is lost, as, scrlb-o / write, for scrlb'omf ; or, if a
vowel precede, the o sometimes disappears, leaving the m, as,
scrlbeba'm / was writing.

410 The final o of the first person is always long in Virgilt, but
common in later poets.

411 The suffixes of the second person, te, and of the third person,
It, also lose their vowel, if the verb itself end in one. Thus,
scrlb-Is you write, and scrib-it he writes ; but scrlbeba's you were
writing, Sra's you plough, scrlbeba't he was writing, Sra't he
ploughs. So also the t is lost in fers you bring, fert he brings ; es
(for Ss-Xs) you are, est he is ; and uolt he wishes.

412 When the suffix tt thus loses its vowel by contraction, as,
&ra-Xt, rat he ploughs, it might be expected that the syllable
would be long ; but it is in fact nearly always short. Still in the
reflective the right quantity is preserved, scrlbebat-iir, S,rat-ur;
and the old poets, including even Virgil, have examples of a long
quantity in such words as versat, augeat, accldet.

413 The form of the second person suffix in the perfect is tl for tu :
as, sci ipsis-tl you have written.

414 The suffixes of plurality for the nouns were s and um. (See
52.) Those employed for the verbs are nearly the same.

415 From time and s is formed the double suffix times ' we' for the
old Greek verb. The old Latin prefers umiis, as in u51-umtis we
wish, sumus (=Ss-umiis) we are, quaes-umus we ask. Commonly
fonus is written, as scrib-imus we write.\\

* The English language still retains a trace of the first person suffix
in the verb am. See also 1158. 1, note -t, about sciain,

f See the adverbs of motion towards, where om final is similarly
reduced to o.

Spondeo and nescio appear to have a short o in Virgil, but in reality
are to be considered as words of two syllables, spondo or spondyo and
nescyo. Scio in Italian has become so.

The English language still retains its suffix of the second person
est, and of the third person eth or s, as in sendest and sendeth or sends.

II See the same interchange of un us and imus in the superlatives
( 242), and in the ordinal numerals ( 252). Nay the Emperor Au-
gustus wrote simus (i.e