- gle» +2 " —— Oe We of bic os Uiege of Lipsictand Se x, Sige Vhysi NLL fs S toy yeh Haspelal. ke A, Berra Ue George tedlaater LE LAD: ERS 4 THE. PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE: COMPREHENDING THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, AND - , COMMERCE. BY ALEXANDER TILLOCH, | HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, &c. &c. &c. «* Nec aranearum fane textus ideo melior, quia ex fe fila gignunt. Nec noftee | vilior quia ex alienis libamus ut apes.” Just. Lies, Monit. Polit. \ib. i, cap. £2 VOL. XV. LONDON: Paintep ror ALexAnper TILtocn; And Sold by Meffrs. Ricuarvson, Cornhill; Capetx and Davies, Strand; Lonemawn and Ress, Pater-nofter Row; Desrerr, ‘Piccadilly; Mur xay, No. 32, Fleet-ftreet ; Symonps, Pater-nofter Row; Bett, No, 148, Oxford-ftreet; Vernon and Hoop, Poultry; Hakpinc, No, 36, St. James’s-ftreet; Bree and BrapFurk, Edinburgh; Brasu and Rerp, Glafgow; and W. Gitsext, Dublin. ?, 1803. T Wilks and Taylr, Printers, Chancery-Lane.] y "y Xph a 2 Ae : toot at s- a ah die ae mee he pw bined 7 ago et tote anak 5 alee 9 srt Xt BF vedio eis er ban Peat, 3 Het yells i are tex geet BHD ght eM yra 4 « to ipory- wre 8 Gs is Qed << 4a anges rit 40h git 3 wll *Yeht on “oogeee Pos, typ yi Sa! at te E igee te's eRe “ é pupae Dp foganel tRgre Mpa. Sioa | tek Aa + DF hak *. x - CONTENTS OF THE FIFTEENTH VOLUME. 1. ON Indian Dogs. By Dr. Banton, of Philadelphia Paget II. An Account of a new Method of fupplying Dis belle with frefh Air. By RopertT Hearty, A.B. 9 TIl. On Painting. By Mr. E. Daves, Painter 12 IV. Experiments on the Colouring and Mordant Property of the Oxide of Molybdena. » By M. D. JAEGER 15 V. Remarks on the prefent State of Aéroflation. By Mr, G. J. WricHT _ - a - Ig. VI. A Sketch of the Geography of Cochin Chinas-fome Par~ ticulars relative to the..Manners,.Cuftoms,’ and: Hilary of the Inhabitants ; anda few Con hderations on the Import- + ance of forming an-Efablifyment.in that Country SRLS VII. Report prefented to the Clafs of the Exaét Scichecsof* the Academy of Turin, 15th Auguft 1802, in regard to- the Galvanic Experiments made by C. VASSALI-EANDI, * Giviio, and Rossi, on the 10th and 14th; of .the Jame Month, on the Head and Trunk of three Men a fbort Time after their Decapitation. By C. Gtutio © * +38. VIII. A Review of fome Experiments which have been ups > pofed to difprove the Materiality of Heat. By WitL1amM HENRY * ", sey Ieee? + See, oS, as. IX. Report made -to the Philofophical and: Mathematical Clafs of the French National Inflitute in the Sitting of Au-. guft 18, entitled A Tour to Upper: Egypt above the Cata- raéts of Sienne, with Obfervations on the. different Kinds | of Senna ufed in Commerce. By C. DEssEsSsartTz and * VENTENAT y= - y ' Ct X. Biographical Accountof MartHew, Boutton, E/g. 59. XI. On the Effects of Elder in preferving Plants from Infeéts and Flies.» By M. CuristTorHE GULLET - 463 XII. Reply to a Charge of Plagiarifm, brought by Mr, Henry Crarke againfi W. Dickson, LL.D. Com- municated in a Letter from the latter to Mr. TiLtocu 65 XIII. A general View of the Coal Mines worked in France, of their different Produéts, and the’ Means of circulating them. By C..LereByvre, Member of the Council of Mines, of the Philomatic Society, Ge. Se. - ° Vou. XV. No. 60, a XIV. bn CONTENTS. XIV. On Canals. By Tuomas TELFoRD, E/y. Page 77 XV. Proceedings of Learned Societies _— = - 80 — XVI. Intelligence and Mifcellaneous Articles - 89 XVI. Defcription of Mr. Pupys’s large Galvanic Ap- paratus - - it a 94 XVIII. dn Effay on the Method of determining. the Difference uf Longitude between Places at Land, from the obferved Tranfits of the Moon over their Meridians; with a De- monftration and Example. By Mr. Gavin Lowz 97 XIX. On the Preparation of the Hyacinthus non fcriptus, or common Blue-Bell, as a Subftitute for Gum-Arabic. By ~Mr. THomas Wit ts, of Lime-Street, London 103 XX. On the Edulcoration of Fi/b-Oil.’ By Ropert Dos- SIE, E/g. - - a ans XXI. On Painting. By Mr. E. Daves, Painter 115 XXII. Memoir on the comparative Anatomy of the Eleétric Organs of the Torpedo, the Gymnotus eleétricus and Si- lurus electricus. By E. Grorrroy _ 126 XXILL. On Indian Dogs. By Dr. Barton, of elegans XXIV. A fhort Account of the Improvement in Circular Ar- chite€iure made by Colonel TATHAM - 143 XXV. On the Freezing Point of Tin, and the Boiling Point of Mercury; wiih a Defcription of a Self-regifiering Ther- mometer invented by Mr. JAMES CricuTonN, of Glaf- gow - - - = 147 XXVI. Memoir on the Chemical Nature of Ants, and the Jimultaneous Exiflence of two Vegetable Acids in thefe In- jets. By A. F, Fourcroy - - 148 AXVIT. On the Property which the Acetic Acid poffeffes of diffolving Campbor and various effential Oils 156 XXVILE. A general View of the Coal Mines worked in France, of their different Produéis, and the Means of circu- lating them. By C. Lerepvre, Member of the Council of Mines, of the Philomatic Society, &&c. €8c. 158 XXIX. Sketch of the General Hiflory of Mining 104 XXX. On the Converfion of Gra/s Land into Tillage, &e. 167 XXXI. Hiflory of Aflronomy for the Year 1802. Read in the _ Atheneum of Paris, Dec. 30, /y JEROME LALANDE 173 XXXII. Notices refpecting New Books = 180 XXXII. Proceedings of Learned Societies - 181 XXXIV. Intelligence and Mijcellaneous Ay ticles 190 XXA&V~ Letter from Dr: BARTON to Profeffir ZIMMER- MANN, on the fafcinating Faculty which bas been afcribed to the Rattle{nake, and other American Serpents 193 VIX XXXVI. Od- CONTENTS. XXXVI. Ob/fervations on the different Theories of Philofopbers to eplain the Phenomena of Combuftion. By CHarves Porta, E/q. - = Page 202 XXXVII. Hiftory of Aftronomy for the Year 1802. Read in the Atheneum of Paris December 30, by JEROME La- LANDE “ - - 209 XXXVIII. On the Difappearance of Saturn’s Ring in the - Year 1803. By Profeffor J. E. BopE - 219 XXXIX. On the Difappearance of the.Ring of Saturn. By Vaw Beecx Carkoen, Profeffor of Ajironomy at Ley- _ den = = - 22% XL. Memoir on the Foffil Caout-Chouc, or Elaftic Bitumen of Derbyfbire. By Fausas-Saint-Fonb 225 XLI. 4 general View of the Coal Mines worked in France, of their different Produéts, and the Means of circulating them. By C. LereBvre, Member of the Council of _. Mines, of the Philomatic Society, Se. Ge. = 232 ~ XLIT. On a new Kind of Painting with the Serum or watery Part of the Blood.. By F. CARBONEL, M.D. of Barcelona - - - 240 XLIII. Ox the Kind of Air-Furnaces employed in Iron Foun- dries for cafling large Pieces of Ordnance, Shafts for Mills, ~ Cylinders, and other heavy Articles. By Mr, Davip Musuet, of the Calder Iron Works - 245 XLIV. Odjervations on the Freezing of Water and the Na- ture of Snow: in a Letter from Profeffor DRiEssEN to Dr. Van Maru - - 249 XLV. Obfervations on the Lotus of Egypt. By Autre - RaFrFENAU-DELILE, Mémber of the Injlitute of Egypt 2 XLVI. Memoir on fome Peculiarities in the Anatomy ba Phyfiology of the Shark, particularly refpedting the Pro- duéiton of its Young. By Dr. Mircuitt, of New York 264 XLVII..On the Management and. Improvement, by Tillage, of old Grafs Lands on a direét Clay, fuch as is found in the Wilds of Surrey and Suffex - 268 XLVIII.. Some Account of GEorGE Prarson, M. D. F.R.S. &c.8c. with a Portrait from an original Painting . 274 XLIX. Notices refpeéting New Books - 279 L. Proceedings of Learned Societies — : a3sr LI. Intelligence and Mijfcellaneous Articles - 283 LIL. Letter from Dr. Orzers of Bremen to Baron Von Zacu, on the Stones which have fallen from the Hea- vens i. a at 289 LIT. On CON T.EN TS. N LIMIT. On the Nervous Power, and its Mode of a&ting “a _ Page 29 LIV. Letter from Dr. BARTON fo Profeffor Zim vn eee on the fafcinating Faculty which has been i to the Rattle{nake, and other American Serpents 294 LV. A Survey and Report of the Coafls and Central High- lands of Scotland; made by the Command of the Right Honourable the Lords Commi iffioners of his Majefty’s Trea= Jury in the Autumn of 1802. By THomas TELFORD, Civil Engineer, Edinburgh, F.R.S. 300 LVI. On Winds. By RicHarp Kirwan, Ey. LL.D. PRS. aad 2 Bef. A: 311 LVII. Report prefented to the Clafs if the Brad Sciences’ of, the Academy of Turin, January 12, 1803, on the A€tion of Galvanifm, and the Application of this Fluid and of Elec= » tricity to’ Medicine. By A. M. Vassavt-EanDI 319. LVIEI. Account of fome Remains of a Species of gigantic Oxen found in America and other Parts of the World. By Mr. RemMBRANDT PEALE 325 LIX. Defcription of the Nymphea Ceerulea. By JULIUS. Czzsar SAVIGNY, of the Inflitute of Egypt Si te LX. On Mr. GREATHEAD’S Life-Boat 331 LXI. A general View of the Coal Mines eather’ in France, of their different Produéts, and the Means of circulating them. By C. Leresvre, Member of the Council of Mines, aft the Philomatic Society, €§c: ce. | “= — 338 LXII. Memoir on the. Stones Jaid to have fallen from the Heavens. Read: in the French’ National ene by- C. VauauELin 946.” LXIII. Conjeéiures on the Shanes which ie fallen from the Atmofphere. By Eusepius SALVERTE 254 LXIV. Odfervations on the Decompofition of the “Aealiee oft Lead, by Zinc in the metallic State. Read in the Society of Pharmacy by L. ANTHONY PLANCHE - 359 LXV. Proceedings of Learned Societies . 365 LXYVI. Intelligence and Mijfcellaneous Articles - 372 THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE. I. On Indian Dogs. By Dr. BARTON, of Philadelphiat. it would require much obfervation, many experiments, and a great deal of time, to collect all the neceflary materials for an exact hiftory of the native dogs of North America. [am by no means prepared for the ample tafk. My object, in the prefent article, 1s much more limited+to bring together a number of fcattered facts relative to the origin and manners of the different kinds of dogs which were found among the Indians when the Europeans firft took poffeffion of the coun- _ tries. of North America. In the inyeftigation of this inquiry IT cannot pretend to be very methodical: nor do I expect to -avoid errors. I aim, however, at correcting fome of the er- rors of preceding writers. It has been afferted, by many hiftorians and naturalifts, that there were no dogs in America prior to the difcovery of this portion of the world by the Europeans ¢.. Mr. Pennant, one of thefe naturalifts, remarks: ‘* As it is certain that the dog of North America, or rather its fubftitute,, on its firft difcovery by the Englith, was derived from, the wolf tamed and dometticated, fo it is reafonable to imagine that of South America had the fame origin.’ Ido not think it fuffi- ciently afcertained that there were not originally in America any {pecies of dog of the fame ftock as thofe of the old world. It has not yet been proved, that the dog of Newfoundland, of which I am afterwards to make more particular mention, was unknown in that ifland before its difcovery by the Eu- ropeans. But admitting that the Newfoundland fpecies or variety originated from an admixture of the European dog with the wolf, or fome other native animal of the country, it will fill appear fomewhat probable, that the Indian dogs in many other parts of America were not /pecifically different * Communicated by the Author. + Acofta, Gomara, Herrera, Joannes Fabri, Buffon, Pennant, &c. &c. _t Hiftory of Quadrupeds, vol. i. p. 237. Vou. XV. No. 57. B from Fe! ruary 1803. 2 On Indian Dogs. from thofe of the old world. \This queftion. is well worthy of the attention of the naturalift, and 1s even entitled to the Notice of the civil hiftorian of the new world. Techicbi, or Aleo. In Mexico and jn South America there was a fmall fpecies of dog, which the Mexicans called tachichi, and the Peruvians allco, or alco, This is particularly mentioned by the jefuit Jofeph Acofta *, and other of the earlier vifitors of America. The alco had a melancholy afpeét, and was perfectly mute, erdumb. Hernandez fpeaks of it as being fimilar in nature and manners to the common dogs of Europe, and not very different in form +. It is remarkable that Linnzus has taken no notice of this fpecies, though he fo frequently refers to the work of Hernandez. Mr. de Buffon has confounded it with the itacuintepotzotli, or next {pecies, from which, how- ever, it appears to have been diftin&tt. Gmelin, who has fallen into a fimilar miftake (though the words of Hernandez are fufficiently plain), confiders the alco as a variety of the canis familiaris, or faithful dog. He calls it canis fami- liaris, Americanus. Although [ have little doubt that the alco was a true canis §, I think it is too flightly mentioned or defcribed to enable us to determine, with as much cer- tainty as the naturalift could with, whether it was merely a variety of the common dog, or an entirely diftinét fpecies. It is to be regretted, indeed, that the naturalifts who vifited America in the fixteenth century, whilft the alco was ftill a common animal, have left us fo much in the dark concern- ing its origin and nature. Owing to their negligence, we are, at this diftance of time, only permitted to fay, with fome degree of probability, what it was not. I do not, with Mr. Pennant, think it probable that it was derived from the wolf. Its entire mutenefs is, I think, greatly oppofed to this idea); * The Natural! and, Morall Hiftorie of the Eaft and Weft Indies, &c. p- 301, 302. Englifh tranflation. London 1604. ~ Hiftorie Animalium et Mineralium Novz Hifpanie Liber Unicus, &c. p. 6, 7. + Hiftoire Naturelle, &c. tom. xxx. p. 200, &c. §ulndependent of the teftimony of Hernandez, there would feem to be very little doubt that the a/co was a true f{pecics of canis, and, indeed, very fimilar to fome of our {mall houfe-dogs. The Spaniards, according to Clavigeto, gave it the name of ferro, which fignifies a dog; and Acofta obferves, that the Indians called all the dogs which were brought from Spain alco, from the refemblance between them and their native animal, It is probable-that the Indians in fome parts of South America had after- wards (perhaps when the alco became cither very rare, or extinét) adopted the Spanith word pero for dog, ‘The Jaioi, in Guiana, ufed this word at leaft as early a5 1633. De Laet’s Novus Orbis, p. 643. as On Indian Dogs. 3 as is alfo, perhaps, its complete domeftication. If it were immediately derived from the wolf, we ought, at leaft, to allow the Americans fome fhare of merit for the fuccefsful pains they had taken to reclaim this animal from the wild ferocity of his nature. This fpecies or variety of dog appears to have been pretty extenfively diffufed through the fouthern parts of the conti- nent of America, and certainly exifted in fome of the iflands “when they were firft difcovered by Columbus, Peter Martyr, and after him other hiftorians, mention the difcovery of mute little dogs in the ifland of Juanna in the year 1492. Martyr fays they were deformed in fhape, and that the favages ate of them as the Europeans did of goats*. I cannot find that this fpecies was difcovered among any of the Indian tribes inhabiting the tra& of country now called the United States- _ Tt is not certain, indeed, that the dogs which Soto found in Florida were not of the alco kind: I think it highly proba- ble, however, that they were not, but that they were much more allied to the wolf and fox, like the modern Creek dogs, which I am afterwards to mention. It would appear from Clavigero, that the alco is now en-- tirely extin@. <“ After the conqueft of Mexico,”’ fays this author, ‘* the Spaniards, having neither large cattle nor fheep, provided their markets with this quadruped ; by which means the {pecies was foon extinét, although it had been very nu- merous f.” Itzcuintepotzoth. The itzcuintepotzotli was the Mexican name for another fpecies or variety of dog, which is figured and defcribed by Fabrit and by Clavigero, whofe figure is borrowed from that of the Italian naturalift. If the figure be an accurate one, the animal muft have been of a very deformed afpect; and as fuch, indeed, it is’ defcribed. It was about the fize of a Maltéfan dog, or rather larger. The head was very {mall, the ears pendulous, and the eyes foft and pleafing. The nofe had a confiderable prominence in the middle, and its tail was very fmall. But the moft firiking feature ot the animal was a protuberance upon its back, not unlike that upon the Ara- bian camel. The fkin was varied with white, tawny, and black. This fpecies particularly abounded in the kingdom of Mi- * The Decades of the Newe Worlde or Weft India, &c. The firft de- cade, p. 15. Engiith tranflation. Londo 1555. 4t0o. + Vhe Hiftory of Mexico, vol. i- p. go. { Kerum Medicarum Nove Hifpania Thefaurus, arc. p. 466, &c. B 2 chuacan, 4 On Indian' Dogs. chuacan, the moft wefterly part of the old empire of Ana- huac. The natives of Michuacan called it abora, or abora. It is faid, by Clavigero, to be almoft wholly extin& *. The stzcuintepotzotl: bears no refemblance whatever to the wolf, from, which it 1s not probable that it was derived. It has much more the afpeét of fome of the domefticated dogs; and Hernandez informs us, that it refembled them in nature and‘in manners. That it was a fpecies of canis is very pro- bable; but that it was a mere variety of the common dog is much more uncertain. Trather fufpeét it was not. Weare not, indeed, permitted to decide this matter with certainty, One effential difference between the two animals we are able to collect: the Mexican dog is faid to have fix teats, whereas the common dog has ten. Buffon, Pennant, and Gmelin, have confounded this ani- inal with the a/co. Hernandez, however, plainly fpeaks of them as two difiinét animals+; as does alfo the abbé Cla- vigero ft. Itis probable, however, that they were confidera- bly allied to each other. ’ Fither this {pecies or the techichi, perhaps both, were brought to the market of the city of Mexico, along with deer, rabbits, and many other animals, before the conqueft of the Spaniards. Gage fays thefe animals were fold either “© by quarters or whole.”” It would appear from the fame writer, that thele dogs were fometimes caftrated for food §. Thefe fimple facts are calculated, with many others, to fhow that the Mexicans, at the time they were difcovered, had actually advanced, in many refpects, towards the attainment of that police, thofe arts and practices, which are never ob- ferved among people in the favage forms of fociety.. Another century, but for the difcovery of Columbus, would have con- ducted thefe unfortunate Americans much nearer to the con- dition of their conquerors ; but it is to be feared that many centuries would have been requifite to have weaned them frora their hideous religion, which was the foundation of their favage practices and manners. The hiftory of mankind ex- hibits abundant proofs of this pofition, that-the arts which they practife, and the police which they obferve, are no cer- tain evidences of a truly civilized ftate. A mild religion ap- pears to be abfolutely neceflary to the ‘attainment and the prefervation of this happy flate of man. * The Hiftory of Mexico, vol. i. p. 44. + Hiftoria Animalium, &ce Liber Unicus, P- 7- } The Hiftory of Mexico, vol. ii. p- 382 and p. 323. § A New Survey, &c. p. 141. Walf On Indian Dogs. iG Wolf Dogs. We know not whether the fechichz and the :tzcuintepotxotl: were found in any of the countries confiderably to the north of Mexico. We are well affured, however, that different kinds of dogs were very common in many of the countries of North America, when this continent was. firft difcovered by the Europeans, in the 16th and 17th centuries. [am even inclined to think that North America was much better fupplied with dogs (I mean thefe animals in the domefticated ftate) than South America and Mexico. There feems to be little doubt that in the northern countries there was a greater yariety than in the fouthern countries. Florida abounded in thefe animals. When Fernando de Soto marched his army through that country, in the year 1540, the Indians fupplied him with great numbers of dogs. On one océafion, an Indian cacique fent the Spanifh general no lefs than three hundred dogs*. ‘Thefe were eaten by the Spaniards, who deemed them not inferior to the beft of fheep+. But we are informed that the Indians did not eat themt. It would feem that the Spaniards did not always ftand upon the cere- mony of waiting to have the dogs prefented to them. The Portuguefe author of Elvas, who accompanied Soto and his fucceffor in their mad ramble, informs us, that, during the time the army laboured under a fcarcity of meat, ‘ he who could catch a dog in any village thought himfelf a very happy man ; for fometimes (he obferves) we found thirty in a places but the foldier that killed one, and fent not a quarter to his : captain, fuffered for it, paying dear for his incivilities when he was to go fentinel, or upon any guard of fatigue §.”’ Weare not told what kind of dog it was that the Spaniards * This was the cacique of Quaxule, which, if we can depend upon the old maps of Florida, was in the country of the Chikkafah Indians. A Relation of the Invafion and Conqueft of Florida, &c. &c. p. 71. + See A Relation, &c. p. 55. + A Relation, &c¢. p. 71. I do not think it certain that the Indians did not eat their dogs. The prefent which Soto received at Ocute, in the country of the Creek Indians, rather favours the opinion that they did. The cacique fent the Spanifh general * two thoufand Indians, with a pre- fent of rabbets, partridges, maes-bread, two pullets, anda great many dogs.” A Relation, &c. p. 55. If the Indians did not eat their dogs, why did they fuppofe the Spaniards were fond of them? It is true, there was a great {carcity of micat and falt at Ocute, and the Indians may have ‘fuppofed that any kind of food would be acceptable to an army of hungry men, Befides, it is probable they had many opportunities of fecing the Spaniards employed in ftealing their dogs. § A Relation, &c. p. 56. B3 found 6 On Indian Dees. found among thefe Indians. There do not appear to be good grounds to fufpect that they were of the alco or itzcuintepotz- otii kinds. It is certain that neither of thefe animals is now known among any of the Floridian Indians; and it does not feem likely that the breeds which thefe Indians at prefent poffefs have been reclaimed from the wild ftate fince the time of Soto’s ** mad adventures.” _ The dogs which are now in ufe among the Creeks, Chik- kafah, and other fouthern tribes, are of different kinds. As far as I have been able to colle& information concerning them, they, in general, bear a very ftrong family refemblance to the wolf. One kind is very fimilar to the canis lycaon, or black wolf, of which I have already made mention. It is not, however, always black, but of different colours, com- monly of a bay colour, and about one-third lefs than the wild black wolf. It carries its ears almoft erect, and has the fame wild and fly look that the wolf has *. The other kind of dog is fmaller than the one juft men- tioned, and is more like.the common red fox. Both kinds bark, but not fo much as the common dogs; and their bark is different from that of our dogs, being more nearly allied to the howl of the wolf +. I am unable to fay, with certainty, whether thefe fouthern’ _ dogs differ very effentially from thofe aniong the northern In- dians. Irather fuppofe they do not. I know, at leaft, that among the latter, as well as among the former, there are two {pecies or varieties; one which has generally been confidered as the wolf merely altered by the domefticated ftate, and the other more allied to the fox. But as my information con- cerning the northern dog is more correét and particular than it is concerning the fouthern, I-wifh to be underftood as ipeaking principally of the former, in the following defcrip- tion of the Indian dogs. The Indian dog (I mean that which is moft allied to the wolf) is frequently called, by the traders and others, the half- wolf breed. Wis general afpect is much more that of the wolf than of the common domefticaied dogs. « His body, in general, is more flender than that of our dogs. He is re- markably {mall behind. His ears do not hang like thofe of * From the information of Mr. William Bartram. + I have been informed, that among the Cheerake Indians the dogs are of a more mixed breed, more like thole of the whites. This is doubtlefs owing to the greater intercourfe which has fubtifted between thefe Indians and the whites. The Cherakee themfelves are fo much mixed with the Kuropeans that they are often named by the traders, the ** Breeds.” our On Indian Dogs. 9 our dogs, but ftand ere&t, and are large and fharp-pointed. He has a long fmall fnout, and very fharp nofe*. His bark- ng is more like the howling of the wolf. ‘When attacked, and when fighting, he does not fhake his antagonitt, like our dogs. His teeth are very fharp, and his bite'fure, When he fnarls, which he is wont to do upon the flighteft occafion, he draws the fkin from his mouth hack, prefenting all his teeth to view. Our dogs, when once attacked by thefe In- diaw dogs, always fear and fhun them. It is a very curious circumftance, that the Indian dog will never attack or purfue the wolf, which the common dogs fo readily do. This fa& feems to point vety ftrongly to the origin of the American animal. For the purpofes of hunting, the Indian dogs are very ufeful ; but, in other refpects, they are by no means fo docile as the common dogs. They haye lefs fidelity; for, though never fo well fed, they will fteal from their matters nm - In fhort, every thing fhows ‘that the Indian dog is a much more fayage or imperfectly reclaimed animal than the com- mon dog. , _ If my information has been correét, this fpecies or breed i6 ftill preferved in the greateft purity among the Six Nations, from whom the Delawares acknowledge that they received it. The Delawares call this dog lenchum, or lenni-chum, which fignifies “ the original beaft.” The Nanticokes. call him thn-wallum; the Mahicans, annuti-neen-dee-a-oo, or ™ the original dog,” to diftinguifh him from our common dogs, which they call fimply dee-a-00, or de-a-o9. Thefe appellations fhow that the Indians confider: their wolf dog as a native of the country, and that they are not incapable of difcerning the differences between this aniinal and the greater number of the varieties of dogs. which have been introduced into America by the Europeans. The origin of the Indian dog’ is a queftion of much more difficulty than fome naturalifis have imagined. Thus, Mr. Lawfon feems to fuppofe that the dogs which he faw among the Indians of North Carolina were merely wolves, ‘* made tame with ftarving and béating ¢.”” This is eafy natural hif- tory. Mr. Pennant, as we have already feen, fuppofed that the dog of North America was derived from the wolf, tamed * Some perforis inform me, that many of the Indian dogs have a large white fpot upon the breatt. + This «ffertion, I muft confefs, is oppofed by the teftimony of fome writers, Thus Carver fays, the Indian dogs are ‘* remarkable for their fidelity to their mafters; but, being ill fed by them, are very troublefome in their huts or tents.” Travels, &c. p. 416, i A New Voyage, &c. p. 38. B4 and 6 Qn Indian Bogs. ‘ and domefticated *. . This opinion has been maintained by other writers; but. it is an opinion which muft be admitted with fome limitation, Iam, indeed, much inclined to. be- lieve that the Indian dog, in many parts of North America, was derived from the wolf; but it remains to be proyed that it 13, in any part of the continent, the, pure or unmixed wolf, ina ftate of domeftication. It is, more probably, an hybrid animal, begotten between the wolf and fome other animal, perhaps the fox. , Mr. Joffelyn, a long time ago, confidered the dog of the New-England Indians as the produce of the wolf and foxt.. This is alfo the opinion of many well-in- formed perfons who have refided among, or vifited, the In- dians, I believe it is the opinion which many of the Indians themfelves, entertain concerning the origin of their dog. [have already obferved that the Indian dog is fometimes called the balf-wolf breed. This plainly thows that thofe who have impofed this name did not view the American dog as a mere domefticated wolf. In other words, it fhows that they confidered bim as an hybrid animal. I may add, that Carver and other writers, who have enjoyed pretty extenfive opportunities of obferving the dogs of the Indians, merely {peak of their refemblance to the wolf, without pretending to affert that they are only domefticated wolves {t. _ Owing, however, to the great affinity which fubfifts be- tween the Indian dog and the wolf, the favages in fome parts of North America beltowed the fame name upon both of thefe animals. ‘Thus father Hennepin exprefsly informs us, that chonga is a dog or wolf, in the language of the Iflati and Naudoweffies. In general, however, the Indians apply dif- ferent names to the wolf and to the dog, whether it be their own (or native) dog, or thofe varieties which they have re- ceived from the whites. I may add, that the Indians feem alfo to have remarked the refemblance of fome of their dogs to the fox; for the Mohawks (or at leaft the Cochnewa- gos, who have fprung from the Mohawks) call the red fox cheets-hvo. Now the Tufcaroras, who fpeak a dialeét of the language of the Mohawks, call a dog cheeth and cheetht. Much dependence, however, fhould not be placed upon this application of names ; for favages fometimes heftow the fame names upon fpecies that are unqueftionably diftina, 1h SEC's F. + ‘ The Indian dog is a creature begotten betwixt a wolf and a fox, which the Indians lighting upon, bring up to hunt the deer with.” Jo- felyn’s New England's Rarities, &c, p. 13. + “ The dogs employed by the Indians in hunting appear to be all of the fame fpecies ; they carry their ears erect, and greatly refemble a wolf about the head,” Thefe are Carver's words, See his Travels, &c, p- Ww 6. G Method of fupplying Diving-bells with frefh Air. g We are not yet prepared, it is obvious, to give an exact genealogical hiftory of the Indian dog. We are compelled to mix conjeéture with fact. The anatomical firuéture of the animal fhould be examined. But, whatever may have ~ been the origin of this breed of dogs, I am difpofed to think, with Joffelyn, that the favages found it in the woods, and that it has exifted as a diftinét fpecies, or breed, for a very long period of time. Several of the earlier vifitors of different parts of North America {peak of the exiftence of wild dogs in the country. Renatus Laudonerius inyaded Florida in the year 1564, only a few years after the death of Soto, In his enumeration of the native productions of the country he mentions wild dogs. There is no reafon to fuppofe that he has confounded them with, the wolves: for he exprefsly fays that the country produced, befide thefe dogs, fome {pecies of wolves *. The difcoverers of the ifland of Cape Breton, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, found in that ifland black dogs, which, we are informed, the Indians. were very careful to bring up to hunting +. I think it probable that both thefe and the dogs mentioned by Laudonerius were the fame as the half-wolf breed which I have defcribed. [To be continued, ] ————————— ——___—_—___ nl Il. An Account of a new Method of Jupplying Diving-bells with frefh Air. By Ropert Heary, A.B SIR, To Mr. Tilloch. Dublin, Jan.:8, 1803, 43, James’s-ftreet. - J TAKE the liberty of communicating an experiment on diving, which was made lait Augutt by my father, Mr. Sa- muel Healy. Should it appear worthy of holding a place in our very ufeful and inftru&tive Magazine, you are at full Eberty to infert it, Rover? HeEAty. THE method of fupplying a diving-bell with air, which has hitherto been generally adopted, renders it almoft, imprac~ ticable either to defcend in water to any confiderable depth, or to remain there a length of time f{uficient to perform any thing ufeful. Much inconvenience refults from the attention which it is neceffary to pay in admitting the fupply from the barrels, which are ufed as refervoirs of air; much alfo from % See De Laez’s Novus Orbis, lib. iv. p. 215- + See the fame, lib. il. p. 37+ the fo An Aocount of 2 new Method the labour and time which are expended in caufing them ta reach the bell. The mode of fupply which Mr. Healy con- trived appears much calculated to remedy thefe inconveni- ences. A recital of the circumftances that attended Mr. Healy’s experiment, it is hoped, will not prove uninterefting, Captain Lonfdale, of the Experiment, was employed to raife a brig which had foundered, in the year 1799, in the Bay of Dublin, between Dunleary and Howth. ‘This he endeavoured to accomplifh by faftening chains round the . bow and ftern of the funken veffel, and by connecting to thefe a rme@ on each fide, through which cables paffed, and were lafhed at low water acrofs the deck of his fhip,' that a&ted asa buoy. Confequently, on the tide rifing, if the faftenings had not given way, the floating veffel muft either have funk itfelf, or drawn the other upwards. Mr. Healy accompanied captain Lonfdale in this attempt, im order to put in practice his mode of fupplying a diving- bell with air. The bell, which refembled a truncated cone, was made of wood, confifting of ftaves united by cooperage = the moath was two feet and a half in diameter; the top one foot and a half: the height was four feet. Windows were placed at proper diftances round ‘the fides, and one’ at the top: there was alfo an aperture in the top for letting out foul air. In the infide was fufpended a ftage for the purpofe of refting on. On the top was fixed an iron eye, through which a cable paffed for raifing or lowering the bell. This eye was fecured to the bell by four iron ‘bars, of an inch fquare, that went downi the fides and lapped under its edges. Whuhin fix inches of the bottem was fixed a broad tron hoop, of an inch thicknefs, from which weights were fufpended to fiak the bell. On the thip’s deck was lafhed a forcing or condenfing fy- ringe, capable of containing about two quarts, to which were cormected five fathom of iron tube, and to the end of this an equal length of Jeathern tube that turned into the bell, When the pifton was deprefled, the contained air paffed through the tubes, and was forced into the bell. Thus a conftant fiream of air was forced down. . Four hundred weight and a half being fofpended in the manner deferibed, Mr. Healy was firt let down rapidly, when, on fignifying his defire of afcending, his with was im- mediately complied with. He ftated, that great uneafinels was felt, particularly im his ears, from fach a fudden defcent ; that there was fufficient light in the bell to enable him to read by light refleéted through the mouth of the bell without removing the thutters of any of the windows; and alfo ari € ‘ of fupplying Diving-bells with frefb Air. 1I he could fee a good way down in the water. Having refted a few minutes, and matters being arranged more fatisfactorily, he was lowered gradually, and remained ftationary about a minute at each fathom’s depth; the fyringe fupplying fuch a conftant ftream of air, that the bell was fupercharged, and the fignal of fufficiency was often repeated. Having been ‘more than half an hour down, and for fome time on the deck of the funken veffel, he gave the fignal for afcending, and was drawn up in the fame gradual manner in which he had been let down. He faid, that the very infant the mouth of the bell was immerfed a noife ftruck his ears, which went off upon his refting at the diftance of a fathom from the furface: the next defcent caufed the fame deafening fenfation, the removal of which was effected, to a confiderable degree, by repeated yawnings. No inconvenience was felt by his refpiring air condenfed by the preffure of fix or feven fathoms water. A flight giddinefs remained a few minutes after his emerging, and the blood-veffels about his face were a little {wollen. _ In the night, the lafhings having given way at high water, one of the rings through which the cables paffed fell to the bottom. On the following day he defcended, in a gradual manner as before, to the depth of feven fathoms, in order to raife the ring, and remained below for an hour and fome minutes. Not the fmalleft inconvenience was felt in his breathing. After coming up he coughed, and a {light tinge of blood appeared in his ipittle. The fullnefs in his face, as alfo the giddinefs, occurred as in the laft experiment. In this the Bell did not appear to admuit fo much light as im the former experiment, although the papers explanatory of the communication of fignals by pulling the ropes (which, for “precaution, were fixed to the infide of the bell) were {till le- gible, With the fyringe one man fupplied feven gallons of air in a minute, and, if neceffary, could haye fupplied double that quantity. The following morning the wind rofe to fuch a degree as to break both the cables and chains that were attached to the funken fhip, and of courfe interrupted the profecution of further experiments; which, however, at a future period, Mr. Healy hopes to refame. It is to be wifhed that other adventurers will make fimilar attempts, and improve on the hint which this trial affords; for, to ufe the words of Seneca, Patet omnibus ars, nondutn eft occupata, multuth ex illa etiam futuris reliétum eft. IlI. On [ 12] TH. Ox Painting. By Mr. E: Daves, Painter, °° Essay VIII. . On Manner. Peculiar marks I hold to be generally, if not always, defeéts; however @ifficult it mayobe wholly toefcapeithem, < . Sir Fofhua Reynolds. Tue word manzer, may be applied to colour, light and fhade, and penciling. It is expreffive of certain peculiar ‘marks that invariably characterize the works of each indi- vidual, ‘as in fome a bluenefs in the colouring prevails, in others a gray or yellow, while others are diftinguifhed by a harfhnefs in the fhadows; in one the penciling is round, in another fyuare or forked. So far 1s a new manner from being a mark of genius, as fome aflert, that, could perfection in painting ever be attained, it would be unaccompanied by any peculiarity whatever. In that part of our education which is to be obtained by copying, we ought to be particularly careful that the works we copy, or the mafler we imitate, have a manner the pureft and the leaft vicious poflible ; for we may reft affured, fingu- larity, which jn fome is glaringly abfurd, will be the firft portion we fhall inherit. He who forms to himfelf a model in a mafter will be al- ways inferior to the archetype: the heads of all the great fchools have been fuperior to their imitators. Nature rifes in the fame degree over the*fervile and bafe. M. Angelo was fuperior to his difciples, and that in proportion to their dependent habit of thinking. The fame caufe placed Ra-— phael, Titian, the Caracci, &c. at the head of certain claffes of artifts, many of whom have followed their matters limp- ingly and awkwardly. The-fame baneful defire of imitation is equally detrimental to poets; for the arts cannot be called liberal in the hands of thofe who want fpirit to think for themfelves. Not to acknowledge the favours we receive would we illiberal, but to fink under them into a ftate of flavery is bafe. The wifdom of the world may inform, but we muft improve from ourfelves; for precept will do but little if the mind is not fufceptible of it; the feed muft be fuited to the foil. The mind, like a fine {pring of water, will become more productive and clear the more it is ufed. Peculiarity is what chiefly charaterizes the different maf- ters, We fay, for inftance, the manner of Raphael is drv 9 and On Painting. 13 and hard, thereby indicating the too violent difplay of out- line, the decifions and abrupt divifions in the thadows, with the parts not fufficiently loft in their grounds. That of Spa- gniolet is forcible, with much red in the flefh ; while in that of Rembrandt we expect little light, with a glow of colour, that may too often be called rotten-ripe.. We may further obferve the dark manner of Guercino and the filver of Guido, with many others not neceffary to mention. What are thofe differences in the various matters, but fo many fingularities that characterize and diftinguifh the individual? As perfection cannot be attained, every artift, of neceflity, will have a manner; but in proportion as he fucceeds in ap- proaching perfection will his manner become the more pure, ‘This he can only hope to attain by an extenfive inquiry, that is, by not flavifhly tying himfelf down to the imitation of an individual. He is bound to fbow in his works that he has opinions of his own, and that he dares to think for himfelf. Raphael’s firft manner was like that of his mafter Perugino ; but this he foon quitted for a {weeter mode of colour, which he caught from Da Vinci and Bartolomeo, and for a more noble and elevated ftyle, which he acquired from M. Angelo. Julio Romano imbibed much of the fire of his malter, as did Roffo and Prematicio ef theirs. The Caracci adopted a moft libe- ral manner of imitation, founded on a combination of the excellences of all the great {chools, and ultimately produced one entirely new. Domenichino, Guido, Guercino, and Schidone, exhibit in their works but flight traces of the fchool they were formed in. Van Dyck is perfectly original. Our countryman Reynolds is an example of this liberal man- ner of imitation; we fee in his works the grace of Corregio and Parmegiano combined with the beauty and richnefs of Venetian colouring, accompanied with the chzaro-/curo of the Flemifh and Dutch. Le Sueur’s firft manner refembled his mafter Vouet, which he foon quitted, and made himfe}f fuperior in every part of the grt. Le Bron was influenced by the fame fpirit of independence, and left his matter far behind. » Of thofe who have been deftitute of the pride of independ- ence, and have fallen into a narrow, confined, and illiberal kind of imitation, we will point out a few. Guido was imi- tated by Sirani, Pouffin by Verdier, Paul Veronefe by his brothers, and Jacomo Bafian by his fons. Rubens was imi- tated by Jacques Jordans, who has increafed the excetles of his matter without adding one perfection of his own, Rem- brandt was followed fervilely by Bramer, Eckhout, De Gelder, &c. We might enumerate many others, which mult occur to i4 On Painting. to every one’s recolle&tion, whofe works pafs with the igno- rant for thofe of their mafters. Perhaps this difference im the works of artifts may arife from the external objects and their images painted in the eye of fome, not agreeing ; which may alfo account for the variation we obferve between the bulk or altitude of bodies and their reprefentations by various artifts. This peculiar habit of feeing may conftitute what we call manner, ; It is certain too much copying, or too great a devotion to the works of fome favourite mafter, brings on a habit of fee- ing even nature with his imperfections. Hence it is, that what is termed the fchools have in the end proved the ruin of art; not becaufe they were bad, but becaufe weak men have been content with nature at fecond-hand: fome author calls fuch people not nature’s fons, but her grandfons. Before we quit this part of our eflay we will juft touch on the manner of penciling, alfo called handling. The ufe of the pencil is diftinguifhed into the fmooth or mellow, and the expeditious or bold. The application of thofe manners muft, in a great degree, depend on the fize of the pidture to be painted, alfo its fituation and fubject. As far as fubject is concerned, the former method beft applies to objects in themfelves beautiful; as elegant female figures, young and fleck animals, paftoral, and all objects intended to delight. ‘The latter manner will beft affociate with aged, broken, and irregular objeéts, and fuch fcenes as are intended to excite terrible emotions. The bold pencil of Rubens is highly ad- mirable, aud is a great beauty in his pictures; while the pencil of Van Dyck is more foft and mellow. Claude had a fmooth pencil fuiting his choice of fubjeét ; on the contrary, Salvator Rofa is bold, and well impafied with colour. -The pencil of Titian is a fine example for the heroic in landfeape, or what may be termed the hiftorical ftyle, and which, as mentioned in our firft effay, derives its name from the dig- nity of the objects of which the piéture is compofed. Thole are miftaken who imagine it derives its chara¢ter from flight- nefs and indecifion, and who dignify their own crude and undiftinguifhable maffes with that noble appellation, The pencil of Titian is firm, bold, and at the fame time decifivey and, in the higher ftyle of landfcape, may be offered as an example worthy of our attention. We fhall find numberlefs examples in the Dutch fehool to direét our hand in.the paf- toral; and the pencil of young Teniers is, perhaps, the fineft in that part of the art. The pencil is not a mere vehicle for laying on the colour, but its motion muft exprefs the cha- racter of the various objects it may be employed on. As in 8 land{cape Colouring Property of ibe Oxide of Molybdena. 15 land{cape the foliage of trees, incrufting of the bark; on cat- tle, in reprefenting hair and wool ; the character and folds of drapery, the thinnedfs of flowers, &c. &c. As well as the manual practice, painting requires, 1. A boldnefs of hand in the dead-colouring: 2. In the fecond co- louring, more circum{pection and labour: and, 3. Thorough patience and attention in the retouching and finithing of ie picture. Thefe qualities can no more be feparated than Venus and the Graces. He who withes to infure himfelf a good manner of pencil- ing fhould aveid copying fuch pi&tures as are imperfeét in that refpect ; for, if we begin with a flovenly or bad one, every ftep will plunge us deeper in error. But all attempts at painting will be vain if we do not poflefs the power to determine the form at once, which can only be acquired through a previous practice in drawing ; for on this the clear- nefs as well as the firmnefs of the penciling depends. There are two methods of preparing our picture: one is, to draw in the objects with their ground colour, carefully laying in the fhadows, dead-colouring the lights folid, and preferving the /badows tran{parent throughout the work; in the fecond ftage, to correét the forms, and add to the darks where wanted ; and, thirdly, after oiling out the parts, bring- ing the whole into harmony by glazing, fcumbling, and finifhing with the extreme lights and darks. This direction is general; for, after the lights and darks are added, parts niay require to be kept down, enriched, &c., as practice mut direét. The fecond method is to dead-colour /olidly through- out, and to finith the fhadows by glazing. The latter method admits of greater changes being made in the work during its progrefs than the former. * * In our laft Effay, for W. Scope, read W. Scrope, efg. of Caftle Comb. ——____ __ IV. Experiments on the Colouring and Mordant Property of the Oxide of Molybdena. By M.D. Jancun®. Tuese experiments were made with foliated molybdena of Altenberg, in Saxony, prepared in the following manner : After having feparated the metal from all quartzy parts, it was reduced into an acid by long expofure to a red heat in an open crucible. This acid was then diffulved in boiling * Prom Scherer’s Allg:meines Journal der Chemie, January 1802. waler, 16 On the Colouring and Mordant Property , water, and faturated with potafh. The molybdate of potafli being foluble in a much larger quantity of cold water than the free molybdic acid, this acid was united to potafh with a view that a more concentrated folution of it might be ap- plied to the ftuff, which, in regard to linen and cotton, is 2 matter of great importance. A. One part of this folution was diluted with ten or twelve parts of rain water; and a fhred of raw white woollen ftuff, and another of white Saxon kerfeymere, were boiled in it for half an hour. The two fhreds affumed a grayifh green co- lour. Both of them were then cut into {mall bits, for the purpofe of fubjecting them to the following experiments ; Thefe bits of cloth were put, 1ft, Into a boiling fo- Jution of fulphate ef zinc very much diluted: 2d, A fimilar folution of acetite of lead: 3d, Another of fulphate of cop- per: 4th, Another of tin in the fulphuric and muriatic acids: 5th, Another of fulphate of iron: 6th, Of tin in fimple mu- riatic acid: 7th, Another of tin in acetous acid: 8th, An- other of tin in nitro-muriatic acid by muriate of ammonia: oth, Into one of cobalt in nitric acid, rendered flightly mu- Tiatic by muriate of foda: roth, And into aqueous tinéture of gall-nuts prepared cold, which communicated to woollen ftuff boiled in it a ruffet colour. ' The different pieces, after being boiled for a quarter of an hour in folution of molybdena, when wafhed and dried ex- hibited different fhades. B. A fhred of white cotton cloth was immerfed, cold, for twelve hours, in a part of the folution of molybdate of potath much diluted ; and it was then removed to a diluted folution of tin ina mixture of the fulphuric and muriatic acids. The ftuff, which had not changed its colour in the folution of molybdena, aflumed a bright blue colour fomewhat dirty. The above two pieces of cloth which were treated with the folutions of tin exhibited this peculiar phenomenon, that on the edge, when cut, they were of a darker and purer blue than externally. Another circumftance, no lefs remarkable, is, that thefe colours experienced from the light an effect con- trary to that produced on vegetable colours, which lofe their colour by expofure to the fun; while that of molybdena ac- quires a double degree of intenfity. The green fhades gene- rally paffed to blue; but after fome time refumed in the fhade, or when expofed to the moift atmofphere, their primitive colour. However fatisfactory thefe refults might be, M. Jaeger carried his refearches {till farther, and endeavoured to obtain culours better defined, and brighter; and particularly pure blue y of the Oxide of Molybdena.” 17 blue and green folutions of tin were thofe which feemed moft likely to accomplith that end. ; C. The folution of molybdate of potafh was’ mixed, in certain proportions, with pure folutions of tin in muriatie acid, diluted in cold rain water. Shreds of raw white wools ’ len ftuff, moiftened with boiling water, were boiled for half an hour in this mixture. The liquor was decompofed, de- pofited the tin under the form of a grayifh powder, and the refiduum affumed an agreeable blue colour, which was com- municated alfo to the ftuff, but with a fhade lefs pure. D. Not fatisfied with this refult, M. Jaeger tried to pre- pare the ftuff, before it was immerfed in the bath of molyb- dena, with different mordants ; fuch as fulphate and acetite of alumine, diluted fulphuric and muriatic acid, acidulous tar- trite of potafh, and others: but the refult did not anfwer the object he had in view. He then thought it neceffary to employ other means. g E. A folution in excefs of molybdate of potath was then mixed with a faturated folution of tin; the mixture was boiled for half an hour in a retort, and was afterwards left at reft for eight or ten days. After this time, the liquid, which at firft was of a erayifh blue colour, was found changed into a bright dark blue, and had depofited a large quantity of gray oxide of tin. The liquid was decanted, and filtered through double paper. . 1ft, This tinéture communicated a bright blue colour to a fhred of muflin, which had been left in it for a quarter of an hour after it had been diluted in two parts of water. 2d, A fhred of raw white woollen ftuff was fo ftrongly co- loured by this tin¢ture, that after ebullition for half an hour it came out dyed of a pure faturated blue colour. As the tincture did not appear to be exhaufted of colour, there were boiled in it for half an hour, each after the other, 3d, A fhred of woollen ftuff. 4th, A fhred of the fame kind. The two fhreds acquired a blue colour, decreafing in intenfity. To afcertain how far the blue colour of the woollen cloth could be fixed, a fhred of ftuff was boiled for an hour in one part of blue tin&ture diluted with half a part of water. Its colour was not darker than that of No. 2. ~The dyed fhred was then cut into two parts, and one of them was boiled for a quarter of an hour in the fame tinc- ture, to which a little of the folution of tin had been added. Its colour this time was more intenfe. The colour in thefe experiments had diftributed itfelf per- feétly, and had united in fo intimate a manner with the fibres Vor. XV. No. 57. C of 18 Colouring Property of the Oxide of Molybdena. of the wool, that the ftuff had all the appearance of wool dyed with indigo. After this fuccefs, M. Jaeger endeavoured to unite the colour of molybdena with, other vegetable colours, and to tranfport it in that ftate to ftufls. The refults of this Jabour were as follow : F. Different fhreds of woollen cloth, to which a greater or lefs blue colour had been communicated by tinéture of mo- lybdena, were boiled for half.an hour in a cold aqueous in- fufion of quercitron bark. They acquired different fhades of green, but which did not poffefs all the purity and uniformity which could have been wifhed. He therefore thought that it would be neceflary to change a little his procefs. . G. Different, fhreds of woollen ftuff were boiled for a longer or fhorter time in an infufion of quercitron bark, with a view to communicate to. them. different {hades of yellow. The quantity of blue. tinéture neceffary for each fhade of yellow, beginning with the weakeft, was added to the infufion, which was in a great part exhaufted. Im this manner, fhades of green, not inferior in beauty to Saxon green, were obtained by an ebullition of half an hour. H. In other experiments, fometimes the blue tin@ure and fometimes the molybdate of potafh was tried, either by com- bination with vegetable colours, or alone, as mordants or mo- difiers. The refults in general were very fatisfactory. Several of the colours thus obtained were fo fixed and unalterable in the fun and air, and by ftrong acids, that no other colour could be compared with them in this refpect. M. Jaeger terminates his interefting labour by announcing a black colour, furnifhed to him by a compofition of molyb- date of potafh, acetite of alumine, and logwood. This black having been tried, in regard to durability, as compared with common black, by boiling both for a quarter of an hour in diluted fulpburic acid, that of molybdena was fcarcely changed, while the other loft its colour entirely, and pafied to a burnt rellow. / , The author adds alfo, that the blue tincture of molybdena, evaporated in a gentle heat, furnithed a very fine blue, folu- ‘ble in water, which might be ufed for writing, and even for painting, in the fame manner as any other colouring juice. It appears from thefe experiments that molybdena may be- come a very valuable colouring matter in the art of dyeing. Vii Re- fea J V.. Remarks on the prefent State of Aéroflation. By : Mr, G. J. WricHrT. [Concluded from p. 346 of our laft Volume. ] ' £ HE machine being conftruéted, it only remains to fill it with inflammable air (hydrogen gas). The ufual method ‘of procuring inflammable air is by the folution of iron in ful- _ phuric acid or common oil of vitriol: for this purpofe a number * of air-tight cafks are difpofed in circles of ten or twelve in each circle. The cafks compofing one circle com- municate, by their individual tubes, to one centre cafk con- taining water, whofe height muft be fuch as that the orifice of each tin tube fhould be fome inches under the fluid}. The centre cafks (or coolers, as they are technically termed) are the only ones immediately conneéted with the balloon, and that by varnifhed filken tubes proceeding from their fum- mits: there muft alfo be a fecond orifice in the head of each cafk compofing the circles; each fuch orifice being for the purpofe of introducing the ingredients, and provided alfo with an aif-tight plug. The iron (of which the turnings from the boring of cannon are reckoned the beft) being placed in the eafks, the diluted acid t (having been previoufly well mixed in a feparate veffel purpofely provided) is to be poured upon it, ftopping up the orifice with the plug. as foon as the {tell of the gas is perceived: the quantity~of acid firft put into each cafk muft be half the requifite proportion for the weight of iron therein contained; and this rule muft be obferved throughout the whole number of cafks, fo that on the fecond ‘fubfequent addition the aggregate quantity of gas fhal]l be sed -§,°": ' : O. The le ai a Ae ee Ly This was the method adopted by Mr. Garnerin ; but its complexity - ‘renders it very exceptionable, as in other expersments two or three cafks have been made to anfwer al! that he effeéts with thirty, and in much lefs time. — é + Without this precaution the inflammable air is liable to carry along swith it fome of the acid in a vaporous ftate, which in one inftance became gradually condenfed in the balloon when arrived to a colder region, de- luging the aéronaut with fome quarts of this acidulous liquor: , as is neceffary to dilute the acid in a feparate veffel, wot merely on ‘account of the great difference in the refpeétive gravities of the acid and water, which renders ftirring neceflary, but alfo on account ‘of the grert ‘quantity of heat liberated, which is fufficient to occafion ebullition in fome ‘inftances, and might derange the apparatus, ' § This is the method adopted by fome experimenters; but a more ex- “pedient one deferves to fuperfede it; efpecially as by nearly the like and “undermentiored’ procefs Metirs, Baldwin, Sadler, and Lunardi, fuccefs- “fully inflated their machine in two hours, ’ Cz The = . 20 On the prefent State of Aéroftation. The iron muft be parulery attended to to infure fuc- cefs; whatever is rufty is not only not ferviceable, but a&tu- ally injurious, by generating hydro-carbonate, a gas fpecifi- cally The quantity of hydrogen gas developed during the aétion of diluted’ fulphuric acid upon iron, varies not only according to the ftrength of the acid, but the quality of the iron employed. Dr. Prieftley (Experiments and Obfervations on Air, vol. vi ) found that-annealed caft iron invariably afforded more inflammable air than iron which had nut undergone that procefs; the difference being nearly 1-8th. Thus iron turnings, as being in fome degree annealed, gave ‘confiderably more air than only caft iron, yet lefs than iron nails perfecily annealed. Mr. Cavendifh alfo obtained from an ounce of zine.3s6 ounce meafures of inflammable air; from the fame quantity of iron 412 meafures; while tin afforded him only half the quantity yielded by iron. Suppofing then we are about to inflate a bal- - loon of 30 feet diaineter, it will require, agreeably to Mr. Cavendith’s ex- periments, about two ounces and a half of iron for each cubic foot of in- flammable air, or 2200 pounds of iron to be diffolved in order to com- pletely fill the machine ; and to produce this folution there will altogether be required an equal weight of concentrated oil of vitriol, and fix times this weight of water. But completely filling a balloon before its afcenfion is ufelefs; becaufe the denfity of the furrounding medium, immediately decreafing, will caufe an equally premature expanfion of the gas, and re- quire its efcape even before it attains 1000 yards height: the proportional produét, therefore, of 2000 pounds of metal will be as much as may with propricty be applied to a machine of 40 feet diameter. Be Having proceeded according to the rules hereafter laid down for afcer- taining the requifite quantity of materials agreeably to their refpective purity, provide next two large cylindrical wooden veffels open at the top, and fhaped as inverted truncated cones, each veffel capable of containing about 1000 gallons, fo that the two may hold in the fequel the whole quantity of materials, Im each of thefe veffels difpofe planes of lattice or bafket-work, at intervals of fix or eight inches above each other (their diameters correfponding to the diameter of the part of the veffel each plane is to reft upon), adding a fufficient numberof them till witht foot of the furface at which the diluted acid will ftand when the who! quantity hall have been added. The ufe of thefe planes is for divic the iron into many portions, fo as to expofe as large a furface as poffible i) the action of the acid: the weight of iron, fuppofing the veffel to contain ten of thefe planes, will be,z00 pounds upon each; which weight will fuffice for keeping them fleady, without having recourfe to other methods of fixing them to the veffel itfelf; while the gas will eafily find a paffage for itfelf from the lower through the fuperior planes by the interftices in the bafket-work. Having thus difpofed of the iron fo as that the two veffels fhall contain their {pecific proportion, amounting together to the whole of the required quantity, provide for each vellcl an appropriate head, of fomewhat lefe diameter than its upper rim, that when fixed therein it may reft an inch or two below the level of the fame, in order that a thin ftratum of water may lie over the whole furface, and render the head completely tight. From the centre of the head neuft proceed a cylindrical tube of tin fix inches in diameter and one foot in height; whence forming a right angle it fhould proceed about fix feet, and then defcend by an obtufe angle whole extremity fhould terminate in an afcending nook, converging till its ex- 5 treme On the prefent State of Aéroftation. 2r cally heavier than even common air. It mutt be alfo totally devoid of greafe, as the {mallet ftratum of greafy matter will effectually fecure the iron from being attacked by the acid. To treme orifice be diminifhed to an inch diameter*, and in fuch a direétion as eafily to be placed under, and fix or eight inches below, the bafe of the inverted funnel of the refervoir. Befides this central tube there muft be a lateral one of an inch diameter and fix inches in height, provided with an air-tight wocden ftopper. Through the head muft alfo be fixed a glafs of pewter tube bent to form an inverted {yphon, the fhorter leg of which muft be placed fo as to be included in the veffel, while the longer leg (of two feet in length) will remain on the outfide. A third veffel muft alfo be provided, as a refervoir or cooler, capable of holding from 200 to 300 gallons, open at top, yet not more than three feet deep. Acrofs its diameter, and eight or ten inches below its upper rim, fix two ftrong wouden bars as fupports, to which fix an inverted wooden funnel (the bafe of which muft not be lefs than two feet diameter) whofe upper part fhould end in a tube, round which the varnifhed filken tube immediately conneéted with the balloon is to be faftened. After properly fixing the inverted funnel, provide a fquare wooden tube, and fix it to the infide of the refervoir fo as to reach within fix inches of its bottom, while its upper orifice fhould ftand at leaft a foot higher than the furface of the water therein. This being done, and the extremities of the large tin tubes being properly placed under the inverted funnel, begin with pouring feveral gallons of cream of lime (made by flaking quicklime in water, a gallon of fluid to two pounds of lime) into the refervoir; then gradually fill the fame with water till within an inch or two of the top. In the next-place, pour through the inverted fyphon of each tub a mixture of one part acid and fix of water, while an affiftant ftanding over the {mall lateral tin tube (now open) replaces the plug in the fame as foon as the f{mell of the hy- drogen gas fs perceived, indicating that the atmofpheric air is now all ex- pelled from the tub, And thus muft the workmen proceed, pouring the diluted acid into the tubs through the fyphons till fuck time as the required quantity for each veffel (7. e. 1000 pounds of acid, and 6000 pounds, or 750 gallons, of water) has been added; the column of fluid retained in the fhorter leg of the fyphon forming a ftopper, whereby any efcape of gas at this aperture is prevented, A feparate affiftant muft in the mean time attend the pneumatic cooler to renew the water therein, which will be at intervals faturated with all the matter it can abforb from the gas; he muft therefore occafionally dif- place this water by pouring freth quantities down the fquare wooden tube for the purpofe, which will caufe the faturated fluid to ow over the top of the veffel, and in doing the fame mutft, for every freth addition of water, add a proportionate quantity of the cream of lime. During the whole of the experiment the water in the cooler muft be ftirred with a wooden rod, that the unfaturated lime (continually tending to precipitate itfelf) may be perpetually brought into contaét with the gas ; while, the more frequent the renewal of the water in the refervoir, and the larger the proportion of freth cream of lime, the lighter will the gas be obtained. Alfo, to facili- * By this contrivance the gas will iffue in acontinued ftream, which will prevent that great agitation of the water under the funnel which is occa- tioned by the gas forcing its way through the water in large quantities at on yet at intervals of fome diftance, whereby much of it is frequently oft. c 3 tate 22 On the prefent State of Aéroflation. To provide againft thefe two circumftances, the aéronaut - ought not to omit fubjeéting the iron turnings to the aétion of a ftrong fire amidft carbonaceous matters, for at leaft an © hour, a day or two before his propofed ufe of them. The thicknefs of the iron mutt be alfo noticed, as, under the moft favourable circumftances, the acid never penetrates it more than half an inch: therefore all the weight of iron that re-- mains over and above a furface of half an inch depth every way, becomes ufelefs ; the coat of newly formed oxide of iron effectually guarding the remaining metal from folution: for want of attending to this circumftance, the quantity of metal’ has frequently proved deficient to the end propofed, to the great difappointment of the experimenter. ihcns Alfo where the public have to rely on the good faith of the exhibiter, he ought to try the ftrength of his acid previous to employing it; and this, not by the ordinary methods of fpe- cific gravity, nor the quantity of alkali it will faturate*, but by the aétual procefs, in the fmall way, of what he propofes to perform on the day of afcent: by thefe means he cannot fail of fucceeding. But the above is not the only method of procuring inflam- mable air}: the paffing of water over red-hot metals is fol- tate the entrance of the inflammable air into the balloon, the varnifhed filken tube, proceeding from the inverted funnel, muft rather afcend than otherwife in its courfe to the balloon, which may be eafily managed by fupporting it along a ladder having a gentle inclination upwards, I appre- hend the coft of the larger tubs of 1000 gallons each will be lefs expenfive than to have recourfe to twenty or thirty butts for the purpofe; which, by dividing the procefs, caufes greater apprchenfions for failure with refpect to the tightnefs of fo many veffels and tubes; befides the inconvenience of having to procure fo great a number of cafks for every frefh voyage, when undertaken as a public exhibition in places far diflant from each other. The fulphate of iron, the produét of the mutual aétion of the acid and iron, is a fubftance much ufed in the arts under the name of green cop- peras : the chemift, dyer, calico-printer, ink-maker, refiner, &c, have great demand for this article. It may therefore be either difpofed of, or diftilled per fe to regain the acid; while the refiduum, by a fuither calcination, may be converted into that fpecies of oxide known by the name of colcothar, an article much employed for polifhing glafs and metals, and alfo as a pigment. : * We are liable to miftakes if we rely on the fpecific gravity of the acid (ufually varying from 1°6 to 1*8), which is augmented by its containing in folution neutral falts, efpecially fulphate of potafh ; an adulteration not unfrequently practifed. The quantity of alkali required to faturate a given quantity of an acid, can never deteét the abfolute quantity of the indivi- ' dual acid we are in fearch of, but only indicate the degree of acidity of the whole, without any regard to the fpecific radicals, i + Inflammable air is procured in many chemical operations; but it is . ufelefs to mention hete any other than fuch as are advantageoufly appli- cable tq aéroftatic purpofes, lowed On the prefent State of Aéveftation’ ~ 23% lowed by the extrication of a large quantity of hydrogen gas from the decompofition of the water; but the metal is apt to run to a flag refembling finery cinder, .preventing its further’ aétion upon the watér, and that before any confiderable pro={ portion is decompofed. a4 ; The diftillation of pit-coal alfo affords this gas, but not’ above one-fourth lighter than atmofpheric air. In obtaining’ it in this way, a number of receivers muft be imterpofed be- tween the retort and the balloon, to*eondenfe the volatile, aqueous, and oleaginous produéts of this diftillation *. If a parachute is required, it {hould be conftructed fo as when diftended to form but a {mall feoment.of a iphere, and not a complete hemifphere; as the weight of this machine is otherwife confiderably increafed, without gaining much in the oppofing furface. The parachute of Mr. Garnerin is particularly defective in a too great extenfion of its diameter ; an unneceflary addition to its weight of a lining of paper both withinfide and without ; the too near approximation of the bafket to the body of the parachute; and efpecially in the want of a perpendicular cord pafling from the car to the centre of the concave of the umbrella, by the abfence of which the velocity of the defcent is certain to be very rapid before the machine becomes at all diftended; whereas, if a cord were: thus difpofed, the centre of the parachute would be the por- tion firft drawn downwards by the appended weight, and the machine would be almoft immediately at its full extenfion. Having found, by.experiment, the diameter required for infuring fafety+, the further the bafket or car is frony the umbrella, the lefs fear fhall we have of an inverfion of the whole from yiolent ofcillations; yet the longer the fpace be- tween the car and the head of the machine, the longer wall be the fpace run through in each vibration when once begun, yet’ by fo much ‘the more will they ‘be fteadier; and this ought to be attended to, as when by the violence of the ofcil~ * During the diftillation of pit-caal, water and carbonate of ammonia are aflorded, together with a pitchy oil refembling tar :) thefe will be con- denfed in the neareft receivers, while the gafequs,product (confilting of'a mixture of hydrogen with azotjc and carbonic acid gates) will proceed on- ward; aod which if made to pafs through bime-water will be rendered «more pure: a pound Of coai will afford about three cvbic feet of inflam- -mable air, and prove the cheapeft method of inflation, Dr. Prieftley,alfo found) that the product: of inflammable air, in all operations in the dry way, was always greater improportion as the fire had been fuddenly raifedy, » « +) Mr. Baldwin‘advifes the diameter 15 fecr; by which means, ‘f the sman weighing, 140 pounds:and-the pafachute;r0 pounds, with a furface of ‘/050 fquare feet,) he would-feei no greater fhock than if he had fallen from tie height of fix feet’? Atithe Pantheon, Mr. Garnerin’s parachute was announced as being 4oxfcet in diameter, and-weighing above 50. pounds. 4 7 lations 24 On the profent State of Aéroftation. lations the car became (in Garnerin’s experiment) on a line with the horizontal axis of the machine, (or, in other words, the point of fufpenfion,) the force of gravity, or the gravitating power of the weight in the car, on the umbrella, being at that erifis reduced to nothing, the flighteft caufe might have car- ried the body of the machine in a lateral dire@tion, reverfing the concavity of the umbrella, and Mr. Garnerin, perhaps, have fallen upon the now convex yet internal portion of the bag, and the whole have defcended confufedly together *. a I fhou * The umbrella being aéted upon in a perpendicular direétion from the ear, if by any, the moft trivial caufe, the latter vibrates from the perpendi- cular it will draw the machine in the fame inclined direétion ; the car alfo with its cords of fufpenfion, now aéting the part of a pendulum, will con- tinue to ofcillate to each fide till a perfeét equilibrium is reflored. The fpace of the arc defcribed in each vibration will depend upon the diftance between the car and the parachute conjunétly with the refiftance afforded by the latter to the air, whereby on decreafing the refittance (or, which is the fame thing, the furface of the umbrella,) the weight in the car will fooner draw the machine into the perpendicular, and the ofcillations con- fequently ceafe : thus a parachute whofe furface is {mall enough to obviate ofcillations in the middle regions (7. e. the half of the ufual heights fur- mounted in aéroftatic experiments, or about seoo feet), would be defec- tive for want of furface to moderate the velocity of defcent when near the ground, and wice verfu: if, therefore, we can augment or diminifh at plea- fure the furface and confequent refiftance of the parachute during its de- fcent, we fhal] have attained the perfeélion of the machine. Thus in Mr. Garnerin’s experiment the ofcillations did not commence till the machine felt the increafed refiftance of a more denfe zone of the atmo{phere; and having then no means of diminifhing the fame, the vibra- tions began, continued, and increafed, till, by arriving ina yet more denfe region, a greater refiflance was oppofed to the ofcillations of the bafket, gradually diminifhing the arc of the fame to nothing, this alfo being af- fifted by a difcharge of ballaft from the car, by which means the weight of the pendulum and its power to fweep throngh a de#fe atmofphere were conjointly diminifhed, for she vibrarton of a pendulum will be in proportion go tts length, and alfo to ibe denfity of tke medium torough which it is to vi- rate; a faét too much overlooked. There is therefore a medium height at which the ofcillations will be the greateft; and the diftance of this me- dium from the earth's furface will vary with the different ftates of the ba- rometer at the earth; or, in other words, as the denfity at different heights. Thus, when the altitude of an aéronaut defcending by a parachute is great, the atrno{phere is there too much rarefied to occafion refiftance to the um- brella foftcient to allow of an ofcillation; but when in a lower zone a vi- bration has unfortunately begun, the atmofphere is here too denfe to allow of that velocity of defcent vefich only could have prevented the commence- ment of the ofcillations, yet not denfe enough to afford fufficient refiftance to retard the fweep of the bafket; while in a yet more denfe region, nearer to the furface of the earth, the air affords fo much refiftance to the fwing of the car, as foon efiectwally to ftop the fame, efpecially if the weight therein could now be diminithed by a difcharge of ballaft ; a fact evinced jn Mr, Garnerin’s experiment, when he threw out a quantity of ballatt when near the carth to modeyate the thock of his defrent, which imme. diately On the prefent State of Aéroflation. 25 I fhould propofe the parachute to be conftruéted of var- nifhed cambric muflin (or light linen), covered externally with a netting, the mefhes of which {hould converge fmaller as they approach the central portion of the machine; obferv- ing alfo to fix the netting on the furface by fewing it down upon various parts of the fame. The diameter of the para- chute (forming only a fmall fegment of a fphere), when ex- tended, not to exceed twenty feet. The central aperture of the umbrella (to allow the efcape of the air through, as the machine defcends), not lefs than three feet in diameter, and provided with a fhutter movirg upon a hinge and opening inwards *; furnifhed alfo with a cord fliding over a fingle pulley to fhut the aperture, and a fecond cord to open the fame (each cord reaching to the car), thus fubjecting the fhutter to the will of the azronaut.. By this mechanifm the fiupefying vibrations of the car may be moderated, if not wholly prevented, by drawing down the fhutter fo as to fully expofe thie aperture, whereby the refiftance of the parachute ‘to the atmofphere being leffened by all this diminution of its oppofing furtace, the gravitating power of the appended weight (tending to draw the body of the machine continually in the perpendicular) will have proportionally a greater effect: the defcent in the interim will be alfo relatively more rapid; but this may be checked in a moment by clofing the orifice, efpe- cially when near the furface of the earth +. A firong cord fhould proceed perpendicularly from the centre of the car to a point formed by the convergence ofa number of cords proceeding from the fecond ring of wicker- work, the effeét of which would be an immediate extenfion of the parachute to its full diameter at the inftant of defcent, as before adverted to. Alfo, and laftly, a third hoop of wicker-work, of fix or eight feet diameter, fixed in the in- ternal concave of the umbrella, to fecure againft any acci- dental collapfe of the fides before the machine has become diately reftored the machine to its perpendicular fituation, but for which he'could not account, An attempt to obviate thefe inconveniences is the objcét of the valve of the parachute mentioned hereafter. * This aperture, or, more properly, valve, of the parachute, may be conftruéted cither of clofe wicker-work, or varnifhed linen ftrengthened by a piece of netting externally, and fixed toa ring of wicker-work adapted to clofe the diameter of the fecond ring of wicker-work, to which are fixed the pieces of varsithed linen compoling che concave umbrella. This latter circle is independent of the third hoop of wicker-work of fix or eight feet diameter, afterwards mentioned, whofe ufe is to prevent a collapfe of the fides of the machine, é + By an enlargement of the diameter of the valve, this diminution of furface might be carried to fuch extent as to infure a fafe' defcent by the parachute even im the moll tempeltuous weather, ‘ diftended 26 On the prefent State of Aéroftation. diftended by its preflure on the cylinder of air immediately beneath it. With refpe& to the probability of directing aéroftatic ma- chines *, we may infer it to be poffible, although the methods hitherto tried have been inadequate; perhaps becaufe they were not fufficiently powerful ; as, to expe@ to make fo large: a body as a balloon to vary from the wind by the impulfion of an oar of fix or eight feet in length and one or two in breadth (and that by only endeavouring to draw the car out of the pdepentioast neh is to expeét, by means of a boat’s oar, to impel a fhip of burthen. Oars are doubtlefs the moft likely means to effect this purpofe, if they were of dimenfions pro- portionate to the effeéts they are withed to produce ¢. The addition of fails, where any variation from the wind is de- fired, will prove injurious. till we have attained a method (perhaps only to be accomplifhed by oars) of keeping the fame point of the balloon continually in a given direction. Yet I doubt not but thefe alfo might prove of great fervicé in quick ‘difpatches by water; as, for inftance, where it is re- quired to pafs a fortrefs or fleet for the fuccour of a befieged town, or convey difpatches thereto: a {mall balloon, of ten or twelve feet diameter, provided with fails to expofe a large fur- * ’Tis a matter of furprife, that the various hints for directing balloons appear to lie dormant with their projeétors, who feem indifpofed to make any attempts to carry their plans into execution: thus the inventions of profeffor Danzel {Philofophical Magazine, vol. iv.), alfo of Martin, and the propofals for performing the fame by means of eagles trained for the purpofe; or by a reverfed parachute to retard the direét progrefs of the balloon, whereby lefs power will be neceflary to impel it in a lateral di- reétion ; all thefe plans remain obfolete and unpraétifed from the time of their fuggeftion, + According to the prefent mode of rowing balloons from the car, whatever deviation is made may be compared to the lee-way of a fhip at fea; the power heing applied fo as merely to prevent at a certain inftant the car from following the balloon, which will therefore be impelled, during that fhort interval, in a barely diagonal dire€&tion amounting pers haps, in the end of the voyage, to fcarcely half a point from the wind. For oars to produce their full effect they fhould be not lefs than twenty feet long, and three in width at their extremities ; while the rowers fhould be feated one on each fide of the machine in appropriate cars attached to the body of the balloon, and nearly on a line with its equator, this might eafily be practifed with a balloon capable of carrying four perfons and ballaft; the greater weight in the car below the machine, containing tivo travellers with ballaft, being fufficient to kcep the whole apparatus in a fteady pofi- tion, and that more elpecially if the fame be fulpended at a confiderable diftance beneath the ba!loon. The oars recommended (being made of only varnifhed linen ftretched over netting fixed to arms of pliable wood) might be eafily worked,,if a projeéting {taff of wood were attached to each lateral oar, fo.as to form at its extremity a fulcrum whereon to ret the oar at eight or ten feet diftance from the rower. face a i r On the prefent State of Aéroflation. 1 _face to the wind, being attached by a long rope to a boat, would outftrip the quickeft veffel, and might alfo be made to deviate from the courfe of the wind; as the water would form a counter-refifting medium, the want of which in air-balloons occafions the difiiculty of fteering them. A fail-balloon fimilar to the above might alfo be advantageoufly attached toa Jand- carriage; namely, by increafing the capacity of the balloon fo that its power of afcenfion being nearly equal to the weight of the appended carriage, the latter would be drawn along by the impulfion of the wind againft the balloon and fails, while the friction over the ground, by the fmall overplus weight, may be reafonably expeéted to afford a refiftance fufficient to guide the machine, and allow of a deviation in the carriage of at leaft eight points from the courfe of the wind *. To whatever degree of perfection aérial navigation may attain, the limits to which a traveller might foar will for ever be confined to but a fmall diftance, even fuppofing that man could exift in any ftation of the aérial regions however ele- vated. The denfity of. the atmofphere decreafing in a geo- metrical proportion, it will be found that, if a {phere of fhect copper +, of half a pound to the {quare foot, were conftruéted of equal diameter with our earth ( - 7920 miles), and totally exhautted of its inclofed air, fuch a globe would attain its equilibrium at 70°047346 miles diftance from the furface of the earth; nor would it attain a greater elevation, although its power of afcenfion at the inftant of departure would be equal to 2871691637967270771712 pounds. The application of aéroftatic machines tothe advancement of our knowledge of the various phenomena in meteorology, ftands prominent, as the, perhaps, only means of maturing our acquaintance with caufes yet known only by their effects. Their ufe will alfo be indicated in many urgent cafes where other means of conveyance might fall fhort. At the fame time I conclude with remarking, that the hitherto unfuccefs- * A land carriage to be moved by the wind is not a new contrivance a machine of this kind, rigged in all refpeéts like a floop, ufed occafionally to be experimented upon on Barham Downs, near Canterbury: the car- riage being of a light conftruétion, and containing two perfons, was found capable of running a mile in three minutes and a half, upon level ground and with a fair wind. Whether it could furmount the occafional wregu~- larities of a common road, or deviate in any meafure from the wind, I do not now recolleét, + If metallic aéroftats were ever to be conftruéted agreeably to the {cheme of the jefuit Francis Lana, means might be found to exhauft them: but to prevent their being crufhed together by the preffure of the atmofphere would be more difficult to accomplifh! ful u 28 On the prefent State of Aéroflation. ful attempts to render aérial navigation of fervice to man- mind, ought to be no argument for caufing it to be difeoun-—_ tenanced by men of fenfe, or prohibited by civil authority ; as experiments in any art, however multiplied, if not well advifed and condnéted, cannot be expected to fulfil the erro- neous expectations of their projectors. To affift the artift in conftructing his aéroftatic apparatus, it may not be amifs to fubjoin the llewing data:—The dia- meter is to the circumference of a fphere as 1 to 3%, or as ¥ to 3:14:16. The circumference multiplied by the diameter gives the furface of the {phere in fquare dimenfions, and 1-6th of the furface multiplied by the diameter, or the cube of the diameter multiplied by 0°5236, gives the capacity or folid contents in cubic meafure. By the weight of a {quare foot of the envelope may be found the weight of the whole bag, allowing for the feams; and to find the power of afcenfion, fubtra& the weight of the bag and inclofed air from the weight of an equal bulk of atmofpheric air *, and the quo- tient will give the power which the balloon will exert to rife, which (during its afcent) will decreafe till the equilibrium between the two is reftored ; and this point may be nearly afcertained by recolleGting that the denfity of the atmofphere decreafes in the geometrical ratio, and is reduced to half an atmofphere at three miles and a half from the earth’s fur- face +. If a balloon with its annexed apparatus weighs there- fore, at the inftant of afcent, but half an equal bulk of com- mon air, it will rife to three miles and a half perpendicular height; but, as the denfity of the inflammable air decreafes alfo in the ratio of the diminifhing preffure of the furround- . * Accubic foot of water weighs 1000 ounces avoirdupoife ; and as the denfity of air to water is as 1 to 800, this will be 14 ounce for every cubic foot of atmofpheric air: the weight of inflammable air varies according to its purity, fo as to be even 17 times lighter than common air; but in the grofs way, for atroftatic purpofes we muft not expeét to obtain it more than eight or ten times lighter than atmofpheric air. + Agreeably to the annexed table: At miles abl gree ay 7 iieaiatien yer i 14 - - - - = 16 21 - = - - - 64 28 oo he - - 256 35 the air is - 1024 > times rarer. 42 - - - - 4'096 49 SiGe as - 16°384 4) * 56 Saas 2 - 657536 63 F Wait ld - 262°144 70 - - = [(°3'048'576 On the prefent State of Aéroflation. 29 ing air, fo if the balloon were originally but a quarter full (by which means room would be left for this fubfequent ex- panfion of the gas), the machine would mount proportionally higher than the three miles and a half, by as much more as the relative denfity of the gas is become lefs. Thus, if, as is now allowed, we reckon the volume of all elaftic fluids to be inverfely as the preffure, and that the balloon was at firft but a quarter full (yet of half its weight of power of afcenfion), it would not {top till arrived at feven miles height, and the machine would be at its full diftenfion, the denfity being here leffened four times what it was at the moment of afcenfion. But if the machine (whofe power of afcenfion is equal to half its whole weight) was at firft half full, the gas would be ex- panded to twice its volume at three miles and a half; the balloon ‘would then be full, and all further rife would be pre- vented by the air efcaping. at the neck by all the fubfequent rarefaction ; and if this was prevented by tying the neck, the machine would burft. But we are prevented from knowing to what precife height a balloon will rife, from the yet unac- counted-for circumftance of the temperature of the contained air always much exceeding that of the furrounding medium : and as there is not that coincidence in the expanfions of dif- ferent gafes by temperature, as i$ the cafe with refpeé& to barometrical preffure ; fo, till we are better acquainted with the caufe of this diverfity of temperature, and the precife ex- panfion of the gas by the varying degrees of the fame, we muft reft fatisfied with a rough calculation in fuppofing the temperature of the internal and external air to corre- {pond *. The annexed table (extraéted from Mr. Cavallo’s treatife) © fhows the proportion between the furfaces and capacities of fpheres of various diameters, renmembering that the fpecific * From the mode of inflating aé¢roftatic machines, and the diflolving power of all elaftic fluids, the contained gas will always hold in foluticn more or lefs water in an extremely divided ftate. In the elevated and cold Fregions of the atmofphere this vaporous uid will be condenfed in {mall drops in the inner concavity of the balloon; but the before-combined yet now free caloric (to which the fluid owed its vaporous ftate, and which, in every condenfation of a fluid, or change of ftate of its aggregation from aériform elafticity to a fluid or folid ftate, is given out,) will be prevented from efcaping to the external air by the non-conduéting quality of the en- velope: it will therefore ferve to augment the temperature of the hydrogen gas; while in a warmer zone (or when a large and white cloud is fo fitu- ated as to become a mirror to the balloon, ftrongly reflecting the rays of the fun upon the fame,) the contrary effeéts will enfue—the water will reaflume the vaporous ftate, and the temperature of the gas be propor- tionally reduced, as far as relates te its contained water. A quantity 30 On the prefent State of Aérofiation. quantity of the number in the firft column, whether reckoned as inches, feet, or yards, muft be the fame in each lateral co- Jumn ; as {quare inches, feet, or yards, in furface—and cu- bical inches, feet, or yards, in capacity *. Diam. |Surface, | Capacity. Diam. | Surface. | Capacity. | 26 | 2124} 9203 27 24290} 1036 _ 98 | 2463) 11494 29 2642] 12770 30 | 2827; 14137 3t | 3079) 15598 | 37.) BAIT)» Ae 33 3421| 18817 34 | 3632} 20580 35 | 3848| 22449 36 | 4072] 24429 37 4301| 26522 38 | 4536] 28733 39 4778} 31060 40 | 5026} 33510 45 | 6362) 47713 5° | 7854] 65450 55 | 9503) 87114 60 | 11310] 113098 } 65 |13273| 143794 79 | 15394) 179595 75 117671 | 220804 80 | 201¢6} 268083 85 | 22698} 321556 90 | 254471 381704 95 | 28353 | 448922 100 | 31416! 523599 Rs vin i Ne} “I nN GO) nr co o Loa) - “I Cc nN = com © ONT AN BPO DD HH “ co On aS an On aN nn * J have omitted to particularize the method of cutting the pieces com-. pofing a balloon, which will vary according to the width of the ftuff; as the fmalleft ingenuity will enable any one to deferibe a pattern, only recollecting the length in circumference of the machine required, to- gether with its propofed fhape. Alfo the heights of the barometer are omitted (as requiring correCtions for temperature too nice for any but phi- Jofophical amateurs, who may, with propriety, be fuppofed to be already matters of this eifential branch of the feience) forthe prefent purpofe—only recolleéting that, without regard to the difference of temperature, an ele- vation of 16 fathoms, or 96 feet, is ufually allowed for the fall of every tenth of an inch of the mercury. POSTSCRIPT, On the prefent State of Aérofiation, 3k POSTSCRIPT. So long as the vibration of pendulums is performed in a medium of varying denfity, we muft not look for an accurate time-piece for afcertaining the longitude, &c.; unlefs a felf- correcting mercurial pendulum Could be contrived, adapted to counteract the fmalleft variations effected by the ambient air. .The errors of a time-piece are but half corrected by the fabrication of pendulums adapted to obviate the expanfion _of metals by increafe of temperature, if the works themfelves ftill remain conftructed of fuch expanfible materials. A cor- rect time-piece, therefore, will be that of which not only the works and pendulum are conftruéted of the leaft expanfible materials, but the pendulum itfelf fhall vibrate in a medium of unalterable denfity ; a defideratum only to be obtained by caufing the vibrations to be performed in vacuo, or by a felf- correéting pendulum, as above alluded to. I know of no fubftauce fo well adapted to compofe the works of fuch a machine as ivory, or the horn of the narwhal or fea unicorn (nearly entirely compofed of enamel, and ufed in the fabrica- tion of artificial teeth), efpecially if we had a means of in- creafing their hardnefs fo as to vie with the metals (a fubject on which I propofe to make fome experiments) : but for the pendulum itfelf, the common gridiron pendulum ts allowed ‘to be the moft accurate in ufe, provided its vibrations were not obftructed by unequal refiftance from the air: but fora mercurial pendulum to move in open fpace, glafs will be in- dicated as the leaft expanfible and mott proper fubftance for this purpofe. I add, that the moft perfect time-piece hither- to conftruéted, has been fo only in as far as the works have been moft exactly accurate, and the expanfion of the pen- dulum been counteracted (as in the gridiron pendulum) by oppofing expanfion to expanfion. The exact concordance of fuch a machine, on its return to the firft place of o' ‘ervation, will have depended on the nature of the voyage performed in the interim. As, if fuch voyage has been performed acrofs the equator and back (as to the Eaft Indies), the aggregate number of anomalies in the pendulum in the voyage out, will in the return be nearly balanced by the number of ano- malies in the voyage home, fo that the whole difference fhall at laft, perhaps, not amount to 1007’, But if (fome weeks after the failing of the veffel) we had it in our power to know at a certain inftant the precife moment indicated by an equally accurate chronometer left at the place of departure, we fhould find a greater variation between the two, owing to the differ- ence in the denfities of the media in which the pene at ome 42 Sketch of the Geography of Cochin China. home and that on board the fhip have in the interim vi- brated. I fay then, 1. That the concordance (although exa&) of two chrono- meters, after a voyage on the part of one of them, is no proof of their accuracy. . 2. That this concordance will depend on the nature of the voyage that has been performed in the interim. And, 3. That we muft not expect an exact infirument till the expanfions by heat, and the varying denfity of the atmo- fphere, are counteraéted in the fame machine. For although the difference of an inch barometrical pref- fure may not caufe an obfiruction in the arc of vibration equal to the two millionth part of the whole, yet this fmall difference (which, perhaps, may have prevented its hitherto due obfervance,) will, in the {pace of fome months, amount to fomething confiderable, efpecially as a variation of not only ~ one, but two or even three inches increafe or diminution of preffure will frequently enfue in lefs than 24 hours. Kennington, January 17, 1803. VI. A Sketch of the Geography of Cochin China; fome Par- ticulars relative to the Manners, Cuftoms, and Hiftory of the Inhabitants ; and a few Confiderations on the Import- ance of forming an Ejiablifbment in that Country *. Cocutx CHINA, called by the natives Anam, extends from about the 2oth degree of north latitude to Pulo Con- dore, which lies in 8° 407. It is bounded by the kingdom ‘of Tonquin on the north, from which it is feparated by the. river Sungen; by the kingdom of Laos, and by a range of mountains, which divides it from Cambodia, on the weft; and by that part of the Eaftern Ocean generally called the China Sea, on the fouth and eatt. The kingdom is divided into twelve provinces, all lying upon the fea-coaft, and fucceeding each other from north to fouth in the following order : Ding-oie, Cong-bing, Ding-cat, Hue (or the Court), in the pofleffion of the Tonquinete. Cham, (ong-nai, Quinion, in the poffeffion of Ignaack. Phu-yen, Bing-khang, Nab- tong, Bing-thoam (or Champa), dubious whether fubdued by Ignaack, or ftill in the poffeffion of the king. Donaz, in the poffeflion of the king. * From the Afiatic Annual Regifier for 1801. The Sketch of the Geography of Cochin China. 39 +, The breadth of the country bears no proportion. to’ its slength. Few of the provinces extend further than a degree from ealt to weit, fome lefs than twenty miles: Donai, whieh is properly a province of Cambodia, is much larger. The whole country is interfected by rivers, which, although not large enough to admit of veflels of great burthen, yet are, exceedingly well calculated for promoting inland com- merce. , The climate is healthy, the violent heat of the fummer “months being tempered by regular breezes from the fea. Sep- etember, O&ober, and November, are the feafon of the rains 3 the low lands are then fuddenly overflowed by immenfe tor- . fents of water which fall from the mountaims. .The inunda- tions-happen generally once a fortnight, and laft for three or four days, In December, January, and February, thére are frequently rains brought by cold northerly winds, which di- Atinguifh this country with a winter different from any other in the eaft. The inundations have the fame effect here as the overflowings of the Nile in Egypt, and render the country one of the moft fruitful in the world. In many parts the land produces three crops of grain in the year, All the fruits of India are found here in the greateft perfeCtion, with many of thofe of China. . No country in the eaft produces richer or a greater variety ef articles proper for carrying on an advantageous commerce ; cinnanion, pepper, cardemoms, filk, cotton, fugar, Agula wood, Japan wood, ivory, &c. Gold is taken almoft pure from the mines; and, before the troubles, great quantities were brought from the hills in duft, and bartered by the rude inhabitants of them for rice, cloths, and iron. It was from them alfo the Agula and Calambae woods were procured, with quantities of wax, honey, and ivory. The animals of Cochin China are bullocks, goats, fwine, buffaloes, elephants, camels, and horfes. In the woods are - found. the wild boar, tiger, and rhinoceros, with plenty of deer; the poultry is excellent, and the fifh caught on the coaft abundant and delicious. The flefh of the clephant is accounted a great dainty by the Cochin Chinefe. The breed- ing of bullocks is little attended to; their flefh is not efteemed as food, and they are made no ufe of in tilling the land, which is performed by buffaloes. They are totally unacquainted with the art of milking their cattle. _ The aborigines of Cochin China are called Moys, and ave the people which inhabit the chain of mountains which ‘e- parate it from Cambodia. To thefe firong-holds they were Vou, XV. No. 57. D “driven 34 Sketch of the Geography of Cochin China. driven when the prefent poffeffors invaded the country. They are a favage race of people, very black, and refemble in their features the Caffrees. It was about the year 1280 of the Chriftian era that the firtt Tartar prince became poflefied of the throne of China. This revolution afforded an opportunity to the weftern pro- vinces to throw off their dependence; and they were formed into a kingdom, under a prince whofe defcendant now reigns in Tonquin, and is called Knaw-Whang. About the begin- ning of the fifteenth century a large body of people from thefe provinces, being difatieéted to the government, joined under a leader of abilities; they foon became matters of the coaft of Cochin China as far as Cape Aurilla, which lies in Jati- tude 12° 307 north. The Moys, the original inhabitants, retired to the hills bordering their country to the weftward ; where they have ever fince remained. The emigrants, under their conductor, founded the kingdom of Cochin China, The continual wars they were engaged in with the Tonqui- nefe, induced them to build a wall on the fouthern extremity of the province of Ding-noi, to. prevent their irraptions. Every communication by fea was ftri¢tly forbidden. In the year 1764 the country of Cochin China was in a flourifh- ing condition, and governed by a prince of abilities: foon after his fon fucceeded to the throne, and anarchy and con- furfion enfued. The Cochin Chinefe bear evident marks of their being de- rived from the fame ftock as the Chinefe. They refemble them in their features, and moft of their manners and cuf- toms. Their religion is the fame: their oral language, though different, feems formed upon the fame principles ; and they ufe the fame characters in writing. They are a courteous, affable, inoffenfive race, rather inclined to indo- lence. Thé ladies are by far the moft ative fex; they ufu- ally do all the bufinefs, while their lazy lords fit upon their haunches, fmoking, chewing beetle, or fipping tea. Con- trary to the cuftom of China, the ladies are not fhut up; and, if unmarried, a temporary connection with ftrangers who ar- rive in the country is deemed no difhonour. Merchants often employ them as their factors and brokers, and, ’tis faid, the firmeft reliance may be placed on their fidelity. The habit of the mén and women is cut after the fame fa- fhion. It is a Joofe robe, buttoning with a {mall robe round the neck, and folding over the breaft like a banyan gown, with large leng fleeves which cover the hands. People of rank, and efpecially the ladies, wear feveral of thele gowns “one Sketch of the Geography of Cochin China. 35 .one over the other; the undermoft one reaches to the ground, the fucceeding ones are each fhorter than the other, fo that _ the difplay of the different colours makes a gaudy appearance "as they walk along. Such are the few particulars relative to Cochin China. It now remains to fhow how a conneétion with Cochin China may prove beneficial to this country. The drain of Ipecie from the company’s fettlements in India is become a Matter of fuch ferious import, that any plan which may be offered to remedy fo growing an evil, I have no doubt, will _ be deemed worthy of obfervation. I am fanguine in my ex- _ pectations, that a fettlement in Cochin China would conduce to that defirable end, as well as be produétive of many ether advantages. . Our two little veffels brought from Cochin China to the amount of 60,000 rupees in gold and filver bullion. The Rumbold, the year before, alfo brought bullion to a confi- derable amount, on account of fales of Bengal and Madras cloths, opium, iron, copper, lead, hardware, and glafs. The fituation of Cochin China is excellently well adapted tocommerce. “Its vicinity to China, Tonquin, Japan, Cam- bodia, Siam, the Malay coaft, the Philippines, Borneo, the Moluccas, &c. renders the intercourfe with all thefe countries fhort and eafy. The commodious harbours. formed on the coaft, particularly that of Turon, afford a fafe retreat for fhips of any burthen during the moft tempeftuous feafons of the year. The nations of Europe, having hitherto found it impoffible _-to provide cargoes fufficiently valuable to barter for the com- modities of China, are obliged to make up the deficiency by fending thither immenfe quantities of bullion ; » which means it has, for a number of years paft, drained the eaftern and weftern worlds of their fpecie. ‘The number of junks annually reforting to Cochin China, plainly proves how much the produétions of it are in demand amongft the Chinefe. _ Thefe produétions, bad we a fettlement and a confirmed in- _ fluence im the country, might with eafe be brought to centre with us, purchafed with the ftaples of India and of Europe. Turon would become the emporium for them, where our fhips bound to Canton, from whence it is only five days fail, might call and receive them. It would prove a faving of fo much fpecie to Great Britain or India as the value of the commodities amounted to in China. In a few years, there _ isevery reafon to believe a very confiderable invefiment might be provided. Our trade to China has ever been burthened with enor- D2 mous 9 36 Sketch of the Gebgraphyof Cochin CBina. “mous impofts and exactions : thefe, under varidus pretendes, “are annually inereafing, and in procefs of time may become infupportable. “It is ‘an opinion, latterly crown ‘current, that the Chinefe are’ defirous of totally excliliaie all Europeans “from their country, May we not hazard a conjeéture, ‘that . the vexations they oblige them to fuffer are the’ premeditated ‘chemes of this politic people to effect it? “Were fath-an event to happen, the want ofa’ fettlemeént' to the’ eaftward would be feverely felt; the Chinefe would export their own commodities, and ‘Jaya or the Philippines, as the’ neared _ ports, would become ‘the marts for heen. As there is no _reafon to fuppofe that our inability to procure them from ‘the “firft land would hindertheir confumption, we muft buy them _ either from the Dutch or from the Spaniards. ~A fettlenient in Cochin China will give us ‘a fuperior advantage to either, both ‘as its fituation is nearer, ‘and the Chinefé are more ac- cuftomed to refort thither: at ‘all events there is reafon to fuppofe it will enable us to procure the commodities of China at amuch more reafonable rate than now purchafed by ‘our fagtors at Canton, and certainly on lefs humiliating terms to the nation at large, Colonies of Chinefe have from time to time emigrated from the parent country; and fixed their abode in different parts of Cochin China. 'Thefe have their corre- fpondence in every fea-port of the enipire. Through their weans, teas, china ware, and the various other articles, the objects of our commerce with China, might be imported in junks to our own fettlements, equally good in quality, and cheaper, as the Chinefe are exempted from the exorbitant duties levied on foreigners. Some of the beft workmen might be encouraged to fettle in Cochin China, and, under dire@tion, mant@-tories carried to as great a degree of perfe€tion as in China itfelf, . The intercourfe between Japan and Cochin China might be renewed, and we might participate in a trade for many "years monopolized by the Dutch, An advantageous trade night be carried on with the Philippine iflands, and Madras and Bengal goods introduced amongft them, by means of the junks, for the confumption of Spanifh America. The Siamefe and Cambodians would bring the produce of their refpective countries, and barter or fell them for fuch articles _as they wanted from Cochin China. Amongft-them it is _ probable a fale might be found for quantities of Bengal cloths. The lower clafs of people in Cochin China are, for the moft part, clothed in cangas, a coarfe cotton cloth brou ht from China; but the preference, which I had an opportunity of oblerving, they gave to Bengal cloths, on mia at cing Sketch of the Geography of Coghin China. 37 being wider and cheaper, would foon indyce them to adopt the ule of them. The demand for opium, ‘already in fome meafure become a neceffary of life to the Chinefe, would in- creafe in proportion to the facility of procuring it. The im- portation of it, no longer confined to Canton, but carried by the junks to every fea-port in the country, would fpread the demand for this drug to the remoteft parts of the empire. ~ But what infpires the moft flattering hopes from an efta- blifhment in this country is its rich gold mines, ‘celebrated for ages as producing the richeft ore, fo pure, that the fimple ’ action of fire is faid to be fufficient to refine it. I omitted no er of making inquiries refpecting this valuable ar- ticle, and was told that mmes were formed:in different parts, of*the northern provinces, and particularly in Hué, where thé ore lay fo near the furface of the earth thatit was dug up with little labour.’ Under the dire€tion of ‘a: {kilful metal- lurgift, what might not be expected from fuch a fource ! Great as.the commercial advantages are, the political ones the mandariys who were, in. Bengal, with many officers of the. late government, urged me to ufe my endeavours with the government. of, Bengal to induce it to afford them affiflance, promufing a, powerful fupport whenever we fhould heartily join.in their.caufe. To reftore their lawful foyereign to the® throne, would be now a meafure fo popular, that the fince-,. rity, of their offers cannot be doubted, ‘To relieve an unhappy. people, groaning under the weight of the moft cruel’ oppref-" fion, would be an act worthy of the Britifh nation.” Fifty European infantry, balf that number of artillery, and two_ hundred fepoys, would be fufficient for this and every other purpofe. The. natives of Cochin China are infinitely below the inhabitants of Hinduftan in military knowledge; I have, however, no doubt that a body of them, well difciplined and regularly paid, would prove as faithful to us, and contribute as much to the fecurity of any poffeflions which we might _ acquire to the eaftward, as the fepoys do to our territories in 3 India, 38 ‘Report on Vaffali-Eandi, Giulio, and Roff's India. In cafe of any diftant expeditions, they would be found fuperior, being entirely free from all religious preju- dices, and haying no objection tothe fea, While Cochin China remains in its prefent diftraéted ftate, a favourable opening is prefented to the firft European nation that may attempt to obtain a footing in the country. Should the company, therefore, entertain a defign of forming an eftablifhment in Cochin China, no time fhould be loft in , carrying it into execution. k VII. Report prefented to the Clafs of the Excé& Sciences of the ‘Academy of Turin, 15th Auguft 1802, in regard ta the Galvanic Experiments made by C. YAssaut-EAaNDI, Gruuio, and Rossi, on the 10ib and 14th of the fame Month, on the Head and Trunk of three Men a fhort Time after thei? Decapitation. By C. GIULIO.w r Tur rier Conful, in a letter to Chaptal, in which he announced to that minifter the two prizes he had founded to encourage philofophers to make new refearches in regard to Galvanilm, fays, ‘* Galvanifm, in my opinion, will lead to great difcoveries.”” This obfervation was juft and pro- found: great difcoveries have already been made; Galvani and Volta have immortalized their names, and feveral cele-. brated philofophers and phyfiologifts have rendered them- félves illu(trious in this branch of fcience, fo abundant in aftonifhing phenomena: yet it is only in its infancy, and there can be no doubt that many important difcoveries fill femain do be made, 2°" 28 UP oun Bog (era Vaffali, Roffi, and myfelf, have for feveral years been em- ployed in refearches on this fubjeét. While the firft examined the Galvanic fluid in every point of view, for the purpofe of illuftrating its nature by means of a great number of -inge- nious experiments, performed with that ‘care and exaétnefs which are peculiar to him, Rofli and myfelf attempted to explain the aétion of the Galvanic fluid on the different or- gans of thé animal economy. on “ar SURRY Sometimes I was obliged to interrupt my refearches by un- fortunate circumftances, and at others by my admminiftrative fun@tions: but I have now refumed them; and though fuc- cefs has not yet crowned my efforts by any brilliant difco- very, we truft, and with confidence, that we {hall be able to add fome valuable faéts to the hiftory of the animal econo- yoy; to rectify errors; to confirm facts already received; and : ; ; ’ to Galvanic Experiments. 39 to extend the domain of an inexhauftible agent fertile in wonders. Volta had announced that the involuntary organs, fuch as, the heart, the ftomach, the inteftines, the bladder and vef- fels, are infenfible to the Galvanic a€tion*: but we have fully refuted this great phyfiological error. Unfortunately, how- ever, the Latin memoir containing the decifive experiments which we made on cold-blooded and warm-blooded animals in 1792, prefented to the Academy foon after, and which, according to Sue, in his Hiftory of Galvanifm +, ** are cu- rious, and contain very interefting obfervations,” did not ap- pear till 1801, when it was printed in the laft volume of the Tranfa&tions of the Academy. In that interval Grapengieffer found, as we had done, that Galvanifm, by means of zinc and filver t, has an influence on the periftaltic motion. Humboldt afcertained the Gal- vanic action on the hearts of frogs, lizards, toads, and fifhes. Smuch obferved the excitability of the heart by the Galvanic fluid; and Fowler changed the pulfations of the heart with- out the immediate application to it of armatures, and only by adapting them in warm-blooded animals to the recurrent nerve by means of the fympathetic §. It is chiefly in regard to the experiments of thefe learned Germans that the hiftorian of Galvanifm flates |], that the involuntary vermicular motion of the inteftines, according to the acknowledoment of all phyfiologifts, obeys metallic irri- tation; whence it follows, fays he, that the Italian philofo- phers have advanced an error when they faid that Galvanifm exercifes no action but dn the mulcles, which depend on the will, As an accurate and impartial hiftorian, how can Sue accufe the Italian philofophers indifcriminately of fuch an error, fince he had our memoir before him when employed on the fecond volume of his Hiftory of Galvanifm, and fince he gave a fhort account of my experiments in his firft vo- lume? Nay, I gave an account of my experiments in a fmall work publifhed in Italian in 1792. But as Italian works are not much read in France, and were lefs fo at that period, [ fhould not have reproached C. Sue with this act of injuttice, * Mezzini, Volta, Valli, Klein, Pfaff, Berhends, have denied that the heart could be moved by the Galvanic fluid. Hi/t. du Gulwanifme, part i. p- 145. Bichat could obrain no contraétians either in the heart of man or that of the dog. See Récherches Phyfiologiqucs fur la Vie et la Mort. + Towards the end of the firft part, t See Hiftoire du Galvanifme, vol. ii. p. 81. _ 9 Abid. vol. ii. p. 84. | Vol. ii. p. $3. D4 and 8 Fe) Report on Vaffali-Eandi, Giulio, and Roffi’s and his incorreétnefs in regard to the Italian phildfophers;’ had not my Latin memoir been known to him, as it had? appeared in the Tranfaétions of the Academy. Though we made a great many experiments before we at-’ tempted to combat:a philofopher fo juftly celebrated as Volta, and to eftablifh the influence of Galvanifm on the’ involun* tary organs; and though Grapengieffer, Humboldt, Smuch, Fowler, &c. afcertained this influence in certain cold-blooded’ and even warm-blooded animals; an objeét of fo much im~ portance to phyfiology required to be extended and confirmed; efpecially in man, by new experiments. We have been the more fenfible of the neceflity of eftablithing this faé in an incontetiable manner, either in regard to the involuntary or- gans in general, ‘or more particularly the heart, as the cele- brated Aldini, profeffor of Bologna, in an Italian’ work re- plete with new faéts and valuable experiments made on the bodies of decapitated criminals, has been obliged to acknow- Jedge that he was not able to obtain any contraétion in'that organ by means of the eleétro-motor of Volta, which is fe powerful. We fhall give an account, in particular memoirs, of the experiments we have already made, and of thofe which we propofe to execute.. In regard to the ftomach, the large and the fmall inteftines, and the bladder, we fhall fay only, in a general manner, that by armature of the different nervous branches we obtained contractions analogous to thofe de- © feribed in regard to animals. The Galvanic aétion on the heart and arteries is the object of the prefent paper, as it is of the utmoft importance to phyfiology, and deferves, under every point of view, to excite our attention and o¢cupy our reflections. - Our experiments on the different parts of the head and trunk of the decapitated criminals were begun, on the roth of Auguft, in a hall of the large hofpital of St. John, and refumed and continued yefterday in the anatomical theatre of the untverfity, before a great number of fpectators. We tried the influence of Galvanifm on the heart in three different. ways : tft, In arming the fpinal marrow by means of a cylinder of lead introduced into the canal of the cervical vertebr, and then conveying one extremity of a filver arc over the furface of the heart, and the other to the arming of the fpimal mar- row, The heart of the firft individual fubjected to our expe- riments immediately exhibited very yifible and very ftrong contractions, Thefe experiments, as feeén, were made with- ’ ; out Galvanic Experiments, 4a: out any intervention of the pile, and without any armature applied te the heart. It is\very-remarkable, that when the former is touched firft, and then ‘the arming and fpinal mar- row, the contractions of theyheart which fellow are more in- ftantaneous; and ftronger, than when the arming of the {pinah marrow is firit touched, and then the heart. In: a: memoir! on Galvanifm, readin the laft public fitting.of the academy,: I gave an account of a great number of experiments, made efpecially on frogs, which exhibited a fimilar phenomenon, In thefe animals I obferved, a great number: of times, that. when the arming of the crural nerves was touched firft, and then the mufcles of the thigh, there were no contractions, or the contractions were exceedingly weak ; and, on the other hand, that when the mufcles of the thighs’ were firft touched, and then the arming of the crural nerves, as long as the leaft vitality remained in the organs the contractions of the muf- cles were coriftant and violent. In the memoir already men- tioned I have endeavoured to account for this phenomenon, to which I fhall recur when, by, a great number of trials, we fhall have afcertained that it is as general in men as I found it ih frogs and other cold-blooded animals. The fecond manner in which’ we tried the influetice of Galvanifm on the heart was by arming the nervi vagi and. the large fympathetic. The object of thefe experiments will be readily comprehended by anatomiifts acquainted with the details of neurology. In thefe, as well as in the firft and other experiments where we armed the cardiac nerves them- felvés, we obtained contra¢tions in the heart. In this, as in the former cafe, the contractions obtained, when the heart was firft touched, and then the arming of the nerves, were much ftronger than when the arming of the nerves’ was touched firft, and then the heart. In this method we even obferved that the Galvanic experiments fometimes failed. The third kind of experiments on the heart were performed by means of the pile. The pile we employed on the roth of Auguft, for the experiments on the firft decapitated cri- minal, was compofed of fifty plates of filver and as many of zine, with pafteboard moiltened with a {trong folution of muriate of foda. The filver was mixed with a tenth part of copper. This is the proportion which we found moft favour- ~ able to the intenfity of the figns of Galvanilm: Metre. The diameter of the filver plates was. - 0'036 Their thicknefs - - - 0°0015 The dimentions of the piecés of pafteboard were the fame. The 4% Report on Vafjaii-Eandi, Giulio, and Roffi’s Metre. The diameter of the zinc plates was - 042 Their thicknefs - - - 070035 ‘The pile employed for the experiments on the 15th of Auguft was compofed of fifty plates of pure filver, and twice that number of plates of zinc and pieces of pafteboard; the latter moiftened in a folution of muriate of foda. Metre. The diameter of the filver plates was - 07038 Their thicknefs - - - Q'Oo1 The dimenfions of the pieces of pafteboard were the fame. ‘ Metre. The diameter of the zinc plates was = 0°04. Their thicknefs = - - O'OOE By making the negative extremity of the pile to commu. nicate, by means. of refpective conductors, with the fpinal marrow, or merely with the mufcles of the back-or breaft, Jaid bare, and the pofitive extremity immediately with the heart, inftantaneous and violent contractions were obtained ; and the contractions were produced alfo when the heart was made to communicate with the negative extremity of the pile, and the fpinal marrow with the pofitive extremity. We fhall obferye, in regard to contractions of the heart, that of all its parts the apex is the moft fufceptible of motion, and the moft fenfible to the Galvanic influence: we muft _obferve alfo, that the contraétions produced by communica- tion with the pile were not only ftrong, but that they conti- nued a Jong time eyen after all the communication was re-. moved. & _ A very remarkable circumftance is, that the heart, which of all the mufcles retains longeft, in general, its contractility in regard to mechanical ftimulants, is the firft to become in- fenfible to the Galvanic influence. The mufcles of the arms, and thofe of the back and breaft, continue to be excitable by Galvanifm for whole hours; and the heart had loft its ex- eitability about forty minutes after death. The experiments made yefterday in the anatomical theatre exhibited nearly the fame refults in regard to the heart as thofe already mentioned. The great arteries, fuch as the aorta and fome of its branches, being injected with water raifed nearly to the fame temperament as ee of the blood in the living individual, when fubjected to the Galvanic ac- tion exhibited contractions. But it is probable that they will appear ftronger when trials of this kind fhall be made on bodies endowed with a higher degree of vitality than thofe of yefterday, and when the interval between the period of ' decapitation Galvanic Experiments. 43 decapitation and that of the experiments fhall be lefs. With this view, indeed, we haye provided a hall much nearer to the place of execution ; for the refults which we obtained in» the man decapitated on the roth of Auguft, in which cafe the experiments were begun five minutes after the decapita- tion, were all comparatively more ftriking, and ftronger, than thofe obtained in the experiments of yefterday, which were begun more than twenty minutes after decapitation, and which were performed, as appears, on bodies endowed with a much weaker degree of vitality. In the experiments made on the arteries, we armed the nervous plexus, which envelop the trunks of the ceeliac and mefenteric arteries, feveral branches of which are evén inter- woven around the aorta: a communication was eftablifhed between the pofitive or negative extremity of the pile and the aortic artery ilfelf. It was by thefe means that we obtained rifible contraétions. If the effets of Galvanifm on arterial contraGtions are con- flant, as I prefume, all thofe difcuffions which have been agitated fo long, and with fo much violence, in regard to the irritability of the arteries, which does not manifeft itfelf by the action of different mechanical and chemical ftimulants, will at length be terminated in a pofitive and irrefragable manner ; all doubts will at length be removed ; and we fhall be indebted to the Galvanic fluid, which is the moft ener- getic of all agents applied to the animal fibre, for having fixed the opinions of phyfiologifts on a point of fo much importance to the animal economy. Whence comes it that Aldini, even with the help of the moft powerful eleétro-motors, wa8 not able to obtain con- tractions in the heart of man, which we fo evidently obtained by the fame means which “always with{tood his efforts? How happens it that we obtained contraétions by means much weaker pi) Urts f« The firft experiments of Aldini on the human heart were begun an hour and a half after death *. The trunk had been expofed a long time to the open air, the temperature of which was no more than + 2. ‘It is probable that the cold, and the long interval betwéen the period of death and that of the experiment, had already annihilated the irritability of the heart+. In the fifty-third experiment, the heart of another jy Uk aN ee So. Bin executed *€ Saggio di Sperienze ful Galvanifmo di Gioani Aldini; Bolonia 1802, p- 14, ep. 28. * + Lf the celebrated Bichat failed in his experiments on the human heart, as well aS Aldini, it was, perhaps, owing to the fame caules. The tem- S57 i perature 44. Vaffali-Eandi, Giulio, and Rofft's Galuanic Experiments. executed criminal,conftantly,remained, motionlefs and infen-, fible to the Galvanic current., But in this experiment, be- fore trying/the heart, a confiderable, time was. employed in. making trials.on the voluntary organs, the fenfibility of which to Galvanifm had already been acknowledged. But;the very. reverfe of this method onght,to be followed; for.I. will here. repeat, that excitability, by means. of the Galvanic fluid, , 1s. extinguithed in the heart along, time, before, it, becomes ex- tin&.in the voluntary mufcles, This.is fo certain, that while. no part of the heart, tried externally and internally, prefented. any fign,of contractions, the diaphragm, and. the, mufcles o the upper and, lower extremities, gave very {trong ones, In. our, experiments which were begun five minutes after death, the heart ceafed to be fenfible to the Galvanic agent, about the fortieth minute; and.this. was the cafe in the. tem- perature of. + 25; while the voluntary mufcles retained their. Galvanic excitability for whole hours. In other experiments. made by Aldini, the contrattility, of, the voluntary mufeles exifted-three hours, andjeven five hours, after death, ” In. the oxen fubje&ted to Galvanic experiments by Aldini,. the excitability. of thg heart, muft have, been extinguifhed fooner, fince the aétion. of the Galvanic. fluid; of the pile. produced. no contractions, though applied immediately, after, death. If. contractions. were obferved in the voluntary, mufcles. under the fame, cireumftances,.it was, becaufe thefe mufcles, which lofe much fooner than, the. heart their, excitability, in regard to mechanical ftimulants, retain, it much longer than... that organ in regard, to the, Galvanic agent. What then is the caufe of this diverfity, which feems contrary to. eyery ana- logy, and which, however, is proved, by facts? It is fil]; in- volved in much obfcurity: but it is not: yet time to tear the dark veil which conceals it;, we are not yet enlightened by a fufficient number of facts; and the few fcattered data. which, we have been able to. collect, cannot yet be conneéted in a manner capable of encouraging us, to attempt. to rend the veil at prefent. We fhall not here fpeak of the aftonifhment with which, the fpectators were (truck when they faw the contractions of perature was cold, and the interval between the time of execution and that of the experiment too long. ‘ I was authorized,” fays Bichat, ‘‘ in the winter of the ycar 7, to make various trials on the bodies of ,unfortunate perfons who had been guillotined. I had them at my difpofal from thirty to forty minutes after execution. It was always impotlible for me to pro- duce the leaft motion by arming either the fpinal marrow and the heart, or the latter organ and the nerves which’ it receives from the ganglions by the fympatheuc, or from the brain by the par vagum. the On the Materiality of Heat. 45 the frontal. mufcles; thofe of the eye-lids, the face, the lower jaw, and the tongue; when they beheld the convulfions of the mufcles of the arms, the breaft, and of the back, which ‘raifed the trank fome inches from the table ; the contractions of the pectoral mufeles, and ‘the exterior and’ interior inter- ~ coftal'mufcles, which diminifhed| the intervals between all ‘the ribs,’and made them approach each other with vidlence, -raifing the inferior ones towards the fuperior, and the latter ‘towards the firft rib and the clavicle; the contractions of the “atms, which, when the uncovered biceps mufcle was touched, “as well/as ‘its tendon, were fo fpeedy and violent, ‘that com- ’ plete flexion of the fore-arm on the arm took place, and that the hand raifed weights ‘of fome pounds fifty minutes after decapitation. ‘ Similar experiments may be feen in the work of Aldini: our object in this report’ was merely to {peak of the Galvanic influence on the heart and arteries of man, which’ had ‘not yet been obferved. Thefe’ new and ‘important refults, which we obtained in “regard to the ‘heart and arteries of man, will be confirmed by other trials. We fhall repeat our experiments as foon as an opportunity occurs, and we fhall take care to’ give you an early account of the’ 'moft remarkable obfervations’we fhall take, VIIE. 14 Review of fome Experiments which bave been fup- pofed to difprove the Materiality of Heat. By WiLLiam HENRY *. Ta E following remarks on the fubject of heat were writ- ten foon after the publication of Count Rumford’s Inquiry concerning the Source of the: Heat evolved by Friétion; and of the interefting Effays of Mr. Davy, which appeared in Dr, Beddoes’s Weft Country Contributions. They were tran{mitted to Dr. Beddoes, for publication, about the clofe of the year 1799; but circumitances, with which [ am un- acquainted, have, I believe, induced the doétor to decline the continuation of his periodical work. Thefe circum- ftances I deem it neceffary to ftate; becaufe, had the eflav ‘been written nearer the period of .its publication, it would _ probably have affumed a very different form. At prefent, I ~ have not leifure to review the fubject, or to attempt any ma- terial alteration; and ftit lefs to. examine whether I have been anticipated by any of the authors whofe eflays have been publithed during the two laft years. * From the Manchefler Society's Tranfachiont, vol, V« part 2. A Review - 46 Onn the Materiallty of Heat. A Review of [ome Experiments which have been fippofed 1 difprove the Materiality of Heat. Tt has long been a queftion among philofophers, whether the fenfation df heat, and the clafs of phanomena arifing from the fame caufe, be produced by a peculiar kind of mat- ter, or by motion of the particles of bodies in general. The - former of thefe opinions, though far from being univerfally admitted, is now moft generally received; and the peculiar . body, to which the phenomena of heat are referred, has been denominated by M. Lavoifier caloric, Again{t the doétrine of the French fchool, fome forcible arguments have lately been advanced by Count Rumford and by Mr. Davys both of whom have adopted that theory refpeéting heat, which affigns as its caufe a motion among the particles of bodies. . Ree The method of reafoning employed by Mr. Davy in prev- ing the immateriality of the caufe of heat, is the reduétio ad abfurdum, i. e. the oppugned theory is affumed as true, to~ gether with its applications; and facts are adduced direétly contradictory of the affumed principles: I fhall take the li- berty of offering a flatement of the argument, rather different from that of Mr. Davy, though, I truft, without mifrepre- fentation, or any material omiffion. Let heat be confidered as matter; and let it be granted, that the temperature of bodies depends on the prefence of uncombined caloric. Now, if the temperature of a body be increafed, the free caloric, occafioning that elevation, mutt proceed from one of two fources: either, 1ftlv, It may be communicated by furrounding fubftances; or, adly, It may proceed from an internal fource, 2. e. from a difengage- ment of what before exifted in the body, latent or combined. But the temperature of bodies 1s uniformly increafed by fric- tion and pereuflion, and neceflarily in one of the foregoing modes. I. Mr. Davy found, by experiment, that a thin metallic plate was heated, by fri€tion in the exhaufted receiver of an ait-pump, even when the apparatus was infulated, from bodies capable of fupplying caloric, by being placed on ices This experiment he confiders as demonftrating, that the evolved caloric could not be communicated by furrounding bodies. To the inference deduced from this experiment it may be objected; that the mode of infulation was by no means per- fect. Admitting the vacuum, produced by the air-pump, 20 have been complete, fill the fupply of caloric could not thus On the Materiality of Heut. 47 thus be entirely cut off, fince it has been fhown by Count Rumford that caloric paffes even through a torricellian va- cuum. If, therefore, friction produce in bodies fome change, which enables them to attract caloric from furrounding fub- ftances, this attraction may be equally efficient in an ex- haufted receiver as in one containing an atmofphere of mean denfity. It would be an interefting fubje& of experiment to _ determine the influence of atmofpheres of various denfities as conductors of caloric; for, fince effects are proportionate to their caufes, and it is afcertained that common air condu@s caloric (better than it is conveyed through a vacuum) as 1000 is to 702, it may be expected that the ratio will hold in all intermediate degrees. In Count Rumford’s mafterly experiment, the metal fub- mitted to fri€tion was encompatled by water, and air was carefully excluded from the furfaces in motion: yet the water » became hot, and was kept boiling a confiderable time. In this cafe, the only obvious fource of caloric, from without, was through the borer employed in producing the friGtion; if it be true, as the Count has obferved, that the water could not, at the fame inftant, be in the aét of giving out and receiving cheat. The fame objeéction to the communication of heat, . from an external fource, exifts alfo in thus explaining Mr. Davy’s experiment: but I cannot admit that the argument is demonttrative in proving the evolved caloric not to be de- rived from external {ub{tances ; for no abfurdity is implied in fuppofing that a body may be receiving caloric in one ftate, and giving it out in another. We have an example of the fimultaneous admiffion and extrication of a fubtile fluid, the materiality of which is admitted by Mr. Davy, in an excited electric, which, at the very fame inftant, receives the electric fluid from without, and transfers it to the neighbouring con- .du&ors. In an ignited body, alfo, the two proceffes of ab- forption and irradiation of light are, perhaps, taking place at the fame moment. If. Another caufe of the increafe of temperature in bodies, is the liberation of their combined caloric; and if this be a fource of temperature, the abfolute quantity of caloric in a body muft be diminithed by friction. That no fuch dimi- nution really takes place, we have the evidence of two expe- riments,—the one of Mr. Davy, the other of Count Rumford, Mr. Davy, by rubbing together two pieces of ice, converted them into water. Now water, ex hypothefi, contains more caloric than the ice from which it was formed; and, on the fame hypothefis, the abfolute quantity of caloric in ice is diminifhed by fri€tion and liquefaction ; which is ae. Jount a8 On the Materiality of Heat. Count Rumford alfo’afcertained that the fpecifie' heat of iréri was not diminithed when converted by a borer into. turnings, . ‘and confequently whem it had been the ‘fource: of much tem- perature. Int explanation of thefe faéts we may be allowed to aifume the communication of caloric from: furrounding bodies, till this communication has been demonftrated to ‘be impoflible. But even were the impoftibility eftablithed, ‘it would yet remain to be proved, that the evolved’ caloric does not proceed’ {rom an internal fource ;- and this can only’ be done by an accurate comparifon of the quantity’of caloric in ‘bodies before and after friGtion: Now, in inftituting'tltis comparifon, it is implied that; we poflefs means, of determin- ing the abfolute quantity of calorie: in bodies, and thatiwe ean compare quantities of caloric'with as much certainty as we can obtain from an appreciation by weight or by meafurte, Such perfection, however, does not, I apprehend, ‘belong to ‘the prefent itate of our knowledge refpecting heat; for Phave always been diftraftful of that part of the do&rine which /af- figns the ratio of heat latent in bodies. | The grounds of this dittraft T thal] ftate pretty fally ; for, if it can be proved that we have no accurate conceptions of quantity, as’appertaining to heat, all-argaments againft its materiality, “derived from fuppofed determinations of its quantity, muft be inconclufive. The only clear conceptions which’ the mind has ‘of quan- sty, are derived either from a comparifon of the magnitude or of the gravity of bodies. In the inftance of calorie, both thefe modes of menfuration fail us. We cannot eftimate the bulk-of a fubftance which eludes our grafp and our vifion ; nor have we yet fucceeded in comparing its gravity with that of the grofler kinds of matter, which it furpafles in tenuity beyond all comparifon. Our notions of the quantity of ea- lorie aré derived, not from fuch fimple judgments, but from compheated proceffes of reafoning, in the fteps of which, errors fatal to the whole may perhaps fometimes appear. Whatever be the nature of caloric, whether it be a body fui generis, or a quality of other bodies, its effe&ts are pecu- har and appropriate; and, like ‘all other effects, beara pro- portion to the energy of their caufe. Expanfion, for example, it is proved by experiment, keeps pace-with the a&tual incre- » ments of heat ; and on this-principle is founded the* thermo- meter, the great agent in the acquirement of all our ideas re- fpeéting heat, both abfolute and relative. The competency of this inftrument, however, to afford information of the quantity of caloric, is limited by the following cireumt{tances : “iit, The mercury of the thermometer indicates only the quantity of heat which it has itfelf acquired, dnd by no means 9 that Mr. Henry on the Materiality of Heat, 4g. that contained in futrounding bodies. dly, The! feale of éxpanfion is wholly arbitrary, commencing far from’ the’ adbfollite privation of heat, and falling fat fhort of its maxi- mum. 3dly, Thé caloric latent in bodies, or cheinically’ comibitied with them, has no effect on the thermometer, 4thly, The experiments of Dr. Crawford, though fufficietit! to ee that the expanfion'of the mercury of the thermo- niéfer beats’ a ratio’to the actual incremients’ of heat in atiy’ temperatiire between the boilitig and freezing points of wi- ter,’ by rio’ means’ prove that’ this proportion holds univer-' fally. Baal weights of heterogeneous bodies,’ it is“ prefumed,’ contain unequal quantities of caloric; and the’ ratio’ of thefe” quantities is approximated in'the following manner: Equal weights of the fame body,’ at’ different tempera-' tures, give, on adimixtute, the arithmetical’mean ; but equal’ weights of different bodies, at different temperatures, afford a’ temperature which varies confiderably from the mean. Thus: a pound of water at 100°, and a pound at’ 200°, give’ the’ temperature of 150°; but a pound of water at 200°,’ and’ a pound of mercury at 160°, ‘afford, not the mean, but a’ temperature confiderably higher. Hence it follows, that a’ pound of mercury has not the power of fixing and retaining" fo much caloric as’ a pound’ of water; and the fixation of more Heat by the water than by the mercury, is afcribed to’ the fuperior cnergy of a power inherent in both,’ and termed’ capacity for caloric. _ From an extenfive feries of experiments Dr. Crawford in- ' fers,that the capacities’ of bodies are permanent fo long as’ poe nar their form. Thus, the capacity of water has to’ that of {jercury the ratio of 28 to 1, at any temperature be- tween 3%,-and 212°. The difference of capacities of bodies;* it is infey, 2d, therefore, would continue the fame down to the" -abfolute ptivation of temperature. Imagine, then, two bodies at this vail of privation : they may fill contain unequal quati-" tities of combined caloric; for, when chemically combined, ca- loric does not produce temperature. Ou Dr. Crawford’s hypo-_ thefig thefe comparative quantities of combined calori¢'in the’ tWo bodies ‘may be learned by obferving the ratio of tempe-_ rature produced by the addition t6 each of fimilar quantities’ of heat. This fuppofition, however, is manifeftly gratuitous; and’ the contrary might be maintained witrfeadatar greater” Pp obability 3 forit’ may be fappofed that at'this’affumed ne.” ion of temperature one body renders latent more calorie! than another, bécalife it actually ‘contains ’lefs; /as certain dry” falts’‘attraét more’ water from’ the atmofphere thai onhierel Wor. XV. No. 57. i céntaining 50 Mr. Henry on the Materiality of Heat. - containing much water of cryftallization. The commonly employed mode of afcertaining the fpecific caloric of bodies is founded, therefore, on an aflumption which is deficient in the character of a datum, and which itfelf requires proof. _ If thefe objeétions be yalid, they will apply alfo to fhow the fallacy of the theorem, for finding the abfolute zero of bodies. By this term fome philofophers appear to under- ftand the point of abfolute privation of caloric, both free and combined. I apprehend, however, that in {trict propriety it can only be ufed to fignify the negation of uncombined caloric, or, as Dr. Crawford expreffes himfelf, the point of abfolute cold. As applied, however, to water, it is evident that the whole quantity of heat is underftood. In afcertaining the zero, fay thefe calculators, the capacity of ice to that of water isasgto1o. Itis plain, therefore, that when water freezes it muft give out 1-1roth of its whole heat; and this tenth part is found to anfwer to 146° of Fahr. Confequently its whole heat is ten times 146, or 1460°; and hence the natural zero is 1460 — 32, or 1428°. Now of this eftimate it is a datum, that the capacities of ice and water have precifely the above - ratio. But if the general formula for afcertaining the {pecific. caloric of bodies be founded on erroneous principles, it can- not ferye as’ the ground-work of any folid conclufions. The materiality of caloric may, I apprehend, be main- tained, without admitting that we have made any fteps to- wards determining its quantity in bodies; and the arguments of Count Rumford and Mr. Davy are not demonftrative, becaufe they affume that this part of the doétrine of caloric cannot be relinquifhed without abandoning it zz tofo. I may be permitted, therefore, to flate my reafons for believing caloric to be matter; which would have been unngceflary had the contrary been proved with all the force of snathe-. matical demonfiration. ki . Avoiding all metaphyfical reafoning on the nature of mat-_ ter, and afluming the generally received definition as fuffi- ciently characterizing it, I fhall examine how far this ge- neral character of matter applies to the individual—caloric, €aloric-occupies fpace, or is extended, becaufe it enlarges the. dimenfions of other bodies; and, for the fame reafon, it is impenetrable, fince, if it could exift at the fame time in the fame place with other bodies, their volume would never be enlarged by the addition of heat. Of form or figure, as only a mode of extenfion, it is unneceffary to prove that caloric is poffeffed; and, indeed, there is perhaps only one general quality of matter that will not be allowed it, viz. attraction. ‘Phat caloric is influenced by the attraction of CraUM ANA Pr | 7 ; VY - ae Mr. Henry on the Materiality of Heat. 51 by cohefive attra@ion, has never yet been proved: yet the various experiments of Buffon, Whitehurft, Fordyce, Pictet, &e. cannot be alleged as proofs that it is actually devoid of this propettys fince they only decide, that the fmall quanti- ties which can be artificially collected, are not to be fet in the balance againft the groffer kinds of matter. One kind ef attraGion, that which: has lately been termed chemical affinity, may, I think, after/a full furvey of phenomena, be fairly predrcated of caloric; and if its pofleffion of this quality be rendered probable, we fhall thence derive a powerful ar- gument in favour of its materiality. © That chemical affinity has a confiderable fhare in producing the phenomena of heat, appears probable from the following confiderations : 1.\ All the charaéters diftincuifhing caloric when feparate, ceafe to be apparent when it has contributed to a change of form in other bodies ; and the properties of the fubftances fo changed are alfo materially altered. Now this is the only unequivocal mark of chemical union that we can apply in any inftance; and chemical union implies the exiftence and efficiency of chemical affinity. ee © 2. The relation of caloric to different fubftances appears to obferve that peculiar law, which, in other inftances, is termed elective affinity. If a compound of two or more principles, a metallic oxide fur inftance, be expofed in a high tempera- ture, the caloric forms a permanent union with the one, but not with the other. In certain inflances, caloric is evolved, when two fubftances, attracting each other more powerfully than they attract caloric, produce, on admixture, an elevation of temperature. In other in{tances, caloric is abforbed when it is attracted by the new compound, more ftrongly than by the feparate components. Such faéts warrant the deduétiony that caloric is fubje&t to the laws of chemical affinity. But the precife order of its affinities remains to be decided by fu- ture experiments. _. 3. Caloric feems alfo, on fome occafions, to bear a part in the operation of double elective affinities. In this way it produces decompofitions, which, by fingle affinity, it is incapable of effecting. Thus a moft intenfe fire does not expelventirely the carbonic acid from alkalies: but, when affinity of an acid for an alkali concurs with that of car- bonie acid for caloric, a decompofition enfues. Again: water may be fubmitted to the higheft temperature without imipart- ing a gafeous form to the hydrogen which it contains 3 but the confpiring affinity of a metal for oxygen occafons the produétion of hydrogenous gas. On this principle many 15), E3 chemical $3 Mr. Henry on the Materiality of Heat. chemical faéts ane refolved into the law of double affinity, which ave at prefent explained by that) of fingle eleclive ats traction. es ies. b boysils 20 Jomnes 2936 4. Caloric aéts fometimes as an intermedium, im cembins ing bodies which, withoutlitsaid; are not fufceptible of com- bination, Thus carbon and oxygen do not evince any: tens dency to combination: at the ordinary, temperature of the:ate mofphere; but caloric brings them intdé union, and conftis tutes itfelf part of the refulting compound. ‘Thisy and a!va+ riety of other iftances, bave a firiking refemblance to: what if, Ww is called intermediate affinilyds (ois. 3 In the theory of Dr. Crawford; no influence is allowed to chemical affinity over the pheenomeua of heat; and, indeed, that philofopher exprefles a decided opinion that elementary heat is not capable of uniting chemically with bedies. Hence it appears, that the difference between! the terms affinity and dcity is not merely a-verbal one, but that they are actually aoe off different powers or caufes; and, the queftion, Hetefore, which of thefe terms fhall be adopted in the des foription of facts, is oneinvolving the determination of caufes, The term capacity for heat is‘employed, by Dr. Crawford and others, to denote, im the abftract,, that. power by which different kinds of matter acquite'different quantities of calorics ‘But in:the various applications that are made-of this theory; . amore precife meaning is) often. affixed to it; and the'term is applied:in much the fame fenfe which it has.in common language. When. thus:underfiood, a difference of capacity neceflarily implies.a difference in the extent of the fpaces between the minute’particles of bodies 3, and that thefe dif= ferences occafion the varieties obferved in:the acquirement of heat by different: bodies. On this:theory there is no aétive principle or power inberent in: bodies, and more activecitt fome than in others,—no: tendency in the matter of heat:to attach. itfelf,, in preference, to any one fubftance. | The afs figned caufe of the phenomena of heat is not, I apprehend; adequate to produce*the effects aferibed ‘to it. OMS On the theory of capacities, a change of formiis, in cer< tain inftances, antecedent to the abforption of caloric. Thus, when ether is converted into. gas, on removing the prefiure of the atmofphere, according’ to this hypothefis, the capacity of the ether 13 increafed by its volatilization ; and the:change of form is prior to, and the caufe of, the abforption of calo« rit. The order of events, then,.in the volatilization of ether is firft an alteration of form; next, a change:of capacity; and, lafily, an abforption of caloric: , On’ this: hypo 3 ether may.exift in the ftater of: gas- without ‘containing. LMDISIT & Jk greater Mr, Henry on the Wateriality of Hert. 53 greater’ abfolute quantity of caloric than in @ liquid form. But fuch an interpretation of phenomena is directly con- tradiGtory to an eftablithed principle, admitted even by thofe who prefer the doétvine of capacities, viz. that all bodies, during their converfion from a fluid to a vaporous flate, ab- forb calorie. It is at variance alfo with obierved faéts » for, if a thermometer be immerfed ina portion of ether, confined under the receiver of an-air-pump, the temperature of the ether will be found to fink, gradually during the exhauftion of the air; and the evaporation becomes proportionally flower, till, at laft, it is {carcely perceptible. We may there- fore infer, that, at a certain point of dinsinifhed temperature, the volatilization of ether would entirely ceafe, if the fupply of caloric from furrounding bodies could be completely inter- cepted. But, on the theory of capacities, the evaporation fhould proceed as rapidly at the clofe as at the commence~ ment of the procefs ;, or, in other words, évaporation fhould, be wholly independent of temperature, which every one knows is contrary to fact, i It may be confidered, therefore, as extremely probable, that the tendency of ether to affume a gafeous form depends onits chemical affinity for caloric. But, it may be afked, how is this affinity counteracted by an increafed prefiure, and augmented by a diminifhed one? a _ A cireumftance abfolutely effential to the formation oh gafes is, that free {pace fhall be allowed=for' their expanfion. Mechanical preffure aéts as a counteracting force to this ex panfion, and ‘either prevents it completely or partially, ace cording to the degree of its application. But from this fact no argument can be drawn again{t the exiftence of cheimical, affinity as an attribute, of caloric. Two oppofite forces in phyfics may be fo balanced, that, neither hall produce its appropriate effect. Thus, a body impelled in contrary direc- tions may remain at reft; yet the operation of the oppofing forces, in this cafe, cannot be demed, Even in chemittry, we have unequivocal examples in which the action of the’ affinities is fupprefied by more powerful catifes. Thus, bodies, that havea {trong chemical affinity are kept perfectly diftingt, even when placed in conta& by the affinity of aggregation. The only inference, then, that can fairly be deduced from: the effects of preflure in preventing the formation of gales, is, that it is a power fometimes fuperior in energy to that of chemical affinity. , Since, therefore, caloric is charaCterized by all the proper- ties, except gravity, that enter into the definition of matter, we may yenture to confider it as a diftinct and peculiar body, ye AG E 3 No, 64 Mr. Henry on the Materiality of Heat. Nor is its deficiency of gravity fufficient to ex¢lide it from the clafs of material {ubftances. Such nicety of arrangement might, with equal propriety, lead us to deny the materiality: of light, the gravity of which has never yet been proved ; for, befides the experiments of Mr. Michell, which failed in afcertaining this property of light, we have feveral chemical facts tending to the fame conclufion. Thus Mr. Cavendith, after firing a mixture of hydrogenous and oxygenous gafes im a clofe veifel, a procefs during which much light is always emitted, found not the fmalleft diminution of weight. To have completed this defence of the material nature of heat, it would have been proper to have pointed out the cir- cumftances in which the phenomena of heat differ from the known and acknowledged phenomena of motion. At pre- fent, however, I have not leifure to purfue the fubje& at much length; and though feveral points of difagreement would doubtlefs be found, I fhall mention only one of the moft marked and decifive. ir Motion is an attribute of matter, independently of which it cannot poffibly fubfift. If, therefore, the phenomena of heat can be fhown to take place where matter is not prefent, we fhall derive from the fa& a conclufive argument againft that theory of heat which affigns motion as its caufe. Now, in the experiment of Count Rumford, before alluded to, heat paffed through a torricellian vacuum, in which, it need hardly be obferved, nothing could be prefent to tran{port or propa- gate motion. This experiment, in my opinion, decidedly proves that heat can fubfift independently of other matter, and confequently of motion; in other words, that beat is @ difiin and peculiar body *, , * The argument at p. 49, which is the bafis of my objeétions to the commonly employed mode of afcertaining {pecific caloric, I fear, is not fo fully and clearly ftated as the abftrufe nature of the fubject requires. Affuming two bodies, A and B, to be at the point of privation of tem- perature, or to poffefs no free caloric whatfoever, the quantity of combined caloric in each, according to Dr. Crawford’s theory, is direé?/y proportional to the quantities of heat neceffary to produce equal elevations of terpera- ture in the two bodies, Thus, if to attain a given temperature, A require caloric as 20, and B only as ro, the combined caloric of A, before this addition, is inferred to have borne to that of B the ratio of 2 tox. But it~ might, with equal or perhaps greater probability, have been affumed that the combined caloric of A and B is sxverfely proportional to the quantities of heat required to produce a given temperature; that A, for example, to attain a certain temperature, has abforbed more caloric than B, becaufe in A lefs caloric exifted previoufly in a {tate of chemical union, ett IX. Reperé os ae “TK. Report made to the Philofophical and Mathematical Cla/s of the French National Inftitute in the Sitting of Au- guft 18, entitled A Tour to Upper Egypt above the Cata- raéts of Sienne, with Obfervations on the different Kinds of Senna ufed in Commerce. By C. DEsszssartz and VENTENAT. C e NECTOUX, one of the fcientific men whom the go- vernment had made choice of to form part of the commiffion of the fciences and arts which accompanied general Bona- parte to Eeypt, being appointed to obferve the agricultural fyftem of the country, by examining its plants as well as other objects of natural hiftory, embraced that opportunity of acquiring fome miore certain information in regard to the fenna which Alexandria fupplies to all Europe, and particu- larly to France. The magazines of Alexandria and Cairo were the firft fources which he minutely infpefted. All the bales of fenna were opened to him, and he found not only the two kinds already known, but alfo a third plant added to them, the Jeaves of which have a great refemblance to thofe of the real fenna. But fearing, and with reafon, that the infornfation . he thould thus obtain would be as imperfect and incomplete as that before publithed, he refolved to examine the different . {pecies in the places where they are cultivated, and in the different ftates of growth, that the defcription he intended to - give might be as full and accurate as poffible. With this view he vifited and examined, with great care, _the environs of Alexandria, Rofetta, Damietta, and Cairo; but without fuccefs: he did not find a fingle piant of fenna in the whole fpace inclofed in the Delta. The fenna, there- fore, is called the fenna of Alexandria merely becaufe that city is the general entrep6t from which it is tranfported to Europe; and fenna de Ja palthe, becaufe fuch entrepdts are called palibe, which fignifies a farm; the managers are called althters. By the information obtained from the different palthiers, among whom he mentions, with gratitude, C. Rofetty, and from the inhabitants of the country, he learned that fenna plants were to be found in the valleys of Sienne. He there- fore proceeded thither, and had the fatisfaction of meetin with fome, and of colleéting feveral loaded with flowers =a frvit, Encouraged by this Fpbels, nothing was able to re- ftr:in the ardour of his curiofity; neither the violence of the hea, nor the difficulty of a long journey through parched . E4 and 56 On a Tour through Egypt, | and rugged mountains, nor the dread of the ferocious Arabs ‘aniong whom it was impoffible to travel wwithott imminent danger. He difpatched fome of the natives, who brought him fpecimens of the different plants they met with. But being {upported by the civil and military authorities, whom ‘the example. and wifhes of the commander in chief had \in- fpired with the fame zeal for the promotion of every thing that could contribute to the progrefs of the fciences, he penetra to every place where \he had been told or fufpected that he hould find fenna. ~ It was in the defert in the environs of Baffa-Tine, two Jeagues from Cairo, that he colleéted the firft plants of fenna belledy : on the left bank of the Nile, oppofite to Hermantis or Fallach, he met with a greater abundance, as well as:imsthe neighbourhood of Darao. io _ The good fenna.and arguel, a kind of cynanchum, of the beft quality, and in the highe(t fiate of pefreétion, grow im great abundance in the valley of Bafabras, or of Nubia, from which. it is brought by the caravans to Darao and Sienne; and it is thence tranfmitted, at Jea{t. in the greater part, to Alexandria. In the mountains, three days journey above Bienne, the guebelly, the fenna of the Thebaid, and the ar- uel, are found; the laft{umentioned in pretty large quantity in a valley which runs to the eait of Sienne turning towards ypt. > it Fey thefe places, whether valleys, hills, or mountains, the good fenna guebelly and the arguel receive no more culture than the belledy, which is confidered as wild, The plants row fpontaneoufly in groups. There are two crops, the #bundance of which depends on the duration of the rains, which take place periodically every year. The firit, which is the moft plentiful, takes place at the end of the rains, which begin at the fummer folflice and terminate towards the mid= dle of September. The Second takes place about the middle of March. , of The preparation confifts merely in cutting the plants, and. expofing them to the fun on the rocks till they are brou | to a ftate of perfedt deficcation, The two kinds are vale fometimes in Nubia, but the belledy is never found in that part of the country. | It is only in the entrepéts of Sienne and Cairo that itis added. The accounts given of the quan- tities collected and depofited in the magazines, and of thoft fold, juttify the fear of great and dangerous adulteration by the addition of foreign: plants. For, according to’ the ac- knowledgment of the palthier, the produc of the two crops varies from 790 quintals to 1100 or more, a third of which 18 6 ie Ai as arguel, and on the different: Kinds of Satta. sy arguel, and the fale isn4co ot) 1p00;quintals.| odmong that received by our merchants are leaves.of thé célvtia and box. Unfortunately {uch inftances of fraud, which are too come mon in commerce, are attended with more serious: conies quences than that praétifed jin regard: to: various kinds of drugs. They occafion much. trouble to our druggifts, wha are obliged to pick the fenna with the utmoft care, » The antient botanitts diftinguifbed thefe two kinds of fen= na, and the terms they employed for that purpofe, folas acu- fis and foliis obtufis, expreffed with fuficient clearnels: and precifion the differences ‘they exhibit. Linnzeus, however, thought it necéflary to unite them, and to confider them as varieties. C. Lamarck notices in his dictionary, under the head ca/fia, the error into which this celebrated botanift has fallen.’ He diftinguithes two kinds of fenna which grow in Egypt.» Qne, the leaves of which are acute, is announced -undet the namé aiven to it by Forfkal, caffia lanceolata; and the other, the leaves of which are obtufe, under that of caffia feana. ‘he obfervations prefented to the clafs on thefe two ants by C. Delifle, and afterwards by C,. Nettoux, efta- blith alfo feveral other differences!» The caffia fenna is diftin- gee from the ca/fa lanceolata, not ouly by the obtufe Jeaves, but alfo by the flipula, which are longer and fhaped like a lance, and by its bent pod having on the middle of each face projecting ridges. -» The defcription given by C. Ne&toux, when compared with that of C. Delifle, gives arefemblance of characters, which facilitates a diftin& knowledge of the claflification of thefe plants, which have been long valued on account of their me- dical qualities. It is under this point of view we fhall con- fider them. , In the year 6, C. Bouillon-Lagrange publithed a che- mical analyfis of the fenna of the palthe of Alexandria, which is ufed in commerce. We conceived that, by delivering to him the three kinds of plants, an ample provifion of which had been entrufted to us by C. Neétoux, we fhould beable to prefent to the clafs at the fame time a knowledge: of the principles contained in the fenna and arguel, compared with that’ alveady obtained in regard to the fenna of commerce. Our with has been fully gratified by the zeal and ability of C. Lagrange. Jt will not appear aftonithing to you, that the two analyfes of the years 6 and 10 prefent the fame re- fults, with the exception of fuch fall differences that they can Have no influence on the opinion which pbyficians ought to form of the action of the two kinds of fenna, fince the heer : Q f 58 ‘On the Senna uifed in Commerce > of commerce is nothing elfe than a compound of the three kinds, which C. Neétoux collected and preferved feparately. The two old kinds were fubjected feparately to examina- tion, and their produéts without much impropriety may be ranked in the fame clafs. It remained therefore to fubje& ta the fame refearches the plant arguel, called fenna of Mecca, placed in the clafs of the cynanchum by C, Neétoux, who has given an ample defcription of it. The following is the refult of the chemical experiments made with it by Bouillon+ Lagrange. . ** Tt appeared to me,”’ fays he, ‘ that this fubftance con- - tained a imaller quantity of extractive matter. Infufion, either cold or hot, decoction, and evaporation of the liquors gave only afmall quantity of extract, and this extract in regard ta its principles was always analogous to the extracts of the two old kinds of fenna. The fame effects therefore, but in a weaker degree, are to be expected from it. But this differ- ence is of great importance in the practice of medicine, and ought to be attended to, as well as the form under which the remedy is adminiftered, The refearches made at the fame time by our. colleague Vauquelin and Bouillon-Lagrange on a conftituent part of fenna, which has been confidered as refinous, and confe- quently as the moft active, will eftablifh more certain ideas refpecting this kind of purgative. C. Neéctoux fent with the leaves, {mall twigs and pods of the fenna guebelly, and the flowers which he gathered from that plant. Thefe flowers, according to the refearches of Bouillon-Lagrange, give the fame relults, only that they do not communicate fo much colour to the liquor in which they are infufed or boiled. They have not fo falinc and bitter a talle as the leaves; their odour alfo is diflerent, and every thing announces that they contain lefs of the purgative prin= ciples. This memoir appears to us particularly important in an economical point of view, as the author propofes to tranfplant the Egyptian and Nubian fenna to St. Domingo, where it may be cultivated in diftri¢ts abandoned by the planters. C, Nectoux affures us that thefe plants would fucceed equally well in the Ifles of France and Reunion, and alfo in Cayenne, X. Bio- i i pe Bg wept x: Biograpbical Account of MATTHEW Bourton, Efq.* I; genius and indefatigable induftry, dire&ted by the pureft patriotifm, have any claim to the notice of our readers, an authentic account of this gentleman cannot but be highly acceptable to them, When we contemplate the enlarged extent of his yiews, the wide and rapid circulation of his im- provements and difcoyeries in the moft important branches of art, and the numerous and honourable connections which he has formed in every part of the civilized world, we fhall be obliged to admit that few men poffefs greater claims to the attention and gratitude of their country. Matthew Boulton, fon of Matthew Boulton, by Chriftian, daughter of Mr. Peers, of Chefter, was born at Birmingham the r4th of September 1728. He received the chief part of his education at a private grammar-fchool kept by the bat Anfted, who officiated at St. John’s Chapel, De- fitend, . So early, we believe, as the year 1745, Mr. Boulton, haying loft his father, who left him in flourifhing circum- flances, diftinguifhed himfelf by the invention of a new and moft ingenious method of inlaying fteel. Buckles, watch- chains, and a great yariety of other articles wrought at his manufactory, were exported in large quantities to France, where they were eagerly purchafed by the Englifh, who af- feéted to have no tatte for the productions of their own coun try, The confinement of a populous town was but ill fuited to fuch an eftablifhment as foon became neceflary for Mr. Boule ton’s further experiments. Accordingly, in the year 1762, he purchafed thofe extenfive traéts of common, at that time a barren heath, with only a fmall houfe and mill, on which the Soho manufattory now ftands. He laid the foundation of his prefent extenfive works at the expenfe of nine thou- fand pounds. To this fpot his liberal patronage foon at- tracted great numbers of ingenious men from all parts ; and by their aid he fo eminently fucceeded in imitating the or moulu, that the moft {plendid apartments in this and in many foreign countries received their ornaments from Soho. Here, too, the works of the greateft mafters in oil colours were me~ chanically taken off, with fuch eafe and exaétnefs that the original could fearcely be diftinguifhed from the copy. This mode of copying was invented, we believe, by Mr. Egging- * From Public Charaéters of 1800-1801, 60 Biographical Account of Matthew Boulton, E/q. ton, whofe performances in ftained glafs have fince intro- duced his name to-the public, 6 2 ee The utmoft power of the water-mill, which Mr. Boulton had hitherto employed, fell ‘infinitely thort, even with the aid of horfes, of that immenfe force which was foon found neceflary to the’ completion of his defiens. Recourfe was therefore had, about the year 1767, ‘to that chef-d’euvre of human ingenuity, the fleam engine. In fpeaking of that wonderful machine, we {hall adopt the animated fete a late excellent Review :—The fteam engine, approaching to the nature ofa perpetuum mobile, or rather an animal, is incapable of Jaffitude or fenfation, produces coals, works metals, moves machines, and is certainly the noblett drudge that was ever employed by the hand of art. Thus we put a hook in the nofe of the Leviathan :”? thus we “play with himasa child, and take him for a fervant for ever *;”? thus “* we fubdue nature, and derive aid’ and comfort from the elements of earthquakes +.” The firft engine that Mr. Boulton conftru@ed was on M. Savary’s plan, of which the reader will find one of the moft fatisfactory accounts in Profeffor Bradley’s « New Improve- ments of Planting and Gardening},” &c. But the machine was yet, as it were, in its infancy, and by no means an- fwered Mr. Boulton’s expeétations. In the year 1769 Mr. James Watt, of Glafgow, obtained a patent for fuch a pro- digious improvement of it, that Mr. Boulton immediately fought his acquaintance, and induced him to fettle at Soho. At this place, the facility of its application to a variety of concerns, wherein great force was requifite, foon manifefted its fuperior utility and vaft advantages to the public: Parlia- ment, therefore, in 1775, cheerfully granted a prolongation of Mr. Watt’s patent for twenty-five years. A partnerfhip now commenced between Mefits. Boulton and Watt; and a manufactory of fteam-engines, on their improved plan, was eftablifhed at Soho, which {till fupplies the chief mines and manufactories throughout the kingdom. Aided by fuch talents, and commanding fuch unlimited mechanical powers, Mr. Boulton’s views foon expanded, and Soho began to exhibit fymptoms of the extraordinary adyan- tages ithad acquired. The art of coining had long ftood in ‘need of fimplification and arrangement; and to this art Mr. Boulton no foonér turned his attention, than, about the year 1788, he ereéted a coining-mill on an improved plan, ¥ Job, xli. 2a—4, + Analy; ical Review, Feb. 1797, Py 220. f Seventhedit. p. 425. P x and Biographical Acconntof Matthew Boulton, bfys of and ftruck a gold medal of the full_weightiof aguinea, and of the fame form as that of his new copper’coimage lately put into circulation, The fuperioradvantages of that: form are obvious. The impreffion. is‘far lefs' liable'to friétion’; and by? theans of a fteel gauge of equal diameter, moriey ‘coited on! that principle may be examined ‘by meafure as’ well as bye v iit the rim being éexaGly circular. Moreover, the in-* trinfie is fo-nearly: equal’ to the’ current value of every’ piece} that, without a fteam-éengine and adequate ‘apparatus,’ re attempt to!counterfeit' the Soho coinage muft be made‘ with’ lofs. The fabrication of bafe money feenis’ likely, by thefe means): toi be fpeédily checked, andy itis to be hoped; en— tirely defeated. The‘reafon why Mr, Boultom has not ‘yet beenemployed'by government in’ the’ coinage of gold*and filver,. we havenot'been able to learn, 0 7) 2 od ood The i millvat Scho works. eight machines, each of which receives, flumps, dnd delivers outs, by the aid of only'a little boy,: from jeventy to ninety pieces of copper in one minute. Bix ther of them is! flopped‘without the {malleft interruption to’ the motion of! thesothers. In adjoining apartments all: the’ preparatory proceffesvare carried on? with equal’ facility and difpatch’;) fach as’ rolling’ the copper into fheets,; dividing them into blanks, and fhaking them? into: bags clean’ and: réady for the die.» Without) any perfonal-comniunication between the differentclaffes of workmen, &o. the blanks are’ conveyed 10 the roomi where they are‘{haken, and'frém thence’ te the coming-room, in boxes moving with immienfé velocity® om anvinclined plane, and accompanied: by a ticket: of. their) weight. | Gules its ? : . The.Sierra Leonecompany have employed Mr, Boulton’s' mhint inthe coinage of filver,and the’ Eaft India: company’ in that of copper.’ ‘Two complete mints have likewife been! Jately fentite: Peterfburgh. » Since the demife of the late’ emprefs Catharine, Mr. Boul= ton prefented her fucceflor, the! late emperor Paul I.,. with’ fome' of the moft curious articles of his manufactory, and in’ return received a polite letter of thanks’and approbation, to-: gether with a’ {plendid colle€tion of medals, minerals’ froms Siberia, and {pecimens'of all’ the! modern nioney‘of Ruffia. Among the medals, which for elegance of defign and beauty of execution haye never yet been equalled’ in’ this ‘or any ‘other country, is a mafly one of gold, imprefied with a ftrik-, ing likenels, it is faid,.of that monarch... Our. readers will be: funprifed, when: they are. told that! this-unrivalled piece! was ftruck’ from adie ‘engraved by the prefent ‘emprefs- dows! “C14 ager, . 62 Biographical Account of Matthew Boulton, Ef agers who has from her youth taken great delight in the art. engraving on fleel. st ; With the view of ftill further improving and facilitating. the manufactory of fteam-engines, Mefirs. Boulton an Watt have lately; in conjunction with their fons, eftablithed: a foundery at Smethwick, a fhort diftance fromSoho. Here that powerful agent is employed, as it were, to multiply: itfelf, and its various parts are fabricated and adapted toge= ther with the fame regularity, neatnefs, and expedition, which diftinguifh all the operations of their manufactory. Thofe engines are afterwards diftributed to all parts of the. kingdom by the Birmingham canal, which communicates with a wet dock belonging to the foundery. if _ To fuch amazing perfection has the fteam-engine atlength been brought, that the confumption of one buthel of New-! caftle coals will raife nearly fix thoufand hogfheads of water ten feet high, and will do the work of ten horfes for-one hour. This remarkable abridgement of human labour, and proportionate diminution of expenfe, are, in a great mea- fure, the refult of trials made under the aufpices of Mr. Boulton. But fora more complete account of thefe ma- chines, their power, &c. we muft refer the reader to Dr. ‘Darwin’s Botanic Garden*. z It could fearcely be expe&ted that envy would view with indifference fuch fingular merit, and fuch unexampled fuc- cefs. The inventions and improvements of Mefirs. Boulton and Watt were firft imitated, and then either decried or dif- uted. Reafon laboured in vain to filence the clamours of injuftice, and to defeat the ftratagems of fraud. At length,, in the year 1792, a folemn decifiow of parliament, and, about the fame time, the concurrent opinion of the court of: king’s bench, forbad any further encroachment. ‘i Whoever contemplates the merit and utility of a long life. devoted to fuch valuable purfuits, as we haye here briefly and very imperfectly defcribed, and recolleéts without emotion,' that the {pot whereon fo much has been done, and is full doing ; where hundreds of women and children eafily earn:, a comfortable fubfiftence +; where population is rapidly in- creafing, and the means of national profperity increafing in. * Fourth edit. note xi. page 287. 4 We have been unable to afcertain the number of hands employed by Mr. Boulton at this time, which muft frequently vary according to the. changes that neceffarily take place in the demand for different articles 3° but we know, that when Mr. Boulton junior came of age, in 1791, feven hundred workmen fat down to an entertainment given by his father, yy pro- a Effe&s of Elder in preferviiig Plants from Infects. 6% proportion, was lately a bleak, fwampy, and fterile waite, muft want underftanding to comprehend, or fympathy to ap- preciate, the happinefs of his fellow-creatures. ; Mr. Boulton is now in his feventy-third year, and he ap- pears to poflefs, the hilarity of youth, Extraordinary exer- tions, often both of body and mind, feem not to have im- paired a conftitution which muft, have been naturally robuft. He is fond of mufic, and takes great delight in the company of young people. Orie fon, a young man of confiderable accompli{hment and great promife in his father’s line, and one daughter, both of them unmarried, have furvived their mother. Mr. Boulton is fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and of the Free Economical Soci- ety of Peteriburgh, as well as of many other foreign inftitu- tions. XI. On the Effeéts of Elder in preferving Plants from In/eéis and Flies. By M. CuristorHe GULLET *. Common elder has appeared to me ufeful, 1ft, for pre- venting cabbage plants from being devoured or damaged by - caterpillars: 2d, to prevent blights, and their effects on fruit- and other trees: 3d, to preferve corn from yellow flies and ohagF infects: 4th, to fecure turnips from the ravage of flies, C. _ aft, The ftrong and fetid odour of a bunch of elder leaves induced me to think that different kinds of butterflies might be incommoded by it in ptoportion to their delicacy. I there- fore took fome young twigs of elder, at the period when but- terflies began to appear, and whipped well with them fome cabbage plants, but in fuch a manner as not to damage them. Since that time, during two fummers, though the butterflies hovered round the plants, I never faw one of them fettle on them; and I do not think that a fingle butterfly was hatched on the cabbages treated in this manner, though a neigh- ouring board was dirtied by them in the ufual manner. ad, After a fhort reflection on the effects here mentioned, and on blights, which, in my opinion, are chiefly occafioned by {mall flies and {mall infeéts whoie organs are ftill more delicate than thofe of the former, I was induced to whip in the fame manner with, clder twigs, as high as [ could reach, the branches of a plum-tree which grew in an efpalier,, The * From the Bibfiotheque Phyfico-cconomi,ue, Ann. 6: . whipped 64 Lfects of Elder in preferving Plants from Infetts. whipped leaves remained green and in a'good condition, whilé from at leatt fix inches above to the top of the’ tree the reft of the leaves were blighted, Wrinkledjand fullof worms. It! is here to be obferved that the tree was in full flower when I whipped it, therefore much too late for this dperation, which! ought'to-have ‘been performed once or twice before pages But I am of opinion, that if trees were befprinkled with a’ftrong infufion of elder every eight or fifieen days, the fuccefs would? be certain jand that there would beno dahger of injtiring either’ the flowers’or the fruit. ng! 3d, What the farmers call the yellows in corn, and whith’ they confider as a kind of blight, is the efleét, as every one knows, ofa {mall yellow fly with blue wings nearly of the fize ofa gnat. It lays its:eggs in the ear of wheat, and pro. duces a worm almoft invifible to the naked eye, but which,* - when feen by a magnifying glafs, is a large yellow larva, having the fhinine colour of amber. ‘This fly 1s fo produe- tive, that | have counted upwards of forty worms in the chaff of one car of wheat, which was a number fufficient to deftroy’ it entirely, I therefore propofed to make my experiment as foon as poffible; but the heat and drought of the feafon hav- ing advanced the wheat more than ufual, it was in flower be fore I-could atterpt it. Next morning, however, at break of day, two fervants having drawn bundles of elder over the ears’ of wheat! on each fide of the furrow, backwards and forwards, in places where thé wheat was not fo far advaneed, T hoped’ that the fetid effluvia of the elder would prevent the flies front remainive on’ the’ ears’ that’ were covered with them: and, indeed, Pwas' not entirely difappointed ; for, on examining’ my wheat fome time after, I found that the part which had been beaten with elder was much lefs damaged than that which’ had not'been treated in the famé manner. I have no doubt,’ that, had I’employed this precaution fooner, the corn would’ have beén’comipletely preferved. Should this be the cafe, the: procefs is imple; and I flatter myfelf that fine crops of corn’ may be faved by thefe means from this fnall infeét, which’ is fo deftru€tive to them. One of thefe yellow flies laid on) my thumb at'leaft eight or ten’eggs; of an oblong form, in’ the fmall‘interval of time which I employed in walking over twoor three(furrows, holding it by the wings, and which T° could’ not obferve without the affiftance of a magnifying glafs. Math, ‘Itoften happens that whole crops of turnips are de-> firoyed while young, in confequence of being pricked by cer-" tain infeéts:, Ihave great reafon to think that this evil may’ be prevented in an effeétual manner, by caufing a perfon te draw a bunch of elder, fufficiently large to cover about the Ba breadth Dr. Dickfon’s Reply to Mr. Clarke. 65 breadth: of a foot, over the young turnips, going backwards and forwards. What confirms me in this idea is, that, hav- ing drawn a bunch of elder over a bed of young cauliflowers which had began to be pricked, they afterwards remained untouched by thefe infeéts. Another fact which tends to fupport this idea is, that when my neighbourhood, about eight or nine years ago, was fo infefted with caterpillars that they devoured all the vege- tables, leaving fcarcely a green leaf untouched, they fpared the elder-trees amidft this general devaftation, and never molefted them. In reflecting on thefe circumftances, [ am of opinion that the elder might be introduced with advantage into our gardens, as the means of prelferving fruit-trees and yarious plants from the rapacity. of infects. The dwarf elder appears to me to exhale a much more fetid {mell than. the common elder, and therefore ought to be preferred in making experiments on this fubject. XII. Reply to a Charge of Plagiarifm, brought by Mr. Henry Ciarke againfi W.Dickson, LL. D. Com- municated in a Letter from Dr. Dickson to Mr, T1iL- LOCH. I HAVE partly drawn up, and hoped before this to have Jaid before the Public, a Defenfe of Sir [faac Newton, and fome other diftinguifhed Britifh mathematicians, againft the mifreprefentations of Mr. Henry Clarke, and of the wri- ter of the mathematical articles of the Monthly Review. Buta diftreffing complaint, which is alleviated but not yet removed, has, as you know, long rendered me almoft, and at times altogether, incapable of the neceffary application to more ferious concerns, which will demand my whole atten- tion for fome time to come. : I certainly owe the gentlemen fome return for their Ani- madyverfions * on.one of my notes on C, Carnot’s excellent piece on the Infinitefimal Calculus; and it will be eafy to repay them in their own coin, and with intereft. In that infiance, it is true, and perhaps in others, I unfortunately 6 See Animadverfions on Dickfon’s Tranflation of C, Carnot’s Re- ficétions on the Theory of the Infinitefimal Calculus, by Henry Clarke, late Prelef. Coll. Mancun, &c. fold.by T. Hurft, No. 32, Paternofter oer —Alfo the Monthly Review Enlarged, vol. xxxvill. p- 449 44%- N. Series. Vor, XY. No. 57. F miffook 56 Dr. Dickfon’s Reply to Mr. Clarke. mi(took the fenfe of my very acute and ingenious author ; for which I am ready to make 4zm and my readers any reafona- ble apology*. But it is alfo true, as Mr. Clarke himfelf confefles, that I ‘have endeavoured to do juftice to my author,”’ and, ** on the whole, have properly appreciated his merit.” Yet it is no lefs apparent, that both Mr. Clarke and the Monthly Critic, not contented, as the Critical Re- viewer has been, with correcting my error, have, without the Jmalleft provocation, treated me with the greateft harfhnefs and contempt. Their motives wil] appear hereafter, from the internal evidence of their own writings, compared with my notes on C, Carnot; and from ftrong collateral circum- ftances. Among other things, it will appear, that Mr. Clarke, as well as the Monthly Cenfor, is in fome degree, 2 critic by trade; that both are in the habit of emitting their decifions, with an air of defpotic authority, whtch ill becomes men whofe abilities, confiderable as they are, cannot hide their infirmities, far lefs ju(tify their infolence; and that, in many inftances, they ought rather to implore pardon, than to provoke recrimination. Mr. Clarke has already heen taxed with ‘* nonfenfe” im correcting my error+; and the ** injurious affertions’’ of the Monthly Critic have lately obliged the juftly celebrated Dr. Hutton, of Woolwich, to drag the ‘ concealed tyrant’’ out of his hole, and to expofe him publicly 4y name. I fhall be juftified by the evidence before me, to confider my cenfors (efpecially the Monthly one) in certain other lights than thofe of felf-conceited and unjuft critics, and illogical, new-fangled, mathematicians.—But my chief ob- ject at prefent is, to repel a charge of plagiarifm, brought againft me by Mr. Clarke, in thele words : «¢ P. S. The Franflator informs the reader, in his note, p. 47, that the general method there fhown of finding the fluxions of quantities, is “ iz fome meafure new.” — But if the reader will look into Clarke’s Rationale of Circulating Numbers, with ufeful Remarks on various Paris of the Ma- thematics, publithed about twenty years ago, he will find the very faine procefs adopted, and the application thereof copi- oufly exemplified !” Such is the charge which Mr. Clarke, no doubt to make it confpicuous, has placed in a Poftfcript after “ the end” of his Animadverfions on my Tranflation of Carnot; and has finifhed it with a (!) by way of a fting to its tail. # My error cannot embarrafs the reader. He has only to omit my note, p. 26. } . w4e athe Critical Review, vol. x¥xiv. New Arr. p, 359) In i a Dr. Dickfon’s Reply to Mr. Clarke. 67 In the firt place, I folemnly declare that this charge is falfe and groundlefs in every poffible refpe&t. Secondly, I deny that I have there “ {hown a general me- thod of finding the fluxions of quantities.” I have only in- ferted in a note, “ a fpecimen’’—“ a flight and imperfeé? general outline’ —of a very eafy, and in fome meafure new, manner of treating the fundamental proceffes of fluxions, which I long ago mentioned to yourfelf; and which, with fome thoughts on Prime and Ultimate Ratios, I intended to offer you for publication,” &c.* The fubftance of the paper here alluded to, which you may recollect my men- tioning, I fubmitted to a certain Gentleman whofe education does honour to the Univerfity of Cambridge. But the paper itfelf, owing to my indifpofition and avocations, is not yet finifhed; and, owing to the treatment I have received, is likely never to be printed, any more than fome analogous pieces of more confequence, which I intended for the prefs. This, Mr. Clarke will fay, perhaps very truly, is no lofs to the public. But unlefs he can divine the contents of a piece, which has no public exiftence, his charge of plagiarifm muft become impotent, or can only affect it’s fabricator. Thirdly, Whether even the ‘ fpecimen” of the method which I promi/ed, be, or be not, ‘* the very fame”? with Mr. Clarke’s, is a matter of faé, of which thofe perfons who compare them can judge; and-fuch I leave to determine, Whether they know any book from which that ‘ fpecimen” differs fo widely as it does from that of Mr, Clarke. I pretended not to a method entirely, or even in a great meafure, new. My principal objeét was facility, which is but too much negleéted by great mathematicians. I thought, however, that my firft way of finding the fluxion of a fraction was my own, as [ ftill think the fecond is. Certainly, I never received either of them from any man, or from any book. The firft is as follows: © The fluxion of a fra€tion may -be found by confidering it as the product of the numerator and denominator, giving OF hs ; : —I the latter a negative index, Thus = isequivalenttoy Xx; and, as the fluxion of xy is y#'+ xy, fo the fluxion of _ . : —I Be or of its equivalent y x +, muft be he . ‘ Re te vogh ‘, #) + (#x —y **) BY od rene” wien y * * See my Tranflation of Carhot, notes p, 45 and 49. F2 This (68 Dr. Dickfon’s Reply to Mr. Clarke. This procefs, I fay, I took to be my own. But fince Mr. Clarke has rudely forced me to look into his obfcure book, and a great number of better ones which I never before con- fulted, I find it in the ¢ad/e, in which, as he fays, he has “* copioufly exemplified” his method ; whether inteiligibly or not, to beginners, whom he profefles to inftruét, it is not my prefent bufinefs to inquire. | In Mr. Clarke’s firft column, marked “ Variable Quanti- 5 x oad | . A ties,” ftands ¢ We? 2 and in his fecond column marked ~ 1th if ab é “Fluxions,axX—y y+ y panied Saar Mr. Jones, I find, ftates the fame procefs, thus, Woe wee (« x +) is (4 ata * aap! x x) ITD ne b Ag mB | Ps oY And Mr. Holliday thus: ‘* What is the fluxion of as or i Ge ae # XK ys lyatg and adyuy X eocag si then ‘DTN, ; ; } Q t/t the fluxion. For ett ora xX fale s=*4X —— ” ast al J J 2 x a = i = 7 < JY wy Now, have not Tas good a right to fay (what however, I am very far from faying) that Mr. Clarke copied from Jones or Holliday, as he has to affirm, that I copied from him ? And, is it not a prefumption in my favour, that [ have been more explicit than any of them; although I only offer a ‘* fpecimen”’ ina mote, and they profefs, as Mr. Clarke ex- prefies it, to render the principles of Fluxions ‘* clear to the loweft capacity [?”’ Be this as it may, in the fame note, I mention a fecond, and fuill eafier, way of doing the fame thing, in thefe words, <“¢ The fluxion of a fraction, 7 may alfo be found, but not fo elegantly, by actually dividing # +%by y + 9.” Of this, * Synopfis Palmariorum Mathefeos, printed in 1706, p. 229. + Introduétion to Fluxions, printed in 1777, p. 96. * See My. Clarke’s Preface, p. xii. Jones and Holliday make the fame profeffion in their title-pages and pretaces; and the latter appears, im. general, to have fulfilled it. which Dr. DickJon’s'Reply to Mr. Clarke. 69 which indeed has little to recommend it but it’s obvious fa- cility, not being able to find a trace in any author, I may fairly claim it as my own; and, if fo, may now affirm (what have not before affirmed) that even my ‘flight and imperfect {fpecimen,” and, a fortiori, the promi/ed method itfelf, is. ‘in fome meafure new ”’—the point to be proved. I remain, Dear Sir, Truly and refpeétfully yours, Witttam Dickson. P.S. My language may be thought fomewhat fevere. But thofe who read the critiques of which I complain, muftac- knowledge, that it is more than juftified by the provocation, To fuch perfonal provocation, I have hitherto been an wéter Jiranger ; though, you know, that for fix years, I laboured to promote, by all the fair, honeft and legal means in my power, the Abolition of the nefarious African Slave-trade. [ do not even except the unprovoked piece of invective which firft contributed to ‘drag me into that controverfy *”’—one -of the moft angry, and voluminous, which ever agitated this nation. In what Ihave farther to write, I fhall endea- vour to preferve better humour, and to return ‘ dry rubs,” rather than dry blows, «© To words far bitterer than wormwood, « Which would, in Job or Grizzel, ftir mood.” The ends of felf-defence (not to mention here a certain more important end) will be abundantly anfwered by a de- fence of the illuftrious dead, whofe afhes, as is known to you and others, I have long wifhed to fee proteéted -by fome abler hand, from the profanation of the Monthly Re- viewer, in the licentious exercife of his fonétion. What I mean to publith, fhall be conclufive on my part. Contro- verfy, though I fuffered no difcredit in the important one jut mentioned, has no charms for me; nor fhall 1 contend, _ farther than is abfalutely neceflary, with men who, for aught that appears, watch for opportunities, and will not be nice about the means, of exalting themfelves, at the expenfe of others. W.D. * See my Letters on Slavery, p. 4 { F 3 XII. A ‘P gor] XII. A general View of the Coal Mines worked in France, of their different Products, and the Means of circulating them. By C.Leresvre, Member of the Council of Manes, of the Philomatic Society, Sc. &c.* ] HAD propofed for feveral years to exhibit a view of the ~ yefources of France in regard to combutftible foffils. I was defirous of making known, at the fame time, the principal places of confumption, the grand metallurgic eftablifhments, where thefe fubftances are, or might be, employed; and to add to this labour an indication of the localities. proper for the creation of new manufattories, according to the union prefented by nature of mineral fubftances, capable of being worked, and of abundance of fuel. It appeared to me alfo, that, to fill up this fketch, it would be neceflary to include pretty certain data, in regard to the nature and quantity of the refources which the forefts and woods might furnifh for confumption in different parts of the French territory, and particularly in regard to thofe moft interefting to be confidered under the view of large manufactories +. . The information colle&ted by the council of mines for feven or eight years, furnifhed a variety of details and in- terefting fats in regard to the mineral fubftances known and dug up in our territory. The notes refpeéting coal mines in particular were the moft numerous, becaufe the ad- miniftration of mines, feeling the neceffity of fupplying the diminution of the produéts of our forefts, and the importance of enfuring conftant aétivity to our manufaétories, by means of coals, had paid the moft ferious attention to this objeét: A great many indications, however, required further con-_ * From Yournal des Mines, No. 71. / + A good map of the communications, both by land and by water, pointing out the forefts, coal mines, the turf moffes, and the large ménu-~ fa€tories, would be of great value to commerce, It would certainly con- tribute to give more aétivity to internal commerce. A map of this kind is wanted, and the conftruétion of it appears to be an objeét worthy the attention of the prefent government. The council of mines fketched out, in the year 4, a part of this opera- tion on the navigation chart by Dupain-Triel. It contained marks which pointed out the pofition of the coal mines, turf moffes, forges, great foun- deries, falt works, and fome other large manufactories, refpeéting which accurate information had been obtained ; but this labour is now very im- perfect, becaufe the new departments are not included in this chart, which, on account of the new information obtained fince that period, ought to be added, 6 firmation, : : On the Coal Mines worked in.France. a1 firmation, and whole diftricts of France, which were fuppofed to be highly interefting, were {till imperfe€tly known in re- gard to mineralogy. ‘The council had not been able for fe- veral years to fend out many engineers to explore the country; tnany of the departments earnefily requefted that refearches might be made in this manner; and the diftribution of thefe functionaries in the places where their prefence was fo neceffary, could not fail to be one of the firft meafures of a government whofe attention was fo zealoufly occupied with the profperity of the ftate *. As I had the ftrongeft reafon to hope that the refults of the refearches and obfervations of the engineers of mines would furnifh the moft valuable materials for the propofed view of our mineral refources, I refolved to wait until their refidence in the different departments fhould have enriched the adminiftration of mines with new information proper for rendering more perfect my propofed labour. I was befides perfuaded that, during that period, the fo- licitude and enlightened alacrity of the magiftrates who com- pofe the general adminiftration of forefts, would give more extent and correGtnefs to our knowledge refpeéting the con- fittence and produéts of our woods; that, perhaps, we fhould even have a map of the forefts ; and that the work which I projected might ftill be conipleted in this very important de- partment. I confined myfelf, therefore, to the collecting of notes; to verifying as far as poffible, and to extending the firft data in the poffeffion of the adminiftration of mines, and to making refearches in regard to the exifting means of circu- lation, and thofe which it would be proper to create, in order to take as much advantage as pofiible of the materials which were the object of my labour, But at the moment when peace, reftored to Europe, in- Tpired a defire of renewing our commercial intercourfe with the neighbouring nations, we endeavoured to examine what really were our wants, and what advantages would arife to us from the reciprocal exchanges which might take place. Our attention was directed in particular to. mineral fub- ftances: we knew that before the war they had been a con- fiderable objeét of importation: coals in particular had been ~ ™ In confequence of meafures taken this year (an. 19) by Chaptal, the Minifter of the interior, fixty departments are to be vifited and carefully examined by engineers, who will concur with the prafeéts in the improve- ments. to be made in thofe parts, and who will give an account of them to goveroment, This is all that could be done with the prefent number of engincers who can be {pared for that purpole. F 4 brought 4% | A general View of the brought in great abundance into our territory, though the ufe of that kind of fuel was lefs frequent at that period than at prefent, and much lefs, no doubt, than it will become in confequence of the deterioration of the wood. It was, there- fore, of more importance than ever to appreciate properly our new fituation in this refpe&t, after our increafe of terri- tory, the fruit of the conquefts of our armies. It was ne~ ceffary to determine whether we ought to admit among us the produéts of foreign coal mines; confidering on one hand the quantity of money exported,, and the decreafe or even flagnation of induftry which might enfue in our national mines; and on the other, whatever was proper for the fecu- rity and improvement of our manufactures. ‘All the data proper for the folution of this queftion were fubjected to government. The different opinions pro and contra were defended with that warmth which is always ex- cited by objects of great national importance, among men ftrongly attached to their country, and deeply affected by every thing which ought to have an influence on their def- tiny. Whatever may be the determination of government, we muft rely with confidence on the wifdom of its views, and be affured, that it will not decide witbout being fully in- formed on the fubject. In publifhing at prefent this view of the refources prefented by our coal mines, I have no intention of entering. into a difcuffion of the queftion already mentioned : but feveral per- fons having urged me to make known, as far as poffible, our riches in this department, I thought that by complying with their requeft [ fhould render my labour important in fe- yeral points of view ; firft, as fupplying information ufeful to ftatefmen, who might be defirous of details on this fubject, and to the different confumers and to the workers of mines. I have followed the alphabetical order of the departments ; each of them has been reviewed; and from the information obtained I have enumerated all the known mines now worked, thofe fufceptible of being worked, and thofe indi- ‘cations not yet verified which feem to deferve an attentive examination, I have exhibited as far as poffible the mafs of the pro- duétions of the coal mines in each department where they are worked, and the mean price of the coals, both at the mines and in the principal places of confumption. ; I muft however obferve, that there are fome departments where the mines are worked in fo irregular a manner, that it was impoffible for me to obtain data fuficiently fatisfaGtory, either Coal Mines spidos in France. 44 either in revard to the quantity of coals extracted, or to their value. In that cafe I have only made known the diftricts where the coals are found. To the means of circulation which exift, or thofe which onght to be eftablithed, I have paid particular attention. I have indicated thefe means as far as poffible; and under this ee of yiew in particular I hope my labour may be ufeful, ecaufe, by making known the means of circulation, the public attention may be direéted to the tranfportation and ufe of our combuttible foffils, in places where it has hitherto been fuppofed that they could not be employed with advan- | tage. With this view I have added to this work a chart, where the means of circulation may be traced out, by corre- {ponding numbers placed in the margin, and by lines drawn or dotted with red, which mark the exifting modes of cir- culation, and thofe projected, or which it may appear of ad- vantage to eftablith. The departments in which no foffil combuftibles are dug up have neverthelefs been prefented in their order; and [ have announced whence thefe fubftances may be extracted, and the means by which they may be tranfported. I have exhibited alfo a general view of the various con- fiderations in regard to public advantage and economy which refult from the prefent fiate, as far as it is known, of our refources of mineral fuel. Depariment of Aim. This department exhibits no firata of coals worked at prefent. At Surjoux, in the canton of Seyffel, on the banks of the Rhine, afphaltes or mineral bitumen is found, It 3s extracted from beds of coarfe granitic freeftone, ana- logous to that which covers certain ftrata of coal, or which is found in alternate {trata with it. Several banks of this bituminous freeftone are found all round the commune of Surjoux. They have very little confiftence, on account of the abundance of liquid bituminous matter with which ‘they are mixed. . C. Suretan, an inhabitant of Seyffel, who has a grant of a part of thofe diftriéts, extracts and prepares this mineral bi- tumen. The products extracted’ amount annually to about ten thoufand myriagrammes. This fubitance may be em- ployed for daubing over cordage and wood, to defend them from water and from the attack of worms. It is ufleful alfo for greafing the axle-trees cf carriages, and different parts of machines, to facilitate their rolling. The means of circulation of thefe productions are the 9 Rhone 94 A general View of tke Rhone defcending towards Lyons, the South of France, and particularly the fea-ports in that quarter, where the ufe of this bitumen may be attended with economical advantage. Department of Aifne. _ This country contains no coal mines (1) * worked at pre- fent: a fubftance known under the name of coal earth is com- monly found in it, forming beds of greater or lefs thicknefs, and generally placed at no great depth beneath the cultivated lands. Itis a fort of exceedingly pyritous turf. It burns badly, and cannot be employed for the fame purpofes as real coal: it would be very bad for heating apartments, or for working iron. A great deal of this fubftance, however, is dug up; it is employed by the farmers, who fpread it out, éither in its natural ftate, or after it has been left to wafte ih the open air, on the fields, which it renders fitter for vege- tation. , _ The abundance of pyritesdifperfed throughout the ftrata of turf render them fufceptible, perhaps, of yielding, by proper treatment, fulphate of iron (green copperas). The coal pits of the northern departments will cally furnifh coal ‘for the confumption of that of Aifne, when the junétion canal be- tween the Scheldt and the river Oife fhall be terminated. Department of Allier. There are coal mines worked at Noyant, (2) in the com- mune of the fame name, fituated fix leagues fouth-weft of Moulins, on the edge of the road from that town to Mont- lugon. At the diftance of three leagues further, proceeding towards the latter place, there is another coal mine now worked; namely, that of Fins, in the commune of Cha- tillon ; and a Jeague and a half further, but on the other fide’ of the road, a third, that of des Gabliers, in the commune of Tronget. The coal hitherto extracted at Noyant is that proper for ufing under boilers, and for other purpofes of a fimilar kind. That furnifhed by the mines of Fins and Gabliers is for the moft part of an excellent quality, and proper for forges. The annual product of tele mines is about a million of myriagrammes; but they are far from being carried to that degree of activity of which they feem to be fufceptible. Itis announced that meafures are about to be adopted in regard to the mine of Fins, calculated to obtain from it all the advan- tages which the depth of the ftrata and the valuable quality * Thefe numbers refer to the map, of Coal Mines worked in France. "5 of the coals feem to promife. The produ& of thefe mines is confumed in the neighbouring glafs-houfes, and the coals are tranfported by water down the Allier, on the Loire, the canal of Briare, and the Seine. A plan has been long in agitation to employ the fmall tiver of Quenne to facilitate the tranfportation of thefe coals as far as the Allier. If this proje&t be fufceptible of execu- tion, there can be no doubt that this mode of communica- tion with the river Allier will be of great importance; for the expenfe of Jand-carriage as far as Moulins already dou- bles the price of the coal. “It varies in thefe mines from fix to ten per cent. the myriagramme: it has already rifen at Moulins from twelve to twenty per cent.; and when de- livered at Paris from twenty-four to forty per cent. This department exhibits alfo, in the commune of Com- mentry, confiderable ftrata of coal of excellent quality, and might be worked with advantage, if a confumption be created for them : this at prefent is abfolutely wanting, and for this reafon thefe mines are very little worked. The engiiicers of mines who have vifited this country have pointed out feveral new ftrata not before obferved. _ The mines of Plaveret and de Bouije furnifhed in the year » a hundred thoufand myriagrammes, which is far below the quantity that might eafily be extracted. The price at the mine is about four cents per myriagramme. Ifthe Cher were rendered navigable from Montlucon to Vierzon, where it is fo at prefent, the mines in the neigh- bourhood of Commentry would foon give rife to enterprifes which would enliven that country. It is probable that they would have a very happy influence on the aétivity of the nu- merous forges fituated on the borders of the Cher, and ata fall diftance from it, by the application of a fuel fo ftrong as coal to a part of the operations of thefe forges, There are indications of coal in feveral parts of this coun+ try which deferve to be examined, if there were eafier means of difpofing of them, or if confumption could be found for them on the fpot. Such are the iridications found by C. Rambourg, near the foreft of Troncais, in the canton of Meaulne ; and thofe in the commune of Vallon, in the fame canton, difcovered by Thiebault of Allier. Department of the Lower Alps. _ Some coal mines (3) are worked in the neighbourhood of Manofque and Forcalquicr. They are worked very irregu- larly. The produés are not well known. The quality of the coals is very indifferent. They are fold for about 20 cents 46 A general View of the Coal Mines worked in France. cents per myriagramme, delivered at the mine. There are very few means of difpofing of them. Department of the Upper Alps. Coal mines are found (4) in the commune of Saint Martin de Querieres, and in the neighbourhood: the fame obferva- tions may be applied to thefe coal mines as have already been made in regard to thofe of the Lower Alps. They have however a more certain and an eafier fale, in confequence of the neighbourhood of the town of Briancon, where the con- fumption is very confiderable, as wood is exceedingly {carce - yn that canton. Department of the Maritime Alps. A grant-was paffed in the year g, of the coal mine (5) in the neighbourhod of Roquebrune. The grantee has lately an- nounced that the firft attempts were not fuccefsful. It, however, appears that fome of this fuel is dug up in feveral places in the neighbourhood of Monaco. Thefe mines might acquire a certain degree of importance, if the coals were of a good quality, and if they were exported through the port of Monaco, or if manufaétories of iron articles were eftablifhed in that department, or in the environs of the mines. If the iron ore of the mines of Elba was treated in this de- partment, or in that of Var, the iron obtained might give rife to manufacétories of this kind; but thefe confiderations reguire further information, which will no doubt excite the attention of government. bite | Department of Ardeche. ' Coals are found (6) in feveral cantons of this department, . and particularly in the environs of Jaujac, Privas, Aubenas, Vallon, and Saint Marcel'd’Ardeche. Thefe mines, in gene- ral, are badly worked. They are interefting, howeyer, in different points of view; firft, on account of the confumption occafioned by the numerous manufactories of the country 5 and in the fecond place of the facility of carriage down the Rhone. ' No data fufficiently exaét have yet been obtained in regard to the produéts of thefe mines: they are certainly confiderable, and would become much more productive and profitable, if the works were better conducted. The common price of coals in that country is about 8 cents per myriagramme. - An engineer of mines, if fettled in this department, might introduce improvements in the working of thefe coal mines, which are exceedingly defirable. He could employ himfelf alfoon other objects ufeful to the induftry of the inhabitants. [To be continued, ] XIV. Ox Te ae eS SS ee Py » XIV. On Canals. By Toomas TeLFrorp, E/g.* Ixranp navigation has now been fo long and extenfively pratifed in Great Britain, that the benefits arifing from it are generally felt and acknowledged ; and itis difficult to fay, whether the improvements in agriculture, manufactures, or commerce, are moft indebted tothe numerous canals which now interfe& the country in‘all dire€tions, or to other caufes. It is not my intention at prefent to trace the rife and pro- grefs of this great national improvement, nor to enter deeply into the general principles of it: what I chiefly aim at in this flight {ketch is, to draw the attention of the people who are concerned in laying out new canals, to fome circum ftances which appear to me to be very material to the intere(ts of canal companies and to the country at large. In confidering the fubjeét, I fhall beg leave to ftate, that €anals are chiefly for the purpofe of, rft, Carrying fuel and raw materials to fome manufactur- ing towns or diftriéts, and for exporting manufactured goods. adly, Carrying fuel for domeftic purpofes ; manure for the purpofes of agriculture ; tranfporting the produce of .the di- @riéts through which the canal paffes to the different mar- kets; and promoting agricultural purpofes in general. gdly, Carrying the produce of mines to the fea-fhores. Thefe appear to be the leading points by which our views eught to be guided in planning new canals. The fupplying the diftrict. through which the canal paffes with groceries and merchant goods is a very fecondary confideration 5 expe- rience has taught this leffon to the perfons who are concerned in the canals already made; and it is proper this fource of difappointment fhould be made generally known, in order to prevent future mifapplication of talents and capital. In planning a new canal, it thould be carefully confidered under which of the foregoing heads the ufes of the canal ought to be clafled. Cafes will fometimes, no doubt, occur, where the feveral purpofes above mentioned will in fome meafure be combined; but they will ‘rarely be fo equalty balanced, as to create a difficulty in difcovering tle predo- minant features. The general purpofes of the canal being judicioufly determined, all the following fleps fhould be taken with a view to promote the principal end. If the canal is for the purpofe of carrying fuel and raw materials to fome manufacturing town or diltrict, and export- * Communicated by the Author. ing . 98 On Canals. ing the manufactured goods from thence, or for carrying the roduce of mines to the fea-fhores,—the line of canal fhould be made in as fhort a direétion as the nature of the country well admit of, even if this line fhould be atttended with fome extraordinary expenfe; and that mode of conveyance fhould be adopted which is leaft liable to be interrupted, becaufe in thofe cafes much depends upon a conftant and regular fupply. If the canal is chiefly for the purpofes of agriculture, thofe hnes are to be fought for which will accommodate the country moft perfectly at the leaft poffible expenfe. This will not, m general, be effected by fhort and direct, but, on the con- trary, by circuitous and Jevel lines, fuch as will vifit many parts of the country, carry fuel and manure into every quar- ter, and take off the produce of the land for back carriage. Merchandize, although a very inferior confideration, will, by the fame means, be extenfively and equally diftributed. When the carriage of thofe heavy but neceflary articles is rendered cheap, and the fupply convenient, the confumption will in- ereafe. ‘The very ufe of lime as a manure is in general fuf- ficient to create a confiderable revenue upon a canal, when the coal and limeftone can be carried along the canal at a moderate expenfe. As improvements in agriculture muft in- ercafe the wealth of the inhabitants, more articles are required to fupply their multiplied wants; the pofleffion of capital prompts them to enter upon new employments, and the de- mands of all create an addition of bufinefs upon the canal. Many other advantages attend circuitous and level canals, If there are upland countries above the Jevel of the canal, fome cheap and convenient fituations may be {elected where the wafte water of the uplands can be collected into refervoirs to be formed for this purpofe, From thofe refervoirs the water may be taken into the canals. At various points of the ca- nal, where there are falls immediately on the lower fide, mills may be erected for grinding corn, or for the purpofes of ma- nufactures: in many parts, two or three overfhot wheels, of fufficient diameter, may be placed below each other: when the water has performed thofe ufeful offices, it will fall into the brooks, and prove a plentiful and regular fupply to other works in the courfe of each ftream. Improvementsin agriculture may alfo be greatly promoted by ufing a part of the wafte water for the purpofe of irriga- tion. i: a canal carried over a country upon a high level would prove an extenfive top drain. Not only the Tand ad- jolring the banks of the canal, but all which lies below the evel, may enjoy the ufe of the water for irrigation; and the brooks and rivers will be the tail drains of the country. Coleéting On Canals. 5g Colle&ing the wafte water in winter, and in heavy rains, will prove advantageous in every refpect : it will be the means of preyenting ‘high and rapid floods ; it will be converting to ufeful purpofes that which flows off to idle wafte, and, not unfrequently, to pofitive mifchief. , The ufeful purpofes to which brooks and rivers are now applied, will not be injured, but improved; as there will be a more plentiful fupply in fummer, and a better regulated one during the winter months. Parliament would not hefitate to grant canal companies the power of making refervoirs, and receiving a reafonable re- compenfe for the water fupplied from the canal for the pur- pofes of agriculture and mannfaétures, becaufe it would in- jure no perfon, and accommodate all: it will be furnifhing additional powers to Britifh induftry, and creating permanent wealth to the nation. TI underftand that this mode of managing water has long been pra¢tifed in Italy, efpecially in the Milanefe, where a confiderable revenue is derived by the wafte water of canals ; and the regulations refpecting it haye long engaged the at- tention of the legiflature of that country. If I am right in the foregoing ftatements, it will be eafy to apply them to different diftricts of country, and, by a careful and impartial judgment, to decide upon the charaéter of each @anal. It is probably not fufficiently known what quantity of rain water falls in the courfe of a year in various parts of the king- dom; it therefore may not be improper to add the following ftatement, which will be fome guide with regard to this fub- ject; and if along with this we take the accounts of perfons accuftomed to make obfervations, a tolerably correct eftimate may be formed of the average quantity of water which can be colleéted in each diftri&t : it will, in general, be found to exceed the expectations of perfons who have not paid atten- tion to this important fubjedt. Rain falls—At London, being the average of the following Years: 1774, 5, 6,7, 8, 9, 17803 1789, 90, 91, 92 Inch, 214. _ Upminfter, in Effex, average of 1700, 1, 2,3,4,5 19 Lincolnfhire, in medium feafon . - - 1% Ditto extreme wet > - - - mb Liverpool - - - - - 34t Townley, in Lancafhire ~ - oad Kendal, in Weftmoreland -. - - 612 Dumfries, in Scotland . - - 36% Glafgow, ditto - - ih - 31 XV. Pro- £8) XV. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ~ ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. In the meeting of Jan. 27th was read a paper by Charles Greville, efq. giving an account of three fpecimens, in dif- ferent mufeums in France, of ftones which have fallen to the earth from the clouds, all fimilar in their characteriftics to thofe defcribed by H. Howard, efq. and alfo of a mafs of native iron which had fallen in Perfia in the year of the Hegira 1030, according to the annals of the empire written by the emperor, and of which he is ftated to have made fome fabres and daggers: but until other iron was mixed with that of the mafs deicribed the iron was not malleable. February 3. A paper by Everard Home, efq. on the na- ture of the tongue, was read. His experiments on different difeafed tongues prove that that member is endowed with lefs irritability than any other organ of the body ; and that a difeafed part may be removed with great fafety by means of ligatures. . On the roth a letter from profeffor Bygge of Copenhagen was read, giving an account of the tranfit of Mercury in November laft. And on the fame night was begun a paper by Dr. Herfchel on the fame fubjeét, and alfo on the vifible ef- feG&is of fudden changes of temperature on the interior of telefcopes ; giving fome obfervations on the proper fituations to be chofen for obfervatories. On the 17th the reading of this paper was concluded. ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY. It appears by a memoir prefented to the Antiquarian So- ciety on the 3d of February by Dr. Raine, that the infcrip- tion on the pillar near Alexandria, fo long confidered ille- gible, has been decyphered. ‘The difeovery was made by captain Leake of the artillery, and captain Squire of the engineers, The impreffion was taken in fulphur; and it feems that it was only when the fun fhone on that fide of the pillar where the infeription is, that any traces of it could be diftinguifhed. By the infcription .1t appears’.that the pillar was erected in honour of the emperor Diocletian, VACCINE INSTITUTION. | Intelligence has been received at the Vaccine Inftitution through one of its members, that cow-pock inoculation has been introduced at Bombay, where it is in great eftima- tion. reay aaah At Vaccine In/fitiition: 8t - At the Vaccine Inftitution dinner on Monday Feb. 7th, emany vifitors voluntarily entered their names with liberal fub{criptions. After dinnet among other toafts were given, The promulgator of the vaccitié incculatisn, Dr. Jenner; Dr. Pearfon, with due acknowledgments of his fervices in eftablifhing the new inoculation by the eviderice of pra€tice: Di. Pearfon then took the opportunity, aftér thanking the company for their honourable teftimony, to inform them of tmany particulars concérning the conduét arid objeéts of the inftitution, which céuld not be noticéd in the report, and gave a mott pleafing view of the advantages which individuals had already derived from the cow“pdck: but he anticipated the momentous confequences of univerfal inoculation througt- out the united kingdom in tworefpects. ift, In preferving from 30,000 to 46,000 lives annually ; and, adly, Ina few years exterminating the fmall=pox. To accomplifh thefe views, he contended that laws for the ino= culation of every fubject within a certain period after birth were eflentially necefiary, as well as immediate prohibition of the inoculation of the fmall-pox; that the Jatter meafure alone would be quite inadequate; and he maintained that ié was not more an infringement on the liberty of the fubject, to render the cow-pock inoculation univerfal, thai to prohibit, as already propofed, the fmall-pox inoeulation. He obferved that the number loft. by inoéulation for the fmall-pox wag not an objet of national importance, as it-amounted to no more than fix to nine per thoufahd; but when it was confi- dered, that one could hardly fay there was more danger from the inoculation of the cow-pock than from a puncture with a clean lancet, and that the fymptoms were ufually very uch flighter than in the fmall-pox inoculation, and that by univerfal cow-pock inoculation, the infection of the {mall-pox muft_be extinguifhed, which end was obvious by even the univerfal inoculation of the {mall-pox 5 it remained wally os inftitute the cow-pock inoculation as propofed, uni- verfally. his, Weston combated the objections againft increafing the population, by fhowing that the refources of agriculture and animal food were not underftdod.' That the augmenta- tion of the population in. France. required, as a meafure of fafety, attention to the means of increafing this kind of na- tional wealth ;—that the mete? walte in feeding of animals, and in preparing food for man,.if taken care of;, would be fufficient to fupport,a confiderably greater than the prefent population. ewasreitdt Ody zi iol Su) aid y to Dr. Pearfon iHuftrated his argumeyt im favour of vaccine VoL. XV. No. 57. G inoculation, 82 Royal Jennerian Society, &e. inoculation by obferving, that going through’ the fiall- ‘pox in the cafual way, and by inoculation of it, and by ex~ citing the cow-pock in place of the fmall-pox, was like crofling ariver in three different ways, . ut, Swimming or wading over; in which g7 out of a thou- fand perithed. ’ ad, Going over in boats ; by which mode 6 to g per thou- -fand were loft, and many others were injured in their health. 3d, By means of a bridge; during which paflage no one perifhes (except from thole cafualties which might happen in other fituations), and by which generally the health was not affected, and when it was fo it was as frequently amended as made worfe. . ROYAL JENNERIAN SOCIETY. It_gives us pleafure to announce, that a new Vaccine In- ftitution under the above title has juft been eftablithed, which we have reafon to hope, from the extenfive patronage it has received, will eventually extirpate the fmall-pox, in paving the way to which fo much had already been done by the Vaccine Inftitution. His Majefty is Patron. Her Majefty, Patronefs. The Vice-Patrons are, His Royal Highnefs the Prince of Wales. His Royal Highnefs the Duke of York. ~ His Royal Highnefs the Duke of Clarence. His Royal Highnefs the Duke of Cumberland. Vice- Patroneffis. Her Royal Highnefs the Princefs of Wales.” Her Royal Highnefs the Duchefs of York. Her Royal Highnefs Princefs Augufta Sophia. Her Royal Highnefs Princefs Elizabeth. Her Royal Highnefs Princefs Mary. Her Royal Highnefs Princefs Sophia. Her Royal Highnefs Princefs Amelia. ROYAL SOCIETY OF GOTTINGEN. ar 0 oo The Triple Infeription. eadit © Jn the fitting of September 4th 1802, profeffor Heyne read a memoir on the Egyptian monument with three infcriptions, of which the following is the fubftance: st | Satoon? to wovet gi Mrycnuats & Toseiuge iF § a . as, Egyptian Monument with the triple Inferiptiot. — 83 The infcription contains a decree of the affembly of the | priefts of Memphis, by which they confer on king Ptolemy Epiphanes new divine honours, out of gratitude for the fer- vices rendered by him to religion, to its minifters, to the people, and to the ftate in general. To determine the time and occafion of this decree, 1s the firft point in queftion, and therefore is the firft object treated of inthe memoir. Ptolemy Philopator left at-his death(Olymp, 144.1.2°6 years before the birth of Chrift) a fon about five years of age. The moft con- temptible perfons, who, under the preceding government, had miniftered to the pleafures of Philopator, Agathocles, Aga~ thoclea, and her mother Cénanthe, feized on the government _and the guardianfhip of the young prince: they were fol- lowed by Tlepolemus, and afterwards by Ariftomenes. In the year 200 before Chrift the Egyptians intrufted to the Romans the tutelage of the young king, to protect the empire from the projeéts of king Philip, and of Antiochus of Syria. This meafure produced internal troubles and revolts. When Thoas and the A®tolians had been crufhed, it was thought mott proper for the public repofe to declare the prince, who was then fourteen years of age, major, and to fuffer him to govern his affairs himfelf. The ceremony of the coronation, which is known under the name of nacleteria, Olymp. 145. 4+ 197 years before the birth of Jefus Chrift, and nine years after the death of Philopator, was celebrated at Memphis. The ninth year is exprefsly named in the decree, All the Egyp- tian priefts were invited to this ceremony. It appears that during the laft years of the king’s minority attempts had been made to gain over the people and the priefts.. Govern- ment had granted to the priefts in particular a great number of privileges and immunities, and had alfo been at great ex- penfe for their worfhip and temples. ' Out of gratitude, the affembly of priefts decreed, that in crowning the king (the day even is indicated in the text of the decree, the ath of the Macedonian month Xantichus, the 18th of the Egyptian | month Mechir, in the firft half of our March, in the fecond halfof the Olympic year) they fhould offer their homages to the king, according to the manner ufual at that time, by giv- ing him titles, and paying him honours, borrowed from the divine worfbip. The decree contains an 4ccount of all the fervices which the king had rendered to the einpire and the ‘gyptian priefis, and then the new tides of honour decreed to him. «gut The titles found in the decree are: the lord of kings, the glorious, the pious towards the gods, the conqueror of his snemics, the repairer of the pleafures of life, the lord of the : Ga eycles 84 Egyptian Manwment with the triple Infeription: cycles of thirty years (Kupias tov tpuexovra enpiwy), He is fiyted alfo the defcendant of the gods, (exyovos Osa» Diromaropwv) atitle by which is underftood brs father Ptolemy Philopator, and perhaps his mother. The titles properly fo called, which are repeated feveral times with the name, are: the enjoyer of long life, aswyoeu.s, the favourite of Phtha, the vifible god, exi@amms, (and not illuftrious, as is ufuatly tranflated) the be- neficent, euxapsoc, accarding to the meaning given to this word at that period.. The titles and names of the pricfts, which are at the head of the decree of the affembly, are: @ ispews Aerov, “r# Aeros Arskavdpov uxt Oewy Lwtnpov, xcr Ozav Adeapav, xat Qewv Evepye- To, nat Ocav Diromatopwv, xc Ozov Emidavois evxapirov. It. is evident that thefe were priefts of Alexander, of Ptolemy Soter, of Philadelphus Euergetes, of Philopator, of Epipha- nes, and therefore of the royal family raifed to. the rank of deities. The name Aeros, eagle, gives reafon to believe, that the cafe was the fame here as with other kinds of prieft- hood mentioned in antiquity, that the family name was en- tirely abandoned, and could no longer be named; and that the yank was indicated by a general name. Here a fym- bolic name, viz. the eagle, feems to have indicated the high prieft. A prieftefs of Berenice, no doubt the fpoufe. of Soter, has the fecond rank; her name of honour is aarrcgogas. Thé third place, under the title of a Canepbora, is given to the prieflefs of Arfinoe, the wife of Philadelphus, The fourth is dccupied by the prieftefs of Arfinoe, the fifter and wife of Philopator.- Then comes apyiepess, mpo@ntas, xet or £15 To adv TOV E15 TOOEVELLEVOL, pos TOV TTOMTBOV THY @rwy, (hence at ap- pears that the ftatues were dreffed or ornamented) xa: atepo~ Popes veut kepoypappmarsis, wou or anros lepers, Sc. refpecting which Jablonfki will give fonie.explanations, as well as the Jearned- who make further refearches'in regard to the explanation of the infcription. In regard to the word wrepogopai, one of the members remembered a paflage in Clemens of Alexandria, where is found lepoypaymareus eOwv mrepa emians xepaans*. This dlafs therefore was diftinguifhed by a feather on the head, as a mark of honour, which is found alfo on the Egyptian mo uments f. » An account of the benefits conferred by the prince on the priefts affords feveral notices refpecting the different kinds of taxes ; but it would require too much room to detail the whole of them. They confift partly in pecuniary impofitionsy * See Beckmann’s Hiftory of Inventions, part iv. p. 294. + See Adgunanda Urdis Koma, No. 16. ed. 1643. sida j gsic an On the Perfepolitan Inferiptions. 8s _4nd partly in contributions in kind. We fhall however men tion thofe benefits which are connected with biftory. Among the fervices rendered by the’ king, is the fiege and capture of Lycopolis. The infurgents of the laft years had thrown themfelves into this place, and had fortified it; fo thatthe . fiege was atterided with difficulties, efpecially in the eighth year (of the government). The Nile had increafedin an extraordinary degree, and the king was obliged to oppofe dykes to the water, in order that the fiege might be continued with advantage. Polybius fpeaks of the fiege of Lycopolis *; but he places it in the 4th year of the 148th Olympiad, 185 years before the birth of Jefus Chrift, and therefore 12 vears Jater. Vaillant alfo places it in this year. The infeription evidently contradi&ts this opinion; but we need only exa- mine with attention the words of Polybias, who fpeaks of the fiege of Lycopolis as an event that took place fome years before. The honours decreed to the king confit partly in a confire mation of the antient honourable titles, and partly in the addition of a néw one, that of protector (or’ avenger) ‘of Egypt. Wrotcuaoy t8 exapviovtzs th Aryurrs, which was to be every where inferted in the facerdotal rite, and then a ftatue was to be erected in all the temples. The ftatue was to be placed in fuch a manner, that the ftatue of the deity of the temple fhould prefent to it victorious arms. The priefts were to adore the ftatue three times a day, mi the facred pro-. ceffions, when fmall golden temples (vaor) were carried about, with fmall images of the gods. -The image of the king was to be carried about ina finiilar facellam. Some other circumftances, which require further explana- tion, the author has referved for another opportunity. Un- fortunately the infcription has fuffered in the lower part. It concludes with thefe words: (0) repeov Asbou Trois Te tepors meet EYXwplors Ko EAAMVHOLS YpaUacIY kat TTHOAL EV ExaT TH THY TE 1De~ Tov Rat Deutepwy (iepwv). ying s'p ie On the Perfepolitan Inferiptions.. 6 od ’ Tn the fame fitting a memoir was read of M. George Grotefend, entitled: Previa de cuneatis guas vocant inferip» tionibus Perfepolitanis legendis et explicandis relatio; the con- terits of which are the more aftonifhing, as the author is not an orientalift, and employed himfelf accidentally ih, decy- Pphering this writing, hitherto fo ob{cure. The author, who has long exercifed himfelf in decyphering, in confequetice Of *. Excerpt. lib. xxiii) 16." G3 a trifling 86 On the Perfepolitan Inferiptions, a trifling difpute with one of his friemds, Jaid a bet that he would decypher one of the Perfepolitan infcriptions., He fucceeded beyond his expectation, and ina few weeks was . able to explain the greater part. of the infcriptions, and to communicate details refpecting the manner in which he roceeded, and concerning his retults. sit The author firtt fpeaks of the cuneiform writing in general, and. lays down the following principles: 1ft, The wedge- formed charaéters are really letters, On the monuments of Perfepolis there are three forts of them, which, for the moft part, correfpond with each other, ‘as has been remarked by ' Niebuhr and Munter, and which may be called the firtt, fecond, and third kinds of writing. The whole three may be clearly obferved on’ the vafe of Caylus*, provided two figns only be correéted from fimilar in{criptions, found in Niebuhr and Le Bruyn. 2d. The wedge-formed figures are alphabetic letters, and not fyllables or figns. In the firft fort of letters the end of a word is, indicated by a wedge placed obliquely, .and in the|fecond, by a perpendicular, wedge. If the groupes of figures were fyllables, we ought to have here words of ten fyllables, for very often there are fo many figns between two feparations of words. In each of thefe kinds of writing there are diflinguifhed about forty figures, a number which would be too fmall for writing in figns. 3d. All the wedge-formed infcriptions proceed from left to nght, in a horizontal, direétion, and not vertically or in buftrophedon charaéters, as may be feen by comparing'the infcriptions B, D, C, in Niebuhr. It isthence feen that this principle, ex~ reffed perhaps too generally, can be applied only to the in- Seinen of Perfepolis. In the fecond fection, which relates to infcriptions of the firft fort in particular, the author oblerves, that this writing has need of marks, proper for the long and fhort vowels, as. in the antient Perfian writing called the Zendic: hence the q' antity of forty letters which Niebuhr has already colleéted, In a word, all the infcriptions which the author has been hitherto able to explain, relate to Darius the fon of Hyflafpes, andtoyXerxes; a circumftance to which new refearches have already given a high degree of probability. _. In the. third fection the author defcribes the manner in which he proceeded, and gives hisexplanations. The fuppo- fitions already mentioned, as well as the analogy of the in- feription of the Saffanides, gave reafon to expect in particular the name of king, and titles particularly for Darius and * Rem. d’Antigq. 7. pl. 30% Xerxes. On the Perfepolitan Inferiptions. 85. Xerxes... The words‘on which accents are found ought to be titles. » By different’ combinations the author obtained the words. KAfcherche and Darheujch ; by help of the words® found, read the other words of the infcription'on the urn of -Caylus, and thofe of Band G of Niebuhr, which he explains according to the Zendic.. The dictionaries and granymatical remarks of Anquetil were of great fervice to him in this” labour, 00 f no HaGuor el i 16M The author has given, as the refults of his refearches, ‘an ex- planation ‘of the infcriptions on the urn already mentioned, and thofe of Niebuhr, pl. 24, B, G. He read thus»the B of Niebuhr: Déarbet/ch Khfch:bich egbre. Kb/chebigh Kh/ché- biohetchio. Kh/chzbith, Dabutchao... Gofchla/phebe, bin akbeotchofchoch, ab 600, Moro, exutchu/ch, that isto fay, Da- rius rex fortis, rex regum, rev-dabarum (filius) Hyfta/pys, Stirps mundi reéioris, in confiellatione ma/culd toi: Moro, tox Ized.. Moro is one’of the twenty-eight conftellations 3 the author refers the word governor: of; the world to Giemfhid, from, whom the Perfian kings, the Achemenides, derived their origin. ys _ He read thus the infcription marked G of Niebuhr: Khfckerche Khjéhebigh eghre. Kh{chchith. Khfchébiohetchéo. Darbeufch Khfchehiohéhé. bin. akheotchofchéh, that is to fay, Xerxes rex fortis, rex regum (tilins) Darn, regis /lirps omnium rectoris, .1t is in this manner that the author explains the in- {cription found in Le Bruyn, -p. 273, No. 133, 0n the mantle of the king: he even. propofes | corrections. «He thinks alfo that he can reftore and correct the infeription on the window, (fee'in the fame place No. 134.) What has been here faid . may enable the reader to form {ome opinion of his labour. _ However unexpected this difcovery may:be, it feems to deferve fome attention: we have>reafon indeed to be on our guard again{t difcoveries of this kind, becaufe one may be eafily deceived by potfible combinations, and by certain fup- pofitions which may originate in) chance ; e(pecially when the language affords no certain means of judging’ of ‘their correctnels, and when, on the other hand, the language itfelf mutt in fome meafure be difcovered,. As the author has not made known his alphabet, and as he has pot mentioned whether it’be complete for all the inferiptions of the firft fort: of writing, and how far he hasmade relearches am regard to the other kinds ;, no opinion can yet be formed:ofi the cer- tainty andextent of thie difcovery.. It appears thatthe author hitherto has employed himfelf chiefly with the inferiptions of Perfepolis, and we mutt, confine to thefe inferiptions fome principles, too generally expreiied ; namely, that each fort of G4 writing bibs 83x On the Perfepolitan Inftriptions. writing exhibits forty figns, that all the wedge-formed writs _ ing has a horizontal direétion, and that they are all alpha~ betic.., Thereis: fomething alfo to be rectified in the expla~ nation : rev dabarum, for example, as a title of Darius, is not very probable: in regard to reétor mundi, it might be re- ferred, perhaps with more reafon to Ormuzd. But what may give us.a prepofleffion in favour of the author’s hypothefis is, that it is founded on what the refearches and obfervations hitherto made, give as the moft probable refult. From thefe indeed we can admit that the buildings of Perfepolis belong to the time of the fucceffors of Cyrus. We may eyen go further, and conclude that the greater part of the monuments were finithed under Dariys me the following kings ; becaufe the fhort duration of the reign of Cambyfes would not have been fufficient for the execution of fuch works. _ As the in{criptions are as old as the monuments, they mutt be referred to. the time of thefe princes. In'a word, jt is feen that the wedge-formed writing on thofe monuments, and in: general where it has a horizontal direction, proceeds from left to right. This circumftance, which was obferved by Niebuhr, is inconteftably proved bya fimilar infcription on {tone found in the French nationa] mufeum at Paris, and which €. Millin has given in the firft number of Monwmens Antiques, plates 8 and g. The artift in this infcription has placed infulated- wedges, on groupes, or whole letters, for which there was no room, above the lines, or in the fecond column, and always to the right, where the end of the line ought confequently to’ be.. The author’s explanation agrees with thefe obferyations.’ He reads from left to right, and ‘finds in the inferiptions allu- fions to Darius, Xerxes, and certain points refpecting the’ worfhip of the magi. The legends which the author has found)are confiftent and probable, when confidered hiftori-) cally. They have alfo-the greatelt analogy with the inferip-" tions of the Saflanides, a dynafty defcended from the antient Perfian kings, and who endeavoured to re-eftablifh the empire? and its religion, As thefe princes on antient coins and mo-" numents are ftyled kings of the kings of Izan, of divine ori- gin, &c.. fimilar titles, but more fimple, are found in thefe inferiptions. Time alone can {how whether the continuation: of the guthor’s refearches will juftify thefe explanations. ~~ Hf the learned: thould fucceed in decyphering the wedge~’ formed writing, their difcoveries would throw great light on! many points of the Afiatic antiquities, becaufe more monu-' ments of this writing are daily difcovered. They may be divided: into three’ claffes. “ rift, The Babylonian, among’ which are reckoned the bricks of the walls of antient Bebysi aI ueeinne ss he wer oe nf Antiquities. 39 lon, and perhaps fome other monuments, if the refearches of Dr. Lichtenftein do not affign to them another period, This writing has a peculiar charaCter, which may be diftin- guifhed by the name of the ai/-writing*. ad, The Perfian: the monuments of Perfepolis, fome gems and vafes, the ftone of which C. Millin fpeaks, and feveral others. The writing of the latter has more refemblance to the point of a dart. It might be called dart-writing. 3d, The Egypto-Perfian: to this kind, in all probability, belong the cylindric amulets of hematites with wedge-formed letters and figures; and, in rticular, a fragment of a ftone found near Suez, which ex- hibits wedge-formed letters; and a Perfian head, having on it a hawk’s wing. An engraving of it may be feen in D - non, from a drawing by general Dugua. This variety of monuments; which is daily becoming more numerous, proves how widely diffufed the ufe of fuch letters was at a certain period. XVI, Intelligence and Mifcellaneaus Articles. ’ ANTIQUITIES. Some curious and valuable remains of antiquity were ately difcovered in Iftria, Dalmatia, and Albania, and have been fent to Vienna by M. de Carnea Stephaneo, his. imperial majefty’s cammiflary in thefe provinces. The articles found are :, 1ft, A torfo of Parian marble, found among the ruins of Salona, in Dalmatia, a league north-eaft from Spalatro. It is feven feet and a half in height, and reprefents a naked warrior feated on the trunk of a tree, on which is placed his war drefs. This ftatue is in the mof fublime Grecian fiyle. The expreffion and beauty of the form fhow that it is the work of one of the firft matters of antiquity. The belt exhibits a peculiarity not generally met with in ftatues of this kind. » It is much to be regretted that it is mutilated nearly in the fame manner ae the torfo of the Vatican at Rome. ad, A Minerva, of Corinthian brafs, found in Dalmatia, near Xa-Oftrogs, three leagues and a half from the mouth of the Narenta. It is eight feet in height, and perfectly entire. This Minerva is in the Greek coftume, with a hel- met, an egis, and a Medufa’s head on the breaft: fhe holds a lance in the: Jett hand, which is fomewhat elevated, and a eup in the right. The hair is arranged in, the fame manner * For a fpeci men ef this kind of writing, fee our xith volume, : as go Earthquake. as-is ftill ufual among the Illyrian women in the intetior part’ of Dalmatia, and among thofe of Kamtfchatka and on the banks of the Anadir. | 34, A Madona with infant Jefus bacon painted by Aloys Vivarinus, of Murano, on a platter ground, ‘This painting, which was finifhed in 1489, 1s five feet two inches in height and one foot eleven inches. inibreadth, It was executed, at the time when the art of painting in oil was firft carried from: Flanders to Italy, It proves that Vivavinus, by his delicate: and: ‘expreflive pencil, had already carried to a high degree of excellence, the art of painting, which was not brought toa - ftate of perfection till.the time of Charles Vo, 4th, A.naval battle painted in oil, eleven: feet in height and twenty-one in breadth. It is a mafter-piece, of Tinto~ retto, He compofed it at the requeft of the fenate of Venice; who prefented it to the city of Pifano, It reprefents the battle faid to have taken place in 1177 between the Germans and the Venetian fleet near Cape de Salvora, in Iftria, and which was firft mentioned by Andrew Dandolo, in his Chronicle, two centuries after. 5th, A buft, painted on marble, of Sanétorius, a cele- brated profefior of Padua, who died in. 1639, and who formed an epoch in the pailafophical hiftory of medicine. EARTH QUAKE. Some pbitirvatiane have lately been publifhed in the Ger- man journals in regard to the, curious circumftances which accompanied the earthquake that took place in the province of the Seven Mountains towards the end of O&ober. | It was in the low meadows lying towards the north that the pheno- mena were moft fenfible, where deep fiffures two or three feet in breadth and thirty-five fathoms in length, which divided into feveral branches, were formed in a direction from weft to eaft. Argreat deal of very fine fand of an ath-gray colour, which emitted a fulphureous odour, was thrown up from thefe fifflures. The principal fiffure, after extending throughout @ long ipace, Separated 1 into feveral branches, which bent thems felves into femicircles towards the weft, and traverfed a houlé anda ftable, after piercing the walls at the foundation. . The whole country was covered with one or more inches of fand ui the direétion of the:fiffures: and perfons who were wit- neties to thefe phenomena affert, that at the time of the laft ihock the earth opened with a noife lke that of a mufket fhot; thatia black and strong {melling vapour iffued from the nid unes,/as well as.a great deal of water, which {fpouted up with a lowd noite 3 and that thefe jets were. followed by a great ‘quantity Tranfit of Mercury.—Chemifiry. | gt quantity of fulphureous fand.. The ground alfo fank down in afenfible manner. The water which iffued from the fif- fures was exceedingly fulphureous, cold, and limpid. Chemitts obferved, that a pound of this fand diluted i, eight pints of water produced no effervefcence, and even gave no precipitate on being mixed with vitriolic acid. The ni- trous acid gave the fame refult. It was only after its decom- pofition, and after gall-nuts were able to produce no change in’ ‘the colour,*that the water became turbid, in fuch a manner as to {how the prefence of the vitriolic acid. By> decoction and évaporation figns of :cryftallization were ob-) ferved at the furface; and, when the evaporation was com- plete, there remained about eight grains of alkaline matters, two parts of which were Glauber’s falt, one earthy falt, and the other gypfum. rf . TRANSIT OF MERCURY, As obferved at. Paris November g, 1802. Obfervers. Tnterior Contaét, Exterior Conta. C. Mechain,. =: - of 6" 45°45 OY! BP 0 BO%s? Lalande - - -. - 0 6. 29°0 Q want §6 His nephewand - Jo 6 = 43°0 fs 8 18 Burckhardt = 6 49 Meffier ~ - © 6 49:2 The above refults are mean time reduced to the national obfervatory. ; - “Mechain faw the planet very well terminated without any aureola, though he always followed its progrefs on the fun with a telefcope of three obje& glaffes 4+ inches in diameter and 7 feet focus, with which he took 45 diftances. He had obferved in the fame manner the tranfits in the years 1782, 1786, 1789, and 1799. “es CHEMISTRY. . 1. Brugnatelli has lately obferved, that by treating paper with the nitric acid, a large quantity of fuberic acid mixed with oxalic acid is obtained. Thisfeems to prove that Four- eroy was right in clafling cork among the immediate prin-. ciples of the vegetable kingdom. -2. The fame chemift in a letter fays, that after a particular examination of wheat, he thinks he has found that vegeta- ble gluten is nothing elfe than animal fibrous matter. It differs indeed from animal gluten or glue, by its infolubility in cold water, and by the contraction it experiences in warm water. When treated with the nitric acid it brhlay, Bis uces ga oe wel 1Gbemefirg duces a foamy effervefcence, gives out nitrous gas, and dif> folves.: This folution is. decompofed by water, hike that: of animal fibrous matter, and the white precipitate thence ‘re-! fulting diffolves in ammonia; afluming a dark yellow co- tr 3. A difcovery of two new principles in fulphureous was ters has Jately been made by Counfellor Weftrumb, of Hammeln, who gives the following details : . & For fix years I have been exclufively employed m the analy fis of fulphureous waters. I have found an eafy and en- tirely new method of determining what they contain of fulphurated hydrogen and carbonic acid gas; and 1 have difcovered.a principle hitherto unknown in thefe waters, namely, bitumen in combination with fulphurated bydro- gen gas and hydro-fulphurated hme. I communicated) the detail of this difcovery to M, Wurzer. Counfellor Von Crel} and Profeffor Schaub of Caffel faw at my houfe thefe new products. Thefe- principles are found in the waters of Neuwdorf, Limmen, Rehburg, and Eylfe. In the Jatt place, five fulphureous fprings, altogether different from each other, a fpring of carbonic gafeous water, -and one of frefhi © water, are found in an extent of Jefs than a thoufand fquare feet. Near Buckembourg, the capital of- the fmall country — of Leppe, to which Eylfe belongs, are found two other ful- phoreous fprings perfectly fimilar, one of which we founded to the depth of eighty feet without finding its. refervoits Baths of mud fimilar to thofe of St. Amand have been con- firucted at Eye: a very confiderable quantity of hydro-ful+ phurated mud, which may furnifh baths for feveral cen- turies, has been found there.” . 4. A new gas, fulphurated azotic gas, has been difcovered in the mineral waters of Aix-la~Chapelle by M. C. Gim- bernat, fub-direétor of the mufeum of natural hiftery at Madrid, who gives the following account of it: 4 JT have juft finithed my Jabour on the analyfis of the | falphureous waters of Aix-la-Chapelle. I have found that the excipient of the fulphur im thefe waters is not hydrogen, as has hitherto been fuppofed and afferted, but azote. Thefe waters contain no fulphurated hydrogen. «¢ Sulphurated azotic gas is a chemical body, the ex- iftence of which has never been fufpeéted. Nature pre- fents it in abundance in the mineral waters of this country. “© Befides fulphurated azote, thefe waters contain a oreat deal’ of pure and free azote interpofed, and in the femi-+ gafeous ftate.”’ Saeeca , - 5. We Animal Galvanifin®. - » 5. We are informed by Mr. Paul ef Geneva (now in: Lon- don). that water holding fulphate of lime in folution, and impregnated under preflure with hydrogen gas, of which it can take up about one-fourth of its volume, after ftanding Gopped up for about three months, on being opened. was found to contain fulphurized hydrogen gas. This has been repeated. feveral times with the fame refult. In diftilled water not impregnated with fulphate of lime, the hydrogen gas undergoes no change. - How is the fulphurized bydrogen gas produced? There is plainly a decompofition effected, not merely of the fulphate of lime, but of tbe tulpharic acid, which parts with a portion of its fulphur.—What becomes of the oxygen? Does it join the hydrogen, and form water ? ; The hydrogen gas made ule of in the above experiments was procured from the decompofition of water, by applying it to iron expoled to a high temperature. When obtained by means of fulphuric acid, water, and iron, in the humid way; - it has a different flavour, fomewhat hepatic. _ 6, Mr. Paul has mentioned to us another circumftance, which deferves to be made known. Water impregnated with ydrogen gas is extremely injurious in dropfical complaints. A gentleman labouring ander the dropfy was cured by drink- ing water impregnated with oxygen gas; but) during the cure his fervant by miftake had purchafed fome hydrogen water, In lefs than 24 hours bis malady returned: on find= ing out the caufe, and having recourfe to the oxygenated water, the mifchief was fpeedily remedied. ANIMAL GALVANISM, Some curious Galvanic experiments were made on Febra~ ary 28, by profeffor Aldini, in Dr. Pearfon’s leture-rooms. They were by far more interefting and fatisfactory than any we have yet noticed on animals, owing to the pains taken to procure the fitteft fubje&s for the operations.. They were mftituted in the prefence of his excellency the ambaflador of France general Andreoffi, lord Pelham, lord Roxburgh, lord © Caftlereagh, lord Hervey, the honourable Mr. Upton, Mr. Cholmondely, Mr. Anchora, Mr. Elliot, and feveral other gntenen of rank, The profeffor was affifted ably, as on ormer occafions, by Mr. Carpue, Mr. Cuthberifon, and Mr. Hatchins. . Among other important facts, it was decifively fhown, x. That a vital attraction fubfifts between a nerve and miufcle: for the fufpended fciatic nerves of a frog, after de- ; 9 taching 94 Mr. Pepys’s Galvanic Apparatus. taching the {pine, being brought near the intercoftal mufcles of adog, while the affiftant who held the frog did, with his other hand, touch the mufcles of the thigh of the dog, (thus forming a circle) ; in this fituation, the nerves fufpended ap- proached, and came into contaét with the mutcle, as evidently as a filken thread is attracted by fealing-wax. 2. The heart of a rabbit was excited to ation in a little time after the animal was killed; but vitality difappeared much fooner than in the other mufcles: fo that this organ is the primum, and not, as Harvey afferted, the ultzmum moriens. The lungs, liver, and fpleen could not be excited to aétion, even immediately after the animal was killed. 3. The moft important fact of all was that of exciting contractions by making a circle of nerves and mufcles of dit- ferent animals, without any metallic exciter or conductors, 4. The head of an ox, recently decapitated, exhibited . aftonifhing effeéts: for, the tongue being drawn out by a hook fixed into it, on applying the exciters, in fpite of the ftrength of the affiftant the tongue was retracted, fo as to de- tach itfelf, by tearing itfelf, from the hook: at the fame time a loud noife iffued from the mouth by the abforption of air, attended by violent contortions of the whole head and eyes. — After the exhibition of thefe phenomena of Galvanifin, which, among other philofophers, particularly occupy the attention of the Firft Conful, the.company partook of an ele- gant dejeune and a converfazione in Dr. Pearfon’s houfe. [= SSeS XVII. Defeription of Mr. Pepys’s large Galvanic Apparatus. Me. PEPYS jun. has lately conftruéted the moft powerful Galvanic apparatus that has, we believe, been yet produced, of which we fhall endeavour to give our readers fome idea. It confifts of 60 pairs of zine and copper plates difpofed in two troughs conftruéted on Mr. Crutckfhank’s plan, but with fome accompanying arrangements which are extremely convenient and ufeful. That our defeription may be the bet- ter underftood, we refer to a view'of the apparatus, Plate I. A.A. The two troughs, each confifting of 30 pairs of plates, The plates are cemented into troughs made of mahogany, properly varnithed to ftand the a¢tion of the fluids which may be introduced into the cells between the plates. The plates are each 6 inches {quare, or contain 36 fquare inches of furface on each fide; and that they may be able to conti- 5 nue at oll Mr. Pepys’s Galvanic Apparatus. oF mue in ufe for a confiderable time even with the application of {trong acidulous liquors, they are made of fuch a thicknefs that each pair weighs four pounds. The troughs are furniftied with pivots at each end, by which they reft on the bar B of the table into, which the whole apparatus is framed: on thefe pivots, which are fo placed as. to throw the centre of gravity of the troughs below them, the troughs revolve when it is neceflary to empty the ceils. C. A japanned iron tray or receiver, capable of hold- ing the contents of the»cells of the troughs when they are emptied. D. A range of fix funnels made of tin, the diftances of the tubes of which are fo adjufted that they enter fix of thé cells of the troughs at once. E. A tin vetlel having fix diftin& cells with fpouts, each capable of containing the exa& quantity of fluid neceflary to fill a cell of the trough. By means of the funnel D and veflél E, the troughs are filled with very little trouble, no more being neceflary than to fill the vefiel E by dipping it into. the fluid or acid, and then emptying it, by the fpouts correfponding with the divifions in the funnel D, into the latter, the pipes of which are placed in the correfponding cells of the troughs. FF the two prime conductors, being two brafs rods with fhoulders,.. They pafs through holes in the top of the table (which, to {how the arrangement of the troughs, appears elevated in the engraving) into the end cell of each trough. GG two metallic conductors, each confifting of two parts joined by fockets, and each having a focket which fits upon the prime conductors FF. By this contrivance they are movable in any direction required in the experiments. HH two thallow veffels made of tin, with tubes under- neath, by means of which they can be placed on the tops of the conductors. When filled with water they are found con- venient for giving the Galvanic fhock in a very perfect man- ner, and for, other experiments. _ I, an arch of metal to unite the troughs at their further s. When the cells are filled, the troughs connected by. the etallic arch, the top or lid fhut down, and the prime.con- ductors put in their places, the apparatus forms a Galvanic table free from any incumbrance, and extremely well adapted for every experiment in Galvanifm. On the 21 ft of February, with a number of {fcientific gen- tlemen, we witneffed a trial of this apparatus. The experi- ments io Mr. Pepys’s Galvanic Appatatus. ments made by Mr. Pepys on the deflagration of metals were’ the moft brilliant and fplendid we ever beheld. The troughs were filled with 32 pounds of water mixed with two pounds of concentrated nitrous acid. With this charge— s Iron wires of +35 to # of an inch in diameter were defla- grated with great fplendour. A number of the {mall ones twifted together produced fomewhat like a “little bruth: @ pleafing appearance in deflagration. » Charcoal of box wood was not only deffagrated at the place of contaét, but remained permanently red hot for neat two inches in length. : © Lead foil burnt with great vividnefs, becoming red hot,- and emitting a {mall volcano or adjutage of red fparks along with the flame. ! Tin foil burnt with great fplendour, with fmoke and fparks. Dutch leaf or brafs foil deflagrated vividly, with fmoke and a profufion of fparks. . Silver leaf burnt with an intenfe vivid green light: no fparks, but much fmoke or fame. - Gold leaf deflagrated with bright white light and fmoke. — Tin‘wire, 1-eighth of an imch in diameter, fufed, bursty and oxidated, with great fplendour. Platina wire, 1-fixteenth of au inch in diameter, became red hot, white, and fufed into globules at the conta&. » Gunpowder, phofphorus, and inflammable fubftances, ate inftantly fired by conta& with conduéters armed with char- coal. - The Galvanic power was capable of deflagrating charcoal, 3 Ae 2 through fixteen perfons with wetted” hands oined. : , The beft method of fhowing thefe experiments is by itt troducing into an earthen plate filled with clean mercury, one of the prime conduétors. The other conduétor may be then mounted with the feveral fubftances to be tried. The leaves and lamine of metal eafily adhere to it by wetting. Wires may be twifted round it, and will alfo ferye to bind other fubftances to it. 119. BS ~- The is of this large trough was fo gtedt as to keep* up the deflagrations and combultion without intermiffion. ” | RCE anaes : : afin) ° “pngpurfnes 89 XVIII. An Effay on the Method of determining the Difference of Longitude between Places at Land, from the obferved Tranfits of the Moon over their Meridians; with a De- monjtration and Example. By Mr. Gavin Lowz*. Ea eft methodorum fimpliciffimarum ratio atque natura, ut poftremz in tMentem yeniant, et nifi obitinatiore animo, ne veniant quidem. Boscovicu, Aruoucu the method of determining the difference of longitude at fea from the lunar obfervations has been ac- curately laid down by Dr. Mafkelyne and other able nautical aftronomers, it has, however, happened that feveral writers on longitude and aftronomy have, in the courfe of the laft twenty years, given rules for finding the difference of longi- tude at land from the moon’s tranfits, either fo erroneous or imperfect, that the adoption thereof might do a ferious injury both to navigation and geography: they have given exam- ples, but no demonftrations ; or at leaft fuch obfeure and im- perfect ones, as prove that they had nota clear conception of the matter. It is for thefe reafons that the following demonftration of a rule both eafy and accurate for finding the difference of longitude, is now propofed. The data are the obferved in- creafe of the moon’s right afcenfion in paffing from the firft to the fecond meridian, and the increafe of the fun’s and moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours apparent time, which may be had from the Nautical Almanac. DEMONSTRATION. Let the circle ABC reprefent the equator, P its pole, and APD the firft meridian, as that of Greenwich. Suppofe that the centres of the fun, the moon, and a fixed ftar are on that meridian at the fame moment of time as reprefented at A, and that they move from thence to the weftward with their refpeétive velocities, the earth being confidered as at reft. Then, after twelve hours apparent time, the fun will be at D, the oppofite point to A, or 180° diftant from it; but the fixed ftar, moving in appearance over a greater {pace than 180° in twelve hours apparent time, will be at E; while the moon, with a motion apparently flower than the fun and the ftar, will appear after twelve hours at the point B, or on a meri- dian BP. But ED is the diftance of the fun from the ftar ~ 2 os 2 * Communicatéd by the Author. Vo. XV. No. 58, sb after March 1803. 98 Longitude determined after an interval of twelve hours apparent time, and EB the diftance of the moon, or, in other words, the increafe of their refpeétive right afcenfions : and fince ED and EB are known from the Nautical Almanac, if we fubtra&t the firft from the laft, we have DB, equal to the difference between the in- creafe of the fun’s and moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours apparent time. Now the difference of longitude be- tween the two meridians A P and B P is the are A@B, equal to AD lefs the are DB; that is, equal to 180° lefs the dif- ference between the increafe of the fun’s and moon’s right afeenfion in twelve hours: and, fince the increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion from the time of its pafling the me- ridian A P to the time of its pafling B P is known from ob- feryation, and equal to EB, we can make the following pro- portion for finding the difference of longitude between any other two meridians, A P and @P, from the obferved increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion ¢8. As EB: ASD—DB:: e8: A@ the difference of longi- tude; or, in more familiar language, as the increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours apparent time is to 180° or 12" lefs the difference between the increafe of the fun’s and moon’s right afcenfion in that time::, fo is any other obferved increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion between two meridians : to their difference of longitude. Q.E, D.* If the increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours were uniform, or fuch that equal parts of it would be pro- duced in equal times, the above rule would be ftriftly accu- rate; but as that increafe arifes from a motion continually accelerated or retarded, and feldom uniform but for a fhort {pace of time, it will therefore be neceffary to find the mean increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion when it is at the inter- mediate point between A and @, in order to determine their difference of longitude with the greateft precifion; and for that purpofe, Taylor’s Tables of Second Difference are very ufeful. EXAMPLE. _ April the 8th, 1890, the tranfit of the moon’s firft limb was obferved at the royal obfervatory (A); and, allowance being made for the error of the clock, its right afcenfion 12) oho 18°225 was - - - - Add the time that the moon’s femj-dia- meter took to pafs the meridian - Oc Ig ae oe Right afcenfion of the moon’s centre 12 36 266 * Demeonfirated for the firft time by the author in 1770. On _ by the Moon's Tranfits. 99 _ Brought over — 125 36" 26°6° On a meridian (8*) far to the weftward . the tranfit of the moon’s firft limb was ob- ferved the fame day, and being reduced to the centre, its right afcenfion was 2 12 47 56°76 . : ore Increafe of right afcenfion between A and 8 c- - - - O 1% gor The increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours apparent time per the Nauti- cal Alpsanac was * - Sug! 1860 nog fh The increafe of the fun’s inthe fame time -.0.! 2) 49°65 Difference - = - olaq 3 3°3 5 And 12 hours mirius this difference is = 11" 35™ 46-65"; therefore, As 26™ 3°: 11> 35™'46+65° :: 11" 30°1° to 5h'ym 12°, the corre& difference of lorigitude between A and @. By reducing the three terms to feconds,; and ufing loga- tithms, ‘the operation is much fhortened. In a book publifhed by Mr. Mackay on longitude about fifteen or fixteen years ago, there is a rule given, and alfo an example, for finding the difference of longitude at land from the tranfits of the moon, but’no demonftration. The rule, when divefted of its high-founding enunciation, rans thus : As the increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours apparent time’: is to 180°: :, fo is any other obferved increafe between two meridians : to their difference of longi- tude. It follows from this, that the moon ag well as the {un would, in twelve hours apparent time, pafs over an arc of 180°, although the apparent motion of the moon to the weftward in twelve hours, or 180° of {pace, be lefs than that of the fun by fix or feven degrees; and fo much error would this method produce, if the two places differed about 180° in longitude. : The above example, wrought according to Mackay’s rule, would come out thus: As 26" 3°: 128i: TI™Zo'rsto = = ™ guys But the correét difference as aboveis - 5 7 12 Error - - Oo 10 ‘414 which amounts to more than 21°, or 150 miles, in a differ- ence of longitude little exceeding five hours. 7 * A place near Port-Royal, in Jamaica. rr pe interpolation 26™ 3°675; but the fraction of the fecond was not minde Ha Mr. 100 Longitude determined Mr. Edward Pigott adopts the very fame rule for deter-. mining the difference of longitude between Greenwich and York, and ftates-the refult in the Philofophical Tranfaétions for 1786, p. 417. 5 Mr. Vince has inferted this rule and example in his Trea- tife of Practical-Afironomy ; but we have to regret that they were not accompanied with a ftrict demonftration, : The Rev. Mr. Wollafton, in the appendix to his Fafciculus Aftronomicus, publifhed two or three years ago, has given a rule, without demonftration or example, for finding the difference of longitude from the moon’s tranfits, which pro- duces the fame error as Mackay’s and Pigott’s, although worded differently from theirs. Mr. Wollafton makes the firt term of his proportion apparent, and the third mean time; this renders the refult erroneous. Since the motion of the fun, moon, and planets are computed ‘for apparent time, and given fo in the Nautical Almanac, mean time is not at all requifite for refolving the difference of longitude either at fea or at land. We {hall therefore endeavour to apply Mr. Wollafton’s rule, according to its literal meaning, for finding the difference of longitude from the above ob- fervations. The right afcenfion of the moon’s centre on the meridian of Greenwich being known, we can eafily deduce the mean and apparent time correfponding to it; and in like manner the mean and apparent time at the diftant meridian @*. The apparent and mean time of the tranfits of the moon’s centre over the meridians of A and 8, when ftrictly computed, were as follows : Apparent Time. Mean Time. AtA - - TE" ..267 agrB 1) 25, 28™3gr6F At - - II 37 . 29°5 Ir 39 11"4 Time later at @ than atA o 10 41°69 © 10 37°9 os From the increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours - = 26° 3 Subtra& the increafe o the fun’s right afcenfion in that time - - 1. 49'65 The-moon’s retardation intwelve hours - = - 24 13°35 * Mean time, however, at @, before its longitude be known, is not a fair potulatum, The method above demonftrated does not require it, . Then, by the Moon’s Tranfitss 10r Then, “As twice the moon’s retardation in twelve hours : is to twenty-four hours : : ; ** So is the mean time later at 8 than at A: to the differ- ence of longitude weft from A.” - After doubling 24™ 13°35°, and alfo 12, which. is, totally: unneceflary, as the refult would be the fame if they ftood fingle, we ftate the following proportion : , As 48™ 26°75 : 24" +2 10" 37°95 to--5" 15™ 13°, the dif- ference of longitude between A and 6, But as the third term is improperly reduced to mean time, we fhall take the apparent time above found, and then 48™ 26°97: 24": : 10™.41°69° to--5%17™ 53°75; the fame as re- fults from Mackay’s and Pigott’s rules. We fhall only remark, that 5" 17™ 53°7° is the apparent time that the moon took in paffing from the meridian of A to the meridian of 6; but from what has been demonftrated, the apparent time at 6 will be equal to the difference between the increafe of the fun’s and moon’s right afcenfion in that interval of apparent time; for DB, or 24™ 13°35° is the dif- ference for twelve hours, and therefore by proportion 3, or 10™ 41°69° will be the difference for 5" 17™ 53°75; fubtraéting the former from the latter, we have 5" 7™ 12°, the difference of longitude as before, and a clear proof that the authors above mentioned have omitted to deduct the apparent time at the diftant place or ftation £, from the apparent time at Greenwich. If it fhould be thought eafier to employ fidereal time in refolving the difference of longitude between A and 6, let ED, the increafe of the fun’s right afcenfion in twelve hours, be added to twelve hours, and we have then the arc of fidereal time ABDE; from which fubtra@ling EB, there remains A£#B, equal tothe difference of longitude. By proportion we can therefore fay, As EB, the increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours; is to ABD + DE, or twelve hours + the increafe of the fun’s right afcenfion; fo is any other obferved increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion as ¢(3 ; to the are of fidereal time A 6; and if from this we fubtrac&t «6, then A{ is the difference of longitude required. _-To apply this rule for finding the difference of longitude from the above obfervations and data, we fay, vA 26™ 3°;,12% 1" 49°655 3: TI™071' to Afe'5* 18" 42°18 . From this fubtract <8, the obferved increafe 0 11. 30°71; The difference of Jongitude between AandBis5 7 12. f Q.E. I. — Teg? se Although ; 16% Longitude determined by the Moon’s Tranjits. “Although we cai? fafely truft to the accuracy of the 6b- fervations at the royal obfervatory, yet, at the diftant ftation 6, great attention muft be paid in adjufting the tranfit inftru- ment truly to the meridian, and taking care that it be perfec in collimation before the moon’s tranfit be obferved there ; anid alfo, that correct time be deduced as foon before or after the moon’s tranfit as poffible, from obferving the meridian paflage of one or more of the thirty-fix ftars, whofe right af- cenfions, after a long feries of obfervations, have been afcer- tained by the Aftronomer Royal with the greateft precifion. % ae A eAO% a E D In order to put the above method to the teft of experiment, 4 number of tranfits of the moon’s firft hmb were obferved many years ago at a place 26 feconds of time weft ftom the royal obfervatory, with a fmall portable tranfit inftrament made by that eminent artift Mr. Edward Troughton, of Fleet- fireet. It had a telefcope 20 inches long, a treble obje&- glafs, and the price only 20 guineas. When the obfervations at Greenwich were publifhed, all thofe that were made on the fame days at both places were employed to determine the difference of longitude, and the mean refult of four or five corréfponding obfervations gave it true to two feconds of time. This is only mentioned to fhow, that with fmall tranfit in- firuments well conftruéted, and due attention paid to their adjuft- ’ On the Preparation of the Hyacinthus non feriptus. 103) adjuftments, obfervations may be made fufficiently accurate’ for anfwering the ends of practical aftronomy. We expect foon to have the lunar tables brought to a greater degree of perfeCtion, by applying certain equations that have been lately difcovered, and by which thofé pur-! pofes will, of courfe, be more fuccefsfully promoted. It is alfo much to be withed that the moon’s tranfits were as affi- duoutly obferved by public and private aftronomers in every country as they are at the royal obfervatory in this, and from time to time communicated to the public at large. It fometimes, but not very frequently, happens, that fa- vourable weather will permit one aftronomer to obferve four tranfits of the moon over his meridian in the fame number of fucceeding days. If another, or indeed a hundred others, fhould obferve only one or two on any of thofe days, whether at the neareft or remoteft {tations from the firft meridian ; fuch obfervations are of great value, and afford the very beft means of finding the difference of longitude with accuracy, becaufe the errors of the lunar,tables are thereby completely obviated. Paradife Row, Iflington, February 14, 1803. XIX. On the Preparation of the Hyacinthus non fcriptus, or common Blue-Bell, as a Subftitute for Gum-Arabic. By Mr. Toomas Wi tis, of Lime-Street, London*, In the year 1794, whilft collecting plants in a wood fot botanical fpecimens, I obferved that the root of the Ayacin- thus non fcriptus, the plant commonly called blue-bells; or hare-bells, was extremely mucilaginous; and, on tafting it, I difcovered only a very flight pungency. I collected a pound of the bulbs, and, after flicing and drying them before a fire, they yielded about four ounces of powder. I thought that, by keeping the powder fome time, the little acridnefs might go off, as it does in the arum-root powder. I tafted it about fix months after, and found it perfectly infipid. I concluded it might be rendered ufeful for food or nourifhment, but at that time purfued the matter no further, In the fpring of 1800, gum-arabie having been a long time very dear, and likely to continue fo, {| thought this mucilaginous root might anfwer fome of its purpofes for ex- ternal ufe. I therefore procured feven pounds and a half of * From the Tranfadtions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, 8. vol. xx,, who voted a filver medal to the author for his communication. I 4 the 104, On the Preparation of the Hyacinthus non feriptus, 3 the bulbs, which, when fliced and dried, produced two pounds. of powder. Being foon afterwards in company with Mr. Charles Taylor, fecretary to the Society of Arts, &c. I men- tioned to him that I had difcovered a root which grew in great plenty in this kingdom, yielded a very {trong mucjlage, and which I imagined would anfwer the purpofes of gum- arabic in fome oF the manufaétories. He faid, if I pleafed, he would fend fome of it down to Manchefter, to be tried by the calico-printers. Three or four ounces of the powder were given him, and fent down there: he was informed, upon trial, that it an- fwered the purpofes of fixing the calico-printers’ colours equally as well as gum-arabic; and in the fame proportion, of an ounce and a half of the powder to four ounces of the mordant. Mr. Taylor received the famples of the printed cottons on which it had been ufed. . : On the 15th of January 1801 I furnifhed Mr. Taylor with eight ounces more of the powder; but have not fince heard the refult. ; As this root can be eafily procured, and ufed at a lefs price than gum-arabic has been fold for feveral years paft, I think it may be rendered of great utility; and the Society of Arts, &c., by patronizing it, may be the means of making it a public benefit. Care fhould be taken, and advice given, that the woods fhould not be left deftitute of the roots ; and it would be ad- vifeable to offer premiums for cultivating the roots and off- fets, as they are very increafing. By fuch means a conftant fupply may be had, if the roots anfwer the intended purpofes. I a not prefume to offer any thing refpeCting the mode in which the fociety may think proper to divulge the difcovery, and promote the ufe of thefe roots; but I imagine, that if the roots are bruifed and ufed frefh, they would anfwer the purpofe better than when dried and powdered; and as it is now a proper time of the year for taking them up, and will continue to be fo for two months, T with that the difcoyery may be made known as foon as poffible. I have fent you {pecimens both of the dried roots and pow- der, that they may be feen at the fociety’s rooms by the ca- lico-printers. What I have done haye been feorched a little in drying; but the colour would be much better, if proper care was taken in drying them. J am, &c. Lime-ftrect, - Tromas WILLIs. March 17, 1302. From the trials made before the committee with this pow- der with hot and cold water, from famples of the printed cot- ton Onthe Edulcoration of Fi/b-Oil, LO5, ton produced which had been printed. therewith inflead of gum-fenegal, and from experiments made in Manchefter, it appears that the byacinthus non fcriplus may, in many cafes, be found a ufetul fubftitute for gum-arabic, XX. On the Edulcoration of Fifh-Oil. By Ropers + Dossip, £/q.* Explanation of the Principles on which the Purification of Fifh-Oil may be performed, and of the Uses to which it is-. applicable. TH AT the feetid fmell of fith-oil is chiefly owing to pu- trefaction, it is unneceflary to fhow ; but, though this be the rincipal cayfe, there is another likewife, which is, uftion, or burbine the oj], occafioned by the {trong heat employed for the extra¢ting it from the blubber of the larger fifth, and which produces a ftrang empyreumatic {cent that is not al- ways to be equally removed by the fame means as the putrid fmell, but remaias fometimes very prevalent after that is taken away. In order to the perfe& edulcoration of oils there are con- fequently two kinds of feetor or ftink to be removed ; viz. the putrid, and the empyreumatic ? and the fame means do not always equally avail againft both. ‘ The putrid fmell of fith-oil is of two kinds: the rancid, which is peculiar to oils; and the common putrid fmell, which is the general effe¢t of the putrefaction of animal fluids, or of the vafcular folids, when cammixed with aque- ous fluids. Fifh-oil has not only rancidity, or the firft kind of putrid fmells peculiar to oils, but alfo the fecond or general kinds; as the oil, for the moft part, 1s commixed with the gelatinous humour common to all animals, and fome kinds with a pro- portion of the bile likewife; and thofe humours putrefying eombine their putrid fcent with the rancidity of the oil, and, in cafes where great heat has been ufed, with that and the empyreuma alfo. The reafon of the prefence of the gelatinous fluid in fifh- oil is this: that the blubber, which confilts partly of adipofe yeficles, and partly of the membrana cellulofa, which con- * From the Tran/fudclions of the Society for the Encouravement of Aits, Fe yol. xx. Sofar buck as the year ry61 the fociety vowed him a bounty of one hundred pounds for this communicanion, though they did not publith it till 4302, tains 106 On the Eduleoration of Fifb-Oi?. tains the gelatinous fluid, is, for the moft part, kept 4 con- fidérable time before the oil is feparated from it, either from the want of convenient opportunities to extraé the oil, or in order to the obtaining a larger proportion ; as the putrid ef- fervefcence which then comes on, rupturing the veficles, makes the blubber yield a greater quantity of oil than could be extracted before fuch change was produced; and the ve- ficles of the tela cellulofa, contaming the gelatinous matter, being alfo burft from the fame caufe, fuch matter being then rendered faponateous by the putrefaction, a part of it mixes intimately with the oil, and conftitutes it a compound of the proper oleaginous parts and this heterogeneous fluid. The prefence of the bile in fifh-oil is occafioned by its being, in many cafes, extracted from the liver of the fith which is not to be fo profitably done by other means as by putrefaction; and the bile being confequently difcharged, to- gether with the oil from the veffels of the liver containing them, combines with it, both from the original faponaceous roperty of bile, and from that which it acquires by putre- PGioh. This holds good particularly of the cod-oil, or common train, brought from Newfoundland, which, from its high yellow colour, vifcid confiftence, and repngnance to burning well in lamps, manifefts fenfibly the prefence of bile and the gelatinous fluid; which latter, by the faponaceous power of the bile, is commixed ina greater proportion in this than in any other kind of fifh-oil. A tendency to putrefy, or at moft but in an extremely flow manner, is not an abfolute property of perfect oils in a fimple or pure ftate, but it is a relative property dependent upon their accidental contaét or commixture with the aqueous fluid. This is evident from the cafe of oils concreted into a febaceous form; which being perfectly oleaginous and un- combined with any water, except fuch as enters into their component parts, will not putrefy unlefs water, or fomething tontaining it, is brought in contaé with them. But the fluid animal and moft vegetable oils being compounded of perteét oils with other mixed fubftances, either fub-oleaginous or ge- latinous, have always a putrefcence per /e, or tendency to putrefy, without further admixture of aqueous moifiure. This commixture of heterogeneous matter in fifh-oil, particularly of the gelatinous fluid and bile, gives rife to a further princi- ple of purification than /imple edulcoration, or the removing the foetor; for the prefence of {uch humours in the oil ren- ders it fubje& to a fecond putrefcence per /e, fuppofing the firft correéted ; makes it unfit for the purpofe of the woollen . manufacture, On the Edulcoration of Fifb-Oil. 107 manufacture, as the heat through which this is in fome cafes employed caufes this matter to contraét a moft difagreeable empvreuma. Tt alfo prevents its burning in lamps, as’ well from its vilcidity as from the repugnance which the prefence of water gives to all oleaginous matter. It is therefore ne+ eeffary to free the oil from this heterogeneous matter; aftet which it ean be fubjeét only to the rancid putrefcence, of that which is proper to oils as fuch. The fubftances which have been or may be applied to the removing or preventing the effects of putrefcence, are, acids, alkalies, metallic calces, neutral falts, ethereal and effential oils, vinous fpirits, water, and air. With refpeét to acids, though they may be applied with effeét to the removal ot prevention of putrefaCtion in mixed animal and vegetable fub- ftances, yet they have not the fame eficacy when employed in the cafe of oils; for in a {mall proportion, without the fub- fequent aid of alkalies, they rather increafe than diminifh the fcetor, and in a large proportion they coagulate the oils, and change their other properties as well as their donfiltence, Though they might therefore be employed with the affift- ance of alkalies, yet, requiring a more expenfive and complex procefs, and not being moreover neceflary, as the fame end may be obtained by the nfe of alkalies only, they may bé deemed improper for the purification of animal oils for com- mercial purpofes. Alkaline fubfiances, both falts and earths, are the moft powerful inftruments in the edulcoration of oils; but as their a€tion on putrid oils, and the method of apply- ing them to this end, are not the fame in both, it is propet to confider them dittinétly. Of alkaline falts it is the fixed kind only which aré propet to be ufed for the edulcoration of oils. Fixed alkaline falts, in a diffolved ftate, being commixed with putrefying animal fubftances, appear to combine with the putrid matter, and, mixing with fome of the principles, form inftantly volatile alkaline falts. On the lefs putrid they feem fo aét, after theit combination, by an acceleration of the putrefcent action, till they attain the degree which produces volatile falts. This is evident by the fenfible putrid ferment and fmell which appear after their commixture; but which gradually abating, | the oil is rendered {fweeter, much lighter coloured, and thinner. Their great ufe in the edulcoration of fith-oil arifes theres fore from their converting fuch parts of the gelatinous fluid and bile as are highly putrefied infiantly into volatile falts, and caufing a rapid putrefaction of the other parts ; by which means the oil is freed from them by their diffipation. They ° do 108 On the Edulcoration of Fifb-Oil. do not, however, equally a& on the parts of the oil on which the empyreumatic fcent depends, unlefs by the affiftance of heat; for when they are commixed with the oils without heat, in proportion as the putrid fmell diminifhes, that be- comes more fenfibly prevalent. The ultimate action of lixi- viate falts on animal oils, except with refpeét to the empy- reuma, feems to be the fame either with or without the me- dium of heat; for the fame urinous and putrid fmell, gra- dual diminution of the colour, and fcetid feent, happens in one cafe as in the other, except with regard to the accelera~ tion of the changes ;. and fuch falts, where the purification is required to be made in a great degree, are a neceflary means, as they are more effectual than any other fubftance that can be employed. The ufe of lixiviate falts alone is not, however, the moft expedient method that can be purfued for the edulcoration of oils, for feveral reafons. If they be ufed alone, cold, in the requifite proportions, they coagulate a confiderable part of the oil, which will not again feparate from them under a very great length of time; and when they have deftroyed the pu- trid {cent, a ftrong bitter empyreumatic fmell remains. The fame inconvenience, with relation to the coagulation of part of the oil, refults when they are ufed alone with heat. The fuper-addition of common falt (which refolves the coagulum and counteracts the faponaceous power of the lixiviate falt, by which the oil and water are made to combine) is there- fore neceflary; and the expenfe arifing from the larger pro- portion of lixiviate falt requires it to be employed if no other alkali be taken in aid, and renders the junction of alkaline earths with it extremely proper in the edulcoration of oils for commercial ufes. Lime has alfo an edulcorative power on animal oils; but it has alfo fo ftrong a coagulative action, that the addition of a large proportion of alkaline falts be- comes, when it is ufed, neceflary to reduce the concreted oil to a fluid ftate; and therefore this fubftance alone is not proper for that purpofe. The combination of lixiviate falt with lime, or the folution commonly called foap-lye, has an effeGtual edulcorative action on feetid oils; but it makes.a troublefome coagulation of part of the oil if no common falt be employed, and muft be ufed in fuch large proportion,: if no alkaline earth be added, as renders the method. too exs penfive. Lime has a power of combining with and. abforbing the putrid parts of the gelatinous fluid and bile when commixed with oil, and effects, either with or without heat, a confis derable edulcoration of foetid oils; but it combines fo ftrongly 9 with : On the Edulcoration of Fifb=Oil. 109 with them, either cold or hot, that the feparation is difficult to be effected even with the addition of brine; and the oil, when a large proportion of it is ufed, can fearcely be at all brought from its concreted to a fluid ftate but by an equiva- lent Jarge proportion of lixiviate falt: the ufe of lime, there fore, alone is improper, or even in a great proportion with other ingredients. But when only a leffer degree of edulco- ration is required, a moderate quantity, conjoined with an equal or greater weight of chalk, which affifts its feparation from the oil, may, on account of its great cheapnefs, be em- ployed very advantageoufly: it will in this cafe’‘admit of pre- cipitation from the oil by the addition of brine. It may be alfo expediently ufed when Jixiviate falt is employed with heat for the moft perfect’ purification of oils; for it will in that cafe give room for the diminithing of the quantity of lix- iviate falt, though the proportion be neverthelefs fo reftrained as not to exceed what the proportion of lixiviate falt (juft re- quifite for the edulcoration) can feparate from the oil. ‘Chalk has an abforbing power fimilar to lime, but in a lefs degree, on the putrid fubftance of oil: it does not, however, combine fo ftrongly with the oil as to refift feparation in the fame manner, and is therefore very proper to be conjoined either with limiviate falts or lime, as it renders a lefs quantity of either fufficient, and indeed contributes to the feparation of the oil from them. Magnefia alba, or the alkaline earth, which is the bafis of the fal catharticus, and the fingular earth which ts the bafis of alum, both have an edulcorating power on feetid oils, but, like lime, have too {trong an attraction with them to be fe- parated fo as to admit of the reduétion of the oil from the concreted fiate to which they reduce it; and therefore, as they are not fuperior in efficacy to lime and chalk, but much dearer or more difficult to be obtained, they may be rejected from the number of ingredients that are proper for the puri- fying of oils, with a view to commercial advantages. Sea falt has an antileptic power on the mixed folid parts of animals; but ufed alone, or diflolved in water, it does not appear to leffen the putrid foetor of oils, but, on the contrary, rather increafes it. If after their commixture with it they are fubjected to heat, it rather depraves than improves the oils; but though by its own immediate action on them it conduces fo little to the edulcoration of oils, yet it is a me- dium for the feparation of water and the alkaline fubftances requifite to be employed to that end. It is of great utility in the edulcorative proceffes; for when alkaline falts or earths combine with the water neceffary to their action on the oils, siin or 210 Qn the Eduleoration of Fifh-Oil. or themfelves form coagulums or corrections with it, a folus tion of falt will loofen the bond and diffolye the clofe union 3 fo that the oil being feparated will float on the aqueous fluid, while the earth, if any be in the mixture, will be precipitated and fink clofe together to the bottom of the containing veflel. Sal catharticus, glauber falt, nitrum_ vitriolatum,, tartary and other neutral falts, though they counteract putrefaétion in the mixed or folid parts of animals, feem to have little effect on oils with refpeét to their edulcoration, and cannot therefore be ranked amongit the fubtiances proper to be:ufed for that purpofe. Lead reduced to the fate of a calx, either in the form of miniun or litharge, has a flrong edulcorative power on foetid oils, and is indeed applied to that end, with reipect to one kind of vegetable oil, for a very bad purpofe, confidering its malignant qualities on the human body. , . In the cafe of train-oil, which will fearcely ever be confi- dered among the efculent kinds in this country, the fame objection agzinft its ufe would not lie; and employed either with or without heat, it is a powerful abforbeat both of the putrid and empyreumatic parts that oceafiou the foetor. As, however, there may be fome prejudice againft its, ufe even in any way, and as it is not abfolutely neceflary, I have not given it a place among the ingredients of the procefles I recommend. The ochrous earth of iron, commonly called red ochre, has an abforbing power on the putrid parts of oi], but combines fo ftrongly that the feparation is tedious even with the addi- tion of brine: if, neverthelefs, it is added when chalk and lime have been fome time commixed with the oil, as in pro- cefs the firft, it will promote the edulcorative intention, and will fubGide along with them; and, as it has fome advantage without increafing the expenfe, unlefs in the moft inconfie derable degree, its ufe may be expediently admitted in that procefs. Effential and ethereal oils are applicable to the prevention of putrefaétion in the mixed and folid parts of vegetables, but are not fo to the edulcoration of feetid oils; and if they had the defired effet, they would not, on account of their price, an{wer the commercial end, unlefs the due effect was produced by adding them to the oils in a very fmall quantity. The fame holds good of fpirits of wine as of effential and eihereal oils, both with refpect to their efficacy and the ex- enfe. ; Water has an edulcorative action on feetid oils by carrying off the moft putrid parts of the gelatinous fluid or bile, im which, On the Edulcoration of Fifh-Oil. It which, as was above'explained, the principal foetor refides, if the quantity added belarge, and an intimate commixture be made of them by ftirring them together for a confiderable time: this only partially removing thofe heterogeneous pu- trefcent fubftances, the remaining part foon acquires the fame ftate, and the oil again grows fetid, though not to the fame degree as before. Water is, however, a neceffary medium for the aCtion of falts and the feparation of alkaline earths and calces of metals when they are employed for the edulcoration of oils, as will appear from a confideration of my proceffes. Air edulcorates oil by carrying off the moft putrid parts, which are neceflarily extremely volatile. It may be made to aét on them either by fimple expofure of them to it with a large extent of furface, or by forcing it through them by means of ventilators, as has been pra€tifed by fome dealers ; but is now, I believe, negleéted on account of their finding the improvement of oils by it not adequate to the trouble, as the gelatinous matter and bile, not reduced to a certain de- gree of putrefaction, being left behind, putrefy again to nearly the fame degree as before. It appears from thefe feveral obfervations, that the cheapef ineredients which can be ufed for the edulcoration of train- oils are lime and chalk, which may, with the addition of a proper quantity of folution of fea falt or brine, be made to rocure a feparation of them from the oils, according to pro- cefs the firft, fo as to anfwer for fome purpofes; that the lix- iviate falt is the moft powerful purifier of oils, and, with the affiftance of chalk and brine, will, without heat, according to procefs the fecond, effect a very confiderable degree of edulcoration ; and that lixiviate falt ufed with heat, with the addition of lime and chalk, to fave a part of the quantity which would otherwife be neceffary, and of brine to procure a quick feparation, will perform an edulcoration fufficrent for all commercial purpofes, according to procefs the third; but that calcined lead and the ochrous earth of iron may, per- haps, be applied in fome cafes with advantage, where the oil is not defigned for efculent ufe. PROCESS THE FIRST. For purifying Fifb-Oil in a moderate Degree, and at a very little Expenfe. Take an ounce of chalk in powder, and half an ounce of lime flaked by expofure to the air; put them into a gallon of ftinking oi], and, having mixed them well together by 6 {tirring, 1282 On the Edulcoration of Fifb-Oil. Airing, add half a pint of water,,and mix that alfo with them by the fame means. , When they have ftood an hour or two, repeat the ftirring, and continue the fame treatment at convenient intervals for two or three days; after which fuperadd a pint and a half of water in which an ounce of falt is diffolved, and mix them as the other ingredients, repeat- ing the flirring, as before, for a day or two... Let the whole then ftand at reft,, and, the water will fink below the oil, and the chalk fubfide in it to the bottom of the vefiel. The oil will become clear, be of a lighter colour, and have confider- ably lefs fmell, but will not be purified in a manner equal to what is effected by the other procefles below given; thongh, _as this.is done with the expenfe of only one ounce of falt, it may be practifed advantageoufly for many purpoles, efpecially -aS a preparation for the next method, the operation of which will be thereby facilitated. _ PROCESS THE SECOND. To purify, to a great Degree, Fifh-Oil without Heat. Take a gallon of crude ftinking oil, or rather fuch as has been prepared as above mentioned, and add to it an ounce of powdered chalk; ftir them well together feveral times, as in the preceding procefs, and, after they have been mixed fome hours, or a whole day, add an ounce of pearl-afhes diffolved in four ounces of water, and repeat the ftirring as before. After they have been fo treated for fome hours, put in a pint of water in which two ounces of falt are diffolved, and proceed as before: the oil and brine will feparate on ftanding fome days, and the oil will be greatly improved both in fmell and colour. Where a greater purity is required, the quantity of pearl-afhes muft be increafed, and the time before the addition of the falt and water prolonged. If the fame operation is repeated feveral times, diminifhing each time the quantity of ingredients one-half, the oil may ‘be brought to a very light colour, and rendered equally fweet in fmell with the common {permaceti oil. . By this procefs the cod-oil may be made to burn; and, when it is fo putrid as not to be fit for any ufe, either alone or mixed, it may be fo-corrected by the firft part of the pro- cefs as to be equal to that commonly fold: but where this procefs is practifed in the cafe of fuch putrid oil, ufe half an ounce of chalk and half an ounce of lime. PROCESS On the Edulcoration of Fifh-Oil. 113 PROCESS THE THIRD. To purify Fifb-Oil with the Affiflance of Heat, where the greatef Purity is required, and particularly for the Vool- len Manufaéture. . Take a gallon of crude ftinking oil, and mix with it @ quarter of an ounce of powdered chalk, a quarter of an ounce of lime flaked in the air, and half a pint of water; ftir thei together, and, when they have ftood fome hours, add a pint of water and two ounces of pearl-afhes, and place them over a fire that will juft keep them fimmering, till the oil appears of a light amber colour, and has loft all {mell, except a hot, greafy, foap-like feent. Then fuperadd half a pint of water in which an ounce of falt has been diffolved; and having boiled them half an hour, pour them into a proper veflel, and let them ftand till the feparation of the oil, water, and lime be made, as in the preceding procefs. Where this ope- ration is performed to prepare oil for the woollen manufac- ture, the falt may be omitted ; but the feparation of the lime ae the oil will be flower, and a longer boiling will be ne- ceffary. if the oil be required yet more pure, treat it, after it is fe- parated from the water, &c. according to the fecond procefs, with an ounce of chalk, a quarter of an ounce of pearl-afhes, and half an ounce of falt. Obfervations on Proce/s the Firft. This procefs may be performed on any kind of fith or feal- oil that is putrid and ftinking, and will improve it in fmell, and generally render the colour lighter, if previoufly dark and brown: it will alfo conduce to render thefe oils fitter for burning, which are, in their crudeé ftate, faulty in that point; but it will not meliorate them to the full degree they admit of even without heat, and fhould therefore be praCtifed when only a moderate improvement is required. Secondly, When the oil is taken off from, the dregs and brine, the dregs which fwim on the brine fhould be taken off it alfo, and put into another veflel of a deep form; and on ftanding, particularly if frefh water be added and ftirred: with them, nearly the whole remaining part of the oil will fepa- rate from the foulnefs; or, *to fave this trouble, the dregs, when taken off, may be put to any future quantity of oil that is to be edulcorated by this method, which will anfwer the fame purpofe. . Vou. XV. No. 58. I Obfervations ‘14 On the Edulcoration of Fi/b-Oil. Obfervations on Procefs the Third. Firft, Fhis is moft advantageoufly performed on train-oif, called vicious whale-oil ; and the more putrid and foul it may be, the greater will be the proportionable improvement, efpe- cially if there be no mixture of the other kinds of fith-oils, particularly the feal, which do not admit of being edulco- rated perfectly by means of heat, but require other methods : but when the vicious oil is pure from admixture of others, however ftinking it may be, the bad {mell will be removed by this procefs duly executed, and the brown colour changed to a very light amber; and thefe qualities will be much more permanent in this than in any crude oil, as it will not, from the degree of purity to which it is brought, be fubjeé to putrefy again under a great length of time, whether it be kept open or in clofe veflels. The oil in this ftate will burn away without Jeaving the leaft remains of foulnefs in the lamp; and, being rendered more fluid than before, will go further, when ufed in the woollen manufacture, than any other kind, and will be much more eafily fcoured from the wool. If, neverthelefs, there be any branches of the woollen ma- nufacture which require the ufe of a more thick and unétuous oil, this may be rendered fo by the addition of a proper quan- tity of tallow or fat, of which a certain proportion will per- fectly incorporate with the oil, the fluidity and tranfparency being (till preferved, as well as all the other qualities that render it fuitable to the intended purpofe.. ‘This may be moft beneficially done by adding a proper quantity of the refufe greafe of families, commonly called kitchen ftuff, which being put to the oil, when moderately heated, will immediately dif- folve in it, and let fall alfo its impurities or foulnefs to the bottom of the veflel, and render the purified admixture a confiderable faving to the manufacturers. Secondly, The different qualities and difpofitions of dif- ferent parcels of vicious oil with refpeéct to edulcoration render “various proportions neceflary of the ingredients to be ufed. The quantities {tated in the above procefs are the leaft which will effect the end in general, and frequently greater will be required; but this may always be firft tried: and if it be found, after fix or eight hours.fimmering of the mixture, that no gradual improvement is making in the fmell and co- jour, but that the oil continues the fame in thofe particulars, and remains alfo mixed with the chalk and Jime, and ina thick turbid ftate, a fourth or third part of the firft quantity of pearl-athes fhould be added, and the fimmering continued till On Painting. 115 till the oil be perfeé&t. As the quantity of the water is lef- fened by the evaporation; it is neceflary to make freth addi- tions from time to time, that there miay be always nearly the Griginal proportion. . Thirdly, If it be inconvenient to give the whole time of boiling at once, the fire may be fuffered to =o out and be re- kindled at any diftance of time; and if, in fuch cafe, a {mall proportion of pearl-afhes diffolved in water be added, and the mixture feveral times ftirred betwixt the times of boiling, it will facilitate the operation:. The time of boiling may be alfo much fhortened, if the ¢halk, lime, and pearl-afhes, be added for fome days before, and the mixture frequently ftirred. PROCESS THE FOURTH, Which may le practifed alone infiead of Procefs the Firft, as it will edulcorate and purify Fifb-Oil to a confiderable De- gree, foas to anfwer mofi Purpofes, and Sor Procefs the Lhird, when the whole is performed: Take a gallon of crude ftinking oil, and put to it a pint of water poured off from two ounces of lime flaked in the air; let them ftand together, and ftir them up feveral times for the firft twenty-four hours; then let them ftand a day, and the lime-water will fink below the oil, which mutt be carefully feparated from them. Take this oil, if not fuffi- ciently purified for your purpofe, and treat it as direéted in Procefs the Third, diminifhing the quantity of pearl-afhes to One ounce, and omitting the lime and chalk. RozgertT Dossie*, XXI. On Painting. .By Mr. E. Daves, Painter. Essay IX. On Style. Nor, whilft I recommend the ftudying the art from artilts, can I be fup~ pofed to mean that nature is to be negleéted. Sir Fofhua Reynolds. Perrecrion in painting requires that the choice, the imitation and execution be direéted to the fame idea: this only can produce a perfect unity in the whole work. It will appear defeétive in proportion as it is deprived of a union of thefe qualities; as that which poffefles the feweft * The dregs remaining after the fundry proceffes above mentioned will form an excellent manure, as has been fince noticed in Dr. Hunter's Georgical Effays, Ia faults 16 : On Painting. faults will ever be the moft perfect work. Hence the found-) ation of a rational inquiry after excellence in art; for he who wifhes to examine a picture nicely or critically, muft make himfelf acquainted with the firft idea, or general intention of the whole, then of each part feparately, confidering them in themfelves as relative to each other and to the whole. An inquiry after the different flyles of painting would na- turally lead to a hiftory of the art itfelf; but as that is a fub- ject that has been fo frequently handled, we fhall only touch fo far on it as may immediately anfwer our purpofe. The fo much boafted criticifms on the works of the an- tients, which are to be found in various authors, can be but. little depended on, though often drefled up in the technical phrafes of art; becaufe the ftrongeft Janguage will always be ufed on the moft extraordinary occafion, but the advantage refulting to the reader will depend on the capacity of the writer. All difeuffion at prefent on works that have ceafed to exift for near 2000 years would be only lofs of time, as, from want of reference, they could not tend to illuftrate any one rule of art. Such inquiries.may ferve to amufe the idle, but will not tend in the leaft to benefit the artift. No one can deny, however humiliating the thought may be, that we are indebted to the Greeks for. fome of the fineft forms at prefent in art. Many have attributed their fuperior powers to the climate: but we ought rather to afcribe them to the freedom they enjoyed, and the wifdom of their legiflators ; nor forgetting their enthufiafm for beauty, which they confidered as a gift of the gods; and that with them men were more valued for their perfonal merit than for the wealth they poflefled.. The happy Grecian might fit himfelf down contented in his poverty, knowing it was not thought difreputable, and that his abilities would prove a fufficient pafiport to fociety and to the higheft honours. ‘The modern artift is folicitous of making money, knowing it is now the firft teft of his abilities in the opinion of the world, and a ftronger recommendation than wifdom. Hence the nobler energies of the foul are weakened; and from want of the ftronger motive, honour, the love of fame finks into the bafe and felfifh defire of wealth. ‘This has induced thé weak and pufillanin:ous to apply to the arts; and as they afpire after nothing but intereft, they are unacquainted with thofe fub- lime conceptions the arts require. The Pheenicians are believed not to have carried the arts to any great degree of perfection. To be fufficiently well for the purpofe of exportation would be the utmoft that would efile ue On Painting. 117 be required; and perhaps their merchants would not be in- elined to rifk much on articles the buyers of which would be the wealthy, and often the ignorant. What might be requi- fite for the purpefe of ornament would be more likely to be fhowy than juft. The Romans appear to have encouraged the arts as a means of adding to their pride, and of feeding their vanity. As a people, they are rather to be viewed at adiftance; their cha- raéter is too felfith and oppreflive to invite to an intimacy. The beft works preduced among the Romans from Augu{tus to Trajan are juftly held to be of Grecian workmanthip. It is always more eafy to imitate the ftyle than the reafon- ings and fcience of the original: hence thofe who fueceeded the early Greeks failed by degrees in the moft effential parts; which may account for that fort of mechanical harfhnefs, and often want of elegance, oblervable in fome of the works called Roman. We have no right to look for true tafte among a people who could drag their captives at their chariot wheels, or flaughter them im theatres. They appear to have preferred pomp and fhow, ‘ barbaric pearl and gold,” to true tafte; and exhibit a piture of gaudy and well-difciplined barbari- ans. A nation which places the firft reputation on arms or war, will never have a higher efteew for the peaceable pro- feffor of defign than a Spartan or Roman. Many of their moft renowned works are recommended more to notice on account of their richnefs than beauty, as Nero’s golden pa- laces, &c. Pomp and luxury was their objeé& ; and they fell into the common error of ignorance, that of augmenting the matter inftead of improving the form *. Among the moderns, every country that has formed a, fchool appears to have had a caufe for its ftyle in its national character. The gravity of the Florentines and Romans might require that juftnefs and truth of form which they faw in the antique ftatues. The Venetians, a wealthy and gay people, would delight in magnificence from their commerce with the Fatt; and painting for the rich and luxurious would necef- farily introduce {plendour and brilliancy of colour, with pro- ceffions, feafts, &c. The Flemith and Dutch were content with fuperficial or general reprefentations of things. Of the French, the bet mafters have fought perfection in the Roman {chool; while others, complying with the national love for {plendour, have fought perfection by bultle and fhow. Of our own nation, the love of locality and portraiture may be % Yn point of order, the Phoenicians fhould precede the Grecians , but I have paid no attention to chronological arrangement, 13 faid 118 Ox Painting. faid ftrongly to mark the amor pairie, and to exhibit their charity and love for each other. A knowledge of the different ftyles 1s abfolutely neceffary to enable us to think deeply and freely. No man, however great his powers, was ever capable of fubfifting on his own ftock: the more wide the field of inquiry, the more we in- creafe our knowledge, and quicken and enlarge our ideas. We cannot doubt that M. Angelo and Raphael poffeffed all the knowledge of art difcovered in their time. ’Tis our duty: to live, as it were, amidft the great works of arf, that, by enriching our minds, we may be able to produce fomething great and-noble of our own, This is the true fpirit of imita- tion, and which we may continue, without fear of its doing "us an injury, from infancy till we arrive at the fulleft {late of vigour. By ftyle as well as manner we are enabled to judge if a picture be the work of a certain mafier; for, fhould we re- main doubtful from the former, a reference to the penciling may determine the point. For, as in writing or {peaking we fhall generally difcover in perfons a fondnefs for certain phrafes, or a peculiar turn or conneétion of their fentences, by which their ftyle may be known: fo in painting we fhall difcover fome favourite part forced on the eye; or thought, attitude, or habit occur, which ftainps the matfter’s {tyle. Every one will poffels more or lefs of the fiyle and manner of the mafter or fchool from which he comes. Raphael, in his oil pictures, never wholly got rid of that littlenefs of ftyle de- rived from Perugino. To infure a good ftyle we muf early habituate ourfelves to contemplate noble works of imagination. This, if conneéted with a vigorous mind, a lively fancy, a firong memory, and good judgment, will be attended with fuccefs. That thofe qualities are neceflary to enable us to form a good ftyle, is certain; for by the imagination we conceive images, and if the impreflions be clear the ftvle will be fo too. But fhould the images be faint and imperfect, the fiyle will partake of thefe defects. For it cannot be denied that, as the painter is affected himfelf, in the fame degree will he move the fpec- tator. Hence, if the mind be dull, and indifpofed to receive clear and diftinét ideas of things, the ftyle will be ftiff and heavy; or, if the images be irregular and difordered, the work will be perplexed and confufed. It appears to follow of courfe, that a lively fancy will be accompanied with a happy memory: through this we are fupplied with the vaft treafures of art and nature; for without a large flock of images we fhall never be able to diverfify our works in the way va- rlety On Painting. 11g riety demands, and they would appear infipid from the too frequent return of the fame ideas. But, unlefs all this be ac- companied by a good judgment, the imagination will riot at the expenfe of reafon, Aid we fhall never ‘poflefs a found and accurate ftyle. Hence it is that we often confound genius with an active imagination, not recollecting that excefs is not its charaéer, and that the more we crowd with incidents the more we weaken; and that, like great talkers, we may be bad orators. We fhall now proceed to deferibe, in the beft way we can, the characters of the various {tyles. Tafte and ftyle differ frona each other; the former applying to our choice of objects, while the latter appears to arife from our mode of treating them, or the augmenting certain parts and deprefling others, as in the figures of M. Angelo, in which we fee the convex lines raifed fo much as to give them a mufcular and gigantic air; by attempting which + many of his imitators have often loft the effential character of the objeét. We fay * the great ftyle of Raphael’s drapery,’’ not merely on account of the cafting of the folds, w hich fhows fa/ie, but from his drop- ping the minute parts, and taking only thofe effential to the great charaéter in painting. The artifts who have fought the great ftyle have purfued the above conduét; that is, have at- tended to the great and effential inaeer, while thofe who have forced the trifling parts on the eye have formed a mean or little one. The great ftyle requires the human face, the other includes the wrinkles and other marks of the infirmi- ties of nature. Sublime Style, The fublime ftyle is by. many connected with a certain deoree of intemperance and excefs. The attempts of fuch mav jultly be termed the hobgoblin ftyle; for with them nothing is fublime but what will fcare a man out of his -fenfes. But fcenes terrible or fhocking, however admiffible in poetry, or where an orator may have occafion to work on the feelings of his audience, do not affociate happily with painting ; “and, when attempted without the greateft care and cireumfpection, become either ridiculous or difgufting. Brueghel (called heilith), as alfo Callot, in their whimfical fcenes intended to affeét us ferioufly. And Rubens, out of the number of reprefentations he has left of the fall of the damned, has rather fhown a warmth of imagination than judement i in their treatment: it is true, the machinery he had to ufe was human figures; but inftead of making the rolt of them by exhibiting their fufferings, and thereby apply» J 4 ing 123 On Painting. ing to our feelings, he has created a fet of fiends that make us laugh. Scenes of horror require great delicacy of treat- ment, as the mind cannot dwell without difguft on repre- fentations brought home in that determined way which paint- ing demands. Pilkington relates, from Sandrart, that Spa- gnoletto reprefented an Ixion on the wheel fo full of pain and agony, that the wife of Mr. Uffel, the poffeffor, from looking on it when with child, was fo affeéted by it, ‘ that her child when it was born had all the fingers diftorted ex- a@tly as the fingers of the Ixion appeared in the piéture.” So fenfible of the neceffity of this delicacy have the beft paint- ers been, that they have concealed as much as poffible the {hocking parts of a fpectacle. In the Slaughter of the Inno- cents, Pouffin would be content with an incident or two, while Le Brun in the fame fubjeé has aggravated all the hor- rors by an endlefs variety of butcheries. Rubens, in one of the fineft fketches of his we have had in this country, has reprefented, in a difgufting way, a faint with his hands and feet cut off; and has moft injudicioufly, nay, moft infenfibly and indelicately, introduced dogs licking up the blood. Con- traft the above and Titian’s picture of the winding out a faint’s bowels on a wheel, with Domenichino’s delicate and fenfible reprefentation of the death of St. Cecilia, A Britith artift would difplay more feeling and delicacy in reprefenting a bull-bait, than either Titian or Rubens have done in the above compofitions. Juftice muft allow that a want of deli- cacy is not often chargeable on the Italians. In the fmall compafs we haye been obliged to prefcribe to ourfelves, we fear it will become difficult fufficiently to com- prefs the matter, and at the fame time render the fubjeét to- lerably clear. We take it for granted that the mind well informed is the true flandard of whatever is great and illuttrious in any point of view. Hence it will follow that in works of imagination we fhall derive credit in proportion as we difplay more or lefs mental energy. For though we may not poflefs the power of colouring, or fuch other excellences as would captivate the eye, yet we may exert the vigour of the foul in the rea- foning and {fcience of the work; and this energy it 1s in our power to improve by education and habit. One of our firft duties is to enlarge and elevate our notions; for the dignity and grandeur of our work depend entirely on the dignity and grandeur of our thoughts, and the elevation of the foul. A greater misfortune cannot attend the arts than for men of mean parts to practife them, either as painters or engravers, as they invariably communicate the fame bad qualities to their On Painting. 12r their works. We may look below the fuperficies, and not be dazzled with a gaudy appearance, or fuffer our admiration to dwell on what the wife would contemn;, or we may be led away after pageantry and pomp, miftaking them for true ho- nourand glory. By exerting the mind we may raife our work into the fublime, from a judicious introdution of fuch accef- fory circumftances as may add dignity or contribute to the illuftration of the ftory; particularly if they have a fkilful con- nection, and affeét the imagination. We have noticed fome fuch inftances already in our Effay on Invention, as in Ra- phael’s Paul at Lyfira, candle Aa of Elyfium, &c. Thefe acceflory circumftances occur frequently in the works of the poets, and contribute much to heighten the feene; as in Lear, the thunder ftorm makes the heart bleed for the fuf- ferings of the old king; and how fublime does the vifion of the dagger render Macbeth. by its judicious introduétion! Vatinels is produCtive of the fublime, by confidering any ob- ject that takes up much room in the fancy. But we mut be careful not to fall into a common error, and miftake great- nefs of bulk for noblenefs in works of art: one of Lyfippus’s ftatues of Alexander, though no bigger than the life, might give the mind more noble ideas than Mount Athos bad it been cut into the figure of that hero. This fubject has been in fome meafure amplified already in our Effays on Invention and Compofition: it may therefore be fcarcely neceflary to mention, that the fublime requires that the fubje& of our picture fhould be a great one, and, if poffible, carry with it a univerfal intereft, In the compofition, fimplicity and gra- vity are eflential to produce grandeur: we cannot with for better examples than are offered to our view in the Cartoons of Raphael ; particularly the Paul at Lyftra, his Preaching at Athens, and in the Death of Ananias. We fhall obferve great grandeur in thofe fine compofitions by Weft, of the Departure of Regulus, Mark Antony haranguing over the body of J. Cxfar, and the Swearing young Hannibal: the Death of Stephen by the fame artift is full of the pathetic: the prints from the above are in every one’s hands. Toa much contraft deftroys the great fiyle ; it affociates beft with the pleafing. Beauty excites gaicty and pleafure, the fublime inclines to ferioufnels. Klevation of charaer is alfo necef- fary ; a want of noblenefs contributes much to depreciate the works of the Flemifh, and particularly of the Dutch {chool, The Hercules and the Apollo Belvidere in their form approx imate moft to the fublime, except we be permitted to con- jeéture what might have been the famous Jove and Minerva of Phidias.. A broad light and fhade, or, in other words, a fine 12% On Painting. fine chiaro-feuro, add an effet of fublimity. Some of Ru- bens’s pictures ftrike wonderfully on that account, and Rey- nolds’s Infant Hercules receives an uncommon air of gran- deur from the broad and judicious difpofition of the mafies. Though this ftyle does not require the foft harmonious glow of Venetian colouring, which agrees beft with the beautiful, vet it by no means follows, that it authorizes a difregard oF the grouping of the polowrs: to the total negleé of the general harmony of the picture. The colouring thould: be fober and dignified ; we do not mean black and heavy, but compofed of fach colours as are full, rich, glowing, and rather deep than heht. The penciling fhould be firm and decifive, with the parts well defined. We fhould particularly guard again{t trifling events, poor or mean thoughts, and whatever 1 is low: and vulgar: fuch things mar a good whole, and appear worfe by contraft, like the blemifhes on beautiful bodies, The mot eittemeal mafters have carefully avoided introducing in their works things fordid and bafe: in the higher ftyle there fhould never appear any thing infignificant or unneceflary, as dogs, cats, parrots, &c.: fueh things as thefe often add a grace to the piturefque, but deflroy grandeur. Neither will theatrical fpiendour or gaudy apparel fuit the fublime: the reafon is, they affect not beyond the eye; and that which leaves no impreffion on the mind, we may reft aflured, is not the thing we feek. A work tisk fublime does not merely pleafe: that is the province of inferior excellence. A grand work will confound, aflorith, and, with the impetuofity of a hurricane, bear down all before it. The fublime appears: founded on a union of the moift noble and elevated parts of nature joined to the moft profound efforts of the imagina- tion. Its qualities appear to be fimplicity, with a certain uniformity united with folemmity and gravity. Simplicity is neceffary to noblenefs, as ornament ~ dettroys greatnefs of manner. So the parts fhould be ample, as is > eflected by, faige mantles, &e, At Agis’ fummons, with a mantle broad His mighty limbs Leonidas unfolds, And quits his couch. GLOVER. M. Angelo and Raphael approach this ftyle in their ideas and inventions, but neither appears to accord with it in his forms. M. Angelo, from attempting the fublime, produced what may be termed the ferrible, in which the attitudes are forced and extraordinary, and the figures vaft, robuft, and mufcular: he chofe in expreffion the point moft extreme, and generally departing from objects in themfelves pleafing. Lxpreffive On Painting. 123 Expreffive Style. Tn this Raphael ftands a fhining example, and appears to have touched the extreme point of excellence. Happily we have many of his fineft works at hand in the Cartoons at Windfor Caftle. Witnefs his Elymas the forcerer, whofe figure is moft juftly expreffive of the punifhment of blindnefs which had befallen him ; and the aftonifhment of the fpec- tators is depicted with great judgment. But let us contraft the above with the Death of Ananias, and obferve the con- fternation and terror in the fpectators at a punifhment fo much more terrible. There we behold with what a matterly hand the artift has raifed the feelings in proportion to the exciting caufe, without the leaft wafte of force in the expref- fion. {n the firft picture is more repofe; in the fecond, a greater degree of action correfponding with the intereft ex- cited by the event. In the firft pi€ture we fee the furprife of an earthly judge at an event beyond the power of his under- ftanding; in the other, a calm and dignified fet of beings, confcious of the interpofition of a Divine Power. Much has been faid of the Cartoons; every one fpeaks of the dignity of the Paul in the picture reprefenting his ‘* preaching at Athens,’ which for fimplicity and dignity reaches the fub- lime. Hiftory is the walk that ennobles the art. This calls forth exertions that elevate and dignify our nature. [It might be doubted if the Greek ever arrived ta that degree of per- fe&tion in expreftion which Raphael has flown in his works: they certainly facrificed it to the beauty of appearance. Still we fhall look with delight on the Laocoon, the dying Alex- ander, the Niobes, &c. Raphael, to affilt the exprefiion in his figures, appears to have marked the tendons; thofe who have fought beauty have attended more to the flefhy parts of the mufcles. His ftyle of drapery is fimply grand, in the extreme of perfection, and well worthy of being ftudied. Even Pouffin, who is faid to excel in it, 1s in his belt works inferior. Raphael is more judicious and {elect ; Pouffin more natural. Juftice mutt, allow that the former took the hint for this great ftyle of drapery from M. Angelo. Raphael ometimes reached the graceful, and but feldom the beauti- ful, and never exquifitely. We have felected the works of the above artift, eftceming them the firft for expreflion; but we fhall find admirable traits of the fame kind in thofe of the Caracci, Domenichino, Pouffin, &c. Some who have attempted the expreflive ftyle, imagining the whole merit lay in excefs and violence, have writhed their figures mto con- vulfions, when the occafion would not require more exertion thar 324 On Painting. than would be neceffary to take a pinch of fnuff or raife a firaw; nay, they will not let them even fleep in peace. Such bombaftic {tuff may amufe the weak, as fafhion in art will pleafe for a time even at the expenfe of truth; but the tri- umph will be tranfitory as a {un-beam on a winter’s day. Beautiful Style Requires that the objects be elegant, void of fuperfluity, and foft in the execution. Perhaps the truly beautiful ftyle nut be fought in the works of the antients. The Apollo Belvidere approaches the fublime, and forms, of its kind, a point of perfection: fome of the Niobes exhibit exquifite female beauty, but in the Venus de Medicis and Apollo we fee it united with grace. It is certain that in the antique ftatues we muft feek the beauty of fymmetry, and that we cannot ftudy them too often to fix the impreffion of their ex- cellencies on our minds; for it is next to impoffible but that every reconfideration muft unfold new beauties. The true mode of ftudy is to imprefs their beauties fo ftrongly on the imagination as never to be forgotten, and not to ftand in need of their prefence as a pattern. Boys are too often put to draw after the living model before they have imbibed a proper no- tion of, or relith for, beautiful proportion, There is no danger of fach f{tudies injuring, as we are furrounded by fine exam- ples in chiaro-fcuro and colour; and of the two, dectfion is sore commendable than that flovenly manner which pre- fents the mere idea of a thing like a dream: the former dif- plays knowledge, the latter ignorance. There is great dif- ference in painting, between taking the ideas of natural things without giving them form, and that determined me- thod arifing from a pofitive knowledge. Guido’s heads are beautiful ; but his choice was often injudicious, many of bis objects requiring {trong expreffion, which he loft for fear of deftroymg beauty. Albano’s females are delicately beautiful ; and we are furrounded by beauty in the portraits of Reynolds and others, Graceful Style, To form this ftyle the motions of the figures thould be moderate, eafy, agreeable, and unaccompanied by violence *, The antique ftatues will affuredly afford the moft perfect ex- amples, becaufe. on a comparifon with the antients, the mo- derns appear to have become a little affeed, and too often to have fought grace in difficult attitudes, with forced and conceited turns in their figures. There are few of the Greek * Sec the Effays on Grace and Beauty. fiatues fa On Painting. 125 Mtatues in which grace does not abound; for, as they fought beauty in their works, they cultivated grace as its infeparable companion. Very graceful are the Apollo and the Venus de Medicis; fo are the Meleager and Hermaphrodite. The Her- cules is alfo truly graceful and eafy, as is the Antinotis, &c,. Raphael underftood the grace of motion; but he had it lefs in the contours of his.figures; and his dry manner of execu- tion contributed much to deftroy beauty. Corregio appears the moft perfect modern, Parmegiano being fometimes too forced, and bordering on affectation. “ Reynolds’s female por- traits appear to have been touched by the Graces themfelves. Among the works of our f{culptors, the females of Nollekens poffefs fauch a combination of grace and beauty_as the Greeks might have acknowledged for their own without a blufh. Florid Style. This fivle muft be fought amongft the Venetians, alfo in Rubens, and thofe Flemings who have followed him. Thole who have practifed it have been content to. pleafe the eye by a brilliant difplay of colour, contraft in their groups, and op- pofition in light and fhade. They appear to have admitted every defcription of objects in their picture, provided they contributed to the buftle or pleafure of the whole. If this is not the moft juft ftyle, experience teaches every one that it is the mo popular, and perhaps we may add the mott pro- fitable, The above mafters muft not be confounded with thofe who have practifed a ftyle fufficiently eafy, but who have been content with giving fuch an idea of a thing in their works as would ferve to diftinguifh one from another without regard- ing their perfection. Atthe head of this latter clafs ftand P, Cortona and L. Giordano. Natural Style. ° This ftyle is called natural, from the artifts praétifing it wanting the power to improve on the original, or of chooting the beft of the kind. It is to be feen in the Dutch fchool ° in the works of Rembrandt, G. Dow, Meris, young Teniers, &c. This fchool has improved the aérial perfpective, and poflefles great excellence of colour and chiaro-/curo, to which it has joined great truth, as far as a fimple. reprefentation would permit. It has excelled in what may he termed the mechanical part of the art; and thofe who with to feek after an elegant power of penciling will be highly gratified in the admirable works of Teniers, Cuyp, Berghem, &c. &c. As each of the above ftyles. bas its peculiar beauties, = : mat 125 Comparative Anatomy of the Elefric Organs of ihe muft cautioufly guard againft falling into the oppoflte ex- treme. For the {ublime is nearly allied to the extravagant ; the expreflive may be eafily rendered bombaftic or pedantic ; and the beautiful,{mirking or coquettith. The graceful, with the ignorant, may eafily become the affected: perhaps there is but a flight partition between that affectation of grace in the works of Watteau, Bouché, and Le Mome, and the pure reprefentations of Corregio, or thofe of Parmegiano. The florid may be miftaken for the fhowy and tawdry, This is moft likely to happen from a cold lifelefs imitation. Works of genius are ever the refult of feeling, to which we mutt be directed by fpirit and judgment. A painter, a poet, or plaver, that imitates clofely, will never excel. To be tamely alive in our works is not enough; fpirit, vivacity, and vigour, are required. Whatever comes fhort of this is but one remove from imbecility. — XXIf. Memeir on the comparative Anatomy of the EleGric Organs of the Torpedo, the Gymnotus eleétricus and the Silurus electricus. By E. Georrroy*,. SINcE philofophers have applied with fo much fuccefs to refearches refpecting the Galvanic phenomena, it is of more importance than ever that a correét defcription fhould be given of the particular organs of certain fifhes which are found to poffefs electric properties. Analogy gives us reafon to believe, that beings which pof- fefs faculties fo extraordinary are indebted for them to an or- ganization almoft entirely fimilar; confequently, that thefe beings approach very near to each other, or rather, that they form only one family. But by the examination we are ena- bled to make, this 1s not obferved to be the cafe: on the con- trary, we are furprifed to find that the electric fithes belong to genera exceedingly different, and that they are placed in thefe genera without violating in any manner the order of natural relations. An electric fpecies, therefore, is known in each of the genera, of ray, tetrodon, trichiurus, gymnotus, and filurus. To account for the great diffimilarity of the fifhes which are diftinguifhed from others of the fame genera by the pre- fence of eleCtric organs, we muft admit that the latter are not effentially connected with organs of the firft importance, and that they belong at mofl to the common integuments, * From Annales du Mufeum National, No. 5. which Torpedo, Gymnotus eleGricus and Silurus elefricus, 127 which vary in each fpecies without producing any remark- able modification in the reft of the organization. This, however, is a refult to which our ftate of knowledge in regard to thofe electric organs hitherto obferved, does not feem to conduct; for, if we adopt the opinion of moft ana- tomifts, it will be found that the ele¢tric organ in the tor- pedo is very extenfive, exceedingly complex, and particularly remarkable in this refpeét, that nothing analogous to it has ever been obferved. The Italian fchool, at the head of which were Redi and his pupil Lorenzini, a a long time confi- dered the numerous tubes of which that organ is formed as fo many peculiar fmall mufcles, mu/fculi falcati; and this opinion was geuerally adopted tll the late John Hunter pub- lifhed his excellent Anatomical Defcription of the Torpedo. During my travels I have allo had an opportunity of feeing torpedoes, and | foon diltinguithed the electric batteries with which they are abundantly furnithed. As it was by touch- ing thefe kinds of apparatus that 1 experienced the ftrongett {hocks, and as the other rays exhibited nothing of the fame kind, I entertained no doubt that I had before my eyes thofe organs by means of which the torpedo renders itfelf (o for- midable in the bofom of the water, and can at plealure ftrike with numbnels thofe animals which it wifhes to make its prey. But at that time 1 was ignorant whether others before me had examined this organization ; 3 and, in that cafe, what addition to the obfervations already made it would be necef- fary for me to make. Being fhut up in Alexandria during the time of the fiege, .and deprived i of the ufe of my library, I confoled myfelf for not being immediately able to clear up my doubts, by entertaining a bope that thefe organs were not known, at leaft in regard to their relation with general phy- fiology. To obtain that knowledge I endeavoured to find fomething analogous in the other rays, being perfuaded that it was not fo much the prefence of this organ, as a difpo- fition peculiar to it, that gave the torpedoes alone of all iss rays the aftonifhing faculty. of fulminating, as we may fay, the foall inhabitants of the fea. Thofe who have compared only a few animals mutt know that few new organs are foun amoug them, and particularly in fpecies which refemble each other fo much as the rays. It was natural therefore to believe, that the tubes containing a gelatinous fubfiance in the torpedo exifled in a ftate of concealment in the other rays; and it will here be fcen that I indeed found in the lattes. an analogous organization, with differences to which we mutt refer the different modes of exiftence and a¢tion of each fpecies, Rays, 128. Comparative Anatomy of the EleGric Organs of the Rays, as is well known, are flat fith, the pe@oral fin of which is prolonged anteriorly on the fides of the head by means of a cartilage that borders its circumference. The torpedo differs from other fifhes of the fame genus by a very confiderable interval between this cartilage and the head. All this large vacuity is filled up by prifms of fix, five, and fometimes oar planes. Thefe prifms adhere by their bafes to the fkin above and to that below. They are arranged parallel to each other, follow the projecting and irregular contours of the head and branchiz, and externally form a femi-elliptic ftratum. When the {kin is removed, all thefe prifms, the bafes of which are then obferved, exhibit the ap- earance of a honey-comb. They are fo many fmall tubes filled with a fubftance which by chemical analyfis I found to be a compound of gelatin and albumen. The texture of thefe tubes is aponeurotic, and they are united to each other by a kind of lax reticulation formed of tendinous fibres which envelop them im every direction: in the laft place, they are covered and fhut by an aponeurotic membrane, and above thefe coverings the fkin is applied. This apparatus is fur- nifhed with nerves remarkable for their large fize. There are diftinguifhed four principal trunks, which are diftributed to all the tubes, and which at length penetrate into their fubftance and expand in it. Though rays, in which the cartilage of the peCtoral fin im- mediately borders the contours of the head, were not, like the torpedo, in a condition to exhibit prifms or vertical tubes, they did not differ from them fo much as might be expeéted. In the rays, as well as in the torpedoes, there iffues from the cranium, a little before the ear, a nerve fo large that it fur- * paffes the volume of that which proceeds to the eye. This nerve proceeds laterally, creeps over the fuperior face of the maffeter, and expands below, between that mufcle and the firft branchia, in a mafs which on the firft view might be taken for a gland, but which is really the focus from which pro- ceed, in feveral bundles, a great number of tubes analogous to thofe of the torpedo. A bundle proceeds towards the nofe, another fpreads over the belly, a third afcends on the maffeter and terminates behind the occiput, and a fourth ex- tends over the mufcles of the pectoral fin. In this refpeé there are fome differences according to the fpecies: but thefe tubes, in the ray as well as in the torpedo, always adhere to the {kin above and to that below; only, inftead of being ver- tical, which is impoffible, for want of room, they follow the contour of the head, extend over the moft exterior mufcles, and are longer according as they have a larger circuit "3 make e Torpedo, Gymnotus.eleGricus and Silurus eleZricus. 129 make before they are inferted in the fkin. . Thefe long tubes feem to be of the fame nature as thofe of the torpedo, and contain a gelatinous and albuminous fub{tance entirely fimi- Jar. Hitherto we obferve in this refpect no other differences between the common rays and the torpedo, except that the tubes in the Jatter are very fhort, vertical, clofe to each other, and parallel; while in the other rays they are much longer, Mn orcad the principal mnfcles of the eleétric machines, and divide into feveral bundles formed of divergent radii. But if thefe organs do not vary in each fpecies but by a different arrangement of parts, is it not to be apprehended that we may fall into a confequence contrary to the faéts ob- ferved, and ought we not to fuppofe that all rays are more or lefs endowed with the electric properties of the torpedo? Such, indeed, would be the opinion which we ought to form, if thefe organs were not diftinguifhed by a charaéter on which depend, in part, the aftonifhing properties of the torpedo. The tubes in the common rays open on the outfide of the fkin by orifices peculiar to them, and are fo many excretory organs of the Bisttons matter which they contain. In the torpedo all thefe tubes are completely Qiut, not only by the fkin, which has no perforations, but alfo by aponeurofes which extend over the whole furface of the electric organ. As the gelatinous matter cannot then efcape, it is forced to be accu- mulated in thefe tubes: hence, no doubt, the greatnefs of their diameter, and on this account alfo their number in- creafes at the different periods of life. WValit and Hunter, indeed, found this progreffive augmentation. They counted more than two hundred of thefe tubes in young fubjeéts, from four to five hundred in adult torpedoes, and even twelve hundred in an individual of a large fize. It is to John Hunter, as already faid, that we are indebted for the beft defcription of the electric organs of the torpedo*, Monro, in his Phyfiology of Fithes, has alfo defcribed the corre{ponding apparatus found in the other rays; but I flatter imyfelf that I ain the firft who compared thefe organs, who proved their identity, and reduced them to the fame fyftem of organization. The electric organ of the torpedo 1s really an organ of touching, furnifhed with an apparatus as exten- five as that of feeing or fmelling. [The nerves which pro- ceed thither are fo large that their volume appeared to [unter as extraordinary as the phanomena to which they give rife, They fuddenly expand in a gelatinous mucus, and nothing impedes their free communication with external bodies. * Philofovhical Tranfactions 1773, p. 482. Vou. XV. No. 58. K There 130 Comparative Anatomy of the Ele&ric Organs of the There can be no doubt that they perform a very confiderable part in the electric phenomena. Hunter was of opinion that they are deftined to form, collect, and direct the nervous fluid. Their influence however is proved, fince it is known that the concurrence of the will of the animal is indifpen- fably neceflary for giving fhocks. This evidently refults from the obfervations of M. Valft, and from thofe which I had occafion to repeat myfelf. yg However, fince thefe nerves are found in other rays diftri- buted nearly in the fame manner as in the torpedo, it muft be allowed that they are not alone fufficient for the produc- tion of eleétricity, and that for this purpofe they muft alfo be in a certain relation with the furrounding parts. Do the apertures of the tubes in the rays favour the iifue of the nervous fluid? Or, as in the torpedo, do the nerves require a larger quantity of gelatinous fubftance to enable them to expand in numerous rami, and to become proper for acting with more energy ? In order that we may afcertain how far thefe conjeCtures may be founded in truth, let us compare the electric organs of the torpedo, thofe defcribed by Hunter in the gymnotus eleGricus, and thofe which I difcovered in the /r/urus eleéér1- cus. Thefe two fithes are fo different from the torpedo, that they afford reafon to hope that this comparifon will throw confiderable light on the prefent queftion. The gymnotus belongs to that order of fithes diftinguifhed by the name of apoda: itis the genus which approaches neare{t to that of the murene and eels; confequently they have a very long body, almoft cylindric, and fimilar to that of ferpents. Separated from the murene becaufe they have no fins on the back or tail, they are diftinguifhed from them alfo by the great fhortnefs of the abdomen. The anus, in- deed, is fo near the head that it opens before the pectoral fins. But, on the other hand, the gymnott have the tail of a moft extraordinary length: it is an organ to which all the reft feem to have been facrificed, and it is rendered lighter by a difpofition peculiar to this kind of fith. The air-bladder, inftead of being inclofed in the abdominal cavity,- extends to the infide of the tail, and is continued to its extremity. It is above this bladder that there is found in the gymnotus eleétricus a very fingular apparatus ftill more attonifhing by its enormous fize than by its ftru€ture ; an apparatus of which there is no veftige in the other fpecies of this genus, and which may be eafily known to be the electric organ of the ymnotus. This organ is formed by the union of a very great peers! ° Torpedo, Gymnotus electricus and Silurus eleiricus. 331 of aponeurofes, which extend in the direCtion of the length of the fifh, forming fo many horizontal fgata, parallel, and di- tant from each other about a millimetre: other vertical la- min, of the fame nature, and much more numerous, inter- feé& them almott at right angles; which produces a large rofound reticulation -compofed of numerous cells of rhom- Poidal planes. The interior of thefe cells is filled with am unctuous fubitance of a gelatinous appearance. The eleétric batteries are divided into four diftinct maffes, two of which are large and two fmall. Hunter gives to each pair the name of large and fmall electric organs. The large organs are fituated immediately below the air- bladder and the vertebral mufcles. They are of fuch a thick- nefs that they form alone more than half the volume of the ‘tail. They are divided by a broad partition, which furnithes them with points, to which they are ftrongly attached. They adhere fuperiorly to the air-bladder, and to the mufcles which accompany it, by a very compact cellular tiffue, and they ter- minate inferiorly i in around edge towards the ofigin of the offeous pieces which fupport the radii of the fin of the anus The fmall organs occupy the lower region of the tail. They begin and end nearly at the fame points as the large organs; are fituated below them, and on each fide of the of- feous fupporters of the anal fin: their general form is that of two long triangular pyramids. The two lateral faces of thefe pyramids are covered by mufcular fibres, the aggregate of which produces the different motions of the fin. “In this re- fpect thefe fmall organs differ effeutially from the large ones which are attached immediately to the fkin, and which, hav- ing a more intimate connection with external bodies, are ca- pable of producing more energetic effects, The horizontal laminz of the fmall organs, inflead of hee ing parallel throughout their whole length, are undulated at intervals. Hunter counted 24 in a large organ, and 14 in a {mall one. The lamin which interfe& the latter at right angles are far more numerous: they are fo thin, and fo near each other, that 240 are found in the extent of g inches. This apparatus of electric organs is put in play by a fy- ftem of nerves furnifhed by the foinal marrow, and difiributed with admirable mechanifm. Above the vertebral column is found a large nerve, which proceeds in a ftraight line from the cranium to the extremity of the tail; but though larger, and nearer the vertebral column, in the ymnotus eleétricus than in other fifhes of the eel kind, it gives-out only a few rami, which proceed to the electric organs. On the other hand, however, there iffues from each vertebra a nerve, which not Ka only 132 Comparative Anatomy of the EleGric Organs of the only diftributes branches to the mufcles of the tail, but fends fome alfo to the electric organs. The different rami of this nerve creep firft over the furfaces of thefe organs, and fpread and expand in their alveoli. It is thus that the vertebral nerves, by means of this deviation from their ufual route, and of an augmentation of volume, become in the gymaotus electricus fo many initruments capable of {inking with death, or at lealt with torpor, all thofe animals which they touch. The eleétric organ of this fifh being placed under the tail, and in a part which confequently is removed from the prin- cipal fyftems of life, it was difficult to conceive what were the nerves which could proceed thither. The fimpleft combina- tion was to deduce them immediately from the {pinal marrow 3 and this, indeed, is that which we {ce realized in the gym- notus eleétricus. The fimplicity of the means employed by nature is ob- ferved in a manner ftill more particular in the filurus elec- tricus. This fifh differs almoft as much from the gymnoti as from the rays, and therefore we muft expe€t a quite dif- ferent organization. It is, indeed, neither on the fides of the head, as in the torpedo, nor Belew the tail, as in the f{pecies we have de- fcribed, that the electric organ of the filurus eleétricus is oirna It is extended all round the animal; it exifts im- mediately below the fkin, and is formed by a confiderable colleétion of cellular tiflue, fo thick and compact, that on the firft view it might be taken for a ftratum of lard : bat when clofely infpe Ged it is obferved that this organ is compofed of real tendinous or aponeurotic fibres interwoven with each other, and which by their different croffings form a reticu- lation the mefhes of which are not diftinétly viGble without the help of a magnifying glafs. The {mall cells or alveoli of this reticulation are filled with an albumino- -gelatinous mat- ter. They are prevented from communicating in the infide by a very ftrong aponeurofis, which extends over the whole electric reticulation, and which adheres to it fo clofely that it cannot be feparated without fearmg it. This aponeurofis in other refpeéts adheres to the mufcles only by a thin cel- lular tiffue of little confiftence. The nervous fy{tem, which conapletes this electric organ, has no more relation with the nervous branches which we exa- mined in the torpedo and the gymnotus than the tubes of the latter have with the peculiar covering of the filurus elec tricus. Thefe nerves proceed from the brain; they are the fame as thofe which my friend Cuvier has obferved in, all fifues to proceed under the Jateral line: but thefe two nerves of ‘ a Torpedo, Gymnotus eleétricus and Silurus eleGricus. 133 of the eighth pair in the filurus eletricus have a direction and) volume which are peculiar to that fpecies: they defcend, ap- proaching each other on their iffuing from the cranium to- wards the body of the firft vertebra, which they traverfe. They firft introduce thenafelves through an orifice peculiar to each of them, and then iffue on the oppofite fide by one aperture: after reafcending they fuddenly feparate, and pro- ceed under each of the lateral lines. They are then found lodged between the abdominal mufcles and the general apo- néurofis which extends over the electric reticulation, In the laft place, they penetrate beneath the fkin by means of Jarre branches, which proceed to the right and left of the principal nerve. Thefe branches are in number 12 or 15 on each fide; they pierce the aponeurofis which lines the inte- rior furface of the reticular tiffue, penetrate to the centre of the reticulation. and at laft expand in it. The examination of the three electric organs, which I have compared with each other, neceflarily conduéts us to fome interefting refults refpecting the kind of modification which organs common to all fifhes ought to undergo to develop in fome fpecies electric properties. We find, 1it, That the part where the eleétric batteries are lodged is a matter of indiffe- rence, as they are diffufed all*around the filurus eleCtricus, collected in the tail of the gymnotus, and united on the fides of the head in the torpedo. 2d, That no branch of the ner- vous fyftem is particularly fet apart for thefe organs, fince the nerves diftributed thither are all different. 3d, That the form of the cells is alfo of little importance, as this form varies in each fpecies ; but in other refpeéts it is found alfo that the electric batteries, which on the firft view we might be tempted to believe to be fo different, have however a great many re- Jations with each other, and may be reduced to the fame fyftem of organization, This will appear evident, when it is confidered that the electric fifhes are the only ones in which we find aponeurofes fo extenfive and fo multiplied in their furfaces, with fo confiderable an accumulation of gelatine and albumen in the cells formed by thefe aponeuroles, and ner- vous rami fo Jarge and of fuch a Jength. It is by the union, indeed, of thefe fimple inftruments that the electric organ is conftituted; and in this ftate, according to the judicious re- mark of my colleacue Lacepede *, it may be compared to the Leyden flatk, or an eleétric picture, fince it is alternately compofed of bodies which conduét the eleétric fluid (the nerves, and the albumino-gelatiuous pulp to which the action * Hifive Naturelle des Poiffins, vol, ii. Defcription of the Gymnotus eledlvicus, p, 166. K 3 of 134 Comparative Anatomy of the Eileéiric Organs of the of the nerves is continued), and of non-conducting bodies, fuch as the aponeurotic laminz, extended through this mafg of albumen and gelatine. What proves that it is on the mechanical arrangement of thefe idio-electric and non-elec- tric elements that the properties-of the torpedo depend, is the exiftence of the fame parts in other rays, though thefe fifhes are not capable of producing the fame effects. Thefe parts, fimilar in regard to their intimate nature and_ texture, are difpofed in a manner entirely different. The nerve of the fifth pair in the rays and fquali is of a confiderable vo- lume, and expands in a medium from which flows a great quantity of albumino-gelatinous ferofity: but this gelatine either is loft on the outfide by tubes which open without the fkin, or is accumulated in a mafs on the fides of the bones of the nofe. In the latter cafe, the gelatine, whatever be its quantity, is of no ufe for the production of electricity. This, no doubt, muft be afcribed to the want of aponeurofes, which divide it into fmall infulated portions—in the fame manner as the Leyden flafk, or the eleétric picture, would fail of their eflect if deprived of the glafs laminz interpofed between the metallic coatings. The electric organ, being formed of nerves and aponeurotic lamin, interlarded, if I mayeufe the expreffion, with albu- men and gelatine, we ought not to be aftonifhed at meeting with it in families altogether different. All animals have nerves which are loft under the fkin; all thofe immediately below it are more or lefs provided with cellular tiffue: all then have, in fome meafure, the rudiments of an electric or- gan. If we now fuppofe that nourifhing veffels depofit al- bumen and gelatine between the leaves of the cellular tiflue which fixes the fkin to the exterior mufcles, we fhall eafily form an idea of the manner in which this depofition may give rife to the exiftence of an electric organ. All this may take place without the influence, at leaft in an immediate manner, of the other organs effential to life. Jt is a development which takes place almoft without the animal, and which hag no action but on the {kin and parts which depend on it; and hence the reafon why fpecies which exhibit alone a develop- ment fo extraordinary belong, however, to a numerous genus without prefenting any ftriking anomaly. I have thought it neceflary, for the benefit of naturalifts who apply to the ftudy of natural relations, to infift on this remark ; and [ fall terminate this memoir by another, which in my opinion mutt prove interefling to the learned, I have reafon to believe that the Arabs, at the period no doubt when they cultivated the ferences with fo much og cefs, Torpedo, Gymnotus eleftricus and Silurus ele€tricus. 135 cefs, had approached nearly to the theory of eleétricity ; it is at leaft probable that they referred to the fame caufe the fulminating effects of the torpedo, and thofe, much more ter- rible, of celeftial ele&tricity. We can form no opinion of their knowledge in natural hiftory but by the names which they have given to moft of the produétions of nature. Thefe names have been preferved without alteration; for it is only to the era when the fciences flourifhed in the Eaft that we muft refer the rational nomenclature ftill employed by the rude inhabitants of Egypt. Every animal in that coun- try, as well as in books of natural hiftory, has two names, that of the genus and that of the fpecies. ‘There is no ex- ception but in favour of the torpedo and the filurus eleétri- cus. Every thing which related to the form of thefe fithes has been negleéted, and nothing has been attended to but their aftonifhing faculty of firiking with torpor all the fall marine and freth water fifhes. ‘hough very different, they have been diftinguifhed by the fame name; and, what is ver remarkable, this name, 7éad or raaj/ch, is that ufed to sank thunder. In giving this denomination to the torpedo and the filurus eleétricus, did the Arabs think of referring the phenomena of animal electricity to celeftial electricity ? Explanation of the Figures, Plate UI. Fig. 1. the torpedo (Raia torpedo). a, electric organ compofed of tubes, _6, the upper {kin turned back on the fide to fhow the elec- tric organ. Fig. 2. the red ray (Raia rubus). @,a, aponeurotic tubes which communicate on the outfide of the fkin by peculiar orifices. : b, the fkin of the flanks turned back on the fide. m, nerve of the fifth pair. : i, focus in which the nerve of the fifth pair expands, and from which proceed, in a radiated form, in feveral bundles, the tubes which open on the outfide of the fkin. Fig. 3. tranfverfe fection of the electric eel, gymnotus elee- tricus. gg, large eleétric organs. p, p, {mall electric organs. v, air-bladder. m,m,m,m, \ongitudinal mufcles, o, vertebral colump. d, {kin feen on the outfide. ¢, anal fin, K 4 Fig. 4. 136 On: Indian Dogs. Fig. 4. Stilurus eleGricus. 8, aponcuroiis which extends over the whole of the electric organ, that is to fay, over a reticulation of tendinous fibres comprehended between that aponeurofis and the fkin. #, thicknefs of the eletric organ. m,n, nerve of the eighth pair. m,m, abdominal mufcles. SS ee XXII. On Indian Dogs. By Dr. Banton, of Philadelphia’ [Concluded from p. 9.] Tr is highly probable that the Indian dog ftill exifts, in a wild ftate, in the woods of many parts of North America. It is likely that when feen he has been fometimes miftaken for the wolf. A very intelligent Indian informed me, that in the year 1792, when travelling towards the head waters of the river Miami, which empties into lake Erie, he had met with wolves which barked like dogs, though in other refpeéts they appeared to be little different from wolves. Perhaps future refearches will {how that thefe were the real Indian dogs in their wild ftate. The fubje& is worthy of further inquiry. If the Indian dog be an hybrid animal, we ought to fuppofe that he is lefs common in the woods than the ani- mals from whom he is {prung. Hybrids are, in general, more rare than original {pecies. This obfervation applies both to the animal and to the vegetable world. The late Mr. Peter Kalm informed Mr. John Bartram that the dogs which he faw among the Indians of Canada * were juft like the dogs in Sweden, and that they had ears fharp- pointed, and ftanding up like a wolf’s. I can remember per- fe&tly well (continues Mr. Bartram) that when I was a boy the Indians came frequently to our houfe. Their dogs had fharp-pointed upright ears, and we ufed to think that the were of the wolf breed. Now, whether the Indians had their dogs from the Swedes, who fettled in Pennfylvania long before the Englifh feitled there, or whether the Indian dogs were natives of North America, and the fame kind as thofe in the north of Europe and Afia, is well worth inquiring *.” The faét mentioned by Kalm, and the hint fuggefted by Mr. Bartram, have fometimes, for a moment, led me to be- lieve that the wolf-lke dog of the northern Indians may have been received from the Swedes, who formed a fettle- * A letter in my poffeffion, dated January 17,1757, from Mr, John Bartram to Mr, George Edwards, - ment i ‘ On Indian Dogs. 137 merit in Pennfylyania early in the 17th century. But a little confideration has compelled me to relinquifh this idea : for it is certain that the Indians were in pofleflion of this breed of dogs long before the arrival of the Swedes in America. We have already feen that the Spaniards found domefti- cated dogs.among the Indians of I'lorida before the middle of the 16th century, almoft one hundred years earlier than the Swedith fettlement in Pennfylvania. It is not, indeed, certain that thefe dogs were of the half-wolf breed; but it is probable that they were. In the year 1585 the celebrated navigator captain John Davis obferved dogs ‘ with pricked ears” in the lands about Hudfon’s Bay*. It is highly pro- bable that thefe does were a variety of the half-wolf breed of the Indians. Captain John Smith, who arrived in Virginia in (607, a few years before the Swedifh fettlement, exprefsly mentions the affinity of the Indian dogs in that country to wolves. I might eafily adduce other inftances. Thefe are fufficient for my purpofe. They evidently fhow that the In- dian dog exifted in America before the Swedes planted their firtt colony in Pennfylvania: confequently, we have no diffi- culty in anfwering Mr. Bartram’s firft queftion, which I have flated. Stull, however, Kalm’s obfervation is interefting. It leads us to fufpect that the dog of the Indians is common to North America and to the northern parts of Europe. Neither fhould this circumftance, in whatever light we may view the original of the Indian dog, excite our furprife. If, as very many of the traders and others fuppofe, this dog is the produce of the wolf and the common fox, his parents exited in the old as well as in the new world. He may have been formed in America by the union of thefe two animals; or he may have migrated into America from Europe along with many other animals, which, it is highly probable, owe. their original to that portion of the globe, or to Afia. For that America has received fome of its animals (befide its human inhabitants) from Afia and from Europe, I have very little doubt +. I conjecéture it will be found that the dog of the Green- landers, mentioned by Crantz t and other writers, is only a variety of the Indian dog. And, perbaps, the dogs of the Kalmuc Tartars, which are faid to have a great refemblance * Forfter. + See New Views, &c. Preliminary Difcourfe, p. 101, 102. ¢ The Hittory of Greenland, &c. vol. i. p. 74. Englifh Tranflation, London 1767. ‘* The Greenlanders (iays chis author) have no tame beafts bur dogs of a middle fize, which look more like wolves than dogs, Mott of them are white, yet there are fome with thick black hair; they fon’t bark, but growl and howl fo much the more,”’ to 138 On Indian Dogs. to the jackal, or fchakal, will alfo prove to be of the fame breed. But with me thefe muft remain, for fome time, mere conjectures. For [am incapable of giving fuch a minute delcription of the external and internal appearance of the Indian dog as would enable the naturalifts of Europe to de- cide a quetftion not the lJeaft curious in the zoology of the new world. In another work I hope to be able to give a much more complete account of this animal than that which I now communicate to the public. T have faid that the Indtan dog is a much more favage or unreclaimed animal than the common dog which has been introduced into America from Europe *. This circumftance has not efeaped the notice of fome preceding writers. But I know of no writer who has deduced from it fo important a conclufion as Mr. Zimmermann has done. This truly learned naturalift, after remarking that the Europeans who have vi- fited America have confidered the Indian dogs merely as tamed wolves, proceeds to deduce the conclufion, that nei- ther America itfelf, nor its inhabitants, are fo antient as the countries or the people of other parts of the world +. This eonclufion proceeds upon the notion, fo ingenioufly defended by Mr. Zimmermann, that the dog of the old world is merely the wolf reduced to a ftate of domeftication, and varied, both as to his external afpeét and as to his effential qualities or manners, by the influence of climate and other phyfical caufes, during the term of fome thoufand years {. ‘fis fubjec&t is worthy of fome of our attention. I regret, however, that in this place I can only touch it in the moft feperficial manner. This I fhall do under the following feven heads. ° I. I may obferve, in the firft place, that it is by no means probable that the wolf is the fole parent’ or original {tock froms whence have proceeded all the numerous varieties of animals which go under the general appellation of dogs. I think it much more probable that thefe varieties are derived from feverat different (tocks or fources befide the wolf; fuch as the jackal, the hyena, different kinds of foxes, &c. &c. In their inquiries into the genealogical biftory of the dog kind, naturalifts, by aiming at fimphcity, have only tended to invoive the fubject in confufion. A comparative view of the internal ftru&ture of the fuppofed parents of the dog kind, and the dogs, has been too much neglected.” Some attention, * See page 7- + Specimen, &c. p. gr- + The whole of Mr. Zimmermann’s inquiry into the origin, &c. of the dog kind, is well worthy of the attention of the naturalift. See Specimen &c. § 3. p. 83—93. : however, a ae On Indian Dogs. 139 however, has been paid to this fubject. _Effential differences between the ftruéture of the wolf and the dogs (I mean the common dogs of the old world, for [ know not that any ana- tomift has hitherto infpected the ftru€ture of the Indian dog of America) have been difcoyered; differences fo effential, that I think they forbid the idea that the wolf and the dog are one and the fame fpecies. Ido not, however, deny that the pure unmixed wolf has, in {ome countries, been reduced to the domeftic flate of the dog. But I think it more pro- bable, that even thofe dogs, which are moft nearly allied to the wolf, are hybrids, begotten between this animal and fome other fpecies of the genus. II. From their agreement in internal ftru€ture, it is much more probable that the jackal or fchakal (the canis aureus) is one of the principal original ftocks of the dogs of the old world. Profeffor Gueldenftaedt has remarked, that the caecum of the jackal ‘ entirely agrees in form with that of a dog, and differs from that of the wolf and fox.’ ‘I may add (fays Mr. Pennant, whofe words I have been ufing), that there is the fame agreement in the teeth with thofe of a dog, and the fame variation in them from thofe of the two other animals *.”? Moreover, in his manners the common. dog'is much more allied to the jackal than he is to the wolf, or to any other animal with which we are acquainted. If then this animal, and not the wolf, be the principal parent of the dog kind, the fpeculations of Mr. Zimmermann ought to have little weight in eftablifhing the pofition, that the con- tinents of America are a new creation, and their inhabitants new poffeflors of the foil. For, I think the form of the In- dian dog is very confiderably remote from that of the jackal, which is not known to exift in any part of America. III. In order completely to eftablith his opinion Mr. Zim- mermann fhould have proved that the dog is certainly derived from the wolf. I have juft endeavoured to render it probable that the wolf is not the parent of the dogs of the old world; and I formerly} gave fome reafons for believing that the Indian dog of America, notwithftanding the conjectures of Lawfon, and other writers, is not the pure unmixed wolf, but an hy- brid, begotten between this and fome other animal. IV. But in the old world there are dogs not perhaps more completely domefticated, or, in.other words, not more thoroughly deprived of their favage afpect and manners, than are the dogs of North America. Such are the dogs of the Kalmuck Tartars. And who that attentively, confiders the ® Hiftory of Quadiupeds, yol, i. p. 262 t See pe 7. hiftory 140 On Indian Dogs. hiflory of the country in which the Kalmucks refide will be- lieve that that country is a new creation? Who will venture to conjeéture that the Kalmucks themfelves are a new people? Moreover, Kalm’s obfervation would lead us to believe that the Indian dogs are the fame (and of courfe not more favage) as fome of the dogs in the north of Europe. _ V. Some animals are very eafily brought into the domef- ticated ftate. Others are domefticated with great difficulty. Perhaps there are fome incapable of domeftication. If the Indian dog be the offspring of the wolf and the fox, or any other animal, we ought not, perhaps, to wonder that he is flil] more an anznal Cielustine than the generality of the dogs of the old world; for both the wolf and the fox are with diffi- culty tamed. In this inquiry we ought allo to remember that the matter of the Indian dog ts a favage. It may readily be conceived that this circumftance will influence the genius of our animal. Living in the woods, and too frequently badly treated by his mafter, the dog muft often leave the huts of the Indians, and, perhaps, imbibe from his parents, inthe woods, a new tincture of their afpect and their manners. Even ingour cultivated towns, how much do the manners of the dogs feem to depend upon the calling of their maflers! Theis z ha, that the dogs of our frontier fettlers have a much more favage afpeét than the dozs (the fame variety) in the villages and populous towns. Vi. In America there were found fome kinds of dogs which were not lefs domefticated than the dogs of the old world. Such were the alco and the zézcuintepotzotli, of which I have already given fome account. I think it very impro- bable that thefe two fpecies or varieties were derived from the wolf, Nor is it certain that they were not a fpecies of canis effentially diftin& from thofe of the old world. In whatever light we view them, they feem to oppofe an obje&tion to Mr, Zimmermann’s notion concerning the recent creation of America, and the recent population of this great portion of the globe. Could it be proved that the a/co and the itzcu- intepotzotli have {prung from the wolf, it would be natural to infer that an immenfe period of time had elapfed before thefe animals could have been brought into the mild,.domefticated ftate in which the difcoverers of America found thena. VII. and Jaftly. This is not the place to inquire into the period of the population of America. I have touched upon this queftion in another work *, and fhall examine it more fully in a work in which I have long been engaged. Here, *’ New Views, &c. Preliminary Difcourfe, p. rog—109. however, On indian Dogs. 14 however, I may obferve, that, many circumfiances forbid the idea that America is a new creation, recently emerged from, the influence.of the ocean, And circumftances, imprefiive in their nature, render it extremely probable that. many of the nations of America have refided in this portion. of the world for fome thoufand years. Trying them by their lan- guages, the Americans will appear to be children of the ear- Jieft human families of which hiftory or. the traditions of mankind have preferved any memorials. Among the almoft innumerable charges which have been brought againit the Indian inhabitants of America, there is one which it becomes the hiftorian of Indian dogs to take fome notice of. The Indians are acculed of great feve verity OF cruelty in the treatment of their dogs. Mr. Lawfon fays the favages are the *¢ wortt dog-matfters in the world, fo that it is an infallible cure for fore eyes ever to fee an Indian’s dog fat *.”’ I have already made ‘mention of this refpeétable tra- veller’s notion of the procefs by which he fuppofed wolves are turned into dogst. The faithful father Charlevoix fays, the Indians feed their dogs ‘‘ but poorly, and never fondle them{.” Carver, w ho fo frequently borrows from Charle- voix, fays nearly the fame thing§. It is even faid, that, owing to their feanty allowance of food, the Indian dogs are often {o weak, that they are obliged to lean againft a tree, or fome other prop, whil{t they bark. It is well known bow much ingenuity,: eloquence, and {ci- ence, have, within the laft fifty years, Geen employed to re- prefent-the Americans as the degenerated, or imperfectly or- ganized, children of the earth. To complete the large vo- lume of calumny again{t thele poor people, even the manner in which they treat their dogs is not fuffered to pafs unnoticed by the hiitonians of the new world. ‘¢ Prior to their inter- courfe with the people of Europe,’’ fays the eloquent Dr. Robertfon, ® the North Americans had fome || tame dogs, which accompanied them in, their hunting excurfions, aa ferved them with all the ardour and fidelity] peculiar to the fpecies. But, inftead of that fond attachment which the hunter naturally feels towards thofe ufeful companions of his * A New Voyage, &c. p. 38. TP SCE Oy = £ A Voyage to North America, &c. vol. i. p. 79. § Travels, &c. p.°416. ; || They had many tame dogs. The liberality with which the Indians fupplied Soto’s men, and the facility with which the men fupplied them- felves with dogs, leave us no room to doubt that tame dogs abounded in Florida. Q Their fidelity has been called in queftion, See p. 7. toils o9 ¥42 On Indian Dogs. toils, they requite their fervices with negle&, feldom feed and never carefs them *.” . It would, I believe, be a much eafier tafk to prove that Dr. Robertfon was unqualified to write the hiftory of Ame- rica; to prove that the Indian Americans are not the infe- riors of the people of the old world in the meafure of their intelle€tual endowments; and to fhow that more than one- half of the charges which have been brought againft thefe people are charges refulting from ignorance or from fyftem- atic zeal, than to prove that the Indians are peculiarly en- titled to the character of kind and tender dog-mafters. After fome attention to this fubje&, I mutt candidly confefs that T poffefs not materials for a fatisfying defence of the Indian. The charges which have been brought again. him by the writers whom I have mentioned will be convictive. But why, in this inguiry, if the hiftorian will condefcend to mention the fact, and to interweave it with his eloquence, fhould he forget the hardfhips of the favage life? Where the mafter labours under a fearcity of food, his fervants, the ani- mals which depend upon him for their fubfiftence, muft fhare in the hardfhips and the evils of his ftate. The miferable condition of the Indian dogs is a neceffary refult of the mi- ferable condition of the Indians themfelves. This is certain; though the Indians tell us that they keep their dogs poor that they may be light and nimble, and therefore the better fitted for the purpofes of hunting. Dr. Robertfon, however, might have found, in the writings of fome of the authors whom he has repeatedly quoted, men- tion made of the tendernefs which the Indians manifetted to- wards their dogs m fome parts of America. The following paffage in Acolta fhould not have efcaped the hiftorian’s no- tice. Speaking of the alco, the learned jefuit fays: “ The Indians doe fo love thefe little dogges that they will fpare their meate to feede them, fo as when they travell in the countrie they carrie them with them upon their fhoulders or in their bofomes, and when they are ficke they keepe them with them, without any ufe, but only for company +.” Hence it appears, that of one fpecies or variety of their dogs, the Indians, in fome parts of the new world, were pe- culiarly careful, and even folicitoufly tender, | The Wunaumeeh Indians call the dog allum, al-loom, mo-e-han-neh, and mé-kan-ne: the Montees, a/-Lim: the Mahicans, de-a-00, de-a-00, and an-nun-neen-dee-a-o0: the Chippewas, a-lim, anu-mofch: the Meflifaugers, an-nee= * The Hiftéry of America, vol. ii. p. 216, 217: London 1788. + The Natural! and Morall Hiflorie, p. 302%, 302. moofb : On the Tiprovemént in Circular Architefture. 243 -“ ' - woo/b: the Ottawas, an-nee-mon-kat-che: the Indians of Penobfcot and St. John’s, allomoofe: the Natics, axwm: the Narraganfets, elem: the Miamis, azd-la-mo: the Wiahta- nah, /emab? the Pottawatameh, an-ne-moof/h: the Shaw- nees, wif, wee-feb: the Kafkafkias, remogh: the Nanti- cokes, afum, and thuwallem: the Mohawks, abgarijoo? er- bar? the Cochnewagoes, er-har: the Oneidas, er-har, ale- haul, ale-bali: the Qnondagos, t/chierba: the Cayugas, jo- waus: the Senecas, chee-aah, and che-eb: the Tutcareras, checth, cheetht : the Wyandots, nze-a-no0b: the Sioux, /bia- gau, chonga, fbun-gufh: the Ofages, /hong-eb: the Chee- rake, keera, dvethlah, keethlegth: the Creeks, ee-fa, e.fa, ef- fa: the Chikkafah, o-phe, oo-phe: the Choktah, o-phe: the Katahba, faunt-fee, tuunfee, tafe: the Woccons, tawb-he: the Natchez, worfe: the Mexicans, chichi: the Poconcha, i: and the Chilefe, tewe. If the affinity between the Wunaumech words, md-e-kan- neb, m?-kan-ne, and the Latin cams, the Italian cane, the Neapolitan cane, be not accidental, and who, attentively con- fidering the very many affinities that fubfift between the lan~ guages of the old and new world, will imagine that it is aeci- dental?}, we have probably arrived at the knowledge of the real meaning of the Latin word canis. Mekanne, in the lan- guage of the Delawares, fignifies “ the barking beaft.” It appears from Dr. Pallas’s great work (Vocabuleria Compara, tiva) that certain tribes of Semoyads call a dog kanang, &a- nak, and konak; and that the Karaflini call it Aannak. XXIV. A fhort Account of the Improvement in Circular Ar- chite@ure made by Colonel TATHAM. For this invention, which appears to be ingentous, and applieable to many important ufes, a patent has been taken out by Meffrs. John Scott, James Clarkfon, William Ta- tham, and Samuel Mellith. ~The invention confilts in the form given to the bricks or fiones to be employed in circular buildings, which is fuch as to make them Jock, as it were, into each other, and that fo effectually as to preclude the pot- fibility of their parting joint by any accident whatever whea laid down properly. . Two of the vertical fides of each piece employed in fuch cir- cular ftruétures anfwer to two radii from a common centre ; a circle from the fame centre fornas the third vertical fide ; and the fourth fide is formed by another circle of a radius as muck 144. A fhort Account of the Improvement much fhorter than the fat, whatever that may be, as the thicknefs intended for the wall: they are, in fat, wedge- formed. This is fo precifely the cafe, that where. the pieces (to which the patentees have given the name of Tatham’s clumps) are wtended to form folid pillars, or the like, they exhibit only the three firft-mentioned vertical fides. The horizontal, or under and upper fides of the clumps, have a kind of fhouldering or protruding part, and a corre- fponding hollow or deprefled part to fit the fimilar parts of the next courfe, and thefe are at the fame time fo adjufted that each courle will break joint with the one before laid; that is, the vertical joinings of every row fall on the middle of the clumps which form the one below and the one above it. The form given to the fhoulderings or joggelings is fo in- genioufly contrived, that, were a cylinder formed of thefe clumps, with the two extreme circles tied together by means of Jong bolts pafling up the centre, fecured by {crews or other fafienings, it might be laid upon its fide and employed as a garden roller, without the poflibility of any one of the clumps falling out of its place. It is eafy to fee that this contrivance is applieable to a ya- riety of purpofes: as, rf, In rural architecture, &c. For example, in cottages, country houfes, villas, circular barns; granaries, fecure from rats, mice, and other vermin; feeding houfes, cattle fheds, fummer houfes, caftles, towers, turrets, battlements, pali- fadoe work, door fteps, ftair-cafes (fecure from fire), plea- fure houfes on eminences and near the fea, bathing houfes, Kee, adly, In folid work; as columns, colonnades, agricultural rollers, rollers for roads, garden rollers, fione or brick piers in water works, &c. , 3dly, To hydraulic and fubterraneous architecture, for fewers, culverts, tunnels, conduits; cylinders in’ bridge work, thereby giving ftrength, cheapnefs, waterway, and liehtnefs, to the firuGture; mills, refervoirs, communica- tions, wells, cefspools, and the like. 4thly, In marine architeéture, to dock work, bafins, har- bours, piers, jetties, light-houfes. sthly, In military architecture, to magazines, block- houfes, redoubts, covert ways, lines of communication, watch towers, &c. , 6thly, In architeCture applying to warchoufes and manu- fa&tures; for example, circular windows and other apertures admitting light and air, brewers’ vaults, boilers, &c. &c. athly, Church architecture ; for example, circular chee pels, in Circular Archite&ure. 145 Is, fteeples, columns to fupport ponderous roofs, the hol- ow ones with ftair-cafes when wanted, niches, cells, cloif- ters, vaults, &c. Explanation. Fig. 1. ais a fingle clump, having its male point inwards on the fide in view; 4 is one with the female point inwards on the reverfe of the fame clump. Fig. 2. 2, one with the male point outwards ; 4, one with the female point outwards. Each of thefe figures, 1 and 2, re« prefent different kinds of clumps, which being laid, one kind at a time, in a circular form, with the fame fides uppermoft, will make one courfe: fee fig. 5. for an example of one courfe of clumps, fig. 1, ¢. Then add one courfe of fig. 2, fitted in male and female (or joggled); and fo on alternate circles, » fig. 1 and fig. 2, to the end of the length defigned, termi- nating the fame with a caft iron plate, flaunch piece, or key clump, with two male fides fo as to admit of taking down for repairs, &c. This method will form a broken joint, fuch as the one exhibited in perfpective view fig. g. Fig. 3. is an elongated clump for forming folid columns, colonnades, &c.; a having its male point inwards, and 6 hay- ing its female point inwards. Fig. 4. a clump elongated asin fig. 3. a fhows the view with the male point outwards: 4 the reverfe of the fame clump, with the female point outwards. Thefe clumps are to be Jaid into each other in the fame manner as fig. 1 and 2, to form a column of folid work, of which a feétion is repre- fented in fig. 8. If it is intended to conftrué a circular ftair- cafe with dome-light, &c. on this principle, one or more clumps in each courfe of work (be the fame of brick, earth, ftone, or other material, according to the defign and extent,) mutt be of the long kind, to form the /fep of the ftairs; all the reft of fhort clumps, fig. 1 and 2, to admit light and ac- cels through the aperture of a fpiral afcent. Fig. 5. a, a, a, thows the pofition of clumps a, fig. 1, ac- _ cording to the mode of laying them, with the male point in- wards: b, b, 4, fhows the reverfe of the fame clump with the female point inward. The bottom circle in this and the next figure {hows merely the pofitign which a continuation of the clumps would take. 1 t, Fig. 6. clumps with blank fides uppermoft: thefe are merely for laying the firft courfe on the ground, or, in fome inftances, for faving the expenfe of a caft iron rim next the flaunch of a branch piece. Their reverfe muft be always in- dented, or joggled, to fit the next courle of clumps. If it is Vou. XY. No. 58. L required 146 Account of the Improvement in Cireular Architefure. required to form a flufh edge, fuch as the cheek of a window or door, it can be done by cutting down the clumps into half clumps, as reprefented by the dotted line X, X, fig. g. Ra- viels, rabbits, grooves, &c., and returns of corners, elliptics, &c, mutt be fpecifically moulded on the fame principle; or girders, ties, &c., may fecure any variation by means of fuit- able caft iron clamps, modified according to the particular contingency. Fig. 7, a fection of a well or pipe, &c. the furface of the circle in view being put together with clumps fig. 2, the male fide 2 pointing outwards. Fig. 8. fhows the plan of a folid column formed of elon- gated clumps of the kind a, fig. 4, the male points outwards being in view. As this fame modification contraéts the circle to a fmaller column, in that cafe fewer pieces will be required. Fig. g. is a perfpective view, fhowing a fegment of the work (part of a circle) formed out of fix clumps laid in their order from figures 1 and 2, the bottom courfe having a blank fide as defcribed fig. 6. Fig. 10. part of a clump main pipe, fhowing the manner of flaunching in a caft iron branch piece in order to join the fame toa branch main. This can be performed with the help of an iron rim (joggled) as reprefented in fig. 113 or it can be fitted to blank fides next the flaunch, and the oppofite end of the bolt can be counter-funk into perforated clumps, having the prominent ends fitted with a male and female fcrew, in order to flide the flaunch piece in or out as occafion demands. Fig. 11. a caft iron rim indented or joggled to fit a courfe of clumps as reprefented on the furface in view, in order to admit the flaunch to flip in and out as required on its fmooth furface. Fig. 12. a plain caft iron flaunch for joining a clump main in fuitable lengths to be occafionally taken down’: they may alfo be laid in lengths by means of a key clump, having two sale fides to have the joints banded with a hoop. Fig. 13. fhows the mode of fitting the prominent point of the flaunch bolt by means of a male and female fcrew, fo that the flaunch piece may be flided into or out of its birth at option, without hanging on the flaunch plate or joins. XXVi0n Poona Dee 2 { 147 } : XXV. On the Freezing Point of Tin, and the Boiling Point of Mercury; with a Defcription of a Self-regiftering Ther- mometer invented by Mr. JAMES CRICHTON, of Glaf- gow *, Some time ago, having made fome high ranged thermo- meters, I wifhed to try their correfpondence at high tempe- ratures. I procured for this purpofe 1% pound of the beft ‘effayed tin (block), and, after fufpending two thermometers upon a fliding fupport, I melted the tin in a heat of from 20° to 30° above the melting point: I then lowered my thermo- meters down into the metal, and obferved the mercury to fink gradually in both till it arrived at 442°; then it zm/fantly funk to 439°, and as inftantaneoufly rofe to 442°. At this tem- perature the mercury remained perfectly ftationary for five minutes, at which time the metal became folid to the centre of the crucible. After obferving this fat, which to me was new, I waited upon Dr. Mickleham, and requefted that he would be prefent when I fhould repeat the experiment, to affift me in difcovering the fallacy, if there was any. We then procured, from another work, the fame quantity of tin as before, and repeated the experiment feveral times with the fame refult. Another accurate ftandard point, that of 442°, for adjuft- ing thermometers, has thus been afcertained ; a circumftance which, judging by the ufe it will be of to myfelf in conflruét- ing high ranged thermometers, I think too important to be withheld from chemifts and others who may with to avail themfelves of it. Before [ quit the fubje& of mercurial thermometers I beg to {tate another fact which may alfo be of ufe to the philofo- phical world. Quickfilver does not boil at 6co°, but at 655° at the loweft. The precife point I have not yet found leifure enough to afcertain. I thall now defcribe a regiftering thermometer fit for me- teorological purpofes, which I have lately invented and con- ftruéted, and which fome of my friends have requefted me to make public. Its aétion depends on the different degrees of expanfibility of different metals when expofed to a change-of temperature. (See Plate III.) The length of the inftrument is about 13 inches. Fig. 1. reprefents a front view of it, and fig. 2. a fide view: the let- * Communicated by the Author, La ters 148 On the Chemical Nature of Ants. ters of reference are the fame in both, where they can be ap- lied. 7 The bar A, of which the fide BC is of iron, and the other DE of zinc, is about one inch broad, a quarter of an inch thick, and eight inches in length. It is firmly fixed, at the lower extremity I, to a board a, 4,c,d, made of mahogany. On the application of heat, this bar, by the fuperior ex- panfion of the zinc, is inclined at the top towards B. In the upper end of the bar there is a pin (feen at A, fig. 2.) which goes into the fork-like opening L of the index LM (fig. 1.), and carries the fhort end of this index along with it; confe- quently the long end is carried along the feale from 0° to- wards 100°. When the infirument is expofed to a lower temperature, the movement is exactly the reverfe of what I haye been de feribing. Beneath the index LM are two others on the fame axis G, ene of which can be carried towards the right, and the other towards the left, by means of a pin which goes through the firft-mentioned index at H. By this means, the greateftand . loweft degree of temperature that occurs from the time the thermometer is fet or adjufted till it be again confulted, is accurately marked. In adjufting the thermometer for obfervation, all that is neceilary is to bring the two {mall indexes immediately be- low the broad one. As the laft-mentioned one is moved backwards or forwards by variations of temperature, it carries one or other of the {mall ones along with it, by means of the pin H, leaving one of them at the higheft and the other at the loweft degree that may have occurred from the laft time of adjufiment. The face of the upper part of the inftrument is covered with a glafs door, the hinges of which are at N and O. The greateft range of any thermometers of this kind which T have yet made, is from 10° below to 100° above o°. This inftrument proves very accurate in its indications. AXVI. Memoir on the Chemical Nature of Ants, and the Simultaneous Exifience of two Vegetable Acids in thefe In- jfeG@s. By A. F. Fourcroy*. rt. So much has been already faid in regard to ants and their acid, that it appears nothing more remains to be added * From dunales dt Mufeum National, No. 5. on On the Chemical Nature of Ants. 149 on the fubje&. Since the time that Samuel Fifher firft de- feribed this acid in 1670, and taught a method of obtaining it by diftillation, till citizen Deyeux confirmed by exact ex- periments the identity of the acid of ants with the acetous acid, (an identity firft announced in 1749 by Margraff, then in 1777 by Ardviffon and Oéhrn, and afterwards by Berg- man,) all that chemifts have done on this fubjeé& feems merely to be, that fome of them have maintained the fuppofed ana- logy; while others have wifhed that this analogy fhould be only apparent, and that the formic acid fhould be confidered as a peculiar acid /uz generis. I do not fpeak here of the opinion of Thouvenel, who pretended that the acid of ants was the phofphoric acid, becaufe this opinion was fupported by no pofitive fa&t: I thought it might be ftill ufeful to re- fume the analyfis of ants; and the reader will find that, hav- ing been employed in this refearch with C. Vauquelin, it pre- fented to us fome fa&ts which had efcaped our predeceffors. ad. Having cleaned the ants which were collected in the wood of Boulogne, and of that kind called by Linnzus fer- mica rufa, they were bruifed in a marble mortar. During this operation a vapour was difengaged of an odour fo fharp and pungent that it hurt the eyes, and could be compared to nothing but the acetic acid or radical vinegar. d. The ants thus bruifed were put to macerate in alcohol for feveral days, and in a temperature of about 68 or 70 de- grees the alcohol affumed a yellow colour. 4th. The alcoholic infufion of ants fubjecéted to diftillation furnifhed an inflammable liquor flightly acid. During the diftillation there was formed in the liquor a brownith depofit which was colleéted on a filter. : » 5th. The acid liquor which remained after diftillation, when filtered and feparated from the depofit, was faturated with lime, It then became brown, thick, and acquiréd a faufeous and pungent favour. By blowing through a tube into the thick liquor there was formed a multitude of bub- bles, which exhibited the fame prifmatic colours as foap bubbles. 6th. This combination of the acid of ants with lime, when fubjected to the teft of different re-agents, exhibited the fol- lowing phenomena: a. Mixed with concentrated fulphuric acid it exhaled the odour of vinegar. _ 6, With nitrate of lead it gave an abundant white precipi- » tate. ¢. With nitrate of filver a yellowith precipitate. d. With muriate of barytes there was nothing fenfible, L3 e. Ammo- 150 On the Chemical Nature of Ants. e. Ammonia produced no change in it. Jf. Alcchol formed a ropy and duétile precipitate. 7th. A part of the thick liquor being mixed with half a part of concentrated fulphuric acid and two parts and a half of water, there was immediately formed a very thick magma. This mixture was fubjected to diftillation, and the. produc& was divided into three parts. They were all clear and co- lourlefs: they had an empyreumatic odour, and a very ftrong acid tafte. The refiduum of this diftillation had acquired a very dark brown colour, and a difagreeable burnt tafte, though it had not been carried to dryneis. The firft produét tried with acetite of lead gave no figns of the prefence of the fulphuric acid: the fecond and third gave the fame refult; which proves that they contained no fulphuric acid. This acid diftilied and combined with potath furnifhed real ac@tite of potath which attracted the moifiure of the air; ex- haled, by the addition of concentrated fulphuric acid, a ftrong vapour like that of radical vinegar; and in a folution of ni- trate of mercury formed a flaky precipitate like common ace- tite of potath. The greater part then of the acid of ants is acetous acid, as C. Deyeux has already proved by a careful analyfis and expe- riments *. 8th, The calcareous combination of the acid of ants, ob- tained by infufing them in alcohol, exhibited to usa very remarkable character. In a folution of acetite of lead it formed a very abundant depofit, which was rediffolved by * Bergman had found in it fome refemblance to the acid of vinegar; the following is what he fays on this fubjeét :—Hoc acidum indole aceto proximé accedit, in variis tamen differunt. Prius cum magnefia, ferro et zincd cryftallifabiles praebet fales, pufterius nonnifi deliquefcentes. Mag- nefia formicata in primis notatu digna eft. In another part of his works, A Differtation on Magnefia, Bergman fpeaks alfo of the formic acid, and deferibes the properties of the falt which it forms with magnefia as fol- Jows:—Acidum formicarum magnefia faturatum aquam deferens fundum petit, abundante autem acido folvendum et evaporatione cryftallos depo- nens, que faporis fere expertes egerrime aqua folvuntur, in 1gne non fun- duntur; fed tainen, parum decrepitant, fubito nigrefcunt, tandemque, in pulverem fatifcunt album, in acidis effervefcentem quum acidum formi- carum fub deftruétione magnefiam przbeat aéream. Cryftallorum figura éft hemifphzrica, plavo fecanre furfum verfo, paulum concavo, polito, ftriit- que, oculo armato vix difcernendis, & centro radiante : hine luculenter aceto dignofcitur acidum formicarum, cui alioquin indole proximé acccdit, illi tamen, equé ac acidis vitrioli nitrique phlogifticatis, magnefiam eripiens hujus falis dimidium pondus eft ex magnefia. Una ejufdem pars tredecim requirit aqua, ut folvatur in calore quindecim graduum ; fpwitus vini eum- dem non fufcipit. the a Se le 56 On the Chemical Nature of Ants. 15 the acetous acid, and even by that which was abtsined. in the folution above defcribed, No. 7. : As this experiment fhows that the acid taken from the ants by alcohol, and combined with lime, contained fomething elfe than acetous acid, fince this calcareous falt precipi- tated acetite of lead ; and as this different matter was not vo- latile, fince the produ& of the diftillation with fulphuric acid did not produce the fame effect, we tried to find it again in the refiduum of the diftillation: but this refiduum contained fo much fulphuric acid that it was impoffible for us to fuc- ceed ; we therefore had recourfe to the following experiment, gth. A part of the combination of the formic acid with lime was mixed with a folution of nitrate of lead, and there was immediately formed a very abundant precipitate of a yel- lowith colour, which when put upon burning coals, after hav- ing been well wafhed and dried, became immediately black, exhaled an animal and ammoniacal odour, while the Jead was reduced to a metallic ftate. Sulphuric acid diluted with about fix parts of water was poured over this precipitate reduced to fine powder, At’ the moment of mixture the powder remained at the furface of the liquor as if it had been a fat fubttance, and it did not be- come mixed with fulphuric acid till after long agitation. When the mixture was well made the volume of the pre- cipitate was diminifhed: it became heavier and whiter. The liquor then had a flight acid and faccharine favour, which was deftroyed by the addition of the fulphuric acid, and was foon fucceeded by a naufeous favour. It precipitated flightly muriate of barytes, which indicates fome traces of fulphuric acid. It precipitated lime water only very weakly; but at _the end of fome hours there were formed a great many cryf- tals at the furface of the liquor, and on the fides of the glafs containing the mixture. It precipitated i in abundance nitrate of mercury, and thofe of filver and lead. Combined with barytes it gave a reddith folution of a faline and pungent favour. This combination reduced to a fmall volume did not cryftallize; a flight pellicle only was formed at its furface. Potath did not feparate the barytes from this combination, but the alkaline carbonate produced a precipi- tation. ‘The oxalic acid formed in it a very abundant depofit, but the tartarous and citric acids produced in it no change. roth. The faéts here detailed indicate to us that the matter combined with lime along with the acetous, acid was of the nature of the malic acid; but to be more certain we exa- mined it comparatively with the latter, combining both of L4 them. 15% On the Chemical Nature of Ants. them with the fame fubftances. "Without here entering into a tirefome account of thefe comparative experiments, we fhall content ourfelves with faying that thefe two compounds ex- hibited phenomena abfolutely fimilar. Ants contain then, and confequently form, malic acid, like vegetables. It is no doubt the prefence of this acid which had mifled the chemifts who preceded us in this labour. While they acknowledged in the acid of ants a great analogy with vinegar, they however found differences which induced them to confider it as a particular acid; and thefe differences . from the prefence of the malic acid in the acetous acid of ants. Difiiilation of the Produét of Ants treated with Alcobol. rith. The ants, exhaufted by alcohol, furnifhed a limpid and flightly alkaline water, a reddifh brown oil, thick and exceedingly foetid. The firfi liquor, diluted with water, and filtered to feparate the oil, produced a flight effervefcence with acids. As it emitted at the fame time an odour ef vinegar, eafily diftinguifhed amidft the feetidnefs by which it was accom- panied, a certain quantity of it mixed with fulphuric acid was diftilled, and we obtained a colourlefs acid produé of an em- pyreumatic odour, which contained a {mall quantity of ace- tous acid. Was this acetous acid completely formed in the ants exhaufted by alcohol, or was it formed by the action of - the fire? The produét of the diftillation of the exhaufted ants con- fained then a: foetid empyreumatic oil, carbonate of ammo- hia, and acetite of ammonia, all diffolyed in a large mafs of water. Examination of the Matter which feparated from the Alcohol during the Diftillation mentioned in No. 4. 12th. The reader will remember that the alcoholic infufion fubjected to diftillation fuffered to be depofited a brown fub- ftance which had been feparated from it by the filter. This fubftance was of fo dark a red colour that when feen ina large mafs it appeared to be black: when dried it was brittle, its fraG@ture was fmooth and brilliant like that of refin, it had no fenfible favour, it was not foluble in water; and this may ferve to explain its precipitation in proportion as the alcohol évaporated. Though infoluble in water, when macerated a long time in that fluid it communicated to it a flight fawn colour, owing, in all probability, to a fmall quantity of ex- tractive matter interpofed between its parts, * es Ban eo Alcohol On the Chemical Nature of Ants. 153 Alcohol flightly heated over this fubftance diffolved the - greater part of it. It affumed a pretty dark red colour: there however remained a brownifh matter, which did not com- bine with that liquid whatever quantity of it was added. This alcoholic folution became milky by the addition of water, and at the end of fome days there was feparated a refin-like de- polit foft and ropy, ef a reddifh colour and a very difagree~ able naufeous tafte, flightly foluble in water, fince it commu~ nicated to it a little of the colour and of the naufeous tafte, This depofit is a fat matter of a peculiar nature. The brownifh matter not diffolved by alcohol, already men- tioned, appeared to us to be albumen, which the moifture, and perhaps the acid contained in the ants, contributed to render foluble in alcohol. This albumen was coagulated by the heat, and precipitated with the fat matter in proportion as the alcohol was volatilized. When placed on burnin coals it decrepitated, became corneous, fwelled, and puffed up, emitting white foetid ammoniacal fumes: it left on the fupport a large and licht charcoal. It was in no mannet foluble in water; it contained a little hydrogenated carbon, which gave it a brownifh colour. “tes 13th. A portion of the ants exhaufted by the aétion of al- cohol was fubjected to diftillation in an open fire. There re- mained a charcoal, which, like al] thofe of animal fubftances, burnt with difficulty, and left, after long combuttion, white afhes, which contained nothing but phoiphate of lime. This was proved by treating it with nitric acid, which dif- folved the greater part of it without effervefcence, and by add- ing to the folution ammonia, which formed in it a white ge- Jatinous depofit which exhibited all the properties of phof- phate of lime. The portion of afhes which did not diffolve in the acid was filex; but as the incineration had taken place in an earth crucible, this fubftance arofe, in all probability, from that veffel. However, to afcertain whether this earth had been really furnifhed by the crucible, fome of this charcoal was burnt in fmall portions in a crucible of platina until we ob- tained a quantity of afhes fufficient to be fubjected to exa- mination, and the following refult was obtained :—150 parts of charcoal of ants were reduced in an ignited platina cruci- ble, at the end of feveral hours, to 22 parts of ailies; 14 parts of thefe afhes were diffolved by nitric acid; the eight parts not diffolved were fand mixed at firft with the ants. It refults from this experiment that the offeous fkeleton of ants is formed, like that of warm-blooded animals, of phof. phate of lime, Jt is not improbable that the long and ftrong . calcination ¥54 On the Chemical Wahine of Ants. ealcination to which it was neceflary to fubject their charcoal. in order to incinerate it, decompofed this falt,,and carried it to the ftate of lime: to confirm this conjecture would have required more of the charcoal than we were able to procure. 14th. It refults from this analyfis that ants are formed of a large quantity of carbon united to a fmall quantity of hy~- drogen, and no doubt alfo to a little oxygen. This com- pound js mixed with phofphate of lime, which conftitutes the folid part or the fkeleton of the infect. Ants, befides the preceding compound, contain a pretty large quantity of refin, foluble in alcohol, which feems to exift in them completely formed, fince the application of this re-agent is fufficient to extraét and obtain it feparately. It is probable that they conceal alfo fome parts of animal albumen and gelatine; but as thefe animals were fubjected to diftillation tmmediately after their treatment by alcohol, it was impoffible to obtain the two materials feparately. What ought to be moft interefting to chemifts among the refults obtained by the analyfis of ants, is the prefence of the acetous and malic acids in thefe infe€ts. Thefe acids, as appears, exift in them in a very large quantity and in a very confiderable ftate of concentration, fince in bruifing them in a mortar there is difengaged, as already obferved, an acetic acid vapour fo fharp and penetrating that it is impoffible to endure it even at the diftance of three feet. It appears alfo that acetous acid continually exudes and diftills, as we may fay, from thefe animals; for they leave traces of it on the bodies which they traverfe. All chemifts know, that if moift- ened turnfole paper be put into an ant-hill, or even if it be fufpended at fome diflance, it foon acquires a red colour. It is known alfo, that if a certain number of auts be collected in a {mall quantity of milk it becomes curdled; and that if fugar attacked by ants, and on which they have remained fome time, be put into milk, it curdles in the fame manner. The acidity of ants is proved befides by the ftrong impreffion they make on the mouth when chewed: this impreflion is almott as ftrong as that produced by radical vinegar. There is reafon to prefume that it is this acid in a concentrated ftate, which by infinuating itfelf into the places bit by ants renders them fo painful, and caufes the parts wounded by thefe infects to fwell, One is aftonifhed on the firft view at the quantity of acid which thefe infe&ts continually furnifh, and in particular that thev can live in the midtt of fo fharp a liquid; but it is proba- ble that this acid is feparated from the other humours by pe- culiar veflels which have no communication with the eflen- ual On the Chemical Naturé of Ants. 155 tial organs of life, and which open only on the outfide of their bodies. Anatomy only can unveil to us this remarkable ap- paratus of fecretion. _15th, In regard to the malic acid which in ants accompa= nies the acetous acid. We fhall terminate this memoir by *a general remark on the exiftence of this acid in’ organic compounds. Few vegetable acids are fo generally and fo abundantly diffufed throughout nature as the malic acid; and, though it has not been long known in comparifon of many others, it has been difcovered in a multitude of fubflances, and its properties have been carefully ftudied. It has been found in fruits with feeds, with ftones, and in a great number of berries. : It exifts in a multitude of plants in the ftate of malate of lime. The joubarbes, craflula, and cotyledons, mefembryan- themum, fedum, and even aloes, contain more or lefs confi- derable quantities of it, according to the analyfis made by C. Vauquelin, and inferted in the Annales de Chimie. It is found in abundance in the liquor which is feparated by the hairs of chicken peafe (ctcer arietinum), where it is ac- companied with a {mall quantity of oxalic acid and by fome atoms of acetous acid. It is formed by the action of the nitric and oxygenated muriatic acids on all vegetable fubftances, and in parti- cular on fugar, gums, ftarch, honey, &c.: it always precedes the formation of the oxalic acid by thefe re-agents: vegeta- ble and even animal fubtftances are conftantly changed into malic acid before they are converted into oxalic acid, by the acids above indicated. It is thus that blood, urée, the uric acid, and jelly, when treated with either of the acids above mentioned, are firft changed into malic acid, and afterwards into oxalic acid if the action of the acid be continued in a powerful manner; but it is always united with ammonia when it arifes from animal matters, becaufe there is formed at the fame time a certain quantity of that alkali. It is not vegetables only that continually give birth to the malic acid: animals are equally fulceptible of producing it: it is.in the clafs of infects in particular that this property is manifefted. It appears that the malic acid is in fome meafure the firft (tage of acidification in the proceffes of nature and of art. It precedes in a fpecial manner the formation of the oxalic and acetous acids, becaufe it contains a greater quantity of the radicals, or of carbon and bydrogen, and pee vie els 156 On Mr. Henry's Aromatic Vinegar. lefs oxygen than they do. It is that of all thé vegetable or animal acids which retains in the fulleft manner the nature . of the animal or vegetable fubftance from which it has been formed ; it is that which is decompofed with the greateft eafe by the action of the fire. Preceding all the vegetable acids; by ulterior and fucceffive elaborations it produces the tarta- * reous, citric, oxalic, and acetous acids: it is by lofing a part of its radicals, which are converted into water and carbonic acid by atmoipheric oxygen, tbat it paffes itfelf to the ftate of thefe other acids; and though none of the latter but the acetous acid has yet been found in animals, there is reafon to believe that all the reft will be found. The malic acid is then formed by living plants: it often exifts in them in its full purity: fometimes it is found m them united to lime, and no doubt to petath, according to the nature of the circumftances which accompany its forma- tion. It is alfo formed during the life of certam animals, particularly in ants, and certainly in many other infects: in a word, it is produced by the action of the nitric and the oxy= genated muriatic acids on animal and vegetable compounds. Nature then, every time it can difpofe of the neceflary principles, tends to form malic acid; and there is no seafon to doubt, that if plants were examined when very young, at which time they are all acid, the malic acid would always be found prefent in them. Thefe fucceffive changes after- wards give birth to the other acids already mentioned, and which may be found by further analyfes in animais, as it has been found in vegetables. XXVII. On the Property which the Acetic Acid poffeffes of diffslving Camphor and various effential Oils. SIR, To Mr. Tilloch. AM fenfible that an apology is neceffary for obtruding on you and on your readers a fubject which may appear, on firft view, to have little claim to general attention. If the rights and privileges of an individual were alone involved on this occafion, I fhould not have requefted a place in your Magazine for the following flatement. But it 1s furely mat ter of general concern, that the appropriation of inventions and improvements fhould be dealt, with {trict juftice, to their authors: for the profpe& of this diftribution of «€ honour where it is due” is one of the moft animating principles of action ; and the extinétion of this motive would certainly fol- low On Mr. Henry’s Aromatic Vinegar. 159 low an indifference, on the part of the public, to the claims of inventors. More than fifteen years ago, during the delivery of a courfe of lectures, by my father, im this town, he had occafion to notice a property of the radical vinegar, or acetic acid, which had not, to his knowledge, been before obferved ; viz. its pro- perty of diffolving camphor and various effential oils. The compound was found to poflefs a moft pungent and agreeable odour; and as the vinaigre des quatre volewrs had gained much reputation in obviating infeCtion, it-occurred to him that the aewly difcovered folution wonld have fill more powerful effeéts in confequence of its high ftate of concen- tration. A bottle of this preparation he gave to a late a@tive magiftrate and philanthropift (J. B. Bayley, Efg. F.R.S.), who, in the courfe of an unwearied and undaunted exercife of his public function, was frequently expofed to the danger of foul and infeéted air, Mr. Bayley was highly gratified ' with its effects, and not only made conflant ufe of the aro- matic vinegar on the bench, and on his vifits to the prifon, but introduced it to the adoption of feveral of the judges and principal gentlemen at the bar. He alfo firft fuggetted to my father the propriety of benefiting by his difcevery, and was the medium of a conneétion with Mr. Bayley, perfumer, in Cockfpur-fireet, London, which has continued to the pre- fent day. The aromatic vinegar, like every other article in general demand, has been a frequent fubject of imitation. But it is not of this that I complain; for, in confequence of unremit- ting attention, our preparation has maintained a decided fu- periority oyer all others, both as to-quality and extent of fale.. The oceafion of this appeal to your readers is, that one of thefe imitations bas lately been fanGtioned by the name of a re{pectable phyfician, who, though not exprefsly, yet by im- plication, has conferred on another the credit of that inyen- tion, which, in juttice, belongs to my father. (See a letter from Dr. Trotter, phyfician to his majefty’s fleet, contained in an advertifement publifhed in the newfpapers by a London druggift.) From the recommendatory letter of Dr. Trotter it is evi- dent that he was ignorant of any prior claim; and he was therefore made acquainted by my father, in the moft refpect- ful terms, with the facts which have already been laid before you. To this letter the doctor has‘made no reply, though he declared verbally to a medical gentleman, that my father’s preparation had never happened to fall in his way; but that, uf it had, he fhould with equal readinefs kaye given teftimony in ; 358 A general View of the in its favour. The advertifement, however, continues to be regularly inferted; and I therefore deem it expedient to ap- peal thus publicly againft fuch a proceeding; efpecially in behalf of a man who has imitated the original only in copy- ing, with unblufhing effrontery, an advertifement drawn up by myfelf. I believe there are few of your readers who will not agree with me, that the ordinary forms of civility required that Dr. Trotter fhould have taken further notice of the letter addreffed to him ; that fuch an attention ought to have been paid to one of the oldeft practitioners of medicine in this country; and that more refpect was due to a man (whom I truft it is not unbecoming in me to characterize, in terms al- ready publicly applied to him wiris /audatis *) “¢ refpectable in feience and in Jiterature,” and ‘‘diftinguifhed by ingenuity, honour, and the ftricteft integrity.” I remain refpectfully, Sir, your obedient fervant, WiviiaM Henry. XXXVI. A general View of the Coal Mines worked in France, of their different Produéts, and the Means of cir- culating them. By C, LEFEBVRE, Member of the Council of Mines, of the Philomatic Society, &c. Sec. {Continued from p. 76. | Department of Ardennes. Tuere are no coal mines known in this department. Refearches have been made at Etion, but without fuccefs. They were begun in fchiftous ftrata, which exhibited no in- di¢ation fufficient to caufe the labour to be continued; and the manner in which they were conduéted was calculated only to produce lofs, fince thofe who directed it followed the courfe of the fchiftous ftrata, inftead of traverfing them to difcover the changes, if there were any, in the order of the trata. This department reccives coals from that of Ourthe, which are conveyed to it up the Meufe. Department of Arriege. This country (7), abundant in metallic fubftances, and particularly in iron mines of an excellent quality, poffeffes no coal mines worked. C. Vergnicz-Bouifcher, proprietor of the forges of Vic- * Dr. Aikin and Dr, Percival. deffos, Coal Mines worked in France. 159 deffos, diftincuifhed by his knowledge and his zeal for im- proving the iron manufa@tory, has announced indications of coal at Montefquieu near Foix ; and Duhamel, the engineer, has found fome alfo at Mas-’dAzil. Department of Aube. No coal mines are worked in Aube: the generat compofi- tion of the ftrata of the earth, which exhibit only chaik or beds of fhells, affords no reafon to conceive any hope of dif- covering colle¢tions of this combuftible mineral, unlefs it be at great depths, and after having traverfed the whole thick- nefs of the beds of chalk and fhells. It receives no coals but thofe which are conveyed on the Seine, or which are carried up by La Marne and the river Aube. Department of Aude. Coals are found in the neighbourhood of Cafcaftel (8), Quintillan, Ruchan, and the mountains of Fabrezan. The mines worked near Cafcaftel, Quintillan, and Segur, furnifh about 14000 myriagrammes of fuel per annum. The produéts of the other mines are not known, nor do we poffefs any certain information refpecting the price at which the coals are fold. It is probably very low, becaufe there is very little confumption for thefe mines. The proprietors complain loudly of the roads, and with they were repaired ; which would facilitate the tranfportation of coals to Perpignan. It would be ufeful alfo, if it were poflible, to provide means for conveying the produéts of the mines of Fabrefan to the banks of the Aude. Department of Aveyron. This department (g) is one of the moft abundant in coal mines. It is interefting alfo on account of feveral other mi- neral fubftances, and particularly of thofe proper for fupply- ing fulphates of alumine and of iron (common alum and green copperas), which are found there in great plenty in the cantons of Milhau, Saint-Affrique, and feveral others. The colleétions of coal known near Cranfac, Vialarets, Livignac, and Montignac, and the neighbouring places on the borders or at a little diftance from the river Lot, are inex- hauftible, and for the moft part can be very eafily extracted. In the year 3 thefe mines produced ahove 500,000 myria- grammes, and the price was not more than fiye cents pee myria- 160 A general View of the myriagramme. At prefent it isno more than one cent for the fame quantity delivered at the mine, but delivered at Villefranche they coft from 12 to 15 cents. Thefe coal mines can furnifh a long time for an immenfe confumption, efpecially if more care were taken in working them. The proprietors of the fuperficial foil attack them on all fides, and with the greater eale, as the ftrata and collec- tions of the coal are uncovered, or are generally met with at a fmall-depth; fo that the whole of this country prefents a multitude of pits begun at the furface, and abandoned when the water or {haking of the ground excites a fear of fome ac- cident. Befides the wafte which refults from this bad method of working, and the obfiacles it creates for the future, the earelefsnels and negligence of the workmen have given rife in this country to a deftruétive feourge which daily increafes its ravages. Strata of coal have been fet on fire at Fontaignes, Moitot, and in feveral other places. The conflagration fpreads, and is fed even in the bofom of the earth. The calcined fur- face of the ground for a confiderable extent exhibits nothing but the arid and diftreffing picture of the abfence of all ve- getation and of the exiftence of all life. The places already mentioned in the neighbourhood of Lot, and in the canton of Cranfac, are not the only ones in this department where coal mines are found ; fome are known alfo in the neighbourhood of Milhaud, on the borders of the Dourbie; at Megamel and Lavergne in the county of Séve- rac; at Bertholéne, and at Senfac in the environs of Rhodez. A new mine has been opened in the Jaft-mentioned place this year by the care of the prefect. The annual produé& of the coals worked in thefe different places amounts to 220,000 myriagrammes, and might be rendered much more confiderable. C. Saint-Thorent, prefect of Aveyron, has been convinced of the importance of turning to advantage the different kinds of mineral riches with which this country abounds, and he has confequently refolved to carry thither that knowledge and ae- tivity, by the help of which this department may become-one of the moft interefting in regard to the produéts of national in- dufiry. This magiftrate had requefted that an engineer might be fent thither; and C. Blavier, the perfon employed for that purpofe, foon difcovered, not only the exiftence of feveral miineral fubftances never before found in thefe countries, but the fpeedy means of working them, and_of giving rife to very productive Z ee Oo we Coal Mines worked in France. 161 produdtive eftablithments*. The prefect has requefted, and obtained permiffion, for this engineer to be fettled at Avey- ron, charged merely with the direction of this department. C. Saint-Thorent has already taken meafures to facilitate the communications and to increafe the number of the high- ways in this country, which is in want of fuficient means of circulation. The utility of rendering the Lot navigable for boats above Cahors has not efcaped him. The indifference which has been fhown, and the delay which has taken place in the execution of this project, muft furprife all thofe who are acquainted with the immenfe colleétions of excel- lent coal which might be dug up on the banks of that river towards Aubin, Livinhac, and Boufquet, and who confider the valuable advantages which might refult from eftablifhing an eafy mode of conveyance for thefe coals to.the departments of Lot, Lot and Garonne, and as far as Rochelle and Bour- deaux, where the produéts of thefe rich mines would banifh the ufe of foreign coals, or at leaft render the introduétion of them unneceilary. Department of the Mouths of the Rhone. The only part of this department (10) which has hitherto given rife to the extraction of coal is that of the fouth-eaft, near to the department of Var. The coal mines are fituated in particular in the environs of the communes of Gardanne, Fureau, Tretz, Peynier, Belcodene, Saint-Savournin, Auriac, Roquevaire, and Gemenas. The greater part of thefe mines are badly worked, by the proprietors of the ground, or by renters who enter into an en- gagement with them for permiffion to dig in their lands. The pits are never carried to agreat depth: they are abandoned on the leaft ob{tacle which occurs in the courfe of the labour, which in general is not very fafe for the workmen. Thefe coal mines are found in ground covered by calca- reous ftrata, which are even often mixed with carbonate of lime. The coals are of a moderate quality, efpecially for the purpofe of forges. They do not cake, and form a hollow fire. It appears, however, that the iron matters of the country find means to employ them; but it is only with difficulty. The quantity of the coal extraéted in this country is efti- * C. Blavier has difcovered mines of copper and of lead, new indications of coal, and, in particular, a very rich and very abundant iron mine, dif- fufed over an extent of more thau'two chiliometers, in the neighhourhood of the coal mive of Senfac, near Rhodez. This difcovery will give rife to the eftablifhment of founderies, for which the coals will be employed. He has found alfo confiderable depots of turf in feveral parts of this depart- ment. Vor, XV. No. 58. M mated 162 A general View of the mated at about 320,000 myriagrammes annually, The meen price is from 8 to 10 cents per 1inyriagramme delivered at the pitt. The principal places of confumption are Aix, Mar- feilles, and the neighbourhood. They are tranfported by jand carriage in carts. Thefe coals eafily pulverize. They muft not be long left expofed to the air.. When they have been totally reduced to duft by the action of the atmofphere, or the effeét of ear- riage, they lofe almoft entirely their combuftible property. The very high price of wood in this country ought to pro- duce much greater care in the working of thefe coal mines. It is probable that better products would be obtained; and’ even in cafe the lower {trata fhould not prefent coal of the beft quality, the longer continuance of the extraétion might be enfured. Subterranean fires have already deftroyed a part of the firata of the coals of this country, and particularly at a place called la Galere; at another mine not far diftant the {trata took fire, and have been burning for feveral years. Department of Calvados. A coal mine (i!) is worked in the commune of Litry, in the canton of Baynes. Jt furnithes from four to five milhons of myriagrammes of coal of the beft quality, the greater part of which is confumed in the country. A confiderable quan- tity, however, is exported by the port of Ifigny; and this nune, during the war, was a valuable refource to the ports of Cherbourg, Havre, and Honfleur at the mouth of the Seine; and for the manufaétories of arms which were put in a ftate of activity at Saint-Valery-fur-Somme. The price of coals at the mine varies from 12 to 25 cents, aceording to its quality. Great praife is due to the renters of the mine of Litry, who ufe every exertion to give proper aétivity to this enterprife. In the year g they erected there a fteam-engine,: which ex- haufts the water and at the fame time draws up the coals. This machine was conftruéted by C. Perrier. It anfwers the purpole exceedingly well. It faves at this mine eighteen horles daily; and confumes about 50 myriagrammes of “eoals. It is much to be wifhed that the ufeful example fet by the renters of the mine of Litry were imitated in other enterpriles of a fimilar kind. I have been affured that the renters of the mines of Anzin, in the department of the North, are going to ereét fimilar engines at their works. The coal mine of Litry is the only one now worked in the department of Calyados. Searches have been made in feveral places, a Coal Mines worked in France. 163 places, but hitherto without fuccefs. From the report of C, Duhamel, in{fpector of the mines, it however appears that thofe begun at Feuguerolies, at a fmall diftance from Caen, deferve to be profecuted. Department of Cantal. This department (12), fo interefling to natural hiftory, and in particular on account of the antient volcanoes found in it, is not abundant in coal mines. It is only in the north-weft, in the diftri€t comprehended between Mauriac and Bort, that fome collections of this combuftible are difcovered. It appears that the fmall quantity of pits dug are only at the furface, and have been dug in a very irregular manner. We have no accurate information in regard to the quantity of coals extraéted, or to the price. Thefe mines, however, which are not far from the courfe of the Dordogne, and from the place where that river is navigable for boats, might by thefe means obtain a very extenfive confumption, and deferve to be worked with greater care. Departments of Charente and Lower Charente. There are no coal mines worked in thefe two departments, and therefore they are obliged to procure their fuel from others. The ports of Rochelle and Rochefort may receive and give circulation to the coals carried thither by fea from the departments of the North or from England, er thofe con- veyed by the internal navigation, and which might be fent to La Gironde by the Tarn, the Lot, and La Dordogne. Department of the Cher. No coal mines are worked in this department; but it might be fupplied in abundance with coals of an excellent quality by the Cher, if that river were rendered navigable with more fafety to above Saint-Amand, which woald. require very little expenfe. The rich collections of coal of Commentry, and the other ftrata lately difcovered in the environs of Meaulne, in the department of Allier, would obtain a con- fumption, which is at prefent wanting; and the working of them would give life to thefe cantons, and would concur with the Grastachs of the valuable forges in the department of Cher to increafe the means of induftry in that country, Department of Correze. Coals are dug up in feveral communes of this department (13), and a great many indications of this combuftible are found init. The communes where the beft known mines are M2 now 164 Sketch of the General Hiflory of Mining. notv worked are Atgental, where it appears there are abut- dant collections of coal; La Pleau, where feveral ftrata are known, and worked with facility, becaufe they form part of a mountain in which galleries for extraéting the coals, and fuffering the water to run off, are conftructed at- a fmall ex- penfe: in a word, the communes of the Cublac, Venteflac, and the entirons of Alaffac. The annual product of thefe different mines may be efit- mated at 50,000 myriagrammes. ‘That of La Pleau fupplies the manufactory of arms at Tulles, it affords the principal confumption ; and that of Montignac fupplies the manufac- tory of Bergerac. The Vézére, which begins to be navigable at Uzerche, and La Corréze at Tulles, furnifh fome means of tranfporta- tion for the other mines. The Dordogne, which is navi- gable for boats only at Souillac, would furnifh more means of activity to the mines of La Pleau, and thofe of Argental, were it rendered navigable as far as the latter. The mean price of the coals is to cents per myriagramme. The mines in general are badly worked, as they want a fuf- ficient confumption. Corfica and the Ijland of Elba. The information bitherto obtained in regard to the mineral productions of thefe two iflands does not afford reafon to think that they contain coals. { To be continued. ] = SS EE EEE EE a a eR = SsSsSsSsSSS9S83$S9sSS Ss = = —s XXIX. Sketch of the General Hiflory of Mining. SIR, Lo Mr. Tilloch. — { AM happy in haying it in my power to add to the Sketch * of the Hiftory of Mining in Devon and Cornwall, with which I fome time fince troubled you *, a more extended view of the fubject from the hands of an ingenious friend, If the infertion of either the former or the prefent in your valuable work fhall ever draw to the fubject the attention of thofe who are able, in different diftriéts, to enlarge our knowledge on this head, it may be a general benefit, and will gratify Your obedient fervant, -Tavittock, JouHn Tay ior, March 1803. * See vol. v. p. 357—365. : Sketch ee . On Mining. 164 Shuteh of the General Hijflory of Mining. Conamur tenues grandia ! HORACE. IT gratifies the curiofity, and proves fufficiently amufing, to trace the origin and delineate the progrefs of any thing which occupies our thoughts or engages our attention; but when fuch an inquiry is conneéted with any important art or fcience, it furely muft be more worthy the profecution, as being calculated to afford fome ufeful information as well as agreeable entertainment. Such are the effects that feem likely to refult from the hiftory of the rife and progrefs of the art of mining; and it is hoped that the reader may meet at leaft with the latter of thefe effects in this humble attempt to colle& into a fhort compafs what may perhaps convey fome general idea of the antiquity of the art of working mines, and its gradual advancement to its prefent dignified and important ftation. When we confider the many improvements and important difcoveries that have been made in chemiftry within thefe , few years, and compare the increafe of chemical knowledge ° in the prefent age with that of former periods, it may per- haps be thought that we cannot receive any advantages from old authors, and that hiftories of this kind fearcely deferve notice, beeaufe they are not abfolutely neceflary to the know- ledge of mining, nor to the juft performance of the feveral operations belonging to it. Yet, as nothing is more interett- ing to an artift than the rife and fate of his art, and nothing more ufeful to him than the labours and experience of his predeceffors, it appears incumbent upon us to receive with acknowledgment, and fiudy with attention, the works of thofe wife and enlightened men in the middle ages who di- reed their attention to the improvement of the arts, and, being free from the prejudices of hoftile fects and attached to the love of truth, contemplated with. fteady zeal the opera- tions and’ productions of nature, and defcribed appearances us they exifted, without any mixture of theory or bypothefis. Vhe art of difcovering metals in the mine, and ‘rendering them fit for ule by chemical procefles, is of the moft remote antiquity. Mofes, the oldeft of all authors, mentions the ufe of bras and iron, which could only have arifen from fome acquaintance with the metallurgic art; and this account is confirmed by the moft antient hiftorians and fabalifts. Dio- dorus Siculus relates that the Egyptians adored Vulcan asa god, and efteemed him the firlt inventor of all arts and ope- rations relating to metals; and all the profane authors coin+ M 3 cide $66 Sketch of the General Hiftory of M ining. eide in this belief of Vulcan being the firft inventor of the. ufe of metals, and that in the earlieft ages of the world. Greece, the firit enlightened nation of Europe, received the rudiments of her arts and knowledge from Afia and Egypt, and probably tranfmitted her knowledge of working mines to the Romans. The antient Greeks and Romans were not deficient in the mathematical parts of mining, as fome of their fubterraneous works {till remain objeéts of admiration 5 and we may conclude from their accounts that they were good metallurgifts and fmelters, though they have left but few traditional practices and procefies, and thefe vague and not to be depended upon. It feems probable that mines were objects of attention and inquiry among the Romans, as we find that the hiftorian Tacitus, in his account of Germany, remarks that the inha- bitants were not acquainted with their prefent valuable mines of gold, filver, &c.; but doubts whether treafures might nut be difcovered upon fearching for them. ‘* Argentum et au- rum propitii an irati Dei negaverint, dubito. Nee tamen af- _firmaverim nullam Germaniz venam argentum aurumye gig- nere. Quis enim {crutatus eft? Podtfeffione et ufu haud perinde afficiuntur, (De moribus German.) . And it feems probable alfo that the Romans were ac- quainted with the proceffes of digging, feparating, and puri- fying, metals; as the mines in Tranfylvania are generally fuppofed to be Roman works; and fome mines on the Rhine and the Danube, in Lorrain, Alface, Suevia, and Noricum, - appear to have been worked in the decline of the antient Roman empire. After the deftruction of the wefiern empire, when all learning, books, arts, and fciences, were overwhelmed in the Bnet! wreck, we have no account of any mineralogical pur- uits until the middle of the tenth century, when the mines in the Rammelf{burg, near Goflar, and fome of the adjacent ones in the Hartz mountains were difcovered, and worked to advantage. The metallurgical proceffes at Goflar were pro- bably conducted upon traditional proceffes either Roman or German ; and we may fuppole the knowledge of the Germans was not confiderable if we judge from their operations, which, on account of the irony and zincous refractory mixtures, were various, compound, and tedious. The commencement of the fixteenth century may be looked upon as one of the moft remarkable and fplendid epochs in the annals of mining, as well as in the annals of the world. Arts and feiences then began to be:profecuted with ardour and fuccefs, and from this era the productions of nature were ftudied and unfolded to On the Converfion of Grafs Lands into Tillage. 169 teman. The traditional and empirical fcience of metals now gave way to the fcientifical principles of chemifiry, which ' were derived from the Arabians. Agricola was the firft of the learned writers on this fubje&ts and for his extraordinary learning and practical erudition in his treatifes De Re Metallica et de Re Foffilium he is juftly entitled to the firft plaee among the chemical metal- lurgifts who have fince appeared. H.R. XXX. On the Converfion of Grafs Land into Tillage, c.* To the Editor of the Philofophical Magazine, SIR, ITHOUT offering you any apology for intruding upon your time, I take the liberty of fending you an abftraét of a paper to which the utmoft confequence is attached from its fubjeét, and written by a man whofe name is too well known amongft thofe fisilled in agriculture to need any com- mendation, : The eflay is divided into three chapters, and each chapter is divided into fections. The prefent communication is an abftract of the firft chapter. Mr. Clofe fets out in this chapter by faying (which is an undoubted truth) that agriculture is the parent of commerce, but that it has made a very flow progrefs, confidering its uti- lity and the advantages we derive from fuch a beautiful fei-_ ence. The obftacles which are fuppofed (and jultly too, I firmly believe) by Mr. Clofe to the improvement of agricul- ture, are tithes: the difficulty and expenfe of inclofing wafte Jands: expenfive and injudicivus leafes: want of knowledge in the practical farmers: the great increafe of the poor-rates ; and a want of that energy which formerly characterized the agricultural labours of this ifland. Mr. Clofe conceives it would be much more to the advan- tage of the farmer, and not in the leaf injurious to the clergy, if fome mode of paying the latter were devifed infiead of taking their income as it is done at prefent, which is one great check to the improvement of agriculture, The tithes fhould be yalued throughout the kingdom by fome able perfon or perfons, and, after a proper valuation has * From a paper on the fubject by the Rev. H. Clofe, of Mordle, near Lymington ; publithed in the Communications to the Board of Agricul- ture, vol, lil, part 3. M4 been 168 On the Converfion of been fet upon them, to be offered to the owner at that valua- tion*. When the tithes are fold, the money fhould be in- vefted in the funds; and Mr. Clofe calculates, that half, or at moft three-fourths, of the intereft arifing from this capital would pay the clergy their prefent incomes, and the furplus to accumulate for their benefit fhould provifions, &c. advance. Tn order that the annuitants fhould receive an adequate com- penfation if any fuch advance took place, the average price of wheat fhould be taken once in four or five years, and a roportionate addition be made to their incomes as the corn tid advanced. This meafure is propofed by Mr. Cole to originate with the crown. He calculates that the livings now in the patronage of his majefty amount to about 110,000]. per annum, to which fhould be added at leaft one-third to make their full value, which would come to about 146,000]. per annum. If thefe tithes were fold at only twenty-fix years purcnafe, it would produce a capital of 3,796,0021., which, at only four per cent., would fecure to the clergy holding fuch preferment their full income, and leave above 40,000]. a year to accumulate for their benefit fhould any unforefeen accident arife. By this {cheme, ne1- ther his majefty nor any other patron of a living would be deprived of their patronage. To obviate the difficulties attending an inclofure of wafte land, Mr. Clofe propofes, infiead of a bill being brought into parliament, that there fhould be an aét * to empower the magiftrates at quarter feffions to judge of the expediency or inexpediency of fuch inclofure,’” and that the ufual no- tices fhould be given of fuch a meafure in the county papers, &c.—The bench of magiftrates fhould appoint five acting magiftrates who are entirely difinterefted in the inclofure ; thefe five to appoint two commiffioners, who fhall be fworn to do juftice to all parties in adjudging the claims. Thefe comimiffioners fhould have a certain fum (firfl agreed upon) paid them, and by no means to be paid by the day or mile; and not to aét upon more than one inclofure at the fame time. Should any difpute arife, the magiftrates to decide, and the party againft whom fuch a decifion is made, to pay all coftst. Mr, Cole obferves, that as this is empowering the * There are few proprietors, I believe, in this country, from all I am able ta learn, who would not jump at fuch a propofal, were the tithes va- lued at a price worth his attention. + Itis with great deference I beg leave to differ with Mr. Clofe re- fpeCting his mode of deciding difputes by magiftrates : however impartial they are fuppofed to be, and whatever may be the opinion of the * higheft fegal authority,” it is putting the property of. individuals into the ere. +) § eS Grafs Lands into Tillage. 169 the magiftrates to decide upon law and fact, he would re- commend that a ftatement be made for the opinion of the “‘ higheft legal authority.” No right fhould be preferved to render this inclofure null and void; and {hould any portion of land be allotted to a perfon who is the oftenfible owner of the eftate, and fhould afterwards be evicted, the common then to be given to the owner. Mr. Cole believes that there is great want of {kill, and not, as many fuppofe, capital. Of leafes, the following {ketch he recommends * :—The landlord covenants to give quiet poffeflion of the houfe and out-houfes, and to put and keep the fame in repair; alfo to put the gates, ftiles, and every fort of fence in repair; to in- fure quiet poffetlion of the above, and of ———— number of acres of lands fituated in the parifh of —————, for number of years; to pay the land-tax, and allow the tenant to held certain part of the buildings and lands for a {pecified term after the expiration of his leafe. The tenant covenants to take the premifes, to pay his rent in two equal half-yearly payments; to cart all materials for repairs gratis; to find the workmen, when employed in fuch repairs, the ufual allow~ ance of wholefome beer; to keep and leave the gates, polts, rails, and every fort of fence in repair; to allow the landlord or his agents free ingrefs and regrefs to fhoot, fith, or hunt, over the lands; to warn off every one, and to bring actions, if neceffary, at the landlord’s expenfe, againft all perfons who may trefpafs upon the premifes; not to break up certain por- tions of meadow and pafture lands ; to keep the ditches and water courfes open ; to crop the lands according to the rota- tion recommended in the table at the end of this eflay +, having refpect to the different foils: to pay all parochial taxes ; to expend the hay, ftraw, haulm, and other fodder, produced from the lands, upon the premifes; and to ufe all the dung, foil, and compoft, arifing from the fame, upon the fame lands belonging to the premifes hereby demifed; ex~ cept the produce of fuch dung and compott, &c. arifing from the two laft years’ crops previous to the expiration of the leafe; all of which fhall be left, in a farmer-like man- ner, in the farm-yards, or other convenient place, for the ule of a fet of men whom the old common law of England did never authorize to decide upon fuch queftions, and wrefting that invaluable bulwark of our liberties, the trial dy jury, from our hands, which the conflitution does au- thorize to determine. This bleffing is too much curtailed already, and I truft we fhall never {ce it laid afide upon fuch an important cate as the one in queftion, * This fketch appeared to me fo important, that [ thought ir would be better to give it complete, inftead of abridging it. + This will be given in a fabfequent paper. of 176 On the Convérfion of of the landlord or in-coming tenant: to leave all the ftraw of the Jatt year’s crop to the in-coming tenant, he carting the corn to any market within the diftance of ten miles*; to pay five pounds an acre additional rent for every acre of meadow or patture land, fpecified as not to be broken up, fhould he plough or till the fame ; to pay five pounds an acre additional rent for every acre cropped contrary to cove- nant; to preferve timbers; not to cut, lop, or top, any pol- lard trees, underwoods, or hedge rows, under cight or ten years srowth, according to the produétivenets or fterility of the foil : ‘to allow landlord or his agents to cut or fell timber, and to cart the fame of the land, at feafonable times. For the want of knowledge amongit pracical farmers, which Mr. Cole thinks very creat, he propofes that an ex- perimental farm fhould be taken by the Board of Agriculture, and to allow a certain number of pupils, on paying a certain fum of money, to be inftruéted in every branch of agricul= ture, and alfo thofe ferences more immediately conneéted with it. This farm to be fupplied with proper perfons as infirectors, and particular rules for the conduét of the pupils to be laid down and firi€tly obferved. There is a great want of communication (obferves Mr. Cole) with refpeét to approved facts in agriculture; and being generally known in Norfolk and Suffolk, he propofes that noblemen and gentlemen fhould take a proper perfon as a tenant from either of thefe counties, and place then upon a centrical part of their eftates, lying in a county where the management and improvement of grafs lands and ftock are well under- flood. He then gives his opinion from what part of Suffolk or Norfolk thefe men fhould be taken, according to the na-~ ture of the land upon which they are to be placed. The poor rates juftly come nnder Mr. Clofe’s cenfure. He conceives that the enormous rates lately levied are owing to the inadequate price of labour’ in proportion to the price of provifions +. ‘This not only burthens the farmer with a con- fiant _-* This claufe not to extend to dairy farms; as, where a large ftock is kept, the out-going tenant fhould have permiifion to fodder his cattle with it until the fpring, leaying the dung, &c.—No/e dy Mr. Cloje. _ + The following curious circumftance deferves to be mentioned =~ When the ministers and their friends in the houfe of commons were pro- pofing fubititures for bread, and bounties upon different articles, Mr, Horne Tooke, in one of the debates upon a potatoe bili, threw out to the houfe this very idea of the price of labour being inadequate to the price of provifions, and that the poor man’s one pound was not worth one-fourth to him now, when compared with its former value: he recommended to - Winifters to drop this method of relieving them, as it never would anfwer, for Grafs Lands into Tillage. Beri ftant load upon his operations, but falls extremely heavy upon the poor mechanic, whofe profeffion will not permit him te make that advance on his articles the heavy taxes he pays would juftify him in doing. It likewife ultimately falls upon the land owner, who, when he lets bis farm, the valuation is always taken according to taxes, rates, &c., which the farm pays, and of courfe a deduétion is made in favour-of the te- nant. It has likewife deftroyed a very valuable clafs of fo- ciety, viz. the induftrious and labouring people, whofe honeft pride was to boaft that they never were beholden to their parifh for affiftance. The plan of relieving thele induftrious people is likewife bad; not that it can be altered, but by afcertaining what a man earns, and paying him accordingly: he who is ftrong and able, and gets a tolerable maintenance, feeing the man who is not able, by reafon of his weaknefs or ill health, receive more, thinks that by flackening his work he fhall receive more; and this is abfolutely the cale almoft every where: and he adds, ‘* I am fully perfuaded, that by the aggregate body of agricultural labourers not more than three-fourths of the fame work is-performed as was done ten years back by the fame number of hands.”’ Mr. Clofe then goes on to propofe a plan for the relief of what is called “*fecond poor;’’ viz. thofe lajourers who have never received parifh relief, but are entitled to a relief from charities left to parifhes. As there are but few who have not had parifh re- lief, and confequently not entitled to thefe charities, an aé& of parliament fhould be paffed entitling this clafs of people to thefe charities, notwithftanding having received parifh re- lief. To guard againft this valuable part of the community being again degradedj he propofes that ‘ the price of labour fhould be regulated by the price of bread corn.”’ Mr. Clofe alfo propofes that thofe who do receive parifh relief after fuch a regulation as this, fhould be badged *. yw Iam, Sir, Your very obedient fervant, AGRICOLA, for they- only increafed the price inftead of lowering it. They faw the wifdom of this remack, and they never propofed any more bountits to lower the price of provifions. * Here too, again, I beg leave to differ from Mr. Clofe with refpeét to badging the poor. It is making a diftinétion to which the loweft of man- kind only will fubmit, and making a diftinétion to a clafs of people who probably may be obliged to feek parochial relief owing to misfortunes, and not to dearnefs of provifions. XXXII. Hiflory ay XXXII. Hiflory of Ajironomy for the Year 1802. Read in the Atheneum of Paris December 30, by JEnomE LALANDE, if we were aftonifhed laft year to fee the Hiftery of Aftro- nomy begin with the dilcovery of a ninth planet, we ought to be much more {fo to find. this year alfo a difcovery of the hke kind, which we did not expeét. It was alfo by a for- tunate chance that the tenth planet was found; but it was neceflary that chance fhould favour an affiduous and intelli- gent afironomer. At mine in the evening on the 28th of March 1802, Dr. Olbers obferved at Bremen Piazzi’s planet, which had af- forded occupation to aftronomers fer a year. He was exa- mining with his telefcope all the fimall tiars in the Virgin’s wing to afcertain. their pofitions ; and that he might be en- abled to determine with more eafe the places of the planet, he bad arrived at the twentieth {tar of Virgo, near which he had obferved the planet in the month of January, and was furprifed to fee near this far, which is of the fixth magnitude, another {mall one of the feventh. He was certain that it had not been there at the time of his firft obfervations: he there- fore haficned to determine its pofition ; and having continued to view it for two hours, he perceived that.in this interval it had changed its pofition, The two following nights afforded him the means of determining its motion, which was 107 per day. As foon as he had made public this curious obfervas tion, aftronomers took the earheft opportunity of obferving this new fiar, and of calculating its orbit. Dr. Gauls, an able geometrician of Brunfwick, “calculated the elements, and C. Burekbardt employed hinalelf on fimilar calculations. On the 4th of June C. Burckhardt finithed his calculations in regard to this fiar of Olbers. We expeéted them with great impatience, being defirous to know whether it was a planet or a comet. He found its revolution to be 4 years > months and 27 days; its diftance 2°785, or 96 millions of feaoues ; 3 its eccentricity 92463, which produces an inequa- lity Of 28° 25%; ite inclination 34° 51/3 its node 5° 22° 2875 lis aphelioa 19° 2° 3/3 and the epoch of | its longitude for 1802 423° 10!. On the tyth of November C. Burckhardt publithed others in the Moniteur, which correfpond to the obfervations made as far as the 20th of September 1802. The revolution 4 years - months 13 days; diltance 2: 7699 3 3 eccentricity 0°2463 ; i inclination 34° 38/0"; mode 5° 22° 27/35"; aphelion 10% 1? — —-- i diet nl ot < Hijtory of Ajirenomy for the Year 1802. | 193 (1° 12/-19"; epoch of 1802, 4° 23° 21/38", the 3ift of December preceding 5 equation 28° 25’. C. Burckhardt has calculated alfo the perturbations of Olbers’s planet, which amount to leveral degrees; they are long and ditheult, and will require changes in the foregoing elements: » Dr. Gauls has publithed in Von Zach’ 3 journal ‘for September an ephe- meris of Olbers’s planet up to the 1ft of July 1803. But ©. Burckhardt, when he has finifhed his calculation of the perturbatigns, will give us elements {till more certain. ey the beginning ‘of January Dr, Olbers found again Piaz- ’s planet, which had difappeared for along time; and altro- pomers continued to obferve it till the month of Jetlys Alter the 15th of February Dr. Gauls caleulated the new ele- ments; but C. Burckhardt undertook to calculate the per- tarbations which that planet experiences by the attraction of Jupiter, and found more exact elements. We afterwards received the-perturbations calculated by M. Oriani of Milan, and which Dr. Gauls took into account that he might better obtain the elements of its orbit. “Thofe givemin Vou Zach’s journal for the month of November; diftance 2°7675; tro- pical revolution 1681 days g hours; eccentricity’0 0'078835 ; equation g? 2'5 inclination 10° 571 371! “; epoch for ‘803 at exeehias 233° 37/35"; aphelion) 326° 37/ 40's node 80° if 35, “he king of Naples has made an addition of 1200 francs to Piazzi’s falary, in confequence of his difcovery of the new planet, and the homage he has rendered to his majelty by naming it in his writings Ceres Ferdinandea. This vear we have had alfoa comet, and though very fmall it was difcovered in three places: at Mar feilles, on the 24th of Augutt, by Louis Pons, keeper of the obfervatory ; 3 on the 28th, by C. Mechain, one of our molt celebrated a@rono- mers, to whom we are already indebted for a great number ; at Bremen, on September ad, by Dr. Olbers, who difeovered the tenth planet. This comet was in Se rpentarius, very faint and ill. defined, having a very fenfible nucleus. C. Mechain: and C..Meffier at Paris, and C. Vidal at Mirepoix, obferved it ret care till the ad of Oétober; and C. Mechain calculated its elements in the following manner from his own obferyations: Node 10° 10° ie 3 inclination 57° 0/; perihelion 11° 2° 87; diftance 1'0942; paflage of the perihelion, September gth, 20! 43° .15// direét motion. The elements calculated by Dr. Olbers, as wellas his obfervations, have been inferted in Von Zach's journal, Ic may here be feen that this comet is among the fimall aumber of thofe which at their greateit prosimity to the fun are It4 Hiftory of Aftronomy for the Year 180%. are further diftant than the earth: itis the 93d the orbits of which are known. C. Lalande junior has had the fatisfaction of furnithing exact pofitions of ftars, before unknown, with which aftrono- mers had often been obliged to compare this comet; and the fame thing has happened to him thefe fifteen years, The new tables of the moon by M. Burg form a very im- portant epoch in the hiftory of aftronomy for this year. I was informed by Dr. Von Zach that M. Burg had been em- ployed at Vienna, amidii poverty and ob({curity, in calculating ebfervations of the moon made at Greenwich, with the hope of improving the tables of the moon: and on the 19th of March 1798 the commiflioners of the Inftitute, being affem- bled at the Board of Longitude to determine on the fubject for a prize, I propofed to them to require the eftablithment of the epochs of the moon by a great number of obfervations. I knew'that M. Burg had calculated a great many, and I judged that this would give him an opportunity of publifhing them, and at the fame time afford us the means of rewarding his labour. When the prize came to be adjudged, as C. Bou- vard made a great many interefting refearches alfo, it was thought proper to divide it. But general Bonaparte, who that day prefided, propofed to double the prize, in order that each might have 3400 francs: and this was agreed to. C. Laplace, finding that this fum was too fmall for fo im- menfe a labour as that of C. Burg, and that he could deduce from thefe calculations all the moon’s equations with a pre- cifion never before obtained, induced the Board of Longitude to propofe a prize of 6000 francs, and prevailed on the mi- nifter of the marine and of the interior to furnifh each the half of this fum. The queftion was publithed on the 2oth of June 1800, and by the commencement of November 1801 we received the tables fo much wifhed for; and then feveral . fupplements. On the 26th of January C. Laplace announced to the Inilitute, that he had found in the theory of the moon an equation the period of which is 180 years, and which amounts to 16/7; fo that it will ferve to explain the difagree- ment obferved between the mean motion of the moon 100 years ago and that given by the laft obfervations. This equa- tion is compofed of two terms, of which, for the moment, we can have only the fum; but it has ferved to eflablifh in the motion of the moon, at different periods, a regularity which before could not be obtained. On the 25th of July a deputation from the Board of Lone gitude went to give in its report to the firft conful on the la~ bours of Burg, and the prize of 6000 francs, I a im, § ‘ ~ Hijflory of Ajironomy. for the Year 1864. 1*s him, that he had caufed the firft) prize to be doubled, and that it would be worthy of his character to double the prefent one. He initantly complied. The minifter Chaptal, who was prefent, propoied to me to induce Burg to come to Paris, where he fhould have a penfion of 3coo franes. He would be an excellent co-operator in improving aftrenomy in France, where it is already fo much cultivated: but this worthy aftro- nomer preferred his own country with lels advantage. lis tables of the moon are about to be printed, as well as the new'tables of the fun by Delambre; and we have already communicated them to Dr. Mafkelyne, the aftronomer royal of England, who will be enabled by them to improve the Nautical Almanac, which fince 1767 has been of the ereatett utility to navigators. The report of C. Delambre will be publithed in the Con- noiffance des Temps for the year 13, which is about to appear. The Arabic text of all the oblervations in the manufeript of Ibn Tunis, lent to us by the Batavian republic, with a tranflation by C. Cauffin, and,an extract from the part which it was not judged necetlary to tranflate and to print, has been finifhed at the printing-office of the republic. C. Cauffin is the firft of all the profeflors of Arabic who has rendered his knowledge really ufeful. I reproached them fifty years ago, on account of their tranflating nothing but romances. The obfervation of the eighteenth tranfit of Mercury over the fun’s dife on the morning of November g perfeétly fuc- ceeded. Wewere the more interefted in it, as it will not be again feen at Paris till the 5th of May 1832. It confirmed, in the completeft manner, tne exactnefs of my tables of Mer- eury. The egrefs of the centre, according to a mean of all the obfervations, took place at 7° 34’ afternoon; and the longitude of Mercury which I thence deduced is 7° 16° 19! 7, at 21" 9’ 40" mean time of the conjunétion, even taking imto account the correction to be made in the tables of the fun, which by my nephew Lalande was obferved to be — 10/74; the geocentric latitude in conjunétion 56/7, I have shad the moft fatisfactory confirmation of the theory of Mer- eury, which I gave in the firft memoir, read in the firft fitting of the firft clafs of the Inftitute on the aft of January 1796. More details on this fubjeé& will be found in the Memoirs of _ the [nftitute. M. Cafella, phyfician to the king of Naples, and M. Bygge, aftronomer royal of Copenhagen, &c. have fent me exact ob- fervations of this tranfit. The folftice was exaétly obferved with whole cireles by C, Delambre, and by C. Burckhardt and Lalande aa . e 176 Hiftory of Aftronomy for the Year 1802. The mean of four hundred obfervations gives 23° 28’ 7”, or 5/7 mvure than in my tables: laft year it was only 6”; we ought to be fatisfied with this agreement. Duc-la-Chapelle has publifhed, in the fourth volume of the Memoirs of the Inftitute, folftitial obfervations which give him 31” for the fecular diminution of the obliquity of the ecliptic. C. Mechain has ftill found 10 feconds lefs for the obliquity of the winter folftice. C. Vidal has fent in his obfervations of the new planets and a great many others: he has even had the complaifance to terminate fome zones of circumpolar ftars which were not complete in the Hi/foire Celefle Frenzoife publifhed in 1801. The inferior conjunction of Venus, obferved in the end of December by C. Burckhardt and Lalande, gave us for the correction of my tables + 29’, which do not make ‘To in the longitude feen from the fun. But as the tables of Venus had not yet been calculated with the perturbations, and as C. Lalande junior propofed to un- dertake this labour, C. Chabrol furnithed him with a table of the equation caleulated to tenths of feconds, which was an effential preliminary. It is time it fhould be begun. We have 4o years exact obfervations of Venus; and thefe 40 years ob- fervations, from 1761 to 1807, will give us the motion of Venus as exact as the Babylonian obfervation made 2072 years ago, and refpeéting which there is fome doubt, as I have already explained. (See Memoires de I’ Academie 1785, ‘p> 250.) The oppofition of Mars, which took place on the 24th of December, could not be obferved; but the obfervations of that night gave a correétion in the tables of Lalande junior — 5’; which make only two in the heltocentric longitude. The difappearance of Saturn’s ring, which will take place in 1803, has been preceded by a fingular phenomenon. The anfes were on the point of difappearing, and it was with dif- ficulty that C. Mechain difcovered them on the morning of December 20. C. Flaguergues alfo loft fight of them on the 26th. But we fhall foon fee them re-appear, as the earth will return on the 28th of June: the fun paffing through the plane of the ring, we fhall lofe fight of them till the 23d of Au- u(t, at which time the earth will pafs to the north of the Ting, and permit us to fee the furface of it illuminated by the - fun. Dujfejour, Traité analytique des Mouvemens Cclefles, vol. ii. p. 155. C. Chabrol and C. Flaguergues have calculated a great number of tables of aberrations and nutations for 600 ftars of the fundamental catalogue which Lalande junior inferts every Oe ee ~~ ee ee —— Hiflory of Aftronomy -for the Year 1802. 177 every year in the Connoiffance des Temps, and always with new improvements. C. Lalande, my nephew, continues to obferve the right afcenfions and declination of a great number of ftars not well known; and madame de Lalande continues the reductions, which fhe promifed, for the 50,000 ftars: 1500 will be found in the Connoiffance des Temps for the year 13, which will foon appear; and M. Bode bas publifhed more than 10,000 in the catalogue of 17,000 ftars which accompany the large and beautiful atlas in twenty fheets which I have already announced. Laft year I gave an account of the labour undertaken by the Swedifh aftronomers Syanberg, Ofverbom, Olmquift, and Palander, to verify the degree of the meridian under the polar circle. M. Melanderhielm, though 76 years of age, fet on foot and dire&ted this enterprife. In 1801 they had already difeovered the ftations, elevated the fignals, and built two obfervatories. They fet out in the month of January 1802, and meafured the bafe on the ice of the river Torneo between . the 6th of February and the 8th of April, though the cold was 24°. At the beginning of September they had completed the meafurement of the angles of their triangles, and fet out to proceed northwards to Pathavara to commence their aftro- nomical obfervations. We {hall therefore foon have the cu- rious refult of this new meafurement. On the other hand, C. Mechain, in confequence of the confular decree of September 17, is about to refuine the mea- furement of the meridian as far as the ifland of Cabrera, which is, 40 leagues fouth of Barcelona, agreeably to his with, which I announced in the Connoiffance des Temps for the year 10. By thefe means the 45th degree, which it is laagenay interefting for us to be well acquainted with, will e a mean of the whole interval. The Portuguefe, whofe filence we regretted, begin to di- ftinguith themfelves. M. Demonfort has fent us calculations of eclipfes of the fun vifible at Lifbon during this century: M. Monteira de Rocha, new tables of Mars, with all the per- turbations. The equation is 10” 41’ 29”, greater only by 4” than in the tables of C. Lalande junior. M. Damoiicau, captain-lieutenant of the royal brigade of the marine at Lif- bon, has written to me that he is employed on the Nautical Ephemerides of 1806. Thofe of i805 were calculated di- _re&ly, without employing the Nautical Almanac. I have requefted him to wait for the new tables of the fun and moon, which are about to be printed. We have received alfo a defcription of the obfervatory of Vou, XV. No. 58. N Coiunbra, 178 Hiftory of Aftronomy for the Year 180%. Coimbra, from which it appears that it is pretty well fur- nifhed with inftruments: afector of 10 feet, a 5-feet meridian telefcope, a 3 ‘-feet quadrant divided by Troughton of London. We have received the Aftronomical Ephemerides of father Coffali, of Parma: they are not dettined for attronomers fuch as thofe of Berlin, Vienna, Milan, Bologna, and Paris; but the author has added a very minute hiftory of the two new planets, and he follows my example in giving them the names of Piazzi and Olbers; he alfo employs that of Herfchel, as a mark of homage due to them by aftronomers. On the 22d of June 1802, M. Van Swinden fent us a Dutch memoir on the new meafures, which engaged him a Jong time; and he bas obtained a decree for eftablithing the new meafures in the Batavian republic. Mr. Mackay has publithed a curious work, ix England, on the longitude. M. Van Swinden has fent us the fourth edition of his Dif- fertation, in Dutch, on the Determination of the Longitude by the Obfervation of the Moon’s Diftance from the Stars ; with a differtation, which he publithed in 1788 conjointly with M. Nieuwland, on the Ufe of Sextants and Oétants. He propoles to publith alfo a memoir on reflecting circles, which he withes to introduce into the Dutch navy ; and alfo on ma- rine time-keepers. So early as the year 1774 I went to Hol- land to folicit the introduétion of aftronomy into navigation, and obtained a promife for that purpofe from the ftadtholder and the grand penfionary. My Aftronomy was even tranf- lated into Dutch: but this circumftance was attended with jittle advantage at that time, notwithftanding the need which navigators had of it. At prefent, fince the navy refumes new activity in the Batavian republic, and that the Icarned pro- feflor enjoys there a well merited influence, we have reafon to believe that aftronomy will be employed there in an effec- tual manner. M. Van Swinden explains in this work all the methods, by calculation, by graphic operations, and by inftruments ; the corrections made by Mr. Mackay to the methods of Borda and Dunthorn; thofe of Kraft and of Douwes de Steinftra. ‘He has added a, colleétion of fuch tables as are neceflary in Navigation, _ M. Mendoza has already publithed two large collestions of tables for navigation: be has added a new method of deter- mining the latitude by two altitudes taken oat of the ineri= ‘dian, the calculation of which is t{horter than the firtt approx imation, which is-only the commencement of the method of Douwes. We te ik es Hiftory of Aftrononty for the Year 1802. 179 We have received the Ephemerides-of Vienna for 1803, which contains the new tables of the moon by M. Trief- necker; but it is evident that he has feen thofe of M. Burg already mentioned: alfo the Ephemerides of Berlin for 1805, where M. Bode has collected 170 pages of obfervations om the new planets, and on other important points in all parts of Germany. M. Schroeter has publifhed a continuation of his obferva- tions on the fpots of the moon, in a large volume m quarto, entitled Selenotopographi/che Fragmente; that is to fay, To- pographical Fragments refpecting the Moon: to ferve for giving a correét idea of the furface of that luminary, and the changes which have taken place in it, in its atmofphere and in its mountains; by Dr. F. F. Schroeter, grand bailiff of Lilienthal, near Bremen. Part ii. 1802. pp. 565. 4te. with 32 plates. Gottingen. The firft part appeared in 1791: we publifhed two extra&s from it, which fhow with what patience and minutenefs this able aftronomer has examined the furface of the moon. Thefe new obfervations were made with the fame care for twelve years, and with optical inftruments of the greateft "power, (two telefcopes, one of 13 and the other of 27 feet.) They entitle him to the gratitude of aftronomers, as they will ferve them as a bafe and term of comparifon in their future refearches refpecting the changes that may take place at the furface of the moon. He has obferved mountains which rife to the height of 4000 toifes, and others to the height of 2400. M. Schroeter has alfo determined, that the part of the lunar atmofphere which is fufficiently denfe to produce the crepuf- cula, 1s 300 toifes in height. The author has alfo feen obje&ts which he did not fee in the courfe of his preceding obfervations, and which on the firft view might be afcribed to changes that have taken place at the furface of the moon: but he remarks, with the referve of an able obferver, that the particular ftate of the lunar atmof{phere may have concealed thefe objects at the time of his firft obfervations. Dr. Henzenberg, of Hamburgh, between the months of July and O&ober 1802, made thirty-one experiments on the fall of bodies from the fteeple of St. Michael, which is 235 Paris feet in height: and found that heavy bodies do not tall vertically; there are four lines of declination towards the eaft, and 1°5 line towards the fouth. M. Guglielmini, of Bologna, found a little more. But all thefe experiments tend to prove the rotation of the earth, [ Yo be continued. } N 2 XXXII, No- { 180 ] XXXII. Notices refpecting New Books. Elements of Chemifiry. By Josurn Francis JACQUIN. Tranflated from the German. 8vo. A SECOND edition of this work ‘has made its appear- ance; a proof of the favourable reception it has éxperienced from the public. “We have no hefitation in faying that it is a ufeful work, and ought to make a part of every chemical library. The language poffefles that precifion which confti- tutes the chief merit of a tranflation, efpecially from a {eien- tific or practical work. It is by Mr. Stutzer. A Syjtem of Chemifiry. By Taomas Tuomson, M.D. 4 Vols. 8vo. 1802. The tafk of compofing elementary treatifes, as the author juftly obferves, has in this country been ufually left to men of inferior endowments, as a piece of drudgery below the dienity of a philofopher; while in France, excellent fyftem- atic treatifes have appeared on almoft every part of {cience by men of the firft abilities. Though we can rank feveral di- ‘ftinguifhed names among our authors of elementary works, it is Certain that ‘we have more frequently fatisfied ourfelves. with tranflating the fyftematic works of foreigners, even when the difcoveries of our own philofophers had furnithed a con- fiderable portion of the materials of thefe works. The con- fequence has been, what was naturally to be expeéted, the Jabours of our philofophers have been frequently overlooked, _ and their difcoveries claimed by others to whom they did not belong; while thefe claims, conftantly inculcated in all the elementary treatifes of chemiftry, have been received as firft principles by the greater number of readers. . It is incontro~ vertible, that, for thé rapid progrefs which chemiftry has lately made, the fcience is deeply indebted to the philofo- phers of this country. Much, indeed, has been done by the illuftrious body of French chemifts; but thefe gentlemen, not fatisfied with a part, have laid claim to the whole.” ' The author {tates bis work to have for its obje& the giving a full detail of the vaft number of facts which eonftitute che- miftry, blended with the hiflory of their gradual development, . and of the theories which have been founded on them, and accompanied with exaét references to the original works in which the different difcoveries have been regiftered. It is but juftice to fay, that Dr. Thom(on has executed the tafk he has undertaken in a manner creditable to himfelf, “His work prefents eee io Royal Society of London. 181 prefents a more complete and accurate colle&tion of facts than any previous publication of the kind, The arrange- ment is judicious, the quotations are candid, the reafoning fatisfaStory and perfpicuous. We have no hefitation in re- commending it as a moft valuable performance. ~ The Chemical Pocket-Book, or Memoranda Chemica; ars ranged in a Compendium of Chemifiry. “By James Par- KINSON. 12mo,. 1803. It gives us pleafure to announce that a third edition of this valuable little work has made its appearance, embracing all the new faéts in chemiftry that have been obferved fince the publication of the former editions. A confiderable degree of care feems to have been beftowed upon it, and feveral new and ufeful tables have been added in different parts. A Syftem of Theoretical and Praéical Chemiftry, 8c. By Freperick Accum, Teacher of Praélical Chemiftry, Pharmacy, and Mineralogy; and Chemical Operator in the Royal Infiitution of Great Britain. 2 Vols. 8vo. with Plates. 1803. This work, jut publifhed, will prove highly acceptable to thofe who with to attain a praétical acquaintance with the {cience of which it treats. The author exhibits throughout the "work a great degree of chemical knowledge; and_ his method of communicating knowledge to others 1s engaging. With the practical part of the various procefles in chemiltry he feems to be well acquainted ; and the accuracy and pre- cifion with which he defcribes them, will render his work valuable not only to tyros, but to proficients in the {cience, Many of the experiments, fome of which are calculated to afford both inftruétion and amufement, are quite new; and even in detailing experiments which are not new, particnlars not to be met with elfewhere are often given, which will be ufeful to the practical chemift. WS SS XXXIII. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 2 Since our laft report feveral meetings have been employed in reading a paper on tanning, by Mr. Davy, profeflor of chemifiry in the Royal Inftitution of Great Britain. In this paper the author not only deferibes the procefles ufual in the art of tanning, but enters into a chemical inyeftigation of the N3 nature 182 Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin. nature of the agents employed in the procefs, and details a number of ingenious experiments undertaken exprefsly for the purpofe of afcertaining the mode of their operation. The refults are interefting, and cannot fail to be ufeful to thofe en- gaged in the manufacture of leather. ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AT BERLIN. On the 18th of January the academy held a public fitting to celebrate the anniverfary of its eftablifhment. It was opened by the dire€tor Merian.with an oration; after which M. de Verdy du Vernois read the fketch of a plan for reviv- ing the antient tournaments, and fhowed the utility of again introducing this antient amufement, formerly a {chool for dexterity and intrepidity, and which might be attended with great advantage to the cavalry fervice, and to all troops that fight on horfeback. M. Erman then read a paper containing particulars re- fpecting the reign of the elector Frederic William the Great, extracted from a manufeript diary of marfhal Dieterich Si- gifmund von Buch. _ M. Klaproth next read a differtation on ftones and iron mafles, and fhowed that the fall of fuch bodies from the heavens is a phenomenon totally different from all the other phzenoniena of nature; and that it needs therefore excite no wonder that doubts have been entertained refpecting the truth of fuch fa&ts, but that hitherto they are not only fupported by experience, but by chemical analvfes of the fallen bodies, As a contribution towards this fubjeét, M. Klaproth gave an account of experiments, made by himfelf, with fome of thefe productions which had fallen at different times and in dif- ferent countries, particularly a fpecimen of that which fell near Siena on the 16th of January 1794; and a fragment of the mafs of iron, weighing 71 pounds, which fell near Agram on the 26th of May 1751, comparing them with the ana- lyfes Jately publifhed by Mr. Howard of the ftones which fell at Benares in the Eaft Indies on the tgth of December 1798, and on the 13th of December 1795 in Yorkfhire; and adding a fhort hiftory of thefe and fome ‘other bodies that have fallen from the clouds. They confift either entirely of cel- lular mafles of iron, or of ftony fubftances mixed with grains of iron. In all of them the iron is of the fame nature: it is duétile, exceedingly tough, appears white when tiled, and almoft always contains nickel. The ftones are covered on the outfide with a black cruft, are bright gray in the infide with black fpots, and interfperfed, befides the ferruginous particles, with grains of pyrites. ‘The principal part of ci e mals French National Infritute. 183 mafs confifts of oxide of iron, magnefia, and filex. . The opinion of Dr. Chladni, that thefe meteoric productions are frarments of fire -balls which have burft, may be confi- dered as fully eftablifhed. Real native iron from the mines of Kamsdorff is diftineuifhed from the meteoric iron by not containing any nickel, and by containing a mixture of cop- per-lead. FRENCH NATIONAL INSTITUTE. Account of the labours of the Mathematical and Phyfical Clafs during the firft quarter of the year 11. MaTHEMATICAL PART, read by C. Lacroix. ASTRONOMY. Obfervations on the Tranfit of Mercury over the Sun’s Dife, November 9, 1802. If the theory of attraction, aided by the powerful means of analyfis, has enabled aftronomers to give, almoft at once, to the tables of the planets, and particularly to thofe of the moon and fun, a degree of exa€tnefs far fuperior to that to which they could have been carried by the efforts of obfervers alone during a long feries of ages, time has not, on that account, loft its right to the perfection of thefe refults deduced fromthe meafurement of its duration. Afironomers therefore, always attentive to the fpectacle of the heavens, never fufier to efcape but with regret opportunities of obferving the fimpleft and moft frequent phenomena, becaufe they know that, however precife they may be for the moment at which they are af- fiened, aftronomical determinations have continual need of being rectified: with much more reafon, therefore, they are anxious to take advantage of thofe circumftances where the pofition of the planets is lefs affected by the combination of their own motion and that of the earth. Such in regard to Mercury are his tranfits over the dife of the fun. The firft of thefe phenomena preferved in the annals of aftronomy was obferved in 1631, at the college of France, by Gaffendi, one of the moft illuftrious profeflors of that cele- brated {chool. Since that time great attention has been paid to this phenomenon; and the obfervations of thefe tranfits, which follow each other pretty rapidly, have been multiplied. C. Lalande has employed himfelf in colleéting and examin- ing them with a care and affiduity for which be has been re- warded by the perfection be has thence been able to give to his tables of Mercury. After having fucceffively corrected each element, he waited for a confirmation of them by the N 4 tranfit 184 French National Inflitute. tranfit announced for the gth of November 1802, and hoped be fhould then be able to be convinced that his tables, one of the moft important refults of his long labours, had reached the utmoft perfection to which they could attain in the pre- fent ftate of the fcience. His wifhes have been fully gratified by the obfervations we are about to detail. The moments of interior and exterior contact of the two bodies on the egrefs of Mercury were determined as follows : Setter . of 67" 2977 yl 564 Meffier - . o 6 49 8 20 Lalande jun. - o 6 44 eT Bouvard == - o 6 54 8. 19 Mechain = Pm OG 45 8 30 Burckhardt - Ovi, 45 8 20 C. Lalande takes as the mean terms of the two contaéts 0" 6/ 49”, and ob 87197; From which he deduces the egrefs of Mercury at oO? 4 34175" The apparent diftance of the centres at that moment, 167 8-3/7; And the fame diftance reduced to the centre of the earth, 167 toro”, By then comparing three differences of declination feleéted from twenty-five, which were meafured by C. Meffier during the tranfit, he deduces from them the fhorteft diftance of the centres, namely 65”: and combining it with the diftance of the centres at the moment of the egrefs, he is enabled to find ‘the difference in longitude and latitude of the two bodies, and the time elapfed between the middle of the tranfit and the esrefs. We thall not follow the detail of his procefs any further, as our aftronomical readers may eafily fupply what is here omitted; and to others it would be fuperfluous. We only ftate the refults which C. Lalande obtained by this firft method. He found the true conjunétion at h 9’ 40// mean time; The longitude, reckoned from the mean equinox for the moment, Velie vi 16° 17! gf 75 The geocentric latitude, 53” North; The heliocentric latitude, Bo 5gits The correétion of the tables: — 13” in longitude. ~ C. Lalande French National Inflitute. 185 ~ C. Lalande re-commenced his calculations; fubftituting for the differences of declinations the obfervation of Mercu- ty’s paffage of the meridian, made the fame day by his ne- phew and C. Burckhardt; and by thefe means found 277 lefs in longitude, and 6” lefs for the latitude, at the moment of the egrefs. He determines the geocentric latitude at the time of con- junction to be 56:5”, which gives the place of the node 1° 16° 0 37”, further advanced by 1’ 46”/ than in the tables; and as C. Delambre had found by the paflage of 1799 that this element ought to be increafed by 1’, C. Lalande adopts a mean correction of + 172377, which makes the place of the node in 1801 to be 1° 15° 587 5477. By comparing this determination with that which he de- duced from the tranfit of 1677, he found for the annual mo- tion of the node 43°98” inftead of 43°3’”, which he had be- fore. : To afcertain whether the pofition which he gave to the aphelion of Mercury was exaét, C. Lalande examined again the tranfit obferved by C. Delambre in 1799, taking into ac- count the perturbations calculated by M. Oriani, and the error in the tables of the fun, and he found the fame error of 137 as in that of this year, though the anomalies were very different. He confequently thought that this error ought to be afcribed only to the epoch of. the mean motions: but after a communication from Dr. Mafkelyne in regard to a correétion of 47’ to be made in the right afcenfions, which he affigned to the pofitions of the principal ftars employed for determining the places of the fun, the error im the tables of Mercury would be reduced to g”’, and the epoch of the mean motions of this planet would confequently be for 1807, 5° 11° 5373277. By diftributing this error to the fecular motion it would be reduced 6”7, and would become 2° 14° 4! 4”, In a word, the tranfit of November g, this year, has fully confirmed the refult which C. Delambre deduced from that of 1799 in regard to the diameter of Mercury. C. Delambre had obtained for this diameter as feen from the fun 6°37; and C, Lalande found 6°2/’, while in his Aftronomy it was 6:9". ©. Meffier communicated to the clafs a particular account of his obfervation of the tranfit of Mercury, during which he fucceffively determined twenty-five pofitions of that planet, comparing 186 - French National Infritute. comparing it either with the fun’s limb, or to a very confidera~ ble fpot which appeared on that body, and of which the dia- meter was 25/ of a degree. He determines the moment of the egrefs of Mercury’s centre at 7’ 677 true time; and this planet’s paflage of the meridian 55/7 before that of the fun’s centre. : C. Meffier’s memoir contains a detailed view of the deter- minations he obtained, and is accompanied with a drawing which reprefents the apparent route of Mercury on the fun. It exhibits a luminous ring, with which Mercury feems to be furrounded. This circumftance, peculiar to the obferva- tien of C. Meffier, was remarked by him in the tranfit of 17993 it was obferved alfo at Montpellier, in 1736, by Plan- tade; and at Upfal, in 1736, by M. Profperin. This ring exhibited a very faint light, and of a colour different from that of the fun. Its diameter towards the end of the tranfit was 1? :9/’, and that of Mercury 177, EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY. On the Method of magnetizing to Saturation. To apply with conflancy to the fame objets, and to vary their combinations in every manner poflible, are the condi- tions on which nature confents to difclofe her fecrets to thofe who interrogate her. It was by fulfilling them with an, affi- duity and fagacity worthy of fuccefs that C. Coulomb attained to his interefling difcoveries in electricity and magnetifm, and by impofing on himfelf the tafk of illuftrating every part of thefe important branches of philofophy. Magnetixing, the perfe&ting of which is of fo much importance to navi- gators, could not efeape his attention. Very vague notions had hitherto been acquired in regard to the intenfity of the magnetic force which fteel is capable of acquiring in its dif- ferent ftates; and it was meafured in general by the weight of the piece magnetized. But it is of the greateft import- ance here to know the energy with which needles tend to return to their direction after they have been removed from it;-and-this C. Coulomb meafures directly, by determin- ing, according to Borda’s views, and by means of very nice fufpenfion, how many ofcillations thefe needles perform in a iven time. After comparing the methods of magnetizing propofed by Duhamel, Knight, and /Epinus, to give a needle all the directing force it 1s capable of receiving, the author decides in favour of that of AZpinus. He found that it is moft ad- yantageous to make the needles long and broad, ay thick, French National Inflitute. 187 thick. C. Jekel has eftablifhed a manufaCtory in order to make an ufeful application of thefe refults for the ufe of the navy. PHysicAt PART, read by Lacroix. On the Stones fuppofed to bave fallen from the Clouds. The attention of philofophers has been again dire&ted to the fingular ftones the origin of which is unknown, and which are fuppofed to have fallen from the clouds. The French chemifts were defirous of proving by experiments the identity of thefe ftones, and of afcertaining their component parts, already indieated by Mr. Howard. C. Vanquelin procured fome fpecimens of the ftones, ana- lyfed by Mr. Howard, found at Benares in the Eaft Indies, in Yorkfhire, at Siena in Italy, and at Bologna: to which he added fome of thofe which fell in France in 1789 ; at Bar- botan near Roqueton, and Creon in the parifh of Juliac, in 1790. He remarked, as Mr. Howard did, that thefe {tones have fuch a perfeét refemblance to each other that it is al- moft impoffible to diftinguifh them. He was convinced by various analyfes that they all contain the fame principles, namely, filex, manganefe, iron, nickel, and fulphur. Thefe refults, analogous to thofe obtained bv Mr. Howard, and the work in which Dr. Chladni, known by his ingenious expe- riments on vibrating furfaces, has colleéted all the accounts publifhed refpecting the fall of thefe ftones, concur to render it probable that their origin is foreign to our globe; for hi- therto none of a fimilar kind have been found in the interior parts of it. The reading of this interefting memoir gave rife to a dif- euffion the refults of which muft be here mentioned, as they afford new motives to induce philofophers to examine and appreciate the different teftimonies, in confequence of which the ftones in queftion have been fuppcfed to have fallen from the clouds. When a phenomenon is announced, if we were able to afcertain, by a complete enumeration of the different byfical agents, that none of them is capable of producing it, the impoffibility of the phenomenon would be the evi- dent refult, and confequently the falfity of the account. But, on the other hand, when we find a caufe which efta- blithes the probability of it, if found logic forbids us to afcribe it exclufively to this caufe, it commands us at the fame time to fubftitute doubt for complete negation, and to employ every means poflible of confirming the fact, becaule it is not re- pugnapt to the general laws of nature, Chemitts 188 French National Infliiute. Chemnfts at prefent would be much embarraffed to find in the atmofphere the component principles which have been difcovered by analyfis in the {tones given to them as having fallen from the clouds; and cn this account they would na- turally reject fuch events as abfurd. But C. Laplace has mentioned an explanation, which he announces not as the only one which could be given of them, and not to prove their exiftence, but to fhow that we ought not to reject them as abfurd, and to fufpend our opinion until time has procured fome further illuftration, It is fhown, by a very fimple calculation, that a body pro- jected from the moon would require only a velocity nearly quintuple that of the bullet of a 24-pounder difcharged with a quantity of gunpowder equal to half its weight, to proceed to a diftance from that fatellite where the intenfity of its attraction would be the fame as that of the earth. The body, when it had paffed this point, being in the {phere of the aGiivity of our globe, would neceflarily fall to its furface. The appearance of very confiderable volcanoes obferved on the furface of the moon does not render fuch a conjecture impro- bable; but, independently of eruptions, which may be more or lefs uncommon, it will not often happen that the direction of the proje€tion will be that which the combined motions of the earth and moon require in order that a projectile thrown from the latter body may meet with the former, The atmofphere of the moon, which 1s doubted by many . aftronomers, is fo rare and of {fo little extent that it could op- pofe only a very feeble refiftance to thofe bodies which might isove init. The cafe is not the fame with the terreftria] at- mofphere: it reduces almoft to a tenth of its extent the Jargeft range of a piece of ordnance; and the refiftance it oppofes to rapid motion is fuch, that to make a body projected from Vefuvius reach France, it would be neceflary that it fhould have a projection far greater than that which would carry a lunar body to the limits of the {phere of the activity of that fatelJite. It is therefore not poflible to fuppofe that flones found at a diftance from terreftrial volcanoes are the produét of the eruptions of thefe mountains: and mineralogy alfo oppofes this explanation; for none of the voleanic productions known i pealcemt to thofe fuppofed to have fallen from the clouds. _—— French National Unftituie. 189 a METEOROLOGY. On the Variations of the State of the Heavens in the Mean Latitudes between the Equator and the Pole, and the ef- fential Circumfances. by whichithey are accompanied. The influence of meteors on the refults of agriculture has sendered it of importance at all times that the law of the fuc- ceffion of thefe phenomena fhould be known ; and the great advantages which would arife to mankind from the polfibility of foretelling the nature of the feafons, fufficiently juftifies all the fruitlefs attempts hitherto made to accomplith that end. Being much ftruck with thefe advantages, C. Lamarck was difcouraged by the bad fuccefs of thofe who had preceded him in this career; and from continuing to purfue it with ardour, after publifhing in different works the caufes which he af- figns to the prevailing meteorological conftitutions, he has given in a late memoir an examination of the variations of the ftate of the heavens, that is to fay, of the atmofphere: he refers this ftate, sft, To the influence of the fun’s light : 2d, To that of the winds. j But he is of opinion that in the temperate zones the in- Auence of the winds on the temperature of the ftrata of the atmofphere is much fironger than that of the light of the fun; and that there thence refult in the denfity and heat of thefe ftrata, which naturally become rarer and colder the higher they go, inyerfions to. which he afcribés the formation of the clouds. The difcordance of the effeéts which the fame wind pro- duces at different times feemed to oppofe to the eftablifhment of a theory of thefe effe&ts an infurmountable obftacle: but from numerous obfervations C. Lamarck is of opinion, that befides the direGtion and nature of the winds alone, attention ought to be paid alfo to the height at which they blow in the atmofphere. Of the faéts colleCted by the author, and which he confi- ders as fufficiently proved, we fhall mention the following: “ When a aorth-wef and a fouth-ea/? wind prevail fimultane- oufly in two different ftrata of the atmofphere, if the /ourh- zafi be the lower one, we may expect to fee the weather be- come clear; but if this wind be the higher, the contrary will take place,’’ © + XXXIV. Intel- [ 190 J ie. XXXIV. Intelligence and Mifcellaneous Arlicles. ASTRONOMY. i" E are indebted to a very accurate and much valued correfpondent for the following tables, which cannot but prove highly acceptable to fuch of our readers as are defirous of knowing in what part of the heavens the two new planets may be expected to be found. We believe no Ephemeris has yet been publithed containing their right afcenfions and de- clinations. Baron Von Zach has publithed one in which their geocentric latitudes and longitudes are given; but this work being written in German 1s in the hands of but few people in this country. tc Geocentric Mot ion of Geocentric Motion Ceres Ferdinandea. of Pallas. | d Right Declin, | Right Declin. North 1803. Afcenfion. South. Afcenfion. April 3i18" 54™ 47°123° 61118" 47™ 08/13" 337 618 5y 2123 10|18 48 36 |14 3 918 59 43|23 15|18 50 4/14 34 1ztg I 4/23 19|18 5r 20/15 5 islig 3 56|23 24|18 52 28|15 36 1319 5 46/23 39 1 59 | Sato es 21ig 7 23 |23 36/18 54 8 |16 38 Bit ERED) 2 Soe Ley 18 54 4417 9 27|19, 10 | 323 50)78. 55 4 117 39 goig Ir 5123 58118 55 16|18 9g The above table, containing the geocentric motion of the two new planets, Ceres Ferdinandea and Pallas, for the en- fuing month, 1s fele&ted from an Ephemeris calculated by Mr. Gauls, of Germany, of whofe abilities as a calculator the world has already been fully convinced. Mr. Gaufs does not expect’ that the obferved places of thefe planets when they fhall be again found will agree very correctly with his Ephemeris, as there has not yet been a fufficient number of obfervations made to fettle the elements of their motions with fuch a degree of precifion; but he hopes his calculations will render them very eafy to be found: thofe entlemen, therefore, who are provided with equatorials, or inftruments for taking angles out of the meridian, will no : doubt Humboldt’s Travels —~Foffil Bones. Tgt doubt be foon able to find both, or at leaft Pallas, whofe fituation is now become pretty favourable, being at a fufi- cient diftance from the fun to be feen in the morning when the weather is clear. It does not appear likely that Ceres Ferdinandea, from her great fouth declination, will be feen here till the latter end of April, or perhaps the beginning of May; but thofe aftronomers who are fituated in more fouthern latitudes will view, her under more favourable cir- cuinftances, and may perhaps be able to find her fooner. HUMBOLDT’S TRAVELS. Where Alexander von Humboldt may be at prefent is not known eyen to his relations ; but all the obfervations which he collected up to the beginning of March 1801 have latel arrived fafe in Europe. He eutrufted this valuable depofit, which confifts of four bound volumes and three manuicript bundles, a roll of plans, and a number of drawings of plants, to one of his friends at the Havannah, where he then was, to be fent to Spain by a proper opportunity. They arrived in the beginning of September 1801, and have fince been tranfmitted to Berlin. | FOSSIL BONES. Two horns, with the head and feveral bones of an un- known animal of a monttrous fize, have lately been found in the Mologi circle, of the government of Jaroflawi, on the banks of the Mologa, on an eflate belonging to count Alexei {wanfwitch Pufchkin. The length of the head is two ells Leipfic meafure *, and the breadth on the forchcad one ell eight inches, (two feet five inches.) The horns are like thofe of an ox, are about four ells in length (fix feet eleven inches), and in the thickeft part are about an ell in circumference (one foot nine inches). Gmelin, as is well known, fays that, be- fides bones of the mammoth, (different however from thofe of the American mammoth,) heads with horns of an extra- ordinary fize are fometimes found in Siberia. He himfelf carried with him to Peterfburgh a head of this kind; which in all probability is {till preferved in the cabinet of curiofities belonging to the Academy of Sciences. It will be interett- ing to natural hiftory to compare this head with the one lately found, in order to alcertain whether they belong to the fame {pecies of animal. At any rate, thefe heads feem to afford a new proof, in oppofition to the opinion of Daubenton, Buf- fon, and other naturalifts, that there exifted formerly {pecies of animals now become extinét. * About one yard fix inches, ' ANOTHER £92 Another new Metal. ANOTHER NEW METAL. Profeffor Tromfdorff, of Erfurt, has publifhed the follow- ing notice :—‘* One of my mineralogical friends, whofe name I fhail make known at a proper time, found lately a particular fub@ance which he tranfmitted to me for exa- mination. Though the quantity was {mall, I am however convinced that-it is a zew metal combined with fulphur. The characteriftic marks of this metal are: It belongs to the - volatile metals: with fulphur it forms a mafs which melts like wax, and which cryftallizes; with fulphureous acid it gives a reddifh folution; with nitrous acid and nitro-muri- atic acid it gives a yellowifh folution; muriatic acid has no aétion on it warm: from acid folutions it is precipitated green by the pruffiate of potath ; of a fteel gray by tincture of galls; chamois yellow by hydrothion-ammonia * ; by carbonate of potath it is. precipitated as a white oxide; it is not precipi-~ tated from its folution by cauftic ammonia, and it is proba- ‘ble that it forms with it a double falt. I fhall obferve in the laft place,.that this new fubftance is found in Germany. A ~ further account of it will be publifhed in my journal.” © Erfurt, Jan. 1803. * By this term we conceive the author to mean a folution of carbonate ef ammonia, in contradiftinétion to pure (cauftic) ammonia, which he af- terwards mentions. [ 193 ] XXXV. Letter from Dr. BARTON to Profeffir ZIMMER- MANN, on the fafcinating Faculty which has been afcribed to the Rattlefnake, and other American Serpents *. if DEAR SIR, Philadelphia, Feb. 12, 1800, HAVE never yet received the tranflation which you have made of my ‘* Memoir concerning the fafcinating Faculty which has been afcribed to the Rattlefnake, and other Ame- rican Serpents.” I feel flattered by your kind notice of that little produ&tion, one of my firft effays in natural hiftory, and one to which, I confefs, I devoted a good deal of atten- tion. By transferring my fentiments on the fubje& which T have touched into the language of your country, you have, no doubt, contributed to draw the attention of the learned to the difcuffion of the queftion, whether ferpents are endued with the power of fafcinating other animals, I did not, before this day, know that our learned friend profeflor Blumenbach, of Gottingen, had publifhed fome Remarks on the Memoir, in Voigt’s Magazin fir den neu- eften zufiand der Naturkunde, part ii. Ihave not feen the magazine, but have met with a tranflation of the profeffor’s aper in the Philofophical Magazine ¢, publifhed in London y Mr. Alexander Tilloch. In this letter I am going to trouble you with fome further remarks, which you are at liberty to make ufe of in any way you may think proper. I fhall not purfue the profeffor in the precife order of his remarks. [ fhall firft take notice of his defence of that paf- fage in his Manual of Natural Hiftory f, which IT patticu- larly examined in my memoir, and which he feems to think “1 have criticifed with fomewhat of feverity, The following are Mr. Blumenbach’s words, as I have tranflated them in the memoir :—‘ That {quirrels, fmall birds, &c. voluntarily fall from trees into the jaws of the rattlefnake lying under them, is certainly founded in faéts: nor is this much to be wondered at, as fimilar phenomena have been obferved in other fpecies of ferpents, and even in toads, hawks, and in cats, all of which, to appearance, can, under particular cir- cumftances, entice other {mall animals by mere fteadfaft looks. Here the rattles of this fnake (the rattlefnake) are of peculiar fervice; for their hiffing noife*caufes the fquirrels, * Communicated by Dr. Barton. + For December 1798. , __—__¢ Handbuch der Waturgefchichte. Vor. XV. No. 59. O * whether 194 On the fafcinating Faculty afcribed to whether impelled by a kind of curiofity, mifunderftanding, or dreadful fear, to follow it, as it would feem, of their own ‘accord. At Jeait,’’ continues Mr. Blumenbach, ‘ I know, from well-informed eye-witnefles, that it is one of the com- mon practices among the younger favages to hide themfelves in the woads, and, by counterfeiting the hiffing of the rattle- fnake, to allure and catch the fquirrels*.” ie On this pailage I made fome remarks, which were brought together under three diftinct heads. I obferved, 1ft, That «© che faculty of fafcinating is by no means peculiar to the rattlefnake, but is attributed as extenfively to the black fnake, and other ferpents, which are not furnifhed with the crepi- taculum,-or fet of bells.’’ adly, That “ fome perfons, who have fecn the rattlefnake in the fuppofed a& of charming, affure me that the reptile did not fhake its rattles, but kept then fill ;”’ and laftly, I was inclined to think that there was “yo folid Foundation for the flory upon which, in part at leaft, Mr. Blumenbach has founded his theory. ~~ Ft is certainly, the prevailing opinion in this country, that the black fake and other ferpents, as well as the rattle- “fnake, are endowed with the faculty of fafcinating or charm- ing other animals. It is well known that none of the fer- pents except the different fpecies of crotalus are furnifhed with the crepilaculum, cauda, or rattle, and no attempt has been made to point out the difference"(if there be a difference) in the modes of fafcinating employed by thefe feveral fer- -pents, with the exception of the remark made by a few of the Indians and Whites, that the rattlefnake charms with its raitle +. But we fhall afterwards fee that this is by no means the general opinion among the Indians or Whites. Sinee the printing of my memoir, { have been affured by a very intelligent perfon t, who, living in a part of the coun- try which abounds in rattlefnakes, has had many opportuni- ties of attending to the manners of thefe ferpents when watch- ing for their prey, that at fuch time the rattlefnake does not move his rattle, but lies (till. This is a confirmation of the fa& mentioned in my memoir. ‘It is very probable,” how- ever, as M. Blumenbach obferves, ‘ that the cafe here may * See a Memoir, &c. pages 46 and 47. 4+ See a Memoir, &c. pages 14.and 15. + Mr. Samuel Prefton. “ Dr. Mead (fays Mr. Prefton) fuppofes the -gatde on theie tail to be ufeful for that purpofe (viz. charming) ; but he is much mifiaken, as I have aétually feen them engaged in the procefs a number of times. They donot make any noite with their rattle ; they lie perfeiy fill, with an oper mouth aud jparkliog eyes,’ —Letter to me, “dated Stockport, Auguil 7, 1793. 4 ¢ the Rattlefuake, and other American Serpents. 195 be altered by circumftances;”’ that is, that the reptile whilft endeavouring to obtain its prey fometimes fhakes its rattle , and fometimes keeps it ftill. {am now, however, fully per- fuaded that the latter is the general cafe ; and the more fo, becaufe it feems to be afcertained that the ratilefnake feldom fhakes his rattle unlefs when he is irritated. Jf then this ferpent does not always, nor even generally, move his rattle at the time he is watching for his prey, it is, I think, fomewhat unphilofophical to.afcribe fo much to the <¢ hiffing noife” of the infirument as Mr. Blumenbach has done. ‘* This lazy animal, when lying on the ground, might certainly,” fays the profeffor, ‘employ that fingular organ for enticing animals, as well as the ceraftes employs its horns for the fame purpofe, at leaft’according to common report.” I will readily allow, that if the ceraftes of Egypt is capable of charming by means of the horns upon his head, the rattle- fnake might, without much firetch of the imagination, be fuppofed capable of charming by means of the horny bells upon his tail. But here Mr. Blumenbach attempts the fo- lution of one difficulty by having recourfe to another diffi- culty; or, rather,*he feems difpofed to cut the knot of faf- cination, as it refpects the rattlefnake, by means of a ftor which has never been proved to be a faét, and which, [ cannot but think, is one of the many improbable tales in natural hifery. { know it is fanctioned by Pliny * and So- linus. But, alas! how many hundred anile ftories has Pliny told! and who dees not know that Solinus is often the fervile copier of Pliny? In the difcuffion of curious queftions like the prefent, I can feel pleafure even in furnifhing my opponent with imple- ments with which to defend himfelf.. With this difpofition of mind | will here mention a fuppofed fact, which is a good deal fimilar to that related of the ceraftes. I do not doubt that if is as worthy of belief. There inhabits the lakes and rivers of many parts of North America a very curious {pecies of efox or pike, whigh is commonly known by the name of the gar fith or bill fifh. he upper jaw 1s lengthened out into a long bony rofirum, or protubcrance, which has given it the name of dill fifo. Although this fith is known to live almoft entirely upon other fith, to which he proves very de- ftruétive, we are told that the gar hides himfelf in the reeds in fuch a manuer, that nothing but the curious roftrum, which he thrufts out of the water in a perpendicular pofition, * « Ceraftis corpore eminere®cornicula fepe quadrigemina: quorum motu,/reliquo corpore, occultato, folicitent ad fe aves.” C, Plini Secundi Datu ais Hiftoriz Lib, viii, cap. 23- O 2 can a 196 On the fafcinating Faculty aferibed to can be feen. Different kinds of birds, which come to reft themfelves upon the reeds, miltaking the fith’s bill for a reed, or dry piece of wood, perch upon it alfo. He then opens his mouth, and generally makes an immediate prey of the mif- guided bird. This flory is related by a very refpeétable writer, father Charlevoix, who adds a circumi{tance which T muft not omit to mention, efpecially as it would feem to fhow that there is fome hidden (we will call it a fu/cimating) virtue in the car’s bill. The Indians fay, that the fharp teeth which are difiributed along the edges of this inflrument are a “ fove- reign remedy againft the head-ach, and that pricking with one of thefe teeth where the pain is fharpeft, takes it away inftantly *.” , nd . But to be ferious: As moft, if mot all, animals are fur- nifhed with an organ of hearing, fo it is not improbable that different founds, particularly the founds of mufical inftru- ments, have fomething charming or attractive to certain fpe- cies of animals. Pafling by the ftories that are told of the trichechus manatus, or fea-cow, the common moufe, and fome other animals, I will bere mentiom a faét related by Dr. Odier on a very refpectable authority, and I relate it the more confidently becaufe it has been confirmed to me by fe- veral perfons of credit. The iguana + of the Weft Indies is faid to be fo fond of mufic, that at the found of an inftrument this ugly looking lizard becomes almoft motionlefs, and is eafily taken by a noofe f. ° > - But I muft return to Mr. Blumenbach. ~ * I Know,” fays * A Voyage to North America, vol. i. pages 117 and 118, Englifh tranflation. : + Lacerta iguana of Linnaus. _ £ See Epittola Phyfiologica, Inauguralis, de Elementartis Mufice Senfa- tionibus, Nota 32, Edinbwrygi 1770. It were much to be wifhed shat fome ingenious man would favour us with a metnoir concerning the in- fluence of mufic upon diiferent animals. Some interefting materials for fuch a work are to be found fcattered through a number of writers both autient and modern. But new materials might readily be colleéted, fince it would not be a difficult tafk to make experiments. Much curious phys ' ological knowledge would refult from fuch an inquiry: and I greatly miftake if the inquiry would not fomewhat tend to diminifh the quantity of our prejudices againft animals that are u nquefttionably innocent. Should it have this effeét, how great would be the gain to a benevolent mind ! Nurtured among prejudices of different kinds, we are at once miferable and unjuft. I mutt confefs that I have dropped fome of my prejudices againit the amphibia (See a Memoir, &c. p. 45, note) fince I have learned that the iguana is pleafed with the nfufic of the Wet Indians; and that a lictle garden lizard liftened, * with a breathle(s attention,” to the found © of a lady’s piano-forte.—For a very interefting inftance of this kind, gee she Analytical Review for January 1749. * he ~ the Rattle/nake, and other American Serpents. 197 he, “ from well-informed eye-witneffes, that it is one of the common praétices among the younger favages to hide them- felves in the woods, and, by counterfeiting the hiffing of the rattlefnake, to allure.and catch the fquirrels.”’ After quoting this paflage, I obferved in myymemoir, that ‘I have inquired of Indians, and of perfons who have refided for a confiderable time among the Indians, and they appear to be as ignorant of the circumitance as I am myfelf.”” I continued, ** I am inclined to think that Mr. Blamenbach has been impofed upon,” or, perhaps, that a cireumftance which I have re- lated may have given rife to the ftory*, Mr. Blumenbach has fince informed me by letter, and now informs the public ‘in his Remarks, that he feceived his ‘* information from major Gardner, who, with his family, refided many years in Eaft Florida. He is,”’ fays the profeffor, “ a very intel- ligent naturalift, an accurate obferver, and certainly would be very far from impofing upon me.’”” T knew not, when I printed my memoir, from whom Mr. Blumenbach received his information. It was not, however, unnatural for me to fuppofe, that he bad been “ impofed upon,” becaufe I well know that fome of the moft refpecta- ble naturalifts and hiftorians of Europe have often been moft grofsly deceived by travellers who have vifited this country: hence the many tales and feandalous ftories which crowd and deform fome of the works of your moft celebrated wri- ters. Such tales and ftories are the following :—That the Indians have no beards; that they have very {mall appetites; that they are greatly addiéted to the ‘ antiphyfical vice 5” that mone of the tribes knew any-thing of the ufe of falt be- fore the Europeans came among them; that they cannot carry their arithmetic beyond the numeral three; &c. &c. &c. I have lately made further inquiries of the Indians con- cerning the ftratazem which, Mr, Blumenbach fays, the younger favages employ to allure to them fquirrels. I can earn nothing concerning it. I am {till difpofed to think that there is but a flender foundation for the ftory. I am certain that it is not a common practice among the Indians. Perfons who have refided for many years among our northern and weftern Indians have never heard of it: neither have intelli- gent traders and interpreters from the very country in which major Gardner refided. Anxious to afcertain the truth, I fhall extend my inquiries, and, fhould I learn that the In- dians do actually employ the firatagem, I fhall endeavour to be the firft to inform Mr. Blumenbach of the fuccefs of my refearch. * See a Memoir, &c. pages 48 and 49. 03 I fhall tote 198 On the fajeinatilte Faculty. afotibed th I fhall conclude this part of my letter with two obferva- tions; viz. ift, If it bea faét, as I have afferted, that the rattlefnake, while watching for his prey, feldom moves his rattle, the ftory related by major Gardner muft, independ- ently on any other faéts, appear highly improbable. adly, Even admitting the fa€t, that the rattlefnake does fhake his rattle while employed in the fuppofed ac of charming, I think the greater number of the favourers of the exiftence of a fafcinating quality in this ferpent ought, upon a careful confideration of the fubjeét, to give up Mr. Blumenbach’s explanation of the bufinefs. They’ tell’you that the bird or fqnirrel is often feen precipitating itfelf from the top of a lofty tree into the jaws of the@erpent lying at the bottom. Now, is it likely that the noife of the rattle can be diftinétly heard at the diliance of fixty, eighty, or a hundred feet, in a foreft where all elfe is not filence; in a foreft where rooks, and ravens, and jays, wood-peckers, and many other {pecies of birds, utter their various cries or notes, which are mixed, and often confounded, with the noife of tree-frogs, locufts, and a hundred other animals? I think, fir, you will admit with me, that it is very improbable, if not impoffible, that the rattle could affe&t the bird at fuch a diftance; and I am difpofed to believe, that, after reading the preceding obferva- tions, vou will not think Mr. Blumenbach’s fyftem is fo ca- pable of being maintained as that ingenious gentleman feems to fuppofe it 1s. Mr. Blumenbach, in taking notice of my theory of ac- counting for the fuppofed fafcinating power of ferpents, im- forms.us, that with this method of explaining the phzno- menon he has been acquainted fince 1785, from an eflay by profeffor Michaélis, in the Gottingen Magazine for January of that year. In juftice to Dr. Michaélis, 1 fhall heré quote his words, as they are given by Mr. Blumenbach :—* Others believe that it is owing merely to the care of the old ones for their young, which throw themfelves between the latter and * their enemies, and by thefe means become a prey to them. One of my friends, Mr. David Colden, at Flufhing, an amateurs of natural hiftory, and fon of governor Colden, _ whofe fervice to fcience is fo well known, affured me that he had feveral times feer’ birds fafcinated by fnakes, but always found the neft of the bird either with eggs or young ones in the neighbourhood; which made the fpectators give up the ideaof fafcination. But,’? Mr. Michaélis adds, * 1 know fome ‘inftances where no neft could be in the neighbourhood, and where, though the fnake was at firft at a great diftance from the bird, it neverthelefs fell towards it.”’ From the Rattlefnake, and other American Serpents. 99>" From this quotation it appears that I was not the firft perfon who endeavoured to explain the fuppofed fafcinating power fomewhat in the manner I have done. I have not afferted that I was. But I certainly neither did nor could borrow the explanation from Mr. Michaélis, whofe ** valug- ble effay,’’ as Mr. Blumenbach calls it, I have never yet feen. .My theory, which every day’s inquiry lerves to ftrengthen, was the refult of a great deal of attention to the fubject: and I have enjoyed as many opportunities of. inyeftigating the truth as Mr. Michaélis did. With refpeét to that ingenious gentleman, I fhould have allowed him more merit had “he adopted Mr. Colden’s explanation; and I can allow him very little for rejecting it, merely becaufe, in fome inftances, no neft could be found in the neighbourhood, and becaufe, ‘ though the fnake was at firft ata great diftance from the bird, it neverthelefs fell towards it.’ It furely does not follow, becaufe no neft could be found, that nene exifted, The fchoolboy well knows the difficulty of difcovering the *nefts of many fpecies of birds; and the naturalift, who ought to be acquainted with the arts employed by thefe animals to conceal, from man and other enemies, their nefts, fhould make ftill greater allowance for the difficulty of difcovering thefe nefts. As to Mr, Michaélis’s other affertion, that, , “though the fnake was at fir at a great diftance from the * bird, it neverthelefs fell towards it,’? I will net pofitively deny it,,until I learn whether that gentleman has himfelf witnefled any thing of the kind. But, in the meanwhile, [ muft fay, that I have no reafons to think that [ have been precipitate in advancing what I have advanced on this fab- ject in my memoir. I do not perceive that Mr. Blumenbach has made any other attempt to controvert my theory, except in fo fay as he has mentioned Mr. Michaélis’s two oblervations juft noticed, On the contrary, in the new edition of his Manual, the pro- feffor has quoted my memoir, and expunged the flory about the ringing of the ferpent’s tail*. Of Mr. Michaélis’s eflay he makes no mention. And here, before I adduce any ad- ditional faéts in fupport of my explanation, I cannot forbear to obferve, that I do not think Mr. Blumenbach has done juftice to this part of my, memoir. In particular, the fine fa& communicated to me by the late Mr. Rittenhoufe, of which he has made no mention, 1s worth a whole volume of {peculations on the fubjeét. I doubt not that my learned ~ Gottingen friend had as high an opinion of the fact as { have, * Handbuch der Naturgefchichte, p. 2423 Gittingen 1797. 0 4 Before 200 On the fafcinating Faculty afcribed to Before I proceed any further in my reply to Mr. Blu- menbach, I beg leave to trouble you with fome fa&ts which are a good deal fimilar to thofe related in my memoir. They certainly favour the fyftem which I have advanced. Inde~ pendently, however, of their conneétion with the fubjeét of the memoir, they appear worthy of prefervation; for they» ferve to illuftrate, in fome degree, the hiftory of the manners and inftincts of ferpents ; a fubjeét which has been too much neglected by naturalifts. . A fpecies of coluber, which is commonly called the chicken fnake in the fouthern parts of the'United States, @f which it is a native, frequently climbs up the loftielt trees mpurfuit of young birds. One of my friends*, when he was in Georgia, feveral years fince, had an opportunity of feeing one of thefe fnakes in a fituation which furnifhes a ftriking areument in favour of my opinion. The active reptile having feized upon a young martin + (which had left its neft for fome days), upon a walnut-tree, at the height of about thirty feet, had not a little difficulty in fwallowing the young bird. Hav- ° ing taken in the head firft, as is commonly the cafe with our ferpents, the bird made great refiftance by the flapping of its wings; fo that the ferpent could only {wallow the head and neck. Whilft the wings of the bird were in motion, num- bers of the old martins collecting together flew abont the » fmake and attacked him with their bills. Here, as in the inftance related by Mr. Rittenhoufe, the old birds were ac- tuated by the inftin& of faving their young. The following fats were communicated to me by Mr. John Heckewelder :—** In the -{ummer of 1770,” fays this gentleman, ‘ while I was fifhing under the bank of Le- heigh t, I heard, for the fpace of near an hour, the found of a ground-fquirrel, feemingly in difirefs, on the top of the bank. Atlength I went up to fee what was the matter with the fquirrel; when, to my utter aftonifhment, I difcovered the animal about half way up a buth, but running fometimes higher up, fometimes lower down, and a very large rattle- fnake at the root of the bufh on which the fquirrel was. Here I was imniediately ftruck with the idea that the fnake was in the act of inchanting, and I hoped now to become fully convinced that the rattlefnake obtained its prey altogether in this manner, as I had often heard reported. I therefore fat down quietly on a log about fix yards difiance, where I had __* The ingenious Mr. William Bartram, + Hirundo purpurea. t The principal weltern branch of the Delaware, which runs by Beth- tchem, ‘ a full the Rattle{nake, and other American Serpents. 201% a full view of both the fnake and the fqurirel. Sometimes I thought the fquirrel gomg down for the laft time, and to enter the jaws of the fnake; but it would again return up the bufh with the fame livelinefs it had run down. | Finding, finally, no material alteration in the fquirrel or its motions, and my patience being exhaufted, I determined on killing the fnake} and examining into the cafe of the fquirrel, viz. what ftrength, &c. it yet retained after heing charmed for fo long a time; for, by has time, the fuppofed charm had lafted near three hours. I ftruck at the {nake with a long pole, but miffed it; upon which it ran down, the bank where I had been fithing. Remaining by the buth on which the {quirrel was, I hailed a man on the oppofite fide of the river, defirimg him to crofs in a canoe and kill the fnake under the bank. To which he immediately complied; but likewife miffing his ftroke, on account of the buthes, ‘the fnake took ~up the bank again, where I killed it. We now both joined to thake the fquirrel down; but it had both fenfe and ftrength enough to climb to the very top, I fuppofe near twenty feet high. However, we brought it down to the ground; and though it had fallen about two yards from the buth, it well knew its hele in which it dwelt, and this was at the root of the bufh, and exaétly at the fpot where the fnake had lain. Here the myftery was cleared up to us at once. We con- jectured that the fnake was either watching for the fquirrel to come down to enter its hole, or for its companion or young, which were probably in the hole, to come out; all of which were fufficient to caufe anxiety in the fquirrel on the bufh. The dexterity, however, of the fquirrel in making its way into the hole, and at the very place where we ftood, ‘ fhowed plainly that it retained its full ftrength and fagacity, and had by no means fuffered from the charm of the fnake*.”” « A fimilar circumftance, to which I was alfo an eye- witnefs, happened,” fays Mr. Heckewelder, ‘in the year 1771, near WV sabato, on Sufquehanna, where the cries of the chewink+ drew my attention to the fpot. The rattle- . fnake was juft entering a heap of brufh, in which the old ones had their neft with young. I fuppofed that one or the other of the old ones, with the young, would have become its prey, had I not approached and relieved them by killing the f{nake {.” * Letter to me, dated Bethlehem, Auguft sth,a796. Mr. Hecke- welder has fince informed me, that the {nake, during the whole of the tyne he attended to it, never fhook its rattle. 5 + The Fringilla erythrophthalma of Linnaeus. ¢ Letter to me, dated Augutt sth, 1796. The > 202 - On the different Theories of Philofophers The following fact is fimilar to one which I have related in my memoir *:—** In the vear 1762, at Tufcarawas, on Mufkingum, while going to fetch water out of the river, I obferyed,”” fays Mr. Heckewelder, “ a large black fnake running out on a long limb ef a large tree which ftood on the water’s edge. This limb was nearly horizontal over, and about twelve feet above the level of, the water. I ¢ould not, at firft, conceive what the fnake aimed at, until near the end of this limb I faw the animal ftretch downwards, where f obferved a hanging + bird’s neft, pretty well concealed be-_ tween fome fmall boughs or leaves, into which the fnake put its head, having ftrung its tail, with part of its body, round the limb above. Determined on killing the fnake, if poffi- ble, I ran to the hdufe for my gun, and fhot the reptile, which fell into the river, with a young bird m its jaws.” ‘© | and another perfon once obferved a {nake of this kiné yun up a tree pretty high, and put its head into a woodpeck- er’s neft, where, as we fuppofed, it fucked the bird’s eggs, it being too early for the young birds to be batched }.” On thefe faéts I fhall not trouble you with any comments, but {hall proceed with my examination of Mr. Blumenbach’s Remarks. e [To be continned.} * : AXXVI. Obfervations on the different Theories of Philofaphers. to explain the Phenomena of Combuftion. By CHARLES -PortAaL, Efg.§ 7 Tuerre is no phenomenon in nature that has hitherto engaged the attention of philofophers with lefs fuccefs in the elucidation of its principles than that of combuftion, and it at prefent affords one of the chief obftacles to the forming of a clear and fatisfactory theory of chemiftry. It is not fin- gular, that a fubjeét of fo ftriking a nature, and abounding with a variety of fuch important phenomena, fhould bave early attracted the attention of philofophers, and we accord- ingly find that it was made the fubjeét of inveftigation by lord Bacon and Mr. Boyle. Thefe two philofophers were, however, more particularly confined in their inquiries to the nature of the unknown ele- ment called fire, nor did they reach fuffictently far in fuch * See pages 67 and 68. + Oriolus Baltimore of Linnzus. ° t Letter already referred to. § Communicated by the Author. Inquiries to explain the Phenomena of Combuflion. + 203 inquiries as to frame any particular theory on the fubject of combuttion, In referring back to the earlier periods of the hiftory of chemi(try, we fhall find that Becher was the firft philofopher who withdrew that feience from the contracted limits of phar- macy and alchemy, and laid the foundation of the doctrine of phlogifton. . G, Erneft Stahl, whofe genius was formed for the higheft improvement of fcience, fucceeded him ; and it is to this phi- Jofopher that we are indebted for the firft pofitive attempt to explain the phenomena, and to exhibit a regular theory of combuftion. . The do&rine of: phlogifton, as expounded by this cele- brated chemift, is too well known to require being defcribed* at any confiderable length. It proceeded on the affumption, that there was only one fubftance in nature capable of combuftion, which he’ there- fore called phlogifion ; and he held, that all bodies that were inflammable owed their combultibility only to the prefence of this principle. Combuttion, therefore, he confidered merely as its feparation in the form of light and heat; and fuch bo- dies as were not inflammable were thought to be devoid of it: for during the combuftion of fubftances he taught that. their phlogifton flies off, and the incombuftible parts of them alone remain behind. Thus, if iron be expofed to a fufi- ciently ftrong heat it will undergo combuttion, a complete alteration will take place in its conftituent parts, and a refi- duum will be found Jeft of an mcombuftible nature. Stahl explained thefe phenomena in the following way: Iron he confidered as a peculiar earth united to a certain proportion of phlogifton ; when it was made to undergo com- buition, the phlogiftom which formed a part of it, and to which it alone owed its combuftibility, made its efcape, and there was left behind only the bafe, which was’ found to be no longer inflammable. Now, as this feparation was al- ways attended with the emiffion of light and heat, phlogifton was confidered only as heat and light combined with fome, other {pecies of matter in a peculiar and unknown way. This doctrine was confidered as deriving much fupport from the faét, that a body, after having undergone combuttion, (z. e. by the diflipation of its phlogifton in the form of hight and heat,) was converted into a body that was no Jonger combul- tible, but whichwmight again have its combuftibility reftored by the addition of any inflammable matter. Thus, in the example before adduced, if, after the iron has undergone the procels* * 204 On the different Ubetges of Philofophers , procefs of combuftion, and formed a refiduum that is incom- buftible, we heat this latter fub{ftance with charcoal (an in- flammable body), the metal will be again revived—phlogifton is imparted to 1t from the charcoal, and we again procure a combuftible fubftance. Thus, the light and heat which are evolved during combullion are fuppofed to proceed from the burning body, and to be occafioned by the feparation of phlogition from the bafe to which it is united. Such is the outline of that theory of combuftion the foun- dation of which was firft laid by Becher, amd afterwards re- » duced iyto a regular fyftem by the immortal Stah}. The phlogiftic do&trine of this chemift was univerfally, adopted potil the middle of the prefent century, when the difcoveries of Mayow and Hooke, of Prieftley and Lavoifier, led the » way to a new theory of combuftion, which foon difplaced the former, and eftablithed itfelf on its ruins. Stahl, from being wholly occupied in demonftrating the exiftence of phlo- gifton, feems to have paid no attention to the influence of air on combuftion. The experiments of Boyle and of Hales had already pointed out the influence of this element on many of the phenomena of combuttion, and the increafe of weight that bodies acquire during fuch a procefs, is a faét totally irreconcileable with the theory of phlogifton. ® Many attempts, however, were made to oyercome the weight of this objection by the difciples of Stal; and they even had recourfe to the fuppofition that phlogifton was the principle of levity, and that, when abftraéted from any body, * ““that body, by lofing fo much"abfolute levity, became heavier. So ftrongly were they fettered by the tenets of their matter, that, without fubmitting to the Iabour of Invefligation, they * implicitly adopted any illuftration that was conformable to * his ideas; affording a {trong proof of the defire that pervades ~ the human mind to reduce every thing to firft principles, and to adopt hafty generalizations, without having recourfe either to an extenfive colleGtion of facts or the more certain evi- dence of accurate experiment. * Whilft other chemifts were intent on reconciling the va- rious difcoveries that had been recently made with the hy- pothefis of Stahl, Lavoifier (of a bold and creative genius) was led to call into queftion the very exiftence of phlogifton itfelf. This arofe from bis having difcovered that during the procefs of combuftion a portion of air eonftantly enters into union with the body which is made to undergo this opera- - tion, and that the weight of the air which difappears in the _.procefs is exactly equal to the increafe of weight gained id the 8 to explain the Phenomena of Combuflion. 205 the body that has undergone combufion. \Thefe important facts led to the adoption of a new theory of combuftion well known at prefent by the name of its illuftrious author. The theory of Lavoifier is founded on the abforption of oxygen by a combuttible body, and proceeds upon the fol- lowing principles : 1ft, That combuftion never takes place without the pre- fence of oxygen gas. ‘ : adly, That in every combuftion there is an abforption of oxygen gas. 3dly, That there is an augmentation of weight in the pro- duéts of combuttion equal to the gas abforbed ; that the oxy- gen likewife imbibed by the combuftible body may be again recovered from the compound formed, and the weight re- gained will be equal to the weight which difappeared during combuttion. And, laftly, That in all cafes of combuftion there is a dif. engagement of light and heat. Thefe facts have been eftablithed by the moft accurate ex- periments, and are’ too well known to require anysfurther illuftration ; they incontrovertibly prove the general princi ple, “that combuttion is only a play of affinities between ox- ygen gas, caloric, and the bafe of the combultible body. It is a further part of this theory, that the light and caloric which are evolved during combuftion proceed from the oxygen gas, | and that they are not emitted, as thould follow from the phio- giftic doctrine, from the combuttible body. As this theory, however beautiful, is not capable of ex. plaining with clearnefs and accuracy many of the pheno- mena of combuttion, Dr. Thomfon, of Edinburgh, has lately (fee Nicholfon’s Journal, New Series, for May and June 1802,) offered another which places this fubject ina paint of view fomewhat different? and which certainhy bids fair to enable us to eftimate the phenomena of combuttion with more fuccefs than has hitherto been done. Chemitts have been lately accuftomed to give to the term combuttion, according to the foregoing theory, a new meaning, and to make it ftand for the general combination of a body with oxygen. Nothing, however, can be more evident than the difference that in numberlefs inftances prevails between the act of oxygenation’ of bodies and that of combuttion, inaf- much as neither the phenomena attending them, nor the refults arifing therefrom, are the fame. It is probable that this error has arifen from the confidera- tion that all bodies duving their combuttion combine with exygen, without at the fame time recollecting that this latter effect 206 On the different Theories of Philofophers effect may be produced without any of the phenomena ufu- ally attendant on combuflion; and that, though certainly all combuttion prefuppofes the combination of oxygen with a bafe, yet this combination may be, and repeatedly is, effected whereno combuftion can poflibly take place. It is the object, therefore, of Dr. Thomfon’s theory to point out the difference which in numberlefs inftances pre- vails between the aét of oxygenation of bodies and that of combuftion, and particularly to account, in a more fatisfac- tory manner than has hitherto been done, for the emiffion that takes place during combuftion of light and caloric. The two following are the leading potitions of the doctoris theory: ift, That during combutfiion all combuftibles eniit light, which previoutly formed a neceflary ingredient to their own compofition: and, adly, ‘What the heat which is evolved during the procefs of combuftion proceeds from the decompofition of oxygen gas., It has been before obferved, that by the phlogiftic theory the li¢ht and heat are fuppofed to proceed from the combuf- tible body; but that by the theory of Lavoifier they are held to proceed from the decompofition of oxygen gas, of which body.they are confidered as forming conftituent parts. In. the infancy of chemical knowledge, and before the dif- covery of vital air, that the extrication of heat proceeded from the combuflible body, was the only natural conclufion that could prefent itfelf to the mind; and as light and heat were confidered as only modifications of the fame fubftance, the fuppofition of courfe prevailed that both were evolved from the inflammable body. Since, however, the later experiments of philofophers, and particularly thofe of Drs. Herfchel and Woolafton, have dif- proved this fuppofed identity, it evidently becomes no longer neceffary to trace thefe two fubftances to the fame fource ; and this, as is before flated, ds the cafe With the theory we are now reviewing. That the caloric which is evolved during combuftion fhould proceed from the decompofition of the oxygen gas, is, amongfi a variety of other reafons, rendered the more probable from the confideration that bodies poflefs a greater {hare of caloric in the gafeous ftate than in any other; and confequently the probability is greatly flrengthened, that the heat which is evolved during the procefs of combuftion proceeds rather from the oxygen gas than from the inflammable miatter, and that it is from the condenfation of oxygen gas that caloric is chiefly evolved ; or, according to the explanation of Lavoi- - fier, that the oxygen of the gas, poffefling a ftronger er or & * £0 explain the Phenomena of Combuflion. |. 207 for the bafe of the combuttible body than for caloric, is thereby attracted, and that the heat combined with it is con- fequently fet at liberty, and diffufes itfelf among the adjacent bodies. To the fecond pofition of Dr. Thomfon, that the light invariably proceeds from the combuftible body, andenot from the oxygen gas, there are much ftronger objeétions, and fuch as, with our prefent collection of chemical faéts, are, I ap- prehend, not readily to be explained. It is a part of the theory of the doétor, that oxygen gas poffeffes no light: indeed this is fo material a part, that, unlefs - it can be fubliantiated, the theory is inadequate to elucidate the phenomena intended by it. How fhall we, however, reconcile the following fa&s on the above fuppofition? If nitric acid be expofed to the light, it changes colour; it firlt grows yellow, afterwards green, and Jaftly red, and oxygen gas is difengaged; and on examining the acid we find that it is converted from nitric into nitrous acid. It is evident that, as this decompofition is of a chemical * nature, the light that occafions it either combines with the oxygen to form oxygen gas, or with the acid to form nitrous acid: that the latter is not the cafe we aré jufifiedtin fup- pofing, becaufe we find no difference between acid fo pro- cured and that gained by any other means, and we are necg{- fitated to conclude that the light has combined with the exygen, and that the latter is by this mean converted into oxygen gas. The fame reafoning may be applied to the converfion of oxygenated muriatic acid by light into fimple ,muriatic acid. Unlels thefe facis can be otherwile fatisfac- torily accounted for, the pofition of Lavoifier fill remains -with all its force, that light is a conftituent part of oxygen gas. That light forms a neceflary part in the conflitution of many bodies, is a faét too well authenticated to be refuted. The experiments of the Dutch chemifts, who heated together the filings of different metals with fulphur under mercury ; the phenomena. of the pyrophori; the inflammation that takes place froin the aétion of many of the acids on the oils; aud the recent experiments of Dr. Hulme, illuftrate this fac beyond the pofhbility of contradition: After a body has undergone combuttion; we learn from this theory that it is deprived of light, and that it is only by means offa combufiible body that light can be again trans- ferred to the produét of combuftion. Thus water is confi- ered by Der. Thomfon ms a product of combufiion, and confequently deprived off light. If, fays he, we decotnpole this 208 _ Theories to explain the Phenomena of Combu/lion. this water by means of iron or zinc, we reftore it to its former combuttibility by occafioning it to imbibe light, which is afforded it by the metal. If fuch decompofition is effected by means of iron, 73 parts of this latter unite with 27 of oxygen. Now, as every 27 parts off oxygen require about foer of hydrogen to form water, of courfe thefe four parts of hydrogen are liberated during fuch decompofition : but, as itis not probable that combuitibles are capable of ‘combining with light in all proportions, it may be afked, Whether the 73 parts of iron which are oxidated contain juft light enough, and no more, to reftore the combuttibility of the four parts of hydrogen? for, if there be too much for that purpofe, the fuperabundant quantity ought to become vifible; and if too little, a part only of the hydrogen fhould recover its combuftibility, and be converted into gas. The fame reafoning may of courle be urged with regard to the decompofition of water by any other metal ; for it is fome- what fingular, that the combuftible fhould always contain and give out the precife quantity of light that is fufficient to reftore combuftibility to the bafe of the produé& of combuf- tion, and in no cafe either more or lefs. Thefe, as well as fome other objections to the above theory, were pointed out by me in a paper entitled Remarks on Dr. Thomfon’s Theory of Combuftion, and inferted in Nicholfon’s Journal for the month of July 1802. It fhould appear, then, that we are not in poffeffion of a fuf- ficient collection of faéts to enable us to form any theory of combuttion that is perfe&ly free from objection, and calcu- lated to explain all the phenomena attendant on it. Whe- ther the light evolved during combuttion is emitted from the combuttible body or from the oxygen gas, muft {till be con- fidered as a matter of doubt; for the fuppofition feems per- haps the more probable, that it is partly derived from both. The fubtile nature of light itfelf is highly adverfe to any in- quiry into its real effence. The fame obfervation wil] like- wife apply to caloric? The theory laft noticed is, however, poflefled of a high degree of merit; it fatisfactorily explains many phenomena that were before but little underftood 5 it points out, with fufficient perfpicuity, the diflerence that prevails between the a& of oxygenation in bodies and that of combuftion ; and though certainly liable to fome objec- tions, it approximates the neareft to a fatisfactory explana tion of the phenomena of combuftion of any that have hi- therto been offered. * CHARLES PORTAL, x *,* Mr, Hiflory of Aftronomy for the Year 1802. 209 *,* Mr. Portal is probably not aware that the theory which he attributes to Dr. Thomfon as its author was firft propofed by Dr. Gren, whofe doétrine is briefly as follows: Oxygen gas is compofed of oxygen and caloric—Combu/lible bodies confitt of their re/pelive ba/és in chemical combination ~ with the matter of light—Free light confifts of the matter of * light united to caloric. . Combuftion, then, is a mere play of chemical affinities; the oxygen of the oxygen gas uniting with the bafe of the inflammable body to form an oxide or an acid, while the caloric of the gas unites with the matter of light of the com- buftible body, and forms free or vifible light. By this theory, no combuttible fubftance can be a 7a body—by Lavoi- fier’s, they may.—-See Gren’s Principles of Modern Chemifiry, — Englith edition, chap. ii. articles Caloric, Light, Phlogifion, Combuflion.—A. T. . XXXVI. Hiftory of Aftronomy for the Year 1802. Read in the Atheneum of Paris December 30, by JEROME La- LANDE. [Concluded from p. 179.] On the 7th of June I publithed the two laft volumes of the larze Hiftory of the Mathematics by Montucla. The fourth is almoft entirely devoted to the hiftory of aftronomy and navigation, which [ communicated to the prefent period. _ “There has appeared alfo, in two volumes quarto, with 23 plates, Hi/loire de la Mefure du Temps par les Horloges, by Ferdinand Berthoud, mechanift of the marine, member of the National Inftitute, and of the Royal Society of London. It contains a defcription of efcapements, compenfation ba- lances, moving fpheres, and of the principal inventions of clock-work. The author {peaks of all the celebrated clock- makers, except Louis Berthoud, his nephew, to whom we are indebted for all the time-keepers made fince 1784. I thall here take occafion to obferve, that Mr. Emery died at Lon- don, and that his widow has four time-keepers which fhe withes to difpofe of: they would be a valuable acquifition. _ Wehave received the 7th volume of the Tranfaétions of the Royal Irifth Academy, publifhed in 1800, and in which Mr. Young examines the folution given by Newton of the problem refpecting preceffion of the equinoxes ; alfo the 8th volume of the Irith Tranfactions, Dublin 1802. On ‘the 18th of July my fmall tables of logarithms ap- peared: they are the moft convenient and the moft correét yet given. OL. XV, No. 59. P The 210 Hijtory of Aftronomy for the Year 1802. \ he third volume of the M’canigue Célefte of C. Dela- place has been printed, and was publifhed on the 29th of December. This work will form an epoch in phyfical aftro- nomy. It exhibits.a feries of important refearches by that ereat geometrican, and the perturbations of each of the pla- nets by the aétion of all the reft; with a new theory of the - moon, containing, befides other things, the? difcovery of a new inequality the period of which is 180 years, and of which I have already fpoken. M. Haflenfratz has publifhed his Cours de Phyfique Cé- lefte, or Lecons Jur l Expofition du Sy/téme du Monde. He makes no mention in it of my Aftronomy, but he neverthe- lefs has borrowed from it things which he could not find any where elfe. I have corrected fome faults init. (Bibliotheque Frangoife de Pougens.) The Board of Longitude has fent to the printing-office ob- fervations made for two years with the new inftruments of the obfervatory by Mechain and Bouvard, to be printed in folio like thofe which Monnier publifhed between 1751 and 1773, and thofe of Greenwich in England, which were worthy of ferving as a model, On the 3d of July M. de Rofel, a naval officer, arrived at Paris with the journals of the voyage undertaken in fearch of La Peroufe, under the command of captain d’Entrecaf- teaux. La Grandiere alfo has brought a journal of that voyage, which the Englifh government had a year in their hands, but which they reftored to him. At the depdt of the marine there are 58 charts conftruéted during that voyage by Beau- temps-Beaupré, hydrographer of the expedition. In the month of June I received intelligence from C. Ber- nier, who was at New Holland. Captain Baudin touched only in two places in an extent of 400 leagues which he tra- verfed on the weftern coaft. He was preparing to accomplifh the remaining part of the expedition to the north and fouth : but it appears to me that the zeal of this aftronomer has been thwarted by the indifference of the captain ; and this voyage, on which we founded great hopes, will not be fo produétive as it ought to be. The {hip Lady Nelfon, fent out with the Inveftigator, cap- tain Flinders, which arrived at New Holland about the mid-- dle of December 1801, fell in with the Geographe, com- manded by Baudin. She then found at Port Jackfon the Naturalifte, commanded by Hamelin, and which failed about the middle of May to go in fearch of the Geographe, from which fhe had been feparated by a gale of wind. in the Straits Hifory of Afronomy for the Year 1802, ait Straits of Baffe. Captain Flinders has fent home his ob- fervations, and a chart of thofe parts of New Holland which he vifited. ; Captain Flinders made a difcovery between Van Diemen’s Land and New South Wales, of which information was re- ceived in March 1802: Governor King’s Ifland, Cape Alban Otway, Portland Bay, Cape Northumberland. Jofeph Joachim de Ferrer has fent me feveral pofitions ob- feryed on the Miffiffippi and on the Ohio, which will be of the more importance as the French government is employed with the means of deriving benefit from that new colony, which may be attended with immenfe advantages, as Raynal has fhown in his Hi/foire Philofophique. The Voyage to the Northern Part of Afiatic Ruffia, the Frozen Ocean, the Sea of Anadir, and the Coafts of Ame- rica, from 1785 to 1794, by commodore Billings, tranflated by Caftera, in two volumes quarto, has made us acquainted with countries before undefcribed or defined. The fhores of the Koufina have been traverfed: a chart by M. Bauer, and Arrow{mith, the Englifh geographer, is added. The officers complain of the commander, who would not allow them to penetrate further north, notwithftanding the inftructions he had received to fearch for a paffage through the Frozen Ocean. Travels into the interior Parts of Africa in 1797 and 1798, by Frederic Horneman, has been publifhed. Horneman proceeded from Cairo to Mazoul. Another French edition, with additions by C. Langles, is in forwardnefs. . Geography has been enriched alfo by A Voyage to Senegal by C. Durand, one volume in quarto, with many, plates. The author was a long time at Senegal; and I have men- tioned his refearches in a memoir on Africa. M. Sutzen, a phyfician, accompanied by M. Jacobzen, a furgeon, is alfo preparing to penetrate into the interior parts of Africa. They have been furnifhed with obfervations by baron Von Zach, of Gotha. The duke of Gotha has given them a fextant of feven inches radius, and a time-keeper by Emery ; three artificial horizons, with their levels; an achro- matic telefcope of twenty inches, and two and a quarter inches aperture ; a declination compafs, a mariner’s compafs, and a camera obfcura. M. Sutzen will proceed from Conftantinople to the eaftern coalt of Africa, where he intends to join fome of the cara- vans of Zinguebar or Moncemugi. He hopes to be four or five years abfent. (Von Zach’s Journal for Auguft 1802.) On the 17th of July we faw don Domingo Badia, com- P 2 ‘ miffary 21% Hiftory of Aflronomy for the Year:1802. miffary of war in Spain, who travels by authority of the’ Prince of Peace, accompanied by Roixas, a naturalift. He will embark in England for Morocco, and will follow the route of the caravans of the interior. bret ASS 1 PD Voyages 2 Madagafcar, aux Indes Orientales, et & Maroc, by Alexis Rochon, a celebrated aftronomer’ and geographer, have appeared in three volumes. The general depét of war at Paris continues its labours with furprifing a€tivitv, as may be feen in the Moniteur of June 25 and Oétober 16. Generals Calon, Clark, and An- dreoffy, who had the direction of it in fucceffion, have been fucceeded by general Samfon. | , The map of the country between the Adige and the Adda will foon be followed by maps of all Piedmont, of the Ita- lian republic, and’ of the ifland of Elba: thofe of Bavaria, Helvetia, of the Valais, and of the four departments of the Rhine, are continued. More than a hundred geographical engineers are employed; among whom are the celebrated Nouet, Henry, and Tranchot. On the rft of July M. Henry quitted Bavaria, difgufted by the oppofition of M. Bonne. ‘The Jatter 1s till occupied with the map of Bavaria; but we lofe the meafurement of a de- gree, which M. Henry propofed to make. However, we fhall have from the Scheldt to the Adige, and from Breft to Munich, an uninterrupted trigonometrical outline, which will foon be filled up with a complete topography. A map of Egypt in fifty fheets, and thofe of thé Morea and neighbour- ing ifles, are now engraving. Materials are colle¢ting for maps of Saint Domingo and of Louifiana. The beautiful map des chaffes, a mafter piece of engraving, of which only five fheets were terminated, will be carried to thirteen. - A plan is even in agitation for making a new and correét edition of the large map of France in 183 fheets, which had been too much negleéted. In the mean time, thirty are res touching. The collection of manufcript charts at the depdt, which already amounts to 7400, daily increafes. C. Barbier-Du- bocage, already known by his important labours, turns them to the beft advantage poffible; and the depét of war, encou- raged by the government, is about to produce to geography immenfe riches. The firft number of a topographical and military memo- rial, edited at the general depot of war, has been publithed for November 1802. It contains a notice refpecting the geo- graphical charts; a treutife on geodefic operations; tables for reducing Hiftery of Aftronomy for the Year 1802. 213 reducing the angles of one plane to another; the determina- - tion of heights by the barometer. _ C. Nouet, who arrived from Egypt on the 5th of January, has already fet out for Mount Blanc, where he will continue the laborious operations which he began in 1796. - The Ruffians are going to conftruét a map of Efthonia and Volhynia. i M. Weifs has terminated his map of Swifferland in fixteen eets, - A beautiful chart of the fouthern part of the geometrical furvey, by captain Mudge and Mr. Dalby, has been engraved in England in four fheets. » M. Ciccolini has made a tour to the coafts of the Adriatic, where he has verified the pofitions of a great number of points. In regard to Pezaro there was an error of 307’ in time. The travels of baron Von Zach, fo ufeful to the geography of Germany, are detailed in the excellent, journal which he publifhes every month. ; ‘M. Mentelle has undertaken for the Firft Conful a terref- trial globe a metre in diameter, which will contain all the new difcoveries collected with great care and erudition, On the 26th of March I obtained permiffion to found at - the Inftitute a prize, to be affigned to the perfon who, in the courfe of the year, fhall make the moft curious obfervation, or publith the moft ufeful memoir, in regard to aftronomy. ~ C. Chaptal, whom we have the good fortune to have for minifter of the interior, and whofe labours as a philofopher announce his zeal as a minifter, has attached calculators to the Board of Longitude; he has: granted gratifications to Cy Flaguergues, an affiduous obferver, and to C. Pons, keeper of the obfervatory of Marfeilles, who difcovered a fe- cond comet. : «When the-confultation eftablithed for diftributing rewards, and which was very ‘ufeful in 1793 and 1794, was fupprefled, the Inftitute was charged to take up the fame bufinefs, and to propofe to government the geratifications it would be ne- ceffary to give. The Inftitution has not yet exercifed this right, but I have propofed to it to fulfil its obligation. M. Jacotot, ‘profeflor of aftronomy at Dijon, has obtained from C. Giraudet, prefect of La Céte-d’or, the repairs ne- ‘ceflary for the obfervatory damaged by a fire. I hoped I fhould have been able to obferve there the eclipfe of the fun on the 28th of Auguft: but the fky was abfolutely cloudy, as it was at Paris. We have received obfervations of that P3 eclipfe 214 __-Hiffory of Aftronomy for the Year 1802. eclipfe from C. Thulis at Marfeilles, and from C. Flaguer- gues at Viviers. an Prince Henry of Wirtemberg, brother of the emprefs dowager of Ruffia, who refides at Hamburgh, has purchafed the beautiful inftraments made by Megnié, of Paris. The fpeculum for a telefeope, which Dr. Herfchel fent to Peterfburgh, has been fent back to him for the purpofe of being mounted. Kramp folicits for the eftablifhment of an obfervatory at Cologne. The academy of Turin requefts the re-eftablifhment of its ob~ fervatory; and M. Henry has offered to take the direction of it. Fathers Canovai and Delricco, who have at Florence the obfervatory of father Ximenes, have fent us a lift of their inftruments, to prove that they cannot exert themfelves with any advantage for aftronomy ; but they have publifhed tables of logarithms. é The king of Etruria has announced that he ftill entertains a defign of placing an aftronomer in his Cabinet de Phy/fique, where he has already fome excellent inftruments. General Chabert, who has returned from England after an abfence of ten years, has been affociated with the Board of Longitude; to which office he was juftly entitled by his geographical labours; and his age of fixty-eight years does _ not prevent him from being prefent at the fittings, and from being ufeful by his advice and experience. The youngeft fon of our celebrated aftronomer C. Mechain has been appointed by the Board of Longitude fecretary of the obfervatory, which affords him an opportunity of de- voting himfelf to aftronomy. Auguftine Francis Mechain was born at Paris, March 5, 1786. He has fueceeded his brother Ifaac, who having returned from Egypt has been appointed commiffioner of foreign rela- tions at Galafia, in Moldavia. C. Lechevalier has conftru€ted in the Hotel of Foreign Relations a fmall obfervatory, where he can gratify the tafte and curiofity of which he gave proofs during his flay at Con- ftantinople. C. Louis Berthoud has conftruéted for the obfervatory a clock worth a thoufand crowns. ‘The pivots turn in rubies, and we hope it will equal that given by the Firft Conful to » the obfervatory of Milan. | C. Pons, a watchmaker of great {kill and ingenuity, made an experiment at my obfervatory of a clock which beats half feconds with a free anealhiey and which goes with wonder- ful regularity, C. Levéque 4 ~ Memoirs o _and particularly on Maignon’s charts for reducing the moon’s Hiffory of Aftronomy for the Year 1802. 215 hf. aot ge has publifhed, in the fourth volume of the the Jnftitute, a learned paper on the longitude, diftances obferved at fea. C. Richer has made a new trigonometric compafs, or com- pafs for reducing the moon’s a el from the ftars. It has ingenious inventions for dividing into unequal parts the rules containing the diftance, the fum, and the difference of the heights. In my fhort Treatife of Navigation I have given a defcription of the inftrament which gained the prize in 1791; and in the Connoiffance des Temps for the year 4, the demonftration of the formula of M, de la Grange, which ferves as a foundation for this inftrument; which, however, has been much, improved: the only inconvenience is, that it will coft 602 francs. Mr. Troughton has finifhed the model of Menoza’s circle, which gives the double of the multiple of Borda’s circle, even retaining the fmalleft fixed mirror. A curious detail refpeéting the calendar of the Indians has been publithed in the letters of the abbé Sevin. C. Girard read in the Inftitute a long memoir on the Egyp- tian milometer, the value of which be determined in the ifland Elephantine, on the very fpot, 19 feet 5°6 lines; which fhows that the antient meafurement of the earth by Eratofthones was very correct. The abbé Tefta has publithed at Rome a differtation on the zodiac found at Dendara (in Greek, Tenthyris) in Egypt. He undertakes to prove that it is not older than 300 years before the vulgar zra. The Hiftory of Herodotus, tranflated by Larcher, edition of 1892, contains a fally againft, the un- believers, who carry back the period of one of the zodiacs of Tentyra, at prefent Dendera, and of Efné, or Henne, to 6000 years; and the author’s only reafon is, that it would be 217 years before the creation. He ua a notice by Vifcontt, who fays that the firft fign of the great zodiac is Leo; that Libra, the fymbol of the equinox, is in its place; and that the refemblance of the reater parts of the figns to the Grecian proves that this zodiac was conf{tructed at a time not fo remote as the earlieft periods of the Greek aftronomy : he is almoft convinced that this work belongs to the firft century of the vulgar zra. _ The exterior cornice exhibits a large Greek infcription, which may decide the queftion ; but another Greek infcrip- - tion contains Roman names, and announces a Cefar, who could be only Auguftus or Tiberius. Ina word, M. Vifconti fays that the architecture of the temple of Tentyra, though in P 4 the — 216 Hiftory of Aftronomy for the Year 1802. the Egyptian tafte, and though fome hieroglyphies are carved out on the walls, has an evident relation to the arts of Greéce, . For my part, I have remarked by the engraving of M. De - non that Cancer is infcribed in two lines, at the beginning of the defcending figns and at the end of the afcending ; which proves ‘that the folftice was towards the middle of Cancer; and this carries it back 3000 years. ‘But T have’ fhown in my Aftronomy that Eudoxus, who wrote 370 years before our era; ‘and Aratus, who followed Eudoxus, defcribed the fphere according to-an older tradition, which goes back twelve or thirteen hundred years before the vulgar'era, ‘and which came from Egypt or India. Petau, Whifton, Freret, and Legentil, found nearly the fame date: it is therefore na- tural to believe that it fhould be found in ‘the zodiac of Ten- thyris, which confequently, in this refpeét, may be’ confi- dered as a work of the Greeks. C. Villoifon, well known by his Greek erudition, has ce~ lebrated aftronomy in Latin verfes, which agyounce both his talent for Latin poetry and his tafte for aftronomy. | He ad- dreffed them to me on my birth-day, and publifhed them in the Magazin Encyclopédique. In the notes he fpeaks of the labours of the uncle, the nephew, and niece; and of citizen Burckhardt, their moft learned co-operator and their moft intimate friend. a C. Boulage, of Troye, has written a beautiful epjftle to Piazzi on the difcovery of his planet: it has been inferted in the fourth number of the Memoirs of the Academical Society of the department of Aube. a Aftronomy this year has loft the refpe€table Auguftin Darquier, member of the National Inftitute. He was born at Touloufe, November 23, 1718, and died on the soth of © January 1802. He devoted himfelf early to aftronomy — through natural inclination. Though ina town diftant from _ the capital, he applied to it with a zeal and activity which were not leffened by age. He purchafed inftruments, efta- blithed an obfervatory in his own houfe, and caufed two vo- lumes of obfervations to be printed at his own expenfe. His tranflation of Lambert’s Cofiologic Letters has been printed at Amfterdam. He inftruéted pupils, paid calculators, and being in no need of the affiftance of government he was in- debted for every thing to himfelf. “I have printed his lat obfervations in my Hiffoire Céleffe; they go as far as the rgth of March 1798; and he had fome more to fend me, though 80 years of age. The Lyceum of Touloufe will give us fome further particulars refpeGting his long and interefting - career. Afironomy Hiflory of Aftronomy for the Year 1802. ar7 » Aftronomy loft alfo in France, on the sft of March, M. Lemery, whofe fingular turn for calculation I difcovered thirty years ago. Being then attached to the marquis De Pufieux, he employed all his Jeifure time in calculation. I made him calculate a great many places of the moun, which. were publithed in 1777 in the Connoiffance des Temps for 1779: and for fifteen years he made all the calculations of that work with equal care and affiduity. ~ Daniel Bogdanich died at Peft, in Hungary, on the 31ft of January, at the age of 37. He was occupied with the ne of Hungary. (See Von Zach’s Journal for April 1002. ° M. George Frederic Kordenbufch, aftronomer of Nurem- _ berg, died on the 3d of April, at the age of 71. In the month of September baron De Vega was drowned in the Danube, and it is fuppofed threw himfelf into that river. We ate indebted to him for the large edition of Vlacq’s tables of logarithms in folio, containing the numbers to 100,000; and the fines from ten to ten feconds, which had become very rare, and in which he correéted many faults. > Meteorology has this year exhibited very extraordinary phenomena. In the month of January an extraordinary inundation: the Seine rofe 22 feet and a half above the height of 1719. On the 25th of May a froft, which did immenfe hurt to the produétions of the earth. On the 14th of May fnow fell at Munich, and continued for forty-five hours: the trees were ftripped of their leaves, and overturned. In the months of July and Auguft an exceffive heat took place, and continued forty days. The thermometer at the obfervatory ftood at 97° F., which is very uncommon at Paris, The need of having meteorological rules founded on ob- fervation, induced our learned minifter to eftablith a corre- fpondence on that fubjeé&t, and an office to. conduct it. Meteorological obfervations have been made in thirty places, from the convent of Mount Cenis as far as the borders of the fea. John Dominic Beraud, born\in 1741, formerly a draftf- man at Coni, and who for twenty years has refided at Turm, continues to employ himfelf in making meteorological-ob- fervations, and fends us regularly his refults. Lafon, geographical engineer in Louifiana, has fent us meteorological obfervations made at New Orleans; and we have received fome made at Guadaloupe by C, Hapel La- chenaye 218 Hiftory of Aftronomy for the Year 1802. chenaye between the years 5 andg. The fourth volume of the Memoirs of the Inftitute contains fome allo. C. Coulomb read in the Inftitute experiments on the me- thod of magnetizing needles to faturation ; with a compara- tive view of the methods of Knight, Duhamel, and pinus. He has pointed out to navigators the fureft means of obtain- ‘ing the beft needles. The broadeft and largeft are preferable, but they muft not be thick. This philofopher has publifhed in the fourth volume of the Inftitute a curious memoir on the dipping needle. | The declination of the magnetic needle at Paris was ob- ferved by C. Bouvard at the obfervatory, on the 2d of May, to be 22° 3’, and on the 22d of July 21° 45’. C. Lenoir, at the Garden of the Depst de la Marine, found it on the goth of June to be 22° 6/ with a compafs, on which he employed every care poffible. But the changes which take place at the different hours of the day, and in dif- - ferent months of the year, amount to more than 107, We can therefore only fay that the declination is 22°, and it was found to be the fame in 1792 and 1800; {fo that at prefent it appears to be ftationary, whereas ten years ago it increafed from 6/ to 8’ annually. Forty years ago I obferved it to be 18°. (See Connozfance des Temps for 1762.) 'M. Simonin, profeffor of Croific, has fent us the refult of — a thoufand obfervations on the tides, with the tables necef- fary for keeping an account of the variations produced by the fun and moon according to their altitude and difiance. M. Romme, profeffor of Rochfort, has fent to the Inflitute obfervations made every three minutes from low water to full moon to make known the irregularities, which are very fin- gular: and a new table of the retardation of the tides, de- duced from an immenfe number of obfervations. He has prefented alfo a general table of the tides, the cur- rents, and winds, obferved in all the feas of the earth; the publication of which will form an important fupplement to the large Treatife on the Flux and Reflux of the Sea, which I publithed in 1781. Mr. Grenier, an officer known by his difcoveries in the Indian feas, has written a confiderable work on the winds and currents in all the feas; with a theory which renders the explanation of them eafier.. He propofes to lay it foon before the public, XXXVIII. On [ 219 ] | XXXVIII. On the Difappearance of Saturn's Ring in the Year 1803.+ By Profefor J. E. BopE*. Tue plane of Saturn’s ring, as is well known, during the whole of his revolution of thirty years round the fun, re- tains its parallelifm, and interfeéts the plane of the ecliptic in 17 degrees of Pifces and of Virgo at an angle of 312% The neceflary confequence, therefore, is, that the northern fide of the ring is illuminated for fifteen years by the oblique rays of the fun, and then the fouthern for the fame period. It muft alfo happen, that in the above places the plane of the ring paffes twice through the fun in each revolution, at which time the edge of the ring only is illuminated. But the edge or thicknefs of the ring being too fmall to admit of its being feen from the earth on account of the great diftance of Sa- turn, the ring becomes invifible. For fifteen years the earth and the fun are on the fame fide of the ring, which is the illu- ~ minated fide, and therefore the ring during that period is always vifible; but a little before, and at that period when ‘the plane of the ring paffes through the fun, or when Sa- turn’s heliocentric place is in 17° of % or of wy in the afcend- ing or defcending nodes of the ring, the earth and the fun may firft be on one fide and then on the other fide of the ring. In the firft cafe, as long as its plane does not pafs through the fun it will be vifible from the earth; but in the other cafe it will be invifible. The earth, therefore, can then pafs feveral times through the plane of the ring, at which time the ring will appear like a right line, or be entirely in- vifible; the confequence of which is, that the ring will be alternately vifible and invifible. This alternation of difappearing and reappearing will be exhibited by the ring in the year 1803. The fun, having illuminated the fouth fide of the ring fince O&tober 1789, will pafs through the plane of it in the month of June 1803, and will illuminate the northern fide, when Saturn pafles heliocentrically the afcending node of his ring; and in the mean time the plane of the ring will pafs three times through the earth, which will be firft on the fide illuminated by the fun, and then on the oppofite or darkened fide ; in confe- guence of which the ring feen from the earth will be twice vifible and inyifible in the courfe of a few months. Thefe phenomena will be better comprehended by infpect- ing the annexed figure, which fuppofes the obferver to be * From his Afronomifib Yaby Buch for 1603, placed 220 Difappearance of Saturn’ s: Ring in the Year 1803. placed in Saturn. This figure, then, exhibits the exaé in- clination.of the plane of the ring to the ecliptic ; the appa- rent motion of, the earth and the fun, as feen from Saturn, | together with the time of the paffage of thefe planets through the afcending node of his.ring. (See PlateV. fig. 2.) ) - AB is the ecliptic feen from Saturn in the fign of Pifces, and divided into degrees. The afcending node of Saturn’s ring feen from thence is placed in 17° 6’, in which point,the plane of the ring interfeéts the ecliptic at an angle of 31° 201, The eye is then in that plane. Thus the ring appears as a ftraight line; 2 is the,north fide, and zz the fouth fide of it. The dotted line CD is the folar orbit feen from Saturn 3 : and the fun’s place is marked in it on the firft day of each month, from November 1803 to October 1803. Thefe places of the fun are direétly oppofite to the heliocentric places of Saturn: the longitude thus differs fix figns, andthe northern. Jatitude of Saturn feen from thence changes into the fouthern | of the fun. In this manner, the fun in November, Decem- ber, January, and to the month of June, illuminates the fouth fide of the ring;, but always in a fainter manner, the nearer he comes ta the plane of it. On the 15th of June he pafles through the plane ine. The ring at that time is illuminated on the edge, and can be feen only by powerful telefcopes as ' a fine luminous line. The longitude.of the point e, reduced to the ecliptic, falls inf, or 20° 42/ of Pifces. The fun, then, about the middie of June begins to illuminate the northern fide of the ring; in July, Auguft, September, October, &c. he recedes more and more from the plane of the ring, and the illumination of it then becomes ftronger. The elliptical line is the earth’s orbit as feen from Saturn, according to its dire& and retrograde motion from the rft of November 1802 to the 1ft of Odtober 1803, and its place is marked on the firft of each month. Its longitude is fix figns Jefs or more than the geocentric longitude of Saturn; and the northern latitude of Saturn is changed into the fouthern of the earth. Now, as the figure clearly fhows, the earth in November and December 1802 is reprefented on the fouth fide, or turned towards the fun, and therefore on, the illuminated fide of the ring. But afterwards the earth approaches more and more to the plane of the ring; and, as the ring receives _the folar rays in a more and more oblique manner, the ring not only becomes narrower but even decreafes in light. On the 13th of December, as may be feen by this finall figure, the earth enters the plane of the ring, and paffes to the . northern if Difappearance of Saturn’s Ring in the Year 1803. 2241 northern fide of it, which is turned from the fun... The ring _then, for the firlt time, becomes. to us invifible: but this invifibility is not of long continuance ; for, as may be feen by the figure, the earth on the 1{t of January, by its Satur- niocentric apparent retrograde motion, paffes a fecond time through the plane of the ring, -and goes to the fouth- ern or illuminated fide, and the ring then begins to appear again. as a ftraight line. , In February, March, and April, the earth recedes more and more from “the plané, and the ring becomes broader and more perceptible. But the fun during thefe months approaches nearer to the plane of the ring, and by thefe means it is illuminated in a more oblique dire&tion. In the month of May the earth is at its greateft diftance from the plane of the ring, while thé fun approaches it more and more till the middle of June, when he pafles through the planc in e, and the ring for the fecond time be- comes totally invifible to the earth, whiclris then on its dark fide. From this period, during the month of July and till Augutt, the ring will femain in this ftate.. About the 18th of Auguft the earth will pafs, for the third time, through the plane of the ring, as it will then be on the northern, which is now the illuminated fide of the ring: it will again appear as a ftraight line, and be vifible when viewed through’ good telefcopes : it will increafe in light and breadth in September and Oéober in proportion as the earth and the fun recede from the plane. Between the +ft of November 1802 and the 1ft of O&ober 1803 the ring of Saturn twice difappears and twice reappears. At the firft difappearance’on the 13th of December 1802, Saturn in the morning will be in the eaftern part of the hea- vens; and the firft reappearance will be about the 7th of January 1803; Saturn in the night-time being on the fame fide of the heavens. At the fecond difappearance in the middle of June, Saturn in the night will be in the weft, and, as he fets half an hour after midnight, the phenomenon may be obferved. But at the fecond and laft difappearance in Auguft, Saturn will be after the fun, and therefore the phenomenon cannot be feen,, In the month of Oétober, when Saturn emerges from the fun’s rays, he may be feen before fun-rife in the eaft, and the ring then will be very vifible. In regard to the above calculation of the tintes of the dif- appearance and reappearance of Saturn’s ring, the accuracy of them, and the correfpondence of them with the pheno- mena, mutt depend on the accuracy of the tables and the theory hitherto adopted in regard to the pofition of the ring 9 : 1¢ 222 On the Difappearance of the Ring of Saturn. The ftate of the atmofphere alfo, and the different power of the telefeopes and of the eyes of the obfervers, may occafion fome variation. The difappearance and reappearance of the ring, which are occafioned by the earth pafling through its plane, can be better and more conveniently obferved than thofe which take place in confequence of the paflage of the fun through that plane, becaufe the earth, on account of its quicker motion, pafles fooner through the plane of the ring than the fun. As the fix firt fatellites of Jupiter move in the fame plane with the ring, when the ring difappears, or becomes like a Juminous line, thefe fatellites muft appear on both fides of Sa- turn ina right line, and can then be more readily difcovered and diftinguifhed from fixed ftars. XXXIX. On the Difappearance of the Ring of Saturn. By Van Beeck CaLkorn, Profeffor of Ajironomy at Ley- den*. Tue plane of Saturn’s ring, according to aftronomical obfervations, has always a direétion parallel to itfelf, fo that it interfeéts the ecliptic in 17° 18/ of ty and %, at an angle of 314°, and the orbit of Saturn at 20° 42/ of m and x. Now, if Saturn as feen from the fun be in longitude 20° 42/ of x, the plane of the ring will pafs through the centre of the fun; by which the edge of the ring being illu- minated, while the northern and fouthern furface receive no light, it muft become invifible, and can be feen only by the moft powerful telefcopes as a fine luminous line. On the 15th of June next Saturn will be in this fituation ; and as this — planet employs about thirty years in its revolution round the - fun, this phenomenon takes place only once in 15 years. Other phenomena, however, in confequence of which the ring before the 15th of June will alternately difappear and reappear, are connected with this flate of the planet. Thefe phenomena arife from the different pofitions of the earth, which in the courfe of its revolution is at one time above and at another below the plane of the ring; fo that from the 1ft of November 1802 to Oétober 1803 the ring will be twice invifible and twice vifible; firft the fouthern and then the northern, then the fouthern and afterwards the northern furface will be alternately feen from the earth within the courfe of ten months. For determining and cal- culating thefe phenomena with more accuracy, Lambert in- . * From Algemeene Konft en Letter- Bode, No. 13, for 1803. vented On the Difappearance of the Ring of Saturn. 223 vented a very ingenious kind of projection, a reprefentation of which was given by profeffor Bode, of Berlin, in his Aftro- - nomical Almanac for 1789, in which year thefe phenomena took place in the fame manner as they will do in 18035 and this reprefentation has been repeated in the fame work for the prefent year: but as this diagram, in my opinion, is too dif- ficult for thofe not well verfed in aftronomy, I flatter myfelf that the following figure will render the phenomenon eafier to be underftood by amateurs; though Lambert’s method is more exact, and better fuited to aftronomers. The circle (Plate IV. fig. 1.) reprefents the earth’s orbit, and exhibits the points where the earth is placed at the com- mencement of each month. The vernal equinox is marked oY, the line SZ drawn through the fun; and the place of Saturn on the 15th of June is the direction of the plane of the ring. Saturn, at the four periods announced, is in the lines drawn parallel to SZ, though at a diftance from the fun five times greater than is here reprefented for want of room. The plane of the paper is that of the ecliptic, with which the one-half of Saturn’s ring makes an angle of 31°. I have already obferved that the ring twice difappears, and then twice becomes again vifible. This phenomenon arifes partly from the fituation of Saturn in regard to the fun, and partly from that of the earth; and each of thefe caufes mutt be confidered feparately to have a clear idea of thefe phaeno- mena. In regard to the firft, it 1s evident that that fide only of Saturn’s ring which is turned towards the fun carbe illu-’ ‘ minated; and this illumination is ftrongeft when the planet is in 20° of m and 20° of ?, the whole furface of the ring being then oppofite to the fun. Now as the direction of the ring is always the fame, that is to fay, parallel to itfelf, the rays of the fun, as the planet approaches to 20° of ny and x, muft fall more obliquely on the ring, by which means it will be more faintly lighted, and at the fame time appear fmaller; and when Saturn has attained to this longi- tude, no part of the upper furface, but merely the edge of the ring, the plane of which paffes through the fun, will be illu- minated ; fo that the ring will then have the appearance of a thin luminous line, but wil! not be vifible without the help 6f good glaffes. For the lalt feven years the ring has been obferved-to decreafe in light and in breadth; and this de- ereafe will continue till the 15th of June, after which both will again increafe. During the aft fifteen years the fouthern furface of the ring has been illuminated, but in the next fif- teen the northern furface alone will receive the rays of the fun. In whatever part of our’ folar fyftem this phrenome- non ‘ \ 224 On the Difappearance of the Ring of Satura. non be viewed, the appearance will be the fame. The ring till the 15th of June wall continually become fmaller, and on that day will be converted into an almoft imperceptible line of light. The difappearance then of Saturn’s ring on the 15th of June, or rather its decreafe till that period and its fubfequent increafe, arifes alone from the relative pofition of Saturn and the fun. As to the other caufes of difappearance, which are the confequence of Saturn’s pofition in regard to the earth, we muft firft keep in view the flow motion of Saturn compared to that of the earth, as this planet advances fearcely ;2° in the time that the earth performs its revolu- . tion around the fun. On the 15th of June, at which time Saturn will be in 20° of 3¢, and the plane of the ring will pafs through the fun, the interfection of that plane with the ecliptic, or the line ZS in the figure, paffes through the mid- dle of the earth’s orbit. During the laft fifteen years, while Saturn advanced from to wg, this line of the plane of the ring was without, and above the earth’s orbit, and during that period the fouthern and luminous part of the ring was always vifible; but about the middle of December 1802 this line approached the earth’s orbit, and on the 13th of De- cember paffed through it exaétly in the point where the earth then was. The earth being then in the plane of the ring, the thicknefs of the ring only could be vifible to us; and tbus, for che firft time in fifteen years, difappeared on the 13th of December 1802, On the other hand, as the earth moved ftraight towards Saturn, or parallel with that line, while Saturn advanced, it was neceffary that the fouthern furface of the ring hitherto vifible fhould become invifible, and the north- ern, which was not illuminated, being turned towards the earth, the whole ring would become invifible. But as the earth proceeded in its orbit it would foon reach the line of the plane, and on the 7th of January 1803 would again pafs through it. At that period, the fouthern furface of the ring being illuminated by the fun would again be vifible from the earth ; but as the earth on the 21{t of June muft in its revo- Jntion be again on the other fide, Saturn in his courfe falling in with the earth in the plane of the interfetion of the ring ‘and the ecliptic, will again pafs through it on the 18th of Auguft, at which time the ring will appear once more as a fine ftripe of light. After that day the northern furface of the ring will be vifible from the earth, and, as the line of the plane will then be without the earth’s orbit, will, during the next fifieen years, remain always vifible. te From the 7th January to the 21ft of June, the fouthern furface of the ring being illuminated, the ring will be vifible; but Memoir on the Foffil Caout-Chouc, ec. 225 but from the 21ft of June to the 18th of Auguft no part of it will be feen, as its darkened fide during that period will be turned towards the earth. This difappearance and reappear- ance of Saturn’s ring will be of importance to aftronomers, as it will enable them to determine the dire¢tion of the plane. of the ring, and will afford a curious fpectacle to amateurs who are provided with good telefcopes. The ring, which already appears as a broad ftripe of light, will continually become fmaller till the 15th of June; after which time it will difap- pear till the 15th of Auguft, when it will appear as a fine {tripe of light, which will increafe in breadth till the aper- ture between it and the planet will increafe during the firft feven years. As Saturn till the month of June fets at mid- night, the decreafe.of the ring may always be obferved ;_ but when hefets earlier, it will be poffible to fee him only a fhort time in Auguft, as he will be loft in the fun’s rays, Leyden, March 10, 1803. XL. Memoir on the Fo/fil Caont-Chouc, or Elaftic Bitumen of Derbyfbire. By Fausas-Saint-Fonp*, , Aszour twenty years ago fome infulated portions of a kind of blackith bitamen, compreffible and even elaftic, which had fome fort of refemblance to old leather, were found in the natural fiffures of one of the mines of Caftleton. The young miners having fet fire to fome of this matter, it burnt with a bright flame, emitting an odour which did not appear to’ be difayreeable. ) 3 “At that period mineralogy was not fo well known as at prefent.in England, and particularly in Derbythire: no one paid attention to this foflil, or endeavoured to afcertain its mature, 1) | Twelve years after, a heavy ftorm of rain haying produced a deep:ravine on the fide of one of the hills which furround the village of Caftleton, a fimilar kind of bitumen was found ‘between the foffil ftrata of argillaceous fchift which exifts at ithe bottom of that hill. _ More care was then taken to colle& this matter, fome of which was fent to Derby, Edinburgh, and London; and fo “sreatia relation was found between it and the cuout-chouc, nown under the vulgar name of e/a/ic gum, that mineralo- gifts did not hefitate to confider it as the fame as that brought * From Journal du Mufeum National, No. 4. _ Vou. XV. No, 59. Q ‘from, . $26. «Memoir én the: Foffil. Caout=Chout, from Guianii and Peru. ' This opinion was foon confirmed by chemical analyfis; and this fingular fofhil was the more fought after, and contidéred as a curious objeét of natural hiftory, as it was more rare} and as it’ was thought an aftonifhing cir- cumflance, that'a fubfiance which diftils from exotic trees which grow only in the torrid zone fhould be found between firata of argillaceous fchift in the bofom of the mountains in the northern part of England. ; : Lametherie mentioned this difcovery in. the Journal de Phyfique, without giving any details refpeGting the place , where it was found: he only infifted on the analogy be- tween this foffil bitumen and the caout-chouc. At that period fome varied fragments of this fubftance were fent to me, together with the matrices in which they had been found; and as i was acquainted with the’ places and the mouutain where the difcovery had been’ made, 'T ‘mentioned this unportant fact every year in my geological lectures at the Mulzeum, when I treated of the exotic wood and plants found.in a foffil ftate in countries abfolutely oppo- fite to thofe where thefe plants and trees grow at prefent: but { publifhed nothing on the fubjed, as has been obferved by Mr. Mawe, proprietor of: the principal mines of {parry fluor of the neighbourhood of Caftleton, and author of The Mine- ralogy of Derbyfbire, lately publithedy ai work which will tbe exceedingly uieful to naturalifis who intendi-to: vifit that ‘county, fo abundant in a variety of mineral produ€tons *. ooMr. Mawe, when laft at Pans, brought medome very e+ markable {pecimens which were wanting in my collection of foffil caout-chouc ; and it is my duty.to acknowledge here my gratitude to him. He was fo kind as to give me alfo fome information on this fubjects, and, he fhowed ane jat: the fame ‘time a piece of foffil caout+chouc, difcoverdd iot long ago, cconfifting of an oblong mafs two feet andia halfiin circums ference and two inclics and a half in thicknefs, weighing ‘about three pounds. © It is foft, exceedingly compreifible, ‘and of a black and fomewhat olive colour; folid, hard, and ifhining fragments of a bitumen ‘nearly fimilar are enveloped ‘by, and adhere ds it were to, the elaftic mafs, both im:ithe infide and on the exterior faces, They are not Jargerahan'a ‘common almond; fome of them are d/ack like jet; others of ca brown liver.colour. They may be‘eadily detached| from .the:compreflible caout-choue where thefe hard fragmentsiare. not abundant. i gewvond 1. # The Mincralogy-of Derby thire, with 2 Défetiption of thé mot intet- efting Mines in the North of England, in Scotland and Wales. By Joha Mawe. London i802. Svo. one volume, with plates. — . 4 Mr. or Elaftic Bitumen of Derby fbires aa9 ed Mr. Mawe has made known in’ his Mineralogy of Derby- lihire the principal varieties of the foffil caout-chouc 5 but as “the has/attended rather to thofe felect {pecimens fitteft for ora mamenting colleétions, than to a fyftematic defeription of thefe pieces as well as of the matrices which accompany them, and as he thought it of no ufe in his pian to enter into details refpecting the nature and depth of the places where the foftil caout-chouc is found, I hall fupply the deficiency in this part, which is fo intimately connected with geology. von order'to give a topographical idea of the place, I fhall obferve, that in’ going from Derby to Caftleton you are obliged to. afcend a pretty rapid acclivity to a large plain in the form of a mountain, which extends for feveral leagues in every direGtion. All this elevated, rugged, and rocky diftrict is known by the name of High Peak. It is im general cal+ cateous, and even abundant in fhells, except fome argil+ Jaceous ftrata, and particularly feveral veins of trapp which interfe& tran{verfely the calcareous ftrata, or which, difpofed fometimes in banks, proceed nearly parallel with beds of limeftone. I fhall fay nothing of the veins of lead ore, of the beautiful ‘eryftals of {parry fluor, of the calamine and other minerals found in this diftri@. For an account of thefe I thall refer to the Defeription of Derbyfhire,, White- thur{t on the Formation of the Earth *, and Ferber’s Oryéto- graphia of Derbythire +, or that which T gave myfelf of the environs of ‘Buxton’ and of Caftleton in’my Tour'through England and Derbyfhire {. »Cafiletonis not feen till you are, as T'may fay, above 4t, and till:you arrive’ atthe edge of a rapid and tleep de- clivityy which interfects, in an abrupt and fudden’ manner, this part of the mountain furrounding the bafon, at the bot- ‘tom of which the {mall village in queftion is fituated as in the middle of afunnel) or The revolution ‘which divided this’ mountain, by tearing afundet its fides, arofe, no doubt, from* one of thofe grand aiatural events fimilar traces of which are to be found even in the High Alps; but here ‘this terrible commotion, by ‘opening the bofom of the earth, has uncovered feveral mi- neral:iriches' which without this accidental circumflance would never have been known. ' * Inquiry into the Original State and Formation of the Earth, &c. by John Whiteburft. London, 4t6. with plates. ‘+ Effay on the Oryétography of Derby thire, by Mr. Ferber, tranflated from the German. *. ’ t Voyage en Angleterre, en Ecoffe et aux Iles Hébrides, &c, 2 vols. Svo. avec fig, Ae 4 Q 2 One 228 Memoir on the Foffil:Caout-Chouc, One of the precipices of this mountain is knowh bythe name of Hay Cliff; it is calcareous, and contains fhells and other marine produétions in a ftate of) petrification.: ;The other is called Man-Tor: it is alfo calcareous, and towards the foot there are fome galleries of a mine, on a vein which terminates near the furface, and of which the matrix is a milky calcareous fpar containing large-grained galena, but in fmall quantity. There are found alfo towards the bottom of the fame precipice, as well as in,fome other parts, fiffile ftrata of argillaceous fchift, very often marly, which imbibe water in the time of rain, fplit, and oceafion the folidiand ftony mafies which reft above them to crumble down*. Some of the fchiftous ftrata in queftion have avcertain hardnefs; but allin general have a character of alluvion which an experienced eye cannot miftake, and yet their formation is of the higheft antiquity. It is ata depth which, without fear of being deceived, may be eftimated at leaft at four hundred and fifty feet below the upper {tratum, that the foffil caout- chouc has been found, and, particularly the large fragment in the poffeffion of Mr. Mawe. In general it is in fmall :cat vities, in a kind of nefts between the fiffile ftrata, that this bi+ tuminous matter is contained; and as in this ftate it-is:fhel- tered from the action of the air, it-needs excite no furprife that it fhould have experienced.only very little alteration, ant that its nature is not changed. ! 34 Cl los . In the laft place, one of the cavities, twenty-two inches in lencth and five inches in height, contained a great deal of caout-chouc, ;By thefe means very fine fpecimens of it may - be obtained for colletions, at aivery moderate price 3 and sit is to Mr. Mawe that we are indebted for this obligation. This gentleman, who with his father-in-law Mr. Brawn pof- feffes a large manufactory of {parry fluor, of which they make elegant vafes and other ornaments, carries on trade inva very honourable manner,,with the minerals of Scotland, Derby- fhire and other parts,of England, a depdt of which he pro pofes to eftablith at. Paris, which mutt, no doubt,-bé.of ade vantage to the progrefs of mineralogy. tH I divide the foflil caout-chouc of Derbythire into elaftic or compreflible bitumen, and folid, hard, and brittle bitumen. * « The earth and ftones which ‘cramble down from this mountain,” fays Ferber, who vifited thele places feveral years-before I, did, ‘ form in. feveral places fmall hills, the fize of which daily increafes, and which the people confider as one-of the feven wonders of the Peak,”’—Effai d Oryc- sographie du Derby/bire, par Ferber, Trad. Francoife, p. 21 ; SECTION oF Elafic Bitumen of Derbyfbire. 229 Section I. Compreffible Bitumen, Variety T. Elaftic bitumen of a blackifh brown and fome- what olive colour, foft, exceedingly compreffible, unctuous and fomewhat fat, of a flighty aromatic fmell, but having a little of the infipid odour of natural caout-chouc; inflam- mable, and burning with a bright brilliant flame, leaving a black oily refiduum which does not become dry. The frag- ments of this variety are fometimes an inch and a half in thicknefs and four inches in breadth. They are the largeft except the fragment in poffeflion of Mr. Mawe, which is confiderably larger. Variety If. Foffil caout-chouc, fplit and cracked in the whole exterior furface, which was in contaét with the matrix from which it has been detached. It 1s dry in that part, but neverthelefs. compreffible; black on the furface expofed to the contaé. of the air; but, remarkable in this refpect, that when a lamina of about a line in thicknefs is cut from this caout-chouc with a very fharp knife, it appears in the infide of a yellowifh white colour: when cut in a very thick part, where the action of the air has not been able to render it black, like certain balls of the elaflic gam brought fometimes from Para, it has the fame appearance as the ufual caout- chouc. Another circumftance worthy of attention is, that in the part recently cut a kind of acid matter is obferved to ooze out, which is not of a difagreeable tafte, and which ap- pears to be of the nature of the pyrolignic acid. This caout~ ~ chouc is pellucid on the edges, and almoft of a hyacinth red colour. Scareely has the air exercifed its aétion on the part re~ cently cut, which is white, when it affumes a flight reddith tint, which daily becomes darker, and acquires a dark maho- _gany and then a blackith brown colour; at length, at the end ‘of a month, if expofed to the air, it becomes of a deep black. Variety 111. The fame caout-chouc as the preceding, but of a fomewhat firmer texture and a ligneous appearance. When viewed with a magnifying glafs, it is obferved that the fibrous undulations feen in this variety are merely the effec of the milky fubftance which flowed from the tree more or efs flowly or at different times, and which did not acquire confiftence till it had loft the mucilaginous water which held the matter of caaut-chouc fulpended or in folution. I par ticularly mention this fact, to fhow that this variety has no real relation to the wocd of the tree which produced at that period the elaftic bitumen. Q:3 Variety 230 Memoir on the Foffil Caout-Choug, Variety 1V. Foffil caout-chouc, compreffible, and having @ relation to the firft variety, but of a darker colour, adhering to gray calcareous {par mixed with fome grains of galena. Variety V. Caout-chouc of a liver brown’ colour, mich Jefs unétuous to the touch than the firft variety, but com preflible, and having the afpect of the real natural elaftic gum; and the more remarkable, as it is found to become folid, as we may fay, in fome parts, where it acquires a much greater hardnefs, and even becomes brittle, and acquires a vitreous fplendour. This gradual change is fo ftriking, that we cannot confider this hard bitumen, which in the prefent {pecimen is of a yellowith colour, as a hard bituminous matter accidentally enveloped by caout-chouc. Section II, Solid and Brittle Foffil Caout-Chouc. No. VI. Black folid caout-choue, bard and brittle like jet, excecdingly brilliant on its fra@ture, which is conchoid, and fometimes finely marked with ftrie difpofed in the form of rays, proceeding from the point of fracture, and expanding in the manner of a fan; ele&tric by friction, opake throughout the whole mafs, but pellucid at the edges, and particularly when viewed in a ftrong light: its colour is then a red, alinoft as bright and agreeable as that of the hyacinth, and analogous to the colour obferved on the edges of the elaftic caout-chouc of the fecond variety, feen in the light which feems to an- nounce their identity. No. VII. Another variety of hard caout-chouc, fimilar to that of No. VI. in hardnefs and fplendour, but which is of a liver brown colour. It is entirely pellucid by the hght of a Jamp even throughout its whole fubftance, though opake in common day-ligbt, and its colour is then fiilar to that of the hyacinth. No. VIII. The fame variety as the above, but ofa paler liver colour. It has befides the fame charaéters ‘and the fame properties as the other hard and brittle kinds of caout- chouc; but it is remarkable for {till adhering to its matrix, . confifting of femi-tranfparent milky calcareous fpar, with thick brilliant laming of galena. The caout-chouc here not only ‘adheres to the calcareous {par but to fulphyrated lead, and is intimately mixed with both. ~_ Mr. Mawe, in his Mineralogy of Derbyfhire, mentions the following very curious fact :—‘¢ A variety, the only oné J poffefs of the kind, is elaftic bitumen in a petrified marine fhell inclofed in the rock ;” alfo “ another {pecimen no lefs rare — or Elaftic Bitumen of Derby/bire. 231 rare is obfcure caout-chouc, but tranfparent in the light, in- clofed in cryftallized fluor.” Foffil caout-chouc,sactording” to Mr. Mawe, is found alfo in fulphated barytes. If. it be confidered. that trees and other vegetables, which produce natura] .caout-chouc in fuch abundance that ‘the matter can flow down and accumulate at, the root of them when the wind or any other accident lacerates the bark or breaks the branches, are all exotic, it will be allowed that this is a curious geological fact, which coincides with that of foffil amber, which has been found, and is {till found, in fome coal mines, and in turf foil of an antique origin, and which diflers from that formed in the common turf moffles. We are not yet acquainted with any vegetable productions which furnith caout-chouc in abundance, but the following : tft, The vahea, a {pecies of apocinea, which grows in Ma- dagafcar, and of which Lamarc has given a figure in his J/-. luftrations de Bolanique. ad, The urceola elaftica of Sumatra and of Pullo-Pinang, difcovered by Mr. Howifon, an Englith furgeon at Pullo-Pi- nang, and defcribed in the fifth volume of the Afatic Re- fearches by Dr. Roxburgh *, This plant is of the family of the apocinez. ; 3d, The hevea Guianenfis, defcribed and exhibited in a ficure by Aublet in bis Plantes de la Guiane, is a large tree of the family of the euphorbia. It rifes to the height of more than forty feet; its trunk is fometimes above two feet in diameter; and the natives of Para make bottles, boots, and other articles of the caout-chouc which diftils from it. It is the fame as that mentioned by M. de la Condamine in tbe Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1736, which grows alfo'in the province 6f Efmeralda, in Peru, which the Maina Indiaus call caout-chouc, and of which they make bottles by means of earthen moulds; they ufe it alfo for torches to give them light. . 4th, The artocarpus integrifolia of South America, a tree which approaches near to the mulberry and fig-tree. 5th, The ficus religiofa, . 6th, The ficus Indica. 7th, The bippomane biglandulofa (manchineal tree). , 8th, The cecropia peltata: the two laft among the eu- wordia produce alfo a milky juice analogous to the caout- chouc, * See Philofophical Magazine, vol. vi. Q4 XLI, A ge- — 232) XLI. A general View of the Coal Mines worked in France, of their different Produéts, and the Means of circulating them. By C. Leresvre, Member of the Council of Mines, of the Philomatic Society, Sc. So. [Continued from’ p. 164.] ; Department of La Céte d'Or. Some indications of coal have been announced here, and particularly in the communes of Arefne, Turcey, Montbard, and Chevauney. They deferve to be examined; and Cham- peaux, engineer of mines, now employed in that diftriét, will no doubt :give fome accurate information on the fub- ject: but hitherto no coal: mines have been worked in this department; it can receive its coals from Blanzi by the canal of Charollois, and by going up the Sadéne as far as Saint- Jean-de-Lone, where the canal of Burgundy begins. - Department of the Cétes-du- Nord. No coals have yet been found in this department. Indi- cations of coal have been announced near Lannion and Quimper-Gaezence, in the neighbourhood of Pontrieux ; but no attention has been paid to them. It is fupplied there+ fore only by means of its fea-ports, which may receive the coal brought from the mines of Litry, in the Calvados, and thofe which abound in the northern departments, which may be conveyed by land to the canals which terminate at the fea. Department of La Creufe. Several coal mines (14) are worked in this country, which is ftill little known in a mineralogical point of view, and which appears worthy of being carefully examined. The communes where coal mines in a flate of working are found, are thofe of Couchezotte, Bofmoraud, Vavory, St. Palais, and Fautmazuras. ’ Thovgh their produétion, according to the information obtained by the Council of Mines, is eftimated in general at 126,000 myriagrammes, it certainly exceeds that quantity, becaufe feveral of the mines have not yet been worked with proper activity. The mean price of the coals at the pit is 10 cents per myriagramme. Thefe mines are not much worked, becaufe there are very few means of confumption. If the Creufe, which is faid to be navigable as far as Gueret, could be rendered navigable for boats to Ahun, i : wou General View of the Coal Mines worked in France. 233 would open a very ufeful circulation for the coals of the mines in the neighbourhood of that commune, and would facilitate the tranfportation’ of them as far as the Vienne, to which it joins in the department of Indre-et-Loire. Thefe mines, then, would fupply in part the confumption of the depart- ment of Indre. On the other hand, if it were poffible to render the Thi- rion, which paffes Bourganeuf, navigable from that town to its junétion with the Vienne above Limoges, and to enfure the navigation of the Vienne from Limoges to Chitelleraux, where it begins to bear boats, an exterfive confumption would be opened for the coals which are on the north and fouth of Bourganeuf, and make this fuel circulate in the departments of La Haute-Vienne and of La Vienne. This circulation would be exceedingly ufeful, and increafe manufactories and induftry. Department of La Dyle. This department pofleffes no coal mines; but it borders on that of Jemappes, the numerous mines of which fupply more coals than it has occafion for. It is of importance, therefore, that this fuel, the ufe of which is general in that country, may he obtained at a price fuited to the different places where it is confumed; and that the roads be repaired and carefully maintained in a proper ftate. Without this attention, the dearnefs of carriage would throw the inhabi- tants of La Dyle into a deplorable ftate of dittrefs in regard to fuel, and produce a hurtful ftagnation in the mines of the department of Jemappes. Department of La Dordogne. \ The cantous of Cranfac and Teraffon (15) afford talon tions and ftrata of coals of a good quality and exceedingly rich. Thefe mines would be an objeét worthy being worked with activity, if the navigation of the Vefere were rendered more certain, and eafier. At prefent they are worked only at the furface by fome proprietors of land, and fupply only the local confumption, The preduét of thefe coal mines is not known; but it is cer- tain that the working of them would be eafy, and that they are capable of affording great refources for a long time, Department of Doubs. Several indications of coals have been announced in this department (16). Refearches even have been made in dif- fereut parts, but hitherto no coals have been dug up. According 234 A general’ View of the» According to the general meafures which have been taken by the gorernment, this department is one of thofe where an: engineer of mines will be employed ; and we have reafon to hope that refearches will be made, and followed with fuccefs. A very confiderable mafs of foffil bituminous wood. has been difcovered at Grand-Denis, in the neighbourhood of Ornans, in the commune of Flanchebouche. » This fubftance has not entirely the fame qualities as coals; but in the ftate: im which it is found at Grand-Denis it may be advantage- oufly employed for feveral purpofes, and particularly under boilers. The managers of the falt-works, who have caufed trials to be made wrth it, are going to employ it for evapo- rating the water of the falt-work of Montmorot.. This will produce a great faving in the wood emploved in that manu- factory. Department of La Dréme. The difcovery of coal mines in this department (17) has oftén been announced; but, according to the reports of the engineers of mines who have vifited them, it appears that thefe indications were nothing elfe than bituminous foffil wood, which is frequently found in ftrata of fand, and parti-- cularly in the environs of Creft in the diftrict of that name, and in the territory of feveral communes in the environs of Nions. This foffil wood has been dug up, and particularly at Crefts and though it cannot be applied to the fame purpofes as coals, it is ftill ufeful in thefe countries in the manutaétories for {pinning filk. :eqgob The department of La Dréme may receive abundance of coals, at leaft for fupplying the communes which lie near to ‘the banks of the Rhone, as thofe of the departments of Ar- deche and La Loire can be conveyed to them on that river, + Department of the Scheldt, The mines of the departments of the North and of Je+ mappes furnifh abundance of coals to the inhabitants of this department, in which no coal mines are worked. Department of Eure, ~ Tn this department no coal mines are known. It cannat procure this fuel but by going down the Seine to its mouth, or anlefs fome arrive by fea at Honfleur. This port may be fupplied from the coal mines of Litry, in Calvados, or from thofe of the departments of the North. 84 Department / ee Coal Mines worked in France. 235 Department of Eure-et-Loire. As this department, like the preceding, has no mines in a ftate of being worked, it can ‘procure no coals but thofe con- veyed down the Loire as far as Orleans, which fupply its fouthern part, and thofe circulated on the Seine, which fup- ply the northern. But the land carriage there muft render this fuel very dear. Depariment of Finiflerre. There are no coal mines in this department (18) which. can be confidered in a ftate of produétive working: however, in confequence of old indications, fome refearches have been within thefe few years refumed in the neighbourhood of Quimper. ~ ; Thefe refearches have afforded fome hopes. Small veins of coal have even been found; and as a mine of this kind would be of great importance to the port of Breft and the other fea ports and arfenals of this department, the minifter of the marine has caufed thefe refearches to be continued near Quimper with great activity, according to’plans approved by the Council of Mines. 4 Several other indications have been announced at Cleden and at the bottom of the Bay of Dinan. C. Berth had given in the year 6 fome information in regard to this diftriét ;. in confequence of which he was allowed to continue the re- fearches he had begun, and to put himfelf in a condition to obtain a grant when his difcovery fhould be fully eftablithed. C. Berth fet out for Egypt, and it does not appear that at- tention has fince been paid to his labours: a coal mine in this point would be of the more importance, as it would be within reach of the harbour of Brett, Department of Foréts. No coal mines are worked in this department, which may receive in the fouthern part the produét of the abundant mines in the environs of Saarbruck, and the coals which may be conveyed on the Mofelle. Department of Gard. This is one of the departments of the fouth of France (19) where this kind of fuel is moft abundant. On the north of Alais the mines of Cendras, of Portes, of the Foreft of Abi- lon, La Grand-Combe, and Pradel, furnifh about 2,200,000 myriagrammes of coals per annum, The 236 ae 4 choral View of the The coal mines of Banes, Robillac, Meranes, Saint-Jean- de-Valerifque, furnith at lealt goo,coo myriagrammes, Several ttrata of coal are ftill worked in the environs of Pont-Saint-Efprit, and towards Laudun ; but it is inferior in quality to the before-mentioned.. This is the nfore unfortu- nate, as the fituation of thefe mincs on the banks of the Rhone would render them of great importance on account of the facility with which they could be tranfported. If the coal mines in the environs of Alais poffeffed the fame advantages in regard to tranfportation, the quantity dug up might be increafed to ten times the prefent quantity, with- out any fear of the mines being exhaufted in many years. But they cannot be exported from the country, in confequence of the dearnefs of carriage. The mean price of the large coals at thefe mines 1s 7 cents per myriagramme, and that of the fmall coals from 4 to 5 cents. . It appears that a canal is now conftructing from Nimes to Saint-Gilles. . The mineral riches and abundant refources in fuel, which the mines in the neighbourhood of Alais would furnith for ages, are of fo much importance, that a commu- nication ought to be opened with that country by means of a counter-canal to fupply the place of the bed of the Gardon, which is not navigable. In this department there are alfo fome ftrata of coal worked in the environs of the commune of Vigan. At prefent the working is not carried on with much activity; fome.of the pits have even been abandoned in confequence of law-fuits, which are on the point of being decided. The common amount of the produ of this canton may be eftimated at leaft at 200,020 myriagrammes. Thefe mines cannot find much conlumption except by the Herault; but this river is not navigable in the neighbour- hood of Vigan. Department of La Haute- Garonne. In this department there are no coal mines worked. . Some foundings have been made in the environs of Touloufe, in confequence of fome fuppofed indications. Thefe foundings have not contirmed the hopes which had been conceived. Fofhil wood in the ftate of very fine jet has been found in the Foreft of Montbrun towards Montefquieu and Rieux. Specimens of it may be feen in the collection of the Couneil of Mines. The department of La Haute-Garonne may be we 78 wit Coal Mines worked im France. "237 Wwith'coals in the eaftern part by the mines of Carmeaux, in the department of Tarn. The products of thefe mines are embarked on the Tarn, and enter with) that river inte the northern part of the department of La Haute-Garonne. But the difficulties which occur in the navigation of the Tarn greatly increafe the price of the coals of Carmeaux "This ‘inconvenience might be removed without much expente.. We mutt therefore hope that meafures. will be purfued to remove dthele obftacles; which aré ‘equally prejudicial to induftry;:to commerce; and to all the confumers of thefe departments. ‘The coals deftined for Touloafe and the fouthern part ofthe department are depofited at Port Saint-Sulpice, from which ‘they are tranfported by land carriage. ! o Department of Gers, This department, in which no coal mines are known, can obtain thisfuel only by land carriage from the entrepdts of ‘Touloufe, or from fome of the ports of La Garonne ints northern part, (a SAGAS 2 Department of La Gironde. , s Colleions of bituminous foffil wood depofited in ftrata of fand have been difcoyered in feveral places tn the neighbour- hood of Bourdeaux, As this foflil wood feems tobe difperfed in great abundance, it would be of advantage to. purfue the refearehes which have been imade, with more conftancy than has hitherto been. the cafe, .,. db blvigtte pisesbriette all » -Thele, refearches, might not condud ,to, the difcovery ofa goal mine; but.the foffil wood might be ufed with great ad- i as fueljin different operations, for which woed.is,em- Ployed, aid ise dowiris cross *Phelp are no -coal mines, worked, in this,department, > ut dt receives by the Garonne the, caals,of.Carmeaux. This, fuel might alfo be procured with more, gale. from, the, abundant coal mines which are known between; teraflon and Bergerac, on the banks of the Velere and the Dordogne, if the naviga- tion of thefe rivers were rendered eafier. |, Lins ele This department wight, receive allo by the mouth of the Gironde the products at rich, mines of the, departments of the North. .An exchange) of the coals, iron, works, and of a yariety of ,other articles) manufactured in thefe depart- ments, for the wines and brandy of the Bordelais, which are in requeft in the whole North, might be made by the French naval trade as well as the Englifh. “Tt is-even probable that we fhould obtain great advantages! for the ironmongery trade 4n India, in confequence of the low price at which the ma- 6 nufactories 1238 “0 A general View of the nuafaétories of the north of France could furnith thefe articles, of which Bourdeaux would be the entrdpat paar for eats “ica or for the Eaft Indies. Department of Herault. Coal mines are frequently met with in this department (20). ~The. canton of Bedarieux affords fome immentely,rich,, fuch -as thofe of Saint- Gervais, of Camplong, of, Bouiflaque, and ‘Gratfleffac ; towards the fouth, in the canton of Roujan, thofe -of Boufquet, in the commune of Neffies ; towards the fouth- oweft, in the canton of Saint-Chiniau, the mines.of Ceffenon; sand towards, the fouth, near the canaliof the,two feas, thofe of Azillanet. Some haye been found alfo in different, places in the environs of Montpellier. A leafe is about to be granted for working thofe of Saint-Gely-du-Fefq. Though the greater part of the coals procured from thefe mines is not of the bett quality, they are a great relief, im -confequence of the dearnefs.of wood, and of the numerous manufactories in which they are employ ed. But in general, the means’of circulation in the interior of (] this department are neither numerous nor eafy. The coals of ‘the mines in the neighbourhood of Bedarieux, which might furnifh a great many, cannot conveniently be tranfported. Some individuals are foliciting for grants fubje& to the con- dition of making a road, which’ would foon givé more im- ‘portance to thefe mines by facilitating the carriage of them to Bedarieux. It would be neceflary alfo to: have a communica ‘tion with the canal of the two feas, lefs expenfive than that by land. It appears that ‘the river Ourbe might eafily be rendered sathenble from’ Bedarieux ‘to Bezieres. It ae then anfwer very well the propofed object. The price Of coals at théfe mities’ is 15 cénts per myria- eramme. But this price is doubled when they have been -tranfported as far as the carial. "The coal mines which’ are neareft, fauch as thofe of Azib- Janet,‘ are attended with fome advantages i in this refpeét. « The, whole preduét of the different mines of this depart- “ment may be eftimated at’ 1,800,000 inyriagranimes. ' In confequence of the fupetior: quality of the coals of Car- ‘meaux, in the department of Tarn, they are received by the confumers along the canal, in preference’ to thofe’ already “mentioned, ‘though the price is nearly double: b P90 7. a ‘Palae oe ie Nie Department of Jemappes, UA very large Poaane of this wdepar teat (21), and pari - seularly ~ - — Coal Mines worked in Frarice. 239 eularly its fouthern part, may be confidered as an | ithmenfe: amafs of coals, in fome' places fearcely covered by ftrata more modern than the dep6ts of that mineral.’ © Nive The geologue, in traverfiig the’ interior of thefe mines, is aftonifhed at the varied pheenomena exhibited by the nume=" rous and fucceffive ftrata of coals, the inflection, curvatures, ortarns of which, in an inverfe direction and parallelifm, open a vaft but difficult field for conjectures refpecting their forma+ tion,’ and the revolutions of the‘globe which muft have pro duced thefe ‘refults | but to enter here into a confideration of thefe wonderful effe&s, a defeription of which muft be re- ferved for particular treatifes on the operations of ‘nature, would lead me too far from my prefent object. : I thall therefore content’*myfelf with giving fome idea of the refourceés ‘which this country farnifhes, not only to its in- habitants, but'to'thofé of (everal other departments ;' by which it will be feen how much its produétions in coal might be in= ereafed,) andthat they would be fafficient to fupply for many years all 'thofe'parts of france which receive coals by fea froma foreion countries." | usd . More than’ 3000 pits are worked inthe environs of Jes mappes, Mons, and Charleroi.’''Phey are far‘ from’ being earriedito their maximum of activity. The fum: of ther products, ‘however, aniounts, at the lealt, to 220,000,000 my- riagrammes atinually; and this produét might eafily be dou- bled, if the confumption increafed in the fame proportion. « Insregard to the quality of thefe coals, it is exceedingly va- ious: thefe numerous mines’ furnifh coals of ‘every kind; and the price at the pits differs according to the quality frota 2,9 cents per myriagranime. 9S BIS ISL Tbe places where they are confamed are, the departments f the Sambreand Meule, La Dvle, the Scheldt, the Denx- Nethes, and Batavia, in competition with the Englith’ coals, The means of circulation aré the river Haine, the Scheldt, the canals which communicate with thefe rivers, the Sambre ‘and the Menfe, and the large roads from Mons and Charleroi to Bruflels. ; pag oh A . is | - ot : f ? ; tT ? + It. may be readily conceived of how much importance “it "would be to this department, which employs a great number of hands in working its coals, and alfo-to thofe coun ries to whic _ thefe coals might be tranfported, if the canals and roads were kept in a flate of better repair. EMP ent i Prmaaterg anion OF the roads which retards conveyance “or whic h renders more horfes neceflary, niultiplies expen ‘and increafes the price of the coals; which ought to be kept yvinizy * 3 240 On.a new. Kind of; Painting as low as poffible, both on account, of their utility in our ‘ma- nufactories, and of the neceflity of maintaining a competition with the Englifh coals, . The carriage by the caufeways from Charleroi and Mons to Bruffels adds greatly to the price of thefe coals. | A canal has, been. projected for uniting the Sambre towards Thuin with the fmall river of Senne; which would convey the coals of the mines in the neighbourhood of Charleroi to Bruflels, and would thus form 4 communication with the Scheldt and Batavia, fo as to prevent the neceflity of land carriage. This canal, valuable in this point of view, would be of utility alfo to the export trade of thefe countries in regard to the glafs and nails fent to Holland and to our own ports, and which are thence conveyed to the Indies, It would be of utility alfo to government for.tranfporting the timber of the Foreft of Souane, through which it would als. sy odNhiwess : To point out thefe improvements will, no doubt, be fuffi- cient to induce government to pay ferious attention to them} but until new means of circulation be proyided,, it is of ime portance that the exifting roads fhould be properly repaired. I fhall terminate this article by obferving, that it is thein- tereft of France to facilitate its commercial intercourfe with Holland, and particularly that which relates to the importa; tion of our coals into that, country: confequently, inftead of laying a duty on their exportation to the amount, as jis faid, of 20 per cent., this branch of commerce ought to be entirely free. It would be good policy alfo to encourage by bounties the exportation of the coals of this department, efpecially when deftined for French ports in parts of our territory which cannot receive this fuel from the mines of the interior, and which if not fupplied by our mines would procure them from foreign countries, ) . . [To be continued. ] cord sett ort XLII. On @ new Kind of , Painting with the Serum ér watery Part of the Blood. By F. CARBONEL, M.D, of Barcelona*. ; i j Tue advantages and utility of painting have at all times excited the emulation of profeffors and of artifls.. The pro=-: grefs of this art, which imitates nature, has fortunately cor- refponded to their wifhes; but its advancement would cer- * From the Yournal de Phyfique, Ventofe, an. if. tainly with the Serum or watery Part of the Blood. 241 tainly have been more rapid if artifts had been fooner made acquainted with the new chemiftry. This affertion is proved by the prefent difcovery. The neceffity of painting furfaces of different kinds, their various fituations, and the complex circumftances which at- tend the application of colours, have given rife to the differ- ent kinds of painting which are known; fuch as painting in frefco, painting in fize, oil-painting, painting with milk, feiing on porcelain, painting with wax, painting on glafs, e The journey of the king of Spain to Barcelona, and the preparation of the edifices deftined for the ufe of their ma- jefties, afforded me an opportunity of folving a new problem in regard to this art, It was neceffary to difcover fome kind of painting of the common colour of ftone which might be able to refift rain, which fhould be unalterable in the fun, eafy to be applied on wood, and which fhould dry foon and exhale no bad odour; in a word, a painting equally durable with that in fize, and which {hould have the property of being able to withftand the inclemency of the weather. The folu- bility of gelatin in water, the bad fmell of oil, the weak ad- hefion of milk of lime to wood, and its ready alteration by heat, made me fenfible that it would be impoffible to have recourfe to any of the known vehicles for fecuring the co- louring matters. After fome examination I found that al- bumen * was the only fubftance which could anfwer the re- quired conditions, on account of its infolubility in water, and the confiftence it acquires by combining with calcareous earths. This fubftance, prepared by the vital power in the animal organs, is found almoft pure in the white of an egg or albumen, and is found in combination in different animal fubftauces. But the great vifcidity of the’ white of an egg, the clots which are formed by its combination with lime, and particularly its dearnefs, made me give up all idea of employ- ing it for painting a whole edifice. I then conceived that the ferum of blood, the principal part of which confifts of albumen, would be attended with all the advantages of white of egg for the propofed end, with- out having any of its inconveniences. Chemical analyfis of animal fubftances, indeed, fhows that the ferum of blood, commonly called the water of the blood, or, improperly, the lymph of the blood, is a kind of animal mucilage compofed of albuminous or gelatinous fubftances in different propore * This painting was much wanted for the bridge which joins the bored de la Douane to the palace of the captain-general, as no other kind could be employed for fear of injuring the queen's health. Vou, XV. No. 59. R tions, aide So Ona new Kind of Painting tions, diffolved: in’ am indeterminate quantity of water, con- ftantly united to pure foda, which reduces the albuminous fubftance to’ an almoft faponaceous ftate. There is found alfo in.the feram phofphate of foda, of lime, and of ammo- nia. But thefe faline fub{tances are not effential to this'com- bination, fince they not only may vary in their proportions; but be wanting either in whole or in part; and even unite in the ferum to other falts, fuch/as the muriate of potath, the phofphate of magnefia, &c., without the albuminous, alka+ line, or gelatinous fubftance of the ferum being changed, or exhibiting different charaéteriftic properties. ; This doctrine, received by all the celebrated modern che- mifts, induced me to think that the albuminous fubftance of ferum, modified by its combination with gelatin and foda, ought to form with calcareous earth a compofition which would retain no more of that vifcidity and tenacity affumed by the mixture of the white of an egg and lime, than'what might be neceflary for anfwering the propofed end. Thefe reafons, and the low price of this liquid in large cities, foon induced me to try the effects of the’ feram’ of blood with pulverized quicklime; and I found, with much fatisfaction, that my firft trials correfponded in every refpeét to the hopes I had conceived): 160) 9 1) orp Praétice and Application of ihe new. Kind of Painting. The preparation of this new kind of paintis eafy, and re- quires very little time. “Nothing is neceffary but to pulverize the lime, and to dilute atin the feram of blood until it forms a liquid of fufficient 'thicknefs for painting ; which is then to be applied in. the tufual manner.. The colour which: this compofition acquires is whitith, and more or lefs {himing, ac- cording to the purity of the ferum and the whitenefs of the lime, “This earth «may be employed either in the ‘tate of guick vor cauftic ‘lime reduced to powder, or well: flaked with a {mall quantity of water to leffen the adhefion ‘of its integrant parts. It muft then be reduced toa fine powder, and be fifted through a clofe fieve. | 1f kept for fome days, it is neceflary to preferve it ina clofe tub or earthen vetlel, to ‘prevent its combination with the carbonic acid and water of the aimofphere. ©The ferum is feparated from’ the curdled blood by;decantation: but care mult -be taken toy thake the matter cas*little as poffibie, and to fuffer it each time to're- maimiat teftt) 4 oi 29> iit epoditnley to nuit In this compofition two things only are to be obferved :. the frft 1s, that ferum being a fluid highly fufceptible of cor- ruption, it muft be employed the fame day it is feparated 5 or : . ; at eather ’‘s . ‘ebith the Serum or watery:Part of theBlood.... 243 at furthett the day fullowing, provided it’ be kept) in a cool place (heltered from the contact, of the air,)-efpecially during, the fummer, when it alters much imore.eafily, 5 10% In café of doubt, infpetion of the fluid alone may ferve to, determine its quality; forthe figns of its. fermentation,are very evident. This/obférvation 18. applicable alfo to the co-; leuring liquor, but in a lefs degree.» Tt, follows, from this circuinttance, that the veffels which, have been uled for con-' taining, preparing, or applying paint made with ferum ought to be wafhed every day. The fecond precaution to be taken is, that a8 the re-action of the ferutn and Jime increafes in the courfe of time, as well as the denfity of the mixture, in order _ that it thay be preferved in the neceflary ftate of fluidity, or to diminith or increafe it according to the mature of the fub- ftances to be painted and the number of {trata to, be applied, another veflel filled with ferum mutt be provided, to give to the colouring liquor the neceflary fluidity! It thence foliows that the mixture muft be prepared.as itis ufed.)) | Having affured myfelf of the fuccefsful and con fant effects of this kind of painting, I tried to mix it with different, co= ° louring fubftances, to render the application of the invention _ More general. ns ¢ The well known re-aGtion of animal fubftances and of lime; on the metallic oxides, and particularly on thofe in which oxygen is tinited to the metal with little force; made me fuf=, pect an alteration of fome colours when mixed with, this l- quid; an alteration naturally produced. by the feparation) of a part of the oxygen fromthe metallic oxides. On the other hand, the analogy which coloured chalks have with calea- reous earth induced me to believe that) their combination would be attended with the happiett refult. The oxides. of lead, copper, and arfenic, indeed, undergo a fingular altera- tion in their refpeétive colours, when they are nnited with ferum and calcareous earth + but this 13 not the cafe with co- balt green; which on that account appears to me to be very proper for being ufed as a colouring matter in this new, kind of painting. | Thole earths, however, called red, green, black, or yellow, which are of an argilloscalcareous nature, «when nixed with thefe fubftances, may furnith diferent agreeable colours of a durability equal to the blueifh colour produced: merely by the mixture of lume and of ferum. ef bave however remarked; that the durability of this paint- ingis' confiderably altered whem th¢te 1s mixed with itvavenv large quantity of colouring earth, fuch as the black earth ufed for painting an iron colour, or the reprefentation of white marble with black fpots. To rémedy this inconvenience, no- , Ra thing 244 Painting with the Serum or watery Part of the Blood. thing will be neceffary but to mix a little white of an eg : with the ferum before it is ‘united with the lime or the black earth. I muft here add, that wood painted in this manner may be polifhed, and made to acquire a certain degree of Juftre. In this cafe I have obferved that freth fpermaceti may be fubftituted with advantage for the tallow or oil in which the rags employed for rubbing wood before it is po- lifhed are commonly dipped. This kind of paint may be applied alfo with the fame fuccefs to earthen ware, lead, tron, cut ftone, &c. The circumftances which induced me to employ this new kind of painting, obliged meto make an extenfive ufe of it, without allowing me time to carry my operations any further. More than 300 arrobes* of ferum were confumed in the courfe of a few days. In this manner we were able to paint not only the paflage and bridge of the king’s palace, but alfo the windows and doors of the fame edifice, thofe of the magnificent building of the Exchange, the Place de Taureau, and many private houfes. The happy effects it produced, when expofed to the eyes of the public, are a fufficient proof that praétice here perfectly correfponds with theory. It is hardly neceffary to obferve, that the furfaces to be » painted muft be fmooth; that the wood muft be covered with a ftratum of plafter; and that this painting muft not be applied over painting with oil or with turpentine, becaufe the heat would make it crack. { propofe to continue the fmall-number of trials I have al- ready made, to render the ule of my difcovery more general. The following is the refult of thofe which I have hitherto been able to attempt. In confequence of the vifcidity, adhefion, and fpeedy de- ficcation of this compofition, it may be employed in the fame manner as bitumen, to cement with great folidity broken ar- ticles of every kind. In this cafe it oppofes a ftrong refift- ance to the action of fire, water, many of the gafes, and to vapour. As feram contains a large quantity of albuminous matters having myfelf feparated from it nearly half its weight, it may be employed with advantage for clarifying fugar, wine, and other fubftances, in a more ceeonomical manner than by the white of an egg. { This uew compofition may be employed alfo for covering the furface of damp walls intended to be painted in oil co-' jours; taking care, however, to cover it with a coating of Z ; ‘ ; * An arrobe weighs 25 or 26 pounds, "platter ee On the Air-Furnaces employed in Iron Foundries. 245. plafter and glue, to prevent its re-aétion on’ the colouring parts co} of the painting. ; The hardnefs of this fubftance, and its fufceptibility of re- ceiving a polith, induce me to believe that it might be em- ployed on ftucco, and for imitating it on walls and ceilings. ° It may be ufed alfo for uniting water-conduits, and for ee- menting ftones of all dimenfions, and efpecially. thofe which are put into wood caiffous for building under water. It appears from different works, that the antients had con ceived the idea of employing blood in the compofition of their cements and mortar; but the ufe of it in painting was before ‘unknown. Befides, there was too great a diftance between this ufe of blood and that of ferum freed from the fibrous part and the colouring matter, to admit of any doubt that the prin- ciple of my difcovery is entirely my own. It follows from what has'been here faid, that this new kind of painting may be added to thofe already known, and that it may be called painting 2 /erum; that it is as eafily applied as prepared ; that the elements of it are common, and of little value; and that it unites in it all the advantages of painting in oil and in diffemper, without haying any of their inconveniences. XLII. On the Kind of Air-Furnaces employed in Iron Foun- dries for cafting large Pieces of Ordnance, Shafts for Mills, Cylinders, and other heavy Articles, By Mr. Davip Musuer, of the Calder Iron Works *, ‘Tue furnaces about to be defcribed are employed for melting pig-iron with the flame of pitecoal, Furnaces of this kind are conftructed of various fizes accarding to cir cumftances. The fmall fizes will run down from feven to ten hundred weight, and are ufed in fmall foundries for what the trade call jobbing. Fig. 1. (Plate [V.) a ground plan of two large air-furnaces, and chimney for melting pig- or caft-iron with the flame af it-coal. fi The letters ABCD point out the exterior dimenfions of the ftalk or chimney, which is firft erected, leaving two open- ings or arches into which the fore-part of the furnaces are afterwards built, .The breadth of the chimney at the parti- cular place which the plan exhibits is 16 feet from A to B, and from A to D or from B to C 6 feet 6 inches. The plan drawn at that elevation whore the flame enters the chimney * Communicated by the Author. R3 by - 246 . Air-Furnates employed in Iron Foundries by the flue or:throat, narrowed on purpofe to: throw back part of the flame, and keep the furnace equally hot. throughout, as mav be more pacticutarly viewed inthe vertical fection, fig, 2. LEE, the farnace bars on. which the coals. tel and. rete the combuftion is maintained. FR, openings called teafing-holes, by. which the coals are ‘skvirddltiobal to repair the fire. GG, fire-brick buildings called baidnGrs Thefe are nani to concentrate the flame, that it may act as violently on the metal ‘as poffible: Upon the height of the bridge much de- pends in fufing the metal ifpeedily; and with little lofs. = height of this may be feen in the vertical fection, fig. a. G: H H, the charging doors, by which the metal. is Tees esigueieth m the ‘{hape and ftate of pig-iron, lumps, feraps, &e. &ex The iron generally accupiesithd furnace acrofs to 1, called the back wall, and is;never meant to.approach the bridge nearer than. the dotted line, Jeft the metal) in melting fhould ran back into the grates, in place of defcending into the general referyoir or cavity below.) Phe cotners of notches, >, by Bs by receive a tout caft-lron frame Jined with | fine-bricks..|)Phig is hung by means. of aichainvand pulley, and can) be; raifed and deprefied at pleafure. This frame is, properly {peaking, the charging door, and is always carefully made air-tight by means of moiftened fand. KK, ‘the flués ‘or openings by which the flame antdiddle chimney. Thefe ate 85 inches by so.) »On maintaining thefe openines of a proportionaté fize'to the other parts de- pend in a great meafure the’ powers: and ceconomy of | ‘the furnace. . : LE, lading doors , by which ladles’are’ introdweed, im the cafe of fmali fueriaces, to lift’ out the corer ant ag rae it to the various moulds. I lt ‘MMM, ‘binding’ bolts’ to limit within! proper: bounds the’ expanfion Which takes place in ‘the’ nore the furnace is highly heated. 1 Fig 2. vertical {ection of one of the babies and id ap- proj prate ftalk or chitfimey. 10 -) M94 Ey the orates. . 809-11 Fy rhe tating hole. Mane sono Oba: erotel ont C: the britleey’ Dodo ub advelor rexierido vo alah wes UH, the hating door! lors 10 eyai ORS the: fle er opening: into the chimney. id ebrewien “fe; the fading door. ot ley pe MM, the binder or binding bolt!’ i Chos A moths N; ite? -jnterior of the {talk or chimney, 30 inehes: fquare.: 00, the fire brick-work, g inches thick. PP, fpace OO Sor cafting large Pieces of Ordnance, Sew.) 247 _ PP, fpace of 2,inches for ftaffing with fand, |. QQ, common brick building, ve inasiele ill | _ RR, caft-iron lintels, over which are, thrown double g-inch arches, fo that at any time the inferior building can be taken, down to, make repairs, without fhaking or im the leat injuring the chimney. , ‘ers Be S. The.dotted lines here are, meant to reprefent. what. is called.the tapping-hole. . When a large piece of goods is, to be caft, lifting the metal with ladles would be impragticable.; A fharp-pointed,,bar.is driven. up this, opening... The iron, then flows freely.out into a large bafon, of famd made for its reception... It.is then, conducted, by collateral channels, into the mould. sy oi bes . id ° The fpace under the curved dotted Jine from G,to L, by S, is filled. with a mixture of fand and afhes,, When the fur-, nace is prepared)to, melt, the whole of the bottom receives a, ftratum, of {harp clean fand about two inches thick, This is broken, up at night, and -freth fand ts fubflituted for it before the fire is kindled, i) the, morajng. 4444 65) or | . Fig.3.is a horizontal fection of the chimuey or, ftalk, taken where the;flues affume;a perpendicylar direCuon.,, The letters in this figure correfpond to thofe in the vertical fection, fig. The height of the chimney ovght wot, to be lefs than ys feet: if 50 feet, the effect, will be fooner and of courle, better, prow Gueeth, sfiiit-qsac - unit qi waiatool vd gino €i ‘ts _, Remarks 2 pon'tke Melting of Iron in thefe Purngces. _ The effect,.withed ,to ,be produced. in air-furnaces/is the fafion of a, certain portion of pig-, or caft-iron. far the, purpofe of being poured or run intoymoulds to form articles. of almost every defcription...s)5veleeyrs _ The, preparation previous tor the bottom of the furnace as Jaid, and. fmoothed, sith, freth fand, and all:the openings made air-tight, the, furnace-man uutroduces a kindling at the teafing-hole, accompanied, with new, pit-coal...Ina few minutes, a, confiderable, volume .of dark, flame, mixed. withdmanks is produced... The fire quickly gathers ftrength ; more coal i aye i pimsyp odd bar joni melting is. as follows :—After is introduced; and the furnace now becomes filled with.a yellow-colowred fame. By cqn- unuing this operation, for an hour, or.an. hout-and,a quarter, the farnace/and flame will have, become completely white; the latter fleady, and at. times, apparently without motion, The furnace-man now judges the bottom to-have been fufi- ciently hardened for receiving the pig-won,without any rifl of finkimg, The charging-dooxr js now, opened, and the pig- metal thrown ¢arefully and) regularly, upon that part of the 104 R4 “bottom 248 On the Air-Furnaces employed in Iron Foundries. bottom formerly defcribed as being appropriated for its recep- tion. The door is again clofed and made air-tight, and the operation of firing continued with unremitting care and at~ tention. The time of melting depends entirely upon the quantity of metal introduced. The furnaces defcribed above are capable of melting from 50 to 60 hundred weight of metal each, and when there is a moderate circulation of air they will perform this work in 2! or 3 hours. In half an hour after the metal is introduced it affumes a blackith red colour. It then begins to brighten with every additional fire, and in about one hour appears white, and begins to lofe fhape, and refem- ble a wreath of fnow. An eye accuftomed to fuch heats will now difcern the metal beginning to drop, and run down the inclined plane in very beautiful ftreamlets refembling quickfilver. Eight or ten of thefe are vifible ‘at a time, and after proceeding half way down begin to form jun@ions with each other, and flow connected into the general cavity or refervoir. By-and-by this becomes filled, and literally forms a beautiful molten mirror, in which fometimes part of the interior furnace is refleGted. The furnace-man, by fearching at the bridge with his fire- iron or teafer, judges when the metal is nearly all gone. Of this he is certain be looking up from the peep-hole of the Jading-door., If the ftreamlets of the running metal have ceafed, then the whole is melted, and ready for running out. In the operation of melting, the three following cireum- ftances ought to be particularly attended to: the thinnefs or hotnefs of the metal; the watte or lofs fuftained in melt- ing; and the quantity of coals employed. The firft is of the utmoft importance, as many articles in the foundry bufinefs require the metal in a ftate of the greateft divifion ; otherwife they will be found imperfect when taken from the fand, and unfit for fale. The furnace-man, there- fore, is always on the watch to replace the fire as it decays, and keep a large and fharp volume of flame conftantly pafling over the metal. . ~ The wafte or lofs of real ‘metal is alfo an objeé& of great importance. This always bears a relation to the quality of the iron, the ftrength and cleannefs of the coals, and the judgment and attention of the melter, Strong iron is found always more difficult to fufe; this neceffarily expofes it for a Jong period in contaét with the flame. ‘The reverfe happens with metal that is more fragile, and eafier broken in the pig. The length of the expofure in fufing depends on this ; oe other Ob/ervations on the Freezing of Water, 3c. 249 other circumftances being alike, the lofs or wafte of metal will alfo be in the fame ratio. ; ' There are, however, other fa€ts not unworthy of notice, No. I. pig-iron, or richly carbonated metal, when run from an air-furnace, will be found in point of quality little better than No. II. or carbonated iron. This is owing to a quan- tity of its carbon being deftroyed during the fufion. The lofs in melting No. I. iron, therefore, chiefly confifts of carbon 3 and the deficiency of metal ought never, with a clean bot- tom, to exceed 1 cwt. in 20. Carbonated or No. II. iron alfo becomes deprived of a confiderable portion of its carbonaceous mixture in fufion ; and when run from the air-furnace is feldom better than No. If[. metal. The lofs fuftained in melting may be ave- raged at 7 per cent. No. ILL. pig-iron is, after melting in an air-furnace, found whitifh or mottled. It is feldom fufceptible of the fame nice degree of divifion as the fuperior qualities, and lofes in fufion a much larger proportion of metal, feldom under 10 per cent. and frequently 12% or 15. The quantity of coals requifite to melt a given quantity of iron is various, as much depends upon the quality and fufi- bility of the metal. If the furnace goes one heat a day with No. I. or If. iron, the quantity of coals will be from 20 to 25 ewt. for a ton of iron. If two or three heats a day, or as many tons of iron are melted at one kindling, the proportion of coals will be nearly weight for weight Piha iron melted when the coals are mixed with a fair proportion of {mall : with ftrong large fplint coals, one ton of good pig-iron may be completely reduced with from 12 to 15 cwt. including the previous heating of the furnace. XLIV. Obfervations on the Freezing of Water and ihe Na- ture of Snow: in a Letter from Profefor DRIESSEN to Dr. Van Marum*. As the prefent feafon has afforded us an opportunity to make experiments on the freezing of water and the nature of fnow, I flatter myfelf that it will give you fome fatisfaction to be made acquainted with the refults I have obtained iu regard to this important fubje¢t; and I give you full liberty ta papi them, if you think they are likely to be of any utility. * From Algemeene Kon/t en Letier-Bode, No. 14, 1804. At « 250 Odfervations on the Freezing of Water, At prefent, however, [ fhall give you only a fhort account of my experiments, becaufe I hope, in the courfe of a few years, to collect materials for a. more elaborate work on the freezing of water, and the ftate of the atmofphere in winters, haying been induced to turn my attention to the latter object by the objfervations | had made, and which I mentioned to, you three yearsazo, on the force, with which a confiderable quantity of vapour, efpecially during the time of ftrong froft, is difengaged in an aériform, ftate from freezing water, and rifes, as 1t were, with violence into. the atmofphere; and on the increafe of volume which the air thereby acquires even in clofe vefiels, and which it retains. during the ftrongeft cold. When I traverfe the fnow-clad fields during,.the, coldett days of winter; when I confider,the dry ttate of the air, and of every thing around me, arifing, no doubt, from-a ftrong and centinued tendency of the aqueous particles, of which [ ~ neither fee nor feel any thing, to'rife into the higher regions of the atmofphere; and when in confequence of the feremity, of the beavens' I can, difiinguith very fmall objects at a great diffance, I cannot help admiring the power-of nature, as yet fo little known, by which, air fo cold and fo much, condenfed can be fo intimately connected with water... This water, in miy opinion, can be confidered only,as in an aériform ftate,) as fuch combined with the atmofphere by a very ftrong; afiz nity, and, forming .with, itone and the fame body: I mutt obferve alfo, that this affinity feems to. increafe in the ratio of the cold. y athetow s/f das AAT er Pea The atmofphere..being an elaftic fluid in which caloricjig eombined by the fironge(t affinity with, its bafes, it by thefe means appears to be more.capable of preferving by the power of this umion, in the ftate of atmofpheric:vapour, the! aériform water which has fo weak an affinity for its fpecific caloric. The air thas condenfed, and containing more aerial particles in the fame {pace than in fummer, attra¢ts, on this.account, the water with much greater force. The water becoming aériform during the procefs of freezing; and in that flate en- tering into combination with the air, has no need of external heat to maintain it in that ftate of union. The aériform ftate of water, which in fammer is maintained by thé! heat 6f the furrounding bodies, is im’ this feafon preferved ‘by a fiate of greater affinity. Fs the water then, durme' this cold, ferene, wintery atmo- fphere, in @ more perfe ftate of union with the air? Tan fwer in the affirmative; and therefore I cam readily conceive why the mercury ftands at fuch heights in the barometer during that feafon, This air allo may be confidered as a re- } ceptacle andon the Nature of Snowe 255 eeptacle fora very largé quantity of combined caloric, which by the decompolition of the atmo!phere returns again, in a great meafure, with the water, as fenfible heat to the furface of the earth : in the phenomena of combuftion, refpiration, and other great operations in the ceconomy of nature, [can {ee not onlya decompofition of vital air, but that alfo: of adri- form water, which is fo intimately connected wath air.» Bat as I dare not venture to proceed further in this’ path; for which I yet fecl nvyfelf too weak, I fhall return to the prins cipal obje&t of this paper. LT have repeated the experiments which I before communi- cated: to you, as already obferved, and wath the fame refult T entertained no doubt that the dilatation of freeziurg water, previoutiy deprived of air, is to: be aferibed, befides to eryf- tallization, in particular to’ the aériform water, which dung the freezing ‘bem carried off with the liberated caloric, de- ranges in its paflage and feparates the cry(tals, from each other. | Dhad entirely given up the idea of the exiftence of airin chemical uwion with: water, or with its. bafes, which could. not be feparated by boiling, and which by freezing might again be liberated invan’ elattic ftate, mill the treatife of my friend Dr. Uilkens, written in March 1800, came into my ‘bands, . . T . 221.7 “The webl-kbown merit of this: philofopber, the «modefty with which he communicates his ideas to) the public, made me confider it.as)my duty to examine his objections with: all: due refpeét; but atthe fame time to prove'to my pupils, if poffible, the truth of my experiments. Ith Hatt ©) According to my experiments, water can be perfectly freed from‘air. In fuch water no air-bubbles arife during the pros . eels of freezing, provided the ait has no accels tot. Its communication with the air would inftantly make them ap- pear. y! oui bY , For the fake of thofe who may 'be defirous to repeat my experiments, F fall deferibe an infallible method by which the fmalleft traces of air in water'may’ be detected. “None of the means commonly ufed for the purpole are fuficient when aecurdcy is required, as‘is the cafe inthe prefent mftance, { pour the water deftined for examination into am earthen veflel, communicate a blue tint to it by a fufficient quantity of foluvion ‘of Jitmus, which T preferve ready, of a certain firength, for fach purpofes [then fill with it a flafl in fuch a manner, that the apertare of the flatk is kept under water daring the tme of filling ; taking care to (hake the flafk, that the favallett air-bubble may not remain init. I then invert the flatk in thewater, and inwoduce mo it, im the common manner, 252 Obfervations on the Freezing of Water, manner, pure nitrous gas until 1-16th or 1-20th of it is filled. I then place the flafk in a difh, and intercept its com- munication with the atmofphere by means of mercury. Now, if there be any air in the water, its oxygen gas muft unite with the nitrous gas, producing more or lefs acid according to the quantity of the oxygen gas. The folution of litmus, therefore, muft acquire a red colour, and that, ceteris paribus, more or lefs, and in a fhorter or longer time, according te the quantity of oxygen prefent in the water. When you in- tend to examine different kinds of water at the fame time, after it has ftood two days introduce into it carefully, in fnall quantities, by means of a fyringe, an alkaline folution; and from the quantity of the folution neceffary to reftore the blue colour to the folution of litmus, which has been turned red, you can eftimate very accurately the relative quantity of oxy- gen gas, and confequently that of the common air mixed with the water. A proof of this kind was neceflary in order to determine with certainty whether water could be entirely freed from oxygen gas, and confequently from common air; for azotic gas is never prefent in water alone. Diftilled water, hotwever carefully prepared, and immedi- ately received as it comes off in flafks clofely topped, cannot bear the proof by nitrous gas. Water freed from air by means of the air-pump again imbibes it as foon as the air has free accefs to it: even if the water be boiled in the flafk, - when expofed for a few moments to the atmofphere it be- comes, in fome meafure, reddifh by this proof. After a great many fruitlefs attempts, I was never able to. free water entirely from air but by the following procefs : T hoil. pure water for at leaft two bours in a large bafons colour it with litmus; warm a large ftoppered flafk in it, and, holding it by means of a pair of forceps, fill it entirely with the boiling water. J let the flatk remain for at leaft half an hour with its aperture fome inches below the furface of the boiling water, frequently firiking its fides with the forceps to expel any air which may fil] remain in it, I then invert the flafk, place it in an earthen veffel, and immediately introduce nitrous gas: I then intercept all communication with the external air by mercury, of which there muft be a fufficient quantity, on account of the diminution of the volume of the water, and particularly of the nitrous gas, by coaling; in confequence of which the mercury rifes into the flatk to a certain height. In this manner, I had the fatisfaction to fee that the liquor retains its blue colour for weeks; a certain proof that water can be entirely freed from air. ‘ me was and on the Nature of Snow. 253 T was now enabled to proceed a ftep further, and to deter- mine whether after this procefs any of the bafes of air, and, in particular, free oxygen, remained in. the water, which during freezing might be extricated in the ftate of elaftic air. On one of the coldeft evenings of the month of December 18or, I filled fome flafks, in the manner already mentioned, with blue-coloured water freed from its air and with nitrous gas, and others with water without any addition; all of which { placed in the window. Next morning no change was to be obferved, though the froft had been very ftrong: the water in all the flafks was in a ftate of perfeét fluidity. This phe- nomenon, I acknowledge, is very common: but I mention it becaufe fome confider the impeded difengagement of air as the caufe of it; an idea which I was not ignorant of, and which agrees with the refult of this experiment. This cirecumftance rendered the experiment more agreca~ ble; and being certain that every thing would freeze on the leaft agitation, I was enabled to obferve better the {mallet change which would take place during the procefs of freezing, What I expected took place; none of thofe prefent during the freezing could obferve the leatt change of colour. We every where faw bubbles appear, and difperfe themfelves widely through the lump of ice; but they were merely ni- trous gas. At the end of two days we did not perceive the leaft trace of rednefs in the ice, till the flafk at length burft- ing, and the air thus having free accefs, the whole mafs in- ftantly became red. The flafks which contained no nitrous gas, or tincture of litmus, exhibited during the freezing of the water no air-bubbles; but when the flafks burf in confe- quence of the froft increafing, the mafs of ice was immedi- ately interfperfed bere and there with air-bubbles, But though thefe experiments fully proved my idea in re- gard to the origin of air-bubbles in ice, 1 was very defirous to obferve the phenomena of freezing in vacuo, My former pupil and worthy friend Van In En Kniphuifen, lord of Nienoord, who has added fo much luftre to his noble birth by an affiduous cultivation of the {ciences, was fo kind as to aflift me in thefe experiments, and to allow me the ufe of his valuable apparatus. The experiment of Lichtenberg falls.to the ground. We have feen curious phenomena. f {hall give you an account of them, Which [ fiad. in my memorandums, dated Janu- ary, 16,1802. This will be more than fufficient to induce all the amateurs of the fiudy of nature to repeat my, experi- MED Bro oi, corn e r We had already obferved feyeral,times, with great fatisfac- sy tion, 254 Obfervations on the Freesing of Water, tion, the fpongy appearance which water acquires by freezing in vacuo, ir confequence of its greater expanfion, which every time that the glafs bur{t was unaccompanied with the appear- ance of air-bubbles, but immediately on the introduction of* air they fpread themfelves through the whole mafs. Hence there was no doubt that this increafed dilatation was entirely the confequence of the aériform water,the expanfion of which was not impeded by the preflure of the atmofphere. We re- peated this experiment for the lalt time on the fame day, when the frolt was perceptibly lefs intenfe. A beer-glafs capable of containing eight ounces was two-thirds filled with diftilled water as much freed from air as poffible: it was im- mediately placed under the receiver of an’ air-pump, and the air was exhautied as {peedily a spoffible. At the end of fome hours we faw a phenomenon which appeared fo ftrange and fingular, that [ was at firft inéapable of faying what it might be. The freezing water had raifed itfelf up ina ftraight column uéarly three inches above the glafs, being in thick- nefs in the middle above a line, and at the bottom two lines. The water was equally frozen at the furface and throughout the whole mafs: the cellular or fpongy appearance exifted only under the columu, and extended to the middle of the bafe. No air-bubbles were any where to be feen. It is pro- bable that the flownefs of the freezing may have contributed to produce this fingular phenomenon, We conjectured, and with great probability, that this co- lumi was hollow, and had ferved for difcharging the aériform water. As foon as the air was admitted under the receiver we faw a movement in the pipe like that of air which pene~ trates into a wet glafs tube, and in the mean time a great many air-bubbles appeared in the cavities at the bottom of the column. | By introducing a fli? briftle into the aperture, and employing a magnifying glafs, we could eafily trace the hollow part of the tube to the cavity where the air-bubbles were. The air, therefore, on this occafion had no fhare in the expanfion of the ice; and as our water before freezing never contains fo much air, it appears that during the freezing it could contribute little or nothing towards the expanfion. * Expanfion is a phenomenon common during all’ cryftal- lization, and is'a confequence of the peculiar regular form which the moleetilz of bodies adhering mutually to’each other affume, and by which means larger vacuities are formed: Expanifion is inereafed, ‘and particularly during ‘the cryftal+ lization of water, by the aériform ftate to which a part of #€ is brought by the difengaged ‘ealoric. WW + and on ihe Nature of Snow, 255 While a part of this caloric, difengaged during the procefs of freezing, keeps the water beneath the crutt of ice in a ftate of warmth and fluidity, another part, in confequence of the aériform expanfion of the water, forms the cavities in the ice by which the fo neceffary communication between the ex- ternal air and the fluid water is maintained, in order to fup- port the life of thofe beings which refide in it. And what would be the cafe with vegetation if ice were a body impermeable to air? While the warmth of the earth is maintained as far as poflible under its hard furface by the power of congelation, the air continually penetrates through it; by which means the principles of germination are pre- ferved in the feeds, and prepared for cevelopment. My experiments have alfo fhown that ice water produced by a flow thaw contains more air than water which has not been frozen during the fame time. But {now water in particular contains’ much more ait than commion rain water; and this air contains more oxvgen than the air obtained from tain water.» ” The opinion of Haflenfratz, which may be*feen im the fourth part of the Journal Polytechnique, is fally confirmed, whatever Dr. Carradori ‘may aflert to the contrary +. Snow water may, with great propriety, be called ovyoenated water. This Tecan incontrovertibly prove, not/only in the uftal/man ner by falphate of iron, but in particular by means of nitrous gas; and have fhown it more than twenty times in my Jec- tures, as 4 thing of importance not only to philofephy but alfo to pharmacy. What I affert may be eafily proved im the fol- lowing! manner : it, @W vi] Fill two flafks, one with fnow -and the other with rain water, and place them, inverted, in boiling water: the air will then evidently be fee to collect itfelf at the bottom (mow the top). Yelterday my amanuenfis;'H. Uilkens, exhibited to us this important phenomenon. A flatk filled. witherain water, which at that’ time conlified chiefly of melted fnow, did not prefent one-half of the dir-babbles exhibited by fhow water colleéted in the garden. 1 Msi * Befides this larger quantity lof air, and particularly oxygen £45, {now water contains’ alfo' much fewer extraétive particles than rain water; and.from thefe two circum{tanees we ican explain'the propertics by which this waiter diflinguithes itlelf from rain water, asa inedieine,'as drink, and’ in many cecos Omicdl utes, | ifaw t eanavt cbavan “Ibis feedlels to inquire, why this ‘water is fometimes hurt- “oe 1® See Phi. Mag: vol, iii. peg. il +,‘ Lbid. vol... iv. ps aay. 4 ry 5 u 256 Ob/fervations on the Freezing of Water, Bc. ful in cafes of inflammation of the eyes? why it qccafions colic, griping pains, and other affections, when drunk cold ? But, without enlarging further on this fubjeét, I thall here mention a remarkable effect of the wife difpenfations of Na- ture. As fnow water contains oxygen united with little ca- loric, it thereby poffeffes a fironger tendency to communicate its oxygen to bodies fufceptible of oxygenation. No fubftance in nature deprives water of its oxygen with more avidity than fertile earth. Snow water mixed with vegetable mould, and expofed to the folar light, improves the mould in a fhort time. Almoft as foon as a lively fifh placed in a glafs of water containing oxygen makes the fuperfluous oxygen dif- appear, and fills the water with carbonic acid gas in its room, is the oxygen taken up by the earth affifted by the influence | of the light. Pure earths do not exhauft {now water of its oxygen; nor do they attract the oxygen of the atmofphere, as afferted by Von Humboldt. I have long been convinced of the contrary, from various experiments. Jt appears, in particular, that carbon is the principle whofe ftrong affinity for oxygen produces fo many important phenomena, and which nature continually em~- ploys in the compofition and decompofition of organic bo- dies: it is carbon alfo which in this cafe deprives water of its oxygen, and confequently frees it from what renders it prejudicial to health, and unfit for the purpofes of life. That which is prejudicial to us is improved by the ground, and at the fame time gives power and activity to the mould. When the fnow covers the earth, it tends to keep it warm; the fnow, as a body which cannot conduct caloric in a very {mall degree, prevents, by its interpofition, the cold air from taking the caloric from the earth. But this does not appear to be the only caule of its fertilizing power. The fnow melt- ing and penetrating into the foftened earth communicates to it oxygen, promotes by thefe means the germination of feeds: the young plant grows with more vigour, becaufe the carbon of the fertile earth combining with the oxygen is converted into carbonic acid, and thereby acquires more folubility; while the water, by its ftimulating property, contributes to excite that activity which had been rendered dormant in the roots by the cold. This fertilizing power of {fnow, which was before afcribed to nitrous particles, but the prefence of which was never roved, feems thus, according to the idea of Ingenhoufz, Haf- enfratz, and other naturalifts, to be explained in a more fa- tisfactory. manner. I fhall now conclude this fhort effay by expreffing aro tie that tv ervations on the Lotus of Egypt. 257 that I have here given philofophers a further inducement to admire with me the great and noble operations of the divine ‘providence, which fo evidently appear in the different changes effeéted in air and water, and which are fo neceffary for fup- porting and maintaining the creation. Groningen, February 26, 1803. XLY. Odfervations on the Lotus of Egypt. By Autre Rarrenau-DeE ive, Member of the Telit of Egypt*., Since my return from Egypt I prefented to the Mufeum of Natural Hiftory different kinds ob feeds and feveral bulhs of the nymphea cerulea, of which an accurate defcription was given in Egypt by C. Savigny, my colleague. Thefe bulbs began to germinate towards the end of Meffidor, when kept immerfed in water. T[ collested them in the ifland of Ro- fetta in the month of Ventofe, year 8; and though I had kept them two years without planting them, they had not become. deficcated: one of the plants of the nymphza has already pro- duced feveral flowers fomewhat fmaller, lels odorous, and of a paler blue colour, than thofe in Egypt. Though I made a tour with the Commiffion of Arts into Upper Egypt during the time of the inundation, which js that alfo of the increafe of the two kinds of nymphea of the - Nile, we met with none of thefe plants in that country, The waters of the Nile rife to a confiderable height in the Said, and much lefs in Lower Egypt. The nymphea, there- fore, eafily reaches the farface of the water, during the in- undation, in the lakes and the canals of the Delta, where they are not hurt by the current of the river. It is, perhaps, for a contrary reafon that the nymphza does not grow in the Said. _ We obferved the nymphzea czerulea painted and engraven on the Egyptian monuments much oftener than the two kinds of lotus mentioned by the oldeft hiftorians. This nymphea has a great refemblance to thefe kinds of lotus, and appears to be a third {pecies of it. Moft authors who have undertaken to make known the lotus in regard to its antiquity have fallen into many errors; but Mahudel, of the Academy of Infcriptions and Belles * From Annales du Mufeum National d’Hifloire Naturelle, No. ¢. Vou. XY, No. 59. Ss Lettres, 258 Olbfervations on the Lotus of Egypt. ‘Lettres *, and lately profeffor Sprengel, of Hallet, have given yery accurate information refpecting thefe plants. _ The expedition to Egypt afforded me an oppor uny Dy making the following obfervations on the fame fubject: they are naturally conneéted with thofe already made in Egypt by C. Savigny on the nymphewa cerulea, and complete the hiftory of that plant. . _ Herodotus t relates that the Egyptians fed on the lotus which grew in the waters of the Nile. He calls this lotus a lily, and fays that the feeds, fimilar to thofe of the poppy, were employed for making bread. He adds, that they ate alfo the roots of the lotus, which were round, of the fize of an apple, and of a fweet and agreeable favour. Herodotus then {peaks of another kind of lily refembling a rofe, which grew alfo in the Nile, the fruit of which had the form of a walp’s neft, and which contained feveral feeds good to eat, and of the fize of an olive, Theophraftus § gives a very accurate defcription of the fame plants:—* The lotus,” fays he, ‘‘ grows in the fields when they are inundated. Its flowers are white, and have petals like thofe of the lily. They fpring up in great numbers clofe to each other. | They fhut their leaves at fun-fet, and conceal their fruit. Thefe flowers open again when the fun reappears, and rife above the water; and this alternation is repeated till the frnit is completely formed, and the flowers have dropped off. The fruit is equal to that.of a large poppy, and contains a great number of feeds fimilar to grains of millet. The Egyptians depofit the fruit in heaps, and fuffer the rind to putrefy ; they then feparate the feeds by wafhing them in the Nile, dry them, and knead them into bread. The root of the lotus called corfion is round, and of the fize of a quince. | Its rind is. black, and like that of the cheftnut. This root is white in the infide, and is eaten either raw or boiled.” The lily of the Nile, like the rofes mentioned by Herodo- tus, is called by Atheneus|| Egyptian bean, and the rofe lotus. ‘Theophrattus gives it the name of bean, « This bean grows in the marfhes and ponds. Its ftem is four cubits in Jength, and as thick as the finger. It refem- ples a reed without knots. The fruit it bears is {haped like a wafp’s nelt, and contains about thirty beans a little prominent, each depofited in a different cell. The flower is twice as large as that of the poppy, and entirely a rofe. The leaves are fup- % Fifoire de Academie des Infcriptions, vol. il. p. 285. + An iguitatum botanicarum Specimen primum, p. 47+ +f In Etiverpe, cap. xcii. Theophrafti Hilt. Plant. lib. iv. cap. ro, i Athenzi Deipnofoph, lib. iii. p. 725 libe-xv, p. 677. ported Obfervations on the Lotus of Egypt. 259 ported by pedicles fimilar to thofe of fruits: they are large, and have a refemblance to a ‘Theffalian cap. When one of the beans is bruifed there is feen in the infide of it a fmall body folded together, from which the leaf arifes. The root is thicker than that of a ftrong reed, and has partitions like the fem. It ferves as nourifhment to thofe who refide near the marfhes. This plant grows fpontaneoufly, and in abun- dance. It is fown alfo in the mud, by forming for it a bed of ftraw, in order that it may not rot.” The lotus of Herodotus and Theophraftus grows alfo in Egypt. It is the nymphea lotus of Linneus*, the cha- raéters of which, compared by C. Savigny to thofe of the nymphea cerulea, agree with the defcriptions given by the antients. hg In regard to the rofe lily or Egyptian bean, which is fre- quently carved out among the ornaments and fymbolical re- prefentations of the Egyptian temples, it no longer grows in that country ; and would have remained- unknown to natu- ralifts had it not been difcovered in India. This plant has been called by Linnzus ¢ the nympheca nelumbo. Its fruit, which the Greeks compare to a walp’s neft, has ‘a perfect re- femblance to it. They called it czborion | on account, no doubt, of its refemblance to a cup. This fruit is fhaped like the {pout of a watering-pot, and is flatted at the upper part, which contains from fifteen to thirty fmall foflz, containing a like number of feeds of the fize of a nut, and fomewhat promi- nent. The plumula§, which is the rudiment of the leaves, is, indeed, rolled up in the middle of the feed, as Theophraftus fays. The flowers are rofes, and very large. The leaves are oriieltars thuriform, and about two feet in diameter ||. Belon has confounded the Egyptian bean with the coloca- fia (arum colocafia Linn.), which is cultivated in Egypt: as the Greeks often gave the name of coloca/ia to the root of the Egyptian bean **, it was a difficult matter to avoid con- founding thefe two plants. Sprengel remarks, that'the appellation of colocafia was given alfo to the xymphea lotus ++. ' But we receive as much information refpeéting thefe plants * Species Plantarum, p. 729. + Ibid. p, 730. + Athenzi Deipnofoph. lib. iii. p. 725 & lib. xi. p..477- Diodorus Six culus, lib. i. Diofcorides, lib. ii. cap. 97- ' § Gertner De Fruétibus, &c, tom, i. p. 74. tab. 19- || Hortus Malabar. tom, xi. p. 61. @ Belon, Obfervations, lib. ii. chap. 28. ** Athenwi Deipnofoph. Jib. iti. p. 72, & 73- tt Antiqaitat: botanic, Specimen prim. c, 89, 52 . from 260 Obfervations on the Lotus of Egypt. from antient fculptures as from the account of hiftorians. The rofe lotus, or kgyptian bean, is very correétly repre- fented in the mofaic of Paleftrine, an explanation of which has been given by Barthelemy in the Memoirs of the Aca- demy of Infcriptions and. Belles-Lettres*. The fruit, the flowers, and the leaves of that plant are exceedingly like, They float on the furface of the water in a lake which carries feveral barks during the time of a feflival, This painting brings to remembrance a paffage of Strabo+, who fays, that people made excurfions of pleafure in boats on the Jakes co- vered with beans, and that they fheltered themfelves from the fun with the leaves of that plant. On the Egyptian monu- ments Harpocrates is reprefented above the flower of the fruit of the rofe lotus. This plant, fo well known in antient Egypt, is at prefent celebrated in the religion of the Bra- mins, and is often placed among the attributes of the Indian deities f. It.is not poffible to fay to what kindof lotus the flowers feen reprefented on the heads of the Egyptian kings or deir ties in feveral medals belonged, becaule the fpecies of lotus differ chiefly in) regard to the colour of their flowers, and the form of their fruits or leaves; but on. the walls of, the tem- ples of Egypt, and om the cafes contaming the. mummies, they may be eafily diftinguifhed when the painting is in good prefervation. The Egyptians often reprefented, the leaves of the white lotus. (xymphea lotus) of the fame fize.as the flow+ ers, though /naturally the leaves are much larger; but they have omitted to mark the indentations.of thefe leaves, which dndeed are, wanting when, the plant is very young. I have, however, feen in the table of Latopolis this lotus reprefented with the leaves indented. , But it would be in vain to feek for ferupulous, exactnefs in allegorical feulptures.> Thus, on the:bafe of the fiatue of the Nile; placed in the gardens of the Tuileres, the. fruit of the Jotus is very exaétly reprefented, but the leaves; which, ac- company it are not thofe of that plant. The fruit of the white lotus, which has the fame form as * Hiftoire de l‘Acad. des Infeript, 1490. The Pitre aimiche di Pietro §. Bartboli, which reprefent the motaic with its colours, may be feen in the library of the Pantheon. ; , _ t Strabos lib, xvii. The Greek text has been badly interpreted by tranilators, who ‘fuppofed that the boats rowed along under the fhade of the icaves, which rofe to.a great height above the water, Thefe leaves float cn the furface of the water, and are Very broad. It appears that the boats were covered with them in order to form a thade, as they are covered in Egypt at prefent with the leaves of the date-tree and with reeds. { Syftema Brahmanicum Fr, Paullinii, 4 Bartholom. tab. 9 & 10. 7 that Obfervations on the Lotus of Egypt. 265 that of the poppy, may be diftinguifhed on the Egyptian monuments, -[n my opinion, this refemblance has made the fruit of the lotus, delineated on feveral Egyptian medals, to be confounded with that of the poppy. The fruits repre- fented on thefe medals are the fame as thofe fculptured on the Egyptian monuments anterior to thofe of the Greeks. It does not appear from any hiftorical teftimony that the Egyptians ever made much ufe of the poppy; and they ra- ther placed the fruits of the lotus among the attributes of Ifis, with ears of corn, as a fign of abundance and fertility, fince they were long accuftomed to make a fort of bread with the feeds of that plant. The Egyptian lotus was very little known to the Greeks and the Romans, who compared it to the moft common plants. Herodotus calls the lotus a lily; Theo- phrattus compared it to the poppy, and Pliny calls its flowers poppies*. Another caufe which may have occafioned the lotus to be confounded with the peppy, is the refemblance which exits between the attributes of Ifis and thofe of Ceres, to whom the poppy was confecrated +. The xympbhea lotus and the nymphea nelumbo are the two fpecies of lotus defcribed by Herodotus and Theophrattus. Both grew naturally in Egypt, and were cultivated in that country. It was the fruit of the cultivated nymphea lotus to which Pliny gives the name of /ofometra tf. A paffage in Atheneeus proves that the nymphea cerulea is a third {pecies of lotus. This author relates that Antino- ian § crowns were made at Alexandria with the rofe lotus, and that-the blue were interwoven with thefe crowns. The flowers of thefe different kinds of lotus are very odoriferous, have great fplendour and frefhnels, and muft have been fe- lected for making crowns. Heliodorus relates, that couriers who announced a victory in Meroe were crowned with lotus ||. When Plutarch fpeaks of a crown of melilot which fell from the head of Ofiris4, and when he claffes that plant among thole which grow in the Nile, he alludes to a crown of lotus. Athenzeus relates, that the lotus was allo called me- lilot **, and that it was formed into melilotine garlands. The fame hiftorian tells us alfo why the rofe lotus was called the ‘Antinoian. A poet prefented the emperor Adrian, during * Plin. Hift. War. tib. xiii. cap. 17. : 4 Virgil. Georg. i. ver. 212. Ovid, Fatt. lib. iv. Theoc. Idyll. vii. ver. 153. Callimach.. Hymn. Cer. ver. 45. + Plins Hit. Nat. lib. xxii. cap. 21. Athenai Deipnotoph, lib. xv. p..677. Heliodor. Ethiop. lib. x. cap. 28. Treatife on Ifis and Ofiris. * Athena#i Deipnoloph, lib. iii. p. 73. 53 acon 262 Ob/fervations on the Lotus of Egypt. his refidence at Alexandria, with a rofe lotus as ‘a rarity, and faid that this lotus, which had grown up in a country moifi- ened by the blood of fo terrible a lion, ought to be called the Antinoian, The lion of which the poet here {peaks had ra- vaged a part of Libya, and had at length been deftroyed by © the emperor Adrian during a hunting excurfion. Independently of the plaufible conjectures of feveral wri- ters refpeéting the origin of the religious employment which the Egyptians made of the lotus, thefe plants, on account of their fimple and natural properties, muft have been very much celebrated in antient Egypt. This country being indebted to the Nile for its profperity, its inhabitants confidered as the fiens of a great benefit the plants which grew in.the waters of that river. The flowers of the lotus rife to the furface of the water when the Nile begins to increafe, and announce the inundation, which is about to bring abundance along with it. Befides the names of bachenin and naufar, which ‘the Egyptians give to the nympheza, they call them alfo arais el Nil, that is to fay, which grow up in the Nile. Thefe names certainly refer to the fertility about to be renewed by the prefence of the waters. _ The Egyptians collected the roots of the lotus when the waters of the Nile retired. At prefent they are feldom col- leGted ; but they multiply very much in the rice-fields, fo that the peafants are obliged to pull them up after the rice har- veft. They then fometimes eat thefe roots, which they call biaro. Ifaw fome of them fold in the market of Damietta in the month of Frimaire, year 7: I tafted them, and found that their tafte was not difagreeable. © Thefe roots are round, or fomewhat oblong, and fmaller than a common egg. The rind is black, and coriaceous: they exhibit tubercles, traced out by the bafe of the petioles or fhoots, Thefe roots in the infide are white and farinaceous; in the centre they are yel- lowifh. After the inundation they remain funk in the earth which has become dry; and the following year, when co- vered by water, they fend forth leaves and {mall roots merely from the fummit, which has a cottony appearance. The radiculz penetrate laterally into the mud, where they produce tubercles which become fimilar to the former roots, and which multiply the plant. The Egyptians to colleét the feeds wafhed them, after leaving the rind of the fruit to pu- trefy. This method is the only one that could be employed, otherwife thefe feeds would become mixed and deficcated with the parenchyme of the fruit. Thefe feeds are very {mall, ° rofe-coloured or gray on the outfide, and farinaceous within. The antients compared them to grains of millet, I have. heard Objervations on the Lotus of Egypt. 263 heard the peafants call them dochn el bachenin, that is to fay, millet of bachenin: but they told me that they were of very little ufe. The roots and feeds of the xymphe@a lotus and thofe of the mymphea cerulea are fimilar. It is natural, then, to believe that the’ Egyptians not only made garlands of the blue lotus, but that they ufed it for food like the nymphea lotus. This is proved by the Egyptian {culptures, fince the blue nympheza is often reprefented among the offer- ings of fruits in the grottos of Said, the paintings of which exhibit fcenes of domeftic life. Of the two kinds of nymphza, the Egyptians at prefent prefer that with blue flowers, which is often reprefented in the temples. Ebn il Bitar; an Arabian phyfician, who has written a treatife on plants, quoted by Profper Alpinus *, di= ftinguifhes two kinds of bachenin or nymphea, the belt of which is called that of the Arabs. I obferved that the pea- fants of the Delta gave the name of bachenin of the Arabs to the nymphea cerulea, and that they fet lefs value on the ‘ nymphea lotus. As the antients have made very little mention of the blue lotus, one might believe that it was brought to Egypt frona the Eaft Indies along with the rice, fince it grows abundantly in the rice-fields of the Delta; but the paintings in the tem- ples evidently prove that this plant is as antient in Egypt as the xymphea lotus. ‘ It is certain that the xymphea cerulea exifts in India. In the Hortus Malabaricus it is called citambel+. Rumphius confiders it as a variety with blue flowers of the nymphea lotust. This nymphza grows alfo at the Cape of Good Hope, and feems to be fufficiently diftinguifhed by the fol- lowing phrafe of Breyn: nymphaea flore ceruleo edoratifjimo Capitis Bone Spei§. A figure of it has been given by An- drews |]. * Profperi Alpini Rerum Egypt, lib. ili, cap. 10+ + Tom. ii. p. 53. tab. 27. + Herbar, Amboin. tom. vi. p. 72+ § Prodrom. ii. 26. é || Botanifts Repofitory, 197. $4 | XLVI. Me- [ 264 J XLVI. Memoir on fome Peculiarities in the Anatomy and Phyfiology of the Shark, particularly refpeéting the Pro- duéiion of its Young. By Dr. Mircuiu, of New York*, A trnouca the generation and multiplication of ani- mals have fo long exercifed the attention of philofophers, the whole fubje& remains involved in intricacy and indiftinétnefs. The maxim laid down by Harvey, and adopted by Linnzus, of omne animal ex ovo, that every animal proceeds from an egg, has, perhaps, been too generally received, fince nume- rous faéts, related by Mr. Bonnet, in his work entitled Con- fidiraiions fur les Corps Organifis, evince the propagation of animals, in a great variety of cafes, from germs. Notwith- ftanding the multiplicative powers of animals have been thus traced to eggs and germs, yet a popular diftinétion fill pre- vails to a confiderable extent, of clafling animals that propa- gate their fpecies by means of genital organs, into oviparous and viviparous. The great difcovery of Haller, that the membrane covering the yolk of an egg was really a continuation of the membrane covering the inte(tines of the chick, had not only given couni= tenance to the idea of the pre-exifténce of the embryo, but has fhown that animals, whether of the oviparous.or vivi- parous kinds, really propagated their fpecies in pretty much the fame way. Amidft the different modes in which the embryo and its membranes are organized in different animals, there feems to be one cafe which has not been hitherto deferibed with the accuracy and minutenefs which its fingularity deferves : the genus of the fqualus, which includes all the animals of the fhark tribe, has fome' peculiarities which make thefe ani- mals approach both to the oviparous and viviparous ‘clafles, without, however, belonging firictly to either. It had been known a long time, that the young of the fhark had fomething in their, {truéture confiderably different from any other creatures, and figures of them have been given by Edwards in his Natural Hittory, and probably copied trom thence into the Encyclopedia; but there has nvi been, as yet, any diffeGtion of thefe animals in this period of their exift- ence, nor any explanation of their phyfiology that I know of. It is the objeét of this fhort memoir to explain the ftructure and funétions of the feetus of a fpecies of {hark found fre- quently along the coaft of. New-York, in the waters of the Atlantic, during the fummer months. About two years ? * Communicated by the Author, ; agoy On the Anatomy and Phyfiology of the Shark. 265 doo, as I was enzaged in a fifhing party in one of the bays ‘on the fouth fide of Long Ifland, a fhark, between four and five feet ih length, was taken in the feine, and fecured in our boat, without receiving any material injury. Upon examina- tion, this animal was found to be a female, whofe uterus con= tained eleven young ones, of the fize and figure reprefented in the plate. Befides thefe young ones that had advanced thas farm their growth, there were contained a large number of ova within the body of this fith, in different degrees of evolution and fize, fome of them refembling the full grown ‘eggs of the tortoife, and others fimilar to the f{maller radiments of eggs found in the ovaria of laying hens. On opening the uterus with a knife, the young fithes, as reprefented in the firure, were found each conne¢ted with an egg, dependent from that part of the belly which may be confidered as the umbilicus, and appearing in the form of a very large hernia. This Hernia, on examination, proved to bea true ovum, filled with yolky fubftance, evidently intended for its nourifhmient: and what was very remarkable, the young animal, though grown to a confiderable fize, and conneéted in this manner with its eg, had ‘no connection whatever by meahs of an- umbilical cord, a placenta, or by vefiels of any kind, to the uterus of its dam; but it was fo completely organized as’to derive no fuftenance to its body, nor to ‘feéeive any reriova- tion of its blood ‘from its!parent. The membrane covering the egg contained moft beautifal ramifications df blood-veflels. The artéties defcending from the little fifh could be feen fending off their branches over ifs whole exterior-furface; and terminating in veins, to unite their trunks, aind-earty back their contents. The fingularity ‘of ‘all thefe appearances was confiderably heightened bythe capability of the little fharks, when cut ‘out of the utérus, to'live fora confiderable time in the open air. The larger part of the brood had been left on the grafs of the fhore where the dam had been diffected ; but the three which I referved for examination lived, and exhibited, during the greater part of the time, brifk motion for almoft two hours, although expofed to the temperature of, a common atmofphere. During this time, while they lay before me on a-plate, nothing of the kind appeared more beautiful or di- ftiné than the branches of blood-veffels fhooting through and running over the tranfparent membrane of the egg, the blood evidently-appéaring to‘acquire a brighter fcarlet colour, whilft the/fith was’ thus expofed to the air, than it had pof- feffed during the tmmerfion of the young animal in the fluid of the uterus. It feemed to have acquired more raptdly, and to ‘ ® 266. Onthe Anatomy and Phyfiology of the Shark. to a greater quantity than before exclufion from its maternal membrane, the oxygen of the air to which it was expofed ; the union of which with the blood evidently brightened its colour; and imparted to it at the fame time fo much of a fti- mulant quality as to have fhortened the duration of its life by exceflive excitement, The internal ftructure of the foetus of this fhark may be feen in the plate. ‘The diffeCtion was made by my colleague Mr. Poft, profeffor of anatomy in Columbia College; and the drawings was executed, immediately after, by Dr. Alex- ander Anderfon, of New York, in the prefence of the late Dr. Elihu H. Smith, Mr. William Dunlap, and Mr. Thorne. ‘ In this drawing, hiya A reprefents the ovum, with its exterior membrane diffeéted off. B, the internal tube or duct extending from the egg to a fac, the body of the fith. C, the fac alluded to in B, of confiderable fize, and occupying i a good deal of room in the ab- ii domen: it was filled with a At derived from the ovum, and ap- parently a little more elaborated, and prepared for nutrition, by fome concoétive operation in the fac itfelf. D, the ftomach, as yet not diftended ; of courfe exceedingly {mall; having never as yet been filled or refervoir of nutriment, within’ pulpy or foft matter, evidently ~ On the Anatomy and Phyfiology of the Shark. 267 filled with food derived from the mouth. In the plate will be feen a {mall paflage or opening, E, through which the alimentary matter in the fac, C,, paffes into the fiomach, to be abforbed afterward by the laéteals of the inteftines. F, the cefophagus, of nearly the fame fize with the fto- mach. GG, the two lobes of the liver. A, the cloaca, or gut firetching towards the anus, and filled with the refufe matter of the alimentary mafs. I, the external membrane connecting the ege with the fith, cut through and turned back. A fpecies of thark, called catulus major vulgaris, is deli- neated by Edwards, but appears to be different from this. He has taken two views of the parent animal, and two more of the young. From the figures there given, it would feem that the fame law of generation obtained as in this {pecies. All the {pecies probably breed in the fame way, There is a great variety in the multiplicative procefs of living beings. The female rana pipa, or Surinam frog, nou- rifes its young in certain cells or cavities in her back, and not in the womb. The opo/jwm of this country fupports her young appendant to the teats within the paunch or fac, called a falfe belly. The kangaroo of New Holland has fomewhat of a fimilar firucture and economy. More ex- tenfive and penetrating inquiries fhow the exceptions to the common mode of generation to be almoft indefcribably cu- rious and diverfified. We fee no end to the variety of ways in which the perpetuation of the {pecies is carried on. Even Spallanzani (5 Viagg? alle due Sicilie, &c. p. 46), though he went to the lake of Orbitello on purpofe to examine the anatomy of the large eels which live there, could difcover in them no appearance of fex. When I publithed my Inaugural. Differtation in 1786, Circa novi Genituram Animalis, I was decidedly in. favour of the hypothefis of pre-exiftent germs, and of the production of animals by their gradual evolution.. All my numerous experiments on generation appeared at that time to lead to fuch a conclufion, though I have fince had a good. deal of reafon to doubt the foundnefs of the inference; and the ex- periment now to be related, though it throws light on fome part of the procefs, leaves the main queftion almoft as un- fettled as ever. In 1789 I ordered a large fow to be killed, immediately after having had intercourfe with a male. On examining the genital organs, the blood-veflels of the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and fimbriz, were more than ulually diliended, ) ’ + 268 Management and Improvement, by Tillage, diftended, and the fimbriz in particular were in a condition of high rednefs and inflammation. Their fibres were length- ened, and reached fo far as, on one fide, to embrace the whole ovarium, and contain it within their inclofure.. But the moft remarkable appearances were in the ovarium itfelf. The fow had borne pigs before. Some of the ova were of courfe exhaufted of their powers, and exhibited the appear- ance common in fuch cafes. The whole ovarium was tinged with blood, and appeared to have been under the operation of a powerful ftimulus. The entire fubftance feemed to have been enlarged. The ova partook of this enlargement, and all of them had evidently fhared in the excitement and fuffufion. Some of them were but little fwelled: fome were fo tumid as to be on the point of burfting: the membrane of others was ruptured, and the contents partly protruded ; and, in feveral, the fubftance difcharged from the broken ovum'was fairly within the grafp of the fimbriz. I imagined now I had be- fore me proof fufficient to determine the derivation ‘of the foetus from the mother. I accordingly examined the portions of fubftance difcharged from one ovum, and extraéted from others, with al] poffible care. . But inftead of finding an em- bryo, or any thing like the rudiment of a young animal, the little maffes T had obtained refembled coagulated blood more than any thing to which J can compare them, and appeared to have no more of organization or figure than is frequently feen in grumes or clots of that fluid. XLVIT. On the Management and Improvement, by Tillage, of o/d Grafs Lands on a direct Clay, juch as is found in the Wilds of Surrey and Suffex*. Tue fubftratum to this foil being impervious to water, the furface muft confequently be conunually faturated with moifiure. Many landlords on fuch foils reftri€t their te- nants, by covenants, ‘not to till or plough up the old grafs lands, under an apprehenfion of the foil being exhaufted by tillage and cropping. In this unproduétive ftate the land lets for from five thillings to {even fhillings and fixpence an acre; and, being always full of {tagnant water, the produce confifts of poifonous weeds, water quitch, and a little four grafs. Two acres will keep one head of lean cattle alive for * From Mr. Clofe’s Paper in the Communications to the Board of Agri- culture, vol. ili*part 1. We gave a former part of this paper in our Jaft Number, p. 167. : twenty of old Grafs Lands on a dire Clay. ~ 269 twenty fpring and fummer weeks. Some Jabour, anda con- fiderable expenfe, will be requifite to bring this ftubborn, {te- rile foil to a ftate of fertility. I would firfi recommend the furface to be pared and burned, and the athes to be fecured dry upon. the headlands of the fields, by a covering of earth, fods, or thatch. This opera- tion mutt be finifhed in the fummer. As foon as the au- tumnal rains have moiftened the foil fo as to enable a plough to turn a furrow feven or eight inches deep, this operation fhould be performed, forming each ridge with only two, fury rows, three feet from the centre of one ridge to the centre of the other. Then Jet, the fearifier, with three long tines, or teeth, pafs at the bottom of every furrow to loofen the foil five or fix inches deeper, Water furrows fhould be cut fo as to lay the land.dry all the winter, Should the winter prove fayourable, the tops of thefe ridges may, be harrowed down with the fixed harrow, and the fcarifier pafled again through the bottom of the furrows, and the ridge formed over this deeply pulverized foil: if not, they muft remain until per~ fectly dry.in the fpring. In tilling foils of all denominations in which the clay predominates, this general, rule fhould be vobferved; no injury will be fufiained from ploughing them when wet,,previous, to, fhe winter jfrofis: but all the horfes — on a farm had better remain idle than touch a furrow in the {fpring, until the foil be) perfeétly dry. When in this latter {tate, harrow down the tops of the ridges; fcarify, with Mr, Cooke’s fearifier, the bottoms, and once, more. reverfe the lands, forming the ridges where the furrows were. Thus.a depth of fifteen inches of finely pulverized foil will be ob- tained by two half ploughings, two [carifyings, and two har- rowings; at leaft the foil wall be fo mach opened to that depth as to admit the rain water to, pals freely. Every thower will not make a palte on the furface, neither will forty-eight hours fun form. itinto bricks,, In thort,)by ftirring this land ‘deep you avoid the injuries, to which it was before expofed by exceffive wet or drought, and the foil will become healthy and productive... Should it not be fufticiently pulverized for turnips, fearify, harrow, androll, with a heavy roller only five feet long, until a garden jtilth be obtained, leaving the land, when completely fine, on three-feet ridges. Previous , to putting afhes,on for drilling turnips, beat down three or four inches of the tops of the ridges with a fled, or beam of wood, five feet long, annexed to the handles of Mr. Cooke’s Acarfier..On. this bed of finely pulverized mould in the fur- rows fpread the afles; about eighty bufhels on an acre. This werk will he eafily performed, as the horfe wil] walk in the furrow, by Management and Improvement, by Tillage, furrow, and each wheel of the cart will occupy another. A's the horfes and the cart-wheels will make the foil in the bot- tom of the furrows immediately under the afhes compaét, pafs the fearificator through, as before dire&ted, with only three long tines, or teeth, in the centre of the beam, then with one bout of the common plough reverfe the ridges and ‘cover the afhes. Let the land continue in this ftate until the feafon fuit for fowing. Then with the fled, as before, level ‘the tops of the ridges fo as to obtain a furface on each ridge eighteen inches wide. Mr. Cooke’s drill will fow two of théfe ridges at a time, two rows of turnips on each ridge, nine inches from row to row, with an interval of twenty- feven inches. The turnips, as foon as the rongh leaf ap- pears, fhould be harrowed acrofs the ridges with the’ fixed ‘harrow, then fearified between the rows; and a few ‘days after thefe operations they fhould be hand-hoed, leaving the plants in rows, fingle, and one foot apart. The intervals hould be kept highly pulverized by alternate ploughings, ‘horfe-hoeings, ‘and fearifying ; being careful, before the au- - ‘tumnal rains commence, to throw all the mould from the bottoms of the furrows up to the ridges with a double mould ‘board plough. ‘This will not only keep the land dry and ‘healthy all the winter; but, as the horfes will walk in one ‘furrow, and each wheel of the cart will occupy another, the turnips may be carted to the’ bullock-fheds without poaching or injuring the land. ! Knowing the’ difficulty in-thefe clayey foils of obtaining ‘a fine tilth for {pring fowing, I fhould recommend the fame ridges, after the turnips are drawn, and carted home, to be worked with the fixed harrow and roller; only fo as to obtain ‘a fine tilth five inches deep; and then to drill two rows of oats, nine inches from row to row, leaving a furrow or in- ‘terval of twenty-feven inches, When the oats are about two inches above the furface, harrow acrofs with the fixed har- ‘row, fcarify twice in a place between the rows of oats, and ‘roll the whole. After thefe operations, {hould weeds’appear, “horfe-hoe with the flat hoes. When the oats are harvefted, throw your ridges up high, like trenching in a garden, with- out reverfing them, keeping the bottoms of the furrows clean ‘from mould, and laying the land perfe@tly dry. | In the firft froft cart about twenty loads per acre of good horfe or bullock ‘dung, not too rotten, into the furrows; {pread it; and as foon -as the froft 1s out of the land, harrow or fled down the tops of the ridges, reverfe them, and cover the dung: the firft dr weather in February or March, fled down the tops of thefe ridges, toobtain a furface of eighteen inches, and drill two NOTIN rows of old Grafs Lands on a dire& Clay. 27% rows of beans on each ridge, nine inches from row to row, and twenty-feven inches interval. Scarify, horfe-hoe, and plough between the intervals, fo as to keep a fine tilth, and to deftroy the weeds. When the beans are fit for harvefting pull them, and when carried off the land pulverize the tops of the fame ridges by fearifying, rolling, and working with the fixed harrow; and, if any furface-weeds appear, fkim the Jand with the feufflers; and by repeating thefe operations prepare the fame ridges for wheat, and drill two rows on each ridge nine inches from row to row. In the fpring harrow acrofs, &c. as dirested for the oat crop. Should the farmer wifh to fubftitute cabbages for turnips, one ‘row fhould be planted on each ridge, fetting the’ plants two feet and a half from each other in rows, with three-feet intervals. In this fucceffion of crops, viz. turnips or cabbages, oats or barley, beans, peafe and clover, and wheat, even this naturally fte- _ vile foil will be in a conftant fiate of improvement: and if the vegetable crops and ftraw be expended in the moft ad- vantageous method upon the farm, the land may be dreffed with fourteen loads per acre twice in four years, viz. for the turnip or cabbage crop, and for the bean, pea, ayd clover crop., I fhall not, therefore, limit ‘the number of years’ for keeping it in.tillage to any precife term, as it appears to me immaterial; but proceed to point out the beft method of fe- curing a good meadow whenever the occupier may wifh it *. We will fuppofe the Jand cropped eight years in the ro- tation of crops before recommended, and at the expiration of that term, a wheat ftubble. The firft operation TI fhould recommend would be to drain the land fo as to take off the furface water, for nothing more can be effected by draining thefe lands, as they will hold water like a bucket ; atsd were the drains cut ever fo deep, and only fix inthes from each other, the water would not draw from one to the other. The method I fhail propofe is eafy and efficacious, and the ex- penfe very trifling. I fpeak with confidence, as almoft the whole parifh of Hitcham, in Suffolk, where twenty years back it was thought impoffible to crow barley, now produces fine and heayy crops of that grain, by the furface water bein taken off expeditioufly. Open furrows in the wheat ftubble with the common plough, about five yards from each other, and as deep as the land was ever ploughed and fearified. Then with a narrow gripping-fpade,- twenty inches long, * Old grafs lands converted into tillage, though they might be ploughed by a judicions fyftem of cropping for any number of years, if naturally crude and unprodudtive, fhould not, [ think, be fown with grafs feeds in lefs than eight years.— Note by Mr. Clofe. . and 272 Management and Improvement, by Tillage, and only two inches and a half wide at the top; and one at the bottom, open a drain fixteen inches deep ; fill this wiih the wheat haulm, ramming it down as hard as poffible; the brie two fhillmgs ar We rae per fcore rods, to dig an fillup, It is, I prefume, unneceflary to obferve that thefe and, aJ] other drains fhould not be cut in a line with, the na- tural fall of the land, but in an oblique direGtion. _ No buthes {hould re ufed, as, when thefe begin to decay, pieces of them will fall acrofs thefe very narrow drains, and obftruct the courfe of the water. The firaw or haulm, when. it de- cays, floughs off, and the water pafling through the clay forms an arch, which wil laft many years. There are drains of this fort fill open m Hitcham, parrfh, which have been cut more than twenty years. . Haying thus freed the land from the noxigus moifture arifing from flagnant water, with one bout. of the plough throw the land on to three-feet ridges, aa before January reverfe thefe. In the fpring, when per- fegtly dry, harrow down the ridges with the fixed harrow, fo.as to. make a complete fallow * ; then drefs with lime or compoft, and paulk the land, viz, give it half a ploughing, Jeaving it in narrow ridges, fo ,as it will harrow down quite Jeyel and :fine, without any furrows appearing. In the be- inning of Angult foww thirty-two bufhels per acre of the rt of hay-chambers, where only good old meadow hay. has been ufed without any broad era and rve-grafs, fiye pounds of Dutch ¢loyer, and five pounds of trefoil ; row. the feeds three.or four times over, and you may ex; _ pect two tons or two tons,and a half of hay per acre the firft year; which wil] pay, all the expenfes, and leave we land im- royed from five fhulings or feyen thillings and fix-pence per acre, its original value; to fourteen fhillings or fixteen fhil- lings penactes ! _ And.now, gentlemen, as you feem particularly defirous. of obtaining information from actual experiment, permit me to aflure you, that though J haye, not given you, neither is it in may .power,, an exact detailed account of an experiment I gmade on fifty acres of land in, she wilds of Surrey, yet the at outlines of the plan, and the general refult, correfpond With my adtual practice. I purchafed nearly 690 acres of land in that county for three thoufand fix hundred pounds ; the ftock and crops were valued to me at about five hun- red pounds, and the rent of the major part of the land efti- ynated at five fhillings per acre, After farming it fome yearss * The fearifiers would be dangerous infiruments to ufe after the drains recut. as\they, by penetrating too deep, might pull down the fides of the drains, and bring the haulm to the furfage.---—Note Ly Mr, Clofe I let of old Grafs Lands on a dire& Clay. 273 ’ Plet the whole at ten fhilling’s per acre; the tenant paid me for the {tock and crops two thoufand and eighty pounds; and I afterwards fold the eftate to him at nearly double the price I eave for it, having previoufly paid myfelf the greater part of the expenfes for the improvements I had made. Fifty acres of the land will more particularly elucidate this fubje&. Part of it was broken up from old four grafs, not worth five thillings per acre, and part of it was old tillage land, which had been limed and cropped until it literally would produce no weeds except the fow-thiftle. After treating thefe lands, as nearly as I can recollect, according to the fy{tem I have recommended, I fallowed and drefled them with a compoft of lime and earth, and fowed the quantity of feeds I have mentioned, at or near the feafon recommended, and the ‘produce was eftimated at two tons and a half of hay per acre; and the fifty acres of land which were valued at five fhillings per acre when [ purchafed them, were eftimated at fifteen fillings per acre when I fold the eftate. I did not furface-drain the land, as I was not then acquainted with the fyftem, neither did [ pare and burn, but drefled with a compoft of lime and mould. The fyftem I have recom- mended differs from my aétual experiment in thefe two cir- cumftances. But the furface-draining has proved effectual in the parifh of Hitchain, and feems to carry conviction with it; and by paring and burning, as good a drefling as the lime may be procured, at a much lefs expenfe, Maby may objeét to paring and burning and ploughing thefe lands into what is termed, by the farmers, the dead earth. I am of opinion thefe operations are pernicious, on really thin-fkinned foils, when the immediate fubftratum is much inferior to the furface. But in the foil | have been treating of, the only difference between the furface and the fubftratum con- filts in the former having been expofed and pulverized, and the latter having remained impregnated with ftagnant water, and never turned up fo as to derive any benefit from the vi- ' ciffitudes of the atmofphere. By paring and burning you de- ftroy the furface-weeds, and obtain acheap drefling ; by plough- ing the land deeper than ever it was ploughed before, ex- on « to a winter’s froft and fummer’s fun, and drefling it with afhes or lime, you obtain a depth of fweet mellow foil, not eafily injured by wet or drought, and adapted to all the purpofes of vegetation. To prove the utility of moving thefe clay foils fourteen or fifteen inches deep, let any one cover a pewter difh, or‘any fubftance like the fubftratum of thefe lands, impervious to water, with earth one inch deep, and expofe it to a trifling fhower, and the whole mafs will VoL, XY. No. 59. i become ‘ aygp . Account of George Pedrfon; M.D. F. Ro S. become a quagmire ; :let another difh be covered with the fame foil fifteen inches thick, and it is evidentit will require! fifteen times the number of cubic inches of water to put this into the fame boggy flate. | The former alfo by twenty- four hoars dry weather will become ‘as | hard.as.a brick,, when the other will only have a flight incrufiation formed on the furface., Suppofing this effect to be produced; on your field, by paling the fixed barrow once acrofs the Jand, rt will be put into a tiate of fine pulverization. By drilling on three feet ridges, you keep. the land in a dry healthy ftate 5 and by fowing your {pring crop on the fame ridges, you ob- viate the only objections to growing green Winter, crops on wet lands, viz. cutting up the lands by carting off the crop, and the impracticability of afterwards preparing them for fpring fowing. In carting, the: horfes walk in one furrows, and the wheels track in two other furrows ; the tops of the ridges are always dry ; and the fixed harrow pafling twice in a place, will prepare fuch lands for fowing, before the farmers in the common mode of managenient, without a crop of green food, «can put a hoof on’ their lands, Should. furface weeds appear before fowing, Mr. Cooke’s feufflers, or broad thares fixed in the fearifying-beam, fhould be pafled through : the land. tun [To be continued. ] ; ; Erratum.—In the laft Number, p. 168, laft line, for Cole’ read Clofe, XLVIIE. Some Account of Georce Pearson, M.D. E.R. Sc. &c. with a Portrait from an original Painting. WwW E are fenfible that an editor of the biography of living perfons fhould confider himfelf as ina very delicate fituation, and the more refpectable the character who is his fubjedt, the greater fhould be his care ; for utterly unmerited eulogy, from motives, of intereft or, vanity, 1s fo ufual, that any praife at all, or at leaft exceeding what is already gencrally, conferred and, confefledly due, mutt be offenfive to a man of inwwinfie merit. But thefe confiderations need not reftrain. an editor from gratifying the curiofity of the public, who may not perfonally, know.a man of eminence, by a ftatement at leaft of the departments in which he has been occupied, and a- recital of bis publifhed liierary labours. Lael s Dr. Pearfon graduated at Edinburgh at a very early, pe- riod. of life, and of courfe he mutt have previoufly ftudied a certain number of years in that univerfity. An extraét from his inaugural differtanon, De. Putredine, may be found in Account of George Pearfon, M.D. F.R.S. 27% in the Medical Commentaries for 1775. Several communi- cations on medical and philofophical fubjects, fubfequently to this period, are inferted in that annual work. _,_In 1784 Dr. Pearfon publithed a treatife on the Buxton waters, principally to. make known his difcovery that the gas which iffues from them fpontaneoufly is nots as was be- ieved, fixed air or carbonic acid, but phlogifticated air or azotic, gas. . Dr. Saunders, in: his, late treatife on Mineral Waters, has, given due credit to the author for this dilco- very, as well as for his able analyfis in general. ; ‘In the year 1788 Dr. Pearfon publifhed in feveral, jour- nals his account, of the falt,compofed, of phofphoric acid and foda, recommending it asa purgative which poffeffes no difagreeable tate, and is equally mild with any other of the cathartic falts., It.is.one of the.articles in.the Edinburgh Pharmacopzia of 1791, under the title of Soda Phofphorata : fince that time, it has been im general ufe. ,. In the Philofophical TranfaGtions for 1791, we find, Dr. Pearfon’s mafterly and at that time unrivalled analyfis of the James’s Powder... Immenfe favings have been made, by in- dividuals: fince this difcovery, efpecially in the nayy, to the amount, as the laté Dr. Johnfon, one, of the Commiffioners of the Sick and Hurt Office, afferted, of feveral thoufand pounds a year. : . In the Philofophical Tranfa&tions for 1792. is a paper enti- -tled, Experiments made with a View of decompounding Fixed ‘Air or Carbonic Acid, by Dr. Pearfon. In 1789 M. Lavoi- fier fhowed that carbonic acid might be compefed by uniting carbon to oxygen: but the author in the prefent paper fays, ‘* | he honour of the firft analytical experiments on carbonic | acid is due to Mr. Tennant, F. R..S.”. who obtained phol» phoric acid and carbon’ by pafling phofphorus through red- _ hot carbonate of lime, or marble powder... Whatever doubts were entertained of this fact, as ftated by Mr. Tennant, they were entirely remoyed by the decifive experiments of Dr. Pearfon. _..In the Philofophical Tranfactions for 1794 is inferted Dr. Pearfon’s paper on the wax-like matter called white lack, iu which he difcovered.a new acid called by bim Jawic acid, ac- cording to the new nomenclature of chemitts. _ In the fame work for 1795 is Dr. Pearfon’s paper on the fteel fuppofed to be made direétly from the ore by the Hin- doos, called qwootz. . In the following year is our author’s paper oft the com- petition, of the hard and ftrong metals of the anticnts, which 2¢ determines to have been copper united to tin, as ati , 4% rater 256 Account of George Pearfon, M.D. F.R.S. ftrated by his analyfis of fpecimens of antient metals, furs nifhed by the prefident of the Royal Society the right honour- able Sir Jofeph Banks. rr In 1797 the Philofophical Tranfa&tions contain Dr. Pear- fon’s communication of experiments on the gas prodneed by” paffing the eleftric {park through water; which he determines to be the mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gas, as demon- ftrated by firft feparating the oxygen by nitrous gas to pro= duce nitrous acid, and then inflaming the refidue after adding oxygen, and thus compofing water. In the Philofophical TranfaCtions for 1798 is publifhed the author’s paper on urinary calculi of man and brate animals ; in which he fhows that the fublimed acid of Scheele and the precipitate examined by the French chemifts are not the fame fubftance ; and that the latter does not poffefs acid pro- perties, but thofe of an oxide, for which he propofes the de- nomination wric oxide, aname fince generally adopted. In 1794 Dr. Pearfon publifhed the new French Chemical Nomenclature, with explanations fuited to the Englith reader, and additions according to fubfequent improvements in che- mical philofophy. In a fecond edition of this work the au- thor has made very confiderable additions, by giving new tables of affinities, and tables of double and fingle elective attractions. ; Among the medical differtations and papers of the author, the prominent ones are thofe on the Cow-pock. ‘he firft of thefe, in 1798, contains a great collection of fa&ts of this dif- eafe; and it immediately fucceeded the work of Dr. Jenner, the firft profeffed promulgator of this difeafe. This is neither the fit place nor time for a comparifon of what has been ef- » fected by thefe two gentlemen; and if it were fo, it would not be advifable to interfere. We honour and refpe& both of them as public benefaétors. We have already fet forth Dr. Jenner’s merits in our Journal, vol. xiti., and we have given an abridged account of Dr. Pearfon’s late work, in 1802, in the fame volume. The work entitled The Report . of the Cow-Pock Inoculation from the Praétice at the Vac- cine Inftitution in 1800, r80r, and 1802, as read at a ge- neral meeting of the fubferibers February 7th laft, which we had the pleafute to hear read, will give the beft account of the merit of Dr. Pearfon, in conjunétion with the other phy- ficians, in eltablifhing that inftitution, and carrying on the inveftigation of the new difeafe, occupied as he is in extenfive practice as a phyfician, as a teacher on the different branches of phyfic, and as phyfician to a large London hofpital. But aficr all it muft be referved for pofterity to affign the due pare o ” Notices refpefting New Books. 277 of the introducers of the new beneficial inoculation in the temple of Fame; for it will be fome time before the preju- dices excited by jealoufy and intereft fhall be extinguifhed. __ Dr. Pearfon was eleéted phyfician to St. George’s hofpital in 1787; and how ferviceable be has made it to. his fchool of medicine is beft evinced by his numerous pupils, and the proficiency they make in their ftudies. Dr. Pearfon’s elementary books on medicine are printed, and in the hands of his pupils, but not yet publithed. XLIX. Notices re/pe&ing New Books. An Effay on the Relation between the Specific Gravities and the Strengths and Values of Spirituous Liquors, with Rules for the Adaptation of Mr. Gilpin’s Tables to the prefent Standard, and Two New Tables for finding the Percentage and Concentration, when the Specific Gravity and Tempe~ rature are given. By ATKINS and Co. 4to, 1803. Tue prefent work is drawn up in fuch a mafterly and {cientific manner, that we fhall, as foon as we can find room, refent fome large extraéts from it. In the mean time we infert the Preface. f “ 1f the fubje& of the following pages were regarded merely with reference to thofe immediate practical confe- quences which refult from its confideration as connected with a great branch of the revenue, and {till more with the interefts of commerce, it mutt neceffarily be confidered as one of the higheft importance. Thefe, however, are by no means the bil points of view in which it prefents itfelf: it is intimately related to the correét appreciation of our weights and meafures in general, the neceffity of which appears to be univerfally admitted. << Tt would certainly not be expedient at this day te change thofe venerable ftandards, by which, as belonging to the firft commercial nation, the traffic of the world is in a great mea- fure guided and regulated ;,but it muft have occurred to every man who reflects on the fubjeét, that, in the prefent flate of commerce and fvience, it would at leaft be conveni- ent that we fhould poffefs fome better definition of a yard- meafure than that which William of Malmfbury gives us, when he {tates that it is the exaét length of the arm of King Henry the Firft; and fome more correct defcription of a ‘) pound. 248 Notices refpedling New Books. pound-weight, than that it is as heavy as 7680 grains of wheat taken from the middle of the ear *. m ates ** Thefe ideas were naturally fuggefted to the minds of the authors by the neceffity which they have been under, in’ the courle of their trade, of deciding on which of the' various dif=' eordant authorities they fhould found their eftimation of the weight of given meafures of different fluids, and of the rela- tion which thefe meafures of capacity bear to the linear mea- fures of the country; and there cannot, perhaps, be a ftronger proof of the propriety of a declaratory aét to fettle thefe mat- ters, than that there fhould fill remain fomething to be affumed with refpeét to every one of them. This important meafure is, however, as the writers of this effay believe, now in the contemplation of the government. ** Tt is {tated in § 16, that they have eflimated the wine gallon at 231 cubic inches, the pound avoirdupoife at 7000 grains troy, and the relation between troy weight and linear meafure to be fuch, that the weight of a cubic inch of -di- ftilled water at 60°, when weighed in air at 60°, fhall be equal to 252: of the fame grains. « The aflumption with regard to the wine-gallon is founded on the eftablifhed practice of the Boards of Cuftoms and Ex- cife to confider it as of the content which is here given; it being fufficiently known, from a very accurate experiment which was made on this fubje&t May 25, 1688, in the pre- fence of the Lord-Mayor, the Commiffioners of Excife, Dr. Halley, Mr. Flamftead, and other men of fcience, that the old wine gallon in Guildhall really contains only 224. The former, however, is, perhaps, at the prefent day, the legal wine-gallon. , «* The fuppofition with refpect to the relation between avoirdupoife and troy weight, is chiefly founded on a kind of tacit agreement amongft the majority of fcientific men at prefent to confider the avoirdupoife pound as equal to 7000 grains troy; and that which is, perhaps, of {till more prac- tical effect with regard to it,—the opinions of the beft in- fotmed amongft our fcale-makers : for; whether it arifes from the fmaller value of the artucles~which are weighed by the former, and its confequent Jefs minute fubdivifion ; from it introduction by cufiom rather than by flatute ; or from what- ever other caufe it may. be derived, it appears to have been * « Pex ordinacionem tocius regni Anglie fuit menfuraydomini regis gompofita, videlicet, quod denarits qui vocatur fterlingus rotundus et fine foniura ponderabit triginti duo grana frumenti in medio {pice. Et uncia ponderabit yiginti denarios. Ht duodec:m uncie faciunt libram London.” . Stat. ** De Ponderibus et Menfuris.” 31 Ed. I. always Notices refpeting New Books. 279: always: fubje& to more! uncertainty than the’ latter. Mr. Ward tell us, in his Mathematics, that he found, by/a very nice experiment, that the pound avoirdapoife weighed'6go9¢ . grains troy , and yet we find, from the Report on the Weights of Europe in general, in'the Memoirs of the French Acadenty of Sciences for 1767, that the ratio between the avoirdupoife and troy pounds, which M. Tillet had obtained for the pur pofe,' was that of 7004°5 to 5760. ‘© The appreciation of the weight of a eubie*inch of di- ftilled water is principally founded on the experiments of Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn, Bart., deferibed in the Phi- lofophical Tranfaétions for 1798} from a mean of which it follows *, that the cubic inch of diftilled water at 60°, under the circumftances deferibed im § 16, weighs 252-506 grains of the ftandard troy pound made for the Committee of the Houfe of Commons in 1758, or 252°8_6 ‘if weighed ‘in va- cuo. O8 «* A variety of motives concur to induce the authors to take thefe as ftandard experiments. All the older attempts of this kind are of no value whatever, having been made with water which was not diftilled, and under other circumftances which render them liable to innumerable errors : even the celebrated experiment of Mr. Everard in 1696 was made with undiftilled New River water. 'The only ones, perhaps; which are at all to be compared with thofe of Sir G. S.“Evelyn are thofe of Dr. Robifon, and) the French Commiflioners. of Weights and Meafures. ) p Ait Dt _ & The former gentleman weighed a cylinder whofe height and diameter were each 6 inches, taken, as he fays, from’a moft accurate copy of the Exchequer ftandard, feveral times in diftilled water at 55°, and found that it loft 42895 grains of its weight without a variation of 2 grains in the whole. Now, the folid content of the above body bemg 6* x .785398, or 169°646 cubic inches, a cubic inch of water weighs in air, according to this experitnent, '252°85 grains at 555 or, by Mr. Gilpin’s Tables, exaétly 252 *.at 60°. “< The authors of this effay are, however, induced to pre- fer the experiments of Sir G. 8. Evelyn to that of Dr. ‘Robi- fon, principally for the following reafon :—He does not tell ‘us whether his weights had been immediately and accurately ‘compared with any of the parliamentary fandards. The ad~ jufiment of the beft weights is generally thus performed :— They are,.in the firft place, filed to fomething near the re- quired weight; then ground on a ftone, and afterwards po- * See Philofophical Journal, O&avo Series, vol. iy. p. 35 (No. for Jan. 1803.) T 4 lithed. 280 Notices refpeGling New Books. lithed. . Now, it very frequently happens, that fome of thefe operations are carried a little too far, and one or two of the weights rendered fomewhat too light ; and when this is the cafe, unlefs the workman can be abfolutely depended on, the whole fet will infallibly be fpoiled; for, inftead of making new ones to fupply their place, he will, nine times in ten, prefer the adjufting the others to them; conceiving it to be of more confequence that they fhould all agree, than that they fhould be aécurately of any particular weight. When weights are fucceffively copied from each. other a number of times, the laft of the feries will therefore frequently be lighter than the firft, and fometimes very confiderably fo. ‘For the appreciation of the weight in troy grains of acubic inch of diftilled water at 60°, from the experiments of the ‘French commiffioners of weights and meafures, we have the following data. “* Weare told by the InfiruGion fur les Poids & Mefures, prefixed to M. Brifion’s Traité de Phyfique, and which 1s cer- tified by the commiffioners to be * exaétly founded on the refults obtained and recorded by the faid commiffion,” and in feyeral other works, that they weighed diflilled water in nine different cafes at various temperatures, in air and in vacuo. We will, however, fele&t the cafe which they have thought proper to affume as the bafis of their ftandard of weight, viz. that in which the weight of water is taken at its maximum of denfity (or about the temperature of 40° of Fabr.) and in vacuo; under which circumftances they inform us that the cubic decimetre weighs 2 pounds 5 gros and 35°15 grains, or 18827'15 grains of the pords de marc. ‘*< This, according to M. Tillet’s appreciation of the Eng- lith troy pound, which he makes equal to 7021 of thefe grains, is equal to 15445°7 grains troy. «< Now, we find from the report made to the Mathematical and Phyfical Clafs of the National Inftitute on the 27th of December 1801 *, relative to a comparifon of the metre with a feale of M. Pi&tet’s, which was exaétly fimilar to that of Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn, that this meafure is equal to 39°38272 inches of that fcale when at 32°; or, correcting for temperature according to General Roy’s table of the expan- fion of bis brafs feale, in the 75th volume of the Philofophical ‘Tranfaétions, equal to 39°3712 inches of the fame feale when at 60°; the French platina and iron flandards, when at the freezing point, indicating the length of the metre. ‘© The cubic decimetre, therefore, is equal to 61'02896 * Philofophical Magazine, vol. xii. p. 229. j cubic Gatvanic Society. 281 cubic inches of Sir G. S. Evelyn’s ftandard at 60°, and 15445°7 ~ 61°02896 is equal to 253088; the weight in troy grains of fuch a cubic inch of water at its maximum of den- fity and in vacuo, according to the experiments of the French commiffioners. “© Now, according to Mr. Gilpin’s Tables (Phil. Tranf. for 1794, p- 382), the fpecific gravity of water in this ftate is to that which it pofleffes at 60° as 1000'g4 to 1000. But 1000'94 2 1000 :: 253°088: 252°351. The weight of a cubic inch of water, therefore, according to this method of calculation, would, if weighed in vacuo at 60°, be = 252°85 grains; and if weighed in air at the fame temperature, under the preflure of 29% inches, = 252°55; being within ;..~th part of the weight deduced from Sir G. S, Evelyn’s experiments, <* It was thought indifpenfable thus to ftate the hypothefes on which the authors have proceeded with refpeét to their calculations, and confequently with regard to the inftruments which they have hitherto manufactured for afceriaining the relative ftrengths and values of liquors of various defcriptions, and particularly thofe which conftitute the fubje& of thele fheets. The variation of denfity in alcoholic compounds is a circumftance which is not only of importance to the mer- chant, the fpirit dealer, and the revenue officer; to the phi- Jofopher, who is engaged in the inveftigation of the nature and progreflion of thofe forces by which the conftituent par- ticles of matter are conne&ted with each other, it mutt alfo afford matter of interefiing contemplation, It is, therefore, of no inconfiderable confequence that every thing relating to it fhould be eftablifhed on the beft authorities aud the furet foundations, and that the public fhould be enabled to judge of the degree of credit which is to be given to thofe who en- deavour to elucidate fo important a fubje.”’ ] L. Proceedings of Learned Societies. GALVANIC€ SOCIETY, PARIS. Tints fociety has organized a commiffion of experiments. Thouret is elected prefident; Aboville, vice-prefident; and Izarn, fecretary. M. Winckler gave an extraét of feveral obfervations on cafes of deafnefs cured by M. Schaub, of Caflel. The fenator Abrial communicated a memoir of M. Pfing- ften, direétor of the inflitution for deaf and dumb at Kiel, tending 282 Galvanic Society. tending to prove that Galvanifm is of very little ufe in deaf- nefs. o- M. Mojon gave an account of fome experiments which feem to prove that Galvanifm is proper for retarding the pu- tridity of animal matters. Tae M. Nauche the prefident, and Pajot-Laforét, communi- eated a new Galvanic phenomenon. Having fubjected to the action ofthe pile frogs expofed to a temperature of ten degrees below zero, they obferved, that repeated contaét of the conduétor communicating with the copper pole produces the development of a whitifh mucous fluid, exceedingly abun- dant in the liver, lungs, and particularly the nerves and the hearts not very abundant in the mufcles, the inteftines, and none in the integuments; while the conductor in communi- cation with the zinc pole produces no development of this fluid, and feems rather to caufe that which has’ been pro- duced to difappear. L C. Gautherot has made a feries of experiments tending to prove that electricity is developed in the ratio of the furfaces. C. Nauche the prefident, with his fellow-labourers Bonnet ' and Pajot-Laforét, has been able, by means of two homoge- neous metallic conductors, to draw off the ele&tric fluid from the brain and {pinal marrow of an ox recently killed, and to convey it to the thighs of a frog, where it produced mufeular contractions. This operation fucceeded alfo in the palpi- tating mufcles, and could be continued only a quarter of an hour after death. The fenator Lamartilliére gave an explana- tion of the difengagement of mucous matter by the poles; and {howed that it arifes from a chemical decompofition. C. Izarn gave an account of the conftruétion of a pile in- vented by C. Alizeau, in which, inftead of difks moiftened with a faline folution, a ftratum of moiftened falt is employed, and which can produce its effeéts for a month without being cleaned. The Commiffion of Medical Application, confifling of Guillotin, Dodaujon, Petit-Radel, &c. have made a great number of experiments on afphyxia by ftrangulatian. The application of Galvanitm to difeates, fufpended in con- fequence of the winter feafon, is going to be refumed at a place deftined for the purpofe in the School of Medicine, and — jn the private laboratory of the fociety. » LI. Iniel- [283° J LI. Intelligence and Mifcellaneous Articles. ANTIQUITIES. Genera REYNIER having prefented to the French National Inftitute a tunic and the remains of fome antient veltments found neat Sakara, in Egypt, the three clafles ap- pointed, commiffioners to give in a report on thefe curious articles, A very exact idea may be given of this tunic by comparing it to the tunics worn by the deacons and fubdea- cons of the Roman catholic church, if we fuppofe the latter to have long clofe fleeves, as was formerly the cafe. It is ornamented with embroidered pieces, fome of which defcend from the fhoulders ; others are applied to the fhoulders, and at the bottom before and behind: two pieces of the fame kind furround the extremity of the fleeves. ‘The colour of the ftuff is a fouci yellow, and the embroidery is. puce co- lour, or dark brown. The defign is of little importance, and has no relation either to natural objects, to hieroglyphics, or to written characters. The (tuff has been wove in the loom, but the embroidery feems to have been executed according to the procels of tapeftry au petit point. In regard to the Mature of them, chemifts have found that the yellow fluff of the tunic is animal,matter. In regard to the embroidery, the yellow tiffue or ground is vegetable matter, and the brown thread, animal matter. General Reynier was not able to procure any farther in- formation from the inhabitants of Sakara, wlio fold him this tunic, except that they had/ found it with other articles in a pit filled with fand which they had dug up, No particular account can be given of the time when/this tiflue was wove, nor of the perfonage to whom it belonged. In the report made on it to the Inttitute, the author fhows that it belonged neither to a Macedonian nor a Greek efta- blifhed in Egypt, as it has fleeves which defcend to the wrft, whereas the Grecian tunic had no fleeves, or fleeyes fo fhort that they reached only to the elbow; but it appears certain that the Macedonian tunic was not different from the Gre- cian. The Macedonians were diftinguifhed from the other Greeks only by their head-drefs (caujia) and their chlamys, The tunic of Sakara belonged then to an Egyptian, But the point is to determine at what period. The author of the re- ort only fays, that it cannot be older than the time when Thebes was abandoned, ‘The grottoes of Sakara, which are at 284 Antiquities, at the diftance of a few miles from Thebes, near the ruins of Thebes, were no doubt dug about that time. It was in the fixth century before the Chriftian era that Cambyfes ra- vaged Thebes, and plundered it of its riches and monuments, The moft remote period, therefore, which can be affigned to the time when the tunics were wove is the fifth or fourth century before Auguftus. . It is impoffible to fay any thing more correé& in regard to the perfonage who wore it. We are told by Herodotus that the Egyptian priefts wore a fingle veftment of linen, and fhoes of papyrus. The pricfts of Ifis at Rome were called the troop clothed in linen, /inigera turba. Pythagoras, who imitated them, made no ufe of woven f{tuffs made from animal mat- ters. The tunic of Sakara was therefore not worn by an Egyptian_of the facerdotal order. It did not form part of a female drefs, for we are told alfo by the father of hiftory that the Egyptian women were clothed in linen. The men ufed alfo fimilar vefiments; but they wore above thefe tunics white woollen veftments. ** But,’ Herodotus adds, * they do not wear-woollen veftments in the temples, and they-do not bury their dead in dreffes of that kind; they would be confidered as indecent.” The vellow colour of the tunic, if not the effeét of anti- quity, would be no proof of its not having belonged to an Egyptian; but if it be the effect of art, we may fuppofe that it was the diftinguifhing mark of fome dignity, In a word, the only thing certain which can be faid of this Egyptian veftment is, that it was not conveyed with the body of a de- ceafed perfon to the grottoes of Sakara, which ferved as tombs, becaufe it was repugnant to the ideas of the Egyp~ tians to be interred in wove woollen cloth. It muft therefore bave been depofited with other riches which the proprietors wifhed to fecure from the rapacity of the enemy. C. Mongez has communicated to the Inftitate a memoir on fome antient medals and other articles difeovered near Au- rillac, in the department of Cantal. Some workmen digging in a meadow found the portion of a circular inclofure confilt- ing of a double wall. It was about fix feet in diameter, and four feet eight inches in height; but rofe very little above the furface of the meadow. The interior wall was of baked brick, exceedingly beautiful, circular, and with the joinings tending to the centre. This interior wall was fur- rounded by another of dry ftones, deftined, no doubt, to fup- port the earth. No traces of a covering appeared, and itis probable there never was any. In digging in this inclofure, and demolifhing it, there gr fir Antiquities. } 485 firft found medals of gilt bronze of all the Roman emperors down to Commodus, Otho excepted; which proves that in the fecond century bronze medals of that prince were exceed- ingly rare, and that they had not then, perhaps, been carried mto Gaul. Along with the fmall veffels of baked earth which ~ contained thefe medals, there were dug up fome fmaller ones which contained aromatic fub(tances. The workmen took them for tobacco; but finding by the tafte that they were deceived, they threw them away, and carefully wafhed the veffels which contained them; fo that neither the nature of thefe aroma- tics, nor even the odour which the veflels would have re- tained, could be known. Two fmall bits of very white moulded clay were alfo dug up: one reprefented a dog, the legs of which were broken; the other was a female buft, but the remainder of the body was deftroyed by the digging. A clafp of bronze, and a glafs ring of fo large a fize that it could we worn only on the thumb if it ferved for a ring, were allo ug up. The circular form of the inclofure difeovered near Aurillac induces C. Mongez to conjecture that it might have been ufed for burning dead bodies, and that it was an u/frinum, fuch as the circular inclofure of earth in which the body of Auguftus was burnt, and which was religioufly preferved near his maufoleum, ftill in part exiftine; and fuch as the inclo- fure of the fame form difcovered in £763 near Placentia, in the ruins of the antient Veleia, which appears to have been buried by the fall of a mountain, and which Winckelmana found to be an u/frinum. Some of the infcriptions on antient fepulchral ftones of the Romans announce an exprefs prohi- bition to conftruét an u/trinum near a monument. The reafon of this prohibition has not yet been examined. After men tioning the law of the twelve tables, which forbade the burn- ing of bodies nearer any edifice than the diftance of fixty feet, without the owner’s confent, C. Mongez is of opinion that this prohibition fuppofed (ome edifice to be in the neighbour- hood, the proprietor of which intifted on the rigorous execu- jon of the law. In regard to the {mall female buft found near Aurillac, C. Mongez obferves, that Montfaucon has given engravings _ of four female figures of the like kind. They were all of that kind of argillaceous earth called tobacco-pipe clay; the work- manfhip was coarfe, and they had al] been moulded: one of them was found in 1710, in digging m the abbey of Saint- Lomer, at Blois. It was depofited im a {mall grotto contain- ing the half-burnt bones of animals, i which were found the thigh-bone of a horfe and the tooth of adog. ‘The Gauls ; were 236. . Antiquities. were accuftomed to throw into. the funeral piles of their dead, thofe animals. they had been. fondeft of, fuch, as dogs and horfes, There is reafon, therefore, to conclude that the grotto of Blois was a burying-place of the Gauls, and, by analogy, that the inclofure of, Aurillac belonged to the fame, nation. The female buft found there exhibits the fame characters,as the figures publithed by Montfaucon; and_befides, there was found along with it a figure of a dog of the fame fubftance and workmanthip. ; Thefe female figures have been fo often dug up in the fe- pulchres of the Gauls, and the ftyle, the workmanthip, and materials have. fo great a refemblance, that one cannot help fuppofing that they muft have been depofited, there from the fame motives. C. Mongezis of opinion that they may have reprefented the principal mother goddeffes in general,,,and thofe in particular whom the deceafed whole .afhes re- pofed in thefe tombs had adopted as their protectors. A great deal has been written on the mother goddeffes _men- tioned in the fepulchral infcriptions of the Romans: Dzs matribus ..... matronis, &c.. As bas-reliefs reprefenung three females, fometimes ftanding and fometimes. fitting, holding fruits, cones of the fir-tree, and cornucopias, were fometimes added to fuch mfcriptions; the mother god- deffes were at firft taken for rural deities: but one of thefe monuments was found in the city of Lyons, and on others they are called the mothers of Galicia, the mothers of. the Gabii, &c. Their protection therefore was extended to cities and provinces alfo. Keyfler thinks that they were thofe druid females for whom the Gauls entertained fo great a veneration ; but this opinion is contradicted by monuments of the fame kind, confecrated in countries at a very. great difiauce from Gaul. Others confidered the mother goddefles as the three Parc or Fates; but it is, not certain that the Parca ever formed.a part of all the. nations among whom the deities in queftion were worthipped: befides, she latter had their proper denomination, Fata. In the laft place, Barrier propofed a ftill more probable opinion refpecting, the mothe goddefles : he fuppofed them to. be deities, common, to rer nations, and that their furnames denoted the places, where they were worthipped. ' M7 To this may be added, that the women acknowledged them as their fpecial protectors; for we read on two infcriptions + Matronis Gabiabus, ..... Junonibus Gabiabus.. Every wor « man. believed that fhe had a female genius who proteéicd her, and whom fhe called her Juno. The Greeks, the Cretans in particular, and the Sicilians, rendered worfhip to 9 the ‘ Palladium, or New Silver.—Improved Lamps. 287 the celeftial bears under the name of Mothers. But it ap- pears doubtful whether the mother goddefles of the Gaul’s of Britain, Germany, Spain, &c. were the fame deities. Itis at leat certain that in confequence of migrations, the notions refpecting thefe goddeffes, their functions and attributes, had at that time been ftrangely altered. The figures given by Montfaucon hold children in their arms, like the'female figures feen on medals of fome of the empreffes, with the legend Juno Lucina; which confirms the opinion of C. Mongez, that thefe figures reprefent the mother goddeffes in general, and in particular the Junos and Genii of women. PALLADIUM, OR NEW SILVER. We have juft been favoured with a fpecimen.of a metal, faid to be a new one, to which the above name has been given, and which, among others, is faid to poflefs the fol- lowing properties :—r. It diffolves in pure fpirit of nitre, and makes a dark red folution, 2. Green vitriol throws it down in a flate of a regulus from this folution, as it always does gold from agua regia. 3. If you evaporate the folution you get a red calx, that diffolves in fpirit of falt or other acids. 4. lt is thrown down by quickfilver, and by all the metals but gold, platina, and filver. 5. Its fpecific gravity by ham- mering was only 11°3; but bv flatting, as much as 11°8, 6. In a common fire it tarnifhes a little, and turns blue; but comes bright again, like other noble metals, when fironger heated. 7, The greateft heat of a blackfmith’s fire would hardly melt it. 8 But if you touch it while hot with afmall bit of fulphur, it runs as eafily as zinc.—It is fold only by Mr. Forfier, at No. 26, Gerrard-ftreet, Soho, Lon= don, in famples of five fhillings, half a guinea, and one guinea each.—We have not had time to fubject the fpecimen fent to us'to any chemical tefts. When we do, we fhall report the refult to our readers. Where or how it has been procured we have not yet learnt. IMPROVED LAMPS, Mr. Paul, of Geneva, now in London, has made fome im- a . * > * - portant improvements mn the conftruction of lamps and re- flectors, by which, among other advantages, that light which is ufually thrown up into the atmofphere and loft, is reflected ‘to the {pace intended to be illuminated; by which a much greater effeA is produced, and at the fame time a faving in ‘the confumption of the oil. We underftand they are foon to “be'employed by Mr. Smethurft in lighting the ftreets. ASTRO- 288 Affronomy.—Galvanifm.—New Species of Inoculation. ’ ASTRONOMY. rod Ae . Tn our Jaft we prefented our readers with tables containin the geocentric motion of the two new planets, Ceres Ferdi- nandea and Pallas, for the month of April; we now fubjoin tables of their motion calculated for the month of May 1803. Geocentric Motion of Ceres Ferdinandea. ‘Geoceuttic Motion of Pallas, Right | Declin, Right} Declin. Afcenfion. North. Afcenfion. South. 1g® 11™ 545 |24° 6! May 318° 55™ 15°|18° 38! 618 1g 12 38 |24 15 Ba PD 7 918 54 42119 35/19 12 50 24 25 1218 54 8j20 1/19 12 59 |24 35 ip 15118 53. 22120 26 9 12 52 124 46 1818 52 24/20 51}\19. 12 30 24 57 a118 51 15 j2t 4/19 It 56125 9 a4l18 49 56|2t 36 Ig Ik 5 25 2% a7\t8 48 27121 55)19 10.3 |25 35 gor 46 49/22 14/19 8 44 \25 48 GALVANISM. Profeffor Aldini, when on his way to France, made the following experiment at Calais :—He extended a wire from the top of the Weft Jetty to Fort Rouge, diftant about 160 feet, and which are feparated by an arm of the fea. The extremity of this wire towards the jetty was immerfed in the water, the other extremity was fixed to a maft, and a portion of the wire was free. A fecond wire was difpofed in fuch a manner, that its lower extremity was immerfed in the water at the bottom of the maft, while its upper extremity could be made to communicate with the wire fixed to the maft. Be- tween the extremity of the wire attached to the nfaft and that of the fecond wire immerfed in the fea the profeffor placed an animal, as a prepared frog for example, which being then brought into contaét with the two wires, immediately expe- rienced the ufual-contraftions, The fea water, therefore, ferved as a conductor between the other extremities of the wires, A NEW SPECIES OF INOCULATION, Accounts have been received from one of the travellers in Africa (Hornemann, we believe), ftating, that in a diftri& which he has vifited he found a kind of inoculation practiled, which an{wers the fame end refpecting fyphilis that the vac- cine pock does refpecting the fwnall-pox—exémpting the pa- tient from the poflibility of infection. . Dust oft siti das » J . a LIl. Letter from Dr. OvBERS of Bremen to BaronVon Zacu, on the Stones which have fallen from the Hea. You know that in a leu Mufeum of Bremen in the year 1795, on the fhower of ftones, as it is called, which. fell at Siena in Italy, I ex- preffed the'fame idea which T lately read with much fatis- faétion in a letter of Laplace, in which he ays t Tt is not impoffible that large maffes, detached from fome of the ce- leftial bodies, and particularly from ‘the ma on, may have re which I delivered in the fometimes been projeéted to. the earth.” ‘As ‘you require a pro) ou require a more circumftantial illuftration of this fubjeét, I embrace’ the prefent opportunity of gratifying your WHheean rss Mee: ~ T mutt readily acknowledge, that when I wrote the before- mentioned eflay on the fhower of ftones which fell at Siena, I confidered thefe ftones to be of a volcanic origin. The ftones found ‘at Siena fell at the diftance of fixty miles from, Vefuvius, only eighteen hours after the commencement of the great eruption which deftroyed the unfortunate Torre del Greco, and of which fo elegant a defcription has been given by fir William Hamilton, I was acquainted with the principles of Zolner and Lichtenberg, according to which thefe ftones could not be afcribed to Vefuvius; but to me thefe principles did not appear fatisfa€tory, The great ve- locity which would be neceflary to make a mafs projected ' from Vefuvius to proceed to fo great a diftance, was not fof. ficient to induce me to abandon my opinion. By calculation I found that it was not fo great as what might be fuppofed to be produced by the dreadful convulfion which takes place on fuch occafions, What tended chiefly to confirm ‘me in my idea was, that fir William Hamilton then be- lieved that be had often found at Vefuvius ftones which had a great refemblance to thofe which fell at Sienat. I alfo fuppofed that Vefuvius might have projected from one of its mouths a half-fufed mafs at an angie of from forty to fifty degrees, which, like every thing elfe proceeding from the crater, wag in a high degree eleétric; that this mafs had * From Algemeene Konft en Letter- Bode, No. 17, 1803. + Stones of the famé nature, at leaftas far as the eye can. judge of them, are frequently found on Mount Vefuvius; and when I was on the mountain lately 1 fearched for {uch ftones near the new) mouths; but as the foil. around’ them has been covered with a thick bed of afhes, whatever was thrown up during the force: of the! eruption: lies buried under thofe athes, &e.—Philolophical Tranfattions 1795, p+ 104- Vor. XV. No. 60, Ey crater, May 1803. 290 On Stones which have fallen from the Heavens. taken its direction towards Siena; that when within a cer- tain diftance of the earth it had difcharged itfelf; and that 30 confequence “of this difcharge it had burft, fo that the fragments fell down in the ftate of ignited ftones *. ~ ; _ On the other hand, however, it is known that no fuch ftones are found on Mount Vefuvius, It has been lately fhown by the mineralogical defcription of Count de Bour- non, and the chemical analyfis cof Mr. Howard, that the {tones found at Siena have a perfeét refemblance to all the other ftones which have been feen to fall from the heavens, and which certainly cannot be productions of our earth f. My former explanation and conjectures fall therefore to the ground, and we mutt clafs the ftones of Siena among thofe which are formed by nature in fome mode with which we are unacquainted, and which burfting always with the ap- pearance of light fall down to tbe earth, : ~ Since the time when naturalifts firfl ventured, or were obliged, to believe in the falling of fuch flones, it has been found that this phenomenon 1s not fo uncommon as was fuppofed. During the laft century, fourteen or fifteen in-~ fiances at leaft can be quoted. "When I erroneoufly afcribed in my lectures the ftones found at Siena to an eruption of Vefuvius, the nature of other ftones fallen from the heavens, which certainly were not of volcanic origin, had given occafion to the queftion whether it was impofiible that heavy maffes could be pro- jeéted to the earth from other heavenly bodies, and parucu- Jarly from the moon? The celebrated flone which fel] near Argos Potamos, in the year 462 before Chrift{, induced me in particular to undertake an. examination of this queftion 5 and. on this occafion my learned friend, Mr. Bredenkamp, clergyman of Bremen, was-fo kind as to colleét for me all ihe paflages in antient authors. whicli make mention of this fione. In regard to the reft, the reader may confult what Struyk, Pingré § and Chladni|| have faid on the fubje&. It appears from calculation, that when a greater vertical yelocity than 34435°7 Paris feet in a fecond can be given to a heavy body projected from the earth’s furface, fuppofing the atmofphere to oppofe no refiftance, this body would not * The abbé Tata aétually faw a large fire-ball thrown-up from Vefu- vius, which when it had reached a certain diftance burft, and the abbé then heard a noife like that of {tones falling down. + Howard’s Experiments and Obfervations on certain Stony and Me- tali ne Subftances, d&c.—Philofophical Tranfaétions 1802. bs Plin. Hift. Nar. lib. ii. cap. 58. § ‘Cometographie, p- 256. _ yj Philofophical Magazine, vol. ii. . fall On Stonei which have fallen: from the Heavens.) 291 fallback to'thé earth,’ but would: continue to move from: it’ in infinitum, © A cannon bullet fometimes acquires a velocity” of 1800 or 2000' feet in a*fecond *; and heavy ‘maffes are? projeéted* from the volcanoes of our earth with a velocity: four or five times as great.) This» velocity, therefore, »is ‘fart _ greaterithan that of:35,000 feet! perfecond.: But even ifvit were poffibley bythe help of’ chemittry and mechanics, to: give a ball’ a) velocity of 35,000 feet, ‘or even more, per fe= cond, ‘the trong refiftance oppofed by the air,» which always increafes at the leaflias the fquare of the velocity, would tend very much to deftroy it. We.amay therefore:confider it as almoft impoflible that Heavy bodiesiean ever-beventirely pro- jeGted: from the: earth. «I confider itvaltogether unneceffary to take into account inwthis’ calculation the influence which the attractive force of the moon! wouldchave ‘on).the motion’ ofa body projested im thisamanners yo) stony 9 bn ao But theidate is entirely different if iweofubject to calcula+ tion’ the motion ofa heavy body: projeéted fromm the: furface: of the moon. The? moon is«a' great» deal fntaller than the earth,” poffeffes'a much weaker power: of attraction, andoat the fame time its °atmofphere is of fo! fmall extent, and foi rate, that it could: oppofe very-little refiftance to a heavy: body in »%a ‘ftate’of motion. + Itvis therefore’ poffible: that a heavy body might be ‘projeCted from the ‘moon with fuch a velocity as‘to carryit‘toa diftance where it would be:attracted with greater force by the earth! binant po a0) ea) {t is found ‘bg calctilation that! 7780 feet per fecondiis the minimum of velocity with which ‘a body projected from the moon wouldirequire’to fall upontherearth.01t appears, there- fore, that if heavy. bodies were’ projected from. the moon with a vertical velocity of 7800 or 8000 feet under certain circum = ftances, fome of thele bodies would reach thevearth and fall downiupon it: » Such ‘a velocity. appears;to me! to be very poflibles: ‘The farfacewfithe moon,’ by the new craters which arife, (hows evident’ traces! of ‘violentixeruptions, by/ which: even as great or greater velocity might/be communicated to the bodies thrown’ upsby then» fo so isyreldo oot en oy “It appearsithen, that itis novaltogetherimpoflible that the: ftones or tmhaflés: Which ‘have been fee to fall from the hea~ vens, and Which, thoughrentirely differenteftom all».theimi- neral bodies of our earth, havera great; refer blaricestoveachy other, may’have fallen from theanoonen Etris th their great fimilarity and correfpondéncé that the grounds»of thisopiwion) are to be found ;, for the fimilarity, of their external appear- * Mém. de |’ Acad. Royale des Sciences i769, pi 247: : Uz ance, 292 OxStones which have fallen» from, the Heavens.) ance, and of their component parts, evidently fhow that they have all had the fame origin. If we admit, with Halley and Chladni, that, befides the large celeftial bodies,. there-are, in, boundlefs fpace an infinite number of. fmall :maffes which move about till they approach fo near-a planet as to enter its) atmofphere, when they take fire, burt, and fall down, upon, its we can explain why all thefe maffes difperfed throughout infinite fpace confift-of iron, nickel, filiceous earth, and tale, earth, which, according, to the ingenious experiments of Mr., Howard, are the component parts of all the mafles which) have fallen from the heavens. r ¥O% ) fount -Y: But, on the other hand, great difficulties occur, if thefe ftanes which have fallen from the heavens be ferioufly confi- dered as bodies projeéted from the moon. . In confequence, of the motion of the moon, bodies projected from it acquire; befides their projectile velocity, that weloreitp which the moon has in the direction of the tangents to her orbit. If we therefore take this velocity into the.account, it will appear,’ that heavy bodies projeéted from the moon with a velocity of 8eco fret or more per feeond, as foon' as they have got to fuch a diftance from the moon: as to, experience lefs, attrac+ tion from it than from the earth, would deferibe around the; earth a conic feétion paffing more or lefs;through the moon. Thefe conic feétions, according to the difference of the dix rection’ and velocity, may be either hyperbolas or ellipfes *. In order that the body fhould fall to the earths, the ellipfe it, deferibes ought to ‘be of fuch a nature that its:perigeum fills within the body of the earth, or at leaft within its atmofphere,, The moon, therefore, muft perceptibly decreafe\in fize, as it would be neceffary that it fhould throw out, a great number’ of maffes to. make fome of them: reach the earth, Fon this purpofe alfo avery limited direétiomand velocity of the heavy: bodies would be required. And would not an infinite num- ber of fuch fmall fragments move around. our, earth as fatel- lites? Would they notibe vifible through our beft telefcopes, as we know that fire-balls fometimes are of very great fize, and as the obfervation of Ceres and Pallas has fhown that) bodies ‘of a very fmall diameter become vifible to. us when iNuminated by the light of the fun; or are ‘the fhooting ftars, which feem to have a cofmical origin, fuch fmall fatellites, of ourearth? Perhaps we ought to clafs among thefe alfo, the fmal] pale luminous fpot which Schroeter faw pafs aver the field of his telefeope. Thefe objections, and others which | » A prodigious velocity would be required to make a body projected from the moon to fall to the earth in an hyperbola. f : arife, On the Nervous Power, and it; Mode'of afiing. 293 arife from an examination of the circumftances of their fall- ing, feem to me to be.of great importance, and difficult to be removed. Bis I am therefore far from afferting that thefe ftones which have fallen to the earth are to be confidered as mafles pro- jected from the moon; nor does Laplace make any fuch af- fertion.. His object, as well as mine, is to fhow philofophers engaged in refearches on this fubject the poffibility of thefe mafies having a /elenitic origin.. It ismuch to be withed that the ingenious Chladni would favour us with a new edi- tion of his celebrated effay on the mafs of iron found ip Si- beria *, as he no doubt would be able, from Benzenberg and Brandes’ Obfervations on falling Stars, Howard’s Chemical Examination, and from various other documents, to make confiderable additions to it. ———— aaa NP ep NO MON “LIT. On the Nervous Power, and its Mode of aGing +. Ir has been generally fuppofed by phyfiologifts that the power by which fenfations were tranfmitted to the fenforium, was likewife the medium by which mental impreffions were communicated to the body. But this opinion is totally in- confiftent with that moft frequent obfervation, that very often every pottible fufceptibility of fenfation is loft ina whole limb, which neverthelefs retains voluntary motion. This appears moft ftrikingly in the St. Vitus’s dance, which de- prives the afflicted parts of every fulceptibility of fenfation without deftroying voluntary motion. And, on the contrary, there are cafes where the functions of the fenfes remain un- impaired, and are fometimes increafed, while the mufcular motion is completely loft. In order to explain this pheno- menon two kinds of nerves have been hypothetically adopted, nerves of fenfation and nerves of motion; but without ren- dering the explanation more fatisfatory. Certain it is, that the action of mental irritation upon the body, and the com- munication of the fenfations with the fenforium, are effects of two different powers, which cannot poffibly have their feats in one and the fame organ. . That which is underftoud by the word nerves confilts pro- perly of two entirely different parts, the medullary fubflance * Uber den orfprung ger von Pallas gefundency und anderer ihr.aln- licher Bifén miffen, wid iiber einige damit in vetbindyng Srehende Na- tur-erfchcimio gen ; Voi, VT. Chladni’’ Riga i794. gto. ¢ From Real's Archiv fia die Pho fiolog ia, vol. i. U3 of 294 +. ~ Onthefaftinating Faculty afcribed to of the'nerves, and the cellular texture; the latter being com- pofed of cylindric tubes, ‘containing the former in their ca- vity : and in thefe tubes, thefe fheaths of the nerves, is the feat of the power which “cofttinaes the irritation of the mind into the body. The medullary fubftance of the nerves, on the other hand, poffeffes no other power than that of exciting in the fenforium fenfations correfponding with the impref- fions received by the fenfes. The cellular texture of the nerves poffeffes a power of contraétion, elafticity; but the medullary fubftance of the nerves poffefles only the fimple fenfitive power of the nerves. | From this, the above-men- tioned phenomena, efpecially thofe obfervable in St. Vitus’s dance, are eafily explained. The fenfitive power of the nerves difappears, becaufe-its organ; the medullary fubfiance, is de- ftroyed or wounded. The two following arguments confirm the correétnefs of this opinion :—1. According to Aaneman’s numerous experiments on the regeneration of the nerves, each end of a nerve which has been ‘cut in two forms itfelf into a {cirrhus, and both afterwards join again in the cel- lular texture; but the lower end of the nerve thus interfected always lofes its fenfitive power, whereas it recovers in a few months the power of motion when both the ends are joined again by a fufficient quantity of the cellular fubftance. 2. Arfenic and all forts’ of mercurial’ preparations, when immediately applied to the brain,” exhibit not the’ leaft im- mediate effect upon it. But thofe very minerals, when ap- plied in any other part, excite the moft violent convulfions of the whole body ;: and it is well known, from other cireum- ftances, that thefe produce the greateft irritation upon the: - cellular texture. Without entering into any further elucida- tion, every one will eafily conceive the great importance of thefe ideas in the explanation of many phyfiological and pa thological phenomena. © » Oo ———— —————— LIV. Letter from Dr. BARTON to Profeffor ZIMMERMANN, on the fafcinaling Faculty which has been afcribed to the Rattlefnake, end other American Serpents. [Concluded from p. 202. ] A\rrer quoting Mr. Michaélis’s obfervations, which Tf have already noticed, Mr. Blumenbach has the following words :—* I would, however, add another mode of explana- tion from Dr. Barton’s work itfelf, where he affures us that the refult of his inquiries, whether the rattlefnake creeps up trees the Rattle/nake, and other American Serpents. 29 i trees or not, induces him to believe the latter'to be the cafe. The rattlefnake,”” Mr. Blumenbach continues, ‘is alfo one of the lazieft of all the ferpent tribe; under thefe circum- ftances it feems very natural that fuch’a lazy animal fhould be endowed with ‘the fafcinating power of bringing down from trees fmall animals, which otherwife would have no- thing to fear from a fnake that cannot creep upwards.” It is true, as I have afferted, that the rattlefnake is one of the moft fluggifh fpecies of ferpents; and further inquiries have confirmed me in my former opinion, that this ferpent does not climb up trees. But if Mr. Blumenbach had re- collected what I have fo particularly faid on the fubjeét of the nidification of our birds*, he would not, I prefume, have imagined that it is at all neceflary that the ferpent fhould be endowed with ‘a fafcinating power of bringing down from trees fmall animals.’’? “I bave fhown that the rattlefnake feeds upon ball-frogs, which are never found upon trees; upon the ground-fquirrel, which is moft com- monly found upon the ground; and upon the fringilla ery- throphthalma, or ground-robin, a fpecies of finch, which receives its common Englifh name from its being fo gene- rally feen upon the ground+. I may now add, that this reptile feeds upon young rabbits (lepus americanus), wild mice of different kinds, moles (forex aquaticus), and many other fmall animals, which it cannot have much trouble in obtaining without its poffeffing the power of charming. But although the rattlefnake is, in reality, a fluggith rep- tile, it is neverthelefs an animal of more activity than Mr. Blumenbach feems to imagine. 1 believe it is true, as the old Indian ¢ informed Mr. Heckewelder, that in the fpring feafon thefe reptiles make confiderable journeys from their dens in fearch of food. I know it to be a fact, that they fwim acrofs ftreams of water, and even over large rivers, It is obferved by the hunters and others, that the rattlefnake fwims fa(ter than it moves on the land, Indeed, it feems to run upon the furface of the water. It is very probable that in thefe watery peregrinations it may occafionally have opportunities of catching certain kinds of fifh. But this is a mere conjecture, which at prefent I am incapable of fup- porting by any decided fa¢t, I have obferved in my memoir, that ‘¢ among the Indians of South America I do not find any traces of the notion that ferpents can fafcinate other animals.’ Mr. Blumenbach, A Memoir, &€. pages 50, 51,.52,53- + Ibid. pages 63 and 64, } See page 31, U4 however, 296 «=. - On the fafeinating Faculty afcribed to however, informs us, that Dobrithoffer afferts, in his Hiftory. of the Abipons, “ that all the Spaniards and Indians in that part of Paraguay unanimoutly afcribe a like property to the {nake called ampalabas.” I alfo find that Dr. Bancroft has mentioned the fafcinating power of a large but innocuous fpecies of ferpent which inhabits Guiana *. . I was ignorant of thefe faéts when I printed my memoir; and now that they are known to me, they do not appear to be of much confequence. They certainly do not prove that ferpents are endowed with the power of fafcinating. It is not by any medns afcertained that the Abipons have not de- rived the notion from the Europeans, with whom they have been long acquainted. . _ Since the publication of my memoir I have been able to make a more complete collection of the fentiments of the North American Indians on the fubject. I am led to be- lieve, that it is far from being the general opinion among thefe people that the rattlefnake is endowed with the faculty of charming. I cannot in any other way fo firikingly {how the notions of the Indians on the fubject, as by extracting part of a very curious manufcript which I received from my friend Mr. John Heckewelder :— Having queftioned In- dians a number of times with refpect to takes having the power of charming, and always being anfwered in the nega- tive, I was at length defired,”’ fays Mr. Heckewelder, * to give the reafon the white people had for believing fuch a thing; which not being fatisfa€tory, Pemaholend + declared : ‘ The. rattlefnake obtains its food merely by flynefs, anda perfevering patience. It knoweth as well where to watch for its prey as a cat does, and fucceeds as well. It has, and retains, its hunting grounds. In fpring, when the warm weather fets in, and the woods feem alive with the {maller animals, it leaves its den. It will crofs a river and go a mile and further from its den to the place it intends to fpend the fummer ; and in fall, when all the young animals bred this feafon are become ftrong and active, fo that they are no more fo eafily overtaken or caught, it direéts its courfe back again, to its den, the fame as a hunter does to his camp. ‘¢< The white people,’ continued Pemaholend, ¢ probably have taken the idea of this fnake having the power of charm- ing from a tradition of ours (the Indians), which our fore- fathers have handed down to us, from many hundred years * An Effay on the Natural Hiftory of Guiana, &c. p. 205: London 1769. Mr. Stedman, a late writer, pofitively denies the exiltence of this faicinating power in the aboma, the ferpent mentioned by Dr. Bancroft. + An aged and much refpeéted Delaware Indian. ’ back, “= . ek re P.M iy +> PLE Lens Ae Rae * Sy e : Tikes : the Rattiefnake, and other American Serpents, back, and Jong before ever the white people came into this country. Then (they tell us) there was fuch a fnake, and arattlefhake too; but then there was. only ¢his one fake which had this power, and he was afterwards deftroyed ; and fince that time it hath never been faid that any other of the kind had made its appearance.’ ”’ The whole of this tradition, as related by Pemaholend, is in my poffeffion. It\is a very curious piece of American mythology, and will be publithed at large in another place, perhaps in my Fragments of the Natural Hiftory of Penn- fylvania. It is a new proof of my affertion, ‘* that the my- thology, or fuperftitious religion, of the Americans is a frag- ment of that mythology whofe range in Afia and in Africa bas been fo extenfive *.”? But this tradition is interefting in the difcuffion of the queftion in which I am now engaged. It plainly hows that the Indians do not in general fuppofe that the rattlefnake is gifted with the faculty of charming; and it renders it ftill more doubtful that the whites derived this notion from the Indians. The Indians are fo far from believing in the exiftence of this faculty in fnakes, that the worthy gentleman from whom I received the tradition which I have juft mentioned, affures me that he would be unwilling in future to trouble them with any further inquiries on the fubjeét, as the fure reward of the pains of inquiring is a laugh at the eafy credulity of the Whites. I may here add, what I have mentioned in m memoir, that Mr. William Bartram never underftood that the nations of Indians among whom he travelled had any idea of the fafcinating power of fnakes+. Among other Indians Mr, Bartram vifited, with the zeal and knowledge of a naturalift, the nations of Eaft and Weft Florida. As > this ingenious aud amiable gentleman believes that ferpents can charm other animals, there will be no fufpicion, among candid people, that he has concealed the opinions of the In- dians on the fubject. T think I have now confidered every effential, part of Mr. Blumenbach’s remarks on my memoir. I have little doubt that this illufirious profeffor, who is not lefs candid than he is learned and ingenious, will give to the new faéts which I have adduced all the confideration which they merit. What is the proportion of that confideration I muft leave it with you and other able judges to decide. In the meanwhile I _am not a little flattered that one of my earlieft effays in na- tural hiftory has folicited fo much of the attention of the phi- lofophers of Europe. * A Memoir, &c. p. 16—Note. t Ibid. p. 14. You FY ae Ae. J Va wel + Reet ch: eae enna! aah nea ’ say ee 298 © On the facinating Faculty aferibed to” You inform me, that my explanation of the fuppofed faf- cinating faculty of ferpents 1s adopted by many of your na-. turalifts.. This is pleafing to me. Indeed, fuch is our felfifh- nefs, that I fear I fhould have felt fomewhat gratified to learn that the theory had been adopted, though I myfelf had re- linquifhed it. But I affure you that, as yet, I have feen no caufe to relinquifh it. On the contrary, I poffefs a great body of additional faéts in fupport of it. Thefe faés will be carefully adduced in that part of my Fragments which is in- tended to comprife the hiftory of the amphibia of Pennfyl- vania. In my native country the explanation which I have of- fered has been adopted by many perfons. But there are others who ftill believe in the exiftence of a true fafcinating faculty in the rattlefnake and other ferpents. What change time and further attention to the fubjeét may accomplifh in them, I know not. But why fhould we expeét to make all philofopbers converts to our opinions? Almoft every phe- nomenon, almoft every fact in nature, feems to admit of an explanation upon more than one principle. The ftream of inquiry is often diverted by trifling circumftances into very oppofite direétions. Prejudices, or, to name them by a milder phrafe, the earlier biaffes of our minds, frequently detain us, in the inveftigations of fcience, in a Jong and pleafing reign of tyranny. Our firft love is faid to be the firongeft. Our firft principles in fcience, in religion, and in politicly are often adhered to with the extreme of pertina- city. He who, turned of fifty years of age, relinquifhes a favourite error, has infinitely more merit than the world may be willing to allow him. g I beg you, fir, to make what ufe of this letter you may think. proper. If it fhall add any thing to the flock of your knowledge on the fubject, or if it fhall ferve to amufe you in an hour of Jeifure, I fhall feel highly gratified. Be affured that I am, with very great refpect, Dear fir, your faithful and obliged fervant and friend, BenJaAMin SMITH Barton, POSTSCRIPT. T BEGAN this long letter on the very day that I firft faw Mr. Blumenbach’s remarks in Tilloch’s Magazine. I had not finifhed it before I received a copy of the original publica- tion of the profefilor. In the conclufion I find he urges me to extend my inquiries into the real ufe of the crepitaculum caud@, or rattle of the crotalus. This is certainly a queftion worthy the Rattlefnake, and other American Serpents. =v worthy of the attention of American naturalifts, ‘who enjoy the beft opportunities of inveftigating the fubjeét. Tam, indeed, inclined to think that we are not yet acquainted with the real or exclufive ufe of the rattle of the crotalus. That it was given to this reptile to warn man and other animals of a dangerous enemy, does not appear a fuficient explanation of the ufe of the organ. Many ferpents whofe poifon is not lefs deleterious than that of the rattlefnake, are entirely de- ftitate of any apparatus like the crepitaculum of this reptile. Befides, we have feen that, when molt intent upon obtainin his prey, the rattlefnake keeps his rattle fill. ‘This woul feem to {how that it was not defigned to terrify its enemies. Indeed, it is highly probable that one reafon why the rattle- {nake fo frequently fucceeds in capturing animals is, becaufe he makes no noife, and therefore furprifes his prey. I do not doubt that the crepitaculum of the rattlefnake is an organ of yery effential importance: but I muft fay that it has always been deemed of more importance than it can yet be fhown to be. Thus it has been faid to give an unerring indication of the age of the reptile. In this refpect it is a lefs fure criterion than has been generally imagined. It is a fa& which, I believe, has entirely efcaped the notice of all the writers on the natural hiftory of this reptile, that the rattles are formed before the exclufion of the young ones from the uterus. Towards the latter end of Auguft a number of female rattlefnakes were opened. The young animals were about five inches long, and about the thicknefs of a fmall-fized goofe-quill: the feales were formed fo as to be vifible to the naked eye ; the head very large, and the fangs, though of a fomewhat gelatinous confiftence, were fhaped, and diftinétly vifible. The rattles were fo far formed that three bells could be plainly difcerned ; and this was the cafe in more than fixty infances. Hence it is evident, that when they are excluded from the womb the young animals have at leaft three rat- tles. After this, I believe, they generally acquire two bells every year. Yet, in one inflance, a rattlefnake * has been known to acquire four bells in the term of a year, { may add, that the bel's are liable to be loft: they are fometimes broken, and it is not improbable that they wear out. Lam fometimes almo‘t inclined to think, with your learned and eloquent countryman Mr. Herder, that ‘ natural hif- tory has reaped no advantage from the philofophy of final caufes.” And yet without an inquiry into the ultimate in- tentions of nature, what is natural hiftory? A barren watte * Jn the Mufeum of Mr, Peale. of g00 A Survey and Report of the Coafts of unconnected fats.. Speculations, which too often, in. deed, proceed from indolent philofophers, are neceflary to render natural hiftory an agreeable and even ufeful fcience, We are, moreover, fometimes able to difeover the final caufe or intention of nature in her operations. And as to the u/us partium, every philofopher muft confefs that this is a quef- tion which ought never to be negleéted. Jt isa kind of foul to the fcience of anatomy. It is exceedingly to be regretted, however, that we are fo often at a lafs to determine the ufes of parts even where the forms and ftrugture of thefe parts are well known to us.—But let us not defpatr. Nature intends to reveal to us many things (precious in their kind), which are now entirely unknown tous, Phyfiology will, in time, affume one of the higheft ftations in the range of fure as well as {plendid {ciences. LV. A Survey and Report of the Coafts and Central High- lands of Scotland; made by the Command of the Right Flonourable the Lords Commiffioners of bis Majefty’s Trea- fury in the Autumn of 1802. By THomas TELFORD, Civil Engineer, Edinburgh, F.R.S. MY LORDS, In reporting upon the furvey I made in Scotland, in obe~ dience to the inftructions I had the honour of receiving from your lordfhips, dated the rf of July 1802, I find the bufinefs ay, be moft conveniently arranged under the following heads : I, What regards rendering the intercourfe of the country more perfect, by means of bridges and roads. II. Afcertaining various circumftances relative to the Ca- ledonian canal, efpecially with regard to the fupphes of water on the fummit level, and the beft communications from this canal to the fifhing locks at the back of the I fle of Skye. III. The means of promoting the fifheries on the eaft and weft coafts. IV. The caufes of emigration, and the means of prevent- ing it. y. Improving the means of intercourfe between Great Britain and the northern parts of Ireland; particularly as to the bridges and roads between Carlifle and Port Patrick, and alfo the harbour of Port Patrick. Under each of thofe heads are comprehended fubjeéts highly deferving the attention of government; the more they and Central Highlands of Scotland. 30% they are.inveftigated, the more, important they will appear, and the public will become more fully convinced,, that, the general interefts of the Britith empire are extenfively con- nected with the feveral improvements which are mentioned in your lord{hips’ inftructions. . _Of Bridges and Roads. The obftacles which at prefent obftruct the communica- tions in the north of Scotland are numerous and well. known, not only to the inhabitants, | but, to every perfon who has travelled, through, or evenjinquired into. the flate of, the, country. , . Previous to the year,1742,.the roads were merely the tracks of black cattle and horfes, interfected by numerous rapid fireams, which being frequently fwoln into torrents by heavy rains, rendered them dangerous or.impaflable, Lhe military roads, which were formed about this time, having been laid out with other views than promoting commerce and induftry, are generally in fuch directions, and fo inconveniently fteep as tobe nearly unfiv for the purpofes. of, civil life; and in thofe parts where they are. tolerably acceflible, or where roads have fince been, formed by,,the inhabitants, the ufe of them is very much circumfernbed, from the want of bridges over fome of the principal rivers. The general counedtons of the country may. be flated as leading, from Ed uburgh; to, the north and north- welt coun- ties, by means) of one, road. thrqugh, the Highlands, and by another along, the eath coa{t and; fouth fhore of the Murray Frith to the town, of Jnyernefs, and, from thence through. Beauley and Dingwall, to Tain in Rols-fhire. From Glafgow and Greenock, the communications by land are through Argylethire, to the weftern parts of Invernefs and Rofs-{hire, and to the fhores oppofite the whole of the Hebrides, There is an. ingportant .coramnication. from, Invernefs, weftward, acrofs the, country, to. Port, Auguftus and Fort William, and from, Fort, Anguftus, there are, jufi the veRliges remaining of what was once a military, road,to Bernera, oppofite,the back of the [feof Skyfe nani bre. 1 seats In confidertng, thele lines. of, roads, it appears moft regular to begin on the borders of the improved country,and near to the Ri tac ence ail induftry. _ In, proceeding, from Edinburgh. northwards, bythe eaft coaft and) Moray Frith to. Invermels,, or through. the central Highlands to the fame lace, and from thence to Tain on the Dornoch Frith in ols-thire,we find the communications intercepted, and we learn. that agcidents frequently happen from the want of a winat 1 bridge 302 A Survey and Report of the Coaj/ts bridge over the river Tay, at Dunkeld, in Perththire; an- other over the river Spey, at Fochabers, in Bamffshire; a third over the river Beauley, in Invernefs-fhire; and a fourth over the river Conon, near Dingwall, in Rols-fhire. Thefe rivers are large, and at prefent are all croffed by means of ferry-boats. At Dunkeld the river Tay is deep and broad, and there is reafon to expeét the foundations will be expenfive, the bed | of the river at and for a great diftance above and below the town being compofed of alluvial earth and gravel. The beft fituation for a bridge is a little below the lower ferry; at this place there is a ftraight reach of the river, and in winter the ice is broken by pafling over a ford nearly oppofite the moath of the river Bran. This fituation will alfo conneé with the improved lines of road which are propofed to be made on each fide of the river. It is probable that a flat rubble ftone will be got near the flate quarries, which are within’a fhort diftance of the place. Freeftone of a durable quality is to be had near Dundee: it may be brought by water carriage to Perth, and from thence by land to Dunkeld. Under all thefe cireamftances the expenfe would be confi- derable ; and, taking into account the uncertainty of the foundations, the amount cannot be ftated at Jefs than 15,000 I, The two ferries which are now at Dunkeld belong to his grace the duke of Athol; he has authorized me to ftate, that 2f government will defray one-half the expenfe of a bridge, he will advance the other half; that be will give up his in- tereft in the ferries, if in lieu thereof a reafonable toll be put upon the bridge, in order to liquidate the capital advanced by the duke: after this has been accomplifhed, with a {malt furplus to anfwer the repairs, the bridge ever after to remain free of toll. hes This feems a very reafonable and juft mode of defrayin the expenfe: the fafety and accommodation would be 3 great, that no perfon travelling that road could objeé& to pay- ing the fame toll for a fafe and convenient bridge which at prefent is paid for a dangerous and inconvenient ferry-boat, efpecially when there will be a certain profpeét of having a bridge free of toll in a few years. This bridge is of the firft importance to the Central High- lands; it would accommodate a great diftriét of that country, and at the fame time facilitate the communication with the North Highlands. The river Spey is alfo rapid and deep, being the drain of a great extent of mountainous country, where there is much rain. and Centrab Highlands of Scotland, 303, rain. It is of courfe,a veryydangerous ferry... This ferry is on the great coaft, road, ealtward from Invernefs.and Fort George, through the towns and cultivated country in Mur- ray and Banft-fhires, from whence. it paffes through Frafer- burgh and Peterhead to Aberdeen. - Another branch of road alfo, ftrikes off at Fochabers, on the Spey, and pafles by Huntly and Inverury to Aberdeen. The neceflity of having a bridge over the Spey at this place became fo urgent, that, his grace the duke of Gordon began a fub{cription,in the adjacent country in. order to raife a part of the money, neceflary to defray the expenfé of a bridge; his grace feta liberal example, and it has,been fol- lowed by moft of the gentlemen in that part of the country, In confequence of this exertion, a contract has been entered into, and fome fieps have been taken. towards carrying this ufeful work into execution; _but-unlefs government wil] grant an aid equal ‘i one-half the expenfe, the-works muft {till be left unfinithed, and unfit for the purpofes intended. The fituation fixed upon for this bridge.is adjacent to the ferry and town of Fochabers. At, this, place.a rock pafles quite through the river, at about from, eig it to. ten, feet below the furface of, ordinary low water; .and, as far as I could learn, it is the only place, unlefs, at a; great diftance, up, the country, where the rock paffes quite through: the river. On thefe accounts it was judicious to prefer it for the fituation of the bridge; and it was fortunate this happened precifely in the line of the prefent road,. veh't As one-half of the expenfe will be raifed by fubfcription in the neighbourhood, if government will defray,the. other half, I underftand it is propofed that the bridge fhall be free of toll. The expenfe cannot be ftated at lefs than 12,000]. [ have made plans and feétions for both thofe bridges. On account of their being fo nearly conne@ed with the feats of the two before-mentioned noblemen, | bave introduced more decorations than what are abfolutely neceflary for common road bridges. This extra expenfe will not amount to much; but whatever it is, 1 propofe it fhall be defrayed by thofe no- blemen. I laft year produced plans and eftimates for the bridges over the rivers Beauley and Conon: I have again examined the propofed fituations, and perceive that, on account of the uncertainty of the foundations, and the alteration which mutt be made in fome parts of the beds of the rivers, it will be neceffary to take the expenfes of each bridge at 5000]. inftead of 40001, Thele two bridges are greatly wanted, in order to facilitate the 404 A Suryey and Report of the Coa/ts the communications with Rofs-thire, Sutherland, and Caith- nefs; they are equally fo for the north-weft coaft of the main Jand, and the northern parts of the Hebrides; they are the’ roots from which a great number of branches of roads are to proceed, which are neceffary for the improvement of the country and the extenfion of the fitheries. Before entering upon the confideration of the roads to the north of the line of the Caledonian canal, it is neceffary to fpeak of the communications from Glafgow and Greenock by Argylefhire to Fort William. From Glafzow there is al- ready a road, which paffes through Dumbarton up the weft fide of Loch Lomond, by the upper ends of Loch Long and Loch Fyne to Inverary. From Greenock, by crofling the’ frith of the Clyde, there is a road which paffes up the eaft fide of Gare Loch and Loch Long, and joins the road to fnverary at the top of Loch Long. From Inverary there is ene road which paffes the upper end of Loch Awe, and an- other which croffes that loch by a ferry at Port Sonachan ; and thefe roads unite at Bunawe, on the banks of Loch Etive. From Bunawe the road is already made to Oban, and a branch croffes Loch Etive and paffes along the fouth fide of the Linnhe Loch and Loch Eil to Fort William. Between Bunawe and Fort William there are three ferries, over arms of the fea, which running many miles into the Jand, cannot well be avoided: in other refpeéts, the commu- nication from Glafgow and Grenock, thus far, is tolerably good. The Highland Society, in the excellent report to which I fhall frequently have occafion to refer, and which. may be found in the appendix*, have pointed out a new line of road from the north fide of the Frith of Clyde, nearly oppofite to Greenock, to be carried to the Bay of Strachan upon Loch Fyne: this would be a very direé&t line from Greenock to Inverary, but it would be fubjeét to two fer-— ries, and it feems doubtful whether this inconvenience would not overbalance the additional diftance round the upper end of the lochs; at leaft, as there is already a very good com- munication by this road, it feems molt prudent to attend to the other more neceflary portions of road before this is un- dertaken. . From Fort William it will be very advifeable to improve and extend the road which pafles along the north fide of the portion of Loch Eil which turns from Fort William to the weft, and to carry it from thence acrofs the upper end of Loch Shiel, through Arrafaig to.Morer, as defcribed in the * This fhall apgear in our next Number, report and Central Highlands of Scotland. 305 report of the Highland Society. ‘This would open a very di+ rect communication from the Clyde to the fithing lochs at the back of Skye, to Skye itfelf, and to the .iflands of Ege, Rum, Muck, Barra, and South Uitt. This would prove of great importance to the fifheries on account of facilitating intelligence, which is one of the moft neceflary fteps to pro- mote the fuccéels of this bufinefs. In the year 1796, Mr. Brown, of Elgin, made a furvey and eftimate of this road from Fort William to Morer, and fiated the expenfe at 64561.; fince that time I underftand that about 15001. has been laid out upon it, fo that 40001., and perhaps fomewhat more, is ftill required to render it perfec, With regard to the improvement of the roads which lead from Fort William eaft to Invernefs, there is one principle which in future ought never to be loft fight of, which is, to make the new roads as near to the banks of the rivers and loclis as is practicable at a reafonable expenfe. If the Cale- donian canal is executed, it is more than probable that many improvements will be pointed out in the courfe of carrying on that great work; and it would be imprudent to decide rafhly ina matter which is fo much connected with this na- tional object. We now come to confider the communications of the countries which lie to the north and weft of the track of the Caledonian canal. From this valley, which runs from Fort William to Invernefs, it is of great importance that there fhould be lines of communication with the Ifle of Skye and the fifhing lochs which lie at the back of it; thefe lines of road are not only neceffary for promoting the fifheries, but are urgently called for by the fituation of the interior parts of the country, where there are many fertile valleys which hitherto have remained nearly inacceflible: it is incalculable the lofs which the public has fuftained, and are about to fuffer, from the want of roads in this country. From the bridges of Beauley and Conon, lines of road, from the fame important caufes, are wanted in feveral direc- tions to the weft coafl, and through the whole of the goun- ties of Rofs-thire, Sutherland, and Caithnefs. The outlines of thofe roads are well defcribed in the report of the Highland Society; and although there is a diverfity of opinion as to the comparative importance of fome of them, as well as of thofe to Skye, yet it is evident that they are all neceffary for the welfare of the country. The empire at large being deeply interefted ip thofe im- provements, as it regards promoting the fifheries and in- VoL. XY. No. 60. D, « creafing 306 A Survey and Report of the Coafls ereafing the revenue and population of the kingdom, jufti- fies government in granting aid towards making roads and bridges in a country which muft otherwife remain, perhaps for ages to come, thus imperfectly connected. Yet as the land-owners in thofe extenfive diftriéts through which the roads would pafs, and indeed the whole of the adjoining di- ftriéts of country, would enjoy improved cultivatiom and paf- . ‘turage, increafed incomes, and all the bleffings which are to be derived from a facility of intercourfe, it is certainly juft that they fhould contribute a fhare with government in the expenfe of acquiring thofe advantages. They might be en- abled to do this without inconvenience to the prefent pof- felfors, by being empowered by an act of parliament to fell Jand, or borrow money upon the land, to the amount of their proportion of the expenfe to be incurred by the roads and bridges. This is reafonable, becaufe the money fo raifed would be applied to improve the remainder of the entailed eftate, which would be enhanced in value though fomewhat ‘diminifhed in extent. The expenfe of the lines of road which were furveyed and eftimated by Mr. Brown, comprehending the whole of the beforementioned counties, and nearly 1000 miles in length, did not amount to 150,0o00l. If, therefore, we admit an equal quantity of lines of road, to be undertaken and com- | pleted in the courfe of three years, would require an annual jupply of 50,000].; and fuppofing this to be raifed in equal moieties by government and the land-owners, it would amount to 25,0001. each: but as it is not likely the whole could be brought fo immediately into operation, it may, with more probability, be expe€ted that fix years would be taken up in executing all the lines, which would reduce the aunual fupply to 25,0col. or 12,5001. from each party. But this is exclufive of the four great bridges, the total expenfe of which is reckoned at 37,0001.; if they were undertaken by proper perfons they might be executed in three years, which would require an annual fupply of 12,3331. 6s. 8d.; andif government was to grant one-half, It would be annually - £.6,166 13 4 To which add the former 12,500 OO £.18,666 13 4 Speaking therefore generally, if government was difpofed to encourage thefe plans of improvement, and would agree to _ advance 20,0001. in each of the firft three years, and.12,000]. in each of the laft three years, it would then remain with the Jand-owners-of the diftrits of country through piers . ines and: Central Highlands.of Scotland, — Zope lines were tobe carried, to come forward with their furveys and eftimates, and fubferiptions to’ one-half. the amount of the expenfe, proving at the fame time, to the fatisfaction, of government, that the propofed lines would be of, public as well as private utility. It would be neceffary alfo to provide that the works fhould be fubftantially executed, and that the land-owners or others interefted fhould always lay out a cers tain fum before government advanced an equal moiety. Means fhould be provided for the maintenance of the roads and bridges after they have been completed; and for this purpofe there fhould either be a fund referyed, or a fmall toll laid on, to go in aid of the ftatute labour of the country. A very important confideration alfo, is the ere¢ting and main- taining proper inns upon the roads. - Several of the houfes which were built by government upon the military roads, are ftriking inftances of the necef- fity there is of giving the people who are to keep, the inns fomething elfe to depend upon befides what arifes from fup- plying travellers; there fhould be fome land attached to the houfe, at a rent to be fettled by reference. I am not prepared to fay what the quantity fhould be, or of what particular de- fcription; it is at prefent fufficient to point out the principle. Upon the whole, as far as regards the bridges and roads, I can have no hefitation in ftating, that they are of the greateft moment for promoting the improvement of the country, and for perfecting the connections with the fifhing lochs and the Hebrides; and I thall hereafter endeavour to explain my rea- fon for thinking that fome fhare of the emigrations is to be attributed to the want of proper communications. Naval Stations. _ Before entering upon the fubjeét of the Caledonian canal it will be proper to obferve, that I again examined the Bay of Cromarty, and have procured fome more information re- fpe&ting it and the Murray Frith. Mr. Henderfon, the refident cuftom-houfe officer, a man of refpectability, has, at my defire, afcertained the depth of water in the wells, and alfo what quantity flows from a {pring about half a mile from the town, From this letter it appears, that at the depth of twenty feet from the furface of the plain upon which the town ftands, there are four feet of water in their wells; when at Cromarty I learned, that at high fprings this water is brackith, bat it is generally ufed for wafhing, and other domeftiie purpofes. | At the diftance of about half a mile from the town there is a fine fpring, which was difs covered by the late Mr. Rofs during his ineffeéiual attempt ; ae a io 308° A Survey and Report of the Coa/ts to find coal: from this circumftance it is’ called the Coal Well.” This fpriag produces, on an average, upwards of twenty hogfheads of water in an hour; this water might be collected into a fefervoir at a fmall expente ; from this referyoir it might be brought to the fthore, which ig a thort diftance, in pipes, and by means of hofe run into cafks in‘a fhip’s boat: to proteét the boats, a fmall pier’ red ih be formed at this place. Captain Duff, of the royal navy, who is well acquainted. with the country, and has navigated the Moray Frith in’ frigate, has been fo obliging as to refolve fome queries which T took the liberty of tranfmitting to bim through his brother- in-law colonel -Dirom. Captain Doff confirms the general report of the excellence of the Bay of Cromarty, and the en- trance to it; his opinion refpecting the navigation of the Moray Frith is quite as favourable as I have been led to ad- vance in my laft report. From) what he ftates it appears, that even with a contrary wind a fhip of war could clear the headlands in forty-eight hours from the time of leaving the Bay of Cromarty. From this account, perfons converfant in naval affairs will be able to judge how far'this bay would be foitable for a fquadron deftined to watch the mouth of the Baltic and proteét the coaft. It would be fingularly well fitu- ated for convoys to veflels coming from the weftward through the Caledonian'canal, and when returning with the fame trade; ‘after feeing the merchant {hips pafs Fort George, the fhips of war would be clofe in with their own harbour. As an aid to this ftation, the harbour of Aberdeen might be made to receive frigates. This harbour is not embayed, and frigates might fail from it at all times. In my laft re- port I ftated the expenfe which would attend improving this harbour, and I diftinguifhed what extra expenfe would be required to render it capable of receiving frigates, which ap- peared to be 33,7001. The magittrates of the town, by whofe {pirited exertions feveral valuable improvements have already been effected, have authorized me to fay, that they are ready to co-operate with government as far as their circumitances will adinit. If frigates were ftationed at Aberdeen, and large fhips at Cromarty, a naval proteétion would be immediately obtained in that quarter ata very moderate expenfe ; and experience would point out what future improvements were neceflary upon this coaft. From Aberdeen, Peterhead, and Fraferburgh, a commu- nication might be kept up with Crom: arty by means of figs nals ora telegraph, or by land expreffes- to Nairn, Where the and Central Highlands of Scotland. \ 309 the frith is only three leagues over; or a faft) failing veffel: would foon run with an eafterly wind from Fraferburgh to; Cromarty, of jJoasbhoods If Cromarty Bay was made a roadftead, there would be: wanted a ftorehoufe and fome other: conveniencies, which may be ona fmall feale, until, the merits of the place have been fully proved: allow an expenfe heré of 50001. oT The Caledonian Canal. . I paffed along the whole line of this-canal, that is, from: Tnvernefs on the eaft, to Fort William onthe welt coaft.. 1 took much pains to examine into the nature of the navigation of the lochs, their foundings, and anchoring places. For this purpofe I applied chiefly to Mr, Guynn, who; com- manded the Lochnefs galley, in government fervice, thirty-fix years; from him [ obtained a very full and fatisfactory ac- count of Lochnefs: he alfo took. the foundings of Loch-Oich and a part of Loch Lochy for me., var sili From him I learnt that Lochnefs is twenty-two) miles,in length, and from one to, two and, a half miles,in breadth ; that its extreme depth is 135 fathoms, and, generally 15, ta go very near the fhores; that there are (fix, anchoring, places on the north, and’ four on the fouth fide ;, and that jat each end of the loch there is a good anchorage in from three to five, eight, and ten fathom water.) | . 4991.9 ry That a veffel pafling from the weft to the eaft end before a wefterly wind, or in acontrary direction before an eafterly wind, has nothing to do but run. before the wind the whole way, which fhe would do in from'three to five hours, and with contrary winds in moderate weather fhe would work it in from twenty-four to thirty-fix hours. ? sto That the eafterly winds generally prevail from March till the end of September, when the wefterly winds fet in, and continue for the reft of the year. The foundings he took in Loch Lochy are from feven to fixty-eight fathoms, with bold fhores and good anchorage... In Loch Quoich, which is.a fhort loch on ‘the fummit level, there are fome fhallow parts, but they may be made fufficiently deep. ' , [ next proceeded to examine the fupplies of water which are on the fummit level, and for this purpofe I paffed up the valley of Glengarey to Loch Hourn at the back of Skye. | In this valley I found Loch Garry, which appears,to be upwards of five miles in length, and from half a mile, to one mile in breadth : towards the head of the valley is,;Luoch Quoich, which appears to be upwards of eight miles,in length, and X 3 from 310 A Survev of the Coajis, &c. of Scotland. from one to: two miles in breadth: thefe natural refervoirs, placed im an} extenfive valley and a rainy country, form an abundant provifion for every purpofe to which water can be applied in the courfe ofthe canialiy «ov - bier ‘Having afcertained thefe points, 'T paffed by a very rocky’ and ‘precipitous traét down to the head of Loch Hour; from Loch Hourn I travelled by a traét:fcarcely lefs rugged to! the top of Glen Elg, and over the fteep mountain of Raatachan to the top of Loch Duich; from thence I travelled along the veftiges of a military road, up Glen Shiel, down a part of Glen Morrifon, and over a rugged mountain to Fort Auguftus. In Glen Morrifon and Glen Garry it is poftible to make roads, -if judicionfly laid out, upon an eafy alecnt;. but 'the idea of water conveyance through them between the Caledo- nian canal and the fifhing lochs is altogether unadvifable. ~My next object was to examine the country which lies be- tween'‘the-top of Loch Eil’ and Loch Shiel, in order to find whether a water conveyance could be made at a moderate éxpenfe' from Loch’Eil through Loch Shiel, and fo into the fifhing grounds ‘to the fouth of Skye, without pafling down the Linnhe Loch, up the Sound of Mull, and round the Point of Ardmamurchan. ~ I ‘carried a level ‘acrofs the neck of land which feparates Loch Eil from Loch Shiel: the di- fiance is about three miles: » I found the fummit of the land forty-three feet above high water in Loch Eil, and thirty-five feet five inches above the level of the freth water in Loch Shiel. In order to form a canal, as there’ is no water to be gE on'this {ummit, ‘the ground’ muft be cut down to twelve eet below the lével of the water in Loch Shiel, which would make forty-feven feet five inches of cutting,’ and this depth of cutting would be continued for nearly a mile: T alfo fuf- pect that in this diftance rock would be met with. Iam therefore forry to fay, I cannot advife the work being under+ taken before the nature of the ground has been fully proved, and the whole of Loch-Shiel has’ been examined with great care: and as this paflage cannot be ufeful unlefs the Caledoe nian cana} be made and navigated from the eaft, if that event fhould take place, there will be plenty of time to re-examine this point with care; at prefent it ought, in my opinion, to ‘be poftponed. Having inveftigated all the points which fell under my ob+ fervation as'a civil engineer, | became extremely defirous of having the opinion ‘of experienced and well-informed mer- cantile and fea-faring people wjth regard to the prefent na- vigation by the Pentland Frith and the Orkneys, and the propofed mland navigation by the Caledonian canal. oh a the On Winds. che: the view of ‘procuring the beft poffible information on this fubjeét, T applied to Leith, Aberdeen, and Peterhead, on the éaft coaft; and to Greenock, Dublin, Liverpool, and Briftol, on the wett. ' In the appendix to this report I have inferted the queries and anfwers; by which it may be feen that there is only one opinion as to the dangers and inconveniencies of the prefent navigation, and the advantages which may be'expected from the propofed inland navigation, if united with a naval itation in the Moray Frith, or on the adjacent coat of Scotland. This fanétion of experienced people, who are all deeply interefted in commercial concerns, will, I truft, fatisfy your lordthips, that it has not been upon unfubftantial erounds tat I have ventured to recommend this great national obs ject. ! : j My eftimate of the €xpenfe of forming this navigation is nearly 350,0001., and the time required to complete it'would probably be about feven years: this divifion’ would, require an annual fupply of 50,0001. Ne Upwards of thirty veflels ‘have been’ wrecked on the coaft _ of Caithnefs in the memory of Alexander Miller, of Staxigo, [ To, be continued. ] LVI. On Winds. By Ricuarp Kirwan, B/y. LL.D. F. RwS. and P. Rol. AX Toh? Of the Origin of the general Trade Winds. "Tho UGH the origin of the general trade winds appears to me to have been fully eftablithed by Dr. Halley, yet it feems he has explained himfelf too briefly, fince his explana- tion has been mifunderttood by many, and, was, thought obicure even by d’Alembert f. To underftand it more perfectly, let us fuppofe the fun for the firft time in. the meridian, and to communicate its heat every infiant fifteen degrees al] around, If it were to remain in this fituation the furrouading air could have no other mo- tion but upwards, for the lateral dilatations being, equal, would neceffarily check,cach other, but in-the fecond, and all the fucceeding inftants, the fun moves weflwards; there- fore, of the originally equidiftant eaftern and weftern points, * From his paper entitled “ OF’the Variations of the Atmofphere ¥o1,”’ 4, Sur la Caufe des Vents. v. X 4 the 312 On Winds, the weftern, to which the fun approaches nearer, is more, heated than the eaftern, from whicb the fun recedes; there-, fore in this, and all the facceeding inftants, the eaftern, being, nore cooled, will prefs on the weftern, and thus an eaftern wind will be eftablithed. It is true, that, in the northern hemifphere, the northern air alfo preffes upon the more heated fpaces; but as this alfo follows the fun’s path to the weftward, it becomes alfo eaft-, erly, preferving only a few points of its primitive direction. D’Alembert adds alfo the folar attraGtion, which, according to him, elevates the air in the points over which the fun is vertical, and confequently produces a dilatation advancing from eat to weft. But M. De Ja Place, not denying this caufe, confiders it too weak to produce fingly any confidera- ble effect *. About the year 1735 Mr. Hadley publifhed a very different account of the origin of the trade winds (Phil. Tranf. Abrid. vill. ps 500); which, however, has been rejected by the moft diftinguifhed aftronomers that have fince attended to this ob- ject, as d’Alembert, fur la Caufe des Vents, art. 376 and 385; Géntil Voy.; Bergman Erde Befchreib. 11. p. gt. According to Mr. Hadley, the air, being rarefied towards the equator, is confeqnently invaded in the northern hemi- fphere by the northern, and in the fouthern hemifphere by the fouthern colder air. But as the. parallels of latitude enlarge as they approach the equator, and as the equatorial fpace is nearly in the pro- portion of 1000 to 917, the difference of their circumference is nearly,2083 miles ; confequently, the furface of the globe at the equator moves fo much fafter than under the tropicesi; ‘and hence the northern or fouthern air, moving from the tropics towards the equator, muft poffefs lefs velocity than the parts it arrives at, and confequently appear to move in a direétion contrary to that of the earth’s motion ; which being from weft to eaft, the air arriving fooner at the weftern parts, will appear to move from eaft to weft; and this relative mo- tion being combined with that towards the equator, a north- ‘eaft wind will be produced on the north fide, and a fouth-eaft wind on the fouth fide of the equator. Thefe as they ap- proach the equator fhould become ftronger and more eafterly, ‘and appear due eaft in the equator itfelf, by reafon of the concourfe ‘of both currents from the north and from the fouth, ' There the velocity of each fhould be at the rate of 2083-miles in the fpace of one natural day, or aboye 1°33 * Mem. Paris 1776. muies On Winds. 313 miles per minute, if it had not. been that before the air at the tropics could arrive at the equator, it muft have gained fome motion eaftwards from the furface of the earth or fea, whereby the relative motion is diminifhed to the degree that actually exifts in it. This theory appears to me rather ingenious than folid, for the following reafons : 1. The trade winds are commonly gentle, moving only’ at the rate of eight miles an hour ; therefore they have fufh- cient time to gain or participate of the motion of the earth; therefore their contrary courfe muft arife from an abfolute caufe, and cannot be deemed merely relative. 2. Becaufe the north-eaft wind fcarce ever approaches nearer than eight or. ten degrees to the equator, and there dies away; whereas it ought there, according to this theory, to be ftrongeft. And, on the contrary, the fouth-eaft pafles the equator feveral degrees, even when the fun 1s in the fouth tropic. A faét which, as Gentil remarks, is abfolutely irre- concileable with this theory. (Gentil Voy. i. p. 6385 Ibid. v. p: 116.) 3. Becaufe, if the conftant eafterly wind was in the north- ern hemifphere fupplied folely from the north, and in the fouthern hemifphere folely from the fouth, we fhould in the former have a conftant north wind at leaft at 35 or 40 degrees from the equator, or at leaft from fome northern point, and in the latter a con{tant fouth wind, or at leaft from fome fouthern point; whereas, on the contrary, a fouth wind often prevails in thofe latitudes on the north fide of the equa- tor, and a north wind on the fouth fide. Thus La Peroute met an E.S.E. in north latitude 32°, and a due eaft in lati- tude 31°; anda S.S.E, in latitude 14°, and a due eaft in latitude 16°; and a due north in latitude 20°, (where then was the relative motion?) and a due fouth in latitude 33°. (See his Journal in La Peyr. Voy. tii.) He alfo met with a due north in latitude 27° and 42° fouth, and a N.N.E, in latitude 25° fouth. So captain Cook met a S.S.E. wind in jatitude 30° north, and alfo in latitudes 40° and 41°, and a ‘due fouth wind in latitude 38° and 20°; and in the fouthern hemifpbere a due north in latitude 3°, 4°, and 44°. I might produce other inftances from fea journals, and particularly from that, moft ample and inttructive, kept. by major Dal- rymple during avoyage to the Katt Indies (Phil. Tranf. 1778); but L think the alleged fufficiently prove that the general eaft wind is not fupplied folely from the north or fouth in the dif- ferent hemifpberes refpectively. 4. Becaufe, during our fix fammer months, when the fun is in or approaches to the northern tropic, the ealierly trade wind 314 On Winds, wind partakes Jefs of the northerly, than ‘when the fon is in or approaches ‘to the fonthern tropic, (Phil. ‘Tranf, Abrid. ti. p.134; and Schued. Abhandl. 1762, p. 175 :) which is direétly contrary to Hadley’s fyftem; for when the fun ts in the fauthern tropic, the north wind muft tra- yerfe more of that fpace m which the earth’s motion eatt- ward is ftrongeft, and therefore fhould participate more: of that motion, as Hadley himfelf {tates: though {til partaking of it in a fmaller degree than that which the globe itfelf pol- feffes, it fhould appear to move weftwards ; yet 1t fhould pro+ portionably retain lefs of its original direétion from north to fouth than when it had traverfed a fpace more diflant from the equator, whereas the faét is that it retains more, and often paffes into the fouthern hemifphere into the 3° fourth Jatitude without having any eaftern direction, (Marchand iil. 5513) and an analogous fa&t is obferved with refpe& to the fouth-eaft wind when the fun is in the northern tropic. Hence it is evident, that it is from the approach of the fun, and not from the latitude traverfed, that the eaftern direction is derived; nay, the wind ts often more eafterly than north- erly between latitude 23°-and 28°: (Fofter’s Obfervations, p- 126.) He even obferved that the trade winds extended far beyond the tropics when the fun’ is in the fame hemi- fphere, which fhows it is the fun that caufes them. Eddy is a term introduced on this fubje&t, which explains nothing when its caufe is not affigned and proved; the trade. winds are often interrupted by the approach ‘of land; but the interruption, as Fofter mentions, extends only to a few miles, Thid. 127. ; The monfoons or periodical trade winds depending on local circumflances, fufficiently explained by Dr. Halley, I fhall here pafs over; though certainly much may be added from obfervations made by fubfequent navigators and travellers. I fhall therefore confine myfelf to the variable winds, a fub- ject much more obfcure. Of Variable Winds. With refpeé& to winds we mutt lay down one general and fundamental principle, which is, that they always originate at the extremity of that point towards which they proceed. Thus the’ eafterly trade windbegins at the point neareft the fun, which it follows, and is perpetually renovated and fup- - plied from parts {till more eafterly, Thus in the year 1709 a north wind was fooner perceived in England than at Dant~- zie (Phil. Tranf, Abrid. iv. parti. p. 115. And Wargentin notes, that when the wind changes to the weft, this change takes place at Mofcow before it happens at Abo, ir : evera On Winds. ary feveral degrees weft of it;’and fooner in ‘Finland’ than in Sweden. (Schwd. Ablandl. 1762, p. 1795-.)' And Dr: Frank- hin, in his xxxvith Letter, p. 389, thinks that the north-eaft ftorms in North America begin firft, in point of time, in the fouth-weft parts; that is to fay, fooner in Georgia than in Carolina, and fooner in Carolina than-in Virginia, &e. He found that a north-eaft ftorm ‘began at Philadelphia at feven o'clock, but did not extend to Bofton (about forty miles to the north-eaft) until eleven o'clock. The reafon of which he well explains, as the current muft begin inthe places neareft to that in which the rarefaction arifes, towards which the current is directed. hah a Ne Of Wefterly. Winds. That eminent and laborious ‘meteorologift’ C. La Cotte, infers from’ numerous obfervations of many. years, that be- tween latitude 47° and.60° on the weftern fide of our hemi- fphere; the weft wind, with fome participation of the north or fouth, is that which obtains ofteneft. (Roz. Jour. xxxix. p: 267.) Leche obtained the fame refult at Abo, latitude 60°, from twelve years obfervations; Mufchenbroeck, in Utrecht; Mr. Dalton, in Weftmorland, latitude'54°, (fee his Meteoro- logical Eflays, p. 48 and-88,) from five years obfervations. This wind in our continent originates in the Pacific Ocean between the above-mentioned parallels, at leaft’ in winter ; the air incumbent on that ocean is then much warmer than that of Siberia and Chinefe Tartary that lie weft of it; this therefore preffes upon and flows into the fupra+marine, and is immediately fucceeded by air fill farther weftwards, and thus a current is gradually eftablithed extending to the At- Jantic, which, though im winter, being much warmer than the air of the iflands-and continent on which it flows, is forced into the current, both by the rupture of the equili- briam to the eafiwards, and ‘by the preffure of the much colder air of the continent of North Anierica. Of Eafterly Winds. During the winter months there feems to be a frequent firugele and conteft betwixt the air incumbent over the Afi- ati¢ continent and that incumbent on the North American lying ‘betwixt the above-mentioned parallels and bordering on the Pacific Ocean, which of them fhall rule over it. The mals of the American air being lefs confiderable, and its efforts divided between the Pacific and the Atlantic, is generally obliged to yield to its antagonift ; though fometimes the Afiatic being warmed, either by a diffufion of the fu- : perior 2.16 f On Winds. perior current, or by foutherly winds, the colder American becomes. more forcible. . In fummer this muft happen fre- quently, the E..N. E. ofteneft. prevailing: upon the whole, however, Leche remarked that. the eaft.and E.S.E. were nearly the moft uncommon; as did La Cotte in the climate of Paris. (Meteorolog. p. 305.). ort With us this wind is moft frequent in the months of April and May; and I have obferved, in Cook’s Journal, tables gth, toth, and rith, that it prevails alfo in the fame months.in the Pacific, therefore the colder continental air then.pours in upon us. . La Cotte alfo abferves, that in the weftern traéts of Eu- rope, in latitudes below 48°, this wind occurs ofteneft during the winter months*; for the fuperior heat of the Atlantic in the low latitudes determines the colder air incumbent on Hungary and European Turkey to flow in upon it. Of Southerly Winds. A few years ago, no problem in meteorology appeared to me more difficult than to affign a caufe for the frequent pre- valence of a fouth wind even in winter, it being contrary to the laws of nature that warm air fhould ruth upon colder ; yet I fince difcovered that the conjeétural folution I then of- fered is grounded on a real fact, In the eaftern parts of our bemifphere, from longitude 72° to 160°, that is, from the coaft of Malabar to the Moluccas, it blows from the north-eaft conftantly from Odober until April. Now this northern blaft muft be fupplied and re- cruited from countries ftill further north until we arrive at the pole, and the polar air muft confequently be fupplied by that which lies fouth of it, and thus a fouthern current is eftablithed on the weltern fide of our hemifphere, Inftances to fupport or contradiét this theory do not often oceur; yet I have found fome that appear to me decifive, in- dependently of the general reafon alleged. Thus I find in the ninth table of the third volume of Cook’s Voyages, that in north latitude 59°, and eaft longitude 207°, on the 25th of May 1778, a ttrong north-welt wind prevailed; and on the 29th day of the fame month and year, an equally ftrong fouth-weft wind prevailed at Peterfburgh, latitude 62° and longitude 30° eaft. Now the places of obfervation were 177 degrees diftant, one on the eaftern and the other on the weftern fide of our hemifphere, (which, at this proximity to the pole, argues not a fuperior diftance to that ] have men- * Mein, Meteorolog. ii. p. 189, &c, tioned ;) On Winds. 317 tioned ;) and four days is as fhort a time as can be allowed to the fouth-weft to fupply the more eaftern north-weft. (Mein. Peterfburgh 1778, p. 92.) So alfo in the fame journal I find, that from the 4th to the goth of May a north wind prevailed in the eaftern part of our hemifpbere from latitude 58° to 61°, except feventeen days of variable winds; but in London it blew from the fouth-weft during the firft fifteen days of June, thus replacing the northern air. And to replace the conftant north-eaft wind on the Indian peninfula to the Moluccas, ‘there is a conftant draught from the fouth in the weftern parts of our hemifphere; accordingly Lefke obferved, that on an average of twelve years it blew 126 days each year, from O&tober until May, from fome fouth point, namely, 86 days from the fouth or fouth-weft, and go from the fouth- eaft, at Abo, latitude 60°. It is true, that he found it to take place very frequently alfo in fummer ; but this is occafioned by the great heat that then prevails in the northern traéts of Lapland. And, upon the whole, more of the fouth air is drawn off in winter than in fummer; for its flow is gentle in fummer, but often ftormy in winter. See Lefke’s gth, 11th, and i 2th tables. If all other meteorological tables of a feries of years had been arranged with equal fagacity and precifion as thofe of Leche and Dr. Horfeley, a vaft fund of information might. be extracted from them. . At Peterfburgh, during the year 1793, Euler junior found a fouth or fouth-weft wind prevailed 7g days, 52 from Oc- tober to the end of March, and only 27 in the fammer months: it was ftormy in November, December, and Janu- ary. IT have not noted the fouth-eatt. Mr. Stritter alfo found the fouth wind to predominate at Mofcow during the fix winter months of that year, (N. Acta Petrop. xi. p. 569;) fo that the frequency of this wind in high latitudes is certain. Of Northerly Winds. In the weftern parts of our continent and hemifphere thefe. are of all others the leaft frequent in latitudes above 48°. See ‘La Cotte’s and Leche’s tables. The caufe of this unfre- quency (i from what has been faid of fouth winds. But in latitudes below 48° they occur oftener, and oftenett in thofe that are {till lower, as La Cotte remarks. An ad- mirable inflance of Divine Providence, that the warmett winds fhould prevail ofteneft in winter in the coldett regions, and cold winds in the warmeft! But it may be afked, why»a fouth wind fhould not prevail in 318 On. Winds. in the eaftern parts of our hemifphere to fupply the conftant north-eaft wind that prevails. in the low latitudes of the welt- ern fide? The-reafon is, that on the weftern fide the morth- eaft winds of low latitudes are eafily fupplied by the conti- guous Atlantic, which is open up to the North Pole; and, as here, the upper. current fets and ceafes, there can be no deficiency of air. Of oppofite concomitant Winds. Tt has often been obferved *, but of late, fince the inven- tion of balloons, evidently proved, that currents of air from different and even oppofite points of the horizon, prevail at diferent heights in the atmofphere over the fame tracts of Jand or water. This was originally inferred from the different courfes of the higher and lower clouds; but as fuch obferva- tions were often liable to optical deceptions, better proofs were wanting. : Mont Louis is within thirty miles of Perpignan, but about 5000 feet higher. _Now in March 1780, north and north- eaft winds prevailed at Perpignan and a wefterly wind at St. Louis. In Auguft.a north wind prevailed at Perpignan and an eaft at Mont Louis. Mém. de la Société de Medecine de Paris 1780. Derham fufpected +, and Gentil has fince fhown, that changes of feafons conftantly begin in the upper atmofphere ; while a ftrong wind blows from one point be- low, a wind from an oppofite point reigns above, but more gentle, until at laft (in about three weeks) it 1s propagated downwards. (Voy. il. p. 23, 24,1n 8vo.) The lower atmo- fphere, he fays, extends to the height of 2880 feet. (Vol. iv. p. 48.) At the commencement of winter, when the fun approaches the fonth tropic, and the north air begins to flow in and follow it, it muft meet with more refiftance from the - lower denfer air, as its impetuous courfe in an oppofite di-' reCtion is more flowly altered (this refpeéts the monfoons) than in the rarer fuperior ftrata; and the fame effeét, but in a different direction, takes place when the fun approaches to the northern tropic. _ It has been faid by many, that winds in the fuperior re- gions of the atmofphere are much more violent and impe- tuous than in the Jower. (Sauflure Hygrom. p, 300: Ul- Joa’s Voy. ii. p. 81: Mufchenbr. § 2612: Bergm. Erde kugel. ii. p:. gg: De Luc, &c.) . But the contrary has alfo been, obferved by Gentil, above quoted, and Morveau, ¢Aéroft. de Dijon.) _ * Ulloa’s Voy. iis p. 62. Englith. t+ Phiki Tranf, Abridg, iv. part ii, 125. of Qn the A&ion of Galvanifm, Be. 319 Of the Succeffion of Winds. ‘Well eftablithed general laws on this head would be ex- tremely ufeful, as we might then forefee what wind might next be expected. Befides the gevera/ fucceffion in an open country, it is probable there is a Joca/, confined. to certain fituations. : Gentil remarks, that in the fouthern latitudes of our hemi- fphere, a north-eaft is fucceeded by an ealt, fouth-ealt, and fouth. According to La Cotte, the order of fucceffion in the middle Jatitudes is fouth-weft, north, weft, north-eaft, fouth,. north-weft, eaft, fouth-eaft. (Roz. Journ. xxxix. p. 267.) Of the Scirocco. This is a fouth or fouth-eaft wind, known in the fouthem parts of Italy, Sicily, and Malta, diftinguifhed by peculiar debilitating effects, well defcribed by Brydone, and by Do- lomieu in his Treatife on the Temperature of Malta. The latter has fhown that its malignity refults from the conftitu- tion of the air it conveys, and not merely from its tempera- ture, which is variable, from 55° to 80°. It contains a much fmaller proportion of oxygen than air ufually does. The conftitution of the African wind, called barmattan, is as yet unknown; it is, at leaft on land, loaded with fome unknown undiffolved vapour, and is much hotter and drier than the fcirecco, but not debilitating, and even wholefome for ant- mals; for though it parches their fkin, it deftroys infection and cures feveral diforders. (See Phil. Tranf. 1781, p. 46, &c.) Its dire&ion is alfo weftwards. . LVII. Report prefented to the Cla/s of the Exa& Sciences of the Academy of Turin, January 12, 1803, on the Aétion of Galvanifm, and the Application of this Fluid and of Elec tricity to Medicine. By A. M. Vassavi-Eanpi*. "Tue Galvanic experiments made on the roth and 14th of Augnft laft, in the prefence of a great many fpectators, by Giulio, Rofli, and myfelf, on the head and trunk of three decapitated criminals, an account of which has been pub- lithed, gave rife to feveral quettions in regard to this agent, and by analogy refpeéting eleétricity. ‘Thefe two fluids, and the ufes to which they may be applied, have become a eomimon fubject of converfation among well-informed per+ * From the, Journal de Phyfique; Germinal, an. 11, 7 : fons, 420 On the Aétion of Galvanifm, and the ‘ fons, and, as is always the cafe with new @ifcoveries, their ufes are exaggerated by fome, and defpifed by others. This diverfity of opinion induced our affociate Charles Boffe to propofe to me two queftions, which I endeavoured to folve io the next letter I wrote to him about the end of September. T could eafily increafe the number of cures obtained by means of Galvanifin and electricity, as well as of the misfortunes oc- cafioned by the action of thefe fluids and of the inftances where I obferved a conftant relation between the moral part ; that is to fay, the ftrength of mind, the courage of the victims to jutice, and the effects of the Galvanic fluid on their bodies: but thefe obfervations belong to the general report of the ex- periments which we made fince the 14th of Auguft. I fhalf therefore only prefent to you the letter which I wrote at that period. < You afked me in one of our late academic fittings, why, after fo many experiments, made by the firft philofophers of the laft century, on the electric fluid, fuch a variety of opi- nions is entertained in regard to its medical aétion in the human body; and whether Galvanifm feems already to pro- mife refults more ufeful to the healing art. I fhall here give you my opinion on thefe queftions, or rather fubmit to you the, indugtions which different experiments made by mytelf, or at which I affitted, gave me reafon to deduce with more certainty than I durft venture to hope when I began to pay a ferious attention to this object. «< T confider Galvanifm as a modification of electricity—a modification which renders this fluid more ative; as the fmall flame feparated by the blow-pipe is far more ardent than the large one from which it is taken. I have read to the clafs feveral experiments which feem to fupport this com- parifon between electricity and Galvanifm., Animals which were only ftunned by the ftrongeft fparks from a magic pic- ture, were killed in lefs than three minutes by a very weak degree of Galvanifm. . The fluid of a pile compofed of 25 plates of filver and zine _6of the fize of a crown-piéce, intermixed with pieces of pafte- board moiftened in water faturated with muriate of ammonia, oxidates the metals in decompofing the water, while it is {earcely fenfible in the fingers, and gives only fmall fparks. The brilliant electric {parks which excite in our bodies a {trong fenfation of pricking, neither oxidate the metals nor decom. pofe the water if they do not communicate a fhock. Havin made the Galvanic current to pafs through the body of a frog, its fluids were decompofed, and I faw it {well up fo much that it could no longer plunge into the water though poflefied Application of this Fluid and Eleétricity to Medicine. 321 poffeffed of great vitality, which I never obferved to be the cafe in frogs when tormented by ftrong eleétric fparks. All thefe facts, to which many more of a fimilar kind might be added, confirm the great activity of Galvanifm in compa- rifon of eleétricity. Hence it refults, that the fluid of the Voltaic pile may be very ufeful in cafes in which common ele&tricity would not have fuficient attivity. You are ac- quainted with fome of the experiments which I made in con- junétion with my colleagues Giulio and Roffi: we made others, {till more interefting, which have determined phyfio- logical fa&ts, before doubtful for want of being verified. We then tried an application of it in feveral difeafes with the greateft fuccefs. Three of the cafes are as follow : ‘* A lady about thirty years of age, after fevere pains in the head, loft the fight of the right eye. C. Roffi being con- fulted in regard to this malady, after a clofe examination of the eye, which appeared to be as found and to look as well as the left, concluded that it mutt arife from a palfy of the optic nerve, or what is called a gutta ferena, which fuffered the patient to fee only, as it were, through a thick mift; which increafed her misfortune, fince it deranged the fight of the other eye, fo that fhe was always afraid of falling, not being able to diftinguith well with the right eye the objects which fhe handled. Roffi being fick, fent her to me, that I might make an application of Galvanifm. I formed a pile of thirty pairs of plates like thofe already mentioned, and employing gold wire as conductors, [ caufed the Galvanic current to enter near the exterior angle of the eye, and to iffue fometimes at the eyebrow, fometimes by the ophthal- mic ramus which paffes through the orbital foramen, and fometimes near the interior angle of the fame eye. The ope- ration was very painful; it caufed abundance of tears to flow; but, after fucceflive Galvanic thocks for half an hour, the eye began to fee a little better. That I might not fatigue my patient too much, and that nature might have time to aét, the operation was fufpended till the evening, when it’ was repeated for half an hour. The next day the eye began to diftinguifh the figure of bodies. Having repeated the ope- ration for three days following, the !ady was not only ak!e to diftinguith the figure of bodies, and people’s features, but alfo the pupils of their eyes. . Before this operation, in confe- quence of a confultation with Dr. Johu Baptilt Anforini, firft phyfician of the Hofpital de la Charité, I had Galvanized a young woman, twenty-feven years of age, of a melancholy temperament, who, afier fome flight attacks, had a hemi- plegia of the right fide, which affected in particular the arm, ‘OL. XV, No, 60. Y the ~ 322 On the Adiion of Galvanifm, and the the cheek, and the eye. The other fymptoms were removed: by bleeding and the ufe of the remedies ufual in fuch cafes ; but the eye always remained fixed, with pains in the mufcles. The application of Galvanifm for ten minutes was fufficient to excite abundant tears and a difcharge of a watery fluid from the nofe on the fide which had always been fhut fince the attack of the diforder, and greatly alleviated the pains of the mufcles. She could even turn her eye to both fides ; but the found gredt difficulty in raifing or lowering it, with a fenfation of heavinefs all around the eye. This operation being repeated, after the interval of a day the eye acquired its former freedom of motion, and the patient was freed from every fenfation of uneafinefs. ; i * Thefe two operations were performed in the prefence of feveral perfons, and executed almoft entirely by C. Hyacinth Carena, lecturer on natural philofophy in the National Col- Jege of Turin. ‘* The advantages of Galvanifm will appear to you ftll more decifive, by the cure of a perfon labouring under hy- drophobia, performed lately by C. Rofti, who will give a full and complete account of it in a memoir on which he is now employed. / ‘«¢ A man bit in the finger by a mad dog, came to confult him, in confequence of a pain which he felt in the arm, the back, and particularly the finger, which had been bit more than a month. A cauftic applied to the finger removed the pain; but a few days after it returned, accompanied with fymptoms of hydrophobia. The patient could no longer look at water without horror; an inflammation in the throat pre- vented him from fwallowing even chewed bread, and he ex- pertenced a ftrong propenfity to bite thofe around him. *« In this ftate he was brought to C. Rofli, who obferving that he could not bear the fight of water, nor that even of fhining bodies, provided in another room a pile confifting of 50 pairs of plates of filver and zinc intermixed with 50 picces of paficboard moiftened with a folution of muriate of ammo- nia. He employed flips of brown paper moiftened as a con- ductor, on which the naked feet of the patient were placed, and at the moment when he opened his mouth to bite, one end of the are was thrutt into it, while the other communi- cated with the pile. The patient fuffered a great deal from this operation, which after feveral fhocks weakened him-fo much that he could no longer fupport it. Being ftretched out on the floor, he was then Galvanized with eafe: the operation made the fweat run from him in drops. After fome time Roffi caufed the patient to he conveyed home, and gave ew Oe aie ta Application of this Fluid and EleGtricity to Medicine. 323 gave orders that he fhould be brought back next day, that the operation might be repeated. It was two o’clock in the afternoon when the patient was Galvanized,. and at sag morning he came to Roffi himfelf to tell him that hé was © completely cured, as he experienced no pain or difficulty of fwallowing, and was entirely freed from his averfion to water and tg liquids: no perfuafion, however, could induce him to fubmit to a new operation. “* But a few days after, fome flight pains having given him reafon to apprehend a new. attack of hydrophobia, he re- _turned to Rofii, who by repeating the operation made all the fymptoms difappear. This cure was alfo effected in the pre+ fence of feveral perfons. The patient was endowed with fo great fenfibility, that for more than a month after he felt in the fhoulders a fenfation of the Galvanic fhocks, which I felt only as far as the articulation of the finger, though I am not one of the leaft fenfible. You fee by thefe trials what are the advantages which may be hoped for from Galvanifm. T entertain no doubt that a mean fo active may preferve from the grave many individuals, by Galvanizing them at the mo- ment when the play of the vital organs 1s fufpended by an accidental caufe. « This will become more evident by an explanation of the medical aétion of eleétricity on the human body. «* Several celebrated writers lave claffed electricity among thofe remedies which are moft certain and moft aétive; others have fhown the inutility, and even danger, of this fluid confidered as'a remedy; and both feem to be fupported by well attefted facts. : ** Nothing, however, can be more eafily explained, if we re- fle&, that moft of thofe who have applied eletricity to me- dicine have been guided by quackery, without confulting the nature of the difeafe, or of the agent which they employed. For this reafon I ftated in the memoir which is about to ap- pear in the Tranfactions of the Academy, that the greatett circumfpection fhould be obferved in the ufe of Galvanifm, which, like cleétricity, may be attended with bad confe- quences ; and even advanced, that the latter, though a very good remedy of itfelf, has done more hurt than good by im- proper application. ; . 1 fhall not bere {peak of the chemical properties which during the enthufiafm of novelty has been afcribed to elec- ‘tricity, fuch as that of transfufing into the human body the action of remedies enclofed in glafs tubes, by rabbing it With them. ** J¢ is well known that it is the fate of new difcoveries to be Y3 exaggerated, 324 On the A&ion of Galvanifm, Se. exaggerated, fo that their adverfaries eafily find reafons to oppole them; but after fome time things come to their pro- per level, eftablithed on a more complete knowledge of the agent; and thofe well acquainted with the properties of elec’ tricity are able to diftinguifh the cafes in which it may be adminiftered with advantage, from thofe in which it would be only prejudicial. Of ten patients affected with the fame dif- eafe, which undergo the fame electric treatment, five may be entirely cured, and the other five be exceedingly ill. «¢ Thofe who are cured extol eleétricity as the beft of reme- dies; thofe who have fuffered, fay that it only aggravates the evil. Both fpeak from correét experience, and at the fame time right and wrong, for attempting too much to general- ize; that is to fay, becaufe they do not diftinguifh the caufe of the difeafe which requires or oppofes the application of electricity. Thus the fame pain, the fciatica * for example, may be occafioned either by a ftagnation of the fluids, by their too great abundance, or by the want of reaction in the folids: it may arife alfo from organic defects; an alteration of the fluids; a poifonous, or, as it is called, acrid principle; or from a peculiar virus in the fluids. “¢ The five patients who labour under a ftagnation of the fluids, receive the greateft relief from electricity, which puts them in motion; the other five, tormented by {ciatica occa- fioned by vitiated humours, will grow worfe under eleétric treatment, which will increafe the acridity of the humours, carrying off a part of the water which kept the poifon di- luted. This theory of the effects of electricity in the human body is founded on the nature of this fluid, and on its pro- perties eftablifhed by numerous experiments. The electric fluid tends always to put itfelf into a ftate of equilibrium, and this tendency is fo ftrong, that it penetrates to a certain di- ftance in the air, and extends along idio-electric bodies. It is this tendency which caufes water when electrified to flow from capillary fyphons, whereas a very few drops only flow without this electrization. It is by the fame tendency that the electric fpark, when it paffes from one conduéting body to another by non-conducting fubftances, carries with it in its paflage conducting particles which ferve it as a vehicle, if the folidity of the bodies does not oppofe a very ftrong refift- ance. This property, proved by the common effeéts of thun- der, and by teveral experiments, ferves to account for the * Dr. Balbis obferved to me, that fciatica of every kind may be ac- counted for without recurring to the bypothetic alteration of the fluids. I replied, that I wifhed only to compare my .theory with the principal theories of {ciaticea, without concerning myfelf with their probability, great a a ee a Remains of gigantic Oxen found in America. 325 great evaporation of eleétrified liquids, and for the greater perfpiration of animals and vegetables which have been elec- trified. It is then evident, that whenever a ftagnation of the fluids takes place, if other fymptoms do not oppofe it, elec- tricity will be a good remedy: on the other hand, if the dif- eafe arifes from vitiated fluids, or a virus diluted in them, electricity in this cafe, either by the evaporation of the di- Juting fluid, or by the greater alteration it may produce, will be hurtful. From what has been faid, it is evident that elec- tricity and Galyanifm ought to be employed with the greateft circumfpection, and that the nature of the difeafe ought to be compared with the nature and properties of thefe fluids, to afcertain whether the application of them is proper or not. It is to be obferved alfo, that this remedy, in confequence of its activity, may be dangerous, like all other remedies, how- ever good, if abufed. | *€ T could adduce feveral inftances of misfortunes occafioned by the abufe of eletrization, even in cafes in which a little time before it had been indicated ; but I fhall mention only one faétin regard to Galvanifm :—A young woman was cured by Galvanifm of pains which fhe experienced in the muifcles of the face. After the cure, having continued to Galvanize herfelf, fhe did hurt, which increafed with the application of the Galvanifm, and did not ceafe till fhe abandoned herfelf entirely to the powers of nature, affifted by good nourifh- ment. The'patient then, who is incapable of forming a pro- per opinion refpeéting the ftate of his health, fhould confult a good phyfician, one of thofe who do not defpife natural philofophy and the new difcoveries, in order, that he may never fuffer by the application of electricity or of Galvanifm, which, as Boerhaave fays of another very ative remedy, Mira praeftat in multis incurabilibus; at prudenter 2 pru- denti medico abftine fi methodum nefcis *. —— LVIII. Account of fome Remains of a Species of gigantic Oxen found in America and other Parts of the World. By Mr. REMBRANDT PEALET. Aone the remains of gigantic and unknown animals found in America, we have he difcovered one of the ox or buffalo kind, which was taken from the bed of a creek fall- ing into the Ohio, 12 or 14 miles north of Bigbone-lick, and prefented by Samuel Brown, of Kentucky, to the Philofo- * Elem. Chemiaz, pars iii. proceffus 198. 4 Cominunicated by the Author, ¥3 phical 326 Remains of gigantic Oxen found in America. phical Society at Philadelphia. By permiffion of the fociety I made a plafter caft of this extraordinary bone, which I have now with me in London, and of which I fend you an accurate drawing, reprefenting the back part of the head, with the condyles of the neck, and the pith or internal part of the left horn at the bafe, (See Plate VI.) The right horn is broken off, and all the fore part of the head; but from the fragment remaining it is a reafonable conjecture that the buffalo to which it belonged was about 10 or 11 feet high. The horn at the bafe meafures 21 inches in circumference, and tapers very gently towards the extremity, where it is broken off; fo that the horn could not have been lefs than fix feet in length. From the middle future on-the head to the bafe of the horn meafures 74 inches; confequently the two horns were 15 inches diflant; which muft have been in- creafed when they were partly covered with flefh, fkin, and hair. - It is very extraordinary that bones of this kind have been occafionally found in Siberia, in Italy, Germany, and other parts of Europe, though not quite fo large as this American bone; which cireumflance, ftrengthened with others of a fimilar nature, muft prove, either that thefe great animals have inhabited thofe various countries, or that their remains have been forcibly fcattered by the action of water. Buffon informs us *, that in the parith of Haux, a mile and a half from Langoiran, in the fplitting of a.great rock, fome large bones, moftly petrified, were difcovered ; probably of the ox kind, but of a very great magnitude. He likewife mentions ¢, that in 1772 there was found near Rome an ox’s head in a ftate of petrifaction. The length of the fore- head between the two horns was 2 feet 3 inches; the diftance between the orbits of the eyes 14 inches; that from the upper portion of the forehead to the orbit of the eyes, 1 foot 6 inches 5 the circumference of one horn, 18 inches; the length of the fame following the curve, 4 feet. ‘¢ This inftance is fufficient to prove,” fays Buffon, * that there have been prodigious giants among this {pecies of animals ; but it is further con- firmed by other facts.” He then enumerates feveral bones of the fame kind in the mufeum at Paris fimilar to fome which I have remarked in the Britifh mufeum. In ‘the Philofophical Tranfaétions ¢ there is an engraving and an account of a bone of this kind, found ‘near the city of * Quarto Supplement, vol.iv. p. 486. + Page 543. t Vol. xxxviie p. 427+ ; Dirfchaw, Defcription of the Nymphaa Caerulea. 327 Dirfchaw, of very large dimenfions, and haying the fame characters which diftinguifh the one found on the Ohio, Until the difcovery of this bone in America, the tradition of the Indians concerning the great buffalo has been confi- dered as entitled to very little attention. Many interpreted it as having entire reference to the mammoth, whole pre- eminent fize was obvious, and whofe carnivorous teeth were ° well calculated to excite terror; but I have now no hefitation in believing that the tradition, which, with fuch little varia- tion, prevails through all North America, mentioning the antient exiftence of a great buffalo, is a tradition really handed down to them from their forefathers, but, like all other tra- ditions, clouded with fable: yet it is not improbable, fince we find the remains of the mammoth and the great buffalo in the fame country, that the diftin@ ideas of each have been in time confounded, the terrible power of the one with the name of the other. It has been too much the cuftom, whenever any large bones have been found in Europe, to call them all elephants’ bones ; and in America, to think them all belonging to the mam- moth: but from the progrefs now made in this inquiry there is reafon to hope for additional light on this interefting fub- je&t, whether it be confidered as a foundation to theological faith, or regarded as a con{picuous monument in the hiftory of the world. LIX. Defcription of the Nymphea Cerulea. By Jutius Casar Savicny, of the Injlitute of Egypt*. I; is well known that the lotus of the antient Egyptians was one of the moft celebrated plants of antiquity. Rifing every year with the waters of a river which overflowed its banks only to fecundate the earth; {pringing up amidét plains formerly defert, which it embellifhed with its beautiful flow- ers; and cultivated to ferve as food to the leaft fenfual, but the moft numerous cla{s of the inhabitants; it was judged worthy of homage by one of the firft people in the world, who confidered it as the happy fign of abundance, and as a facred pledge of the favour of the gods. It is to the genus of the 2ymphea that the modern bota- nifts have referred the lotus, which has been defcribed by ‘molt of the antient hiftorians, and which is engraven on all the antique monuments of Egypt. ‘Two (pecies of this genus, * From Annales du Mufeum National, No. 5. Y4 one 328 Defcription of the Nymphaea Cerulea. one with white and the other with azure flowers, ftill orna- ment, during the time of the inundation, the furface of the canals and rivers, and in general of all the fields of Lower Egypt, which are covered by the waters of the river. Plants fo fimilar were no doubt beheld by the Egyptians with equal veneration; and though Linnzus, who was well acquainted with the former, gave it the name of /otws, it is to be pre- fumed that the fecond procured the fame advantages and ferved for the fame myfteries. Its flowers have more fplen- dour and a fweeter fmell, and the azure colour they exhibited might become, among a people fo religious, the emblem of the refidence of the deity on the waters. The nymphea lotus is very well defcribed, and a good figure is given of it, in feveral Syflems of Botany; but the cafe is not the fame with thofe the flowers of which are azure-co- Joured. It was fearcely obferved by a few travellers, and if mentioned, it was only in a vague and incorreét manner. Forfkal, who travelled through Egypt in 1761, and who gave a Flora of that country, did not obferve it. His filence in this refpeét is the more aftonifhing, as the plant in queftion and the xymphea lotus grow together and ufually intermix their leaves. It is not even indicated in the laft edition of the Sy/lema Nature, publifhed by Gmelin. This author, however, collected with great attention all the feattered fpe- cies to be found in the different works which have hitherto appeared *. 7 It is therefore indifpenfably neceffary that a name and fpecific character fhould be affigned to this nymphea ; it is alfo neceffary that a corre&t defcription fhould be given of it: this, in fome meafure, will be enriching botany with a new plant; and this, indeed, is the objeét which I propofe in the prefent memoir. — But as this {pecies has a great refemblance to the nymphea lotus, and as it is poflible that they may have often been con- founded, I have thought it will be of advantage to give a comparative defeription of both. By thefe means the reader will be better enabled to comprehend the charaéters by which they are diftinguifhed, and which render it neceflary to form of them two feparate fpecies. The root of the xymphea lotus, and that of the other fpe- cies, which from the colour of its flowers I have called the azure nenuphar (xymphea caerulea), confift of long, white, pulpy filaments, the upper extremities of which adhere to round tubercles. In feveral provinces of Egypt thefe tuber- * Wildenow in his Species Plantarum does not {peak of this Bs cles, Defeription of the Nymphaea Cerulea. 329 cles, and particularly thofe of the firft fpecies, are plucked up after the inundation: they are ufed as food; they have an infipid earthy tafte, and form a delicate dith. The leaves of both are large, pretty numerous, fub-orbi= cular, divided into two lobes from their bafe to the place where the petiole is inferted; that is to fay, nearly to the middle of the difk. They are not fo thick as thofe of our nenuphars in Europe: they have a darker green colour, and a fLining appearance above; and below are often tinged with purple or violet. Thefe leaves are fupported by radical cy- lindric petioles, flightly compreffed and fometimes very long, which float on the furface of the water. The flowers are very large, and are often more than four inches in diameter. Their pedicles, which arife from the root, are uniflorous and differ very little from the petioles, The calyx of thefe flowers is compofed of eight leaves dif- pofed in two rows, and coloured in the infide: the more in- terior ones are the moft coloured, and have fome refemblance to the petioles. r The latter, from twelve to twenty in number, are alfo dif- pofed in feveral feries. The ftamina are of a yellow colour with large filaments, and petaliform. The radii of the ftigma vary, for the moft part, in number from twelve to twenty-five. They have the fame colour as the flamina, are compreffed and flightly bent at the fummit. Such is the common appearance of the roots, the leaves, and the flowers. Let us now examine the differences they exhibit. The leaves of the nymphea lotus are bordered quite round with very acute indentations, firm and almoft like prickles : their lobes, for the moft part, are exaGtly parallel and fome- times even ; they converge, and mutually cover each other: their inferior furface is charged with very prominent ribs, which form a very apparent reticulation: their petioles are rough. : On the other hand, thofe of the nymphea caerulea have their edges fearcely finuated ; their lobes are more pointed, and commonly divergent. .The inferior furface exhibits ribs fearcely fenfible, the principal ones of which only are fome- what prominent; the reft being concave and lefs elevated than the difk. The petioles of thefe leaves are exceedingly rough. In the nymphaa lotus the leaves are always more open. The folioles of the calyx are oval, lanceolated, greenith exter- nally, 33° _ Defcription of the Nymphaea Cerulea, nally, without fpots, but marked with feven paler ribs very aking. The folioles of the calyxin the nymphea cerulea are much marrower, lanceolated, and almoft cuneiform: the exterior fide of them is of a dark green colour, conftantly varied with an infinite number of pomts and fmall lines of a purplith co- Jour, and have no apparent ribs. ; The petals of the nymphea lotus are oval, lanceolated, and very unequal; thofe of the laft bemg much fmaller than the reft: their colour is a pure milk-white, tinged with a greenith purple colour on the outfide, but rarely. In the xympheza ceruiea the petals are lanceolated all. per- fe&ly equal, of a bright white colour, tinged, im particular towards the fummit, with the moft beautiful azure, inclining fliightly however, fometimes, to violet. The flamina of the zymphea lotus have anthere very much comprefied, lanceolated, without any appendix at the fumnut, and have feareely the length of the filaments. On the other hand, the antherz of the xymphea carulea are very little compreffed, lineal and longer than the fila- ments; their fummit.is terminated by a fubulated blueifh appendix fimilar to a {mall petal. In the laft place, the fummits of the radii of the ftigma are longer and fubulated in the xympbea lotus; fhorter, oval, and lanceolated, in the nymphca caerulea. The fmell exhaled from the flowers of each kind is alfo very different: that of the xymphea caerulea is exceedingly {weet and agreeable; that of the symphaa lotus is ftronger, more pungent, and much lefs agreeable. In regard to the fruit, I did not find in them any very re- markable difference : in both {pecies it confifts of a dry round berry, which is long, covered by the bafes of the folioles of the calyx and thofe of the petals; truncated and radiated at the fummit, which is always flained by the decompofition of the flamina and interior petals : it is divided imto deveral cells, each of which correfponds to a radius of the ftigma, and con- tains a quantity of round feeds of a rofe.colour. The Arabs have very well diftinguifhed thefe plants, and given to each a particular name: the former they call weow- far, and the Jatter bachenin. By feleéting from the defecription here given the moft promi- nent differences, both fpecies may be charaéterized as follows: Nympu#za Lotus, — N. folis dentatis, antheris apice femplicibus. NymMpH#sa CHRULEA, ay NN. foliis repandis, antheris apice fubulato-petaloideis. 5 Explanation On Mr. Greathzad’s Life-Boat. 331 Explanation of the Plate, (VU) . A petal. . A ftamen of the interior feries. . A ftamen of the exterior feries, . The ovarium and ftigma. . The feeds. . A feétion of the pedicle. An BOO Wb LX. On Mr. GREATHEAD’s Life-Boat*, SIR, A CONSIDERABLE time has elapfed fince I had the ho- nour to lay before the Society a model of the life-boat of my invention. I have now enclofed a particular account of its conftruction in a letter from Mr. Hinderwell, explaining upon what prin- ee it is built, fo as to render it fuperior to any other form of a boat for the dangerous enterprifes for which it was in- tended, and has been ufed. . I am, Sir, your humble fervant, Henry GREATHEAD. South Shields, Jan. 1, 1802. To Mr. Charles Taylor. SIR, IT is much to be Jamented, that in an age er gs by {cience, fuch a languid indifference fhould prevail on many -important public-occafions; and that the moft excellent in- ventions fhould have to combat the force of inveterate preju- dice. _. How many valuable difcoveries have languifhed in obfcu- rity! How many ufeful projects have perifhed in embryo, deprived of the foftering aid of the public, and the patronage of influence and authority! In the clafs of ufeful improve- ments for the diminution of the dangers incident to a marir time profeffion, the life-boat, invented by Mr. Greathead, of Shields, has a-claim to a diftinguifhed patronage. An ex- perimental conviction of its great .utility in faving the lives of fhipwrecked feamen, and of its perteé& fafety in the moft agitated fea, has induced me to advocate the caufe witha * From the Tranfa@lions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. for 1802.—The Society's gold medal, and»fifty guineas were voted to Mr. Greathead for, this invention. wea 83% Oz Mr. Greathead’s Life- Boat. zeal proportioned to its importance; and it is a confolatory reflection to my own mind, that my exertions have been fuccefsful in the introduétion of a life-boat:in the port of Scarborough, and, [ truft, not unprofitable towards pro- moting a fimilar eftablifhment in other places. The fervices which have been recently performed at this port by means of the life-boat, in contributing to the prefervation of the lives of the crews of two veffels, more than compenfate for every Jabour. Iam far from the ambition of afpiring to any ho- norary teftimony on this occafion. A€tuated by the pureft principle of philanthropy, my fole objeét is the benefit of the community, and to endeavour, by ardent recommendations, to excite a fpirit of emulation in order to introduce the life- boat, with its invaluable properties, into more general ufe. I am induced to fubmit, with the utmoft deference and re- fpect; to the confideration of the Society of Arts, &c. the following defeription of the life-boat, with fome mifcella- neous obfervations. The conftruction of the boat, agreeably to Mr. Greathead’s plan, 1s as follows:: The length is thirty feet; the breadth, ten feet; the depth, from the top of the gunwale to the Jower part of the keel in midfhips, threesfect three inches; from the gunwale to the platform (within), two feet four inches; from the top of the ftems (both ends being fimilar) to the horizontal line of the bottom of the keel, five feet nine inches. The keel is a plank of three inches thick, of a proportionate breadth in midfhips, narrowing gradually toward the ends to the breadth of the ftems.at the bottom, .and forming a great convexity downwards. The ftems are fegments of a circle, with confi- derable rakes. The bdttom, fection, to the floor-heads, is a curve fore and aft, with the fweep of the keel. The floor-~ timber has a fmall rife curving from the keel to the floor- heads. A bilge-plank is wrought in on each fide next the floor-heads with a double rabbet or groove of a fimilar thick- hefs with the keel; and on the outfide of this are fixed two bilge-trees, correfponding nearly with the level of the keel. The ends of the bottom fection form that’fine kind of en- france obfervable in the lower part of the bow of the fifhing- boat, called a co/7e, much ufed’ in the North. From. this part to the top of the ftem it is more elliptical, forming a. confiderable projeCtion. ‘The fides, from the floor-heads to the top of the gunwale, flaunch off on each fide, im propor- fion to abOut half the breadth of the floor.” ‘The breadth is continued:far forward towards the ends, leaving a fufficient léngth® of “ftrait fide atthe top. The fheer is regular along the ftrait fide, and more elevated towards ‘the ends. The gunwale, a ea ee On Mr. Greathead’s Life=Boat. 333 gunwale, fixed on the outfide, is three inches thick. The fides, from the under part of the gunwale along the whole length of the regular fheer, extending twenty-one feet fix inches, are cafed with layers of cork to the depth of fixteen inches downward; and the thicknefs of this cafing of cork being four inches, it projects at the top a little without the ‘gunwale. The cork on the outfide is fecured with thin plates or flips of copper, and the boat is faftened with copper nails. The thwarts, or feats, are five in number, double banked, confequently the boat may be rowed with ten * oars, The thwarts are firmly ftanchioned. The fide oars are fhort +, with iron tholes and rope grommets, fo that the rower can pull either way. The boat is fieered with an oar at each end; and the fteering oar is one-third longer than the row- ing oar. The platform placed at the bottom within the boat is horizontal, the length of the midthips, and elevated at the ends for the convenience of the fteerfman, to give him a greater power with the oar. The internal part of the boat next the fides, from the under part of the thwarts down to the platform, is cafed with cork; the whole quantity of which affixed to the life-boat is nearly feven hundred weight. The cork indifputably contributes much to the buoyancy of the boat, is a good defence in going alongftde a veflel, and is of principal ufe in keeping the boat in an erect pofition in the fea, or rather of giving her a very lively and quick difpofition to recover from any fudden cant or lurch which fhe may re- ceive from the flroke of a heavy wave. But exclufive of the cork, the admirable conftruction of this boat gives it a decided pre-eminence. The ends being fimilar, the boat can be rowed either way; and this peculiarity of form alleviates her in rifing ‘over the waves. The curvature of the keel and bottom faci- litates her movement in turning, and contributes tothe eafe of the fteerage, as a fingle ftroke of the fteering oar has an im- mediate effect, the boat moving as it were upon a centre. The fine entrance below is of ufe in dividing the waves, when row- ing againft them; and, combined with the convexity of the bottom and the elliptical form of the fem, adinits her to rife with wonderful buoyancy in high fea, and to launch forward with rapidity, without fhipping any water, when a common boat would be in danger of being filled. The flaunching, or {preading form of the boat, from the floor-heads to the gun- wale, gives her a confiderable bearing ; and the continuation * Five of the benches are only ufed, the boat being generally rowed with ten oars, + The thort oar is more manageable in a high’ fea than the long oar, and its ftroke is more ccrtain. of 334. On Mr. Greathéad’s Life- Boat. of the breadth, well forward, is a great fupport to her in the fea; and it has been found by experience, that boats of this conftruétion are the beft fea-boats for rowing againft turbu- Jent waves. The internal fhallownefs of the boat from the unwale down to the platform, the convexity of the form, and the bulk of cork within, leave a very diminifhed fpace for the water to occupy; fo that the life-boat when filled with water contains a confiderable lefs quantity than the common boat, and is in no danger either of finking or overturning. It may be prefumed by fome, that in cafes of high wind, agitated fea, and broken waves, that a boat of fuch a bulk could not prevail againft them by the force of the oars; but the life-boat, from her peculiar form, may be rowed a-head when the attempt in other boats would fail. Boats of the common form, adapted for fpeed, are of courfe put in mo-~ tion with a fmall power, but for wantef buoyancy and bear~ ing are overrun by the waves and funk, when impelled againft them; and boats conftru€ted for burden meet with too much refiftance from the wind and fea when oppofed to them, and cannot in fuch cafes be rowed from the {hore to a fhip in diftrefs. An idea has been entertained, that the fu- perior advantages of the life-boat are to be afcribed folely to the quantity of cork affixed. But this is a very erroneous opinion; and, J truft, has been amply refuted by the pre- ceding obfervations on the fupereminent conftruction of this boat. It muft be admitted, that the application of cork to common boats would add to their buoyancy and fecurity 5 and it might be a ufeful expedient, if there were a quantity of cork on board of fhips, to prepare the boats with in cafes of fhipwreck, as it might be expeditioufly done, in a tempo- rary way, by means of clamps, or fome other contrivance. The application of cork to fome of the boats of his majefty’s fhips* might be worthy of confideration ; more particularly as an experiment might be made at a little expenfe, and without inconvenience to the boats; or may prevent plea- — fure boats from upfetting or finking. The life-boat is kept in a boat-houfe, and placed upon four Jow wheels, ready to be moved at a moment’s notice. Thefe wheels are convenient in conveying the boat along the fhore to the fea; but if fhe had to travel upon them on a rough road, her frame would be exceedingly fhaken. Befides, it has been found difficult and troublefome to replace her upon thefe wheels on her return from fea. Another plan has therefore been adopted. Two wheels, of nine feet dia- * The launches, miter, a i a ‘ On Mr. Greathead’s Life-Boat. 935 meter; with a moveable arched axis, and a pole fixed thereto for a lever, have been conftructed. The boat is fufpended near her centre between the wheels under the axis, toward each extremity of which is an iron pin with a chain attached. When the pole is elevated perpendicularly, the upper part of the axis becomes deprefled, and the chains being hooked to eye-bolts on the infide of the boat, fhe is raifed with the ut- moft facility by means of the pole, which is then faftened: down to the ftem of the boat. The Scarborough boat is under the direGtion of a commit- tee. Twenty-four fifhermen, compofing two crews *, are alternately employed to navigate her. A reward, in cafes of fhipwreck, is paid by the committee to each man actually engaged in the affiftance ; and it is expected that the veifel receiving affiftance fhould contribute to defray this expenfe. None have hitherto refufed. It is of importance that the command of the boat fhould be intrufted to fome fteady, experienced perfon, who is ac- quainted with the direction of the tides or currents, as much {kill may be required in rifing them to the moft advantage in going to a fhip in diftrefs. It fhould alfo be recommended, to keep the head of the boat to the fea as much as circum- ftances will admit; and to give her an. accelerated velocity to meet the wave. Much caution is neceffary in approach- ing a wreck, on account of the ftrong reflux of the waves, which is fometimes attended with great danger. Ina ge. neral way, it is fafeft to go on the lee quarter; but this de- pends upon the pofition of the veffel; and the mafter of the boat fhould exercife his fkill in placing her in the moft con- venient fituation. The boatmen fhould praétife themfelves in the ufe of the boat, that they may be the better acquainted with her movements ; and they fhould at all times he ftrictly obedient to the directions of the perfon who is appointed to the command. The great ingenuity which has been difplayed in the con- ftruétion of the life-boat, leaves fearcely any room for im- provement; but fome have fuppofed that a boat of twenty- five feet in length, with a proportionate breadth, would ane fwer every purpofe of a larger one. A boat of thefe dimen- fions halal certainly be lighter, and Jefs expenfive ; but whe- ther fhe would be equally fafe and fteady in a high fea J cannot take upon myfelf to determine. Mr. Greathead, of South Shields, the inventor, under- * Two crews are appointed, that there may bea fufficient number ready in cafe of any abfence. . takes 336 On Mr. Greathead’s Life-Boat. takes to build thefe boats, and to convey them to any port in the kingdom.’ He is a worthy man, in whom a confi- dence may be repofed, and will build upon moderate terms of profit. THomMas HInDERWELL. Defeription of the Life- Boat. EEE (Plate VIIT.), the theer or curve of the boat. II, the two ftems or ends. K, the keel. LL, the aprons, to flrengthen the ftems. MM, the fheets, or places for paffengers. NN, timber-heads, or boat-fattenings. OOOOO, the tholes on which the oars are flung by grommets. T, flooring under the rowers feet. Fig. 2. a crofs feétion of the life-boat. FF, the outfide coatings of cork. GG, the infide cork filling. HH, the outfide planks of the boat. I, one of the ftems of the boat. K, the keel. NN, the timber heads. P, the thwarts, or rowers feats. R, one of the ftanchions under the thwarts, each being thus firmly fupported. S, a fection of the gang-board, which croffes the thwarts, and forms the paffage from one end of the boat to the other. T, the floor-heads, or platform for the rowers feet. VV, the two bilge-pieces, nearly level with the keel. WW, the gunwales. X, a ring-bolt for the head-faft, there being another alfo at the other end. Y, platform for the fteerfman. Fig. 3. a truck or carriage with four wheels, to convey the boat to and from the fea. a, an oblong frame of wood confifting of two long pieces, hollowed a little to admit the body of the boat, and fecured by the crofs pieces bb. ecce, four low wheels, each funk or hollowed in the mid- dle, to ran better upon a rail-way or timber-road. dd, two indents made in the fide timbers, that the bottom of the boat may lie firm therein. ee, two fmall rollers, moveable in the crofs timbers for the keel of the boat to flide upon. ff, the ii i On Mr. Greathead’s Life>Boat. 337 te F£e-two'long-rollers, oné at each end of the frame, to ‘aft in-raifing .thenboat Upon or fliding it/off the track or car- SIASE.AOULOG & 01 @YEWIB ct silt -tnod 9As kc IO Shs Management of the Life-Boatfrom the, Boat-Houfe to the _ Sea, and-vice verla,.as pracijed at Lowefloffe, in Suffolk » The life-boat may be launched from any beach; when wanted, with»as much éafe a3 anyother boat, by propereaf- fiftance. Thediftance from: theiboat-houferatLowetoffe 46 the fhore:is oné hundrediyards, andthe boat’s crew can ‘tun her down:in ten minutes /When'the feadoes not tumble in upon the beach very muchs the boat may be eafily launched by laying the waysas far as:poflible in the ‘water, sand: haul ing the carriage from under her. |, 1 esiiypot When-there is a great»fearom the beach, the boat! niutt be launched. from the carriage !before fhe ‘comes to the, furf; ‘on planks laid acrofs, as othér boats ‘areolannched|y' the:people itanding on the ends to:preverit the fea moving thera; vthen, with the affiflance of the anchor and:cable: (whichthouldsbe laid out at fea forthe purpofe);. the boat’s:crewcan draw hét over the higheft fea. Upon the boat returning to the tore, two double blocks are provided; and, having.a fhort ftrop fixed in the hole,,in the end of the boat, next the fea, the boat is eafily drayyn upon the carriage. The boat’s crew éan‘ran her any diftance upon a clear'fhore by the carriage Of Mr. Greathead’s contrivance, Account of, and Inflruétions\ for, the Management of the Life- Boat. The boats in general of this defcription’ are painted white on the outfide, this. colour, more immediately. engaging the eye of the {pectator at. ber rifing from the hollow of the fea ihe any other. The bottom. of the boat jis at firtt varnithed (which will take paint afierwards), forthe more minute.in- fpection of purchafers, The oars the is equipped with are made of fir of the beft quality, having found by experience that a rove-ath oar that will drefs clean and light is too pliant among the breakers; and when made {trong and heavy, from sri double banked, the purchafe being fhort, fooner exhaufts the rower, which ‘makes the fir oar, when made ftiff, more preferable. In the management of the: boat, fhe requires twelve men to work her; that is, five men on each fide, rowing double banked, with an oar flung over an iron thole, with a grom- met (as provided) fo as_to,enable, the rower to pull ¢ither VYoueXY. No. 60, Zz way ; a | dota v 2, 338 A general View of the way; and one man at each end to fteer her, and to be ready at the oppofite end to take the ftern oar when wanted. As, from the conftruction of the boat, fhe is always in a pofition to be towed either way, without turning the boat, when manned, the perfon who fteers her fhould be well acquainted with the courfe of the tides, in order to take every poffible advan- tage: the beft method, if the direCtion will admit of it, is to head the fea. The fteerfman fhould keep his eye fixed upon the wave or breaker, and encourage the rowers to give way as the boat rifes to it; being then aided by the force of the oars, fhe launches over it with vatt rapidity, without fhipping any water. It is neceflary to obferve, that there is ‘often a {trong reflux of fea, occafioned by the ftranded wrecks, which requires both difpatch and care in the people em- ployed, that the boat be not damaged. When the wreek is reached, if the wind blows to the land, the boat will come in fhore without any other effort than fteering. I would flrongly recommend praétifing the boat, by which means, with experience, the danger will appear Jefs, from the confidence people will have in her from repeated trials. LXI. 4 general View of the Coal Mines worked in France, of their different Produéts, and the Means of circulating them. By C. Leresvre, Member of the Council of Mines, of the Philomatic Society, Fc. Se. {Continued from p. 240. } Department of Ille and Vilaine. No coals are dug up in this department. It may receive this fuel by fea in the northern part; and the mines of Mon- trelais and North, in the department of Loire-Inferieufe, may fupply the fouthern part. Department of Indre. This department is in the fame fituation as the preceding in regard to-the want of coal mines. It might be fupplied from the mines in the department of La Creufe, if the river of that name, which is navigable for boats only to Argentan, were rendered navigable higher up. If the navigation of the Cher were improved, it might alfo fupply with coals the eaftern part of the department of Indre, becaufe the coal mines in the environs of Montlugon would then become an object of importance. Department Coal Mines worked in’ France. 339 Department of Indre and Loire. There are no coal’ mines in this department; but ityre- ceives the products of the mines of various departments by the river Loire, which traverfes it in its longeft direGtion. Department of Tere. The fouthern part of this department (22) contains fome coal mines; and particularly in the environs of the com- munes of La Motte, Pierre-Chatél, La Mure, Saint-Bar- thelemi-de-Sechilienne, &c. They fupply a mineral combuftible of a moderate quality ; but is exceedingly valuable in a country where wood 1s daily becoming fcarcer. . ; Thefe coal mines are almoft all worked in an irregular manner, without attention to the lives of the workmen or to economy. The annual produé& of thefe mines may be eftimated at from a million to twelve hundred myriagrammes, The price at the mines is from 15 to 20 cents per myria- gramme; but the difficulty of land-carriage raifes the price ~at Grenoble to from 60 to 80 cents. Department of Jura. ‘€ Several indications of coals have been announced in this department; and fome attempts were made to work mines, which gave rife to well-founded hopes: but thefe attempts are now abandoned, and no mines are worked in this depart- ment. In the prefent ftate of things, the mines of Blanzy and Saint-Berain, in the department of Saéne and Loire, furnifh coals to this department by the canal of Charolois and Doubs. The fouthern part is fupplied from the mines of Rives-de« Gier. Department of Landes. Indications of coal have been announced in the neigh- bourhood of Dax; but from the nature of the foil it is pre- bable that it is foffil wood. As this department has no coal mines worked, it is fupplied with this fuel by fea, and pare ticularly from the port of Bayonne. Department of Loire and Cher. This department (23) has no coal mines. _ It receives this fuel by the river Loire from the mines of Haute-Loire and Allier, ; Z2 Department 340 A general View of the Department of Haute-Loire. Very abundant coal mines are worked in the cantons of Braffac-Sainte- Florine, Freugéres, Vergongheon, and Lemp- des, the produ& of which is confiderable. That of Grof- menil, fituated in the laft-mentioned commune, which had been perforated by a number of fmall pits in fuch a manner ‘that the ftrata of coal was inundated, is now in the hands of a company, who are clearing it of water, and making pre- parations for working it to a greater depth. There is reafon to think, that this mine alone, when in a productive ftate, ¢ill furnifh as much as all the otber mines of the country do at prefent. The annual produét, however, of the latter is from fifteen to eighteen hundred thoufand “‘myriagrammes, Thefe coals are of an excellent quality. The means of their conveyance are the navigation of the Allier and the Loire, the canal of Briare and of the Seine; ‘which’gives for their circulation an extent of more than 140 leagues. A large quantity of thefe coals is confumed at Paris. "The mean price of them at the pits is from 15 to 20 cents; and when delivered at Paris from 30 to 40 cents. per myriagramme. Depariment of La Loire. ‘The fouth-eat part of this department (24) contains a great number of coal mines, worked in an extent of more than ten miles in length and five or fix miles in breadth. The principal communes in which thefe mines are fituated are thofe of Rives-de-Gier, Saint-Chamond, Saint-Etienne, ue Chambon, Firnini, Roche-Moliere, &c. i In confequence of the number and richnefs of the ftrata found in thefe cantons, an immenfe quantity of this fuel has -been extraGted for feveral centuries paft; but in order to ob- tain it fooner, and with more eafe, a great many pits have been funk, by means of -which the coals neareft the furface were dug.out., The whole coimntry is perforated with thefe apertures. This irregular method rendered the working of the inferior ftrata much more laborious and expenfive. _. The prefent produét of the different mines in this depart- ment are {tated at thirty millions of myriagrammes annually; and this, in all probability, is below the'truth. If the mines were better worked, it is certain that the quantity might be quadrupled. . The quality and price of thefe coals is exceedingly various. 7 Thofe of the firft quality coft at the mine from 10 to 12 cents np wg per ~ i Pt) Coal Mines worked im France. 341° per myriagramme;. thofe of mean quality are-fold for 7 or 8 cents,. and the worft for 5... ~The medium price of thefe' coals tranfported to Lyons is 15 or 18 cents per myriagramme: the price at Marfeilles ts 35 cents. : i Department of La Loire Inferieure. This department (25),.as has been feen, may receive coals, from the mines fituated towards the upper part of the courfe of the Loire as well as*from thofe-of Aller. The coals of the mine of Decife, which, will,be mentioned. in {peaking »of ‘ the department of La Nievre, are alfo conveyed, to, different; ‘places on the Loire. The coals alfo, of the mines;of,Montre-, Jais, fituated two or three,leagues to, the north of Varades,and, Ingrande,-are conveyed on the lower part of the Loire, .They are embarked in particular at the, latter, place.to be tranf- parted to the communes oa the banks of that river defvend-. ing to Nantes, where the confumption.is confiderable. ,., The coals annually extracted from thefe mines may be fafely eflimated at a million of myriagrammes. They are of a good quality. The-mean price on the {pot is 5 cents per »myria- gramme; when fent toa Nantes, the fame quantity ofits) 25) cents. ud In this department there are alfo peat-mofles, the produ& of which is abundant, and of great utility to the inhabitarts. The moft confiderable are found in the marfhes of Montoire, to the north of Nantes. More than eight thoufand indivi-: duals are employed in digging peat from thefe mofles. ' ; Department of Loire and Cher. There are no mines worked in this department. It receives coals by the Loire, which traverfes it; and might confume thofe alfo brought by the Cher from the mines fituated in the environs of Commentry and Montlucon,. in the depart- ment of Allier, if the navigation of the Cher were improved.: Department of Loiret. There are no coal mines. worked in this departments but; it is abundantly provided with coals’ by the navigation of the Seine. wh 30 Department of Lot. Abundant coal mines exift in the environs of Figeac, to- wards the eaft extremity of this department. They are badly worked by the proprietors of the ground; but they are fuf- ceptible of improvement, if means of confumption were opened for their produéts. . ant Z3 Department 342: A general View of the Department of Lot and Garonne. — No coal mines are worked in this department. Thofe ex- tracted from the mines of Carmeaux, in the department of, Tarn, are brought to it on the Garonne; and it receives by the Lot thofe oF the department of that name, which would be fupplied much cheaper if the Lot were rendered navigable towards Figeac and the department of Aveyron. Department of La Lozere. The difcovery of fome ftrata of coal in this country would be of great utility. Wood daily becomes fearcer; and the communication with the coal countries in the neighbouring departments is difficult and expenfive. Several indications of coal have been announced ; parti- cularly towards Canourgue, towards Mende, and in the neighbourhood of Meyrmey. Some fpecimens fent ‘to the ~ Council of Mines announce only foffil wood. Department of Lys. This department has no coal mines worked: It receives thofe of the departments of the North and of Jemappes, Department of La Manche. There are feveral indications of coal in this department ; and particularly in the Foreft of Briquebec, near Valonges ; in the commune of Pleffis, near Fretot; in that of Moon, and’ that of Semilly, in the difiri of Saint-Lé. Strata of coal have been found in the commune of Pleffi ; - but hitherto they are fo intermixed with ftrata of f{chift, that if worked they would not pay the expenfes. Department of La Marne. This department, as far as is yet known, has no coal mines. Colleétions of foffil wood, and of peat. exceedingly yritous, are frequently found under flrata of marly earth, Thefe fubftances have often’ been announced as coal, but they do not poffefs the qualities of that fuel, They kindle flowly, and become totally incandefcent; but’they give very little flame, and for the moft part none at all. This fub- ftance is called by the inhabitants earth coal, The Valley of La Vefle furnifhes abundance of peat of an excellent quality. This river, which takes its fource on the eaft of Chalons, paffes Rheims and Braine, and difcharges it- itfelf into the Aifne above Soiffons, traverfing an extent of eighteen leagues. It every where runs oyer a bed of peat, and we Te ee cf Coal Mines worked in Franse: " 343 and may afford great refources to the neighbouring com- munes if that fubftance were properly dug up. Department of La Haute Marne. There are no coal mines worked in this department.- Se- veral indications of coal have been announced, but hitherto the fpecimens have turned out to be bituminous foffil wood. This department is at a diftance from coal countries, and has on eafy communication with them; but it is abundant in wood, Department of La Mayenne. ° ~ This department is fupplied with coals by the Loire. Boats can go up the Mayenne as far as Laval; and the Sarthe as far as Mons, Department of Mayenne and Loire. ~ ‘There are feveral fmall coal pits worked in the canton (26) of Saint-Aubin-de-Luigné, in the territories of Chaudefond, Montjean, and feveral other places adjacent. They are worked very irregularly, and the product of them is not known. OY . The mine of Saint-George’s-Chateloifon, fituated between Vihiers and Doué, to the eait of the latter commune, is more important and worked in a more regular manner. The pro- duét amounts to about 300,000 myriagrammes per annum; but it might be rendered more confiderable. Department of La Meurtbe, A difcovery of coal has been announced in the neighbour- hood of Nancy; but the fpecimens fent were only bitumi- nous foffil wood. At prefent this department has no coal mines actually worked. Department of the Meufe. No coal mines are worked in this department (27). It can reccive coals from La Saare by the Mofelle, and the ca- nal which communicates with the Meufe between Toul and Pagny: and the coals of the department of Ourthe may be conveyed on the Meufe to its northern part. Department of La Meufe Inferieure. This department poffefles very important coal mines in the neighbourhood of Kolduc. The annual product of them amounts to more than 13,500,000 myriagrammes ; and they are far from being properly worked. The coals are of different qualities ; fome of them are very good. Their mean price at the mine varies from 5 to 14 cents Z4 per 3440 0.4. general View. of be.) ‘ne per, myriagramme. , There, is .alfo,, ge aa of; meat in the cantons of Heythny fen, and De. Weert... De Ddrimankof Mont-Blanc. «\ -‘Therérare fererhl coal ‘mines in this’ ‘country (28). °'Some are: worketl/in the territory ‘of the:communes of Entrevernes’ néar Annecy, Montmin, « Novalaife, “Servolexy and Petit-' Bernard. . “Indications of coal:have been announced alfo in the canton of Moutieérs, Crufeilles, Valloires, and -Cognin, The annual produét of the coal mines worked in this italy ment may be eftimated at'120,000:myriagrammes per an- num, Thefermines are fulceptible of improvement, but there isno.confumption.. The price of the coals at a mine rf, 5 cents per myriagramme., osDéepartment.of Mont-Tonneres * There are more than thirty coal mines known in this'de- partment (29)}. Several_of them have |been abandoned, confequénce of the war. ‘TVhe,cantons, moft, abundant are thofe of Lautereck, Wolfftein, | and Obermofchel. The product of thefe mines may be eftimated at about 425,000 tyriagrammes ; but if the confumption required, it-could be;inereafed.,, The quality of the coal varies. There is very little oft good ; but it is; generally ufed for heating ftoves.. ;Ehe price at the mines is 8. cents per myriagramme. Thefe coals are confumed merely by the wants of the coun- try. A confiderable quantity of them is employed for burn- ing lime, either for building or for manure. They are em- ployed alfor i in 'the fufing’ of mercury, of which there is very important! nvines: in! i this department; and for the purpofes of evaporation inthe falt-works of Kreutznach: "| Depar, tment of Morbiban. The Morbihan has no coals, It receives thofe, which are dug up on the banks of the Loire, or of the’ rivers united with ite. sine > oh ra ia Department of La Mofelle. Some coal mines, are, worked in this department (30) 1 in the environs of the. communes of Oftenbach and in the can- ton of Petelange. “The annual product of them may be efti- mated at 1d0;" "60 pry ridgrammes at léatt! The coal is ofa very’ g cood quality.’ at colts bn sie mine 9, cents per aiaee gramme. ¢ SIE LTS c Department af Ube Tw 0 Nether. : ; “ Phis, department t, has no. coal mines 3 but, it 4s ‘upple with Coal Mines worked in France. 345 with abundance of coal from the mines in the departments of Jemappes and of the North, by the canal of Bruflels and by the Scheldt. 5 eh: ’ Department of the North. Very important coal mines are worked at Anzin near Va- lenciennes, at’Frefnes, Raifmes, and Vieux-Condé. There is a very confiderable one alfo in the commune of Aniche. The different mines worked in this department furnifh at the leaft 30,000,000 of myriagrammes. They are of various: qualities. Some of them aré very good for forging iron 3 others are preferable for ftoves; and fome of an inferior qua~' lity are proper for burning lime. The price at thé mines -differs according to the quality. The mean price of good coal is from’12 to 15 cents per myriagramme. When de- livered at the ports of Oftend,’ Dunkirk, and Calais, it cofts from 25 to 28, and at Havre from 52 to 55. od ~ The means of confumption for thefe coals, and particu- larly for thofe near Condé and Saint- Amand, are very ex- tenfive towards the north, on account of the navigation of the Scheldt, and of the numerous canals which communicate with that river. So that the produéts of thefé mines might be conveyed at very little expenfe as far as Ghent, Bruges, Oftend, Termonde, and Antwerp.. They might alfo be cir- culated in Holland, and be exported by the ports of Oftend and Dunkirk, fo as to become as important an object of ma- ritime commerce as the Englith coals. \ Departmeut of La Niévre. Coal mines are worked in the canton of Decife (32), and are very produdctive. The annual produét is eftimated at 1,000,c0o of myriagrammes, but may be much increafed. The quality of thefe coals is in general fuch that they muft be {peedily employed after they are dug up, ‘as they lofe con- fiderably by long expofure to the air. The ptice at the mine is from 8 to ro cents per myriagramme $ and delivered at Paris from 10 to 13. They are conveyed on the Loire, the canal of Briare, the Seine, &c. {To be continued.] Pratt zm. LXII. Memoir { 346 } LXII., Memoir on. the Stones faid to have fallen from the Heavens. Read in the French National Inftitute by C. VauevuELIn*, V \ HILE all Europe refounded with the report of ftones fallen from the heavens, and while philofophers, divided in opinion on this fubject, were forming hypothefes to explain the origin of them, each according to his own manner, Mr, Edward Howard, an able Englifh chemift, was purfuing in filence the only route which could lead to a folution of the roblem. He collected fpecimens of {tones which had fallen at different times, procured as much information as poffible refpeéting them, compared the phyfical or exterior charac- ters of thefe bodies; and even did more, in fubjecting them to chemical analyfis by means as ingenious as exact. It refults from his refearches, that the ftones which fell in England, in Italy, in Germany, in the Eaft Indies, and in other places, have all fuch a perfe&t refemblance that it is almoft impoffible to diftinguifh them from each other; and what renders the fimilitude more perfeét and more ftriking is, that they are compofed of the (a principles and nearly in the fame proportions. Before the Jaft refults of the labour of Mr. Howard were known in France, I had employed myfelf on the fame ob- ject; and I have the fatisfaction to find in his memoir, which has been fince printed, that they perfectly agree with thofe which I had olbtamed. I fhould have abftained from any public notice of an obje& which has been treated of in fo able a manner by the Englith chemift, if he himfelf had not induced me to-do fo durin his refidence at Paris; had not. the ftones which I analyfed been from another country; and had not the intereft excited by the fubje&t rendered this repetition excufable. It is therefore to gratify Mr. Howard, to give, if poffible, more weight to his experiments, and to enable philofophers to place full confidence in them, rather than to offer any thing new, that I publifh this memoir. One of the ftones which I examined was tranfmitted to me by C. Saint- Amans: it fel] at Créon, in the parifh of Juliac, on the 24th of July 1790, about nine in the evening. This ftone ap- peared in the air under the form of a fire-ball, which was vifible in almoft the whole of the fouth of France. A very ® Froin the Journal des Mines, No. 76, correct >a . . a Stones faid to have fallen from the Heavens. 347 correét account was given of it at that time in the abbée Ber- -tholon’s Journal d’ Hiftoire Naturelle; together with the pro- ces-verbal of the municipality of the place, which confirmed the fall of this ftone. Another ftone was given tome by M. Darcet junior: it fell at Barbotan, near Roquefort, in the month of July 1789. The brother of the late Darcet, curé in the neighbourhood, fent it to him, with the proces-verbal drawp up refpecting this extraordinary phenomenon. C. Lomet, whois known ‘to feveral members of the Inftitute, was at Agen on the day when this kind of meteor appeared in the atmofphere, The following is the account which he gave me of it; << It appeared as a very bright fire-ball, the light of which was as pure as that of the fun; it had the fize of a common air-balloon, and was long enough vifible to throw the inha- bitants of the country into the greateft confternation ; after which it burft, and difappeared. A few days after, fome pea- fants brought ftones, which they faid were the refult of the fall of the meteor: but at that/period they were laughed at. What they faid was confidered as fables ; and thofe to whom the ftones were offered, would not accept of them. The pea- fants would have now more reafon to laugh at philofophers.” The third kind of thefe ftones is that brought from. Be- nares in the Eat Indies, which fell on the 19th of Decem- ber 1798, exhibiting the very fame phenomena as were ob- ferved under fimilar cireumftances in other countries. It was given to me by C. De Drée and by C. Saint-Amans, phiebicnght it from England. _ All thefe ftones have a fimilar appearance, and one might readily believe that they had been detached from the fame mafs. Their furface is blackith, fmooth, and, as it were, yarnifhed by a commencementiof fufion. The infide is of a whitith gray colour marked with a greater or lefs namber of brown fpots, or fpots of a darker gray colour than the reft of the mafs. ‘Thofe, however, found at Benares, and in York- fhire, are whiter im the interior part than thole found in France.’ There are obferved in them white pyrites, the frac- ture of which is very much lamellated; globules of metallic and duétile iron, fome of which weigh 46 Englifh grains ; but this iron has a whiter colour, and a greater degree of hardnefs, than common iron, The caufe of this ditlerence will be feen hereafter. I withed to have been able to fubjeé& to a feparate anaylfis each of the conftituent principles of thefe flones fenfible to the eye: but they are fo intimately mixed, that it was im- -poflible to feparate them exactly. By patience, ak was 348 Memoir on the Stones faidsto Twas able to obtain? arfufficient quantity of the globules of jron and of pyrites to afcertaim the nature of them. St . A. ‘A bundred parts; of the ftones of Benares, pulverized’ in a mortar of hard flone, and fifted through a*fine filk fieve to feparate the coarfeft particles: of the iron’ which cannot be pulverized, were: treated with dilute nitric acid. During this operation there was difengaged a large quantity of nitrous gas; the acid affumedsdvyellowith green colour; the ftony . powder became ‘whitith, and, dividing itfelf, imcreafed con-! fiderably inrvolume, fo that) itutefembled : gelatinous filex.’ Sulphureous panticles' were. obferved floating at the furface of the liquor. <>) Wi | 1 B: Whemthe action ofithe nitric. acid ceafed, water was added to the mixture; ithe hiqnonv being filtered, the undif~ folved matter was wathed, and-afterdeficcation in the open air it weighed no. more than 64 parts. C. As the matter treated in this manner was {till flightly’ coloured, it was boiled!with muriatic acid, which, as is well known, unites more ‘eafily with: oxidated iron: it affumed’ alfo.a-greenith yellow colour,and the powder became much whiter.’ After this. fecond operation the ftone, when wathed and ealcined in a platina:crucible, weighed only 47 parts. D.. The nitric and muriatic: acids which had been ficcef- fively poured over the ftoné as above mentioned were mixed together and then:precipitated by ammonia, of which an ex- cefs was added. | Being heated for: fome time, the liquor was. filtered, and the precipitate was wafhed and calcined: it had a brown colour, and weighed 38 parts. E. The ammoniacal liquor had a flight blue colour in- clining to violet.. Alkaline carbonates produced in it no pre- cipitate; on the other hand, cauftie alkalies formed a white precipitate very abundant, but the liquor loft none of its vio- let colour.. This precipitate, when wafhed and dried in the air, had.a greenith fhade, and weighed 18 parts ;. calcination reduced it to 13. This ‘matter readily combined with ful- phurie acid, and the refult was a folution, which by fponta- neons evaporation produced prifmatic cryftals refembling in tafle and favour thofe of the fulphate of magnefia. It how- ever hada flight greenifh:colour, and at the end of fome mi- nutes produced in the mouth a metallic favour. To know whether the colour and) favour of the fulphate of magnefia arofe from fome metallic fubftances it was diflolved in water, and hydrofalphuret of ammonia bemg poured over it, a pretty voluminous black precipitate was) produced, After wafhing and deficcation, however, it weighed only two parts. We fhall return, hereafter toi this matter, Log : F., The have fallen from the Heavens. 349 + FP. The ammoniacal liquor, from which the magnefia had been feparated by means of cauftie potath, was-mixed with a folution of fulphurated hydrogen. By this mixture there was formed a very voluminous black precipitate, which when wafhed and dried weighed feven parts... This part being united with the three parts obtained alfo by fulphate of magnefia, and kept at a red heat for fome minutes, exhaled the odour of fulphureous acid, and acquired a very dark green colour inclining to brown: the whole then weighed fearcely three parts. 5 A fmall quantity of this matter fufed: with borax gave glafs of a hyacinth colour; put into fulphuric acid diluted. with water, it diffolved only in part, and a» {mall quantity which had a metallic appearance refufed to combine with it; but the addition of a few drops of nitric acid, by -oxidating it, favoured its folution : by fpontaneous evaporation it furnifhed elongated cryftals of a very beautiful green colour. ) By the properties which: this matter exhibited it is evident that it was nothing elfe but oxide of nickeb; forit is the only one among the! metals which poffeffés the property of colouring borax of a hyacinth red colour by fufion, of giving to ammonia a purplidi: blue colour, of forming with fulphuric¢ acid a prifmatic falt ofa. green colour, and of producing by its combination with acids and,ammonia triple falts which are not precipitated by fixedvalkalies., |. heel An examination of ;the principles {ucceffively obtained by the different means employed, for analyfing:the ftone of Be- nares, proves that it is compofed of filex, magnefia, and iron, a part of which-appears: to be,oxidated, mickel and fulpbur. Iron, nickel, and fulphur; according! ta every appearance, form a particular triple combination, which feems only to. be interpoled between, the éarthy,.parts.. Pam, however, in- clined to believe, that'one part at Jeaft of thefe fubftances is really in combination with; the earths; for at the moment when the ftone is attacked by»the acids, the filex thows itfelf in a fiate of very great divifion, and like ai kind of jelly. The proportions in, which’ thefe matters are found in the fone of Benares are nearly as follows : iit Silex; |= i blo myfiods Oxidated iron - fir 38 iw Magnefia - - 13 ; Nickel - - era Sulphur an indeterminate quantity 103 If 350 Memoir on the Stones faid to If we might fuppofe that the iron contained in this ftone exifts in the perfect metallic ftate, we might eafily find, by the increafe of weight which it acquires in confequence of oxygenation, the proportion of fulphur; but as it is certain, that this metal is oxidated in it in an unknown quantity, that of the fulphur cannot be determined. A hundred parts of this ftone, freed as far as could poffibly be done from ferruginous matters, were treated with muri- atic acid diluted with a little water. The mixture produced immediately, with a ftrong effervefcence, a gas which had the odour of fulphurated hydrogen gas. The matter affumed the form of a gelatinous mafs, which feems to prove, as al- ready faid, that the filex exifts.in this ftone in a {tate of com- bination either with iron or with other fubftances. When the effervefcence had fubfided, and the mixture had boiled for fome time, it was diluted with water and filtered. The liquor .had a green colour analogous to that of muriate of iron, but a little darker. The refiduum when wafhed was white, and weighed 49 parts. The muriatic folution and wafhings being united together were precipitated by ammonia added in excefs, and were ftirred for {ome time with the precipitate. It has been remarked, that oxidated iron, precipitated in this manner by ammonia, has a more intenfe colour than that of iron obtained under the fame circumftances. This iron, wafhed and dried, weighed 42 parts. The liquor containing the fuperabundant ammonia in thé precipitation of the iron had acquired a violet colour, which neither the heat nor the contaé& of the air made it lofe. Al- kaline carbonates produced in it no alteration ; on the other hand, fixed cauftic akalies formed in it a white precipitate pretty abundant, which when wafhed and calcined weighed twelve parts. This matter combined with fulphurie acid gave fulphate of magnefia, coloured green by a {mall quan tity of nickel which the magnefia had carried down with it. The liquor from which this earth had been feparated by potafh had lotta part of its violet colour; it, however, ftill formed a black precipitate with fulphurated hydrogen. From what I bad before obferved, -I entertained no doubt that the fubftance which coloured the magnefia green, and was pre- cipitated black by hodro-fulphuret of ammonia, was nickel. I therefore feparated, by means of this reagent, the portion which remained in folution and that which was mixed with the fulphate of magnefia: I united them, and having cal- cined them to feparate the fulphur, I obtained a green oxide, which weighed three parts and a half. if he i have fallen from the Heavens. 351 The method employed to feparate the iron and the mag- nefia is founded on this circumftance, that a folution of that | earth containing an excels of acid is not precipitated by am- monia, becaufe there is formed a triple falt, which cannot be decompofed by a fuperabundance of that alkali; but the acid muft be in fuch quantity that the falt refulting from its com- bination with the ammonia may be able to faturate the falt of magnefia exifting in the liquor. Care was taken to obferve this. Alkaline carbonates produce no precipitation of the fub- ftances which enter into combination with the triple falt here mentioned, though it muft, however, be decompofed; but there is formed another kind, compofed of magnefia, car- bonic acid, and ammonia, which remains in folution. But one thing I did not forefee was the fimultaneous precipita~ tion of a portion of nickel and magnefia by the cauftic pot- afh; for, as Mr. Howard remarked, this metal is found there in complex combination, the oxide of which ought to be diffolved by the ammonia in proportion as it becomes free : the precipitation of this metal muft be produced by its affi- nity for magnefia, at leaft this is what appears moft probable. After thefe two analyfes of the ftone of Benares, and the conformity of the refults which they furnifhed, though ef- fected by methods fomewhat different, there can be no doubt that it is really compofed of iron, filex, magnefia, nickel, and fulphur, as Mr. Howard announced. Having therefore confirmed by thefe two means, and by others, which it is needlefs to mention, the refults given by the Englith chemift in regard to the compofition of the ftone of Benares, I fubjeéted to fimilar experiments two other kinds of ftone which fell in France, in order to afcertain whether they would furnifh the fame principles of analyfis as their external characters feemed to announce. To avoid a repetition of the details already given of the analytical methods employed, I fhall only obferve, that the ' ftones which fell at Barbotan and Juliac, treated with ful- — phuric, nitric, muriatic, &c. acids, exhibited in the feries of operations to which they were fubjeéted, and by the nature of the elements which they furnifhed, the moft perfect fimi- larity to the preceding. It may therefore be confidered as fully proved, that the ftones faid to have fallen from the clouds in different countries are compofed of principles per- feétly fimilar, and confequently that we mult have recourfe to a common caufe to explain their formation, and to fup- pofe alfo.a common fource from which nature derived the elements of them, I muft, however, acknowledge, that the {pecimens , 352 Memoir on the Stones faid to fpecimens of the ftones: which’ have fallen in France are a little more charged with iron than thofe of other countries but as this metal exifts'in them, for the moft part, in diftiné globules which cannot be pulverized, they could have no in- fluence on the refults of the analyfis, as the earthy part was fifted through a fine fieve. ) . All the {tones which have fallen to the earth, and particu- larly in France, contain,’ as I have already mentioned feveral times, globules of iron in a metallic ftate more or lefsdi= flinét, fome of which weigh from forty-to fixty Englifh grains. It appeared to me of importance to fubjeét this iron to fome analytical trials in order to afcertain the nature of their con= Rituent principles ; but before I give the refults it may be of utility that I fhould firft. give an. account of their phyfical characters. Thefe globules are much whiter than common iron; their colour approaches that of tin; their hardnefs is alfo greater, and confequently they are more difficult to be forged. This metal diffolves eafily, and with effervefcence, in all thofe acids which diffolve common iron; but inftead of giving pure hydrogen gas, it furnifhes hydrogen gas very fenfibly ful- phurated. A part only of this hydrogen. gas, indeed, is combined with the fulphur; for, having made it to pafs through water and cauttic alkalies, the greater part of this fluid was not diffolved; and after having made the different liquids here mentioned to pafs in the fame manner, no fen- fible figns of fulphur were given by reagents; but the water and the alkalies were manifeftly hydro-fulphurated, fince they then precipitated black the’ greater part of metallic folutions, and particularly lead. “This fulphurated hydrogen gas exhi- bited.to me a phenomenon which, as far as I know, has ‘never been before obferved in its) combination with water—+ I mean a very fpeedy decompofition which it experienced in ‘a flatk perfectly clofed in which it had been preferved for fome days. At the end of that time there were at the bot-_ tom of the water a great many fmall white lamine, andithe water had no odour: it-no Jonger precipitated folutions of Jead.: ‘This gas then had experienced complete decompofi- tion. 139 i The folution of this iron-in muriatic acid was precipitated by ammonia, of which a {uperabundance was added. The liquor when filtered had a colour inclining to purple; the oxide of iron, when wafhed and calcined; was of a brown colour, and had fenfibly increafed in weight. The ammo- niacal liquor when fubjeéted to evaporation depofited flight traces of iron, but as long: as there was ammonia in’ excefs at have fallen from the Heavens. 353 it retained its blue colour, which, as foon as this free alkali was evaporated, was changed to a meadow green. The li- quor conftantly preferved this colour, which {till acquired reater intenfity until complete evaporation, and without orming any depofit, which proves that nickel exifted in the combination in the ftate of a triple falt. Fixed cauftic alkalies occafion no precipitation in this li- quor;. but they make it refume its blue colour by decom- pofing the muriate of ammonia and laying bare its, bafe, which then rediffolves the nickel. The hydro-fulphurets formed in it an abundant black de- posit; and this was the method employed for obtaining the nickel feparate. The hydro-fulphuret of this metal, calcined in a platina crucible, left a powder of a dark meadow-green colour, which had all the properties of oxide of nickel. The iron contained in the ftones which have fallen from the heavens is therefore combined with fulphur and nickel ; whence it appears very probable that thefe two fubftances, which always prefent themfelves in a quantity more or lefs confiderable in the analyfis of the whole ftones, arife from a fimilar combination, which it is impoffible, whatever care may be taken, to feparate exactly from the earthy parts. The prefence of nickel and of fulphur in this iron explains why it is whiter, harder, and lefs ductile than common iron. Though I did not afcertain very exactly the quantities of thefe fubftances in the iron, I think I may affert that they do not amount to more than five or fix percent. In regard to the pyrites diffleminated here and there throughout thefe ftones, it is formed, as Mr. Howard fays, of iron, fulphur, and a {mall quantity of nickel; but I was not able to afcertain in what proportions thefe three fubftances are united, becaufe I oy not a fufficient quantity to fubjeét them to an exact ana- fis. : It appears to refult from all the information obtained, and from teflimonies worthy of credit, 1ft, That maffes, fome- times of confiderable fize, have fallen to the furface of the earth: 2d, That thefe maffes penetrated with fire move in the atmofphere like inflamed balls, which throw light and heat, and to a great diftance: 3d, That they feem to have received a motion parallel to the horizon, though they really defcribe acurye: 4th, That they fall in a ftate of foftnefs or fufion like pafte, as is attefted by their varnifhed furface, and the impreffions formed on them by the bodies which they meet with: 5th, That fome of them have fallen in England, Ger- many, Italy, France, and the Eaft Indies: 6th, That all Vot. XV, No, 60, Aa thefe 354 Conjeétures on the Stones which thefe ftones have a refemblance to each, other by their phy- . fical characters and their chemicahcompofition. © What are the caufes which can produce {tones of this kind, and communicate to them fo rapid and fo fingular a motion ? How comes it they are always penetrated with fire? Thefe. are queftions for which at prefent it would be difficult to af- fign plaufible reafons. dese But whatever thefe caufes may be, if multiple they muft be of the fame nature, fince all the ftones which have fallen in countries fo different have in every refpect a refemblance to each other. Do they owe their origin to volcanoes? But where are thefe volcanoes? We are not yet acquainted with them ; and ftones fimilar to thofe in queltion have never been found among the productions of any of the known volcanoes. Is the atmofphere the medium in which they are formed? But how can we conceive that fubftances fo heavy as earths and metals could exift in fufficient quantity, and remain Jong enough fufpended #n a fluid fo Thoht as air? If we fuppofe that thefe bodies exifted in the atmofphere, whence did they originally come, and what means were fo powerful as to unite them, and to form of them maffes fa heavy and fo vo- luminous? The opinion which makes them come from the moon, however extraordinary it may appear, is, perhaps, the leaft improbable; and if it be true, that no direét proofs can be given of this opinion, it is equally certain that no well- founded reafoning can be oppofed to it. The moft pradent courfe to be purfued in this flate of things is freely to acknowledge, that we are, entirely unac- quainted with the origin of thefe ftones, and of the caufes which produced them. © LXIIT. Comnjeétures on the Stones which have fallen from the Atmo/phere. By Eusepius SALVERTE*. Tue antients mever entertained any doubt in revard to what they obferved. As the natural fciences among them were only collections of faéts, no theory compelled them to contradiét their obfervations. We accufe them of often having feen without examining; but though we examine better ourfelves, we are often obliged to abjure our feepti- cifm, and at length to fee what the antients faw before us, . > * From the Annales de Chimie, No. 133: 104 Among ee have fallen from the Atmofphere. 355 Among the phenomena to which this reflection may be applied, there is none more remarkable than the fall of ftones, produced, according to the antients, by thunder. This is what they called thunder-bolts, an expreffion long ago ba- nifhed to the domains of poetry, and which it would appear ought to acquire a place in the language of philofophy, The antient hiftorians all make frequent mention of the production of thefe ftones. No doubt was entertained re- fpe&ting them in the middle ages; but the difficulty of ac- counting for them induced us not only to fufpend our belief until called forth by more regular obfervation, which was very prudent, but alfo, which was lefs reafonable, to carry with us in this refearch a predetermination to fee nothing, or to deny what we had feen. . Notwithftanding this difpofition, inftances have been fo multiplied before our eyes, and in fo uniform a manner, that it becomes difficult not to admit the general fa&t, whatever opinion may be adopted ‘in regard to the. caufe. Stones ab- ‘folutely foreign to the foil where they were found, and all having the greateft refemblance to each other, have been collected, in Portugal in 1796, in Alface in » in York- fhire in 1796, at Sienna in 1794, at Benares in 1798, in Bohemia in 1753, near Paris in 1768. Several have been found fill warm; and uniform tradition ftates, that they were feen to fall from the atmofphere in the time of light- ning, and particularly during the burfting of laminous me- teors, the production of which often accompanies ftorms, The papers of Mr. Howard and of Count Bournon contain very fatisfaCtory details in regard to every thing obferved in regard to the mature and fall of thefe ftones. The Journal de Phyfigue, Brumaire, an xi, contains a memoir of C, Putrin, who, denying the celeftial origin of thefe ftones, fuppofes that they have only been uncovered and forced from the earth by the contact of thunder. But before this hypothefis can be eftablifhed, would it not be ne- eeffary that in the places where thefe ftones have been found, and in others, fimilar ones fhould have been previoufly dif- covered at the depth of a foot, or of fome inches below the furface? For why fhould they fhow themfelves at the furface of the earth only after thunder? Why fhould they conftanuy efcape the plough and the {pade of the farmer, the pick-axe of the ditcher, aud the refearches of the mineralogilt ? To admit that thefe ftenes have been thrown up into the atmofphere by volcanoes, feems to be attended with the fame difficulty; for all thofe analyfed by Vanquelin contain a large proportion of iron and nickel, in the native ftate, mixed with Aaz magnefia, 356 Conjectures on the Stones which magnefia.. But nothing is more rare in the volcanic pro- ductions, with which we are acquainted, than magnefia, if we except iron allayed with the nickel in the native ftate., Be- fidés thefe ftones have been colleéted at fuch a diftance from all volcanoes, that the power which could fo long fupport and convey through the air fuch enormous mafles, would be ftill more inexplicable than their fpontaneous produc- tion. Chemifts have proved, 1ft, That thefe ftones, colle@ed in ‘places and at times diftant from each other, have a refem- blance in regard to the fubftances of which they are com- pofed, and differ only by the proportions of their elements + ad, That they differ from all the other mineralogical com- pounds found at the furface of the globe. It is natural, therefore, to affign to them all an origin of the fame kind, and very different from that by which the minerals hitherto obferved have been produced, Struck with thefe fingular characters, C. Delaplace and Biot mentioned, during the difcuffion which took place in the National Inftitute m confequence of Vauquelin’s analy- fis, a very bold opinion, but which is rendered probable by the celebrity and character of its authors. According to them, thefe flones may be the product of a volcanic eruption in the moon. Comparing the mafs and denfity of the moon with that of the earth, and calculating the diftance between our planet and its fatellite, they have eftablithed that a vol- canic eruption might project a body to fuch a diftance from the moon as to be within the fphere of the earth’s attra€tion. It is befides proved, by aftronomical obfervation, that the at- mofphere of the moon is exceedingly rare, and confequently could oppofe very little refiftance to the elevation of ftones projected from the moon, To this may be added, that as the moon has fcarcely any atmofphere, this circumftance may ferve to explain why the metals contained in thefe ftones are not in the ftate of oxide. ; But the fame obfervation which has difcoyered volcanoes in the moon, thews them in a fiate of luminous ignition, and hitherto luminous ignition has never been known to take place without oxygen. All the gafes abforb caloric, and on becoming concrete, fuffer it to efeape. Oxygen alone poilefies the property of abforbing light, and of emitting: it when it combines with bodies during combuilion. It thence follows, 1ft, That metallic fubflances projeéted from the moon ought to be oxidated, at Jeaft in great part ; ad,,That the obfervations which prove the great. tenuity or little ex- tent of the atmofphere of the moon, ought.to induce us_to believe have fallen from the Atmofpbere. 357 believe that the volcanoes which burn at its furface are in a ftate of tranquil inflammation, maintained by a very thin firatuzn of atmofpheric air, very different from that of our volcanoes in a ftate of eruption ; and, confequently, that they cannot be endowed with a very ftrone projectile force : for on the earth this force is produced by the expanfibility of gas compreffed by the weight of the atmofphere. But gales difengaged from the lunar volcanoes ought to expand with- out any obftacle, and without any explofion where there is fearcely any atmofphere. Befides, the exiflence of thefe afes is doubtful, fince their produétion would foon have formed around the moon, an atmofphere of greater denfity and extent, which is contrary to obfervation. This explana- tion therefore muft be abandoned, or we fhould be forced to admit a feries of phenomena, not only foreign but contrary to what we daily obferve: a folution more fimple, and de- duced from facts, which daily take place before our eyes, will perhaps appear more proper for folving the problem, It is well: known that there are no metals which may not be volatilized by heat: it is known alfo that hydrogen gas exercifes its diffolving power on charcoal, iron, and the moft fixed fubftances. If we fuppofe that, during the burning procefs of volcanoes, or the lefs perceptible but more affi- duous procefs of the decompofition of organic bodies, iron and. nickel are fublimated by heat and elevated with the hydrogen gas which diffolves them, this gafeous folution will foon reach the upper regions of the atmofphere. There, as I have fhown, with fome degree of probability, in my Conjectures on the Diminution of the Waters, &&c. exits, and is continually renewed, a ftratum of hydrogen produced by the continual decompofition of the water, and which eaufes the greater part of the phenomena that accompany thunder and the aurora borealis. During ftorms, that is to fay, when the equilibrium is reflored with an explofion be- tween the electricity of the carth and that of the atmofphere, what muft take place? The hydrogen inflames and exhibits - fome of thofe luminous meteors, the exiftence of which, ac- cording to conftant tradition, ought, as appears, to precede the formation of ftones. The gas in burning abandons the metal it has diffolved, and reduces that which was in the fiate of oxide. The ftrong heat produced at this moment fuzes the metal, and molecular attraction colleéts it into miafles of greater or lefs fize, which, when they fall to the earth, retain for fome time a portion of the caloric developed uring their formation. The furface only, which, by tra- verfing the atmofphere in a ftate of ignition, may have ab- Aa3 forbed 358 Stones which have fallen from the Atmofphere. forbed oxygen, is flightly oxidated : the interior part is metal in a native ftate. C. Patrin obferves, in fupport of his hypothefis, that the difcharge of an eleétric battery, on a fragment of the ftones found at Benares, produced on it a black trace fimilar to the black vitrified cruft with which they were covered. This fa& indicates what takes place in the atmofphere, where thefe ftones are formed amidit a very powerful electricity, which produces the vitrification and oxidation of their furface. The fame author fays, with Mr. Howard, that, fince no doubt is now entertained of thunder and the eleétric fluid being the fame thing, the idea of a thunder flone is become ridiculous. Nothing could be more true, if thunder were never any thing more than an eleétric explofion: but the French chemifts, and particularly Fourcroy, have eftabhifhed that hydrogen acts a confiderable part in the phenomena by which thunder is accompanied. I am even of opinion that its exiftence ought to be oftener employed in explaining the varieties which continually render the general pheno- menon complex. The moft remarkable and moft common are perhaps thofe luminous meteors, the afpeét of which is always brilliant and often alarming, and which uniform tradition, at periods and in places very diftant from each other, affign ay the caufe of the (tones which have fallen from the heavens: whether they feem to be confounded with the ftars, and exhibit to the vulgar eye ftars thrown from their ufual courfe, or whether they accompany thunder, and increafe or modify the aétion of its devouring flames, or whether, under the form of fire balls, they rapidly traverfe the atmofphere, and approach near enough to us to make us experience a heat proportioned to the vivacity of their light, they muft be confidered as the effect of the inflammation of bydrogen gas, either pure or charged with fubflances in folution, which modify their appearance and produdts. On thefe principles we may point out the fuppofed caufes of the difference which exifts between ftones that have fallen from the at- mofphere at different periods. A very violent fhock of elec- tricitv, or great heat, have produced thofe which are moft vitrified: thofe lefs fo have been formed by a weaker degree of eleétricity, and perhaps by fpontaneous inflammation. Thofe which contain the large(t quantity of metal in the native flate, are the product of a greater proportion of hy- drogen gas. It may be readily conceived, that when the hydrogen gas has been previoufly combined with a tat eal ae Decompofition of the Acetite of Lead, Sec. 359 deal of oxygen, the inflammation muft be inftantaneous, and the produéts very much oxidated, while the ftrata of hydrogen, almoft pure, burning only at the furface, form durable meteors, the continued inflammation of which gives rife to vety different compounds, It will perhaps be afked, how the other fubftances, fuch _ as filex and magnefia, are found in thefe ftones combined with the metals? I might, in anfwer, mention the height to which earths reduced to an impalpable powder are vo- latilized by voleanoes, fo as to, be carried away by the winds. I might obferve, alfo, that magnefia, foluble in the hydro- fulphurets, is foluble alfo, in all probability, m fulphurated hydrogen. But, as J have nothing as yet except conjectures to offer on this fubjeét, I muft here ftop. I, however, flatter myfelf that I have done fome fervice, by fhewing that a phz- nomenon, obfervations of which had been rejected becaufe thought impoflible, has received, at leaft in part, a plaufible and natural explanation perfeétly rational; and that, when placed beyond a doubt, it wnll be arranged among thofe feries of facts of which fcience is compofed. . That I might not render the hypothefis complex, I have faid nothing of the different gafes, fuch as fulphurated hy- drogen, carbonated hydrogen, and carbonous oxide, which mutt be continually conveyed into the regions of the atmo- {phere by the decompotition of bodies. The exiftence of the firft of thefe gafes explains, however, the pyritous ftate of the iron, and the prefence of fulphur in fome one of its parts. ; LXIV. Odbfervations on the Decompojfition of the Acetite of Lead, by Zinc in the metallic State. Read in the So- ciety of Pharmacy by L, ANTHONY PLANCHE®*, t Iw confulting the different authors who have treated on the hiftory of metals, ‘and their chemical action on different bodies, we cannot help confidering zine as exceedingly va- luable, both on aceount of its utility m the arts, and the ef- fential fervices which it daily renders to chemiftry. C. Foureroy, who in his Syfleme des Cunnorffances Chi- miyues, has colle&ted the moft numerous and beft attefted faéts of this feience, has deferibed all its properties with that eledrnefs and méthod which are peculiar to him. * Brom the Yourval de Chimie, No. 133. Aa4 It 360 . Decompofition of the Acetite of Lead, . It is therefore not fo much a new fact that I here prefent as a development of one already known, which, as it forms part of a general theory, deferves to be particularly noticed as one of the curious phenomenain chemiftry. , But to pro- ceed in order, I think it neceffary to refer to the work of that celebrated cheniif? already mentioned, where it is faid, in the fixth fetion on metals, under the head Zinc, that ‘© Zine, by its ftrong attraction for oxygen, decompofes the greater number of falts and of metallic folutionss and that it precipitates from them the metals under the metallic form by completely unburning them, or under that of oxides lefs oxidated than they were before.” This definition is no doubt juft, and feems to be perfectly. complete. It is fulceptible, however, of the greateft deve- lopment; and particularly in regard to the different. pheno- mena exhibited bv zinc in contact with acetite of Jead. It is the union of thefe phenomena which forms the principal fubjeét of the prefent obfervation, or rather the refult of the ingenious experiment of Dr. lack, which was communi- cated to me a few years ago, and to which I have made fome additions. tg - Dr. Black put into a glafs jar, containing about four and a half pints, twelve or fifteen decagrammes of cryftallized ace- tite of lead. The jar was filled with water, and the mixture being ftirred, it was left at reft for fifteen or twenty minutes, or until the greater part of the fuperabundant falt, after the faturation of the liquor, was fpontaneoufly precipitated. A piece of zinc of an indeterminate weight was then fufpended in the {lightly turbid liquor by means of a hemp or filk thread fixed to the cover of the jar, and the veffel was depo- fited in a place where it was not expofed to be fhaken. At the end of from twenty to twenty-five days decompofition was completely effected ; the zinc, fufpended in the middle of the liquor, become diaphonous, was covered by a kind of very briihant metallic vegetation, which was often continued to the bottom of the veffel, and which Dr. Black called the . tree of Saturn. Having had occafion to repeat, this experiment a great number of times, it conducted me to feveral obfervations, in confequence of which I refolved to make fome changes in it, which, as they do not alter in any manner the chemical na- ture of the operation, contribute in a fingular manner to the beauty of the refult. Thefe changes chiefly relate to the hemp and filk threads, which, being eafily A ieaes by re- maining in the liquor, muft neceffarily fuffer the zinc to fall, and along with it the new metal which covers them. [ 5 ai therefore by Zinc in the metallic State. 361 therefore fubftituted for thefe threads a piece of brafs wire which appeared to me to unite all the neceffary conditions,’ both on account of its ftrength, and the property it has as containing. zinc to exercife its attraction on the acetite of lead. A fecond inconvenience arifes in ftriétly following the procefs above deferibed. It often happens, when the fize of the piece of zinc is too large, or when the veffel is not ex- actly of the proper form, that the decompofition takes place with great rapidity ; each molecula of the new metal proceeds immediately to the zinc, adheres to it in a confufed manner, and at the end of two or three days, and fometimes of twenty- four hours, the cryftallized portion fuddenly detaches itfelf and is precipitated to the bottom of the veflel to give place to a new cryftallization. The procefs is then divided into fe- veral periods, which appears to be a matter of indifference in a chemical point of view, but greatly leflens the intereft ex- cited by this curious experiment. I obviated this inconvenience by fixing, in a perpendicular direction, to the lower part of the piece of zinc, the fame brafs wires twifted into a fpiral form, and difpofed in fuch a manner as to be about three centimetres diftant from the bottom of the veffel, By adopting this modification, as each molecula of the zinc formed a portion of the brafs, the furface of which was in contaét with the faturation, it became covered with a ee number of fmall, brilliant, metallic laminz, difpofed at rft alternately and horizontally, and then croffing each other in every. direction *. When it is required that the brafs, though covered with metal, fhould retain the forms it has firft acquired, it will be proper to diminifh the quantity of the acetite of lead. About fix months ago, I repeated this experiment with common and with diftilled water, in order that I might exa- mine the produéts. The refult of this examination is as fol- lows : 6 Having fele&ted two glafs jars of equal capacity, I intro- duced into each four decagrammes of very pure cryftallized acetite of lead. ' The two veffels having been marked No.I. and II., ¥ "poured into the firft 54 decagrammes of common water, and as much diftilled water into the fecond. Thefe quantities * The configuration of thefe lamin is fubje& to an infinite variety, which feems to depend, 1ft, On the form and different dimenfions Of the veffel in which the experiment is performed: 2d, And perhaps alfo on regular quantities of the zinc and acetite of lead employed. I have feen the lamina fometimes circular, fometimes hexagona!, and fometimes alfo affeéting the figure of a leaf of fern or of oak, were 36% Decompofition of the Acetite of Lead, were fufficiént to fill each jar to the commencement of the neck, the height of which was about three centimetres. I then fixed to two pieces of cork deftined to clofe the mouths éf the jars a bit of zine weighing 22°9456 grammes (fix gros) by means of a piece of brafs wire exceedingly fine, but of fuch a length as to allow the metal to be immerfed only fome millimetres in the folution. I then adjufted, and luted to the aperture of each veffel, a bent tube, which proceeded under the receiver of a pneu matic tub, Thefe two experiments, begun on the 29th of Thermidor, year gy the centigrade thermometer being at 14° above zero, exhibited the following phenomena. , Six hours after the apparatus was arranged, the jar No. T. was full fomewhat turbid, while that of No. IT. was tranf- parent, and the whole fuperabundant falt, after the faturation of the. liquor, was entirely precipitated. At this period the zine in the fecond jar was covered with fmal] metallic feales, which could not be perceived in the frit. Next day both liquors were perfectly tranfparent, and the decompofition, feemed to have made equal progrefs im both veffels. I only remarked, that the interior fides of the jar Wo. I. were lined with a whitifh faline ftratum, which ex- tended from the middle of the vetfel to the bottom. The fmall feales adhering to the fides and bottom of the piece of zine, by increafing in volume, had affumed the form of a leaf of fern in the jar No. I., and was exceedingly delicate im No. Hf. I obferved alfo at the upper furface of the bit of zine a kind: of metallic mofs*, having that livid: afpe& which charac- terizes plates of lead expoled for fome time to the contaét of the air. The faline ftratum of No. T. datly decreafed to the eighth, when it entirely difappeated._ In the courfe of thefe two experiments theré was difengaged a very fmall portion of elaftic fluid, which when examined was found to be atmo~ fpheric air. The quantity of this air appeared to be more confiderable in the apparatus marked No. I.; and this ap- peared to me to arife from the common water employed, which always contains more or lefs of it. The remainder of the operation exhibited nothing remarkable but an increafe in the volume of the reduced metal until the period of the * This metallic mofs ja a tree of Saturn, prepared a year before, was found to be covered by a very fine red powder, which occupied both the farface of the zinc and that of a portion of the undecoimpofed acetite of lead which covered the horizontal bottom of the glafs vetlel. 1 confider this red powder as produced by carburet of iron, from which zinc is never free, and which during the operation has been carried to the ftate of car- bonate. decompe~ a by Zine in the metallic State. 363 decompofition, which took place in the experiment with di- ftilled water on the 16th of Fruidor, year 9, and in that with common water on the 24th of the fame month. During the whole time the temperature varied only one or two de~ rees. As the refults appeared to be the fame in regard to the reft of the operation, I fhall proceed to examine the experis ment made with diflilled water. 1ft, The piece of zinc, weighing 2279456 grammes before its immerfion in the liquér, was completely freed from all the metal with which it was covered. In this ftate it weighed no more than £5°9345 grammes (4 gros 12 grains). Its fur- face was covered with a gray pulverulent ftratum, the greater part of which ftill retained its metallic briliancy, while the other feemed to have undergone a commencement of oxida- tion, When entirely freed from this firatum, which could be eafily detached with the finger, and which appeared to me to be nothing but zinc, having its molecule in part fepa- rated, it was reduced to the weight of 13°380 grammes (3 gros 37 grains). ad, The portion of the new metallie alloy, zine and lead *, arifing from the decompofition of the acetite, was wathed feveral times in diftilled water. Being fubjected to the aétion of a good prefs, and then to gradual percuffion on a piece of fteel, it poffeffed greater duétility than lead alone. When dried in clofe veflels, and then expofed to fudden heat in an iron fpoon. a portion of it was fpeedily converted into a greenifh yellow oxide. The other portion, reduced without any addition, furnithed a {mall metallic button of the weight of g:0183 grammes (2 gros 38 grains), and containing zinc, but much lefs weight for weight than was contained in the above matter before it was heated. I mutt obferve, that, notwithftanding all the precautions which I took to feparate, either by the help of a prefs and unfized paper, or by deficcation, all the water interpofed be- tween the molecule of the metal, I was not able to fucceed. It appears probable, that under this circumftance the fpeedy oxidation of the new metallic alloy was owing, 1{t, To the decompofition of the laft molecule of water, which could not be entirely expelled: 2d, To the prefence of the atmo~ {pheric air of the veffels: 3d, To the contaét and decompofi- tion of the fame fluid during the fufion of the metal. * The formation of this metallic alloy agrees with the experiments of Vauquelin, from which it refults, that in feveral cafes, when a metal is precipitated from its folution by another, the pree'pitated metal partakes in fome degr.e of the precipitant. This phenomenon takes place in par- ticular during the precipitation of the white metals by zinc. Examination 364 Decompofition of the Acetite af Lead, &c. Examination of the Liquor with fome Reagents. 1ft, The liquor taken from the jar was colourlefs and per- feétly tranfparent. é , ; ad, It gave a ftrong green tint to blue vegetable colours. 3d, When tried with very pure fulphuric acid it formed no precipitate, which convinced me that it held in folution no lead. . 4th, A portion properly evaporated furnifhed fmall eryftals of acetite of zinc in argenteous leaves, which affected no re- gular form. 5th, Ammonia produced in it a white flaky precipitate, not very abundant. At the moment even of contaét there is emitted a ftrong odour of flour pafte, which is fpeedily dif- fipated by agitation. 6th, This precipitate at the end of fome hours had ac- guired a femi-gelatinous confiftence, and the addition of a new quantity of alkali rediffolved it in part. 7th, The carbonates of potafh. foda, and ammonia, formed in it white precipitates more or lefs abundant. Sth, Lime water recently prepared precipitated from it the zinc in the ftate of a white oxide, paler and more homoge- neous than the preceding. oth, The precipitate obtained by carbonate of potath, wathed feveral times with diftilled water, and carefully dried, was exceedingly white and light. roth, Being brought into contact with concentrated ful- phurous acid, it diffolved in it completely, with a difengage- ment of carbonic acid, and a total difappearance of the ful- phurous odour; which feems to {how a very great relation between the new falt refulting from this combination and the fulphate of zinc, for the difcovery of which we are indebted to Vauquelin and Fourcroy. RECAPITULATION. Tt refults from thefe faéts, 1ft, That the decompofition of the acetite of lead by zinc exhibits feveral phenomena not obferved in that of other falts and metallic folutions by the fame metal. ad, That diftilled water feems to favour this decompofition, as it is effeGted in that fluid a third fooner than in common water. 3d, That common water may, however, be preferable in experiments of mere curiofity, as it checks the decompofing ation of the zinc, and difpofes the metallic molecule to af- fume that arrangement which is peculiar to them; a phe- nomenon which agrees with the laws of cryftallization. I thall terminate thefe obfervations by propofing to the : College Royal Society of London. 365 College of Pharmacy to adopt among its experiments, which form a part of its annual public courfe of chemiftry, the tree of Saturn, as proper for proving in a precife manner the ftrong attraction of zinc for oxygen. This experiment, which 18 not very expenfive, always fucceeds, and deferves a place in mi- neralogical cabinets along with the tree of Diana. LXV. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. Tae meetings of the 12th and 19th of May were occu- pied by the reading of a paper, by Mr. Chenevix, on a me- tallic fubftance, of which we bave {poken in our laf Number. It was announced to the public by its author as a new fimple metal /uz generis, under the title of Palladium, or new Silver. Mr. Chenevix made a number of experiments on this fub- ftance, and found that, in moft refpeéts, it was really different trom all the known metallic bodies. In a few, however, it bore fome refemblance to platina. But it was not poffible to conceive that platina could be reduced to the fpecific gravity of 11°85 could be fufible at fo moderate a heat; could com- bine with falphur; could be diffolved by nitric acid, aud be precipitated by green fulphate of iron. Thefe are the pro- perties mentioned in the printed notice we received Jatt month, and which we inferted in our Journal. Mr. Che- nevix found them to be truly ftated. Reflecting, however, upon the extraordinary anomalies that happen when fubftances are united, it occurred to him that fome metal might fo far influence platina as to promote its precipitation by green fulphate of iron, and be itfelf drawn down along with it. Mercury was the firft that prefented itfelf to his mind, as the moft eafily reduced. He poured a folution.of green fulphate of iron into a folution of platina: no precipitate. Into a folution of muriate:of mercury: no precipitate. He mixed the two folutions, and a precipitate, exactly refembling that produced in palladium, immediately enfued. He reduced this precipitate; and, after feveral trials, at length fucceeded in obtaining a fubftance exactly fimilar to palladium. From all his experiments, which are much too numerous for this extract, Mr. Chenevix does not hefitate to pronounce palladium to be a feandalous impofition, and an attempt to defraud the public as well as to diferace feience. From fynthefis and analyfis it appears that palladiam of the fpecific gravity of 11°5 contains about one-third of mer- cury; and when of the fpecific gravity of 12°5, — one- , ourth, 366 Royal Society of London. fourth. As the quantity of this metal dimintthes, the fpecifie gravity increafes; the ductility is lefs; and after 12-5 it be- gins to be no longer ated upon by nitric acid. Mr. Chenevix gives many methods for preparing a fub- ftance fimilar to palladium; but the following is the leaft liable to fail: —Take a certain quantity of platina, reduced from the triple ammoniacal falt, and diffolve it in nitro-mu- riatic acid: add fomething more than twice the weight of the platina of red oxide of mercury, and take particular care to faturate all excefs of acid: then pour it Into a folution, alfo faturated, of green fulphate of iron; heat the mixture, and a black precipitate will be formed after fome time, This pre- cipitate weighs rather more than two and a half the original quantity of the platina; but, expofed to a red heat, a part of the mercury is volatilized. Fufed at a ftronger heat, it yields a metallic button, which in different experiments gives a dif- ferent {pecific gravity. This experiment is of a very delicate nature, and does not always fucceed; and Mr. Chenevix recommends perfeverance and repeated trials to all who would form palladium. It is not often to be obtained of the exact fpecific gravity announced by the author of the fraudulent advertifement; and the fpecific gravity is not conftantly the fame in all his fpecimens. The difficulty is, to unite a fufh- ciently large portion of mercury with the platina to produce perfect palladium. It may be obtained by this method as Jow as 10'5, fometimes as high as 15. Mr. Chenevix men+ tions fome methods of combining platina and mercury in the dry way, fuch as count Mufhin Pufkin’s amalgam fufing with cinnabar, lime, and borax; &c. He then relates fome experiments upon platina ; upon its oxides, which are two, viz. one of 7 the other of 13 per cent. of oxygen; upon the affinities of the oxide for the acid and aromatic falts formed by them. He gives numerous exam- ples of the affinities of metals for each other; and of anoma- lous precipitations, when two or more metals are prefent in the fame folution.. He fays, that the fixation of mercury by platina, together with other facts related in this paper, wilh tend to make us particularly cautious in pronouncing upon difcoveries of fuppofed new metals, and promote feepticifm even upon our prefent knowledge. He addaces inftances of the difference that exifts between a folution of platina anda folution of mercury merely mixed, and a folution of thefe metals after they have been united, In the former cafe they are eafily feparated; inthe latter there isno method of com- pletely difuniting them. He concludes with a curious ftate- ‘ment of the approximation of feveral metals and of feveral earths to each other in their chemical properties, which i 9 ow Royal Society of ‘Gittingen. . 364 low the dire& order of their tendency to enter into faline combination. The whole of the fa@s related in this paper are of the higheft intereft to the {cience, as they prove to what a degree the properties of fimple bodies, hitherto thought to be un- combinable, may be altered when they are united; and {how the difficulties that attend our pronouncing as to the fimpli- city or the compofition of any fubftance, whatever be the character that diftingnith it in chemical experiments, ROYAL SOCIETY OF GOTTINGEN. The Mathematical Clafs of this Society has propofed the following prize queftion, the prize for which is to be ad- judged in the month of November 1803: _ As it is of great importance in pyrometric difquifitions as well as in the application of them, and alfo in making re- fearchés in regard to the nature of light and heat, to afeer- tain the various degrees of heat which different fubftances, fooner or later, acquire when expofed to the folar rays; and, as little certain information has hitherto been acquired on this fubject, the fociety recommends it to the care and atten- tion of philofophers. ift, To inveftigate by nice experiments, and by calcula- tion founded on them, in what manner bodies of different fubftances, but of the fame figure and volume, (globes of an inch diameter will, perhaps, be beit for. this purpofe,) are heated by the folar rays under the fame ftate of the atma- fphere, the fame intenfity of light, and the fame initial tem- perament during each minute of obfervation, &c. 2d, To determine, either by dire&t. obfervation, which is chiefly defired, or from the obferved law of the increafing heat, to what degree of temperament any body taken at the end of the experiment, that is, when the increafe of the heat ceafes, would haye attained. The Hiftorical Clafs has propofed. the following queftion, the tee for which is to be adjudged in the month of No- vember 1854: As many obfervations have been carefully made hy the old and by modern philofophers, particularly fince the 16th century, in regard to meteors; as various ingenious opinions have been given re{pecling their origin and nature, and the Jaws to which they are fubje&t; and as many things perhaps occur in thefe which might be of utility to improve meteor- ology, or which at leaft way be worthy of further examina- tion, the fociety requires a continued accurate hiftory of meteorology from the firft attempts of the Greeks and Ro- mans in this kind of ftudy down to the prefent period. The fogiety, however, by no means defires that the com - petitors 368 Galvanic Society, Paris. petitors will include in it any of thofe opinions of the antient or modern writers which, being founded on fuperftition or ignorance, would excite only difguft. It rather wifhes that they would feleét, explain, and examine the opinions of Ariftotle, Theophraftus, Pliny, Seneca and Ptolemy, among the antients, and thofe of the philofophers of the 16th and 18th centuries, particularly Telefius, Patricius, Bruno, lord Ba- con, Kepler, Gaffendi, and Defcartes, a knowledge.of which may be of ufe to meteorology at prefent: it requires alfo, that the manner in which the obfervations were made, and the infiraments employed, may be briefly defcribed, marking at the fame time the climate. An inquiry may alfo be made refpecting the origin of that opinion, which became fo pre- valent, m regard to the influence of the planets on meteors: and, in the laft place, the author may briefly and generally determine how far we can approach nearer to the truth by improving phyfical aftronomy and meteorology. The prize for each of thefe queftions is fifty ducats, and the memoirs muft be tranfmitted to the fociety before the month of September each year. GALVANIC SOCIETY, PARIS. Galvanic facts, in proportion as they are accumulated, afford a hope of the happieft refults being foon obtained from the application of this ftimulus. Thofe which we are here about to detail relate partly to theory and partly to the me- dical employment of this fluid. In a late fitting of the Galvanic Society, C. Gautherot mentioned an obfervation made by him anterior to that pe- riod, which was both curious in itlelf, and of importance, on account of the inductions that may be drawn from it. As it is neceflary to be known before a proper opinion can be formed of thofe by which it was accompanied, we think it proper to lay before the reader the two following experiments: ; Experiment I. The perfon who performs this experiment places in his mouth the upper ends of two wires of platina, or of any other metal not oxidable, and immediately brings the other two ends into contact with the two extremities of a weak Gal- vanic apparatus, to afcertain the degree of its influence. When this arrangement has been made, the perfon will experience an effe& more or lefs remarkable, according as the tongue is moore or lefs exercifed in perceiving the peculiar favour of the Galvanic fluid. But if he places thefe two ends of the pla- tina wires one upon the other without deranging thofe placed in the mouth, he will again experience, though in a weaker degree, the fenfation of the favour. 3 . Experiment Galvanic Society, Paris. 369 Experiment Il. Tf the Galvanic apparatus has produced only a minimum of effet, which mutt be the cafe, 1ft, When the apparatus con- fitts. of only one ftory 3 2d, When the fubftances which com- pofe this ftory are by their nature not much calculated for de- veloping the Galvanic effect, or when they can produce it only in the weakeft degree; it may happen under both thefe circumftances that the organ of tafte will not bé affected by any fayour. But in this cafe it will be fufficient to let the two lower ends of the platina wires reft for a moment on the two extremities of the apparatus, and then to apply thefe two wires to each other without deranging their extremities, which are placed in the mouth. This néw contaét will neceffarily pro- duce a, more intenfe effeé& than the former, and if it be re- quired to increafe it (ill further, it may be done by applying alternately the lower ends of the platina wires, firft to the wo extremities of the battery, and then to each other. Thefe repeated contacts will develop the peculiar favour of the fluid,’ which is the certain fien of its influence. This ingenious procefs, then, puts the tongue, that dif- pofable inftrument, in poffeffion of a new galvanofcope, which, as appears to us, will be to Galvanifmy what Volta’s condenfer is to eleétricity, fince by its means the flighteft fhades of the Galvanic effect may be detected. C. Nauche, prefident ‘of the fociety, in the fame fitting communicated fome faéts in regard to the medical applica~ tion of Galvanifm in cafes of hemiplegia. It refults from them, that the means of giving a {trong {timulus to the parts affected, fuch as the hand or leg for example, is, to make one of the extremities of the pile to communicate with the former, and the other extremity with the fpinal apophyfes of the fixth and feventh cervical vertebre. If the leg be af- fedted, the foot and twelfth dorfal vertebra mult be “made to communicate with the two extremities of the pile. The vital aétion will then feem to be conveyed as if by undulation to all the mufcular organs in order to reftore motion. The prefident oblerved alfo, that in cafes of great extremity, where it is neceffary to increafe in an extraordinary decree the excitement of tbe organic forces, one extremity of the pile muft be brought into communication with the fummit of the vertebral column, and the other with the {pinal apo- phyles of the firft lumbar ¢ertebra, | The patient fubjected to this experinent will perceive flafhes, certain favours and fenfations, miore or lefs painful, in the flomach, in the in« teltinal canal, and in the vifecra of the breaft and the abdo~ men. The mufeles of the trunk and thofe of the extremities will be violently contradted, Vou. XV. No, 60. Bb A fact 370 : Mining. A faé& no lefs important, and which he confirmed alfo, is, that the application of Galvanifmy increafes in a particular manner the action of the parotid, the lachrymal, and max- illary glands, that of the kidneys and of the whole lymphatic fyfem. To produce this ation the apparatus muft be di- rected, not to the glandulous organs, but as much as poffible to the origin of the nervous trunks which diftribute them- felves thither, "It may be readily conceived what advantage {kilful anato- mifis may derive from an application of Galvanifm to the dif- ferent fyftems of the animal economy, efpecially if to'ana- tomical knowledge they unite a thorough acquaintance with the theory of rational medicine, TourLerT.. LXVI. Intelligence and Mifcellaneous Articles. MINING. _ "Tie mines of Cornwall and its Bete neurueed now yield art of the metals fo valuable to the arts, copper ae a all that the world produces of thefe fubftances, that the prefent ftate, and probable future one of productive- nefs, is highly interefting to thofe conneéted with the ufeful ures. : a croak the oldeft oy ai of the miner’s fearch in Cornwall, now employs by far the lefler number of hands and amount of capital; the quantity raifed of courfe is much diminifhed. Generally fpeaking, the tin mines have not been found to hold their richnefs to fo great a depth beneath the furface as copper feems* to do; confequently many, which were highly produétive mines of this metal; now are ftopped, or are worked to little advantage. - Polgooth, the greateft tin mine now In the world, though it produces large quantities of ore, yet it is attended with fo great an expenfe from its depth, that is underftood to pay fhe adventurers now but very little profit. A report of cobalt being found in this mine has been heard, but we do not know whether it is entitled to credit; we wifh it may, but, as far as we have had opportunities of judging of the mine- rals produced in this diftriét, it does not appear to us pro- bable that thefe fcarcer ones will be found in quantities fufhi- cient to repay any great expenfe in fearching for them. The tin mines in the weftern part of the county, between Pen- zance and the Land’s End, are doing well or their proprie- tors in general; and though they have for a few years pro- duced but little, they now are throwing up good quantities of ore. 2 phe Antiquities. 371 _. The quality of the metal lately brought to market has been found, we underfland, much iuferior to what it ought to be: this may be accounted for in the following way:—Grain tin particularly has been greatly in demand; in order to get more of the metal under this form the fmelters have of late applied ores to produce it from, which are generally underftood not to be fufficiently free from other metals for this purpofe, and thus the grain tin, though increafed in quantity, has been lefs pure: at the fame time the common tin, being robbed of the better part of the ores from which that has generally been fmelted, has fuffered a like degradation in quality. It is to be hoped that the fmelters will fee very foon their true intereft in this refpeét, and that the rifk of injuring the trade may no longer be continued for the prof{peét of temporary gain. The quantity of copper produced has not much fluctuated of late, though on the whole it may be expeéted, unlefs un- looked-for difcoveries be made, to leffen; as feveral large mines have already ftopped, the produce not being fufficient to counterbalance the enormous outgoings their great depth occafioned. Some other mines that have for many years, and even of late, produced almoft as much as any in this part of the world, are expected foon to be abandoned, partly for the reafon above ftated, and partly becaufe they have failed in quantity of ore in the lode or vein. Qn the other hand, fome mines have bettered in their profpeéts: Dolevath, after having been brought into work at an enormous expenfe, has afforded a courfe of copper of great magnitude, and though the ore is not rich in proportion of metal, yet its quantity is large enough to make this difcovery highly valua- ble. Wheal Towan, in St. Agnes, continues its productive ftate; and Wheal Crowndale, near Taviftock in Devon, is yielding a great deal of copper ore from a {mall depth under the furface. Like tin, it has been found that copper is of late inferior in purity to what it was formerly, at leaft it is aflerted that the fheathing of fhips would a few years fince remain in ufe a much longer time than-any that can now be got will do, This probably arifes in both metals from the fame caufe, from the greatnefs of the demand, which tempts the fmelter to let improper alloys remain in a certain degree in his me- tal; but it well becomes them to reflect, whether this may not fooner than they expeét be the means of deftroying the demand all together, by driving the confumers to fome fubfti- tute which may an{wer their purpofe better, F.P.M.S. ANTIQUITIES. M. Grotefend has publifhed an addition to his explanation ba of 372 ; Antiquities. of the Perfepolitan Infcriptions. The author thought it ne- ceffary to prefix to this memoir an explanation of other larger infcriptions, in order that an opinion may be eafier formed of it, In‘the firft place, the alphabet of the wedge-form writing of the firft fort has two fundamental ftrokes, which may be called the bow and the arrow, or rather the chifel and the rule. It appears to have been invented chiefly for lapidary infcriptions. It has no round ftrokes, and is not only very conventent for that purpofe, but very beautiful, on account of its fimple and regular compofition. The author mentions | as particular-properties of this alphabet: 1ft, The principal ftrokes of the letters are perpendicular; the horizontal are the acceflory ftrokes. ‘The Jatter are‘always on one fide, of over the former; only in the letter 7, there are at the top two . wedges which crofs each other. 2d, The points of the ar- rows, or wedees, are always turned to the bottom or to the right, when the characters are written proceeding from the left. This pofition is natural, 3d, Each letter has no more than three wedges, or two angles, as principal ftrokes, and at mcft three acceflory ftrokes ; however, when an angle forms - the principal firoke, there 1s at times an acceflory firoke on the other fide. 4th, The angles and principal wedges are all of an equal height, only that in two letters, m and o, the middle wedge is fhorter, in order to prevent their bemg con- founded with the ¢ and the a2, which are fimilar, In regard to the tranfverfe, or acceflory ftrokes; one of them is often ihortened 5 or one ftroke, which ought to be at the top, is often placed at the fide for want of room. 5th, In letters which have only one principal firoke, the tranfverfe firokes are always on one fide; where there are two.prineipal ftrokes, the tranf= verfe ftrokes are in general at the top; where there are three, thefe acceflory Mrokes are alfo on the ‘fide. 6th; When fe- veral tranfverie {trokes are over one.or two principal ftrokes, the latter are fhortened that the letter may not pals the line. The alphabet itfelf is reprefented under a double point of view ; firft, according to the compofition of the ftrokes, where they begin by the fimpleft figns, the wedge with one or two aeceffory ftrokes ; and then according to the order of the let- ‘ters of the Zendic alphabet. In the laft table of Anquetil the author obferved letters which he thinks defe&tive, accord- ing to a comparifon with the plates of Bruyn and Niebuhr, In the laft place, the author remarks, that this wedge alpha- bet hasino refemblance to any of the known alphabets ; and that it would be vain to attempt to determine the meaning of the fingle letters according to their refemblance with the Zendic or other letters: the author, however, ‘finds that the letters which refemble each other in the Pehlvi writing at ‘ Nak{chi Ajftronomy. 373 Nakfchi Ruftan, refemble each other alfo in the wedge writing. ; Secondly, What the author obferves in regard to the Zendic language may be reduced to the following objects :— . “1ft, The Zendic among the Perfian dialects is what the Shan- {crit is among the dialects of the Hindus, and has a great re- femblance to that language. Neither of them is formed, but they are abundant in words; both have a great many ele- vated vowels, and, on the other hand, have very harfh com- binations of confonants. The two languages have alfo feveral ~ things common in the radical words and in’ the flexions, and are very different from other languages. 2d, The Zendic has a great variety of grammatical forms, and a confttruétion ‘without rules; like the Greek and the German it abonnds in compound words. The moft important thing in this fec- tion is an example of the declenfion of the noun takea from inferiptions, and which in feveral parts deviates from the de- clenfion of Anquetil. The fingular, for example, has in the genitive and dative the termination 44é, (Anquetil has ¢/chao or ao;) the accufative has 0, (Anquetil has m,) e, and et/chao, (inftead of the bio and diet/chain Anquetil.) Thefe differences would be ftriking did we not reflect, that the tivo forts of de- clination are taken from partial examples, and-that we are Jefs acquainted with the Zendic grammar than with its dic- tionary. ! ASTRONOMY. _ Table of the geocentrig¢-motion of the two new planets for "June 1803. | Geocentric Motion Geocentric Motion of of Pallas. Ceres Ferdipandea, Right Declin, | Right Declin. Afcenficn. North. i Afcenfion. South. June 219% 7™ 191262 2/118" 45™ 0° 22° 20/ 519 5 27)26 16/18 43 2/22 43 wig 3 30126. 31 18 40°57 \22 56 Tiit9 f 23 426. 4515 38 44,123 5 1418 59.3427 9) 18; 36° 97 \23 12 1718 59 35 27. 14) 18 34 0,123 16 56 |27 29,18 31 38/23 Ig 43,18 29) 9 123 18 9: 501%; 26 37 |23 16 9/18 6\22 @ C 374° J INDEX To VOL. XV. ACCUM? Chemiftry, 182 Acetite of lead, decompofition of, by zinc, 359 Acids. Suberic, 91; formic, malic, tartareous, citric, oxalic, acetors, 148, 153 Aéroftation. Remarks on, 19 Agricultuie. On, 167, 268 Air to feparate from water, 252 Air-furnaces. On, 245 Aldini’s Galvanic Experiments, 40, 93, 288 America. Native dogs of, 1, 136 Anatomy. Comparative, 126: Of the fhark, 264 Animal fibre. On, gt gluien.. On, gt Antiquarian fociety, —_ 80 Antiquities, 80, 82,89, 283; 370 Ants. On acid of, 148 Architedure, ‘Tatham’s improve- - ments in, 143 Arguel a kind of cynanchum, 56 Aromatic vinegar. On, 157 Aiftronomy, Ql, 172, 183, Tg0, ~ 209, 219, 222, 288, 373 Atkins and Co. on {pecific gra- vity of {pirituous liquors, 277 “tmofphere. Denlity of, +» - 27 Balloons, Air, On, 19 Barton, Dr. on Indian dogs, 1, 136. On the rattle-fnake, . 193, 294 Bichat’s Galvan. Exp, 39 Biography, 59> 274 Biiumen found combined with fulphurated hydrogen gas, 92. Compreilible, 229 Black’s tree of Saturn, 360 Blue-bells a fubftitute for gum, 103 Bode on Saturn, 219 Bogdanich, Death of, 287 Books, new, 178, 180, 209, 277 Botany, 327 Boulton, Mr. Account of, 59 Brafs deflagrated by Galvanifm, 96 Calkoen on Saturn, 222 Caloric. Wenry on, 45 Canals, Telford on, 77-2 The Caledonian 309 Carbonate of ammonia obtained from pit-coal, 23 Carbonel on painting with ferum, 249 — Cavendi ‘Sb on inflammable a, a ; ~note Cores Ferdinandea. Motions of, 190, 288, 373 Charcoal deflagrated by Galvar- ifm, 6 Chemical new, 92 Chenevix on palladium, 365 Carriages moved by wind, ~ 27 Circular architellure, On, 143 Clofe on converting grafs land into tillage, 167; 268 Clouds. Stones from the, 80, 182, 187, 284, 346, 354 Coal fof. On dftilling,, 23 Coal mines in France. On, 70, 158, 232, 338 Cochin China, Account of, 32 Coining- mill, Boulton’s, 61 Com- combinalions... Some 7 Ee ee te ee —_ i INDEX. Combuftion. Stahl’s theory of, 203: Lavoifier’s, 204: Thom- fon’s, 205: Gren’s, 209 . Corka vegetable principle, gt Corn, To preferve from infedts,64 Crawford’s theory of heat. Re- marks’on, 45 Crichton’s Thermometer, Darquier. Death of, 216 Dawy’s experiments on heat re- viewed, Si Dayes on painting, 15 Deafne/s cured by Galvanifm, 2 28 I Deaths, 216, 217 Declination Magnetic, 218 Decyphering. — Aftonifhing - in- {tance of, 85 Deffeffart on fenna, 55 Dickfon’s reply to Clarke, 05 Diving-bells. New method of fupplying with air, 9 Dogs. On Indian, I, 136 Doffie's proceffes for edulcorating oil, 105 Drieffen on ice and fnow, 249 Dyeing. _Molybdena applied to, ‘ i Dropfy. A cure for, a Earthquakes. On, 90 Egypt. Atour in, . 55 Elder, its ule in deftroying in- fects, 63 Eleftric fifbes. On, 126 Electricity applied, to medicine, 320 Emprefs Dowager of Ruffia en- graves dies for medals, 61 Fa/cinating power of fnakes. On, 193, 294 Fall of heavy bodies not vertical, 179 Faujas St. Fond on foffil caout- chouc, 225 Fifb-oil, To edulcorate, 105 Formic acid, ‘a mixture of malic and acetic, 152 . 375 Fofils. Bones, 191: caout- chouc, 225 Fourcroy on ants, 148 Fowler’s Galvan. Exp, 39 | France. On the coal mines in, 70, 158, 232, 338 Freezing of tin, 1473; of water, 249 3 curious phenomenon, 254 245 Galvanic experiments by Vaffali- Eandi, Giulio, and Rofh, 38, 319: by Grapengieffer, Hum- boldt, Smuch, Fowler, Bichat, 39: by Aldini, 40, 93, 2882 by Pepys, 94: by Gautherat, 368 Galvanic Society, Paris, 281, 368 Gajfes. On the formation of, 53 Geoffroy on electric fithes, 26. Geography of Cochin China, 32° Giulio’s Galv. Exp. 38, 31g" Gold deflagrated by Galvanifm, 06 Grain, to preferve from infects, Furnaces, Air. On 64, Grapingieffer’s Galvan. Exps ..39. Greathead’s lift-boat, 231. Greville on* ftones from thé hea- vens * ° oe ea, Grotefend on Perfepolitan in{crip- tions, . 8 5 Gullet’s procefs to defiroy ns Gum Arabic. Subftitute for, iss Gymnotus eledricus. On the, 126 Harmattan. Of, ‘. 319 Healy’s improvements on diving bells 9 Heat. Materiality of, 45 Heat, a prize quettion, 367 Henry on materiality of heat, 45> on aromatic vinegar, 15 Herfcbel, remarks by, off ele copes 83 Heyne on the triple infcription, 82 Bbh4 High- 376 Highlands of, Scotland. Survey of, 300 Flome on the tongue, 80 Humboldt’s Galvan, Exp. 39 Humboldt the traveller, 191 Hyacinthus non feriptus a fublti- tute for gum, 103 Hydrogen gas, to procure for air balloons, rg. Sulphate of lime decompofed by, 93 Hydrogen-water. On, 93 Hydro-fulphurated lime, found in {prings g2 Indian dogs. On, I, 136 Inflamable air, to procure for air balloons, 19 Tnoculation. New fpecies of, 288 ‘Unfcriptions. On the triple, 82: the Perfepolitan decyphered, 83,372 Infedts. To deftroy, 63 Inundation. Extraordinary, 217- Zron deflagrated by Galvanifm, 96. On furnaces for fufing, 245. To feparate from magne- fia, 350 GFacquin’s Chemifiry, 180 Faeger on molybdena, 15 Fapan. On the trade of, 36 Kirwan on winds, 311 Klaproth on ftones from the heavens, 182 Kordenbufch. Death of, 217 Lalande’s hiftory of aftronomy, 172, 209 Lamps improved, 287 Lead deflagrated by Galvanifm,95 Learned Societies, "80, 181, 284 355 Eefibare on coal mines, 70, 158, 232, 338 Lemery. . Death of, 216 Life-boats. On, aeageeat YF Longitude, On determining, 97 Lotus. On the, 257,327 INDEX. Lowe on lunar obfervations, 97 Magnetic needles. The beft, 186, 218 declination, 218 Malic acid, On, 153 Manner, in painting, On, 12 Maps. New, 210 Magnefia to Aeparate from iron, 359 Medicine, 320, Mercury. On the tranfit of, gr, 183 Mercury. Boiling point of, 147 Metals, new, 192, 287, 365 Meteorolo.y, 189, 2:17, 368 Mines (eva!) in France. Ow, 79, 158, 232, 338 Mining. Hiftory of, 164. Mining. Notice on, 370 Mitchel, Dr. on the fhark, 264 Molybdena, oxide of, applied to dyeing, Money. On coining, Moon, tranfits of, applied to lon- gitude, 97. Stones fuppofed to come from the, 188, 289, : 347 , Mu/fhet on air furnaces, 245 Neéfoux on fenna, 55 Nervous Power. On, 293 Nymphaea caerulea. Ony 327 Oil, Fifo. To edulcorate, 105 Olber’s on ftones from the hea- vens, 289 Oxalic acid. Od, 91, 153 Oxen, gigantic.. Remains of, 325 Oxygenated water. On, 93» 255 Painting. © Dayes on, 12, 115: a new kind of, ~ 240 Palladium, or new-filver, 287, 365 Palladium, Chenevix on, | 365 Pallas. Motions of,190, 288, 373 Pavachutes for balloons, 23 Parkinfon’s. chemical pocket-book, 182 Peale INDEX, Peale on remains of gigantic oxen 325 Pearfin (Dr. G.), on vaccine pock, 81. Some account of, 274 Phlogifton. Doétrine of, 203 ’ Pepy’s Galvanic apparatus, 94 Perfepolitan injcriptions, On, 85 Pt coal. On dittilling, 23 Planche on acetite of lead and zinc 359 Platina deflagrated by Galvan- ifm, 96 Portal on combuftion, 202 Priefiley on inflammable air, 20, a5 Prize queftions, 367 Raffenau-Delile on the Lotus, 257 Rain, quantity that falls in dif- ferent places, 79 Rattle-fnake. Barton on the, 193, 294 Rofe-lily or Egyptian bean BS {cribed, 259 Roff’s Galvan. Exp. . 38, 319 Royal Academy, Berlin, 182 Royal Fennerian fociety inktituted, 82 Royal Society, London, 80, 181, 365 Royal fociety of Gottingen, 367 Rumford’s experiments on heat reviewed, 40 Saturn’s ring. On, 219, 222 Savigny on the Lotus + 327 Scirocco. Of the, 319 Sexwa. Obfervationson, 55 Serum employed as a vehicle for , colours, 240 Shark. Peculiarities refpeéting, 204 Silurus Eledricus. On the 126 Siver deflagrated by Galvanifm, 6 Smuch’s Galvan. Exp. 6 Snake, Rattle. On the, 193, 294 Snow. On nature of, 249 377 Societies, learned, 80, 181, 281» ’ _ 365 Solar rays, a prize queftion 363 Soho, Birmingham. Particulars refpecting, 6:, Specific graviiies of Spirituous li guors. Atkins and Co. on, 277 Spheres. ‘To caleulate the capa- city of, 28: table, 30 Stahi’s theory of combuftion, 203 Steam engine, 60 Stones from the heavens. On, 80, 182, 187, 289, 346, 354 Style in Painting. On, 115 Sulphate of lime decompofed.by hydrogen, 93 Sulphurated axotic gas, difcovered, Zz Sulphurated hydrogen. New fuck refpecting, 352 Sulphureous waters. On, Suberic aid. Remarkson, gt Taiham’s circular archite€ture, 143 Telford on canals, 77. Survey of the Highlands of Scotland, 300 Thermometer. A new, 147 Thomfen’s Chemiftry. 185 Tides. Remarks on, 218 Tin deflagrated by Galvanifm, 96. Freezing point of, 147 Tougue. Home on the, re) Torp:do. On the, 126 Trade, on extending, in the eaft, 3$ Tradewinds. Origin of, 311 Travels. Humboldt’s, 19! Trees, Fruit. To protect from in- fects 64 Vaccine inoculation introduced at Bombay, 80: advantages of, 1 Vaffali-Eandi’s Galvanic expee riments, 38, 319 V aue 378 Vauquelin on ftones from the hea- vens 346 Fega (Baron de) death of, Vegetable gluten. On, V entenant on fenna Water. On freezing, 249: to free from air, 252 Wheat, to protect, from infects, 64 INDE xX. Wiilis’s fubftitute for gum Ara- bic, 103 Winds. On, 311 Wefirumbon{ulphureous waters,92 Wright on aeroftation, 19 Zimmerman. Letter to, 193 Zinc. Decompofition of acetite of lead by 359 Zodiac of Dendera. On the 215 END OF THE FIFTEENTH VOLUME. TO THE BOOKBINDER. In binding up complete fets place the Heads at the be- ginning of the Volumes in the following order: Vol. I, Lavoifier; Vol. II. A. G. Keftner; Vol. III. Bergman; Vol. IV. Bofcovich; Vol. V. Doétor Black; Vol. VI. Fixlmilner ; Vol: VII. Beauchamp ; Vol. VIII. Sir Jofeph ‘Banks; Vol. IX. Count Rumford; Vol. X. Dr. Robifon; and the other Heads at the beginning of the volumes in which they refpectively occur. Printed by Witks,and Taytor, Chancery-Lane, —— oS “al Philo Mag. PLT Vol XV. ‘ SSX ee WS SS : SSS SS S SSS S SSS NS SSS SS ar qs . S SX¥_.E_EE_E4 SESS SS SS SSS S7A : ~ > . SSSSS SERA S TPR ang SSS I IAssx H . Ss SAY ASS Z Uy, YA 7 SAVV W377“ g tis SS Vib S SS SO S : “ID AG ot ls Philo. Mag. Pl. Vol 2 POOUNNNA Na ciiddasanint ee = ET dpril rikiy aNovadoe Philo. Maq. PUIV. Vol. XV. 3 Dee = ad Ta Lowry voulp Philo.Mag. PUV.Vol XV. XX = < = aes ee eat remye ow eels a Tare Fd ee ’ £ (wa - eo r al r ‘ a ‘ 74 ‘ * wy + A ’ ’ - 2 é SEND ‘ ae . ‘ OS i * ve i, & - eau ‘ et, : ‘ ae 3 ‘> Pog) oe ’ 0 \ e He ie - " - gayauy = me ‘OTVAANG NVIUN] LVAD AX TAN TA IE OPW Md Philo.Mag.Pl.VIL. Vol XV. \ \\\ NYMPHAA. cavrulea. Ss nq $ - S * SS = S$ es x ga ry < ry . FIG. 10. ail 4 fle i, tt Lh I flit ia ro wu ig | ( {I fl i in TF) f= Pt il ney, mu! TD! ane CN “a tt Ni AD z= an eos - z : aa baer ee wre i APN 6 aR Neee