Z 3 1897 SMC h M w " w...- =- - tr _ _--- ::r r:J w ...D g -_:: :> ru :;; :-: D M :: = ---=...[J ,.." TIN ANVSCR'I PTS AFioL . .H.N TON ,I I' 1 , --: } . ';; L - r : : I _.: : _ ..-:' : . ro' - .-I.! 1:1 1 " .l... ,\'. ;1 1 -: I , _, - "- I ,. 1. Ii . , Il,. v \. ;: ,__ m'r I -".., ', ,\ i I _. -::) .. , I, ,I" . " . .',-. "":'_"ii'J i ;: " " , ll I, '''' . .,.". . -.'.', i \ ' "., . .:l; , L ', \ 1 ,I! l (II, I! '-:>{ , (3. o\,.\) L{ o \o \c"*\ ç -új This book belongs to THE CAMPBELL COLLECTION purchased wich che aid of The MacDonald-Stewart Foundation and The Canada Council B_ H. BLACKWELL LTD. - BOORRELLEII ISO and lil. ÐHOAJ) STREET OXI'OIiD ....., \oJ " .,.., I - 1 'ffll Cf50lfltVJ\tQ\' 1 N I.\..\ ltvGft ULI !)U5rtOlCtL NA U Nt D 15QVf5.L\r \f-I\7.1 \!4\RI\rIi l\UN tIÂN DO. co L\l.A \ QVI l. rfllLl \Q\TIC M.\I:S.\l\JO.L\ lQV tIt tt( (' l '- : fICO NLV1lAI 05C \fi\f.\ It\.tSCl NDl!\lfWl.tS' !U!5VNICONATUNt0NfR.fUU0055AAt " .. ;5Cl LlCfLUC10S5Al IkON f'OSVAU NVtM'r1Íü1YAuVAl' It Lttl\I flfXIltVCr os D151 f C1 I Il1L\llN U\ONI 15. SAlrr l.i\lA! 05 r D t CiA \ \ \ tlfllXfI raNI LU\I1I fAt- .tIllE NS05DOA \lI.\L\fbO\f f51IilCfAt f.lkf .J\DDtU'N 0 N..\ r\'G..\tA \t Lto &Co-N I lUIÀf\J 1J 15' l\Jl fAADIQ-G ILl L'J\j\l! 11\155 I N ocr tDLt'Il\t A.\fIC\J..\l5Ql1N O\T01 t \51 N lOl\..\I lO\JS- N ocr t 1 t\!.f5 J\tf Ll\!5SI It\f lÀtNOCI f \f\l D Åt'L\t IQ-NDfN1\I &NOG ISltNI\jSNON DI r 1 ClIV.\lO& fIQ\JLt'. \l5f1l0Stflbf1\.Nl..\Dl V \ll N lSLGN is' !f!Vl Gl LAN I rtuOQ\r[r \Cf51 N5l1CAI1\Ct'ro. iN I I lUAiO N'GV A lC.. \1\1. IV 50 1.l\1 ALAl)O R1 J\l faGvrQC O N L tr NXXLkCt T til I rier 1 N f r Il.l\S I Å \11 DV 1(' I5.A l V sn \IUl CAN 01) fCOQ\T I IV.\. \ 0 lUM I t rI Oil15VN l)Ái\ lÎt 1 t'LD IS r\J \l \TAiN 1..- AI it \1 Ô 1 CtrNl'J\ct!f5 \ lID1(\St r CCLDi IV A:.\I5IV' jUAlfNOrOSL\5Af5Il r r f 1\1 rWAtA;\'GL'. : N'J D\J5..\A:AS Lltf N\J 1.' trSli1l..\ U..' 1 NAV ACO LO NO I v I. \ ERGII.. PalatÙuo. .";act. 1/ V ..1 INTER-COLLEGIA TE LA TIN SERIES UNDER THE EDITORIAL SUPERVISION OF HAROLD \V. JOHNSTON, PH. D. PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN THE UNIVERSITY OF INDIANA LATIN 1\1ANUSCRIPTS BY HAROLD W. JOHNSTON CHICAGO SCOTT, FORESMAN & CO IPANY 18 97 t \ 3:hc !ntcr-Qtollcgiate atiu CtiC5 LATIN MANUSCRIPTS AN ELE:\IE TARY I TRODUCTION TO THE USE OF CRITICAL EDITIONS FOR HIGH SCHOOL AKD COLLEGE CLASSES BY HAROLD "V. JOH STON, PH. D. PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN THE UNIVERSITY OF Il'DlANA CHICAGO SCOTT, FORESl\1AN & CO:\IPANY 18 97 Copyright, 1897, by SCOTT, FORES:\IAN & CO., CHICAGO, ILL. PRESS or RO F.R'" . " ITII co" CHICACO. ... TO ED'" ARD B. CLAPP. PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNI\"ERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. II< PREFACE. D DRING the last session of the Summer School of Indiana University I gave a course of lectures to the Teachers' Class on Paleography, Henneneutics and Criticism. My attention was then called to the fact that even in secondary schools many questions relating to Paleography and Criticism are asked by pupils who find different texts of the same author used in the same class. Some of their text books, too, go so far as to give and discuss various readings of difficult passages, as does Green- ough's Cæsar, for example. A wish was therefore expressed by several teachers of Latin that a manual might be published for the use of High Schools, answering the more common questions of this sort. In response to their wish I have prepared this volume. It gives a mere outline of the subjects of which it treats in broad strokes, but contains. I hope, all that students in High Schools and in the lower classes of Colleges will need in order to understand the critical notes found in the text books commonly used by these classes. For University use it should be supple- mented by lectures upon the several authors of the sort admirably illus- trated by 1\1r. \V. 1\1. Lindsay's Illtroductioll to Latill Textual Eme1ldation, Based Oil the Text of Plautus (New York, (896). The elementary nature of this manual excludes references to authorities, but I must mention some of the most important which were used in the preparation of the lectures from which these chapters are condensed. On ancient books the standard work is Dirt's Das alltike Buc!n,Jese!l (Berlin, 1882). On the book trade in antiquity there are Haenny's Schriftstellcr 1l1ld Buchllälldler Ùll alten Rom (Leipzig, (885). and (to be used cautiously) Putnam's Aut/LOrs alld their Public ill Allcient Timcs (New York, 1894). On Paleography Thompson's Halldbook of Greek a1ld Latill Palaeograp/lY (New 7 8 PREFACE. York, 18 93) is the best modern work; to supplement it the best collection of fac-similes of Latin manuscripts IS, perhaps, Chatelain's Rlléograpltic dcs Classiqllcs Latills (Paris, 1884, fol.). On Criticism there is a valuable article by Friedrich Blass in Iwan l\IülIer's Halldbucll (Vol. I, Munich, 18 9 2 )., For the use of young students teachers wiII find good material for parallel reading in Gow's Compallion to School Classics (New York, 1888), from which I have drawn several .paragraphs, and in the Dictionaries of Antiquities. under the words charta, codex, liber, papyrus, 'i/olulllCll, etc. The illustrations are from the works mentioned above, and from Schreiber's Atlas and Baumeister's Dmkmälcr. The pla es are from Chatelain, except that of the Codex Romanus of Catullus, which was furnished by its discoverer, Professor \Villiam Gardner . Hale, of the University of Chicago. Besides owing to Professor Hale the privilege of first publishing a fac-simile of a page of the most important Latin manuscript discovered in many years, I am under obligations to Professor Edouard BaiIIot and 1\1r. Charles H. Beeson, of this University, and to Dr. Edward Capps, of the University of Chicago, for assistance generously given me. INDJANA UNIVERSITY, Feb. 5. 18 7. H. W. ]OIIKSTOK. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE I. THE HISTORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS, 1- 8 9. THE MAKING OF THE MANUSCRIPTS, 1-24 . 13 Writing Materials, 2. Paper and Vellum, 3. Papyrus, SS 4- 1 3. Pens and Ink, 5. Rolls, S 6-8. Reading the Rolls, 9. Size of the Rolls, S 10-1 I. Preservation of the Rolls, 12. Parchment, S 13- 2 4. Instru- ments for Writing, 15. Books (Codices), 16, 17. Odd Forms, 18. Size of the Books, 19. Parchment vs. Papyrus, S 20, 2 I. Tardy Use of Parchment, S 22. Age of Parchment Books, 24. THE PUBLICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BOOKS, ;::S 25-4 1 27 The Authors, 25. Copyright, 26, 27. Plays, 28. Uncommercial Publications, 29, 30. Commercial Publications, 31. Process of Publi- cation, 32. Dictation, 33. Rapidity of Publication, 34. Cost of the Books, 35. Stichometry, 3 6 . Correctors, 37-39. Titles, S 40, 41. ., THE TRAl':SMISSION OF THE BOOKS. S 4 2 - 6 7 35 Period Covered, 42. Period of the Decline, S 43. Public Libraries, 44. Schools and Universities, 45. The Classics, 4 6 . Scholia, S 47, 4 8 . Glosses, 49. The Grammarians, S 50. Opposition to Christianity, S 5 I. Subscriptions, S 52. Their Value, S 53. Summary, S 54. Lost Works, 55. The Dark .\ges, S 56. Indifference to Learning, S 57. The Church, 5 8 ,59. The Re....ival of Learning, 60,61. Invention of Printing, 62. Summary, 63. Editiones Principes, 64. Ancient Manuscripts, 65-67. THE KEEPING OF THE l\!Al':USCRIPTS, 68-89 4 8 Care of the Manuscripts, 68. Naming of the Manuscripts, S 69, 70. Descriptions, 71. Important Libraries, 72-80. Index to Collections, 7 8 - 80 . Symbols for the Manuscripts, 81-83. First and Second Hands, 84, 85. Collation of the Manuscripts, S 86- 8 7. Uncollated Manuscripts, S 88. Critical Editions, 89. II. THE SCIENCE OF PALEOGRAPHY, 9 0 - 1 49. STYLES OF WRITING, S 9 1 - 11 5 . Scope of the Science, ;S 9 1 ,9 2 . Forms of Letters, ;S 95, 9 6 . 61 Uses of Paleography, ;: 93,94. Ancient National Hands, 97. The Majuscules, 9 10 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 98-107. Capitals, 100. Specimens: Square, 102. Rustic, 103. Uncials and Half-uncials, 104, 105. Specimens: Uncials. 106. Half- uncials, 107. The Minuscules, S 108-114. Specimens, 113. Abbre- viations, 114. Summary, 115. THE ERRORS OF THE SCRIBES, 116- 1 49 79 The Codex, 116-118. Faulty Copies, 119. The Classification of Errors, 120. Unavoidable Errors, 121-124. Intentional Errors, S 12 5- 12 7. Accidental Errors, 128-146. Errors of the Eye, 129- 136. Dittography, 133. Lipography (Haplography), 134. Skipping, 135-136. Errors of the Memory, 137-141. Transposition,;:: 138, 139. Substitution, 140. Omissions and Additions, 141. Errors of the Judgment, 142-146. Wrong Division of Words, 143, 144. Wrong Punctuation, 145. Interpolation, 146. Uncertain Sources of Errors, 147-149. III. THE SCIENCE OF CRITICISM, S 150-208. METHODS AND TERMINOLOGY OF CRITICISM, S 150-160 . 95 Subdivisions of the Science, 151. The Critical Doubt, 15 2 , 153. Causes of Doubt, 154-158. Kinds of Criticism, 159. Criterion, 160. TEXTUAL CRITICISM, 161-193 . 100 Apparatus Criticus, 162. The l\lanuscripts, 163. Examination of the Manuscripts, 164, 165. Possible Results, 166-169, Stemmata, 170-172. Uses of the Stemmata, 1]2 Ancient Translations, 173- 174. Ancient Commentaries, ß 175, 17 6 . Citations, 177. Imitations, 17 8 . Use of the Apparatus, 1]9-187. Relative Worth of Manuscripts, 183-185. Test of Worth, 186,187. Conjectural Emendation, 188- 193. Criticism and Conjecture, 190, 191. Limits of Emendation, 19 2 . Opposing Views, 194. o' INDIVIDUAL CRITICISM, 194-208 1 q Purpose of Individual Criticism, 195. External Evidence: Manuscripts, 19 6 . Ancient Writers, 197, 198. Internal Evidence: Historical, 199. Individuality, 200. Language and Style, 201, 202. For- geries, 203. Tests of Proposed Authors, 204. Illustration of Proof, 205, 206. Summary, 207, 208. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES, 209-224 12 5 INDEX. 13 2 I. THE HISTORY OF THE l\IANUSCRIPTS. THE MAKING OF THE IA USCRIPTS. THE PUBLICA TIO A D DISTRIBUTIO OF BOOKS. THE TRANSMISSION OF THE BOOKS. THE KEEPI G OF THE MANUSCRIPTS. THE HISTORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS. THE MAKING OF THE MANUSCRIPTS. M AXUSCRIPTS and books were formerly studied as a part of Paleography, and were so treated by scholars until very recent times. At the present time separate treatment is given to this subject, although even now it may scarcely be regarded as a distinct branch, or discipline, of Philology. Under this head we have to consider the materials for writing, so far as these have to do with works of formal literature, the manufacture, distribution and sale of books, their destruction and preservation in the dark ages, and their present condition and keeping. \V RITIXG l\L-\. TERIALS.- \V e are concerned now with those mate- rials only, by the aid of which the literature of classical antiquity, chiefly Roman, was published to the world and afterwards trans- mitted to us. Almost all the substances fQr receiving writing known to the ancients were used at one time or another, for one purpose or another. by the Romans. Some of these were merely the makeshifts of rude antiquity and antedated all real literature, as, e. g., bark and leaves of trees, skins or tanned hides of animals, and pieces of linen cloth: all these are mentioned in works of lit- erature, but none were used to receive them. Others, such as stone, metal tablets, coins, etc., have presen"ed inscriptions of great im- portance to the study of antiquity and therefore of great interest to philologists, but belong rather to Epigraphy and Numismatics than to our present subject. Of more general use than any of these were the tablets covered with wax, which are mentioned so . frequently by Cicero. and were used as late as the fourteenth cen- tury; even these are excluded, however. by our definition, as they were at best used for merely the rough drafts of lite-rary composi- tions. For the publication of works of literature in classical times '3 1 2 14 LATIN MANUSCRIPTS. the one recognized material was Papyrus, and for their further transmission to our times Parchment alone need be considered. 3 PAPER AND VELLmI.-\Vhile parchment (vellum) was known to the classical writers, and perhaps used to a limited extent instead of the bulky tablets, and while papyrus (paper) was occa- sionally used for works of literature until the seventh century and for correspondence until the thirteenth century, their general rela- tion to each other is correctly given above: papyrus was the stand- ard commercial material at the time when the classics were written, and the tough parchment, upon which these works were copied centuries after their authors had passed away, has preserved these works to us, and is the material of the manuscripts with which modern scholars work. To Cæsar and Cicero, for example, a parchment book would have been as great a curiosity as are to us the papyrus rolls that have lived through the centuries. This distinction is of great importance to the further stndy of this subject. 4 P APYRUS.- The manufacture of papyrus from the reed of the same name, which was known to the Egyptians from very ancient times, reached its height in that country under the earlier Ptole- mies (third century B. C.), and was improved and perfected in Rome. Enllius (239-170 B. C.) is the earliest Roman writer to mention the material and is supposed to have been the first to use it for literary purposes. The papyrus reed has a jointed stem of triangular shape, five or six inches in diameter, and grows to a height of six or eight feet. The paper (clzarta) was made of the pith by a process substantia11y as fo11ows: Strips of the pith as long as the joints would permit were cut as thin as possible and arranged side by side, as E:losely as possible, upon a board. Across these at right angles other strips were laid in the same manner, with perhaps.. a coating of paste or gum between the two layers. The strips were then thoroughly soaked in water, and pressed or THE l\IAKING OF THE MANUSCRIPTS. 15 hammered into a substance not unlike our paper. After this sub- stance had been dried. and bleached in the SUll to a yellowish color, the sheets were rid by scraping of any irregular or rough places that remained, and were trimmed into uniform sizes depend- ing, of course, upon the length of the strips of pith which com- - "... .. ....:i_ r... -q_..o;:.f..-1'1"')t", -. ....---...... ...........2'\. '- ?'" -t-- ..... .: I ;.\': I ;;. - -- '* f,,}:... "" -. . ..L.- .....- ___; ..... .I; ........, -;....... il "- ,- .... ...;' : . -=. o{ . '" r-.ù ".. '\ .. .IJy""'-':': t :i:.. "" l", -;S; ......::"". ........, ," 't- , _ . l,"",-" ..' " ". -".- - :11- ." ' 11 e>.\,_ II. Jo . ...., .. Ié.. . ..I ... \- ... ..,....1.. 't 'l: ";. . 'q7.., . ..;;:!.." ,. ""'1-,.. '.1 't " -"<&' ' \ ,t' "rJ/" , ...). . .6 - ....:,. - :".' ' ^:. .. $.' ,.--:: ""i'y;r . \.. ' JI' -__ .--. . J' .i.....,. !If.:':. .;..,..__ -_ 'I 1]." þ:. t" j V. i' $"'(.' J\'" f' \ "'t::_'i% - ..- " !i ' . I)'" ./ , /, i,;' : ,i, ,. % ,.: :"> ' . , 4., . 'n -'< I'" - 't:.'t "7/ ' I '. 'ó1'- '>!,. ": (.:.' ....... , . / ' '1':Y( "", ",'ÙJ""/' ' I' ,;:< I i*,.". ...:1\, J\ '!; _ '4 i J ' \5.f!:' , , ,".., " f'3 , ì;'IJ \\ \ \ , ,_ _!\ I" '" ' '--:C;'.:.- . ð I ;'1\' ' ' 1--,,1 ), '\'7, ' \, Y' .. , - .-:-' -:- :{ "'""_""":' '/" 0:" \"Àf.' V;: " - ,--=:.:t"-::.",!.:,. - - "f,." {! " f ' '{ ' . I .,.'" ., '-' -.... -,- -:-" -. ,\., "" ";' t. . '. ,l",..,..' If'- - "- - .. . ' '\ .;ø""!./.. 1.\ "\. . " .:6<\ ...:t, !+- " , )' , ',' "" ;:: rJJ :.J " o 0: , U - , ..," \ .5 ; ... , " , \ \ ' . I' :\ 1:\ '., I .,\" I II \ : .\ I I LATIN l\L\NUSCRIPTS. ..... . . " II, , till I r / t.tø,. / \1 I ; II \ ) ' I ,,/0Ì\-!\ ' d .. r 'liiffÆJ . (f/ J ; _ :-'l.. ,'\\))) @). \ fl1 J ' fJl i I rj I y ...., ' , \ I I \': 1//, _ _'111' --- ... m--r l ' JJ ' ' -- ,, ...-- J>:'-" :.;r .. IJ INKSTANDS. r" :'i; .:';1ì7 .. , ...... - I' :I .. / I ', , , , > ,,-: .,. ':"-:.-=-- INKSTAND. 'p' Eb !.. ! , ... - ." " íi ;;; !t. Ii , , 1 1 . I;:r ( .. 'I i.1 , . t: I ; I ' " il'i . " ,I' -...- ì1 1 , , I:r; Ì1 :;\1' 771 v .. ' I :::: " I I . ii ::: f PENS, PEN-CASE AXD CRAYON HOLDERS. YARIOUS WRIT] G MATERIALS FRO" \VALL PAINTING FIG, 2. INSTRUMENTS UsED IN WRITING THE :\IAKING OF THE MANUSCRIPTS. 17 facture, served to guide the pen of the writer. The pen (cala- mus or calamlis scriþ/orius) was made of a reed, and was shaped to a coarse point and cleft with a knife much as our quill-pens used to be. Quill-pens are first mentioned by Isidorus (t 636 A. D.), a bishop of Seville, and cannot have been known to the classic writers. Uetal pens, of one piece with the holders, were also used in ancient times. but cannot be accurately dated. The ink (a/rameJllum) for papyrus was made of soot mixed with glue and thinned with water or vinegar. It was more like paint than ink, and was easily removed when fresh with a damp sponge which the writer kept by him for the correction of mistakes. Even when the ink had become dry and hard it could be washed (not scraped) away sufficiently to fit the sheet for use a second time. A sheet thus used a second time was called a palimpsest (cf. liber þalÙJlþseslus below), but its use was a mark of poverty or niggardliness (Cic. Fam. VII, 18). Of course the reverse side of dzartæ, which had served their purpose, was often used for scratch paper, as old letters and envelopes are used to-day, and rare instances are known of the original writing covering both sides of the sheet. BOOKS.-A single sheet of papyrus might serve for a very 6 brief document, such as a short letter, but for literary purposes many such sheets would be necessary. These were not fastened side by side into a book, as are the separate sheets in our books, or numbered and placed loosely together, as we arrange them in our letters or manuscripts. The papyrus book was really a roll as its Latin name (voltmzC1z) implies, made up of the necessary num- ber of sheets glued together at the sides (not at the tops), with the lines upon each sheet running parallel with the length of the roll. and with each sheet forming a column perpendicular to the length of the roll. It was necessary, therefore, to leave ou the side of the sheet as it was written a broad margin, and these 18 L.\TIN l\IANUSCRIPTS. margins overlapping each other and glued together made a thick blank space (i. e., a double thickness of papyrus) between the 7 columns. \\Then the sheets had been securely glued together in their proper order, a thin slip of wood was glued to the left edge, or margin, of the first sheet, and a second like slip (umblhats) was attached in the same way to the right edge of the last sheet, much as a wall map is mouuted at the present time. The volu- meu was then rolled tightly around the ".ood attaëhed to the last sheet, the top and bottom (fr01ltes) of the roll were trimmed smoothly and polished with pumice stone, and the roll was rubbed with cedar oil to protect it from worms and moths. For purposes of ornament the frontes were sometimes painted black, and knobs, often painted or gilded, were added to the llJllbzlÙ:llS upon which the volume was rolled, or the 11mbllÙ:us itself was made long enough to project beyond the frontes and was carved at its extremities into horns (cornua). Even illustrations were not unknO\yn; at least a portrait of the author sometimes graced the first page of the roll, and it is barely possible that the portraits found in late manuscripts may be copies of these and entitled to 8 more respect than is usually paid them. To the top of the roll, that is, to the top of one of the sheets (probably the last), was attached a slip of parchment (tilulus) upon which was written the title of the work with the name of the author. For C! .. ' ' each roll a parchment case was made, cylindrical in l_ form, into which the roll was slipped from the top, and above which the IzlUlus was visible. If a work FIG. 3, CASE FOR was divided into several volumes (see below) the rolls ROLLS (CAPSA), were put together in bundles (fasces) in a cylindrical wooden box (caþsa or scrilllimz) with a cover, like a modern hat box, in such a way that the tituh were visible when the cover was removed. 19 THE :'IIAKING OF THE MA rSCRIPTS. READJ G THE ROLLS.- \Vhen a volume was consulted the roll was held in both hands and unrolled column by column with the right hand, while the left rolled up upon the other slip of wood the part that was already read. \Yhen the reader had finished, it was customary to roll the volume tightly upon the ltmbzlicus by holding the roll beneath the chin and turning with both hands. In the case of a long roll this turning backwards and forwards must have required much time and patience, and at the same time must have sadly worn the roll itself. These considerations bring us naturally to the size of the rolls. SIZE OF THE ROLLS.- Theoretically there was no necessary limit to the number of sheets that could be glued together, and consequently none to the size, or length, of the roll: all depended upon the taste or caprice of the writer. \Ve should suppose that the author would naturally take as many sheets as were necessary to contain his work and make them into one roll, and this was undoubtedly the early custom. So we find that in ancient Egypt rolls were put together of more than one hundred and fifty feet in lengt11, that in Greece the complete works of Homer and Thu- cydides were written upon single rolls (that for Thucydides accord- ing to careful calculation must have been fully two hundred and forty feet long), and that in Rome the Odyssey of Livius Andro- nicus (third century B. C.) was originally contained in one roll. Such rolls were found in the course of time to be inconvenient to read and liable to break and tear from their own bulk. The 1 t Alexandrian scholars (about the third century B. C.) were the first to devise a better plan, and introduced the fashion of dividing literary works of considerable length into two or more parts, or 9 FIG. 4. READING A ROLL. 10 20 LA TIK l\IANUSCRIPTS. ., books," each of which was written upon a separate roll. So sensible a plan was sure to be followed in time by authors gen- eral1y, but its adoption was compelled, or at least hastened, by an innovation on the part of the manufacturers of papyrus, who began to sell their product not in single sheets, but in ready- made rolls of convenient lengths. These rolls varied in length according to the style of compositions for which they were intended: roIls intended, e. g., for poems and collections of letters were shorter than those intended to receive historical and scientific works. Of the former the roll would receive about one thousand lines, of the latter about twice as much. Authors had now to adapt their works more or less to an arbitrary standard, sometimes perhaps to the detriment of the quality of their writings (Martial I, 16), and some ancient works were divided for republi- cation into "books" which had not been so divided by their authors, e. g., Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon among the Greeks and Nævius (Suet. De Gram. 2) among the Romans. 12 PRESERVATION OF THE ROLLS.-The number of papyrus roIls preserved to us is quite considerable, although none of them con- tain any complete Latin work of importance and most of them are in a badly damaged and fragmentary condition. There are large collections, owned by the state, in London, Paris, Berlin, Naples and Vienna. 1\1ost of them came from Egypt, but many were found in 1752 in the ruins of Herculaneum so badly burned that they were taken at first for charcoal and have not yet been fully deciphered. Of all that are preserved to us the oldest is at Paris, and was written fully twenty. five hundred years before Christ, while the most important perhaps is one containing a copy of Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, a work which l1ad been totally lost for over a thousand years. This roll came into the posses- sion of the British !\Iuseum in 1890, and contained the accounts of a farm bailiff, or steward, in Egypt, rendered in the reign of THE MAKING OF THE MANUSCRIPTS. 21 Vespasian, 78-79 A. D. On the back of this worthless document some unknown scholar had written, or caused to be written, a copy of this work of Aristotle for his own use. This recO\Tery of a lost classic of such traditional fame is one of the most notable events of the sort of the nineteenth century, and gives new hope of regaining from the tombs of Egypt other works of Greek and Roman writers, which scholars have given up as lost forever. Should this hope be realized parchment may have to yield to papyrus its claim to the honor of preserving to us the literature of classical antiquity (% 3). PARCH:\IENT OR VELLUM.-- It has been remarked above ( 2) 13 that the use of skins or hides to receive writing was not unknown to the Romans before the dawn of literature: we are told by Dionysius (t 7 B. C.) that the treaty between Tarquinius Super- bus and the people of Gabii (Li\'y I, 54) was written upon a leather covered shield. The revival of this ancient material after papyrus had been introduced was due to an improvement in the treatment of the skins which made it possible to write on both sides of them. Pliny (23-79 A. D.) asserts upon the authority of Varro (II6-28 B. C.) that this improvement was made in the reign of Eumenes II (197-159 B. C.), King of Pergamum in Asia Uinor, and was due to the rivalry between the libraries at Alex- andria and Pergamum. The King of Egypt, he says, tried to 14 embarrass the rival library by forbidding the exportation of papy- rus, and the scholars of Pergamum were driven to invent a sub- stitute. The story is untrue, but shows that in Varro's time Pergamum was noted for its parchment (membra1la) and explains the name by which the material came to be known in much later times, þerga11le1la, from which our own word parchment (see \Veb- ster) is deri\'ed. Parchment was known to the Romans at an earlier date even than Varro's story would imply, but was used merely for temporary purposes side by side with the wax-tablets, 22 LATIN IANUSCRIPTS. because the form (see below) was more convenient than the papy- rus roll, and the writing conld be easily and repeatedly erased. 15 INSTRmlENTS FOR WRITING. - The parchment, unlike the papyrus ( 5), had to be ruled to insure straight lines. For this purpose the position of the lines was marked with a pair of dividers by means of punctures on both sides of the page, and the lines were drawn with the aid of a ruler and a bodkin (stdus). Sufficient pressure was put upon the FIG, s. DIVIDERS FRO I stilus to cause the line to show through upon POMPEII, the reverse side (where it would be raised above the surface), and to save the trouble of repeated measurements and rulings several sheets were often laid one upon another and all ruled at once. The pen was the same as for papyrus, but the smoother surface of the parchment made it possible to use a sharper point, and as a result to make finer strokes and get more letters into a line. The ink for papyrus was not suitable for parchment, and recourse was had to gallnuts, which contain tannin, and are still used for making inks and dyes. Vitriol was added in later times and heat applied (encaustum, whence the Italian Ùzdllostro. French ellqlte, e1lcre. and English ink). Various colors were manufactured, of which black was nsed for ordinary purposes. and for ornament red and gold. The parchment tzlltlz" ( 8) for papyrus rolls were in red. 16 PARCHMENT BOOKs.-As the parchment could be written upon on both sides, the sheets were put together as are the sheets of paper in modern books. This form resembled that of the wooden tablets covered with wax, and hence the parchment book received the same name, codex (originally, II a block of wood "). The sheets were of various sizes, but the most common dimensions were such as to give a page of what we now call quarto size, being about as wide as long. As the flesh side of the parchment . I , \ ' . 'v1).pnueuo . '1 ' Co t:!tu JS Cð>Ø.et Fecctc.;"",ùcl'.IÇ Qn""'J"CG\rl t . t . f4 ., "ÒI " .. ro .. 'N:J..c:n uue'N'1\nyq "' \ ' :m 't': At ......... J" - ItJ'- \ J J .... " , I(t) 1"1'. ''"' . SUre{tl)on.sumU)\.'UU) JUCXU )..fl u .... } _' ,'" f - , :. ,tkm 4li M' r(él,.,, ([lfu ".;- . ff "'r X 't"... eJU1"'''t élu .T'M 'le&:è. k\L'" 1.,al 't'- 'f6SU,,"e- /" u-.qU\ðl\t:t ' 't" ðU t'> eut- ' O U SSu.wCCSl' SatUÄ,.. e :;;'1\s t,\'i'- ell.,'. ,.t\)_I_] 'le cc '\.. \tt.di ' sl .l .,., ò)C'>U . \... ' ..-se.x5'è!o.."tm"''4fFt .!!: t"'" o.. l.l5lt, {. .. \PJe() fO ( C OS l U C"IUllCí) . qu,'Òq.t.:. . \)l rJ\ '. ..' 1 )u\ro \ 1Ci , 1f Tl.' 1!t. lI "a{Ul Kop 'r't1S ';f 1\ " oo -:ft:: t'(C\wbMroÔÒ1 \ \ c\vrt c, ðt.\.:,,\.t.n u J...L\ð .o \ ce" t / C')C USfJ)C'O fþ SU6.ScA.,t.o-n'" ..., I l , II. CICERO: Sdzt'dac Va!U"tl1UlC, Sae,. 1/"--1: THE 2>L\KING OF THE 2>IA USCRIPTS. 23 was almost white and the hair side a light yellow, care was used in arranging the sheets. Ordinarily the book was made up of quires of eight leaves (sixteen pages), composed of four folded sheets. The first of the four sheets was laid with the flesh side "' ;.0: 0 : a : 0.: CI : 0 : a <0: Q: : LJ : 00: 0 v () . . o c . 0 o 00 o .0 . " o Q .. ø o o o . o 0 C iJ o oJ (;) 0 . 0 Q rJ . . . 0 0 0 ;) (;) 0 .) oJ CJ . 0 0 0 \.I CJ , . o . Ò 0 . . o. LJ C () .. 0 .. c . . () . . . . .c, '\. .. : 9': c : .0: C : G>: 0: Q: ü: <:> û : Q : 0 0: 0: (0 FIG. 4. BOOKCASE AND WRITII\;G IIIATERIALS down, upon it the second with the hair side down, the third as the first and the fourth as the second. These were then folded down the middle, and the quire was ready for ruling as ex- plained above. \Vhen a quire was arranged in this way the colors of every two adjacent pages would be the same. no matter 24 LA TIN l\1.\NUSCIUPTS. where the book was opened, and the loss of a sheet would 17 be at once detected by a difference in the color. The sheets were sometimes arranged in quires of three, five and even ten sheets. The quires composing a book were lettered consecutively to assist their arrangement in tIle proper order, and sometimes the pages of the several quires were numbered. The writing was done after the quire was put together, vertical lines being ruled upon the page to keep the horizontal lines of the same length and to insure a uniform margin. The writing sometimes ran across the full page, exclusive of these margins, but was more frequently arranged in narrow columns, usually two to the page, but sometimes three or even four. When the work was finished the quires were stitched or glued together. and the book thus formed, if intended to be preserved, was protected by a covering of the same material, not unlike our own flexible bindings. 18 ODD FORl\Is.-l\Iention is made occasionally by good authori- ties of parchment books put up in rolls like papyrus, and con- versely we know that papyrus sheets were sometimes stitched or glued together in codex form, strengthened in rare instances by the insertion of parchment leaves. Such arrangements were probably merely the caprice of the writer, and are not to be considered even a passing fashion. 19 SIZE OF THE CODEx.-The parchment was so thin and light that a single codex could contain the complete works of an author, or even of several authors, that in papyrus form had to be divided into several rolls: all of Vergil, e. g., made a codex of very con- venient size. and Catullus is commonly joined with some other author or authors. 20 PARCHME T vs. PAPYRus.-The superiority of parchment over papyrus is obvious: it was more durable and did not become frayed at the edges; both sides were available; more words could be written in a line of the same length; works of large compass could be comprised within a codex of moderate size; the codex could be read more easily and consulted more conveniently, with THE L\KING OF THE MANUSCRIPTS. 25 no time to be lost in rolling it up and restoring it to its cover; besides, as it would lie open of itself, the hands of the reader were free to copy from one codex to another, if he pleased. with- out assistance. Despite these numerous and manifest ad,-antages, parchment 21 was slow to supersede papyrus. In classical times it was used merely for accounts, notes, letters. etc. l\Iartial (4o--I02 A. D.) is the first to mention parchment copies of works of literature. and even his words (XIV, 184, 186, 188, 190, 192) are not decisive in the opinion of certain scholars. The fates seem to have decreed that papyrus should be the perishable material for pagan literature, and parchment reserved for the Christian world. \Ve find, as a matter of fact, that Bibles were early written in the codex form, and that the works of bishops and saints ,,-ere soon spread upon the same material. The great la,,' books, following upon the compilations of Theodosins and ] nstinian, demanded a more convenient form than the volltJJlcll, and seem to haye been pub- lished from the first as codices. The law and the gospel! Next came what we call the great classics, that is, the choicest works of Greek and Roman literature, and from the third century of our era parchment was the favorite for current publications. By the seventh century papyrus had practically retired from the field ( 3). TARDY USE.-The slowness of parchment to supplant papy- 22 rus is not satisfactorily accounted for by the natural conser- vatism of the Romans. It can be explained, perhaps, by sup- posing that parchment was much more expensive than papyrus, but no proof can be adduced to support this supposition. In fact, what little we know of the relative price of the two sub- stances seems to indicate that papyrus was more expensive than parchment. The real reason is yet to be discovered. PALIl\IPSESTS.-The word palimpsest has been eXplained already 23 ( 5). It has also been remarked ( 14) that parchment was used at first for note books and memoranda becanse the sheet could be cleaned easily and used repeatedly by washing off the writing 26 LA TIN MANUSCRIPTS. when it had served its purpose. This statement IS true only of the inferior ink employed in earlier times. As the ink was gradually improved in course of time ( IS), it became almost indelible, especially when fixed by age, and even rubbing and scraping, to say nothing of washing, failed to remove all traces of the earlier writing. In such cases the second copy was some- times written between the lines of the older copy, and both writ- ings may now be read under favorable circumstances. This fact is of great importance to scholars, as will be explained hereafter. A book thus rewritten is called liber þali11lþseslus or codex rescriþlus. 24 AGE OF PARCHMENT BOOKs.-From the history of the intro- duction of parchment ( 13) it will be understood that the oldest parchment books (codices) which we possess are of a very late date as compared with the papyrus rolls (volumÙza) which are still extant ( 12). Our very oldest codices do not go back beyond the third or fourth century of our era, and very few are older than the ninth. This will be considered more fully hereafter. _ ..... .s.r"\..,..... _ "" ". ... ... ...; ... -"'... - - .... -' i - ...: - . ...... ... .r' ..... -"... -r .. ::::1' _: __ . ...... ......., .... ;;'., ....".-..:. - . -'ø:.. < .. ""'- <"!<.... r ..., 1:: :... 2.... ,è::t -: 7 """'....""',_ - _ < _' '" .. . .... _ < M _ ' - .u c .... _ <.,. :;, -.... .. __ ."., '7 "^ ot!. ..... - ..... __ '-1. . '.-' _ -. oo.t ., < .... O - ._ - J _ _ - "4r ....; t_ - 2' :: .... oO'!"!: e.- .' :a-- < ... 2 t:: '! =i ;! 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THE AUTHORS.-The men whose names are famous in the 25 history of Roman literature may be divided into two classes. Some were men of high position in society and in the state, to whom literature was but one form of a many sided activity: such men are Cæsar and Cicero and Sallust. Others are persons of distinctly inferior station, freedmen perhaps, or sons of freedmen, who won their bread by their pens: such persons are Terence and Vergil and Horace. One fact in regard to the authors of the second class forces itself at once upon our attention: Each is attached to some powerful friend. to whom he seems to owe all his material prosperity. This fact is the more striking, because the works of many authors of this class, of all of those whom we have directly mentioned, were widely read during their lifetime, and must have had a ready sale and considerable market value even then. \Ve should expect such poets as Horace and Vergil to have had a generous income independent of the bounty of their patrons. It seems to have been otherwise. COPYRIGHT.- The natural inference is that the author had 26 little pecuniary interest in the sale of his works. There is no direct evidence, z: e., no statement in the works of such authors, to support this assertion, but there is none to contro\"ert it. As each copy of a book was made by itself. page by page, with pen and ink, as no costly plant was necessary to multiply these copies, and no special skill, it is hard to see how the author could retain any control over the reproduction of a work when it had once got into circulation. Even in our day anyone may make a manu- script copy, or any number of them. of any book which he is unable to buy, whether the author likes it or not. This seems 2'] 28 l. -\ TIN :\IANlJSCRIPTS. to have been the case in Rome, and this state of helplessness fully accounts for the dependence of the poet upon the patron, and the absence of any feeling of shame or degradation, on the 27 part of the dependent. The first copy of his book he could sell. or as many copies as he could make, or have made, before any left his possession, but these would at best be very few. That even this chance, poor as it was, was precarious is shown by the theft of Cicero's De FÙllblts (Att. XIII, 2 I, 4 and 5) in advance of publication. \V orse than this. the hapless author had not even the privilege of deciding whether a book that he had written should be published or not: at least Ovid declares (Trist. I, 7) that he had intended to destroy his Metamorphoses, but the work was published from copies taken by his friends without his con- sent or knowledge. Cicero let the first draft of his Academica get out of his possession while he was considering a different form for the treatise, and the consequence was that two very different ver- sions were circulated at the same time. 28 PLA YS.- The fact that a dramatist received pay when one of his plays was presented at the public games has nothing to do with the question of property rights in works of general literature. As a matter of fact the attacks made upon Terence by rival dramatists show that they were acquainted with his plays before they were put upon the stage, and justify the suggestion that they may have been in more or less general circulation for the purpose of private reading. 29 UNCO:.\Il\IERCIAL PUBLICATION.-Every Roman of position kept in his employ several trained scribes (llbranï) , usually slaves or freedmen and often highly educated and accomplished, who served him as amanuenses, secretaries, etc. r nder the Repu blic the author must have had his book copied by these libranï, either his own or his patron's. Many of these copies would be intended for dedication or presentation purposes, but some would find their way into the market. These were sold in book shops (tabenzæ /z'branæ. Cic. Phil. II, 9, 21), which were set up in Rome long THE PCBLICATION AND DISTRlRrTro OF BOOKS. 29 before there was any organized publishing business. The first impulse toward such an enterprise may haye been given by the bringing to Rome by Sulla and Lucullus of whole libraries from Greece and Asia "Minor. It at once became the fashion to make large collections of books, and in Cicero's time no house was com- plete without a spacious library fully stocked with books, although the owner was often wholly ignorant of their contents. Cicero had great numbers of books not only in his house at Rome, but also at each of his half dozen country-seats. He was assisted in collecting them by his friend T. Pomponius Atticus. a man noted as much for his love of literature and learning as for his vast wealth 30 and far reaching business enterprises. He seems to have had a commission from Cicero to buy for him every book that could be bought. and to make copies of those that were valuable or rare. Atticus had numerous hbrarii (Nepos XXV, 13. 3), and these he employed also in making copies of Cicero's works and of such othel"s as Cicero recommended to him. All these he sold to good advantage (AU. XIII, 12, 2), but the gain was merely incidental and by no means the object he had in view. His success, how- ever, added to the constantly increasing demand for books, seems to have led to the establishment of the business upon a commer- cial basis, and in so far as this is true it is permissible, perhaps, to speak of Atticus as the first of Roman publishers. CO:\DIERCIAL PUBLICATION.-Under the Empire the business 31 seems to have reached large proportions almost at a stride. The publishers were at the same time wholesale and retail dealers in books. Their establishments were found in the most popular and generally frequented parts of Rome, were distinguished by the lists hanging by the door of books kept for sale, and soon became the resort of men of culture as well as of those who sought merely after the novel and the entertaining. Even under Augustus (29 B. C.-I4 .\. D.) the works of Roman authors were read not only 3 0 LATIN MANUSCRIPTS. III Italy but also in the provinces, and even crossed the sea. Public libraries were established in many places, and in the schools the antiquated works that had been the text books for generations (e. g., the Twelve Tables and the translation of Homer by Andronicus) began to give place to those of contemporary authors. 32 PROCESS OF PUBLICATlON.-It is evident that the publisher had no more control oyer works once in circulation than the author had ( 26), and he must therefore have relied upon the elegance, correctness and cheapness of his editions of the classics to insure their sale, and in the case of a new work upon the quickness with which he could supply the demand. The general process was something like this: The book to be copied, furnished by the author if a new work, bought or borrowed or hired (see below) if an old one, was read to the scribes, some of which were the slaves of the publisher and others perhaps hired for the occasion, but all trained copyists. Other slaves arranged the sheets in the proper order as fast as they were written, pasted them together (Cic. Att. IV, 4 b.), mounted them and supplied them with their parchment tituli and cases (see 7). Errors were then corrected and the book was ready for sale. 33 DICTATlON.-No ancient authority can be quoted in sup- port of the statement that the books were copied from dicta- tion, but this must have been the case in all large establish- ments. To say nothing of the fact that even private letters were usually dictated, and of the difficulty of managing the roll, which served for copy, while writing { 20), the slowness of the other method, if but few slaves were employed, and the impracticability of furnishing copy to a large number without great loss of time, seem enough to justify the statement. In later times, especially during the middle ages, the scribes worked independently. 34 RAPIDITY OF PUBLICATlON.-Cicero tells us (Pro. Sulla, XIV, 4 2 ) that Roman senators could write fast enough to take down evidence verbatim, and the trained scribes must have far surpassed them in speed. even if the system of shorthand often mentioned THE Pl"BLIC.-\.TlON AND DISTRIBUTION OF BOOKS. 31 by ancient authorities was not used for books intended for gen- eral circulation. :\Iartial tells us (II, I, 5) that his second book could be copied in an hour. It contains ninety-three epigrams amounting to fixe hundred and forty verses, which would make the scribe equal to nine verses to the minute. It is evident that a small edition, one. that is, not many times larger than the num- ber of scribes employed, could be put upon the market much more quickly than it could be furnished now. \Vhen the demand was great and the edition large (Pliny, Ep. IV, 7, 2, mentions one of a thousand copies) the publisher would put none on sale until all were ready, thus preventing rival houses from using one of his books as copy. If he overestimated the demand, unsold copies could still be sent to the provinces (Hor. Ep. I, 20, 13) or as' a last resort be used for wrapping paper (Mart. III, 2). COST OF THE BOOKS.- The cost of the books varied, of course, 35 with their size and with the style in which they were issued. l\Iartial's first book, containing eight hundred and twenty lines and coyering twenty-nine pages in Teubner's text, was sold (l\Iart. I, 66; 117, 17) at thirty cents, fifty cents, and one dollar; his Xenia, containing two hundred and seventy-four verses and covering fourteen pages in Teubner's text, was sold (XIII. 3) at twenty cents, but cost the publisher less than ten. Such prices are hardly more than we pay now. l\Iuch would depend of course upon the demand. and very high prices were put npon particular copies. Gellius (II, 3, 5) mentions a copy of Vergil, supposed to be by his own hand, which had cost the owner over one hundred dollars, and copies whose correctness (see below) was attested by some good authority were also highly valued. The same circum- stances would increase the price of modern books materially. STICHmIETRY.-The ancients did not measure their books, as 36 we do, by the pages, but by the verse in poetry and the line in prose, and the number contained in the work was ,uitten at the 3 2 LATIN )IANUSCRIPTS. end of the book. The Alexandrian librarians seem to have entered the number along with the title of the work in their catalogues, and to have marked the number of lines, at eyery fiftieth or hun- dredth line, in their copy of the book. This system of measure- ment was carefully employed by the publishers, and furnished an accurate standard by which to fix the price of the book and the wages of those scribes who were not slaves. For this purpose they selected the hexameter verse as the unit for poetry, and as its equivalent in prose a line of sixteen syllables or thirty-five letters. This standard line, were it actually written, would require one of the broader sheets mentioned above ( 4), but such a sheet was not necessary and perhaps not usual. It was merely neces- sary to find the ratio of the line actually written to the stand- ard line, for the scribes were careful to keep their lines of the same length, and the number of lines on the page constant, throughout the work upon ,,'hich they were engaged. Frequently we find the number of lines written very much greater than the number registered at the end of the roll, because the page was too narrow to contain the standard line from which the registered number was calculated. Vole do not know the price paid for ordinary works of literature. 37 CORRECTORS.- The very rapidity with which the scribes worked would lead us to look for many mistakes in their copies, and from the earliest times authors and scholars have complained of their blunders. Cicero says (Q. Fr. III, 5, 6) that he knows not where to tum for books: they are written so badly and put upon the market with so many imperfections. He took every precaution to have his own books as free fro111 errors as possible. His famous freedman, Tiro, read the copy carefully before it was sent to Atti- cus, and Atticus had each book examined and corrected before it passed out of his keeping. Even after the earlier copies were sent out he introduced improvements in the later editions at Cicero's snggestion. THE PFBLICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BOOKS. 33 Similar precautions were taken by at least the best commercial 38 houses. They had competent correctors in their employ, but as each copy had to be examined independently, the labor was far greater than that of the modern proof-reader, and the results much less satisfactory. Martial (II. 8) warns his readers that the errors which they may detect in his books are to be ascribed to the publisher, not to him, and elsewhere (VII, I I) he gives us to understand that authors corrected with their own hands the copies which they presented to their friends (cf. Gell. II, 3, 5). Quin- tilian prefaces his Institutions with a letter to his publisher, beg- ging him to issue the work as free from blunders as he can, and Irenæus, bishop of Lyons, 177 A. D., urges that each copy of his work be compared with the original. Persons buying books sometimes had them examined first by 39 a competent critic (Gell. \Y, 4, 2), or corrected by comparison with a copy known to be accurate. Such standard copies were not always to be had, but were consulted if possible to decide disputed readings (Gell. I, 7), and were sometimes hired for this purpose (Gell. XVIII, 5, II) at large expense. It is beyond question that errors in the codices of later times, which have descended to us, are in some cases derived from blunders made at the time when the books were first published. TITLES.-As in the papyrus roll the title was no part of the 40 work itself, but rather of the mounting ( 8), so in the later parchment codex it was the ancient custom to write the title, together with the number of the lines ( 36), at the end, instead of at the beginning where we should look for it. This must be explained, of course, from the standpoint of the scribe, who was concerned only with what he had written and how much, and left the purchaser to mark the volume or leave it unmarked at his pleasure. The manuscripts of the middle ages usually have the title both at the beginning and at the end of the book, frequently 34 L TIN l\1ANUSCRIPTS. adding a word of good omen (felidter), or an expression of grati- fication at the conclusion of the task (see Plate VIII). These titles vary greatly in different manuscripts of the same work, sometimes even in the same manuscript, and suggest that the classic writers were far less anxious about getting good titles for their works than modenl authors are, and may perhaps have pub- 41 lished them without any formal titles at all. Cicero refers to his essay ou Old Age indifferently as the Cato :Maior (Off. I, 42, 151) and De Senectute (Div. 2, 3). If Macrobius (Sat. I, 24, II) is to be trusted, Vergil seems to have spoken of the Aeneid by its hero's name Aeneas (cf. Hamlet, Ivanhoe, etc.). Sallust's mono- graph on the Conspiracy of Catiline is called in the best manu- script Bellum Cafl/IÙzarÙl1Iz at the beginning and Bellum CatilÙzae at the end. Quintilian (35-100 A. D.) calls it Bellum Catilz1zae, and so does Nonius (beginning of fourth cent.) j Servius (end of fourth cent.) has the shorter title Catilina (cf. Aeneas and Cato lI azor above), Priscian (sixth cent.) has Belltem CatzlÙzan.u11l, and in other ancient authorities we find Historia CatilÙzae. The best form nowadays is Bellum CatzlÙzae, which is rapidly driving out the De ConÙeralzolle Catililzae Lzoer of our school books, just as Belli Gallid Liber I. (II., III., etc.) is displacing the Comme1ltarÙes De Bello GallÙ:o Primus (SeClmdus, Tertius, etc.) familiar to us alL No title is absolutely certain. tmp 1b 'r ctle- f)(\mt( feoco"cuf'- {Z:meft; m bo L; tr;\. & ur- tt'1r ; rperkr,n1 cr.tff>quem tlt.J' "'rH cÚl ont"" una.nn( 1cÞue-n6lo( unJ1,ro{i(mo{ cu o1ôb( (efù "", """ 1nt- 0. ulO(. rl.ecIor.tr -; um-rnA rna.e- C\UI Oceantm1 'tue- 't:tnsunt:= {;:omne{ ea tut'tÄ i m po t,m,/'" I I,' .*'1 u e-:ff: ecY- û(; I-t( reb; rçmn tk. f ,.;'''' -o....I,..'..rbefh J\:D ro{ '1r n'o rer \.I%'IA!,b{ mrumlb:'1 -mm{ rknu,neo .m .wc. 1irh1 biJ,r A%Unrtm p.c"CUrn{ rf1 C8't'M -&Ur;q cme( "M f4 r.-f '" tUý,.scÚ1ue---f IfI 1tÞf ''1"r IU(( "f(e-,"""""l1=e{. ;u.ocWnsrcnefèJ: Clu ;f1"n1 .rf.,lJ( trAm;'utsLeUú' (6r.W' onlt; 'n ber,, cLJ..c-ø(.1nnuL;; a1(q o '1I1Yre{ e:xb:ers( c.vfars( J,e{'JU'ntbn (upr CI%24> 1f""l' ....n.e. JmnFf øc:ltz;'nufL.'''1uk.s cékus cm>S 'T1N1JG . 1 Flus 'L1æ t.IS flF..mt us.L.f1ClNj e1LF ltj' e:x:J'lr . · crp-rr ITß$ V1 FbCT"T'eR I - 1'- --- _-' l- - L umtn $ct( cu( Je-uIU '\" cu. 1071t- t. 6lp UI=f fflmnUl",-or (. (eJunc[ 9tJMnt(n:'f1 . ').. SA-r,r L Ð IY. C tS \R . Pall.'l1l1t.\ 5ïfí.? .\a{'(. 1\" .\" THE TRANSMISSION OF THE BOOKS. THE PERIOD COVERED.- The creative genius of the Ro- 42 mans ends, so far as literature is concerned, with the reign of Trajan (97-117 A. D.). From this time until the invention of printing the preparing and publication of books did not vary from the methods described above, except so far as the parchment codex differed in form from the papyrus rol1. During this period of about thirteen centuries we have now to consider the fates of the published works, or in other words of the manuscripts that con- tained them: the means that were taken to preserve them, how they were lost. and then after nearly a thousand years partially recovered. This period may be naturally divided into three very unequal portions: I. The Period of the Decline, extending roughly to the Germanic invasions of about the fifth century; 2. The Dark Ages, extending to about the thirteenth century; 3. The Revival of Learning. It must be remembered that we are con- cerned with the social, political and literary history of these times so far only as it relates to tbe Transmission of the Manuscripts. THE PERIOD OF THE DECLI E.-It is a fact well known to all 43 students of literature that at the time when genius is least pro- ductive and originality most torpid the masterpieces of an earlier day will be most carefully studied and appreciated. This is emi- nently true of Roman literature: its darkest period saw the estab- lishment of public libraries, the growth of schools and universities on humanistic lines, the rise of the grammarians, and the classics made the last defense of paganism against Christianity. All these agencies made for the preservation of literature. so far as it was preselTed at all, and must be examined therefore in some detail. 35 3 b 1.A TIN MANVSCRIPTS. 44 PUBLIC LIBRARIEs.-The growth of private libraries (s 29) steadily increased during the empire, for we read that the gram- marian Serenus Sa11llllonicus (t 212 A. D.) left 62,000 volumes to his son, but the largest of these collections are of little impor- tance compared with the public libraries that were founded during the same period. The first of these to be opened in Rome was established by Asinius Pollio (t 4 A. D.) during the reign of Augustus in the atriuJIl of Libertas. Augustus himself opened two, and by his successors the number was gradually increased to twenty-eight. Of these the most magnificent was the Biblz"otheca Ulþia, founded by Trajan. Smaller cities had their libraries too. Pliny, Trajan's governor of Bithynia, tells us (Ep. I, 8) of having given one himself to his native town, Comum, supported by an endowment yielding annually thirty thousand sesterces. The im- portance, from our standpoint. of these public libraries lies in the fact that such collections were universal in their character, while private libraries are usually gathered ill a less catholic spirit. The former would tend to preserve, therefore, the less popular and attractive works that might otherwise have disappeared. 45 SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES.-A still lllore important part in the preservation of the literature of the past was taken by the schools and universities. These had been established on Greek lines in the city of Rome at least as early as the time of Cicero and Varro, and had spread tluoughout the empire until in the centuries just preceding the Germa ic invasions all the intel- lectual life of the Roman was connected with education. The branches taught were grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geome- try, astronomy. and music, but the central thing was the study of the older and greater writers of Greece and Rome. Original creation had virtually come to an end. and it seemed to all educated persons that the study of the works of the past was the most profitable of intellectual pursuits. Two facts in relation to the schools affect the transmission of the manuscripts. THE TRANS:\IISSION OF THE BOOKS. 37 THE "CLASSICS."-The choosing of materials for pupils to 46 study and imitate would lead gradually to the fixing with more or less precision of the canon of the classics, those writers, that is, whose works were regarded as the best of their kind in the yarious lines of literature. Of some of these authors the complete works were used in the schools; of others certain parts complete in themselves (e. g., the first and third decades of Livy) were carefully studied. while of other parts epitomes were made for reference purposes; of others still selections ""ere made for specific objects, as when, for example, the letters and speeches scattered through the various works of Sallust were brought together in one volume for rhetorical purposes. The result, so far as it affects the transmission of the manuscripts is apparent: of some authors the whole "orks would be in constant demand and copies would be multiplied almost beyond numberiug; of others parts only would be so treated; still others would be wholly neglected. It is evident, also, that these school editions would be especially liable to errors, and even to arbitrary changes for the purposes of instruction. SCHOLIA.- The needs of tbe pupils would lead, in the second 47 place, to the preparation of notes and commentaries upon those authors whose language or matter was found to require such helps. Such notes are added to the ,,'orks of English authors in our own schools now, and must have been even more needed by Roman school boys because no books were then written especially for the young. These school commentaries, to distinguish them from the works of modern scholars, are called schoha, and their authors, or (more usually) their compilers, are called scholiasts. Some of these notes were published separately, and haye come down to us with the name of the author attached. as, e. g., the commentaries of Asconius (first century) on some of Cicero's Orations, of Por- phyrio (second century) on Horace, of Tiberius Claudius Donatus 3 8 LATIN MANUSCRIPTS. (fourth century) on Vergil, and of Aelius Donatus (fourth century) 48 and Eugraphius (sixth century) on Terence. Other Scholiasts, and by far the larger number, wrote their notes on the margins and between the lines of their man uscripts of the authors they explained, and of these as a rule inferior scholars we seldom know the names. \Vhen it is necessary to distinguish them, they are called by the name of the author ("Scholiast on Juvenal," etc.) or even of the manuscript ( 69) on which their scho/z"a are found. These scho/z"a are chiefly valuable for the subject matter of the author, but they give some help also in the text. In the first place, those scholiasts whose commentaries were published sepa- rately, frequently quote the passage of the text which they explain, and thus give us the reading of the manuscripts they used, in most cases older and therefore better than our own. In the second place, they sometimes help us to fix the date of a manuscript or its relations to others even when the sdlOlia are of little value and the name of their author is not known. 49 GLOSSEs.-One sort of scholÙz is often mentioned in editions of the classics. An unusual word was called glossa, and in the course of time the definition or explanation of such a word was called by the same name. Collections of these words and ex- planations were made, called glossal', whence our words "gloss" and "glossary." Now when the scholiast found in his text such a word, for example a foreign or obsolete Latin word, he often wrote the word of the same meaning which was current in his time (Latin also, of course) directly above it in the text or close to it in the margin. A later copyist was very apt to take such a gloss for either a correction or an omitted word, and accordingly to omit the original word froll his copy, or to write both words together. 50 THE GRAJ\1MARIANS.-Close upon the writing of commentaries to explain the subject matter of the classics followed the composi- tion of scholarly works, dealing directly with the language itself, the sounds, inflections, syntax, prosody, lexicography and so on. The writers upon these subjects, differing widely in their learn- THE TRAKSl\IISSION OF THE BOOKS. 39 ing and ability, are grouped together under the name of Gramma- rians, as opposed to the Scholiasts, although many belong to the one class as much as to the other. For the preservation of the classics they are valuable, entirely apart from their scholarship, in proportion to the number of quotations \\'hich they make in illustration of the matters of which they treat. Among those help- ful in this way may be mentioned Charisius (fourth century), Diomedes (sixth century), l\Iacrobius (fifth century), Nonius (fourth century), Priscianus (sixth century), Scaurus (second cen- tury), and Victorinus (fourth century). OPPOSITION TO CHRISTIAl';"ITY.-!t is well known that the 51 higher classes in Rome were the last to embrace Christianity. For resisting the spread of the new faith they found the most effective weapon to be the literature in which were embodied all the beauty and power of pagan morality, culture and refinement. l\Ien of the highest social standing, senators, statesmen, consuls, devoted their energy and talent to fostering the ancient classics. They succeeded in maintaining the old system of education, pre- vented the establishment of separate schools for the benefit of their opponents, and even endeavored to put the texts of the great Roman writers upon a sounder basis. For this purpose they had made or made with their own hands copies of manuscripts of known excellence (see 39). or in default of these used their own knowledge of the language to remove the more obvious errors due to the carelessness or ignorance of successive copyists. Some of these editions they attested by their own names, and these names have occasionally come down to us in later copies. SUBSCRIPTIONS.- These signatures, technically called subscrzþ- 52 Ilones, date mostly from the fourth to the sixth century, although a few are earlier, and are known to us in copies hundreds of years later. accompanied perhaps by the subscription of some later reVIser. For example, many manuscripts of Terence, dating from 4 0 LA TIN MANUSCRIPTS. the ninth to the twelfth century, have preserved an ancicnt sub- scription in two forms: CALLIOPIUS RECENSUI CALLIOPIUS RECENSUIT. This shows that much as these manuscripts may differ from each other, all are derived ultimately from a revision of the text of Terence made by Calliopius, who is otherwise unknown, but is believed for certain reasons to have lived in the third or fourth century. Again, several manuscripts of Cæsar, dating from the ninth and eleventh centuries, have the subscription: JULIUS CELSUS CONSTANTIKUS YC LEG!. We do not know anything more about this man of high posItIOn (vc _ vir darz"ssiJlllts, see Harper's Dictionary, s. v. clarzes) , but the name seems to show that he lived no earlier than the fourth century. 53 V ALUE.-'Ve are able to test the value of these revisions, because we have other manuscripts of Terence and Cæsar that are independently derived. Of Terence we have but one manu- script (Codex BeJllbÙzus, see Plate III) that has escaped the corrections of Calliopins, but this shows us that he used either inferior manuscripts as his gnide, or else relied upon his own insufficient knowledge in correcting the text current in his time. '''ith Cæsar the case is different. The manuscripts derived from the revision of Celsus have been, until very re- cently, regarded almost the only reliable authorities, and even now Celsus is credited (see Kiibler, Teubner's text, p. ix) with having nsed good copies in making his text, even if he did rely sometimes too mnch upon his own guesses. 54 SmIMARv.-From the preceding paragraphs it ought to be evident that in the period of the decline all conditions were favor- able for the preservation in some form of the manuscripts. The influence of the schools, however, and the well meant, but not always successful, efforts of the revisers would lead us to expect variations in the texts of the more popular authors, and the disap- pearance of those thought less useful fC'r instruction and less admirable in style. . \ - A.:t pas,' fIN .! "1VR^LO' { SQVO"1 L If 0 Rf.fJR-} 1 D IV C.\:l! ON" C'W,\lf ",\-.t1\'plD [,51 J\.CL.'-"\7 1'1 fNO R -Y'N'D-IH O .1INfS .\.'11 DVRVMGINVS-rRGÛAGfll rlNC'lESOLvf'æI .,J^ -}SlX1-fj\\J;101\UN'S} I> N; To Rl [91 IS Y [R-1.A.NTi 1 ^- Y.R.f C LÀf õ.l\5 ,Q 1.\. CI N -y 1 ..PV L Vf'R TlfN1 coq.V ^ At TY 1"-1 SS0ll ß- kES I A15lNONIV[Rll-rrLLV5ffQ.VN D.\.S' ß I PS,T,' . RCIV.R \1 ll EN \ (S.þ 1: [RI1S \7 Sf EN DtRl.S" L c ilLiCOlfICl _NIlj þOIS '[fR'TCl BVS1-tlRßkl H li... STIRll[ ' LX.' GV5.NIDIS[R:i\.TYi\.\()RH^-. -, .t1.[R ISIDI l10 ' SC[S,S.L,"RLNO'l ,1.IS .. - - - --. . ... - "'<<. 11 lC I ' r)'-11.tP {S I'V Ð\TRISC[.I' _IC.X t p, , ; V11 ßl Il "T)\.S I RIS TT^-LOS 1 D [ IT1\RRA. . , V DlrRlvsl tlV 1\\\ Hl\QV A.QVASS.,'-N11 LIC t ,/111NVtSltrys'V1SLM1IUS11SQ.LyrI NI J" SlVL[RJSlPu'GILI5tAli\MOSS i Lv '{Q-50 - 7I 11fNlAttINIC \;\ VMS[CI5VR1 1'-V[N. I \ . ..,R" Nlt.[ HMo.rlrU' S^;r1 r^-v [RASO {NO ---. . -; ...- 1 '\ h{i(.N '-L'tmN lS lr L-;\ ß'OR^-Rl D 1;\ .. \r .tS^-'1V kJ --MOi?l'fJGVl'r\- Df)\'lS'() lX.N r r ...J . - I\, . . . -.. ..... - V. VERGIJ.: Schedae 1 at/amac. Sacco 1/ . THE TRANS:\USSION OF THE BOOKS. 4 1 LOST \VoRKs.-It is well known that the works of certain 55 Roman authors have been entirely lost. that of others we possess parts only, that there are few whose writings are wholly preserved. \Ve should not regret this, if the works of inferior authors only had been lost-but among the missing are some of the most famous in the lines of history, oratory, philosophy, and poetry. \Ve should expect it, if the works of early writers only had per- ished-but whole volumes of Cicero, two-thirds of Tacitus. three- fourths of Livy are gone, to mention those names only that are as familiar to us as our own. No imperial library could have lacked complete editions of their works, they must have been included in hundreds of private collections, school boys must have studied them, and teachers commented upon them, but they are no more to be found. \Ve have therefore to explain how so much has disappeared, and how so much has been preserved. THE D.\.RK AGES.-It was at the very time when Roman lit- 56 erature was the center of all intellectual activity ( 43) that the catastrophe came that was to overwhelm learning. literature and even Rome itself. In the fourth century the Roman empire was divided j Valentinian took the eastern half with Constantinople for his capital, leaving Rome and the west to his brother Valens. The fifth century had only just begun when the hordes of the north fell upon the western half and made havoc of it. First the Vandals, turned from Italy. established themselves in Gaul. Then the Visigoths sacked Rome, passed into Gaul, and drove the Van- daIs into Spain. The Vandals, again, crossed over into Africa, ravaged that province, and returned to Italy by the south. The Tartar Huns came next and disappeared leaving desolation behind them. The Franks attacked Gaul, the Saxons Britain. The Os- trogoths disputed Italy with the Vandals, and both were dispos- sessed by the eastern Emperor, Justinian (527-565)' He died and the Lombards appeared. Then the Saracens came from the south 42 LATIN l\L\NUSCRIPTS. and the Danes from the north. It was not until the time of Charles the Great (Charlemagne), in the last part of the eighth century, that order was restored in vVestern Europe. Cities had been pillaged, provinces laid waste, empires overturned, a great civilization overwhelmed, and a literature that antedated the cities, provinces and empires, and had inspired the civilization, had prac- tically disappeared. 57 INDIFFERENCE TO LEARNING.-The worst, perhaps, was yet to come. These three cel.1turies of destruction were followed by five centuries of indifference to learning. It is impossible to give within our limits an adequate idea of the ignorance of the period: the ninth chapter of Hallam's Middle Ages cannot be condensed into a paragraph. During this time Latin ceased to be a spoken language; inflections \,"ere neglected, syntax ignored, sounds modi- fied, and Spanish, French and Italian began to be. There was not even an educated class. The nobles could not sign their names: until seals were brought into use they subscribed to their charters with the sign of the cross. The ignorance of the church was the subject of reproach in every council; in one held in 992 it was asserted that not a single person in Rome knew the first elements of letters. In the time of Charlemagne not one priest of the thou- sand in Spain could address a common letter to another. In Eng- land King Alfred said that he could not remember a single priest south of the Thames, the most civilized part of his realm, that knew the meaning of the common prayers. Alfred himself had difficulty in translating a pastoral letter of Saint Gregory on account of his ignorance of Latin, the one written language of the time. Charlemagne could not write at all. If the ignorance of nobles, priests and kings was so appalling, that of the commons must have been sublime, and we are ready to find the loss of Roman literature less surprising than its partial recovery. " THE TR <\NSl\IISSION OF THE BOOKS. 43 THE CHURCH.-The one preservative agency was the church. 58 In spite of the gross ignorance. the narrow-mindedness, the world- liness of the priesthood, there were three influences in connection with the church that made for the preservation of classical litera- ture. These were the papal supremacy, the liturgy and the mo- nastic establishments. For our present purpose we may pass over the first two with the short statement that the liturgy was in Latin, and that the need of the church of some one language as a means of communication with its branches e,oerywhere served to keep alive some faint knowledge of the Latin tongue, corrupted as it became. The third must be more fully considered. Of the re- 59 1igious orders of \Vestern Europe one of the most ancient was that founded in 529 on :\Ionte Cassino, near Naples, by Saint Benedict. Its rule was less severe than that of the others. but it enjoined upon its members frugality, soberness and above all industry. From various kinds of manual labor the copying of manuscripts was finally selected as the most likely to keep the mind from car- nal thoughts, and so all over Italy, Switzerland, France, England and Ireland the pious monks laboriously copied and recopied the manuscripts of Latin authors amid all the destruction of barbaric invasions, and the poverty of learning that follo,,"ed. It must be clearly understood that these manuscripts were not copied for pub- lication. The work was purely mechanical, a treadmill process. The completed codices ""ere stored a"oay in the vaults of the abbeys to molder and decay, until, in later times, when the very knowl- edge of their meaning was lost, they were brought out to be washed and scraped and made fit to receive other copies by other generations of monks. It was from no love of learning, therefore, that the Benedictines and the allied brethren saved the literature of Rome, so much of it, that is, as did not rot in cellars and dun- geons. or was not remorselessly rubbed a"oay to make room for hymns and homilies and 1h'es of the saints and martyrs. For 44 LATIN MANUSCRIPTS. such precious compositions as these were the parchments used that a king's ransom would not now purchase. 60 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING.-It is impossible to give here an intelligible account of the gradual revival of learning during the period which we have described abo\"e as the Dark Ages. The history of the five hundred years from 800 to 1300 comprises the growth of schools, the planting of uni\Oersities, the cultivation espe- cially of the more useful sciences of medicine, law and theology. It was not until the fourteenth century that literature felt the new movement, and that in Italy. Petrarch (1304-1374) and Boccaccio (13 1 3- 1 375) were the first to turn for better models to the almost forgotten classics of their countrymen of an earlier day, and the finest minds of the next generations followed their guidance. The last quarter of the fourteenth century sawall Italy permeated with the new enthusiasm, and a positive fever was inspired for recov- ering the lost literature of Rome. Then it was that the stores of manuscripts buried in the monasteries were eagerly brought to light. Vast quantities were found at l\1onte Cassino (see 59), and at Bobbio in Italy, at St. Gallen and Einsiedeln in Switzer- land, at Fulda and l\1ainz in Germany, and in far distant England even, wherever the copying of manuscripts had been the employ- 61 ment of the monks. Petrarch was especially active in searching for new treasures and protecting those that were discovered -for the danger of losing them again was not over in the fourteenth century. A treatise of Cicero De Gloria had been in his posses- sion, but was afterwards irretrievably lost. He declares that in his youth he had seen the works of Varro. but all his efforts to recover these and the second decade of Livy were fruitless. He did find in 1350 a copy of Quintilian, the only one known until sixty-four years later another copy was found in a dungeon under the monastery of St. Gallen. By this time the awakening' had touched all classes. Princes and popes gathered scholars at their .. THE TRAXS:\IISSION OF THE nOOKS. 45 courts as the surest means of obtaining fame for themselves. The representatives of the popes in other countries sent to Italy all the classical manuscripts of which they could possess themselves by fair means or foul. Almost all the Latin manuscripts which we now have were thus discovered between 1350 and 1450. Uany very ancient manuscripts known at that time ha,.e since been lost, but so many copies were made that, so far as we know, but one entire work has disappeared, the Vidularia of Plautus. INYE TIO OF PRINTING.- The fortunate im'ention of printing 62 about 1450 made secure what had been recm.ered. The first Latin author to be sent abroad in the new form was Cicero. whose De Officiis was printed in 1465. In less than twenty years from this time the Yenetian printer, Aldus l\lanutius, had begun his great ,,'ork of giving to the ".orld almost the whole body of ancient lit- erature in the form that has made his name a synonY111 for taste- ful and convenient volumes. SU:\DL\RY.- This sketch, short and colorless as it is, helps to 63 explain several important facts, often referred to in critical editions. 1. The largest collections of valuable manuscripts are in Italy. 2. The very oldest manuscripts are likely to be palimpsests. 3. The large majority of our manuscripts were written in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. 4. lany extant manuscripts are copies of an older manuscript, also extant. 5. Some manuscripts were written by persons with little or no knowledge of Latin. 6. The printed cditio þrÙlccþs of certain authors is valuable, because it may have been derived from good manuscripts since lost to us. EDITIONES PRINCIPES.- The following list includes the prin- 64 cipal Latin authors: Apuleius, Rome, 1469; Cæsar, Rome, 1469; Catullus, Venice, 1472; Cicero, De Officiis, Rome, 1465, Opera Omnia, 1498; Gellius, Rome, 1469; Horace, Venice, 1470; 4 6 LA TIN MANL'SCRIPTS. ]uvenal, Rome and Venice, 1470; Lactantius. Rome, 1465; Livy, Rome, 1469; Lucan, Rome, 1469; Lucretius, Brescia, 1473; Uartial, Rome, 1470; Nepos, Venice, 1471; Ovid, Rome and Bonn, 1471; Persius, Rome, 1470; Plantns, Venice, 1472; Pliny the Younger, Venice, 1485; Propertius, Venice, 1472; Quintilian, Rome, 1470; Sallust, Venice, 1470; Seneca's Prose Works, 1475, Tragedies, Ferrara, 1484; Statius, Venice, 1472; Sneto- nins, Rome, 1470; Tacitus. Venice, 1470; Terence. Strassburg, 1470; Tibullus, Venice, 1472; Valerius Flaccus, Bonn, 1474; VelIeius Paterculns, Basle, 1520; Vergil, Rome. 1469. Arranged chronologically: 1465-Cicero's De Officiis, Lac- tantius; 1469-Apuleius, Cæsar, Gellius, Livy, Lucan, Vergil; 1470-Horace, ]uvenal, Martial, Persius, Quintilian, Sallust, Suetonius, Tacitus, Terence; 1471-NepOS, Ovid; 1472-Catul- Ins, Plautus, Propertins, Statins, Tibullus; 1473-Lucretius; 1474-Valerins Flaccus; 1475-Seneca's Prose Works; 1484- Seneca's Tragedies; 1485-Pliny the Younger; 1498-Cicero's Opera Omnia; 1520-VelIeius Paterculus. 65 ANCIENT UANUSCRIPTs.-The following list gives the dates of all extant Latin manuscripts whicl]. are thought to be no later than the sixth century. As will be eXplained hereafter ( 1 15), the dates are merely approximate, and any of the older parch- ments may be later by a century than the date here assigned to it. It is also possible that some may have been written at an earlier time. FIRST CENTURY: Two papyrus fragments from Her- culanenm containing selections from prose writers. A papyrus roll from Herculaneum containing the Carmen De Bello Actiaco, a specimen is given in 103. THIRD or FOURTH CENTURY: The seven oldest manuscripts of Vergil, specimens of three, Plates I, V and X. Three fragments of Sallust's Histories, at Berlin, Rome and Naples, a specimen is given in 103. Palimpsest fragment of ] uvenal and Persius at Rome. Palimpsest of Livy at Verona. 66 Fragment of Livy, Book XCI, at Rome. FOURTH or FIFTH CEN- TURY: Fragments of a palimpsest of Lllcan at Vienna, Naples and Rome. The Codex BembÙms ( 53) of Terence at Rome, for speci- men see Plate III. The palimpsest of Cicero De Re Publica at THE TRANS:\lISSION OF THE BOOKS. 47 Rome, for specimen see 106 and Plate II. Palimpsest of Cicero's Orations at Turin. :\Iilan and Rome (from Bobbio, see 60 above). Palimpsest of Cicero's Orations against Verres at Rome. A few leaves of a palimpsest of Livy at Turin. Palimpsest of Gaius at Verona. Palimpsest of :\Ierobaudes (first half of the fifth century) at St. Gallen. Fasti at Verona. FIFTH or SIXTH CE TURY: Palimpsest of Ulpian at Vienna. Palimpsest of Lactantius at St. Gallen. Yatican fragments of the Jurists, Rome. Palimpsest of Plautus at Milan (from Bobbio). Fragment. De Jure Fisci, at Ve- rona. A few lea\'es of a palimpsest of Hyginus at Rome. Palimp- sest of Gellius and fragments of Seneca at Rome. Manuscript of the Grammarian Cledonius (fifth century) at Berne. It will be noticed that of these twenty-four manuscripts, many 61 of which are badly mutilated, no less than fourteen are palimpsests, but it must also be noticed that, valuable as these palimpsests are. none has furnished us with the complete text of any work of any author. Their testimony is usually decisive for such portions of a given text as they contain, and, more than this, they often enable us to select from later, more legible, and complete codices, the one which is truest to the original. THE KEEPING OF THE MANUSCRIPTS. 68 CARE OF THE l\IANUSCRIPTS.-The manuscripts recov- ered as described above remained sometimes the property of the abbeys in which they were fonnd, but more often passed by purchase, gift or theft into the possession of individual owners, and were at all times liable, as articles of ordinary commerce, to be mntilated, lost, or destroyed. Those that have come down to mod- ern times receive better treatment. All of any value are kept in the great libraries of Europe, the property of the universities or .. even of the various states. The rules governing their use vary with their mlue and the spirit of the libraries where they are kept. Some may be taken from the liQraries for the purpose of study, others may be examined freely within the library itself, but may not be removed from it, others still must be handled only by an officer of the library, W110 finds the passage which the student desires to examine, and reads or shows it to him. In general it may be said that, when scholars are properly introduced to the authorities, all reasonable facilities are given them for examining and comparing even the most valuable manuscripts. The greatest obstacle is the lack of complete descriptive catalogues to some of the 1110st interesting and important collections. 69 NAl\IING OF THE MANUSCRIPTs.-Every library has its own sys- tem of identifying its books and manuscripts by letters or nUlll- bers, and by these letters or 11l11n bers added to the Latin name of the library or city where they are kept the manuscripts are now known and described. A malluscript that has passed from library to library, as almost all have done, has borne of course the special name and mark of each, and so has been known and described differently at different times. Besides, many malluscripts were 4 THE KEEPING OF THE l\IANUSCRIPTS. 49 used by scholars when they were the property of individuals, and were then called merely by the names of their owners. It follows, therefore, that in using editions of an author separated by many years we may find the name of a given manuscript varying with the dates of the several editions. Owing to these changes in the 70 name it has sometimes happened that a manuscript has been sup- posed to be lost which really existed but was disguised by a differ- ent name, and also that readings from the same manuscript have been quoted under its several names so as to lead to the belief that the one manuscript was two or more. Such errors are sure to be detected in the course of time by the identity of the quoted readings, but they show how necessary it is to have a full history and an accurate description of every ,'aluable manuscript. DESCRIPTIONS.-As an example of the brief descriptions given 71 in modern critical editions the following is taken from Kübler's edition of Cæsar's Gallic \Var (1893) in Teubner's series: "Codex Amstelodamensis 81 saec. VIllI-X, olim Floriacensis, postea inter libros Petri Danielis Aurelianensis, deinde Jacobi Bongarsii, inde Bongarsianus primus dictus." The manuscript is number 8r in the library of Amsterdam. was written in the ninth or tenth cen- tury, was previously in the abbey of Fleury-sur-Loire (in France), afterwards in the private library of Pierre Daniel of Orleans (born 1530, died 1603), then in that of Jacques Bongars (born 1554, died 1612), and was consequently caned BOllgarsialllts þrÙlllts. Critical editions usually add particulars as to the condition of the manuscript. the size and number of pages, its style of writing, the errors that occur most frequently. etc., etc. Examples are given in connection with the plates. These descriptions are often hard reading. because names of modern places and eyen persons are Latinized, and these names are not given ill our dictionaries. Some help in interpreting these names is given in the following para- graphs, but completeness is not attempted. 50 LATII' :\IANUSCRIPTS. 72 hIPORTANT LIBRARIES.- The libraries with collections of clas- sical manuscripts are too numerous to be described here, but the most important are named in the following list in alphabetical order by conntries. For further information see the article Li- braries in the Encyclopædia Britannica, from wl1Ïch' this is con- densed. There are no Latin manuscripts of any value in the U llited States. AUSTRIA: The Imperial Library at Vienna (VÙzdobolla), founded in the fifteenth century, contains 500,000 volumes and 20,000 manuscripts (codices VÙzdoholleJlses). There are besides good manuscripts in some of the monastic establishments, e. g., at Saltzburg (SaIÙbztrgltlJl, codices SaIÙbllrgellSes). The University Library of Prague contains 200,000 volumes with 3.800 manu- scripts (C. Pragellses). BELGIU:\I: The libraries of the universities at Ghent (Gallda- um) and at Liège (LeodÙ:zt11z) have together over 3,000 manu- scripts (c. Galldavellses and Leodicellses). The Royal Library at Brussels (Bruxellae) contains 30,000 manuscripts (co Bntxellellses). 73 DENMARK: The Royal Library at Copenhagen (Hazmia), founded in the sixteenth century, has 500,000 volumes and nu- merous manuscripts (co HaunieltScs). ENGLAND: At Cambridge (Calllabr iria) the University Library has 6,000 manuscripts (c. CalltabrigÙmscs), with many others of great value in the library of Trinity College. At Oxford (OxonÙz) the Bodleian Library, founded in 1602 by Sir Thomas Bodley, contains 30,000 manuscripts (c. BodleÙ11li, or Oxolliellses) and a valuable collection of first editions (see 64) of Greek and Latin authors. At London (LOIldinizt11l) is the library of the British Museum, one of the largest and most important in the world, which was founded in 1753 and contains 1,600,000 volumes, including more than 50,000 manuscripts (c. Brz"tan1llà' or Londz o - llellses). These manuscripts are often further described by the .. ... "'- Ararrðf{' omà tf wr(u"r or cerem:"' . lTaU4r'':1!9''"ft,,;-' era:tUm , t A.-meror'. lumtC 4:{; S-a. uJl LA.rrc:tu- r (., .s A Lv S T 11 C 1l 1 S r 1 ß f L t v M.. C. k 11 LlliJ ix 1. 1 , 1 r · 1 H (. 1 r rr S '1ll V M 1 V "V R:T H 1 1T , \ .. A L S 0 V f III T V R. bE W AT\[ llA.. S VA.. G E \fS . humA.n",.". qucJJ1 tea tLt.emr; d.eUJ b tf. f6. Ø'ttur 'lU U1f- res-âtU.j- · H CD epananJ, . rlfl:{; mAl.uf"Ãlum ne!f; 1'r- 4tt - U1 muen1A.f m fcc; nlfCt:Ur;p' InJuj:h..1.A.rn OTT) 'JUð.mUU'n Au t-..,eH'f '"' Jeeffe-.. S ëJJ 'rtJ; 1mp 4r.4Lvc.% urtpTJOT'ï;"A.Lu d.nl1n'ufeA:-- 'ïutuln o , J .... -!- \"1. S-\LLrST: RlI ÙÙms I602j. St1f'C. I \- X. " cr-a ,. : .. . :Þ ....... ç .:::-- Or . ..--' .:---. J. .... .. THE KEEPIïo;G OF THE L-\ WSCRIPTS. 51 names of previous owners, e. g., codÙ;cs Townláanz', from the col- lection of Charles Townley (1737-1805) and codices HarláaJli, col- lected by Robert Harley (1661-1724), Earl of Oxford, and his son. 74 FRANCE: At Paris (Lzetetia Pan"úorlt11l) the National Library is the largest library in the world, founded in the fourteenth cen- tury, containing 100,000 manuscripts (c. ParÙÙn", or Parisiaci). i\Iany of these were formerly in the ancient Royal Library (c. Regii) or less important collections e. g., at St. Germain (c. San- ger11lallenses), and at Fontainebleau (c. Blialtd fontaJn"). Some few good manuscripts still remain in provincial towns, e. g., at l\Iont- pellier (c. iJfollteþessltlani). GER IANY: Almost all the universities have large libraries containing manuscripts of value. The Unh'ersity of Heidelberg (HeÙlelberga), situated in the Palatinate, has over 400,000 vol- mnes and many manuscripts (co PalatÙzz") , and the University of Strassburg (Argelltoratltm) has 500,000 volumes and some good manuscripts (c. Argelltoratellses). At Berlin (BeroIÙut11z) the Royal Library contains 15,000 manuscripts (c. BeroIÙze1lses). At Dresden (Dresdena) the Royal Library has about 500,000 volumes with 4,000 manuscripts (c. Dresdmses). At Gotha the Ducal Library has more than 6.000 manuscripts (c. Gotham'). At Munich (lIIolla- chÙt11z) the Royal Library, founded in the sixteenth century, is the largest in the empire and contains 30,000 manuscripts (C. lIIolla- ceJlses) , while the Unh'ersity Library has 1,800 more. The Royal Public Library at Stuttgart (StuttgardÙz) has 3,800 manuscripts. HOLLAND: At The Hague the Royal Library has 4.000 manu- 75 scripts. At Leyden (Lzegdltlllt1Jl Batavorlt11l) are 5,000 manuscripts (c. Lddenses or Lugdwzenses Batavz O ). At Amsterdam (Amsteloda- 1Jllt1Jl) are some very valuable manuscripts (c. A1Jlstelodamellses) in tIle library of the university. ITALY: Of the numerous collections of manuscripts in Italy ( 63) only the most noteworthy can be mentioned here. At ') :,- LA TIN l\IANl'SCRIPTS. Florence IS the Laurentian library attached to the church of St. Lorenzo; it contains some 10,000 manuscripts, chiefly from the library of San Marco, the collectious of the Medici and Leopoldo families, and the library of John Ashburnham, of England, pur- chased by the Italian government in 1884 (c. Floreutziu", LauYe1l- tÙmz", ilIedÛ;ez', S. lVIarâ, LeoþoldÙu", Ash bu Y1Z ham z"i, etc.). The ",..: I ,r I \t I ,\ \\ v J 111\ I,. . , , . , ., =, , '. ,'.r I' , I '1, 'I' '. (, A " 'I , , '/' // . J', :<:.... ".;.l'Jilíij? ' i'"" ,',- -;-:- ' :, \. . \ \tl; "' 7 f T'] P#.' '0'";)' . r _1IB> ' '0 ' 1 -,V ' ' , ..:.-J;."; ,", _ . -"0 - . . j , -< \\ \' . " \ I t':;,;- ,I:. 'i ;"r . , " f " \\, -' n: . J.S <""" ."j' :' 1i , " " \ J I (:;.. !G?- ."', ....,. , .... ;0 r. / v :'t. , '!..' ; ì . '. ;; '0 .. '. "-- -4t """;J-:' . . t--.... ..-,..... \ 'J , ), ..j." , : ... "'Ii 'J ' t".. ".'. . "t......: ..."'-; . ..... '. ".t I....... JJ' fl<<.,":; ,',' ....,... .-..:. '. , : {,j i1' " : Ii'f: 'J' '. r . 'r l'>;;' ! ìt I ' ,'F f:,, J_ ;:. \\,.., ) ) . f :, )I' 1 " j 1 \ ",h' - :":<. . \" \ it: ^ --:h' '*..; -",," '.. I I . .' ,. ' > r ;; . .' l '; I " . , 1 1. /.t.,.. .' .: ..' ", t "',11.' ,- . \.  . .. I i!', . r I ' - I 1 l It .:" '. , I : 1 .,' '- : :. j. " ' " ' ,I :' L : "",-"0.,"", . 'J_' )I" -", A '.' ' Ih l' ' : ':' Î ..- .: 1'- ,:<\ I' '- -_ -- ' I ' f...... t ',' ___ N[ :"", "' I'"''';:: ' mJ lI--- r I l ' Á.' ... . ;; ,.... Af r .ít: '"r >;r'- I l ,'"t i .:" JI J rï !d!_,: 'J l!.-b= ". L-1 r,,'!' "i 'o. ___' I r ' & , '<11 -- . ------ ---- FIG 7. \'ATICAN LIßRARY BibJioteca Riccardiana, founded by the Riccardi family and pur- chased by the government in 1812, contains 3,800 manuscripts (C. 76 RÚ:cardz"ani). At Milan (lIIedlolalllt1Jl) the Ambrosian library has 8,000 manuscripts (C. lVIedlOlancllses or A11lbyoÚani), including some famous palimpsests. At Naples there are 4,000 manuscripts in the National library and museum (C. Neaþolitani) , some from the old . THE KEEPING OF THE MANUSCRIPTS. 53 Bourbon library (c. Borbonzf:z"). At Rome is the Vatican Library, the most famous and magnificent but not the largest in the world, containing some 23,000 manuscripts (c. Va/zeam. or R011la1ll"). Among these are most of the manuscripts brought from Bobbio ( 60), 3,500 taken from Heidelberg in 1623 (c. Pa/a/ini, see above), many bequeathed to the library in 1600 by Fulvius Orsini (UrsÙzus, c. UrsÙz Ùl1l i) , others purchased from Duke Federigo of Urbino in 1655 (c. Urbina/es) , from Queen Christina of Sweden by Pope Alexander YIII (c. RegÙzeJlses or Alexandrzlzz") , and from Cardinal Mai, and many other only less famous collections. The library is not fully catalogued and its management is far from lib- eral. Two other libraries, the Bz"blzoteca Cosalla/ense and the Bib- botcca VÜtono E11lallllelo, have recently been united and contain 77 more than 6,000 manuscripts, most of them from the important collections of the Jesuits of the old Collcglo Romano. At Turin (Augusta TaUrÙlOrU1Il) are some good manuscripts (c. TaurÙzenscs) in the University Library. At Venice (lelletz"ae) the l\Iarcian Library, founded in the fifteenth century, contains many valuable manuscripts (c. Veneti, l1Iarcialll', or VCJleti MarcÙl1li) , and there are others at Verona in the Cathedral Library (c. Veronl'1lses). SWITZERLAND: There are good libraries with valuable manu- scripts at Basle (c. BaszlÛ!1lses), at Berne (c. BerlleJlses) , at Ein- siedeln (c. EÙzsidlC1lses) , at St. Gallen (c. Sangallcnses) , and at Ziirich (c. TurÚ:nzscs). INDEX TO COLLECTIONS.-In the following list are arranged 78 alphabetically the names of manuscripts mentioned above, with a few others occurring in critical editions of school classics: AlexandrÙÚ (Rome), AmbrosÙl1li (Milan), A msteloda11le1lses (Amsterdam), A rgeJltora/enses (Strassburg), AshbuYlzha11lzani (Florence), Baszlienses (Basle), BcmbÙzu.s (of Cardinal Pietro Bembo, 1470-1547), Berlle1lses (Berne), BerolÙlenses (Berlin), BlandÙzÙl1li (Blankenberg, Belgium). Blzaudifontmzz" (Fontaine- bleau), Bodlezam. (Oxford), BongarSZallllS ( 71), Borbomci (Na- ples), Britannia" (London), Bruxcllenscs (Brussels), Budenses 54 LATIN MANLTSCRIPTS. 79 (Buda, Hungary), CantabrigÙnses (Cambridge), Carolz"rllhellses (CarIsruhe), Colber/ziâ (of Jean Baptist Colbert, 1619-1683, statesman, France), Colon lenses (Cologne), Corbàensis (of Cor- vey, town with monastery, in Germany), CllÙzÚanlis (of Jacqnes Cujas, 1522-1590, France), EÙISidlellses (Einsiedeln), Florelltilli (Florence), FlorÚlællSzS ( 71), Fuldenses (Fulda, Germany), GudÙl1li (of :l\Iarquard Gude, 1619-1700, Germany), GraevÙl1llts (of J. G. Greffe, 1632-1703, Netherlands), Guelferb}'/ani (Wol- fenbüttel, Germany), Hazmlellses (Copenhagen), Laurell/iam' (Florence), LeÚlellses (Leyden), LeoþoldÙzi (Florence), Liþszálses (Leipzig), LondÙle1lSeS (London), lIfardam o (Venice), Ma/ri/ellst's (l\Iadrid), MedÙ:à (Florence), lIIcdzOlancnses (Milan), MinoYll1t- glenses (of Augia Iinor, an ancient abbey in Anstria), MOlla- CCllses (Munich), MOll/eþessll/alli (Montpellier), fi-foysÙlCe1lSeS (of the abbey of l\Ioissac, France), Neaþo/zialll' (Naples). Oltobmzlalll' (of Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, 1668-1740, nephew of Pope Alex- ander VIII, Vatican, Rome), OxonÙ?1lses (Oxford), Pa/a/Ùzz o (Heidelberg, Rome), Parisiad, or better ParisÙzi (Paris), Petro- þolitalli (St. Petersburg), Pragenses (Pragne), RegÙlellSeS (Rome), RE'gÙ (Paris), RegÙJ1JlOll/a1ll" (Königsberg), RÚ:cardÙl1li (Flor- ence), S. lIIard (Florence; to be carefully distinguished from MarcÙllli aboye), Sangal/mses (St. Gallen), Sanger11lanellses (St. Germain), Scaligeranlls (of J. C. Scaliger. 14 8 4- 1 55 8 , or J. J. Scaliger, 1540-1609), SOrbOIlÙlm" (of the Sorbonne, a depart- ment of the University of France), Tattrz1lellSeS (Tnrin), Thua- 1zeus (of Jacobus Augustus Thuaneus (De Thou), a statesman and historian of France, 1553-1617), Tole/ani (at. Toledo, Spain), Turiænsz"s (Zürich), Urbinates, UrsÙ Ùl1li, Vaticaui (Rome), Ve1leÚ and Vnzetz" lIfarcÙ11li (Venice), VCrmlCllSeS (Verona), VÙz- dobollellses (Vienna), VOSSzll1lliS (of Isaac Voss, 1618-1689)' Vratz"slavlenses (Breslau). SYl\IBOLS FOR THE MANUSCRIPTS.-In editions of the classics in which the manuscripts are frequently mentioned, it is custom- ary for the editors to use in place of the name or names of each manuscript, often long and unwieldy ( 71), an arbitrary symbol, usually a letter of the alphabet or a numeral. These symbols are prefixed to the descriptions of the manuscripts where they are first giyen, usually in the introduction or the critical appendix. For example, to the description quoted above ( 7 1) Kübler bas 80 81 THE KEEPING OF THE 1\IANUSCRIPTS. 55 prefixed the letter A, and by this symbol the given manuscript, codex Amstelodameusis 81, is known throughout his edition of the Gallic \Var. Scholars may therefore call this manuscript briefly "Kübler's A." It happens unfortunately that there is no gener- ally accepted system in accordance with which these symbols are selected and used by scholars. Some editors arrange their manu- scripts in the order of their supposed importance and letter them A, B, C, etc. Others use for each manuscript the first letter of its name or of some one of its several names. Others still, using 82 manuscripts quoted in some earlier standard edition,. retain the symbols adopted by the earlier editor, as Kübler seems to have done in the case just cited, adding new symbols, of course, for such manuscripts used by them as the earlier editor did not quote. In using at the same time different editions of the same author, the student has, therefore, to be constantly on his guard against con- founding these symbols. For example, in the three editions of Cæsar's Gallic \Var by Holder (1882), Kübler (1893) and l\Ieusel ( 18 94), the symbols for the six most important manuscripts are shown in the following table: NA:\IE OF IIIANUSCRIPT. Holder. Kübler. Meuse!. Codex A11lste/oda11lCllsis,81 A A A Codex ParzsÙllts LalÙllts, 5056 11/ 1\1 Q Codex ParzsÙllts LatÙllts, 5763 B B B Codex ROma1lllS Vaticau1ts, 3864 R R A:f Codex ParzsÙllts La/iulls,5764 . T T a Codex Vaticaults,3324 U U h It will be seen at once that the three editors agree in the sym- 83 bols of but two manuscripts out of the six, and that, while Holder and Kübler may be used together without confusion, great care must be taken when the readings of Meusel are compared with those of either of the others. Such changes of the symbols are, of course, even more confusing when they are made in the same , 56 LA TIN MANUSCRIPTS. work. Thus, in the fourth edition of Orelli's Horace (1886- 188 9) the codex Ambrosialllts is marked 0 in the first volume (Odes and Epodes, by Hirschfelder), while in the second volume (Satires and Epistles, by Mewes) it is marked a. No reason is given for the change, except that Mewes adopted the symbols of Keller and Holder (1864-70). 84 FIRST AND SECOND HANDS.-Mention has already been made ( 37) of the correction of errors in ancient manuscripts, and it is hardly necessary to say that such errors and corrections are no less frequent in those of later date. Sometimes the scribe himself discovered his mistake and erased the wrong letters, inserting the right ones in their place, or wrote the correct reading between the lines above the blunder, or in the margin, in the last case indi- cating by dots or other simple marks the place where the correc- tion "Tas to be made. Sometimes a later reader introduced in the same way corrections, or at least variations, derived from other manuscripts or from his own sense of the appropriate. Now, it is often important to distinguish these corrections from the original reading and from each other, if they were made by different per- 85 sons. If some of the corrections are seen to be in the same writ- ing as the text they are said to be by "the first hand;" others are said to be by the second or third hand, according to their age. These hands are indicated by the editors in several ways: some- times by small figures written as indices after the symbol used for the manuscript, e. g., A', A2, etc.; sometimes when the manu- script is denoted by a capital letter, e. g., P, the correctors will be marked p, p', etc. Here, too, there is a lack of agreement among editors. 86 COLLATIONS OF THE l\fANUSCRIPTS.-It is no longer necessary, as it once was, for a scholar engaged upon a given work to travel all over Europe, from library to library, to examine the scattered manuscripts of his author. Of all important manuscripts of the -,.,..- - . ..' .. ,P" . .. I . H" ,,'.. .. ..' : ,.1'. , ' ,. . .' "" " J"'<\ ,-(. 14 " f' ... ./ , · ,".... f )!'. , ,. . , utr: tf '.-' , ,& '41uf 1'4M'H' ',' . , '..-, " . v." /I \ . ,.. II, t' ' ad1r. · M Ab ..' . - ....'.. M-e tuteú · '.,' . , 1 = -' " _.J1'. - 'Ç mu1tt' Uk ., '.,. . III 't,.... . .. (,onÿ , -, 1f" :U\r ' ,.. 9 4cP '., J · . /' t"" -' ,<1l ",.. ,...' ,. mu1nf 4 , J ,'",' " . j cork" , Ab'" ,. w" ."" "'. !J . t' . ...... .,' ptrþAm1f '. ,. Ltd"ffnr V ' . '1.ll ttá.--.,. ... , " 1W / I ," "#' a. '..L m f,\ftf-1 , ,. t- . { r . J. . , " ." ø- ,..t J.Y' .. .,. :>. ..... ,. '> .... '" , \ " a4. .,. · , '!(f fa. ' . · If. II I," If .' . a I' ,.. .., 'I' ' r , YII. C T I 'uul, IJtJJ" ... , A)}, } ... .. . ,J' .;.. . øt ' .' -' '. .,: , <$1,' .,11 ." r._ _Aõ#.J-' fW.'< t tir\ mJ4 .' Þ , ''' : t ' '.. ,'y, ", /I fV" ' - ...-" 11J'. ". r ' ,. .. If- ..... .. . ..t', "' ma tW "1114tuiA'l' " ør . tnuf (tmt 1' + I'ør ftMt' . ' / d ,. " 'mf. , ,. ro , , "' '..' '" ab-, it...." tt\ -. ' '1"W '"" .... #f; A't: t' 4bW 1\tt( -ií 'Wtft. '. ..' . \ 1 :JU-f f:; . I : ... .. .. " . '." 'P f1e/ ' .. , ."úø.1JMid4 << · · I · ' I'" f .,,,. I', ,..l t , . . .' .4 . 'rom. trf .'" . , .. . "ßtWt . ....a' \ II L\III. THE KEEPING OF THE MANUSCRIPTS. 57 classics copies have been made, called collations, and published to the world. These collations are not complete copies of the manu- script, word by word, much less fac-similes, but give merely the variations of the given manuscript from some other manuscript, or better from some printed edition, of the author, which the col- lator has taken as his standard. For example, take the third sen- tence in Cæsar's Gallic \Var with Lowe and Ewing's text as the standard: Gallos ab AquitanzS Garzllll1la ßU1JZcn, a Belgis l1fatrona et Sequana dz"vÙIÜ. Now, if we wished to publish the reading of the codex Vaticallus 3324, marked V by Kübler, a complete copy would require eleven words. As it happens, however, U differs but once from the text we have taken as our standard, and V's reading of the whole sentence is sufficiently indicated by printing this one word, preceded. of course, by the number of the line in the standard text, in which the variation is found: 5, ganmna, V. The saving of time, labor, and expense by these collations, to 87 say nothing of the wear and tear of the manuscripts, is very great, but over against this advantage must be set the danger of errors, owing in the first place to slips of the collator, and in the second place to slips of the printers who reproduce his work. These errors are being gradually removed by new collations made with far greater care and skill than were formerly employed. Of some very valuable manuscripts, however, which have been destroyed or lost, or which by mutilation or decay have become illegible, editors have still to depend upon early collations which are known to be inaccurate and untrustworthy. Of a very few manuscripts exact reproductions have been made, either from type or by photography. The latter process may be depended upon accurately to reproduce the original (see the Plates in this book) when the ink is not too dim; the former (e. g., l\Ierkel's Aeschylus, Studemund's Plautus A) is exposed to the same risks of error as the less elaborate collation. 58 LATIN MANUSCRIPTS. 88 UNCOLLATED MANUSCRIPTS.-It is not to be supposed that an Latin manuscripts have been collated. The vast majority have been found after cursory inspection to be copies of older manuscripts in our possession and are therefore of no value except as curiosities. It may be that some of them have been unfairly judged and are deserving of closer study, but not much is to be hoped for from them. Besides these, some few manuscripts may yet be discovered in the large collections which have not been fully or accurately arranged and catalogned ( 7 6 ). Thus, Professor Hale discovered in 1896 a manuscript of Catullus hidden behind a false number in the Vatican library. For specimen page see Plate XI. 89 CRITICAL EmTIONS.-A critical edition gives in the form indi- cated above the readings of all the manuscripts of the given work which the editor deems valuable, together with certain other evi- dences for tbe original text which will be considered hereafter ( 173- 1 7 8 ). Such editions are usually very elaborate and costly but of some of the authors read in schools there are critical edi- tions to be had which represent sound scholarship and yet are inexpensive. Among these are Kiibler's Cæsar, Meusel's Cæsar (the best), Jordan's Sallust, Kloucek's Yergil, and Ribbeck's ( 18 94) Vergil. There are unfortunately no equally convenient and satis- factory editions of Nepos, Cicero and Livy. II. T HE SCIENCE OF PALEOGRAPHY. STYLES OF WRITING. THE ERRORS OF THE SCRIBES. THE SCIENCE OF PALEOGRAPHY. STYLES OF \VRITING. pALEOGRAPHY treats of ancient methods of writing. It inves- tigates the history of the characters used to represent speech, traces the changes from age to age in those of the same language, teaches the art or science of deciphering documents, and deter- mines their date and place of origin from the style of writing. Paleography was not recognized as a science until the publication in 1681 of the De Re Diþlomatiea of Jean lIabillon (1632-1707), who gave directions in this work for distinguishing by the writing itself between the genuine documents of the middle ages and the forgeries that were current in his time. SCOPE OF THE SCIENCE.-By the definition given above Pale- ography should include the study of writings of every sort, of all times and all peoples, regardless of the material ( 2) which re- ceived them. As a branch of classical philology, however, its scope has been greatly restricted. In the first place it is limited to the Greek and Latin languages, and in the second place Epigraphy and Diplomatics, once mere branches of Paleography, have won for themselves the rank of independent sciences. The former treats of the very oldest written records of Greece and Rome, those, that is, cut in stone and metal, or scratched and painted upon wood or other hard substances; the latter deals with the charters, wills, deeds, grants, etc., of the centuries following the breaking up of the Roman empire. To Paleography is left, therefore, merely the study of the writing, or various styles of writing, found in the manuscripts of the works of literature that have descended to us in the manner just described. Limiting our study of Paleography to Latin manuscripts as we do, the period covered extends from the fourth century A. D., the time when the oldest codices now exist- 61 90 91 92 62 LATIN :\lANPSCRIPTS. ing ( 65) were written, to the fifteenth century, ,,"hen the scribe was succeeded by the printer. 93 USES OF PALEOGRAPHY.-From the history already given of the manuscripts it is evident that, other things being equal, the older of two manuscripts is the better: the nearer, that is, its date is to the time of the author, the less the number of transcriptions, in all probability, between it and the original copy, and the less the chances for errors by successive copyists. It is therefore of great importance to scholars to be able to fix the time, even the century, of the writing of a given manuscript, and this is the first thing that paleography undertakes to do. Again, if the study of ancient characters shows that certain letters, for instance, were very much alike and were often mistaken for each other, it may be possible for us, when we find in a manuscript a combination of letters that makes no sense, to reverse the process and discover the letter or letters that the last copyist ought to have written. This is the second use of paleography, and the one that is of 94 greatest importance to the ordinary student. As will be shown below, the dating of manuscripts is largely a matter of practice and experience, not of rules and regulations, and requires direct and long continued contact with the manuscripts themselves. It is a science for experts, and of these there are very few whose opinions have the force of authority. The correction of errors, on the other hand, is of great interest in itself, and may be under- stood and practiced by persons who have never so much as seen a genuine manuscript. For these reasons the chief stress will be laid here upon the errors of the scribes, and only so much atten- tion will be given to the styles of writing as is necessary to understand the causes of these errors and the methods of correct- ing them. 95 ANCIENT FORMS OF LETTERS.-Two styles of lettering were known to the ROluans at the time when the classics were written. I' 1I'iL1...JCJ"t'o'c TJLJNAM 1 NC11'lTL lBC'Þ l'Rln"vS- I? J---'c--L ICI-:rC It- *.. .. .. ,... . /' ...... "'"10 vsQV ' \.".,l1n .'\.ßvTCM r -.ull.na p.U'U"1m.\. ";..,:il.,ú tu., 'I.,r'" I , '''.U1J r1rør- ,fiT-- -0' uf .-tUJA-. --' < ' . d" Q ú- . . 1f1"é- c",r cfl7rn....ra .. "h ' 1 /} \fß.....'p- " .,.. !t '" . (.... oU..l..clAr N.cJ"I...-......".t. \: ' nuna ptì&Ju'i r.,uru.'Ju-l..1 u,.IH{ I u'j'l'f' ,.'u J..11 nn"''-røpf,. H.",1,.1 -, .... cØn.,-rbøn yrii ø"ut Ú,"'lIcJy.t t..c )nJwJun(lÎmuf' J'.1{, 71dJ r uu'" 'w. lee-ut: N U'"hll "".-ü o.:\.. LlØt cufiJJlC nao..,crunr-,,,..... f...n:rc- "RIA ci'(.tr.\. .wrenn': .....CétfirtJ'lñ Li J..øní "m""ú fë.n.-nA"," cõ IU' rJørú-- " u.ulri:.... Quu f! "fJa.'1UJJ fi'pi"nDrr "o' (:uf,. f1'iïtf '1f1"(c n uocaucnt: idcõ(il.. c crerrr. 'Jué-- n':;JI.Ij'1" .vLr n -.1m....Oní'øra.. (. ml"rrl".Snaa.ru.r .u c-rtnTIf"j"". cDrul d.J 'bl rñ 'Uuur. un. .mmo ..,er" ...i mrnuuii uenrr" hr-puJ,tu:'-cê.tit. r-rf'-Cepf."' 4' ldi:..\'U1.T cutar .\JGu:d W'Ü'luñJ m7r' . 4.tri= førrrr U .,1 emf fv..- -,-r ,-rA p. mdmnu- Ii Lfbur .,..on? -u!M, u,nn,,';" ..\..&1 -rc- c-,nl.na rlur, .,,11&. cø t pnd;: of'or 6 T" an-rc-"ô fn-J rri c.v.:\ria m""( o;hír ÁJ.u., J..lhAn-f'" Å.-n..,erI:J Lal.r ..m.pL(f'''".{f(''''f r ni.n :f-Acc1.ú ".c-daøcm L.(,C""Jù.! fi:nw rn p. ""' nJ.f.,.r<<"f.:,C;r -. hUIlmå. ,w .F h'Jd r cACdr. ; J.ne:,",dnfPA-fmrc-cuf'. ndft;;' (...Ire fñ-m."f. ....Nà .,ItA nu,lIr ..um- '''L\. - K ., "t" '1"t'1 f61r U a.lt..uC .,t.AlA. fr' tnetni'" ""Iour , (n.J.."fU"Ý !'f'An... fit'\, þcc'tJn- i 6 u -t:J,.rr .t-ln. '1u.mul.i "flt,..."C' p. turrtlf. -urUlrJ {VI " crt .u';"'''' ; fU'rrt... ....r en";; f"t.ctøfú LJoo..u-ø-f,.ff;m.; ,,"'U::....q cr dt C7ar- " }1Jiþ ",;( {'c. ..,m- c..\.T11anlt u -bf."mt.-nf p rn ".éfihú nÞþ u&-ønrAfhuj1 ,",""J.n,f" N etrnÞf ,1t .ø.A ófulef d4"" -on;rn..,-t"' &Jond.Am J Jf , p \ 1- I \ "TTT (' , , 'I I ". -1 lul" ,fl ,(. n II JJI ç \ STYLES OF WRITING. 63 One style, called the Majuscule (htterac nzaÙescltlae), is used 111 inscriptions as much older than the classics as our oldest manu- scripts, written with letters of the same form, are younger. These majuscules were the only style used for the formal publication of works of literature until the eighth century, and were used even H ON __ 0 tN'O' .' t:- 'R v ,.. fi.UO 5 E t'" f-- "J Nt'T J(l , O\(ON9RO-Of TV MO.fV\ E' J J \t(Jo'M S.C 1 rl O/ E Ff t f(J"S P A .,g;À Tr I\JSOI,' ( Er-.J,S oR- A- J D 1 lS. H I ( F '\( T A: -\ t t ( E í t J COR SIC A .J\ì E K 1AQ V [. \l'f"B E ,J, ftt!Ð.( T"T E/^f.. E ' TA T Ê8 ls. A Dr ERE T"o' FIG, 8, EPITAPH OF L COR:i:I<;LIl"S SCIPIO. to the im-entioll of printing for certain works held III extraordi- nary esteem (the Scriptures. Vergil) and in other works for the titles and the headings of chapters. From this last use was de-