-\~/\<\%\*\17120 12-14 Elevation above m.s.l. (feet) 40 200 Climate: (Havens & McGuire, 1961) Average last frost of spring April 12 May 2 Average first frost of fall October 26 October 7 Average frost free days 197 158 Soil series Unnamed Yalesville taxadjunct Texture Loamy coarse sand Loam/fine sandy loam % sand 76 51 % silt 22 41 % clay 2 8 Volume coarse fragments (range) 18^10 5-15 pH 6.9 5.5 Plot size (feet) (4) 10x20 (4) 10x30 Total square feet 800 1200 Leaf-mold for Soil Improvement in Home Gardens Table 3. Physical properties of the garden plots. Inches of Water at Treatment Organic Matter % Volume Stones % Field Capacity Wilting Point Inches of water available to plants Day-Waverly Gardens Leaf mold 16.1 18 1.9 0.6 1.3 Topsoil 4.0 10 1.2 0.5 0.7 Paper mulch 5.6 39 0.8 0.3 0.5 Control 5.2 28 0.9 0.4 0.5 Lockwood Farm Gardens Leaf-mold 3" 9.6 2.0 0.9 1.1 Leaf-mold 2" 7.0 1.7 0.8 0.9 Leaf-mold 1" 6.7 1.6 0.8 0.8 Control 4.5 1.5 0.7 0.8 an additional 3/4 lbs 10-10-10 fertilizer per plot spread along the row. The corn rows, used for a second planting of fall crops of cabbage, cauliflower, and broccoli, were amended with an additional 1-1/4 lbs of 15-15-15 fertilizer and 1-1/2 lbs limestone. Vegetables grown The vegetables grown were essentially the same in 1976 and 1977. and are common to Connecticut's backyard gar- dens. Yellow squash, butternut squash, snap beans, carrots, and beets were grown from seed; tomatoes, cabbage, broc- coli, peppers, and eggplant were grown from transplanted seedlings; onions were grown from sets; and lettuce was grown from seed in 1976 and from transplanted seedlings in 1977. Some varieties were changed from 1976 to 1977. Corn, which requires a large area, was not grown at the Day-Waverly Gardens. A plot plan showing the arrangement of vegetables and spacing between rows is found in Appen- dix A. The spacing between rows was closer than recom- mended for Connecticut gardens (Conn. Ext. Serv., 1968) but the rows were arranged so that taller plants would not shade shorter ones. Cultivation All experimental plots were cultivated as needed to control weeds and to maintain a friable soil surface for maximum infiltration of water. Weeds within the rows were pulled by hand to eliminate competition between crops and weeds for water and nutrients. Irrigation and sampling for moisture The experimental plots became the focus of attention in the Day-Waverly Gardens. They were watered amply by neighboring gardeners as they watered their own plots. For one week in mid-summer 1976, the plots were not watered to allow the soil to dry deeply. Soil samples were then taken to estimate the moisture content at the wilting point. Samples were also taken 24 hours after a heavy rainstorm in August to estimate the water content at field capacity in each plot. The difference between the two measurements approximates the amount of water available to growing plants. The plots at Lockwood Farm received irrigation if plants became severely wilted. However, only three irrigations were necessary in mid-summer. Soil samples were taken fol- lowing heavy rains and during droughty periods to estimate moisture holding capacity of the plots amended with vary- ing amounts of leaf-mold. Pest control Insect pests were controlled in all plots as needed. Diazinon drench was used to control cabbage maggots. Aphids and cabbage loopers were controlled with rotenone. Squash vine borer and bean beetles were controlled with some success with methoxychlor dust in 1976 but with poor control in 1977. Corn borers were controlled at Lockwood Farm with Sevin. Tomato hornworms were destroyed by hand when observed. Harvest All vegetables were harvested when they reached market- able size. Weights of all vegetables were recorded as soon as they were picked. The value of the produce was determined by retail prices at the date of harvest. RESULTS Leaf-mold had a pronounced effect on the moisture holding capacity, the pH, and temperature of the soil. These factors influence germination of vegetable seeds and crop yields. The results of our experiments follow. Improved available moisture holding capacity The soil in the paper-mulched and control plots of the Day- Waverly Gardens was 95 and 83% sand respectively. The texture of the former was a coarse sand; the latter, a loamy coarse sand. Table 3 shows less than 1 inch of water was retained at field capacity in the upper 6 inches of both of the plots. The amount available for plant growth was only 0.5 inch. Since many plants use as much as 0.2 inch of water per day, both plots become deficient in 2 to 3 days. The paper mulch plot was the sandiest of all plots and also contained the most stones. It appeared to have been part of an old gravelled driveway. Under these circumstances the water holding capacity was probably less than 0.5 inch, but the paper mulch improved it slightly. The greatest benefit of the paper mulch was reduction of weeds. This plot required little attention other than watering. The plot covered with topsoil contained 72% sand and its texture was classified as a sandy loam. Its moisture holding capacity of 0.7 inch in the upper 6 inches of soil (a 3- to 4- day supply) was 25 to 35% greater than in the native soil. Although the mineral portion of the leaf-mold plot was nearly 90% sand, the organic fraction was 4-fold greater than on the other plots. This organic matter held nearly 2 inches of water in the upper 6 inches; almost a 7-day supply, 1 .3 inches, was available to plants. All crops grown on this plot resisted wilting 2 to 3 days longer after watering or rainfall than the crops on the other plots. The added mois- ture supply in the leaf-mold plot also increased the resis- tance of tomato plants to blossom-end-rot. Droughty con- ditions on the other plots increased the incidence of this Connecticut Experiment Station Bulletin 774 physiological damage, which is caused by an imbalance be- tween the water needs of the plant and the supplying power of the soil. However, during the 1977 growing season, tomato plants on all experimental plots amended with leaf- mold suffered some damage from blossom-end-rot despite the increased moisture holding capacity of the soil. Although addition of leaf-mold will not always prevent damage, it will lessen the damage. The Yalesville fine sandy loam at Lockwood Farm has a moderate moisture holding capacity. Table 3 shows that the Yalesville soil holds 1 .5 inches of water at field capacity in 6 inches of topsoil and can supply plants with about 0.8 inch of water, a 4-day supply. Addition of 3 inches of leaf- mold doubles the organic content of the Yalesville soil to 9.6%. The amount of water held at field capacity increased 33% to 2 inches. The moisture available to plants increased 0.3 inch (a 1- or 2-day supply) in the plot amended with 3 inches leaf-mold. At lower rates of leaf-mold application, increases in available moisture were negligible. Thus, the benefits of leaf-mold to increase moisture to growing plants are less dramatic on fine sandy loams and loams than on loamy sands and sands. Soil temperature Soils amended with leaf-mold are dark in color. Thus, one would expect their temperatures to be higher because of high absorption and low reflectance of sunlight. The increase in moisture holding capacity of the soil and the slower conductivity for heat, however, offsets absorption, and temperatures are, in fact, cooler at 2.5 inches. At Lock- wood Farm late morning temperatures at a 2.5-inch depth on sunny days were about 3 to 4°F lower on the plot amended with 3 inches of leaf-mold than on the untreated plot. There were no temperature differences between the plots amended with 1 and 2 inches of topsoil and the con- trol plot. Germination of seeds During a period of cool, wet weather in early May 1976, deeply planted bean and squash seeds rotted in the leaf- mold plot and had to be replaced. Small, shallowly planted seeds germinated as expected. All seeds germinated well on the other plots, which were drier. In 1977 we observed rates of germination on the Lock- wood Farm plots. Seeds were planted on May 12th. Small carrot, beet, and radish seeds germinated most rapidly on the control and 1-inch leaf-mold plots. Germination was delayed 3-5 days on the 2- and 3-inch leaf-mold plots and many seeds failed to germinate leaving gaps in the row. Gaps were replanted May 31, Germination of reseeded areas was prompt and complete except for beets on the 3- inch leaf-mold plot. On this plot, the final density of beets was only 75% of the density on other plots. Germination of large seeds of summer squash and snap beans planted May 12 was poor in all plots. By May 26 only 45 to 68% of snap beans and 40 to 73% summer squash had germinated. Germination was best on the 3-inch leaf-mold plot and worst on the control and 1-inch leaf-mold plots. This was contrary to our observations in 1976. Since the Lockwood Farm plots had a higher moisture holding capa- city than the sandy Day-Waverly plot, it appears that they warm slower in early spring. Clearly, the seeds were planted too early for complete germination in the Yalesville soil. In contrast, germination of corn seeds planted May 12 was better, ranging between 90% on the 3-inch leaf-mold plot and 72% on the control plot. The improved germination of corn may be because the seeds were planted in hilled rows which may dry and warm faster than flat rows. Germina- tion of second plantings of snap beans and corn in late May and June was rapid and met seed-bag standards. Effect of leaf-mold on soil pH Leaves that have been composted at temperatures of 140 to 160 F where thermophyllic organisms predominate pro- duce a compost rich in soluble salts with a pH of about 7.0 (Sawhney, 1976). Leaf-mold added to Yalesville fine sandy loam increased soluble salt contents to 520 parts per mil- lion in the 3-inch leaf-mold plot. This concentration of salts is less than the amount added in normal fertilization and presents no problems when added to field soils. The pH of the Yalesville soil (5.5) increased tc 6.1 when 3 inches of leaf -mold were added and rototilled to a depth of 6 inches. Only 30 lbs/ 1000 ft— ground limestone were needed on the 3-inch leaf-mold plot whereas 70 lbs/ 1000 ft 2 were needed on the control plot to raise the pH to the optimum level (6.5). Table 4. Vegetable Yields-Day-Waverly Gardens-1976. Improvement of moisture holding capacity Plot Leaf-mold Topsoil Papei • mulch %of Control %of %of % of lbs Control lbs Control lbs Control lbs Control Snap beans 3.0 81 5.4 146 3.2 86 3.7 100 Yellow squash 5.4 47 28.3 248 6.9 60 11.4 100 Lettuce 6.1 130 3.9 83 1.6 34 4.7 100 Beets (wo/tops) 4.5 72 4.2 68 3.7 60 6.2 100 Carrots (wo/tops) 7.2 122 5.7 97 4.1 69 5.9 100 Peppers 5.0 238 3.0 143 2.8 133 2.1 100 Onions 1.5 250 1.2 200 0.4 67 0.6 100 Tomatoes 40.3 143 27.2 96 285 101 28.2 100 Eggplant 13.8 134 9.4 91 5.8 56 10.3 100 Butternut squash 3.8 58 1.9 29 8.0 123 6.5 100 •Broccoli and cabbage also grown but rows were incomplete for comparison. Leaf-mold for Soil Improvement in Home Gardens Leaf-mold applied to mortar-laden sandy fill in the Day- Waverly Gardens produced no changes in pH because both materials were about neutral (7.0). Yields of vegetables The yields of vegetables grown at the Day-Waverly Gardens in 1976 are reported in Table 4. The leaf-mold plot produc- ed consistently higher yields. The harvest of peppers and onions was 240-250% of the yield on the control plot. Yields of lettuce, carrots, tomatoes, and eggplant were about 120 to 145% of the yields on the untreated plot. The yields of snap beans, yellow and butternut squash, and beets were less than the yields on the control plot. These lower yields were mostly due to poor germination in the wetter, cooler soil of early spring as previously described. The yields of most vegetables on the topsoil plot were intermediate between yields on the leaf-mold and control plots. Only the yields of snap beans and yellow squash ex- ceeded yields on the leaf-mold plot. The yields of vegetables on the paper mulch plot were generally a fraction of the yields on the control plot. Only the yields of peppers and butternut squash exceeded the yields of the control plot. This plot had the coarsest texture and the greatest volume of stones of all plots. While the paper mulch undoubtedly helped to conserve water, the amount of water still fell short of the requirements for satisfactory growth of vegetables. The yields of vegetables grown in the fertilizer experi- ments in the Day-Waverly Gardens in 1977 are reported in Table 5. We report the data only from the three plots re- ceiving 3 inches of fresh leaf-mold in 1977. Although vegetables were grown on the original leaf-mold plot of 1976, it was used as a buffer because it was located next to a walkway. We have averaged the yields in the plots receiv- ing two and three applications of fertilizer and compared them with the control plot receiving one application. Late maturing beets, carrots and peppers benefited from supple- mental fertilization. Broccoli benefited from supplemental fertilization because shoot growth was picked throughout the growing season. Cucumbers planted as a second crop following lettuce responded best to supplemental fertiliza- tion. The remaining crops, mostly early maturing ones, did not benefit from additional applications of fertilizer. Snap beans, yellow squash and lettuce were nearing maturity or Table 5. Vegetable Yields— Day-Waverly Gardens— 1977. Fertilizer experiments. Average of Control 2 and 3 Applications 1 Application (1.3 lbs and 1.8 X) % of Control (X) lbs % of Control Snap beans 5.4 86 6.3 100 Yellow squash 12.1 107 11.3 100 Lettuce 9.8 96 10.2 100 Beets (w/tops) 5.6 143 3.9 100 Carrots (w/tops) 5.1 121 4.2 100 Peppers 6.8 121 5.6 100 Onions 1.1 58 1.9 100 Tomatoes 21.8 67* 32.3 100 Eggplant 14.7 102 14.4 100 Broccoli 2.8 127 2.2 100 Cucumbers 6.9 255 2.7 100 'Severe damage by blossom-end-rot. harvested before the third application. Benefits from the third application in July were generally negligible. The total yields of all crops at the Day-Waverly Gardens were about 10% less in 1977 than in 1976. Most of this loss can be attributed to loss of yellow squash, which was severely injured by an early invasion of squash vine borers. Tomato yields were also down 25% due to blossom-end-rot. The increased moisture holding capacity of leaf-mold failed to fully protect our plots against moisture stress. However, we observed far greater losses on garden plots without leaf- mold. Decreased yields of yellow squash and tomatoes were off- set by increased yields of snap beans (45%) and lettuce (150%). Lettuce yields were superb because transplanted seedlings were used instead of seeds. The plants matured more rapidly and took advantage of cool, moist weather in early spring. The 1977 lettuce crop matured in mid- to late- June while the 1976 crop, which was started from seed, had smaller heads as summer dryness set in. The yields of vegetables grown at Lockwood Farm are reported in Table 6. The highest yields of yellow squash, lettuce, beets, carrots, tomatoes, eggplant, and swiss chard occurred on the 1-inch leaf-mold plot. Total yield of all vegetables was 11% greater on the 1-inch leaf-mold plot than on the control plot. Duncan's Multiple Range Test showed that these increased yields were statistically signifi- cant. Yields of broccoli, cabbage, and butternut squash were greatest on the 3-inch leaf-mold plot. No vegetables had the highest yields on the 2-inch leaf-mold plot. How- ever, yields of lettuce, eggplant, broccoli, swiss chard, and butternut squash were higher than on the control plot. Total yield on the 2-inch plot matched the total yield on the control plot. Yields of peppers on all leaf-mold amend- ed plots were low. The prolific yellow squash crowded the peppers and successfully competed for water, nutrients and light. It appears that 1 inch of leaf-mold helped produce con- sistently high yields for most vegetables. Since 1 inch of leaf-mold did not increase the moisture holding capacity of the Yalesville soil, its benefit is probably derived from im- proved friability. The Yalesville soil crusts following rains and reduces infiltration. Addition of leaf-mold undoubted- ly reduces this tendency to crust. Yearly decomposition rates and maintenance of leaf-mold Leaf-mold worked into the soil continues to degrade due to the action of bacteria and fungi. Because the amount of leaf-mold in the soil decreases during the growing season, it is important to know how much is left for next year's crop. At the Day-Waverly Gardens 3 inches of leaf-mold added to the sandy builders' fill in 1976 increased the organic matter from 5 to 16%. In 1977 the organic content of the leaf- mold plot decreased to 1 1%. To maintain an organic content of about 15% in this sandy soil, it appears that annual addi- tion of slightly more than 1 inch of leaf-mold is needed. Addition of 3 inches of leaf-mold to the finer textured Yalesville soil increased its organic content from 5 to 10%. At the end of the growing season, the organic content had Connecticut Experiment Station — Bulletin 774 Table 6. Vegetable Yields- Lockwood Farm-1977. Leaf-mold application rates. Leaf-m old plot Control 3- inches 2-inches 1 •inch %of %of %of %of . Ibs Control lbs Control lbs Control lbs Control Snap beans 15.1 85 13.4 75 15.2 85 17.8 100 Yellow squash 117.0 110 107.1 101 117.1 110 106.1 100 Lettuce 12.7 95 14.8 110 15.0 112 13.4 100 Beets (w/tops) 7.8 58 13.5 101 16.0 119 13.4 100 Carrots (w/tops) 14.0 93 13.4 89 21.6 143 15.1 100 Peppers 1.2 32 1.9 50 2.3 60 3.8 100 Onions 4.0 89 3.7 82 4.8 107 4.5 100 Tomatoes 71.9 94 75.4 99 82.9 108 76.5 100 Eggplant 10.8 127 9.0 106 12.1 142 8.5 100 Broccoli 12.3 126 11.4 116 9.3 95 9.8 100 Cabbage 20.0 116 14.4 84 15.7 91 17.2 100 Swiss Chard 7.9 87 11.8 130 12.3 135 9.1 100 Butternut squash 21.9 296 10.4 140 13.1 177 7.4 100 •Corn, cucumbers also grown but suffered extensive raccoon damage. Weights of 2 radish crops were not recorded. Most of the fall cauliflower crop did not mature to permit comparison between plots. decreased about 1%. Annual addition of three-fifths of an inch of leaf-mold would be required to maintain the organic matter level at 10%. However, approximately one-third inch could be added each year or 1 inch every 3 years because the greatest crop yields were realized at an organic content of 7%. DISCUSSION Planning for maximum yield Successful gardening does not come easy. Planning, plant- ing, and perspiration are required. The garden plots at Lockwood Farm were planned for maximum yields. Spac- ing between rows was narrowed from recommended spacing (Conn. Ext. Serv. 1968). The spacing between yellow squash rows was narrowed from 36 to 24 inches. Bean rows were reduced from 24 to 12 inches apart. Beets, carrots, onions, and lettuce rows were set 12 inches apart, the nar- rower spacing of the recommended range. The narrow spac- ing allowed a greater variety of vegetables to be grown in the 30 x 40-foot garden. Crowding of some vegetables led to difficulties in hoeing weeds and harvesting. Despite crowding, yields were probably greater than average for Connecticut gardens. One useful space saver is planting but- ternut squash within rows of tomatoes. Since tomato plants were staked upright, there was sufficient room for the squash vines to run. The greatest competition for space was provided by yellow squash vines. Their yields were out- standing (Table 6) but the pepper plants in the adjacent row were stunted and their yield reduced. Planting tall crops behind shorter ones prevented shading in die after- noon and provided ample sunlight. Only cucumbers grown on a chickenwire fence at the rear of the plots were shaded by corn. Once the corn was harvested and the plants remov- ed, the cucumbers grew rapidly. Gardens that are partially shaded by trees will produce tall, thin plants with generally reduced yields. Planning for second crops is also worthwhile for maxi- mum yield as well as staggered planting of crops to prolong harvest of a smgle crop. Bean and corn rows were planted 2 weeks apart in May and a late bean row followed an earlier one. However, yields of beans diminished with successive plantings. Our corn rows were replaced by late varieties of cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower. Only the cauliflower failed to mature. Broccoli was picked to December 2nd. Because optimum moisture produces maximum yields, supplemental irrigation is necessary during the summer months.. Droughty soils can be made to hold more water by amending with leaf-mold. Fertility needs to be checked periodically so that deficiencies do not occur. However, delayed ripening of tomatoes may occur if nitrogen levels are too high in mid-summer. Competing weeds should be removed by cutting with a hoe or by hand pulling within rows. Most plant pests can be controlled as they appear. Economic value of a garden plot To estimate the economic value of vegetables produced on the garden plots we recorded the price of vegetables each week at a local market and determined the value of vege- tables on the day of harvest. In 1976 the Day-Waverly plots produced 450 lbs of vege- tables per 1000 ft2, with an economic value of $213. The greatest return was from tomatoes and yellow squash which accounted for nearly half of the value. Eggplant was also a high value producer. Maishe Dickman, garden coordinator of the Greater New Haven Arts Council, also maintained a record of his yields in 1976. The economic value of his crops per 1000 ft2 was $218. Although he did not use leaf-mold, he gave his plants considerably more water. In 1977, the total yield at the Day-Waverly Gardens plots was 410 lbs, a decrease of about 10% from the previous year. The value of the 1977 crops was $193 per 1000 ft2. Most of the yield decrease was at the expense of the tomato crop which suffered a 25% loss due to blossom-end-rot. Agricultural Statistics (1976) indicates that the annual per capita con- sumption of fresh vegetables is 143.2 lbs. Thus, we con- clude that with proper care, 1000 ft 2 in the Day-Waverly Gardens can provide fresh vegetables for about 3 persons. The plots at the Lockwood Farm yielded at the rate of 1 120 lbs of vegetables per 1000 ft2 with an economic value Leaf-mold for Soil Improvement in Home Gardens I The Day-Waverly Gardens in Downtown New Haven. Corn at the left yielded 150 ears on a small plot, without the benefit of leaf-mold. Corn was not grown in the ex- perimental plots because of the space needed for proper growth. At the right are col- lard greens and cabbages in a plot of one of the community gardeners. of $445. This represents a 2.5-fold increase in both lbs of vegetables and economic value over the Day-Waverly Gar- dens. Once again the greatest return was from the yellow squash and tomato crop, which accounted for about half of the cash value. Two crops of broccoli and corn and 3 crops of snap beans were also of economic significance. The Lockwood Farm plots produced enough vegetables to sup- ply 9.5 persons, a 3-fold increase over the Day-Waverly Gardens. CONCLUSIONS From our experiments using leaf-mold as an organic amendment to garden soils we conclude the following: •Leaf-mold added to sandy soil significantly im- proves the moisture holding capacity and adds a 3- to 4-day moisture supply to growing plants. • It adds cohesiveness to a very sandy soil, improves the structure of a fine textured soil, and reduces surface compaction following rains which allows greater infiltration. • Leaf-mold produced by high temperature decom- position has a neutral pH. It can help reduce the lime requirement for an acid soil. •Three inches of leaf-mold added to soils of sand and loamy sand texture significantly improves vegetable yields. One inch of leaf-mold will suf- fice where textures are fine sandy loams or loams. •Repeated applications of 1 inch leaf-mold each year can maintain suitable levels of organic mat- ter in very sandy soils. One inch of leaf-mold can be added to fine textured soils about every third year. • Leaf -mold has a low fertilizer value, but nutrient deficiencies often can occur as leaf degrading organisms compete with growing plants for nu- trients. About 25% more fertilizer is beneficial when added late in June after the first flush of growth. • Additions of leaf-mold may cause poor germina- tion of seed in early spring, especially for large seeds planted deeply. A delay of planting by a week or two improves germination. •With optimum fertilization and water, vegetables grown on a very sandy soil amended with leaf- mold can feed about 3 persons per 1000 ft^. On a finer textured soil vegetable yields can feed 9 persons, a 3-fold increase. References Downs, D.B., Jacobson, H.G.M.and Waggoner, P.E. 1962. Rotations, organic matter, and vegetables. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ.220, 16p. Havens, A.V. and McGuire, J.K. 1961. Climate of the Northeast: Spring and fall low-temperature probabilities. New Jersey Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 801, 31 p. Lunt, H.A., Jacobson, H.G.M. and Swanson, C.L.W. 1950. The Mor- gan soil testing system. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 541 , 60 p. Sawhney, B.L. 1976. Leaf compost for container-grown plants. HortScience 11:34-35. Trask, Owen S. 1968. Growing vegetables— 4 H members guide. Conn. Extension Service, Univ. of Conn., Storrs, 7p. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Statistics— 1976. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 61 3p. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Mr. Maishe Dickman, coordinator for the Day-Waverly Gardens, deserves special recognition for his enthusiastic leadership on behalf of the Greater New Haven Arts Coun- cil. We are indebted to him for bringing this project to our attention and for his constant help throughout the study. I also wish to express my appreciation to Mary Alice Illig and Thomas Rathier for their capable technical assistance. Connecticut Experiment Station Bulletin 774 Itoo' — — i z? — zt~~ 0 N I 0 N S L CABBAGE TOMATOE S^ BUTTE RNUT SQUASH TOMATOES SUMMER SQUASH, PEPPERS EGGPLANT] SNAP BEANS v • • ./ . SNAP BEANS -«»- ;&r- CA R RO BEETS LETTUCE 8' 24' 24' 2 4' 24' 8' 8' Appendix A. Planting Diagram for Day-Waverly Gardens. The number of cabbages, tomatoes, peppers, lettuce, and eggplants are as shown, as are the number of hills of yellow and butternut squash (4 plants per hill). Onions, snap beans, and beets were thinned to 3-inch spacing; carrots were thinned to 2-inch spacing. Planting was identical for each of 4 plots.