[PRICE 2s. 6d.]

Seg THE f
©) PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE |
U AND JOURNAL:

COMPREHENDING

THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE,
Qa THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS,
x GEOLOGY,
ae AGRICULTURE,
\e MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE.

@e NUMBER CLXXXIX.
BSS For JANUARY 1814.

CONTAINING THE FOLLOWING ENGRAVING:

joss

tb ra « * . .
Si Be A Plate to illustrate a New Transit Instrument invented by Sir
are H. C. Encrerierp, Bart,

S\

By W. NICHOLSON anv A. TILLOCH.

LONDON:
PRINTED BY RICHARD AND ARTHUR TAYLOR, SHOE LANB:
Andsold by Ricuarpsons; CapgLt and Davies; Loneman,
¥ Hurst, Rees, Orme & Beown; Muxray; Hicuiry; Saer-§
woop and Co.; Hakpine; London: Constante and Co.

: Edinburgh: Baasa and Reip, and D. Niven, Glasgow:
and Gitwexr and Hopces, Dublin.

. Ae, Bis pee ie oe Fee gt a
. ia ay! mY Soa yy
igut® 7
“4 a 7 = LB. ~ Ss .
‘ : Ne es ER eck a BE: 3
4

& The Readers of The Philosophical Journal are respectfully in-
formed, that with the concluding Number of this and future
Volumes, an extra Title-page will be given, to enable them to
preserve their Series without a chasm.

a ee a RS NT

CoNTENTS OF NuMBER 189.

Page,
I. Description of a new Transit Instrument. By Sir ee C. Enctie-
FIELD, Bart. F.R.S. F.S.A. &c. &c. &c. - o ays
II. On the French Measures and Weights - = = “19
III. On the Treatment of Burns and Scalds. eh Mr. Ricwarp
Waker, Surgeon and Apothecary, Oxford - 8

IV. On the Agency of Electricity in constituting the pacalaay Pro-
perties of Bodies, ard producing Combustion. By Mr. Joun WessTER 17

V. On Electricity. By Georce Joun Singer, Esq. : 20
VI. New Outlines of Chemical! aah eee ty: ey: Ez. Wane Bs,

of Lyna, Norfolk - a2
VIJ. Observations on a Fiery Meteor. ByT. Hdetians Esq. - 26

VIII. Notes and Observations on the remaining part of the Sixth
and part of the Seventh Chapters of Mr. Ropert BakEwetv’s “ In-
troduction to Geology ;” embracing incidentally, several new Points of
Geological Investigation and aes By Mr. Joun itweets: Sen.,
Mineral Surveyor - 24
IX, On the Formation of Fat i in the Laren of ee. Antuale
By Sir Everarp Homg, Bart. Presented by the Society for promoting
the Knowledge of Animal Chemistry - - - = 35
X. AnAttempt to determine the definite and simple Proportions,
in which the constituent Parts of unorganic Substances are united
with each other. By Jacos Berzexius, Professor of Medicine and

Pharmacy, and M.R.A. Stockholm 42
XI. The Discovery of the Atomic ‘heory claimed for Mr. Hiceins,
By Joun Nasu, Esq. 5 . s 54

XII. Preparation of the lately discovered new Sistanee called long,
which possesses the singular Property of becoming converted into a
beautiful violet-coloured Gas by the mere Application of Heat. Com-

municated by Mr. Frepricx Accum in a Letter to the Editors - $7
XIII. Account of the new Substance discovered yee Ceusaes

and called long 58
XIV. On the Discoloration of silver bya hard- boiled Ege. By Mr.

J. Murray, Lecturer on Experimental Philosophy 62
XV. A Mathematical Question. By Sir H. C. Bxovariate, Bart.

F.R.S. F.A.S., &c. &c. 63

XVI. On the Quantities of Heat developed in the Gindeneaulon
of the Vapour of Water, and in that of Alcohol. By Bensamin

Count RuMFORD 8 ° - 64
XVII. Proceedings of Learned Societies :— Royal Society - 69
XVIII. Intelligence and bs aun a Articles :—Patents, and

Meteorological Tables. =i - - 70—80

*,* Communications for this Work, addressed to the Editors, Pickett-
Place, Temple Bar, will meet with _every attention.

Vot. 43. FesruaAry 1814. No. 190.

ass = Io: Ge Sa GS aystir == = ‘
[PRICE 25. 6d.} <
_ A
| ee ie
PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE &\
AND JOURNAL: es

COMPREHENDING
THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE,
THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS,

ad GEOLOGY,

. AGRICULTURE,
MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE.
NUMBER CXC.

For FEBRUARY 1814."

\
‘By W. NICHOLSON snp A*TILLOCH.

LONDON:
PRINTED BY RICHARD AND ARTHUR TAYLOR, SHOE LANE:

Mi! ap Andsold by Ricnarpsons; Caperz and Davies; Loneman, Apt
Se?” «6 Hurst, Revs, Orme & Brown; Murray; Hicurex; SHER-(Nii ae

4 Ri

BE" ig ‘The pe Tie ees J

oes,

©

ee my Wes omy
Were 3c preserve | fete Series without 3 chasm He ‘

—

e ~ - Conrenrs OF Nowsiit 190. ae
~) : 5 Spun i

XIX. On the Use ot ae Mensilc' in Plants. ‘By Mrs. teen a:

ae KX. An Attempt to idter minis the definite and simple Proportions, f :
us in which the c itues =: Parts of unorganic ‘Substances are united

with each other. By Javos Berzetius, Professor of Medicine and
“Pharmacy, and M.R.A. Stockholm ey Wp en slae ie -

. XX. New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy. DyE En 2 Wk ALKER, Rea
Esq. of Lynn, Norfolk — - - a ee ORs

SX XIT. On Sir i: Ie Eweurerkuy’ s new ‘Transit Instrument.
rath the Rev. James Groosy - - SCR at ;

aa z oR ?) ‘
; XII... Salusions of Sir H.C. RaGteriecn! $ Mathemat igh Que

% 4 i given in the last Number of this Journal

ou “XXIV. Observations on the Doctrines of Meanie rapes ane * ae
_ Chemiezi Affinity. By ae Bete Jun. eae of Heston, : a
‘Lincolfshire ——- - Cae et a Sa

* _XXV. Notes id Obser vations on the remaining. part of the oe

; -venth Chapter ‘a Rozert Baxeweut’s “ Introduction to Geo- oF
_logy ;”—embracing incidentally, several new Points of Geological.
Investigation and reese By a eo} ad: ‘Seny, Mineral —
‘Surveyor * os ' - ig

va

i XXVI. Remarks on ing salngwer Theory supported by iaiee ,
mirHson Esq. in his Paper cn a saline Substance from Mount _ ig
esuvius. By J, A. De Luc, Esq. F.R. S, &e. &e. -— a

_XXVILI. On the. Phenomena of Sleep. By a Correspondent os) 37

’ XXVIIL. Further Observations concerning the Production of ‘the es

ee Istislae Substance called’ Iode, or Iodine ; easy Methods of obtain
Gag it; with Remarks on the comparative Nature of Kelp, as far as
it regards thé Preparation of Tode, ak pedi i Ape OM, Opera- _

a a. Chemist, Ke. - ie 4 : | ies alg an
xx, « On the. Camphoric oa ‘considered as a a pclae ‘Add. mee
"By M. Bucnorz - ; etl Lea

XXX. Proceedings of een Societies ta

dos Seer” Intelligence and ‘Miscellaneous Asticle
_ tents, bain cae Rae io Ry aurea a,

Lew.
may’
5 a

THE

PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE
‘ AND JOURNAL:

COMFREHENDING

THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIEN CE,
THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS,
GEOLOGY,
AGRICULTURE,

MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE,

BY ALEXANDER TILLOCH,
M.R.LA. F.S.A. Epin, anp Pertu, &c,

———— ed =

“ Nec aranearum sane textus ideo melior quia ex se fila gignunt, nec noster
vilior quia ex alienis libamus ut apes.” Just. Lips. Monit, Polit. lib. is cap. Te

ie
VOL. SG, r
For JANUARY, FEBRUARY, MARCH, APRIL, MAY,
and JUNE, 1814. ar
Baa t
| Be) Sa )
\ ake ats _ Ke
LONDON: Shia, wie

PRINTED BY RICHARD AND ARTHUR TAYLOR, 8HOE LANE:

And sold by Cavett and Davies; Loncman, Hurst, Rees Orme, and
Brown; Murray; Hicuiey; Suerwoop and Co.; Harpinc;
Unperwoop, London: Cons'raste and Co, Edinburgh;

Brasu and Reip, and Niven, Glasgow;

& Girserr & Hopces, Dublin.

0 Ae ety > ¢
AMG tiie ays

Ad) PARA NEA

%

THE

PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE
AND JOURNAL:

COMPREHENDING
THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE,
THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS,
GEOLOGY,
AGRICULTURE,

MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE.

BY ALEXANDER TILLOCH,
M.R.LA. F.S.A. Evin, an Pertu, &e.

ad

ES TE ANE ESE AS ET TS DS AS

*: Nec aranearum sane textus ideo melior quia ex se fila gignunt, nec noster
wilior quia ex alienis libamus ut apes.” Just. Lirs, Monit. Polit. lib.i, cap. 1.

rr

VOL. XXXVII. To XLIII.

For JANUARY, FEBRUARY, MARCH, APRIL, MAY,
and JUNE, 1814.

a ne

LONDON:
PRINTED BY RICHARD AND ARTHUR TAYLOR, SHOE LANE;

And Sold by Cavett and Davies; LonGMAN, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and
Brown; Murray; Hicurey; SHERWOOD and Co.; HarDInG3
Unperwoop; London; Constaste and Co. Edinburgh ;

Brasx and Reip, and Niven, Glasgow:

& Gitpert & HopGes, Dublin.

aad 2
+f
D> ri

Tr

As
a.
f

y

penne e: a ms

uke ays Aer ee oc

Has
wionic a ie abe 4 vt
. eas ot
‘ ANSI bag i

fet sinte by ial

CAS air then

ADVERTISEMENT.

Er

F Rom the commencement of this work, it has"been our aim to
lay before our readers every thing new or curious in the objects
embraced by our plan; and aided by the contributions of nu-
merous respectable correspondents, to whom we are under many
obligations, we have been enabled to present an instructive and
useful miscellany.

We have now to congratulate our readers on the cessation of
war—the enemy of philosophical intercourse. For a long period
jt has been with difficulty that even foreign Transactions and
Journals could be obtained: indeed the publication of several
of them had been entirely suspended. As to regular intercourse
with the conductors of the continental periodical works, with
many of whom we were years ago personally acquainted, and
in habits of regular communication, it had, for a considerable
time, entirely ceased. The return of peace has already renewed
the correspondence; and without subjecting ourselves to the ime
putation of boasting, we may be permitted to say, that the readers
of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal will reap increased
advantages from this source of information, as well as from the
revived continental journals. ,

With the last number ‘of this volume two title-paged are
given. It was intended to continue this practice, but on
more mature consideration the plan has been altered. The re-
ferences to future volumes could not, without confusion and the
risque of many errors, be adapted to a two-fold numeration :
and therefore, to bring The Philosophical Journal at once into
series with The Philosophical Magazine, the extra title-page is
adapted to serve for Vol, XXXVIJ. to XLIII. of The Journal jand
those who are possessed of that work are requested to give di-
rections to the binder to letter the back of the volume accord-
ingly. When the present volume may be referred to in future
numbers, it will be quoted as Vol. XLIII.

Gentlemen whose sets of the Philosophical Magazine are de-
fective, should make an early application for the numbers that
may be wanting, as many of them are getting out of print.

London, June 30, 1814.

CONTENTS
ites OF THE %

FORTY-THIRD VOLUME.

DESCRIPTION of a new Transit Instrument .. .«. 1
On the French Meusures and Weights... «1 ++ a 1d

On the Treatment of Burns and Bealds 8
On the Agency of Blectricity in constituting the peculiar Pro-
perlies of Bodies, and producing Combustion .. .. 17
On Electricity .. { bot 2d
New Outlines of Che mical Philosophy 22; >, 101, 250, 284, 349,
Observations on a Fiery Meteor... aiken Sean
Notes and Observations on Mr, Rozsert BakewEt’s © Intro-
duction to Geology ;’ ’"—embracing incidentally, several new
Points of Geological Investigation and Theory 27, 119, 182,
252, 325

On the Formation of Fat in the Intestines of living bMnignade 35
An Altenpt to determine the definite and simple Proportions,
wm which the constituent Parts of unorganic Substances are
united with each other .. .. ». 42, 88, 161, 245
The Discovery of the AtomicTheory claimed for Mr.Hieeins 54
Preparation of the lately discovered new Substance called lode,
which possesses the singular Property of becoming converted
into a beauliful violet- coloured Gas by the mere Application

Gfskfeal oii. 3 ean
Account of the new Substunce diistipeney ad i y M. Courrors, and
called [ode ... ai he eaten
On the Discoloration of Silver by y a hard-boiled Ege ese BB
A Mathematical Question .. «ae

On the Quantities of Heat developed i in the Conslensation of the
Vapour of Water, and inthat of Alcohol .. .. «. 64,
On the Use of Air-Vessels in Plants... se . a) ee
On Sir H. C. ENGLEFiELp’s new Transit Instrument .. 105
Solutions of Sir H.C. ENGLEFIELD’s Mathematical Question 107
On the Doctrines of definite Proportions in Chemical Affinity 113
Remarks on the geological Theory supported by JaMES SmiTH-
son, Esq. in his Paper.on a saline Substance from Mount
Vesuvins a IR RNE
‘On the Phenomena of Sleep mahiciit hs Oy
Further Observations concerning the Production of the singular
Substance called Iode, or Iodine ; easy Methods of obtaining
it; with Remarks on the comparative Nature of Kelp, as far
as it regards the Preparation of Iode .. oo «+ H

CONTENTS.

On the Camphoric Acid, considered as a peculiar Acid 146
Observations on Electrical and Chemical Terms .. «. 175
On the Simplification of Mathematical Analyses i 7
On the Employment of Oxygen Gas in suspended Animation 190
On the Existence of Alcoholin Wine .. .. .. .. 192
Experiments tending to prove, that neither Sir Issac Newvon,
HERSCHEL, nor any other Person, ever decomposed incident
or impingent Light into the prismatic Colours .. .. 193
On Colours, as applicable to the Purposes of the Artist... 197
On the pretended Formation of Oxalic Acid in a Mixture of
Alcohol and Sulphuric Acid 1. .. 4. ee 200

The Propagation of Sound, according to the Newtonian Theory,
demonstrated ;—with Remarks on the one advanced by La
Prace, and other Observations .. .. 1. oe ae 201
On the supposed Evolution of Heat JSrom Vegetables .. 208
Foncess forcabtainina: lode 0!) 0) pe ces ca dag 209
Correction of a typographical Error which occurs in the State-
ment of Mr. Accum’s Process of preparing Iode .. 210
Een premmrgu Iodine. PS ei I aes ez ae OE
On the Capacity for Heat, or Calorific Power, of Liquids 212
Influence of atmospheric Moisture on an Electric Column com-
posed of Discs of Zinc and Silver .. .. .. 241, 363
RPA a3 cok Dit ON wine obey to BED
facts and Observations towards a History of the Combinations
of the yellow Oxide of Lead with the Nitric and Nitrous

SPN ROR Woks gli ER ee Mikel 262, 341
On Electrical Phenomena; and on the new Substance called
Pode’ 5 5 oe eae

On Alcohol or Spirituous Liquors, and on the Changes which
they undergo on being rectified with alkaline, saline, earthy,
and other Substances; to which is subjoined a simple Process
Jor obtaining highly dephlegmated Spirits of Wine without
Injury to its constituent PeemeMseeT viscose Oa ee

Description of a Hydro-pneumutic Blowpipe for the Use of
Chemists, Enamellers, Assayers, and Glass-blowers 280)

Description of a mechanical Substitute Sor Leeches, in Bleeding

286

Hints to Cultivators of the Basar CUne ves ahh: nylo on | BED

Experiments upon Mushrooms ., .. .. .. .. 292

Analysis of a new Variety of Ore of Antimony .. .. 299

Process for making a useful Paste from Potatoes, for the Use
of Weavers, Bookbinders, Trunkmakers, Upholsterers, Sc. 302

Description of a splendid Meteor seen at Dublin on the \ 7th of
0 NE ERR op a SR aN ye

Improvement in the Axis of large Water-Wheelss to prevent the
Gudgeon from Gelling loose in the Shaft, or to repair it when
gE i. a a eG we oe See BOL

CONTENTS.

Description of a Carr iage-Wheel Guard, ‘by which the Wh al :
1§ related safe upon the Axis in case of the aes com: 7 or

out. ‘ ee wee ae e 2 5 ge
Process ‘for pr cparing, with a Description of some of the Prax aie
perties of,.the refined Ox Gall... 2. a5 350 i

“On the Causes of the long Duration of the Chinese Empire 352
Process for preserving the Canvass m Oil Paintings, and re-
fuiring Defecis therein. .s as 866
Experiment on Respiration which had near arly ‘proved faial.—
Effects of Oxygen Gas in restoring suspended Animation 367
Case of Retention of Urine succes. sfully treated by puncturin
the Bladder... .. re 30)
Some Particulars of the Life of Count BOUGAINVILLE 371
On the Errors in the Nautical Almanac .. .. 878, 407
Supplement to the Memoir on the. Nitrates and Nitrites of
Leug)--.,. .. 401
New Inquiries into the Nature of the Liquor oblained by the
reciprocal Action-of Sulphur and Charcoal ... .. 408
Experiments on the variable Action of the Electric Column 414
Description of an efficacious Temporary Rudder... 419
Report of the Progress of the Sciences in France in 1813 427
On the Assay of Minerals ly means of the Blowpipe .. 439
On the Phenomenon. of Arsenic and. other Bodies whitening
Copper Plates with their Vapour «.. .. 445
Observations of a polaris, by the Rev. Mr. 333 Evans, of the
Royal Alilitary Academy, for determining the North Polar
Distance of that Star at the Beginning of “the Year 1813 446
Chronological Catalegue of Stones and_other large Masses
which are presumed to have fallen on the Earth .. 448
Description of a Sofa invented by Mr. Samuzt James .. 451
Notices respecting New Books .. .. «. 218, 379, 454
Proceedings of Learned Societies 69, 154, 227, 305, 385, 457
Intelligence and Miscelianeous Articles 70,156, 232,311, 389,
461
List of Patents Siete aves ik Rea Ree
Meteorological Table .. .. 80, 169, 240, 320, 400, 469°

THE

THE

PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE
AND JOURNAL.

I. Description of a new Transit Instrument. By Sir H.C,
ENGLEFIELD, Bart. F.R.S. F.S.A. Sc. ic. Ce.

Taz transit instrument, of which I propose to give a descrip-
tion, was thought of in consequence of a request from Mr. Thomas
Jones, astronomical, &c. &c. instrument maker, in Oxendon-
street, who, having been often applied to by watch-makers, and
others not much conversant with astronomy, to make for them
a cheup, simple, and easily placed instrument, for the purpose
of obtaining time with accuracy, requested me to assist him
with my ideas on the subject.

An old transit instrument formerly belonging to Mr. Aubert,
and at his sale purchased by Mr. Walker, gave me the first hint
for the instrument now to be described, It had, like this, its.
telescope in the axis; but the reflecting mirror was between the
object- and eye-glasses, which rendered it cumbersome, and liable
to many inconyeniencies, which are, I think, avoided in the mode
of construction now adopted.

It may be here observed, that Hevelius, in his Selenographia,
describes a telescope in which a mirror is interposed between the
object-glass and eye-piece, thereby enabling an observer, without
danger, to look out of a besieged place, the telescope being
placed vertically under shelter of the rampart. It seems singular
that he should not have perceived how much more commodious
and simple his instrument would have been, had the mirror been
placed beyond the object-glass, and made so as to turn all round,
as it has been of late years made to do in some of the large
camera obscuras. 1

To return to the present subject. It is well known that the
transit instrument, in its usual form, is liable to great injuries
from blows, or other violence affecting the perpendicularity of
the telescope to the axis; that it necessarily takes ap much
room in package; that, unless of a very small size, it is not easily

Vol, 43, No. 189, Jan, 1814, A fixed

2 Description of a new Transit Instrument.

fixed in a window or other opening in a common dwelling-
house ; and that it is quite impossible, excepting in fixed obser-
vations, to make it sweep the entire arch between the southern
and northern points of the horizon. In windy weather its use is
also very difficult and inconvenient. In the instrument now
offered, all these inconveniencies are avoided. It may be fixed
almost any where; in many places it may be made to describe
the entire semicirele of the meridian; the observer is put to no
difficulties by change of place, as he always looks directly along
the axis; it is packed in one eighth of the space.requisite to
pack a common transit instrument of the same real size; its
weight is not more than a sixth of the other ; from its simplicity
it will be afforded at half the price; and its verifications and
adjustments are easy and simple. It has also another advantage—
that the mark by which it is placed in the meridian may be
either in the meridian or at right angles to it ; or, if convenient,
two marks may be erected, one to the south or north, the other
east or west ; and if so used, it will be always seen by inspection
only, whether the mirror needs adjustment or not. In many
confined situations, such as occur in cities, the power of having
a mark at right angles to the meridian may be eminently useful.
The general description of the instrument is as follows :

The telescope is included in a brass cylinder having a small
cylinder at each end, turned true in the usual manner, and resting
in Ys of the usual construction. These smaller cylinders are
both pierced. In one is the eye- piece of the telescope with its
wires, &c. The other is open for the purpose of seeing through
it, if necessary, the eastern or western mark, and for adjusting
by direct vision the line of collimation of the instrument. It
also serves for the illumination of the wires. The object-glass
of the telescope is placed so near this cylinder as only to allow
room for an unsilvered plane glass mirror to be placed before it,
at an angle of 45°. It is obvious that, as the telescope revolves
on its axis in the Ys, every celestial object at right angles to it
will successively be seen by reflection from the mirror; and, of
course, if the axis be placed due east and west, the transits of all
celestial bodies over the meridian will he observed with the ut-
most accuracy and convenience. The aperture in the axis be-
yond the object-glass is not only of use for the adjustment of the
instrument to an eastern or western mark, or for the illumination
of the wires, but affords a means of seeing the mark at the same
time with the body whose meridian passage is to be observed,
and of thereby being certain of the true adjustments of the m-
strument at the very moment of observation ; which is impossible
in any other construction of the transit instrument, and seems
to be a very material advantage. .
Tam

Description of a new Transit Instrument. ; 3

I am convinced that transit instruments of the largest size
might with very great advantage be constructed on this principle.
It is true that where very much light is wanted, as in obser-
vations of stars in the day-time, the loss by reflection will be some
disadvantage ; but the loss of light from an unsilvered mirror is
very small; and the convenient and simple form of the instru-
ment, by its lightness, less subject to flexure; by its position
much less liable to errors from unequal change of temperature 5
and so extremely commodious in its use; present advantages of
a very important nature, and such as might introduce it into the
most extensive observatories with profit. The advantages may
perhaps be even greater than in small transit instruments. When
in the present construction the telescope is long, as its whole
weight rests on the most disadvantageous point of the axis, this
is of necessity made very large towards its centre to avoid flexure,
the whole instrument so heavy that an additional apparatus of
counterpoise must be added to the pivots, lest they should wear
away the Ys, and the reversing the instrument becomes a work
of some difficulty and danger: whereas in the construction pro-
posed, the small comparative weight of the object- and eye-
glasses lies very near the pivots, and the middle of the tube is the
lightest part of it. The operation of reversing is performed with
great ease, both from the form and lightness of the instrument ;
and it may be added, that the comparative facility of observa-
tiofis is of greater advantage the larger the instrument.

Having so far explained the general principles of this transit
telescope, which was executed very much to my satisfaction by
Mr. Thomas Jones, it will be proper to describe more particularly
its construction.

The transit stand is represented by either fig. 1 or 2 (P1.I). The
first is constructed for being placed or fixed on a vertical surface 5
the second for a horizontal one, A,B; in both are the Ys, or
supports for receiving the axis of the telescope. The end A in-
tended to be always next the eye is furnished with both the hori-
zontal and vertical adjustments, such as are usual to transit in-
struments. The telescope axis is represented by fig. 3. The eye
end being at C, the object end at D turns round in the Ys AB
upon its cylinders 7, 2; the screw head r, at the object end D, is
for the purpose of adjusting the parallel glass. The telescope
is adjusted to distinct vision by means of the head or knob at Fe
The wires of the telescope are adjusted by means of the four
capstan head-serews at the eye end ¢,f. The circle R is divided
on the surface next to the eye. The eye-tube has a sliding mo-
tion for viewing the wires distinctly; the short ptece of tube
at the object end turns round on the telescope tube, and serves
as a cover for the object-glass.

é A2 Fig.

4 Description of a new Transit Instrument.

Fig. 4 is the riding level, and is placed upon the axis in the
Ys, and adjusted by means of the screw S. Fig. 5 represents
the stand, telescope, and level, displaying the position in which
they are used. Fig. 6, for placing the transit in the meridian.

Of the verifications of this instrument two are common to
every construction ; one only is peculiar to this. The line of
collimation is adjusted by looking direct at some distant small
point (the cover being turned over the lateral aperture), and
turning the telescope gradually round on its axis, and moving
the screw of the wires, if necessary, till the spot is in every po-
sition covered by the intersection of the wires. The axis is
brought to an horizontal position, and the level is in the same
mode adjusted by reversing the telescope or level, and correcting
half the error by the level screw, and half by the vertical screw
of the Y in the usual mode.

The verification peculiar to this instrument is that of the
mirror, and perhaps the best mode of doing this is by the pole
star when nearly in an eastern or western position from the pole;
its motion in azimuth is then so slow as to give ample time for
the adjustment. Bring the pole star to the vertical wire (the line
of collimation having been previously adjusted) ; then reverse the
telescope in its Ys ; and if the star is still on the wire, the mirror
is in adjustment : if net, correct half the difference by the mirror-
screw, and half by the horizontal of the Y till the error vanishes.
This adjustment may also be performed by setting up a board
with two parallel perpendicular lines drawn on it distant from
each other, exactly the space between the positions of the mirror
when the telescope is reversed in its ¥s._ If the vertical wire he
brought to cover one of the marks, and on being reversed the
wire covers the other mark, it is right. If not, the error, must
be made to vanish by cerrecting it half and half as before di-
rected for the adjustment by the pole star.

The following method of placing the instrument correctly in
the meridian, is equal if not superior to any that has yet been
devised*,

Let Z, fig. 6, be the zenith; P, the pole; HO, the horizon;
ZPI, the meridian circle; ZK, a circle of altitude distant from
the meridian by a small quantity IK (suppose adegree) ; 1,2,3,4,
the diurnal circle of the pole star, whose radius is 1° 45” nearly ;
and let the altitude of the pole be 51° 30’.. Then when the pole
star is on the northern meridian its altitude 31 will be 49° 45’,
and its zenith distance Z3=40° 15’; and ACD be a part of
the diurnal arch of a star whose polar distance is 46° 30’, and
N. meridian altitude 5°.

* It had been invented hy me many years ago, but has not, as far as I
know, been as yet published. I theretore give it here, as not inapplicable
to the subject of this p:per.

Now,

Description of a new Transit Instrument. 5

Now, suppose the transit instrument, whose axis is accurately
levelled, and of course in the meridian at Z, to pomt at the ho-
nzon to K (it is obvious from its construction that the tele-
scopic axis will be at right angles to the meridian line) instead
of I, the true meridian; then at 3 (the altitude of the pole star
under the pole) it will point at B, and the arch 3 B will be to
IK as the cosine of the altitude 3 I to radius ; but 3 B, measured
on the diurnal circle of the pole-star, will be the sine of its di-
stance from the meridian to the radius P3 or PB: and as, in
small arches, the arch of a great circle, or of a small circle, or
their sines, are nearly coincident, we shall have very nearly, As
Z3 (the zenith distance) to P3 (the polar distance), so is the
value of 3 B, in degrees of the pole-star circle, to its value in
degrees of a circle whose radius is Z3. And as the radius Z3
is to P 3 very nearly as 23 to 1 , the error of the transit telescope,
at the altitude 3 I, will be measured by a scale (if it may be so
called) 23 times as great as itself,

Now, let there be another star A, whose northern meridian
altitude is as small as it conveniently can be; for example, 5°,
whose polar distance is, therefore, 46° 30’, and whose right
ascension is the same as that of the polar star; then, if the
transit telescope be in the meridian, both these stars will pass
through it at the same time ; but if it be out ef the meridian by
the quantity IK, the star A will pass through it when it comes
to C, but the polar star not till it comes to B, when the star A
is got to D, in its diurnal circle.

The value of AC being therefore found, by multiplying IK by
the cosine of its altitude Al, that value being reduced to the
angular value to the radius PA, will give the time of the star A
passing through the transit telescope, after the time of its
passing the meridian; and the same operation being performed
for the pole-star as before directed, the difference of these times
will be the error in time of the transits, answering to the given
deviation IK of the transit telescope, And tables having been
previously constructed for such stars as shall be thought con-
venient, the transit telescope may, in a very short space of
time, be set to the meridian, with a degree of precision unattain-
able by any other method.

If the star A precedes the pole-star in its passage under the
pole, rio tables are requisite, nor any thing necessary tu be known
but the exact difference of the right ascension between the two
stars; for, having observed the transit of the star A (the in-
strument being previously brought near the meridian, suppose
half a degree), then elevate the telescope to the pole-star, by
moving the horizontal adjustment of the axis : keep the pole-
star on the middle wire till the due interval of time between

As their

6 Description of a view Transit Instrument.

their transits is elapsed ; the instrument will then be extreniely
near its true position; and, by repeating the observation once
more, will be brought to a perfect exactness. Or, if another
star, following the pole-star in its passage, be observed on the
same evening, if the times elapsed between their transits are equal
to the tabular difference or their right ascensions, which will pro-
bably be the case, the accuracy of the first placing the instru-
ment will be immediately ascertained. Other stars near the pole
may be made use of in the same manner as is here described for
the pole-star, but with proportionally less advantage as the polar
distance is increased.

It is also obvious from the figure, that the transit of the pole-
star above the pole may be also used, and that with nearly,
though not quite, the same advantage as the transit below the
pole.

The same method may also be applied with equal ease, if the
second star A pass the southern meridian instead of the northern.

The slowness of the pole-star’s motion, though it renders its
transit uncertain to a few seconds, cannot materially affect the
accuracy of this method, as an error of ten seconds in time, in
the estimation of its passage, which is certainly more than can
be committed, would not cause an error of a third of a second
ef time in the passage of, stars near the equator. ‘

Example of the Computalion with the Numbers given above,

Star A. Pole Star.
Sin. IK 8-241855 Sin. IK 8241855
Sin. ZA 9°998844 _ Sin. Z3 9°810316
Sin. AC 8240199 Sin. 3B 8:052171
Sin. PA—9°860562 Sin. P3 —8-484848
Sin. APC 8379636 Sin. 3PB 9°567328
APC 1° 22’ 20” 38PB 21°4(/.10% ~
In time 5™ 291s, Intime J* 26™ 402°,

The error of a degree, therefore, in the position of the transit
telescope at the horizon, causes the star A to pass through it
5° 29'% in time later than it ought; whereas, the same error
causes the transit of the pole-star to be 1° 26™ 402° later than
it aught; and the difference between these two times, viz. 1" 21™
1145, will be the difference of the observed time of their transits,
owing to the error of the position of the transit telescope, their
real right ascension being supposed the same.

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch. - y

, H. Ow

fN.B AZ
Il. On the French Measures and Weights.

M. J. Brisson in his Instruction sur les Mesures et Poids
Nouveaux, &c. Edition monotype, a Paris, An. VIII.

P. 12, states the value of the métre in the old measures to be
“<< 36 pouces 11 lignes and 296 thousandth parts of a ligne.”’

This measure Siescth will pie .. pieds 3:0784*
Pouces. Lignes.

For 36 11-296= 443° 296--12= 36° 9413+ 12=
as above re . pieds 3-0784%

In p. 26, he states the value of the métre to be “ ex-
actement” .. 2. pieds 3:078444

Ibid. He states the volte ef the Aéciinetre to be,
‘Sexactement’” .. ; os lignes 44°3296%
Lignes. Bikes j Pieds in a decim.
Now’ 44:3296—12=3°69413-—12=0°30784 x 2
10-=for 1 métre ae ae .. pieds 3:0784%
From the above statements it is evident that
the métre, as deduced from the pied in page

26, being .. os = 30784
and as deduced from the lignes i in the same page
being 6 oe as ois = 3:()78444

They differ ... 0-0000004
parts of a pied, and therefore cannot be “ exaectement” alike,
which they should be ; and this discrepancy is troublesome
in the verification of calculations.

In p. 17, he states the centiare or métre quarré
to as a's hea = pieds quarrés 9-476817.
Pieds,
Now if the métre be 3-0784, the métre quarré
will be ite sé da 9-476820
197530864
and if the metre be 3:078444, the métre quarré
will be ote oe «» 9476817
461136
Both which, it is evident, differ from his centiaré or métre
~ quarré above.

Ibid. He states the litre ou décimétre cube to =

pouces cubes ¥ as a i. 50°412416,
Now if the métre be 3:0784*
_ the décimétre will be °30784 and +307843=50- 4124378,&c.*

And if the décimétre be -3078444 *3078444:=50: 4124160008,
&c.

A4 But

8 On the Treatment of Burns and Scalds.

But this last value of the litre, although it agrees-very nearly.
indeed with M. Brisson’s statement of its value, in page 17 of
his Instruction, is the least correct of the two, supposing the
Report, stated in the third volume, 4to, p, 324 of Nicholson’s
Journal, as made to the National Institute, that the ‘ true and
definitive métre is 443°296 lignes,” be correct ; and in that case
all the calculations marked with a star (*) above are correct,
and the others erroneous.

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tiiloch.

Ill. On the Treatment of Burns and Scalds. By Mr. RicuarD
Waker, Surgeon and Apothecary, Oxford.

Oxford, Jan. 6, 1814.
Ir is a matter of no ordinary importance, in the profession of
surgery, to know the best mode of treating burns and sealds,
particularly i in what manner to proceed immediately after the
injury has been received, and which it seems is still a deside-
ratum.

It is singular, that even of late years, two modes of practice,
directly opposite to each other’ in principle, have been recom-
mended by practitioners of the first eminence in the profession.

One method, and I believe the most prevalent one, is to coun-
teract or prevent the ill consequences arising from a lurn or
scald, as in other instanees of inflammation, by an aniphlogistic
process ; viz. by cold sedative applications: the other, which is,
the latest, is by the adoption of a stimulating process ; viz. by
the use of inflammant stimulating applieations, and these pre-
viously made warm or rather hot.

The abettors of cach method give a rationale of the means
by which each mode produces its peculiar good effect.

The former of these methods is so consonant with common
opinion, and the ordinary mode of reasoning, as to require from
me neither explanation nor comment.

The latter mode, however, is, at first view, so repugnant to
ordinary reasoning, as to excite attention.

The rationale upon which this is stated to act, is by counter-
acting or preventing ensuing inflammation, vesication, and the
other ill consequences which are incident to injuries of this na-
ture; that is, by not suffering the excitement, irritation, or in-
creased action, in the part, produced by the injury, to subside too
hastily ; but, by the immediate application of appropr tate sti-
muli, to maintain this increased action for a certain time ; and
afterwards, by. a due adjustment of the succeeding stimult, to di-
minish it gradually, until the part injured is by these regulating

means,

On the Treatment of Burns and Scalds. 9

“means, in due time, suffered to regain its natural or ordinary
state.

It is proper to observe, that the author of this process entertains
a decided opinion of the superiority of his own plan, in preference
to the antiphlogistic one ; and that this opinion is sanctioned at
present, I believe, by the practice of many gentlemen of emi-
nence in the profession.

The process of the stimulating plan, recommended and pur-
sued by Mr. Kentish, is doubtless well known, being described
in the various professional works, and therefore an account of it
here is unnecessary.

With respect to the theory, of which I have only given the
leading principle, by which the good effect of the stimulating
plan, in burns and scalds, is supported by Mr. K. I must con-
fess it appears to me, as it does to some other professional per-
sons, remote and unsatisfactory; but, after all, it must be ad-
mitted that facts alone are to be relied on.

Had this latter method been introduced into practice, at the
time I had an opportunity of making observations at the Rad-
cliffe Infirmary, I might probably have been prepared to have
delivered an opinion respecting its comparative eilicacy in point
of fact.

In private practice, having good reason to be perfectly satisfied
with the plan here recommended, I have judged it imprudent to
adopt so bold, and, in my opinion, so indefensible a mode ef
practice, upon the authority of any ‘person: therefore I have
hitherto never tried it.

For my own part, I consider cold, as the direct and proper
antidote for heat ; and upon this principle, chiefly, [ think the
immediate and remote ill consequences of a burn or scald are
to be obviated; and amidst the various methods I have witnessed
the trial of, in cases of this nature, no other mode of treatment
has answered so well as the method I am now about to mention.

In consequence of my observations, on cases of this kind,
which occurred at the Radcliffe Infirmary, during a period of
nearly five-and-twenty years, I collected that the following mode
of treatment was the most successful; and, accordingly, I em-
ployed it there, im those cases in which I had an opportunity,
and which, with some slight variations, I still pursue.

In the first place, 1 apply a dressing of the simplest emollient
cerate ; viZ. one composed of wax and oil, spread rather thick,
upon soft old linen of a close texture, in order to the exclusion
of the atmospherical air ; an exposure to which, under these cir-
cumstances, I consider to be extremely injurious; and imme-
diately after, apply compresses soaked and wet with the liquor

plumlet

10 On the Treatment of Burns.and Scalds.

plumbi acetatis dilutus, and as cold as’may be, renewing or
continuing this process, by means of two compresses, one of

which remains in the cold liquor, whilst the other is applied so

often, and so long, as the part injured is above the natural tem-

perature ; that is, until the heat and irritation arising imme-

diately from the injury have subsided, and which, by this means,

duly pursued, is usually accomplished in a few hours.

In the instances of scadds, where the injury is only superficial,
the same method is persevered in, renewing the dressing or
pledget of cerate once or twice every four- and- -twenty hours,
according as the discharge, pain, or other circumstances may
indicate ; still continuing the cold application, especially toward
the afternoon or evening, when the part is more inclined to be-
come hot and painful.

Whatever vesications might ensue, I immediately emptied of
the effused serum, by as small a puncture as might be, and
pressed the whole of the fluid gently out, preserving the cuticle,
till it separated spontaneously, or the denuded part was become
callous, taking particular care, at the time of removing it, and
likewise at every time of dressing, to cover the part, as expedi-
tiously as possible, in order to exclude the external air.—Parti-
eular care, likewise, should be taken that the-part be well moist-
ened or wetted, with the liquor before mentioned, previously
to removing the plaster, and compress, in order to prevent their
sticking or adhering to the part.

In burns or scalds of a more serious nature, where sloughs are
likely to form, the second part of the process consists in applying
a cataplasm of bread, and the saturnine liquor prepared as be-
fore, and cold, if the ‘heat of the part require it; repeating it
twice, or oftener, every four-and-twenty hours, according to cir-
cumstances. It is scarcely necessary to state, that rest in bed,
unless in trivial cases, is essential, with an anciphlogistic regimen,
and opium occasionally.

In cases of such a nature as to threaten mortification, or the
loss of life, care must be taken that the cooling antiphlogistic
system be not pushed too far, that is, beyond what the habit
and strength of the patient can endure ; which will be apparent,
by the want of a due degree of reaction in the part injured, or
in the system in general ; in which case the use of warm fomen-
tations, and emollient or stimulating cataplasms, according to
cireumstances, should be resorted to; and a due portion of in-~
vigorating nourishment and cordials, as wine, &c. thrown into
the habit. Iam of opinion that Lark is of little use in such
cases.

I was led to the above method of treating burns and sealds, in’ _

consequence.

On the Treatment of Burns and Scalds. a]

Sonsequence of having observed, in many cases, the effeets of
emollient applications, and of the cold saturnine lotion, used both
separately and conjointly, to various cases of this nature—and
likewise from the effects of the stimulating applications, then in
fashion with some practitioners, viz. vinegar, camphorated spirit
of wine, &e.

I have two cases of severe scalds at this time (July 12, 1812)
under my care; one which has been dressed in the ordinary way
with emollient cerate only; the person neglecting to apply the
sold lotion as [ had directed.

In the other case, both legs were severely scalded, from the
feet to the knees nearly.

In this instance the patient very prudently, in my opinion, im-
mersed his legs instantly, without waiting to take his shoes and
stockings off, in a tub of cold water, which happened: to be
near, for some time, and then applied-to me. I pursued the
plan before mentioned ; the next day there were several vesica-
tions of considerable size, (although the greater part escaped
this effect,) which I immediately punctured, pressing out the
effused serum. At a week’s end from the time of the accident,
the denuded parts, and those which were still covered in part with
the detached cudicle, were entirely free from inflammation and
pain, and scarcely any tenderness remained ; and in less than a
fortnight from the time of the accident, he was perfectly well ;
no suppuration or discharge whatever having succeeded to the
accident. The cold lotion was applied by this person, almost
unremittingly, night and day.

In the former instance, the blistered parts suppurated, and
were many weeks in healing.

The ordinary progress, as I have found by repeated instances
of cases treated assiduously in the manner recommended above,
has been according to the event in that instance ; and in cases
of burns or severer scalds, in which sloughs have*formed, the
event, by following the directions before given for the treatment.
of such cases, has been equally successful, allowing for the greater
degree of injury received,

I think it unnecessary, and even injurious, to use any applica-
tion colder, either in winter or summer, than that temperature.
at which spring water usually is all the year round; viz. about
50° of Fahrenheit, (which temperature of water, as is well known,
may be obtained throughout the year, from a pump, a pailful or
two having been previously pumped off ;) and the more frequently
this is renewed, especially at first, the better :—pumping upon
the part, however, by its mechanical force, might be injurious.

After the first or second dressing, | prefer the use of some de-
siccative cerate, to the emollient one ; viz. a saturnine cerate,

of

12 On the Treatment of Burns and Scalds.

of which the following is a good formula. Take of olive oil and
white wax, each sixteen parts; white ceruse two parts, and
Goulard’s extract of saturn (liquor plumbi cetatis) one part,
mixed :—in winter, the proportion of the wax should be only four-
teen parts *;—the proportions of each article are meant by weight.

My intention here is to confine myself entirely to the result of
my own experience alone. Therefore, with respect to the com-
parative effects of this mode with the one lately recommended
by Mr. Kentish, in injuries of this nature, I can say nothing,
having never witnessed myself the effect of it. But perhaps it
may not be going too far to state, that the mode of treatment
recommended by that gentleman has been used here by pro-
fessional persons, who have again returned to the cooling anit-
phlogistic mode of treatment.

It has been the practice of some practitioners, to push the cold
plan so far, as to use even ice and snow to durns and scalds:
of this, likewise, I can say nothing from my own experience.

In burns or scalds, of such extent as not to admit of the or-
dinary mode of dressing by plasters or cataplasms ; an emollient,
desiccative, or stimulating liniment may be used, according to
the intention required.—In the latter intention, which will be
indicated by an adonic, sluggish state of the parts, the liniment
of Mr. Kentish, viz. the linimentum terebinthine of the pre-
sent London Pharmacope@ia, is doubtless a very appropriate
one—using, as occasion may require, to the sores, after the eschars
or sloughs have separated, or in the act of separating, desiccatives,
or, in case of fungus rising, gentle escharotics ; never omitting
withal, wherevér it can be conveniently applied, especially in the
instances of exuberant granulations, dry lint and a moderately
tight bandage. :

It is searcely necessary to observe, that any cerate, or unguent,
may be reduced te the state of a liniment by the addition of a
due proportion of olive oil. .

Since it is essential, according to my opinion, that the parts’
injured by Lurns or scalds, especially immediately, and for a short
time after the accident, should be kept as much as possible from
the action of atmospherical air, and likewise as cool and moist
as possible; I have lately adopted the method of continuing the
same wrapping linen on, observing to keep this constantly as’
cool and moist as possible, by frequently dabbing it over with
the saturnine liguor, by means of a sponge or otherwise—having
found the more assiduously this mode is pursued, together with

* This cerate, although an excellent healing desiccative when of 2
hardish consistence, is extremely injurious if of too soft consistence, es} e-
cially in hot weather. 4
.

the

On the Treatment of Burns and Scalds. 13

the exclusion of air, the more successful is the process; and
moreover, excepting on such parts as may be already denuded of
the cuticle, 1 omit the dressing of cerate ; finding by this mode
the inflammation is best prevented, or arrested in. its progress,
and thereby future vesicatious obviated.

I consider all unctuous applications as extremely injurious to
recent scalds or burns, and particularly so in warm weather,
unless constantly covered with a cold lotion, according to the
manner above mentioned*. ,

Amongst various other cases of a similar nature, which have
occurred to me, treated in the same manner with equal success,
I shall briefly mention one which has recently presented itself.

_A gentlewoman of a corpulent habit, and strongly inflammatory
diathesis, burned both her hands very much in endeavouring to
extinguish a fire which happened to the curtains of the bed she
was lying on, and from which she escaped with difficulty before
the whole was in a blaze. On my arrival I found her immersing
her hands in cold water. This I immediately changed for strong
saturnine liquor, to which I added a very smail portion of cam-
phorated spirit. Her hands were kept immersed in a liquor of
this kind, changing it, as often as it was becoming warm, for fresh.
This process was continued from about eleven in the morning
until about nine at night, by which time the intolerable heat
and pain in the parts were very much diminished, though not
entirely subdued. Each hand was then placed separately in a
linen bag, containing each a cold cataplasm composed of Lread
crumbled fine, and the same kind of liquor in which they had
before been immersed, made very moist, and plentiful in quan-
tity, so as to cover them thickly, immersing them occasioaally
in a bason of the same liquor, to keep them moist and cool.

This plan of poulticing, and moistening occasionally, renewing
the cataplasm every night and morning, was continued for four
days ; by which time they weré in a manner well, a few small
places excepted, in which the effect of the fire had not been pre-
vented from penetrating through the cuéis; and this, | appre-
hend, might have arisen from want of due attention, during my
absence, in not changing the liquor sufficiently often ; supposing
the fire not to have produced this effect before the application
of the preventive means commenced. They were then, for the
first time, dressed with the drying saturnine cerate, immersing
them occasionally, when they were becoming painfully warm, in
the cool liquor. By this treatment the effects of the fire were
so entirely arrested and obviated, that all was well within the

* The same observation applies likewise to the treatment of all kinds of
sores accompanied by intense inflammation,

week

14 On the Treatment of Burns ana Scaids.

week from the day of the accident, the small parts before al-
luded to excepted, and which were ‘almost too inconsiderable to
have been mentioned. It is worthy of notice, that during the
greater part of the day on which the accident happened, so long
as the hands were kept immersed in, the cold liquor, they were
easy ; but if taken out for ever so short a time, the sensation of a
most painfully burning heat came on—and likewise, if the li-
quor in which they were immersed was permitted to become
warm before changing. The only injury the parts sustained,

was an almost entire separation of the cuticle—the cutis itself
remaining perfect, the instances before mentioned excepted. The
vesications, which were many and very large, I punctured the
day after the aceident happened, and pressed the serum out ;
and on the fifth day I removed the greater part of the detached
cuticle —the cutzs itself being dry and free from abrasion :—not
the slightest inflammation came on.

This patient, residing at a distance from Oxford, returned
home well on the sixth day from the accident, with scarcely any
ether remains of the injury than tenderness, arising from the
recently denuded cu/is. Whereas, I consider my experience war-
rants me in asserting, that had she been treated in the first in-
stance upon the ordinary stimulating plan, viz. by camphorated
spiriés, or other articles of a similar nature, ulceration would
have been the consequence, and the cure would probably have
taken up more than as many weeks to have accomplished.

| preier dread rubbed or grated small in these cases, for mak-
ing the cataplasm, to lixseed flour, because the latter is more
apt to heat, and moreover does not so readily admit of an equal
diffusion of ‘the cooling liquor by i immersion.

I forbear entering here into the secondary or subsequent mode
of treatment necessary, when eschars or ulcerations ensue from
burns or scalds; my object, in this paper, being to confine my-
self to the primary y or immediate treatment of such cases.

An attendant upon this gentlewoman had hkewise her hands
burned at the same time, but in a much less degree. By pursuing
the same plan of immersion throughout the day, and the appli-
cation of similar cataplasms at re by the next morning they
~ were nearly well. .

I have witnessed almost every gradation of burns, from the
slightest to the most important. ‘The most dreadful instance of
these, and life still remaining, was a woman who was so terribly
burnt, that the whole surface of her head, body, and her limbs,
for the greater part, exhibited an appearance resembling wood,
or any other combustible substance, completely charred. She
lived several hours; during which time her sufferings were in

~some degree alicviated by the application of cold, damp com-
presses,

On the Treatment of Burns and Scalds. 15

presses, frequently renewed, and the administration of cooling
liquors.

To these observations, already too long perhaps, I shall sub-
join a circumstance or fact, which perhaps is not irrelevant to
the present subject ; and which by a kind of inverse analogy may
tend to confirm, if further confirmation were wanting, the pro-
priety of the mode of treatment I have recommended in burns
and scalds. By the topical application of extreme cold to
the skin, as in handling polished metal at a very low tempera-
ture, the same effects are produced as in the instance of a burn
produced by heated iron, &c. viz. vesication, &c. In like man-
ner, as the application of cold in burns or scalds is a specific
remedy ; so likewise is the application of heat in this instance—
each used discretionally ; viz. by immersion of the part in a
liquid of opposite temperature, duly adjusted. Moreover, in-
stances of the same kind, in a smaller degree, are very familiar
to me, in extreme cold weather, viz. in myself, as well as others.
By frequent immersion or washing the hands, at such a season,
in cold water, and exposure to the cold air, the tips of one or
_ more of the fingers (these parts from the thinness of the skin
there being most susceptible of such an effect, and even without
any abrasion of the skin,) become tender, proceeding onto vesica-
dion and ulceration, if this mode be persisted in; whereas, by
avoiding the cause, and using warm water, and defending them
from the effect of the cold air by wearing a glove, the progress
of the injury is checked at the commencement; or, by appropriate
dressings or cataplasms, together with immersion in warm water,
and protection from cold, which is indispensable, are, in an ad-
vanced state, cured. I have several times, for want of attention
in time, experienced myself the effects of this kind of injury, as
far as to the vesication and separation of the cuticle; and in
other persons, on to a state of udceration. Even in an incipient
state of this affection, the application of cold water, or exposure
to cold air, is extremely painful, and in an advanced state, in-
tolerably so; whereas, on the other hand, immersion in warm
water immediately restores, or produces perfect ease. . The af-
fection | am speaking of is not to be confounded with that of
chilblain, from which it differs materially ; the ‘effect arising
from the sudden communication of intense cold to the skin, or
surface of any part, by a quick or powerful conductor of heat, as
polished metal, or the frequent repetitions of it, in a slighter
degree ; thus producing effects similar, by an inverse cause, to
handling hot iron, or subjecting the hands repeatedly to very hot
water*,

' #* Te will be readily understood, that in this instance the conductor ope-
rates by taking away the heat from the part.

: I have

16 On the Treatment of Burns and Scalds.

I have not unfrequently traced the mild or superficial species

of paronychia (whitlow) to the frequent application of cold,
the end of the finger or thumb having been previously accidentally
pricked, or slightly injured by some means or other, and neg~
lected.
» With respect, to my opinion of the nature of the injury re-
eeived in durns and scalas, atid rationale of the mode of treat-
met to be adopted in such cases, it is briefiy this—that the
effect continues to go on, in a certain degree, although the direct
application of the cause has ceased to act; as is apparent, I
think, by the painfully burning heat which remains.

Hence the immediate mode of treatment is evidently pomted
out to consist. in the application of cold, and which I have no
doubt, if effectively used, would completely arrest or prevent the
progress of such effect, leaving the parts, as far as the cold could
immediately penetrate, precisely in the same state as at the in-
stant of commencing the pr Qcess.

The same mode of reasoning will apply equally to the injury
produced by an inverse effect to the former, viz. the direct appli-
cation of extreme cold to the surface of the body or limbs, and
which, from its similarity in effect to burns and scalds, has not
been unaptly termed cold-burning* ; the effects in one instance
being produced by the sudden introduction of heat or caloric,
and the other by the sudden abstraction of it, by means of the
most powerful conductors of heat, allowing for the difference
between the posifive and negative mode of action in the two
instances.

. For obvious reasons, I think, the best mode of applying cold
or heat, in such cases, is by the medium of a liquid, and com-
municated by immersion, in all instances which admit of it;
and although I have mentioned the degree of 50° of Fahrenheit
as the fittest temperature, it will be necessary to attend to the
feelings of the patient, and regulate the degree of cold applied,
throughout the process, to that temperature which affords most
ease.

In the course of my professional experience both in physic and
in surgery, Lhave rarely found plain reason and fact at variance
with each other; and I think we shall not err in admitting, in
the present instance, that cold is the genuine and proper antidete
for the effects of heat; and vice versd.

It will however be obvious, that the application of the re-
medy, in all instances, should be proportionate to the manner
in which the injury is received, or comniunicated: thus, if it be

* Mereury frozen, or any polished metal at the same temperature, will
quickly destrey the living principle of the skin, and produce vesication.

direct

On the Agency of Electricity in producing Combustion. 17

direct and sudden, the mode above recommended should be
pursued : if indirect, and in consequenee of long exposure to the
cause, as is ordinarily the case in the effects produced by cold ;
heat, as in this instance, should be cautiously and gradually ap-
plied, with friction, &c.

P.S.—My experience warrants me in asserting, that in all.
instances of burns and scalds, which admit of the total exclusion
of the external air, as in the mode of immersion and poulticing
before mentioned, the best method is to omit entirely, during that
process, any dressing to the part, although the cutis be left de-
nuded. ;

To this mode I attribute the complete success in the last m-
stance, in which case much of the cuticle was entirely destroyed
or detached by the fire; the sedative and astringent qualities
of the saturnine preparation acting ccnjointly withthe cold, in
constringing and closing the orifices of the cutaneous exhaling
vessels, and thereby preventing effusion, and subsequent suppura-
tion. It will be apparent that the powlticing is merely a modi-
fication of the same principle as immersion, for the sake of con-
venience, and may therefore, under particular exigencies or cir-
cumstances, be commenced at any time.

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

IV. On the Agency of Electricity in constituting the peculiar
Gace oh tbe is P
Properties of Bodies, and producing Combustion. By Mr.
JoHN WEBSTER.

Tue secondary causes which operate throughout nature are
formed with such infinite wisdom and design, by the first great
inscrutable cause, that it cannot excite our surprise that finite
creatures are unable to fathom or explain these laws, or that
there should be various hypotheses concerning them.

Although the advancement that has been made in the chemical
department of nature is still limited, yet enough has been done
to show the simplicity of her laws and the generality of their
operations. When we see principles widely diffused, we conclude
that they are intended for great and important purposes in the
ceconomy of nature, and that general effects are derived from
these prevailing causes.

Light, heat, and electricity are imponderable elements of uni-
versal distribution, and “appear to be primary instruments in the
hands of nature. In discovering her laws, we are more induced
to speculate on tangible and sensible masses, than on these uni-
versal principles.

VoL. 43. No, 189. Jan, 1814. B We

1s On the Agency of Electricity

‘We consider the earth as composed of a certain number of
elements, and that the different properties of bodies depend upon
the diferent combinations of these elementary substances. Ag-
gregated masses undergo no change in their properties, without
some cheinical change ‘amongst the elements that compose them ;
and as chemical effects are now ascribed to the influence of
electricity, the change of property which bodies obtain seems to
be more peculiarly derived from a variation in the electrical state
of them than from any other source.

- The most acrid and offending bodies lose their destructive pro-
perties by chemical or electrical combination. If it be the pro-
perty of acids and alkalis to be corrosive, why do they lose their
respective properties by combination, if it be not derived from the
electrical union of the ultimate particles that compose them ?
Even the same elements in the same quantities will receive dif-
ferent properties under different states of electricity. The gas
called nitrous oxide, for instance, is, according to Sir H. Davy,
composed of reeks -six parts in a hundred oxygen, the remainder
nitrogen; and the atmospheric air twenty-one parts oxygen, and
the rest nitrogen, saving some inconsiderabie portion of carbonic
acid gas. Now suppose fifteen parts oxygen be added to the at-
mospheric air to bring the quantities of these ponderable ele-
ments equal ; in this case, we are well aware that the properties
of the two gases in the lungs are of a very different description,
although their elements are the same, and yet the atmospherical
air may be converted into the nitrous oxide by electricity.

According to Cavendish’s experiment, if we pass electrical
shocks through a confined portion of atmospherical air, we pro-
duce nitrous gas; but in this experiment a portion of the nitro-
gen is rejected, and the electrical combination of the oxygen
with the remaining nitrogen is in greater proportion than in the
atmospherical air: if we present even an oxidable metal to the
nitrous gas, it loses a portion of its oxygen, and is converted into
nitrous oxide.

The different properties of the two elements, oxygen and ni-
trogen, in these three different states of combination, seem pe-
culiarly to point out how much the properties of bodies are pate
duced by their different states of electricity.

The same principle is strikingly shown from the effects pro-
duced by the vinous and acetous fermentations. Oxygen, hydro-
gen and carbon compose saccharine matter: this in solution
undergoes an electrical process called the vinous fermentation,
and alcohol is produced from the same elements as the sugar
and water. Another electrical change called the acetous fer-
mentation absorbs a further quantity of oxygen, and wine is con-

. verted

in constituting the peculiar Properties of Bodies, 'c. 19

verted into vinegar. Thus the properties of the fluid change, as
the chemical or electrical combination varies amongst the ele-
mentary principles that compose it.

If it be admitted that the character and properties of bodies
be dérived from electrical influence upon the particles that com-
pose them; the substances themselves are passive, or are merely
the vehicles of limited quantities of electricity for which they
have a determinate capacity.

Supposing, according to the generally received opinion, that all
bodies possess electricity, but in different quantities according
to their capacity, combustion and other chemical effects might
be explained upon a new theory. —

The term combustion is here employed to express the evolution
of light and heat, rather than the decomposition of a body.

According to Lavoisier, combustion arises out of the combina-
tion of an inflammable body with oxygen: hence oxygen has
been considered as an essential to combustion.

Inflammable bodies, generally, have great capacity for electricity,
and oxygen of all other bodies the least. Whether we*suppose
the inflammable body and oxygen to be taken away, or the ulti-
mate particles of these bodies combined ; still the electricities re-
main the same, and these very opposite states will rapidly com-
bine to restore an electrical equilibrium. In either case, an
emission of light and heat will be produced ; that is, either with
or without the grosser bodies. So that we have all the effects
of combustion in an electrical spark obtained from the conductor
of an electrical machine, or from the positive and negative ends
of the wires of the electro-chemical apparatus, as well as from .
the combustion which is produced by the electrical combination
of the ultimate particles of bodies in opposite states of electri-
city.

; Chigeén: which is considered as indispensable to combustion,
may be withdrawn when electricity is supplied.

In the ordinary experiment of burning charcoal between the
positive and negative ends of the clectro-chemical apparatus, the
degree of light and heat which is evolved is in proportion to the
intensity of electrical power employed, and the effect which is
produced is greatly superior to any other means of combustion :
this seems to arise from the influence of uncombined electricity.

When combustion takes place from the combination of the
particles of two bodies, the effect is limited; or the emission of
light and heat is dependent upon the electrical capacities of the
bodies employed: thus, the different combustible dispositions
which different bodies possess arise from their varying capacity
for electricity, the intensity being the greatest in those bodies
that are in the most opposite states. But the influence of un-

combined

20 On Electricity.

combined electricity m supporting combustion, or producing an
evolution of light and heat, is always the most powerful, from the
extreme states of the fluid; and equally perfect in effect, whether
the quantity employed be great or small: it is on this account,
that the ordinary electric lights are much more brilliant than
those that are obtained by any other means.

The influence of oxygen does not appear to produce any effect
where uncombined electricity is employed.

If a combustible body, charcoal for instance, be placed in a
vessel of nitrogen or hydrogen gas, on connecting it with the two
ends of the electro-chemical apparatus, the light is equally bril-
liant with that which is obtained in atmospherical air: or, if
the charcoal be placed under an exhausted receiver, an equal
effect will be produced. The combustion of the charcoal is
equally vivid in water or carbonic acid gas ; but in the two latter
instances it might be objected that the bodies were decomposed,
and oxygen supplied from them.

Then briefly to sum up this view: the evolution of light and
heat, or the general effects of what is termed combustion, appears
to arise out of the rapid union .of opposite states of electricity,
either independent and uncombined, or effected by means of
certain bodies in which it resides; and that the combination of
the ultimate particles of sensible masses can only take place
through the influence of those portions of electricity for which
the bodies haye a specific capacity; and that the properties of
these bodies arise out of their electrical states: thus generally
tending to support those established principles of Sir H. Davy,
that all chemical combination is dependent upon electrical union.

If these observations should be found worthy of a place in
your very useful publication, I shall take another opportunity
of extending this subject a little further, and of tracing some of
the analogies of light and heat with electricity, and the influence
of these universal agents in the ceconomy of nature.

I am, sir,
Your obedient servant,
Joun WEBSTER.
To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

Fe a I OS EE

V. On Electricity. By Groner Joun SincEr, Esq.

Sons time since, I ventured to rectify some erroneous state-
ments of Mr. Ez. Walker’s on the subject of electricity; re-
garding them as the mistakes of a novice in that science, which
it might be useful to correct for the advantage of other young
electricians, $f 5;

Had

On Electricity. 21

Had I then imagined that the “opinions and suppositions”’ with
which they were accompanied were intended to form the basis
of a new system of “ chemical philosophy,” or to be followed by
the luminous views of electrical combustion, and oxygen and
hydrogen electricity, which have been developed (at page 267
of the forty-second volume of the Philosophical Magazine), I
should certainly have avoided any notice of those ‘‘ statements,”
and most probably might not then have incurred the anger Mr,
Walker has manifested against me in his note published in the
last volume of this Magazine *. ;

it would be unnecessary to reply to that note, but that it con-
tains an assertion of “ the thing which is not.” I am repre-
sented as having asserted that Mr. Walker is in error, without
adducing one fact to prove it. ‘To refute this misrepresentation,
ft is only necessary to repeat here my former paragraph, from
which’ Mr. W. has made some mutilated extracts. It was printed
as follows:

“ With respect to the permanence of the effects produced by
electrical influence, Mr. W. has fallen into error by confounding
them with communicated electricity. If, after bringing an elee-
trified body near an insulated conductor, on withdrawing it the
_ insulated conductor remains permanently electrified, it must
have lost or received electricity; and in either case it is electri-
fied by communication, and not by position, whether its loss or
gain be the consequence of the contact of some conducting
body, or the imperfection of its own insulation during the disturb-
ance of its natural electricity; and one of these causes must
operate to produce permanent electricity in such an experiment :
for neither an insulated rod, nor a gold-leaf electrometer, if
properly constructed, will be permanently electrified by approxi-
mation to an electrified body; unless they communicate by im-
perfect insulation, or pointed terminations, with surrounding
unelectrified substances during such approximation. 'These are
facts, which the constant repetition of such experiments pro-
fessionally enables me to state with confidence; and they are
indeed such as amongst electricians are generally admitted: but
perhaps Mr. Walker has yet to learn, that a conducting body
supported by dry glass, and surrounded by dry air, may be still
very far from perfectly insulated +.”

The statement in the preceding paragraph may be verified in
a few minutes by any one sufficiently acquainted with the practice
of electricity to make experiments with due accuracy; and ]
believe it not only adduces a fact in proof of Mr. Walker’s error,
put offers the requisite information to show him its cause,

* Vol, xlii. p. 485. t Phil. Mag, vol. xli!. p. 264.
B8 Independent

22 New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy.

Independent of this circumstance, it is amusing to find an’ in-
dividual so confident of the infallibility of his own observations,
as to consider them sufficient to subvert the experience of Can-
ton, Franklin, Wilke, 4ipinus, Cavallo, Stanhope, and Robison;
although the observations of the most experienced electricians of
the present time are opposed to the inference he has drawn.

Londen, Jan. 10, 1814. G. J. SINGER,

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

VI. New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy. By Ez, WALKER,
Esq. of Lynn, Norfolk.

[Continued from p. 371, vol. xlii.]

Mucu confusion in chemical philosophy seems to arise from
want of precision in chemical language. Oxygen and hydrogen,
are terms that are used in a very vague manner, no distinction
being made between oxygen and oxygen gas, nor between hydrogen
and hydrogen ga$. Positive and negative are words that have
no definite meanings in chemical science; and yet we have posi-
tive and negative electricity, positive and negative galvanism ;
and even the laws of chemical affinity are now explained by the
terms positive and negative. We have also fixed fire, phlogiston,
and other words that express things rather more imaginary than
real. All this confusion might be avoided by adopting two new
terms to express the two elements, which produce effects that
are real objects of our senses, and by which those elements may
be known in all their various conbinations with matter.

“© Mr. Davy,” now Sir Humphry Davy, “ exhibited the powers
of the Voltaic instrument by brilliant experiments ; metals were
fused upon the surface of water and of oil of turpentine, and
burnt in contact with them. He stated that the maximum of
heat was at the positive electrical surface ; and he exhibited an
experiment in which, though the most brilliant light was at the
negative surface, yet the ignition was infinitely greater at the
positive *.”

From these properties of the two elements above mentioned,
that element which produces the maximum of heat, at the posi-
tive electrical surface, may be called the generator of heat, or
thermogen; and that element which appears at the negative
surface, and exhibits the most brilliant light, may be called the
generator of light, or photogen. The choice of these terms
seems to be sanctioned by the words thermometer and photome+
éer now in common use. By the term photogen is to be under-
stood the imponderable element of all combustibles, whether it

* Phil, Mag. vol, xxxix. p. 187.
existe

New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy. 23

exists combined or uncombined with matter ; by thermogen is
to be understood the imponderable element of ail supporters of
combustion, whether it exists combined with matter, or in a
free and uncombined state.

Thermogen and Photogen.

When a Leyden jar is receiving a charge from an electric ma-
chine, one side receives thermogen from the atmosphere, and the
other side receives photogen from the earth. When a commu-
nication is made between the inside and the outside of the jar,
by some conductor of these elements, the element from the in-
side attracting the element from the outside, a spark is produced,
consisting of a double current exhibiting both light and heat,
and the equilibrium which was destroyed by the action of the
machine is restored. But it cannot be supposed that these ele-
ments are annihilated by their union: such a supposition would
be absurd: they only enter into new combinations, and return
again into those receptacles from whence they were withdrawn,
For while the element of one side of the jar goes to the earth,
the element of the other side is gommunicated to the air.

When two portions of the same element are nearly equal they
repel each other, but when they are very unequal they attract
each other. This is known from an infinite number of experi-
ments: consequently, the immense attraction of the photogen in
the earth attracts any small portion ef the same element, which
may be disengaged from its base, with an infinite force; and the
thermogen in the atmosphere attracts every small portion of the
same element the instant that it is disengaged from matter.

But why does not the thermogen in the atmosphere unite with
the photogen of the earth, as they have’a very strong attraction .
foreach other? This question will be easily solved as ‘soon as it
is understood that they are kept asunder by their bases. Oxygen
aud hydrogen gases mixed together in a proper vessel, would re-
main for ages without producing any effect upon one another ;
but let their elements be brought into contact, either by pressure
or increase of temperature, and combustion will instantly take
place.

If the attraction between these elements of combustion aud
their bases were not proportioned to a mathematical exactness,
the whole ceconomy of our globe would be deranged. For, if

this attraction were greater than it is at present, we should have
perpetual frost ; and if this attraction were much less than it is,

_all combustibles would be reduced to ashes in a moment: but,
in the present state of things, it is impossible that either of these
events should happen.

It is not to be understood that photogen is light, or that

thermogen

24 New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy.

thermogen is heat; they are the generators of light and heat,
light and heat being the effects which they produce on matter.
The thermogen on the inside of a charged jar cannot be felt,
nor does it produce any effect upon the most delicate therme-
meter, nor is any light perceptible on the outside of the jar. But
let the jar be discharged through a piece of iron wire, and both
light and heat are produced. When the metal becomes red hot
by this means, it loses its photogen, attracts oxygen gas from
the air, and becomes oxidized. If this oxide be mixed with
some matter containing photogen, and heat applied, oxygen gas
will be reproduced, and the metal will receive photogen, and _
again become malleable.

The application of these elements, to elucidate some of the
most interesting phenomena in nature, will be move fully treated
of hereafter,

Composition of Water.

Some philosophers maintain that water is a simple body, and
the only ponderable basis of oxygen and hydrogen gases, and other
aérial fluids ; but others “inp that water is a compound of
oxygen and hydrogen, and this opinion is now generally adopted
by writers on chemistry. But all the experiments made to se-
parate the component parts of water, tend to prove that it is a
body simple and undecompounded. What has led men to con-
clude that water is a compound body, seems to have arisen from
their supposing that the electric spark is a simple fluid; but as it
is now well known that it consists of two elements possessing
different properties, both chemical and mechanical*, the passing
of these elements through water is no proof of its being a com-
pound substance, notwithstanding oxygen and hydrogen gases
are produced by this means.

When thermogen and photogen pass through water in con-
trary directions, thermogen and water form oxygen gas; pho-
togen and water form hydrogen gas. These gases being’ mixed
together in a close glass vessel, and their temperature increased
to a certain degree, combustion takes place, light and heat
escape through the glass, and the product is pure water.

That thermogen and photogen are capable of producing com-
bustion, before they entered the water, is unquestionable, nor
can it be supposed that they are annihilated by passing through
it; for they appear again in the two gases, producing the same
phenomena of light and heat as_before. Hence it appears that
the two elements which compose the electric spark are the impon-
derable elements of the two gases, and that water is their com-
mon base. Oxygen and hydrogen gases thrown upon fire pro-

* Phil. Mag. vol. xlii. p, 161. .
duce

New Quilines of Chemical Philosophy. 25

‘ duce the most intense heat; but water being thrown upon fire
extinguishes it: water, therefore, is neither a combustible nor
a supporter of combustion, and consequently it contains neither
oxygen ner hydrogen.

Another experiment, which has been made to prove that wa-
ter is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen, consists of passing
steam through a red hot iron tube containing turnings of iron,
by which means hydrogen gas is produced, and the iron turnings
become oxidized ; whence it is concluded, that water is a com-
pound of oxygen and hydrogen. But let the experiment be tried

with a red hot glass tube containing pieces of broken glass, and
no hydrogen gas will appear: hence it is evident, that one of the
component parts of the hydrogen gas, in the former experiment,
came from the metal.

Now when the turnings ef iron become red hot, the photogen
they contain and water produce hydrogen gas: but in this pro-
cess thermogen must be present, for no combustion nor increase
of temperature can be generated unless thermogen and pho-
togen be united. The most condensed rays of the sun do not
exeite combustion in vacuo, noF in any gas deprived of oxygen,
even when the most inflammable substance is employed*. Con-
sequently, the thermogen and water produce oxygen gas, which
the iron, after being deprived of its photogen, attracts, and be-
comes an oxide of that metal.

This experiment may be illustrated by the burning of iron,
wire in oxygen gas. In this beautiful exhibition the most bril-
liant light and the most intense heat are generated, by thevunion
of the photogen of the metal and the thermogen of the oxygen
gas. The metal, having lust its photogen, attracts oxygen gas,
and becomes an oxide of iron intensely heated.

The photogen or generator of light in the metal cannot be
hydrogen, for “no combinations of iron with hydrogen or azote
are known }.” If this assertion be correct, we have combustion
without hydrogen.

Sir H. Davy observes, that “ the nature of water may be shown
synthetically as well as analytically.”

«¢ When ten grains of the metal called potassium are added to
about two grains of water in a glass tube, there is a violent ac-
tion, much hydrogen is disengaged, and by heating the results
the operation is completed. The same effect is produced upon
the potassium, as would be produced by heating it strongly in
contact with a small quantity of oxygen; it becomes united to
oxygen, and its increase of weight is in proportion to the weight
of the hydrogen as 15 to 2 f.”

* See Phil. Mag. vol. xlii. p. 370, t Davy’s Elements, p, 388.
} Davy’s Elements, p. 247.
But

26 Observations on a Fiery Meteor.

But the composition of water cannot be shown by a compound
test. ‘Potassium inflames when gently heated, aud throws
off fumes which are alkaline *.’’ Consequently potassium is a
compound of an inflammable element and a metal, and therefore
it may be used as a test to prove that water is a simple body,
and not a compound. For the inflammable element and water
will form hydrogen gas, and the metal when strongly heated will
attract oxygen gas in the same manner as other metals.

“It may be remarked, that oxygen is mz/d when in the pro-
portion of 22 per cent. in atmospheric air, and highly corro-
. sive in the proportion of 70 per cent. in nitric acid; or even of
that of 40 per cent. in sulphuric acid. How is it, then, that it
is found in the ratio of 85 per cent. in water, and that this com-
pound, compared with the others, should be perfectly mild and
innocent ?”? The answer given to this question is, “* because its
oxygen is so forcibly retuined by the hydrogen +.”

Now, as the theory of the comipound nature of water does not
rest upon common experience, nor upon any known truth, but
upon a bare assertion without any proof whatever ; therefore, it
seems to be nothing more than 4 fanciful conjecture.

Lynn, Jan. 7, 1814. Ez. WALKER.
To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

[Vo be continued. |
x

VII. Observations on a Fiery Meteor. By T. Forsrer, Esq.

I communicate to you the following account of a fiery meteor,
which was seen by a friend of mine on Monday evening, the
8th of November last, about eight o’clock. He was walking
between Woodford and Hackney; the weather being fine,
and the moon shining bright; and was suddenly surrounded by
a light blueish flame: it lasted two or three seconds, so as
to give him time to turn himself round and view it on‘all sides.
He felt at the time a warmth like that of a very hot damp day.
When it subsided, he perceived the moon much dimmer, on ac-
count of the bright light which had just affected the organs of
vision. These are all the particulars I have of it, and I com- ~
municate them just as they were given me. In hopes that some
other persons more distant, who may have seen this curious phe-
nomenon, which is certainly of the 2gms fatuus kind, may give
further particulars, I send. this for insertion in your Magazine.
Yours, &e.

Clapton, Jan. 10, 1814. - THOMAS FoRSTER.

P.S. There were many meteors called falling stars on the
evening of the aforesaid Sth of November.

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

* Davy’s Elements, p. 322, + Parkes’s Chem. Cat. p. 252.

(2%. 3

WITT. Notes and Observations on the remaining part

-

of the Sixth and part of the Seventh Chapters of Mr.
Rogpert BaKEwELw’s ‘* Introduction to Geology ;”—
embracing incidentally, several new Points of Geological
Investigation and Theory. By Mr. Joun Farey Sen.;
Mineral Surveyor.

{Continued from vol. xlii. p. $67.]

Notes, &e.

i. 143, |. 5, Loose stonest.—t Rubble, or angular broken

stones, are never found im the Coa]-measures, though
such often are on, near the surface, 11 Coal-fields, in
common with almost every other paft of the stony
strata. ’

144, |. 1, narruwer or wider *,—* Thicker or thinner.

1. 10, the roof +.—f Rep. i. 345.
1. 25, called tow t.—t Tawe, Duns, &c. Rep. 1, 348.

147, 1. 6, raised on that side*,— * But the Coal and

other strata may, on the contrary, be sunk on that side,
if the let-down is greater than the depth of the pit gg:
a case which not unfrequently happens, and such is
evidently the source, of some of those grand mistakes,
as to the identity of Coal-seams, with which I have
ventured to accuse even the most experienced Coal-
masters and agents, Rep. i. 166 and 167, &c. See my
2d Letter, p. 110.

], 22, shattered where they come in contact ¢.—t See
my Note on p. 208.

148, 1. 3, generally serve to identify it *.—* This defec~

tive rule, is often very improperly relied on, in speak-
ing of the identity of Coal-seams (as observed in my
od Letter, p. 111), when far better evidence on this
important point, might easily be had, by comparing the
entiré sinkings of the Pits, and tracing the bassets of
the several strata on the surface, between the places.

|. 9, 300 yards +.—t Clandewn Coal Pits, SE of
Paulton in Somersetshire, are reported to me, to be
400 yards deep!

1.12, 30 feett.—t Rep. i. 176.

]. 21, 13 feet thick **.—** Rep. 1. 196.

149, 1.9, Bind or Clunch*.—* White stone, Rep. 1.

176, and Mont. Mag. v. xxi.

152, 1. 25, one-third of England *.—* Which the Lias

strata and those above it occupy, Rep. 1. 116.

153, |. 18, founderies *.—* Furnaces, Rep. i, 395.

P.154,

28 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

P.154,1. 11, unfit to make iron *.—* The second unsuc-
cessful attempt with the Earl of Moira’s Iron Furnace,
on Ashby Wolds (Rep. i. 401), is here I suppose alluded
to :-—to me it seemed, when there on my Derbyshire
Survey, that the quantity of tron-stone that could be
readily got, was quite inadequate for the supply of the
furnace erected. Earl Stanhope’s furnace at Dale
Abbey (Rep. 1. 397) is said to have failed, owing to
the quality of the Coals in its vicinity, although the
ironstone was in plenty, and of good quality.

Noblemen and gentlemen will in time find out, that
they had much better take the advice of experienced pro-
fessional Men, in the Letting of their Minerals on pro-
per terms, than attempt dhe working of them on their
own account; or, than take the first offer of any rash
or inexperienced adventurers, who may apply.

157, 1. 21 and 22, an alluvial production *.—* This is
certainly the case with a large proportion of our Wood
Coal, near the surface, as that of Bovey (p. 158) men-
tioned in a Note in my first Letter, p. 57. Butit seems
no less certain, that some irregular Coal-seams, having
the characters of Wood Coal, are lodged between re-
gular strata, that in particular, above the Doggers and
alum Shale near Whitby in Yorks. mentioned page
#67; which was working at Napehow in 1811, and
had formerly been wrought at Newton-house, Rudscar,
&c., P. M. xxxix. p. 101. The very irregular strata
of wood Coal, above the Pipe Clay, in the Isle (as it is
improperly called) of Purbeck, that are I believe alluded
to P. M. xlii. p. 396, Ihave not seen; but from the
description by my oldest Son and others, who have
seem them, I conclude them to belong to the alluvium,

161, 1. 22, after each inundation*.—* If the plants which :

gave rise to Coal, were all subaqueous, or adapted to
the hottom of a deep and quiet Ocean, instead of dry
land (as I suggested in the articles Coal and Colliery
in Dr. Rees’s Cyclopzedia), to which I know no op-
posing facts, but many coroborative ones (Mont. Mag.
XXXlll. p. 514 and 515), all the difficulties, of Mr. B’s
almost infinitely repeated, alternations of dry Land and
Water, would be avoided.

Mr. B. has no where noticed the important Geolo-
gical fact, which I have generalised, I think (and was
also the first writer who mentioned it, I believe) of the
Jioors of Coal-seams, being all of one nature, viz. in-

fusible

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 29

[P.161] fusible Clay, Rep. i. 179§ ; and also have shown, that
the extinct Coaly vegetables, in this’respect, differ essen
tially from our Bog Plants, or such as have formed
Peat, which seem: to require a sandy soil for their
growth, Rep. i. 308 and 312.

Besides the mere thin hollow pipes, or thin flat
leaves, which distinguish the plants of the regular Coal
strata, the British Strata throughout their whole series,
almost, present in places, numerous detached specimens
of the solid or ligneous parts of vegetables, closely
resembling /Vcod, which sometimes, though rarely, are
found with the bark on them, (but never with Roots, any
more than the Coal plants,) and more rarely with arms
or main branches, but without any of the minuter
branches or leaves: by far the greater number of spe-
cimens of this fossil Wood, whether petrified, car-
bonated, or rotten, are found in splinters or billets,
as if, first forcibly rent from large trees, and afterwards,
for a long time floated in water, where they have become
worm-eaten, and much worn, in many instances.

These circumstances attending fossil Woods, have
greater difficulties attending them, than almost any of
the Geological phenomena that Iam acquainted with ;
—when and where did they grow?, how were they so

| generally rent? and so universally, and through such
Jong periods of time, diffused in the original Ocean? &c.
I have been able to perceive no reasons, why the bottom
of the primitive Waters may not have produced ligneous
as well as less solid vegetables, where neither of such
might require Roots (for such I believe are never found)
to support them, owing to the quiet state of the waters,
or to nourish them, any more than the curallines of
our days,

162, 1.7, may have consolidated *,— * Mr. B. has
scarcely taken any notice in his work, of the kind of
crystallization, by which seanis or strata of Coal, are
almost invariably found split (or capable of being so),
into rhomboidal blocks, by nearly vertical joints ; the
length-way joints being very generally called sdines,
and the oblique and shorter end-joints, called cutters,
(see Note on page 69): nor has he noticed, a curious

§ In addition to eight or nine different Names, which I had found esta-

blished, in different districts of Great Britain, for the infusible Clay, thus

forming the floors of their several Coal-seams, I lately met with the term

Warrant, in the Isle of Anglesea, as the general name for the substance and
stratum, immediately below each of their Coals,

fact,

| 30 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’ s Geology.

“.{P.162] fact, mentioned by me, Rep.i. 181 and sh. that
theses lines very generally, if not invariably ?, range
about ESE and WNW, through extensive districts,
where the dips vary much, both ‘locally and generally ! _

1. 14, the complete consolidation f. — ¢ See my
Note on page 19.

166, |. 92 and 23, nearly horizontal *, —*Ina north and
south direction, but having a very perceptible dip to
the Eastward, Rep. i. 156, 168.

1675: \0 14 singularly déitorted 128 * Mr. B. seems here
to allude to the Wild- Park, Breedon and Clouds-bill,
magnesian and contorted Taenectoue Rocks, as being
identical with the yellow Lime Rock, which overlies
the Notts, Derby, York and Durham Coal-field (see
my Note on p. 176); notwithstanding, that they are
herein, at pages 284, 275, &c., represented to be iden-
tical with, and a continuation of, the Peak Limestones,
and also with the shale Limestone near Ashburne,
page 286, which last, as clearly wderlie this vast series
of Coal strata, as mentioned in my secondiLetter, p. 106.

1. 12, quantity of common lime ¢.—f Rep. il. 107,
409 and 412.

]. 23, edifices in the metropolis t.—f The fine Oa-
lite stone, of the vicinity of Bath, is now coming into
ase in London, brought by the Kennet and AvonCanal ;
the stone using in restoringHenry VII’s Chapel atWest-
minster, is from thence; and in an adjoining Field,
my friend Mr. Wm. Smith has extensive quarries, and
a rail-way thence to the Canal, where he has a Saw-
mill at work, preparing it fer all the different purposes
of the London Mason...

168, I. 9, as has been traced *.—* See the articles Coal
and Colliery, in Dr. Rees’s Cyclopedia, and Rep. i. 109.

1, 12 and 13, occur in the South ¢.—t Phil. Mag.
XXXIX. p. 94.

1. 23, south of Europe t.—f{ The Rev. J. Townsend,
who was so well acquainted with our Chalk strata,
before he travelled in Spain, and on his return, was
not likely to mistake Mr. B’s (‘* imaginary”) earthy
lime-stone, for chalk (see p. 185), nor is it probable,
that the Island of Crete or Candia, and others in the
south of Europe, are without Chalk, as Mr. B. has
here insinuated ; perhaps this doubt was expressed, in
order to invalidate the suggestion alluded to at the
canclusion of my Note on page 138.

P. 169,

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 31

P.169, |. 7, upper or soft Chalk *.—* P. M. xxxv. p. 130,
. and Rep.1. 111.

1. 20, called chert ¢+.—tf Rep. i. 272.

171, |. 23, lime and flint are changed *.—* Rep. i. 272,
and 415: in Notes on my Paper on the Ashover De-
nudation, mentioned in a Note in my first Letter
(p. 55), several instances are mentioned, and the cir-
cumstances stated, under which such or er ae changes
appear to me to have happened, to different substances,
when lodged in the alluvium: to the Slate Rubble on
Whittle Gillin Charnwood Forest, for instance, see
my Note on Mr. B. p. 291.

172, 1.13, layers of flint *.—* P.M. xxxv. p. 130, and
Rep. i. 112.

1. igand 20, building-stones +.—t Totleralves Re-
che, and Ryegate stone, &e., Rep. i. 112.

1, 24 and 25, last or uppermost ¢.——{ That Chalk is.
not the uppermost regular stratum in England, is now
very evident, in the northern part of the Isle of Wight,
Mr. B. p.177 and 335, P. M. xli. p. 224, and 461,
vol. xxxv. p. 132, and vol. xlii, p. 395.

1. 25, alluvial ground **,—** The doubts formerly
of my friend Mr. Benjamin Bevan, and others, as to
the London Clays and Sands being regular strata, P.M.
Xxkv. p. 137 §, should I think be entirely removed, by
the subsequent excavations in Highgate Hill and under
yde Park, &c. My worthy friend Mr. William At-
kinson, Architect, of Bentinck Street, has also suc-
cessfully investigated the nature of the Chert Nodules,
which principally gave rise to the doubts alluded to,
by collecting great numbers from the Gravel Pits and
Roads near “London, and causing them to be sawn
through and polished :—they almost invariably prove

§ At page 132 of the volume here referred to, I stated six different sugges-
tions, in the form of queries, regarding the identity of the London and the
Paris strata; the fourth of these, on which there is a note at the bottom ofthe
page, relates to a modified or altered nature of these strata (such as is men-
tioned of Red Marl and of Limestone Shale, Rep. i. 148, and 228; of Grit-
stones and of Coals, in my Notes on Mr. B’s pages 44, 125, &c. &e, ); and
whereon, an Officer in one of the Societies to whom, I recommended the
consideration of this question, has lately mentioned, the probability, that
the blue Clay of London and the calcaire grossier or coarse Limestone of Paris
are parts of the same deposit or stratum, “ and that from local circumstances
the clay has prevailed in the ore, and the calcareous matter in the other,’
P. M. xiii. p. 398.

At the bottom of page 136, vol. xxxv. I suggested, that the Sc/enite of the
London Clay (as in the Croydon Canal on Plow-G: arlic Hill SSW of Dept-
ford), may answer to the Gypsum of the neighbourhood of Paris.

of

32. Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.172] ofaconcentric or nodular formation, and contradict
the supposition, of their being rounded masses of flint,
chert, or any other stone: a small shell, proves the
nucleus of one of the Nodules: in great numbers,
the figures or stripes, curved, fortification-shaped, &c.
are very beautiful, and the colours quite equal to most
of those which are washed out of the alluvial red Clay
on the shore near Whitby in York NR. and are col-
lected from the beach with such avidity, by the Cu-
rious, many of whom are not aware, that they might
find such at their own doors, near London. Mr.
Sowerby’s collection has long been rich, I believe, in
these smal] nodular masses, of the London Clay strata.

173, 1. 3, extensive Lakes *.—* See my Notes on p. 60,
138 and 182, &c.

1. 17, others foliated ¢.—t The specimens of Paris
Gypsum, containing Bones, which | have seen, corre-
sponded in their characters with none of the above,
being earthy and slightly granular; intermediary in
structure between Chalk and soft Oalite Limestone.

174, 1. 26, well-educated geognost *.—* See page 176
Note, 353 Note, and Rep.i. xlvi-

175, |. 15, marle and gravel containing *.—* The or-
ganic Remains here mentioned, all occur in Alluvial
Clay, on the Marle or Gypsum and not i the Red
Marle, here or elsewhere, see Rep. i. 136 and 149,
Edinburgh Encyclopedia iii. 393, and my second Let-
ter, p. 105.

176, 1.3, The Geological situation *.—* On first reading
the paragraph which thus commences, and Mr. B’s
Note thereon, below, I could not help thinking, that
he was attempting a hoax, on the *‘ well educated geo-
gnosts,”’ and I was unwilling to suppose, that he was
himself serious, in adding to the extreme confusion on
this head, with which he charges *¢ the disciples of
Werner” in his note on page 174; the point is how-
ever of too much importance, as to the real succession
of the strata in England, to be thus dismissed, and I
will quote Mr. B’s passage, with such references or ex-
planations in [ ] as appear to me necessary, viz.

«¢ The Geological situation of the Derbyshire gyp-
sum may be represented, as situated in the upper se-
condary strata, separated [below] from the mountain
lime (i. e. fransition L. p. 92, 93, Map p. 255 &c.], by
intervening coal districts on one side, aud [above]
from the stratified magnesian lime [which is an upper

secondary

:
ee

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 33

[P.176] secondary rock, p. 166] by sandstone on the other
side.””

Now it is evident, from page 166, although the
mention of Derbyshire is omitted in describing the
magnesian range, from Nottinghamshire to Northum-
berland, that the ower yellow Lime Rock, is here in-
tended, and that the sandstone mentioned aboye, must
mean the stratum next under the lower ycllow Lime,
(often-appearing as a Sand, hut sometimes also as a
thick Sandstone Rock, see Rep. ii. p. 410, Note); be-
cause, otherwise, either Coal strata would occur on both
sides of [above and below] his Gypsum if placed lower,
or if Mr. B. referred to the wpper yellow lime, and made
his Gypsum belong to the intervening Red Marl, which
T have lately traced between these rocks (P. M. xxxix.
p. 104), then ‘* earthy limestone” would occur [be-
Jow] on one side of it instead of Coal strata; and thus
therefore it should seem, that Mr. B. would persuade
*‘the disciples of Werner,” to place the Chellaston
Gypsum, and its incumbent Red Marl, next above the
Derbyshire Coal-measures, and under the yellow Lime
Rock, which covers them!—But has any Collier,
sinking through the Limestone to work the Coals below,
(as several do) ever seen an ounce of Gypsum ?, or has
such anywhere been found at its basset ?, or even Red
Marl, which might contain it?.

What the sandstone (or Gravel Rock, Rep. i. 132)
west of Nottingham, has to do with the Gypsuin of
Chellaston Hill, in Mr. B’s Note, p. 176, might puz-
zle a much better educated Geognost, than | pretend
to be.

]. 12 and 43, in the gravel and marl ¢.—¢ Marl has
here been inserted by mistake, see my 2nd Letter
(p- 105) and note on page 175.

1,15, a distinct formation {.—t The mistake on
which this supposition is founded, is-pointed out as
above, see Rep. i. 147.

177, |. 3, over chalk *.—* When the principles and
practice of Mr. William Smith and others, in explor-
ing and tracing the strata, shall be extended to theg
Continent, which hitherto has very imperfectly been
the case, as it would appear, from the large Map of
the strata around Paris which was lately published, the
calcareous strata here alluded to, and doubtless many
others above them in the series, will, I think, be very
extensively traced, in connection, as well] as seen in iso-

Vol, 43, No, 189, Jan, 1814. C lated

34 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.177] lated hummocks, beyond their reyular edges ; see my
note on page 336.

1. 8, upper part of the Clay +.—tSce my note on
page 16.

1.18, fresh-water shellst.—t} See my note on page 60.

179, 1. 6; seas of salt and fresh water *.—* The Parisian
Geologists speak not of Seas, but of Lakes of fresh
water, I believe, and which are sufficiently improba-
ble, see P. M. xxxv. p. 134, and my note on page 182.

181, ]. 21, in their present situations *.—* It has I hope
been unintentional, that the true situation of the re-
mains of large Quadrupeds near Paris, has, both here
and at page 336 (No. 13), been omitted; although they
are so expressly described, by M. Cuvier and his asso-
ciates (see P. M. xxxv. p. 58), to be found in the most
recent alluvium, and not in the stratified Clay beneath,
as has in so many places here, been mistakingly repre-
sented, with respect to similar Remains, found near
London: see my Note on page 16.

Sir Joseph Banks has very frequently mentioned to
his friends, this idea (ascribed by Mr. B. to La Methe-
rie), as to the Bones of large Quadrupeds, and Shells,
supposed to be of fresh-water origin, found with them,
having been drifted from the Land, by inundations ;
and he has referred to the situations of the two most
noted depositaries of them near London ; just helow
the junctions of the Brent and of the Roding Valleys,
with the larger one of the Thames, near to Brentford and
to Barking, as presenting probable reasons for their
accumulation in these particular spots, by eddies in the
meeting currents. Soon after the period of these deposi-
tions, 1t appears to me, that a comparatively quiescent
state of the inundation recurred, and the alluvial depo-
sit of loam or Brick-earth, so plentifully found upon
the London Gravel, took place, and covered, and has
preserved these Bones, &c.

182, |. 4, of the great rivers *,—* But where do great Ri-
vers, or Lakes supplied by them, deposit regular strata ?
or any thing which can be mistaken for such strata,
when examined with scientific attention ?

[To be continued.]

IX. On

[ 35 ]

1X. On the Formation of Fat in the Intestines of living Ani-
mals. By Sir Everarp Home, Bart. Presented by the
Sociely for promoting the Knowiedge of Animal Chemistry *.

a HE investigation of the digestive organs of different animals,
in which I have been engaged for many years, has led me im-
perceptibly into an inquiry respecting the ab a uses of the
lower portion of the intestines in birds and quadrupeds.

. The first thing that attracted my notice more particularly to
hid subject, was finding that, in all animals whose stomachs are
made up of a great variety of parts for the purpose of cecono-
mizing the food, the colon has a greater extent of surface, and
the course of the canal is so disposed that its contents must be
a long time in their passage through it. This circumstance led
me to believe that the food, after the chyle is formed and se-
parated from it, undergoes in the lower intestines some changes,
by which a secondary kind of nourishment is extracted from it.

This opinion was much strengthened, by finding that the
colon of the casuary from Java is only one foot long, and each
of the ceca which are appendages to it, only six inches long,
and a quarter of an inch in diameter; while the African ostrich
has the colon forty-five feet, and each of the ceca two feet nine
inches in length, and at the widest part three inches in diameter :
besides which, both the colon and ceca have very broad valvule
conuiventes not met with in the casuary from Java. This won-
derful difference, for it is more than fifty to one, can only be ex-
plained by the lusuriancy of Java being so great, that this bird
might destroy its health by over- -feedin ig, had no guard been
furnished by nature.

This guard is, the food passing through the intestines with
so much facility, and in so short a time, ” that, however much
the bird may eat, only the necessary quantity of nourishment is
carried into the constitution ; ; but in the African ostrich, the food
is retained in the extensive colon till every thing nutritious is ex-
tracted. In all ruminating animals, the colon is of great length,
is fixed in its course, which is very intricate, and varies in every
different genus; so that we cannot doubt of some particular
process being carried on in it.

The process which the contents of the eclon undergo, is quite
distinct from any thing carried on in the other intestines, since
they entirely change their appearance and smell; and there is
commonly a valve to prevent any part of them, even the gases
evolved, from being carried up into the small intestines,

The peculiar smell of the feces, which borders so closely on

* From the Philosophical Transactions for 1813, part ii.

C2 that

36 On the Formation of Fat

that from putrefaction, although by ne means the same, led me
to compare them with the animal matter buried in the earth,
which is converted into adipocere: in both cases the substance
is in the incipient’ state of putrefaction, but that process never
completely takes place; it is excluded from the external air, is
either under water, or within the reach of imbibing moisture ;
and there is no substance whatever, the chyle excepted, which
can better supply the waste produced by the actions of growth
and muscular exertion, than animal fat.

‘he more I canvassed this new opinion, the greater number
of circumstances in favour of it occurred to me; one of the
strongest of which is, that there is no other mode I am acquainted
with, by which animal fat can be formed. To this may be
added the curious cireumstance of the sleeping animals, which
lay in so large a supply of it, in a short time, to serve for their
winter’s consumption, having a formation of the intestines al-
most peculiar to themselves, in which there is no valve to distin-
guish the colon, and no fixed course for that intestine; so that
the contents pass along with more facility, and remain a shorter
time in the canal, the food being sufficiently plentiful during the
summer to compensate for this want of economy, by which the
lower intestines receive more abundaat supplies for the produc-
tion of fat. These intestines remain empty during the sleeping
season, so that no fat can be formed in that period.—With this
very important information, thus procured, in support of my
opinion, I have been led to presecute this inquiry with increased
ardour, and shall now bring forward the facts I have been able
to ascertain in confirmation of my hypothesis. These I shall
detail in the order in which they were acquired, thinking it bet-
ter to lay before the Society the regular process of the investiga-
tion, than to grasp at once at the conclusion’ which in the end
of it I have felt myself authorised to draw.

I shall therefore begin by stating the circumstances under
which adipocere is formed from animal matter, most nearly re-
sembling those in which the contents of the lower intestines in
living animals are placed; and this I shall do from facts, entirely
within my own knowledge, the specimens of the adipocere being
now in my possession ; and afterwards go on by bringing forward
proofs that a substance similar to it is formed in the colon.

Mary Howard, aged forty-four, died on the 12th of May 1790,
and was buried in a grave ten feet deep at the east end of Shore-
ditch churchyard, ten feet to the east of the great common
sewer, which rus north and south, and has always a current of
water in it, the usual level of which is eight feet below the sur-
face of the ground, and two feet above the level of the coffins in
the graves. In August 18]1 the body was taken up, with some

others

in the Intestines of living Animal;. 37

éthers buried near it, for the purpose of building a vault, and the
flesh in all of them was completely converted mto adipocere or
spermaceti. In Stowe’s History of London, this part of Shore-
ditch is stated to be a morass, and since that time the ground
has been raised eight feet. The clerk and the grave-digger ob-
serve, that at the full and new moon the water in the sewer rises
two feet, and that at those times there is water found in the
graves, which at other times are dry. Hey

The current of water, which passes through the colon, while
the loculated lateral parts are full of solid matter, places the solid
contents in somewhat similar circumstances to dead bodies in
the banks of a common sewer.

The circumstance of ambergris, which contains sixty per cent.
of fat, being found, in immense quantities, in the lower intestines
of the spermaceti whales, and never higher up than seven feet
from the anus, is an undeniable proof of fat being formed in the
intestines ; and, as the ambergris is only met with in whales out
of health, it is most probably collected there from the absorbents
under the influence of disease, not acting so as to take it inte
the constitution.

Ambergris is found in lumps from fourteen to more than one
hundred pounds each ; it is not to be distinguished in its appear-
ance from the fieces, but when exposed to the air it grows hard;
a lump has been found in the sea weighing one hundred and
eighty-two pounds *,

In the human colon, solid masses of fat are sometimes met
with in a diseased state of that canal, and are called scybala;
these are in all respects similar to ambergris.

Concretions of olive cil and mucus found in the human in-
testines must be formed in the same way. A case of this kind
was communicated to me by our associate Dr. Babington in the
following letter +

« My dear sir, 17, Aldermanbury, Feb. 2, 1813.
* The following are the circumstances relating to the change
produced upon olive oil, by passing through the stomach, and in-
testines of the elderly person whose case | mentioned to you at
the last meeting of our Animal Chemistry Society. The lady in
question had for several years past suffered from severe affections
of the stomach, which, from the attendant symptoms, were con-
sidered as occasioned by the irritation of biliary concretions.
Many remedies having been resorted to without affording her
other than temporary benefit, she was advised to try the effects
of olive oil, taken to the quantity of two or three ounces at a
' 4ime, and to be repeated as circumstances might require. From
* Vide Phil Trans, 1783,
C3 this

38 "On the Formation of Fat

this she experienced almost immediate relief; and, on the sub-
sequent examination of what passed from the bowels, globular
concretions were uniformly observed, which by the persons about
her were considered as the gall-stones which had previously been
productive of so much distress. This lady having occasion some
months since to visit her friends in town, and a doubt having been
suggested by one of her medical attendants in the country, as to
the nature of the concretions in question, I was desirous, from
the account that I had received, to have an opportunity of de-
termining the point for myself; and therefore requested, that if
the pain should recur, and she should be under the necessity of
repeating her medicine, that the concretions, which had been
said always to pass from the bowels in consequence of her so
doing, might be reserved for my inspection. In a few days I was
summoned to make my proposed visit ; and, upon examining the
substances collected, 1 found their appearance to be such as I
have already described to you, namely, that of distinct globules,
varying in size from that of a large pea to the bulk of a moderate
grape, of a cream cclour, and slightly translucent, of sufficient
consistence to preserve their form, and to bear being cut by a
knife, like soft wax, but at the points of their contact disposed
to cohere. When exposed to heat, they readily melted, and then
at once exhibited their original oily character. The change,
which they have since experienced, has taken place in the water
in which they have been kept.
** T am, dear sir,

** Yours always, very faithfully,

(Signed) «© Wn. BABiNGTON.”
To Sir Everard Home, Bart.

Our associate, Mr. Brande, afterwards examined the substance,
and made the following report upon it :

“The globules voided appeared to be composed of. the olive
oil combined with mucus: the latter separated during putrefac-
tion, and the oil was evolved, apparently unaltered. The re-
lative proportion may be estimated at one-third animal matter,
and two-thirds vegetable oil.”

The following case, which was also communicated to me by
Dr. Babington, shows that fat is sometimes formed in the in-
testines, and detected passing off with the feces :

Hlizabeth Ryder, four years and a half old, had been healthy
for six months after her birth, when she became thin, had a sal-
low complexion, and was liable to jaundice. At a year anda |
half old, her beily was tumid, and she had great weakness in her
back and limbs, for which complaints Dr. Babington was first
consulted, At three years old, her mother observed something

come

in the Intestines of living Animals. 39

come from her, as she walked across the room, which, when ex-
amined, was found to be fat in a liquid state, which ‘concreted
when cold. Ever since that, time to the present, she has voided,
at intervals of ten or fourteen days, the quantity of from one to
three ounces, sometimes pure, at others mixed with faces ;
when voided, it has an unusually yellow tinge, and is quite fluid
like oil. Her appetite is good, as well as her spirits, and her
flesh firm; her belly rather tumid, but not hard: she is subject
to occasional griping: her urine natural, and she sleeps well.
The specimen on the table was procured under circumstances
which precluded all possibility of deception.

. These facts, so strongly in favour of the opinion I had taken
up, led me to devise in what way it might be put to the test of
experiment. _I tried to extract fat from the contents of the colon
in different parts of its course, but without success. Failing in
this mode of obtaining any decisive conclusions, I was led to be-
lieve the ecxca of birds more favourable for experiments on this
subject, and had those of a duck examined by Mr. W. Brande
after the bird had been seven days without an evacuation, This
confined state of the bowels put the parts nearly under the same
circumstances as if they were in a diseased state. When the
ceca were examined, they were found completely distended with
feces of the consistence of soft clay, so that, when the bags were
laid open, the contents retained the same form. The intestine
immediately above the ceca was empty, but the rectum was
much distended ; its contents were of a softer consistence than
those of the ceca. '

The following is Mr. Brande’s report on this subject :

<‘ The contents of the ceca were divided into two portions, of
one drachm each, and comparative experiments were made with
similar quantities of the contents of the rectum. :

© Exp. 1, One drachm of the contents of the cecum was
completely immersed in half an ounce of water, and kept for
seven days in a temperature varying from 40° to 60°. At the
‘end of that time, warm water was poured upon it, but no ap-
pearance of fat could be perceived.

“ Exp.2. The same quantity of the contents of the caecum
was immersed in water containing one-fifteenth part of nitric
acid, and kept under the same circumstances as in the former
experiment. In seven days, warm water poured upon it sepa=
rated a portion of oily matter, which conereted when cold, and
appeared to be one-eighth of the whole mass.

* Exp. 3. Portions of the contents of the rectum were treated
in the same way as in Experiments 1 and 2. That in water
became putrid very rapidly, and showed no appearance of fat.
The other, in the diluted nitric acid, was more dissolved than in

C4 Experi-

Fy On ihe Forination of Fat

Experiment 2. Considerable extrications of gas took place, but
there was no appearance of fat.

From these experiments, we learn that the contents of the ce-
cum, being confined there for some days, are in a state readily
to be converted into fat by nitric acid, while the contents of the
rectum are not, probably from being too putrid.

While engaged in this inquiry, I received from Sir Joseph
Banks the carcase of a wild swan, which the Hon. Mr. Pelham
had shot in the neighbourhood of the Humber. On examining
the ceca, their contents were found to be of a bright green co-
lour. This led me to propose to Mr. Brande to ascertain by ex-
periment, whether an admixture of bile had any effect upon the
process of converting animal substance into fat. The following
experiments were made by Mr. Brande upon this subject :

_ Exp. 1. He took two portions of human muscle of the same
size, and digested one of them in human bile, the other in wa-
ter, both placed in the temperature of 100°.—In the first day
the muscle in the wile underwent no change. On the second
day it became soft in its texture, and had a slightly fetid smell.
On the third day it became more fetid and, yellow. On the
fourth it had the smell of excrement, was flabby, very offensive,
and fatty upon the surface. The portion of muscle, digested in
water, had undergone no other change in the four days, but be-
coming slightly putrid, and there was no appearance of fat what-
ever.

Exp. 2. A similar experiment to that with the human bile,
was made with a small portion of beef, and ox’s bile, and the
results were exactly similar. :

Exp. 3, The last experiment was repeated in the tempera-
ture of 60°, In four days the beef became slightly fetid, and of
a yellow colour; in six days it became more fetid, but there was
no appearance of fatty matter.

Exp. 4. A portion of beef cut into pieces was digested in
ox’s bile, at the temperature of 100°. At the end of the fourth.
day the putrefaction was more advanced than in Experiment 2 ;
the beef was washed and heated upon paper, but no greasy stain
was produced.

From these experiments we learn, that the bile has a power of
onverting animal substance into fat; and that the temperature
of 100°, or nearly so, is necessary for that process. We learn
also, that this change is produced just as putrefaction is be-
ginning to take place; and if the substance goes rapidly into
putrefaction, no fat is formed ; and, what is deserving of observa-
tion, the peculiar smell belonging to faeces, so different from that
of putrid matter, is produced at the time that fat is procured.

Having succeeded in changing animal matter into fat, by

adding.

in the Intestines of living Animals. 4j

adding bile to it out of the body, 1 was desirous of ascertaining’
whether this process could be detected going in in the human
intestines}; and being in attendance upon a gentleman of an ad-
vanced age, who had been six days without an evacuation from
_ the bowels, confined to bed by the gout, I did not let slip the
opportunity of his having a very costive stool deeply tinged with
bile, to make the experiment. The excrement was put into
water, and kept heated for three hours to a temperature of above
100°. When the water was allowed to cool, a film was formed
upon the surface, which appeared to be of an oily nature, and
Mr, Brande ascertained it tobe so. The quantity was not great,
but quite sufficient to ascertain the fact ; and next day the feces
having subsided, the fatty film was much more conspicuous. In
the Phil. Trans. for 1673, \p. 6093, a case is stated of a person
who laboured under an indisposition, attended with sickness and
vomiting. In one attack of vomiting, he brought up matter re-
sembling tallow, four pieces of which weighed half an ounce.

This process of forming fat in the lower intestines by means
of bile, throws considerable light upon the nourishment derived
from clysters, a fact well ascertained, but which could not be
explained. It also accounts for the wasting of the body, which
so invariably attends upon all complaints of the lower bowels.
It accounts, too, for all the varieties in the turns of the colon,
which we meet with in so great a degree in different animals.
This property of the bile explains likewise the formation of fatty
concretions in the gall-bladder, so commonly met with, and
which, from these experiments, appear to be produced by the ac-
tion of the bile on the mucus secreted in the gall-bladder: and
it enables us to understand the following effects, which arose
from the circumstance of no part of the bile passing into the
intestines.

A child was born, at the full time, of the usual size, and lived
for several months, but never appeared to increase in size, al-
though it fed heartily, had regular stools, and the food seemed
perfectly digested. There was no bile in the stools, and the
skin ‘was of a dark yellowish brown. I saw the child while it
was alive, and was struck with its want of growth, and its having
no fat under the skirl, which made it appear longer than new
born children generally are. Upon examining the bedy aftey
death, the only mal-formation met with, was there being no
gall-bladder, nor any duct leading from the liver into the duo-
denum. ;

From what happened in this case, a supply of fat appears ne- -
cessary for growth ; for the child was by no means. wasted in its
muscles, which it must have been had the constitution not been
supplied with nourishment,

Animal

42 On definite Proportions.

Anima! fat has, I believe, hitherto been considered as a secre-
tion, although there is no direct eyidence in favour of such an
opinion. It has nothing in common with the secretions ; it is
met with in all the interstices of the body ; is very often quickly
deposited, and in as short a time taken back into the constitu-
tion. In these respects it corresponds with the watery fluids,
with which the body is supplied.

In a former communication respecting the stomachs of animals,
I explained that water was taken up from the stomach by chah-
nels yet unknown, and carried into the circulation ; from whence
it is poured into all the cavities of the body, or thrown out al-
together by the kidneys and glands of the skin. .

On the present occasion, I hope that I have collected a suf-
ficient body of evidence to prove, that fat is formed in the in-
testines, and from thence receiyed into the circulation, and de-
posited in almost every part of the body. When there is a great
demand for it, as in youth, for carrying on the growth of the
body, it is laid immediately under the skin, or in the neighbour-
hood of the abdomen: when not likely to he wanted, as in old
age, it is deposited in the interstices of muscles, to make up in
bulk for the wasting of the muscular fibres. There appear to be
no direct channels by which any superabundance of it can be
‘thrown out of the body; so that, when the supply exceeds the
consumption, its accumulation becomes a disease, and frequently
a very distressing one.

X. An Attempt to determine the definite and simple Pro-
portions, in which the constituent Parts of unorganic Sub-
stances are united with each other. By JAcoB BeR2ELIUS,
Professor of Medicine and Pharmacy, and M.R.A. Stock-
holm.

[Continued from vol. xlii. p. 463.]

THIRD CONTINUATION. .

Containing the laws of the combinations of water, and of the
formation of sulsalts and double salts, together with the re-
sults of the whole investigation.

I HAVE expressed an opinion in the former parts of this Essay,
that water takes place of a base with respect to the acids, and
of an acid with respect to the bases; I have also advanced as a
probable supposition, that the salts contain always so much water
of crystallization, that its oxygen is either an integral multiple
or submultiple of that which is contained in the base of the salt.
I had inferred from Davy’s experiments, that the gaseous muria-

tic

On definite Proportions. 43

tie acid contains such a quantity of water as is sufficient for oxi-
dating with its oxygen as much metal as is capable of producing
a neutral salt with the dry muriatic acid; and Gay-Lussac has
proved the same thing in his excellent essay on the combinations
of the gases. I had also found by experiment that the sulphuric
acid could only be concentrated by boiling, until the remaining
water contained one-third as much oxygen as the acid, that is,
as much as would be required by the same acid in a base capable
of saturating it. I had assumed the component parts of water
113 of hydrogen, and 88} of oxygen, from my own experiments,
confirmed by those of Biot and Arago. Mr. Gay-Lussac makes
them 13} and 863, without altering the determination of the
specific gravity of the gases. I shall endeavour to throw a clearer
light on these combinations of water by the experiments now to
be described. [ ought perhaps to have been deterred from mak-
ing some of them public by the difficulty of the subject, and the
impossibility of fully establishimg my opinions respecting the com-
position of hydrogen ; but science would often have profited by
_ communications which have been withheld by too great a desire
of minute accuracy. ;

I shall here make some preliminary remarks on subjects con-
nected with the immediate objects of my pursuit; and first, re-
specting the impossibility of exhibiting some of the acids in a
separate state. We have learned from the excellent experiments
of MM. Gay-Lussac and Thenard, that the muriatic acid can-
not be separated from the substances with which it is combined,
unless in the presence of water, with which it may combine at
the moment of its formation. Mr. Davy’s inferences from this
fact are well known; but we shall here pause alittle to examine
the affections of other acids in similar circumstances.

Sulphur, as we have reason to believe, is capable of four de-
grees of oxygenization. ‘The first and second are unknown ex-
cept in combination with the muriatic acid ; the third is the sul-
phurous acid, and the fourth the sulphuric. No themist has
ever obtained dry sulphuric acid, and whoever attempts to pro-
cure it, will find sulphurous acid in its place. If, for example,
we burn sulphur in perfectly dry oxygen, a very slight trace only
of sulphuric acid is formed, and this originates from the hydrogen
present in the sulphur, which affords a little water. If we dry
sulphate of the oxide of iron, or alum, with proper care, and

_ attempt to drive off the sulphuric acid by heat, we obtain oxy-
gen and sulphurous acid, without the condensation of a trace of
sulphuric acid; but if we cause aqueous vapour to pass over
these salts when heated, we immediately obtain sulphuric acid
condensed in the receiver. It is known on the other hand, that,
if we throw sulphuretted muriatic acid into water, sulphurous acid

18

a4 On definite Proportions.

is disengaged, and a precipitate of revived sulphur appears. We
may therefore safely assume, that of the four stages of oxygeniza-
tion of sulphur, only one is capable of being separately exhibited.

Nor can the zitric acid be obtained without water. If we
attempt it, we get nothing but oxygen gas and nitrous acid. But
when these gases come into contact with each other over water,
the affinity between the substances, which had been suspended,
is restored, and a compound of nitric acid and water is formed.
Consequently the nitric acid cannot exist alone, but requires the
presence of a third body containing oxygen. If the nitric acid
were incapable of being exhibited in a lower degree of oxygeni-
zation, and if the affinity of oxygen to its radical were very strong,
it would obviously be perfectly impossible to expel this acid from
any of its combinations by means of a dry, although a stronger,
acid, with the assistance of heat; for im this case two strong
affinities would oppose the one which tends to the formation of
the dry acid; that is, the attraction of the nitric acid to the base
of the combination, and that of the oxygen to the radical of the
acid, which must both be overcome in order that the separation
may take place.

But it often happens that the attraction of a radical to oxygen
is incomparably greater than that of an acid to a base. It is
therefore very natural, that an acid which cannot be exhibited in
a separate state, and of which the radical has a very strong at-
traction for oxygen, should be incapable of being separated from
its combinations without the intervention of water, or of some
other oxidated body. :

This is precisely the case with the muriatic acid, and it pos-
sesses the properties which have led the acute Mr. Davy to his
peculiar opinions respecting this acid, in common with the sul-
phuric, the nitric, and, as we shall see hereafter, with several
other acids. The experiments, which have been performed, in
order to the decomposition of the muriatic acid, prove that the
radical of this acid has a remarkably powerful attraction for oxy-
gen, if not the greatest of all existing substances. But if we
attempt to decompose ignited muriate of soda with fused boracic
acid in ared heat, we oppose the weak attraction between the
boracie acid and the alkali to the much stronger attraction of the
muriatic acid for the alkali, and the still more powerful affinity
of the radical of the acid to oxygen: hence it is very obvious
that no separation of the muriatic acid from the base can take

lace.
‘ When the celebrated Mr. Davy entertained hopes of decom~
posing the oxymuriatic acid gas by means of charcoal, which he
kept ignited in it for an hour, he seemed to suppose that the
earbon had a greater affinity for oxygen than the radical of the
murtatic?

On definite Proportions. 45

thuriatic acid. For, ifit is impossible to exhibit the muriatic acid in_

a separate state, it would have been requisite that the carbon should

separate from the radical not only the small portion of oxygen
which distinguishes oxymuriatic from muriatic acid, but the whole
quantity that exists in the combination. Now the attraction of

_carbon for oxygen is much weaker than that of the muriatic ra-
dical, and the experiment cannot be admitted as a valid proof
that the oxymuriatic acid contains no oxygen.

A second preliminary remark relates to the water of crystat-
lization of salts. If we examine a solid that contains water,
we must not forget that the water may be either in a state of
chemical combination, or merely retained mechanically in the
pores of an aggregate. The internal parts of crystals are not
completely continuous, but interrupted by very small irregular
interstices, occupied by a small portion of the mother liquor, in
which the crystals have been formed. For this reason, regular
saline crystals, although they derive their origin from a power
which detaches them from all chemical connexion with the sub-
‘stances remaining in solution, still contain a small quantity of
the foreign substances which had been present, however carefully
their surfaces may have been washed. Crude saltpetre, for in-
stance, crystallized from the first solution, exhibits yellowish-
brown crystals. But this saltpetre is not chemically combined
either with the colouring extractive matter, or with the alkaline
muriate, which is found init. By the help of a magnifying
glass we see clearly that the white salt contains a yellow sub-
stance in its pores; and the same must he true of the impurities
which are not distinguishable by their colour. The less pure the
mother liquor, the more must the crystals be loaded with foreign
substances ; and the purification by repeated crystallizations de-
pends on the mechanical admixture of a mother liquor which
becomes less and less charged with impurities at each step of the
process. A large crystal contains in its pores a quantity of the
mother liquor proportionally larger than a small crystal. Thus,
in the refineries of sugar, the syrup which is separated during
the continual agitation that is employed for obtaining lump sugar,
by crystallization in small grains, is commonly more coloured
than the syrup from which sugar candy has been separated du-
ring a slow evaporation, in large yellow or even brown crystals.
In the same manner it has been usual to purify nitre for fire-
works by causing it to precipitate in fine grains; and we know
from the experiments of MM. Thenard and Roard, that alum,
may easily be purified by a similar process. .

If we powder a salt that has been crystallized in very small
grains, and well dried, it affords immediately a dusty dry powder.

If,

46 On definite Proportions.

If, on the other hand, we attempt to pulverise the same salt
equally well dried, but consisting of larger crystals, we obtain a
damp ‘powder, sorhewhtit cohering, from containing a portion of
the mother liquor, that oozes out of the pores, and causes the
appearance of moisture. . If we dry this again, we may then re-
duce it to a state of dust; except in the case of particular salts,
which exhibit some degree of cohesion even when perfectly dry.

The water mevhanieally included im crystals is generally ex-
pelled by the effect of heat, together with the water of erystalli-
zation ; ‘but in the salts which contain no water of crystallizatien,
and which are exposed in large masses to a high temperature,
the water is suddenly changed into vapour, and causes the salt
to decrepitate. Consequently the water thus expelled cannot
have been water of crystallization, since it must have been un-
equally distributed through the crystal,—a condition incompatible
with chemical combination. For this reason, the estimates of
the quantity of the supposed water of crystallization in decrepi-
tating salts have been extremely various, according to the mag-
nitude of the crystals examined, the larger crystals affording the
greater proportion.

That decrepitating salts might contain water of crystallization
is not altogether impossible, for the water of crystallization might
be expelled at a higher temperature than that which produces
decrepitation: but as far as we have hitherto examined, the com-
binations which retain water the most obstinately are always
fused at a moderate temperature, and the water which is only
united mechanically to the crystals is expelled by boiling.

I have premised these observations, in order to show how dif-
ficult it may be to determine the quantity of the water of ery-
stallization with perfect accuracy. But hereafter this determi-
nation will be rendered very easy : for, when the law of the water
of crystallization is once de termined, some experimental approxi-
mations only will be required, in order to determine among the
different suppositions which can possibly be admissible : and this
law | imagine that I have established in the experiments which
are now to be related. I have generally employed granular ery-
stallizations ; and if the salt was not much disposed to crumble,
} have rubbed it into a fine powder, suffered it to remain exposed
for some hours to dry air, and then heated it in a crucible of
platina, of which the weight, as usual, had been accurately deter-
mined. I have also examined different forms of crystallization
of the same salt, but have been unable to find any difference in
the quantity of water contained in them.

The principal subjects of the present division of my essay are
four: jirst, Laws for the combinations of water with acids,

bases,

On definite Proportions. 47

bases, and salts; secondly, Laws for the formation of subsalts ;
thirdly, Laws for the formation of double salts; and fourthly,
General view of the results of my experiments.

I. Laws FoR THE CoMBINATIONS OF WATER. .
A. Combinations of Water with Acids.

1. Tartaric Acid.

Ten grammes of finely powdered dry tartari¢ acid were dis-
solved in water, and heated with a solution of acetate of the prot-
oxide of lead, as long as any precipitate was formed. The
“mixture was evaporated to dryness, and the uncombined acetic
acid was in great measure expelled. The mass that remained,
when well washed on a filter, afforded 23-51 gr. of tartrate of
protoxide of lead. '

Five grammes of this substance, when treated with dilute sul-
phuric acid, afforded, in three different experiments, 4°2318,
4-229, and 4-228 gr. of sulphate. Consequently the tartrate
must consist of

Tartaric acid...... 37°79 100-00
Protoxide of lead ... 62°25 164°87

Hence the 23°51 gr. of tartrate must contain 6°875 of dry
acid, and 100 parts of the crystallized acid contain 11:25 of
water, and 100 of dry acid unite with 12-7 of water, which con-
tainl1-2 of oxygen. But the protoxide of lead saturated by
100 parts of this acid contains 11-788 parts of oxygen ; so that,
‘notwithstanding the slight difference in the quantities, it is pretty
obvious that the crystallized tartaric acid must contain a quan-
tity of water, in which there is as much oxygen as in the base
saturated by the acid. In the experiments which I have under-
taken, in order to investigate the laws of the formation of organic
‘productions, and which I shall hereafter make public, [ have
‘only found in the tartaric acid 56-384 per cent. of oxygen, with
39-206 of carbon, and 4:41 of hydrogen, which is nearly five
times as much as is contained in the water that saturates 100
parts of tartaric acid. In two experiments on the tartrate of the
protoxide of lead, I obtained from 3 grammes, with a very slight
variation, 3°7555 gr. of carbonate of lime, and -425 of water.
If now the compositions of this tartrate, of the carbonate of
lime, and of water, are correctly ascertained, the deficiency in the
computation must be made up with oxygen: but it must be al-
lowed that this determination is subject, from various causes, to
an error of as much as 1 per cent. I must here repeat the re-
mark, that I may possibly have estimated the quantity of oxygen
contained in the different bases somewhat too high, and that
hence may arise the difference of the quantity as deduced from

the

48 On definite Proportions.

the oxygen of the acids and that which has been more directly
determined. But I have endeavoured to distribute this error as
equally as possible through all the results, so that the first per-
fectly correct and well-established analysis of an acid or an oxide
may correct the whole at once.

2. Citric Acid.

Some crystallized citrie acid was finely powdered, and dried
for some hours in the sun,

a.) Five grammes of this acid were dissolved in water, and
mixed with 15 gr, of levigated protoxide of lead, which had
been ignited the instant before ; the mixture was slowly evapo-
rated to dr yness, and the salt of lead, mixed with the protoxide,
was then dried, in as strong a heat as it would bear, on a sand
bath, until it “lost_no more_of its weight. The mixture now
weighed 18°95 gr. Consequently the acid had contained 21 per
cent. of water.

b.) Ten grammes of the same citrie acid, treated in the same
way as the tartaric, afforded 23°756 gr.of the citrate of the prot-
oxide of lead.

c.) Five grammes of the same citric acid, kept melted in a
gentle heat, as long as they lost any part of their weight, were
found to be deficient, when they were congealed into a solid
mass, ‘304 gr. or 7°08 per cent.

d.) Ten grammes of citrate of the protoxide of lead, treated
with diluted sulphuric acid, gave 9-056 gr. of sulphate of the
protoxide, in which are contained 6-666 gr, of the protoxide.
Consequently this salt contains one third of its weight of acid,
and consists of

Citric acid 4 83°35 100

Protoxide of lead 66°667 200
Hence 100 parts of citric acid must saturate a quantity of the
base which contains 14:3 of oxygen. If we compute from ex-
periment /.), according to this analysis, we find again that the
citric acid contains 20°85 per cent. of water. Now this acid had
lost, in a temperature not high enough to decompose it, 7:08
per cent. of water; and this makes about a third of the whole
that it contains. The remaining 13-77 parts of water were at-
tached to the acid by a stronger attraction. But if 79-15 parts
of dry citric acid contain 13°77 of water strongly attached to
them, 100 parts of dry acid must combine with 17:14 of water,
_ which contain 15 of oxygen, or a little more than is contained
in the protoxide of lead which saturates 100 parts of the dry
acid. This small difference depends on the impossibility of ob-
taining perfectly correct results from substances, W hich, like the
citric acid, are easily decomposed in a temperature somewhat
elevated.

On definite Proportions. 49

elevated. Hence we see that the citric acid contains a quantity
of water of crystallization, which may be separated from it
without altering the composition of the acid, and that this water
of crystallization is half as much as that which is more intimately
combined with the acid. E

8. Oxalic Acid.

It is a fact generally known, that the oxalic acid effloresces or
falls into powder in dry air. I thought at first that it lost the
whole of its water during this change ; but upon exposure toa
temperature somewhat above the boiling point of water, several
portions of it wereychanged into coherent masses, but never lost
exactly equal parts of their weight. The variations however
were only from 28 to 29 and 29-3 per cent. ; and in the last case
it was obvious that a sujlimation had commenced, for the sur-
face of the salt was covered by smail crystalline needles.

I now mixed in a small glass dish four grammes of powdered
oxalic acid, which had been dried for an hour in the air, with 20
gr. of finely powdered protoxide of lead, which had just been
ignited ; I poured water on the mixture, and dried it rapidly,
stirring it frequently in the mean time. The acid and the prot-
oxide had now lost 1°68 gr. of their weight. I repeated the
experiment’ with a result precisely similar. Hence 100 parts of
oxalic acid contain 42 parts of water.

Ten grammes of well dried oxalate of the protoxide of lead
were burnt in an open glass dish exposed to a red heat. The
dish lost, in different experiments, from 2°52 to 2°53 gr. of its
weight. The remaining protoxide had a shining yellow colour.
Consequently the oxalate of the protoxide of lead consists of

Oxalic acid........ 29°2 100-0

Protoxide of lead... 74:8 296-6
Hence 100 parts of oxalic acid saturate a quantity of a base of
which the oxygen amounts to 21-2 parts. Now we have seen
that 100 parts of crystallized oxalic acid contain 42 of water, of
which they lose from 28 to 29 by exposure to the air. But 28
is exactly 2 of 42; so that the oxalic acid retains 1 part of wa-
ter for every two that it loses. Hence we find that 100 parts of
dry oxalic acid unite with 72-414 of water, and lose 48276 of
these in drying. The remaining 24:138, which can only be
driven off by the assistance of other substances possessed of
stronger [positively] electrical powers with relation to it, con-
tain 21°3 parts of oxygen.

4, Rawnits,

We are therefore acquainted with none of the three vegetable

acids, here analysed, in a separate state ; and it may be presumed
Vol. 43. No. 189, Jan. 1814. D that,

50 On definite’ Proportions.

that, like the mineral acids before mentioned, they cannét be ex-
hibited in a separate state.

We have also seen, that both the citric and the oxalie acids
contain a portion of water which may be expelled, and which
may he considered as water of crystallization, while the acid
remains combined with another portion of water, which com-
pletely assumes the place of a base, and can only be expelled
by a stronger base. We may properly consider these combina-
tions with water as salts, in which water is the base, and stands
precisely in the predicament of the weaker bases among the me-
tailie oxides, which are capable of combining beth with acids
and with other bases. If we consider the water which escapes
from the oxalic acid during its efflorescence as water of crystal--
lization, it contains twice as much oxygen, as the portion of the
water, which is to be considered as the base of the combination.

It is not probable that these determinations can be liable to
any error from the presence of water in the oxalate of the prot-
oxide of lead: for from 5 gr. of well dried oxalate of lead, pro-
perly burnt in close vessels, 1 obtained in two experiments ouly
from 077 to -O9 gr. of water, together with a quantity of car-
bonie acid which afforded 3-708 of carbonate of lime. If we
calculate the composition of the oxalic acid from the analysis of
the oxalate of the protoxide of lead, the carbonate of lime, the
carbonic acid, and water, this acid must consist of 34:9 of car-
bon, nearly 1 of hydrogen, and 64:1 of oxygen. But we have
seen that 100 parts of oxalic acid unite with so much of a base
as contains 212 parts of oxygen, and 21:2 x3=63'6. We
may therefore consider it as proved, that the oxalic acid must
contain three times as much oxygen as the base by which it is sa-
turated. Finally, we ‘* have found, that” the water contained
in the crystallized oxalic acid contains exactly as much oxygen
as the acid itself.

It is true that these analyses of the vegetable acids differ con-
siderably from those of Gay-Lussac and Thenard ; probably on
account of the water united withthem. For, if we subtract
from the acid of the tartrate of lime as much water as contains
twice as much oxygen as the lime, we find the capacity of the
acid for saturation such as is determined by my experiment gn the
tartrate of lead. The same is true of the citrate and oxalate of
lime, if we deduct from them as much water as contains a quan-
tity of oxygen equal to that of the lime. With this correction,
the analysis of the oxalic acid agrees pretty well with mine ; but
there is still a considerable variation in our analyses of the tar-
taric acid ; and time must decide which is the least inaccurate.

B. Com-

‘On definite Proportions. ol

B. Combinations of Water with Bases.

le Alkalies and Alkaline Earths.

The extrication of a quantity of hydrogen gas, during the re-
duction of the alkalies to a metallic form, by the action of iron
raised to a white heat, has induced severa! chemists to endeavour
to discover water in the fixed alkalies after ignition. The results
of these investigations differ in some measure from each other,
although they evidently oscillate about the same point.

Since it is perhaps impossible to obtain a perfectly pure dry

| caustic alkali, which contains neither carbonic acid, nor earth,
nor any other foreign substance, so that experiments upon such
an alkali can afford no very accurate result, I chose for these in-
vestigations lime and magnesia, convinced that what is true of
one of these stronger bases, must also be applicable to another.
| Lime.
5 _ Some pure well-burnt lime was slaked with water, and strongly
ignited again in a platina crucible, so that all the carbonic acid
left in the lime might be expelled with the aqueous vapour. a.)
Of this caustic lime 10 grammes were slaked with water, dried
as soon as possible, and lastly heated over a spirit lamp far above
the boiling point of water. They had acquired an additional
weight of 3°21 gr. l.) The experiment was repeated with 30
grammes of pure lime, and afforded 39°75 gr. of slaked lime.
' Consequently in both these experiments 101) parts of lime had
. taken up from 52-1 to 32:5 of water. Since in the latter experi-
, ment the greater bulk of the lime required a longer time for dry-
ing, it is obvious that the weight must have been increased by
the absorption of some carbonic acid. But 100 parts of lime
contain 28°16 of oxygen, and 321 of water 28°5. The slight
difference evidently depends on the absorption of carbonic acid
while the lime is drying: and the experiments sufficiently prove,
that the lime takes up a quantity of water, of which the oxygen
is equal to that of the earth.
Magnesia,

a.) In order to ascertain the quantity of oxygen contained in
magnesia, | expelled the water of crystallization of some pure
sulphate of magnesia by heat, dissolved the salt in water, after
slightly igniting it, and precipitated the sulphuric acid with mu-
riate of baryta. Ten grammes of ignited sulphate of magnesia
afforded 19-43 of ignited sulphate of baryta, answering to 6°664
of sulphuric acid.

b.) 1 took five grammes of caustic magnesia, which had been

prepared from the carbonate, precipitated with pure carbonate
D 2 : of

52 On definite Proportions.

of potass from a boiling solution of sulphate of magnesia, ob—
serving the precatition that all the magnesia should not be pre-
eipitated, since otherwise the last portions would contain some
carbonate of potass, which could not be washed away: | dis-
solved them in diluted sulphuric acid, evaporated the solution,
and ignited the residuum in a platina crucible ; they left 14°742
gr. of sulphate, which, when redissolved, left behind a slight
trace of magnesia, and had consequently lost a small portion of
their acid by the effect of the heat. According to this experi-
ment, the dry salt contains 66°} parts of sulphuric acid in 100.

Although it is possible that this experiment may have beer
more accurate than the former, I shall however preter that as a
ground of computation, because the errors to which it is liable
must have proportionally affected the other comparative experi-
ments. We have therefore for the sulphate of magnesia

Sulphuric acid .... 66°64 100-00

Magnesia ........ 33'd6 50°06
Consequently, according to this calculation, we have 39-872
parts of oxygen in 100 of magnesia. According to Experiment
6) they contain only 38-8. Mr. Hisinger found, by means of
the decomposition of the muriate of magnesia with the nitrate-
of the protoxide of silver, 58°3 parts of oxygen in 100 of mag-
nesia.

Ten grammes of caustic magnesia, moistened with water, and

dried in a platina crucible, afiorded, in different experiments,
when heated far above the boiling point of water by means of a
spirit lamp, 14°25, 14:35, and 14:4 grammes of the combina-
ion of the earth with water. Now 4:4 gr. of water, contain
3°883 of oxygen: consequently this agrees very accurately with
the result deduced from experiment }). I do not however ven-
ture to declare this experiment the more accurate, since possibly
a part of the magnesia may have been deprived of its water in
it, at the bottom of the crucible, where the flame touched it. For
when the magnesia, which to all appearance was dry, was placed
over the lamp, it lost very rapidly a considerable quantity of
water, until about 14:6 gr. only were left, and then half an hour
was required in order to reduce it to 14°4 gr. or less. Conse-
quently these experiments cannot be perfectly accurate ; but we
collect very clearly from them that magnesia, like lime, is capa-
ble of combining with a quantity of water, of which the oxygen
is equal to its own.

Conclusions.

I consider these examples as affording a sufficient foundation
for the supposition that the same law prevails with respect to
the fixed alkalies and the other alkaline earths. But if these

t , hold

On definite Proportions. . 53

hold i combination a quantity of water, of which the oxygen is
equal to that of the earth; and if they are capable of taking up
fresh quantities of water which correspond to the water of cry-
stallization, as they are known to do, they must contain water
in two different states, like the acids which have already been
described. One of the portions of water corresponds, in com-
parison with these stronger bases, to a [negative] body, or an
acid, and cannot be expelled from its combination with the fixed
alkalies, with baryta, and with stroutia, by means of ignition,
but only by the action of abgdy which is either intrinsically more
strongly [negative], or which assumes that character at the
given temperature.

lf we compare the experiments of Berthollet, Davy, and
Darcet, on the quantity ot water contained in fused potass, we
find that they differ little from 16°15 per cent. ; and since this is
exactly the quantity of water which contains equal quantities of
oxygen with the potass, these experiments may be considered as
a preof of the opinion which I have here advanced. We know
from the able experiments of Mr. Bucholz, that crystallized
baryta loses half its weight in the fire ; it still remains fluid, and
can be deprived of no more water by continued ignition ; but
Bucholz and Gehlen have shown more lately, that even in this
state it still contains water. According to the analogy of lime,
we should expect this to amount to 10-59 per cent. If then 200
parts of crystallized baryta lose about 100 of water in the fire,
the water of crystallization here amounts to either nine or ten
times as much as that which is combined in the place of an
acid, ‘

The property of the fixed alkalies and alkaline earths, which
enables them to retain water at a very high temperature, may
afford us the means of attaining an object of great importance
to the whole theory of chemical and physical science, a compa-
rison of the force of chemical attraction with common mecha-
nical force. We know how immense a foree is required to retain
water in a state of liquidity at elevated temperatures: probably
no vessel of iron can be made strong enough to contain it at the
heat of ignition, while this effect_is actually produced by the at-
traction of the alkalies and of baryta to water. If the force
which is required for such an effect were expressed by the height
of acolumn of quicksilver, we should at least obtain a very high
numerical estimate of this force, which is exceeded by the at-
traction of these bodies to water; but we should not obtain a
correct measure of the attraction, since, at a still higher tempera-
ture, both the alkali and the water are raised in vapour. But
lime and magnesia would allow of such a comparative estimate,
and for these substances we might determine the height of te

umn

54 The Discovery of the Atomic Theory.

lumn of quicksilver, under the pressure of which aqueous vapour
would begin to condense at the temperature required for expelling
the water out of these earthy hydrates: and this height would
express'the mutual ailinity of the alkaline earths and water, and
might be compared at pleasure with any other mechanical power.
And since chemical attractions may be compared with each
other, we might perhaps by degrees advance so far by these
means, as to be able to express every chemical affinity in numbers,
and to compare it with gravity, the universal measure of me-
chanical force.

We shall hereafter see that some of the weaker bases, when
they take up water, retain it with a force so moderate, as to be
exceeded by the expansive power of the water even at lower
temperatures, Some of them thus become in some measure
hygroscopic substances, since their ereaten or less approach to
the maximum of moisture depends ou the dryness of the air, and
only takes place w hen the air exhibits a similar maximum, and
the expansive power of the water at the given temperature is
completely annihilated.

j [To be continued. ]
eeeeeeeeEESaoaoaoaooaEeEeEEEEeEeEeEeELESESEEESESESISSSSESESEEyyEE>yIEIEI]EI~U“ULYyEE>E>ylUIUyUyUyUyEEEEEESESESESESSS——SS ee
XI. The Discovery of ithe Atomic Theory claimed for
Mr.Hieains, By Joun Nasu, Esq.

, Merrion Square, Dublin, Jan. 7, 1814.
Sir, I BEG leave to call the attention of your readers to a pub-
lication which has recently appeared in a SOVseinae ary Journal,
and to point out a mis-statement there given to the public, in-
jurious, in my opinion, to the scientific reputation of a learned
and respected individual.

The passage I allude to is contained in No. 12 of Dr. Thom-
son’s Annals of Philosophy, and is in these words :

<< When we reflect on this cause, it appears at first evident that
it must be of a mechanical nature; and what presents itself as
the most probable idea, mest conformable to our experience, is,
that bodies are composed of atoms, or of molecules which com-
bine 1 with 1, | with 2, or 3, 4, &c.; and the laws of chemical
proportions seem to result from this with such clearness and
evidence, that it seems very singular that an idea so simple and
probable has not only not been adopted, but not even proposed
before our own days. As far as I know, the English philosopher
Mr. John Dalton, guided by the experiments of Bergman, Richter,
Wenszel, Berthollet, Proust, and others, was the first person who
endeavoured to establish that hypothesis. Sir Humphry Davy
has lately assured us, that Mr. Higgins in a book published in
the year 1789 established the same hypothesis, 1 have not. seen

the

The Discovery of the Atomic Theory. 55

the work of Mr. Higgins, and can only notice the circumstance
on the authority of Davy.”

To which the learned Editor has subjoined a note of his own
in the following words:

© The work of Higgins on Phlogiston is certainly possessed
of much merit, and anticipated some of the most striking sub-
sequent discoveries. But, when he wrote, metallic oxides were
so little known, and so few exact analyses existed, that it was
not possible to be acquainted with the grand fact that oxygen,
&c. always unite in determinate proportions which are multiples
of the minimum proportion. The atomic theory was taught by
Bergman, Cullen, Black, &c., just as far as it was by Hicaidd.
The latter indeed states some striking facts respecting the gases,
and anticipated Gay-Lussac’s theory of volumes ; but Mr. Daiton
first generalized the doctrine, and thought of determining the
weight of atoms of bodies. He showed me his table of symbols,
and the weight of the atoms of six or eight bodies, in 1804; and,
I believe, ‘the same year explained the. subject in ondon; i ina
course of lectures delivered in the Royal Institution. The sub-
ject could scarcely be broached sooner. But about the same
time several other persons had been struck with the numbers in.
my table of metallic. oxides published in my Chemistry; and the .
doctrine would have certainly been started by others ?f Dalton
had missed it.”

That learned Editor by this publication has endeavoured to
deprive Mr. Higgins of the honour due to the first author of
the atomic theory, a doctrine now so generally received and uni-
versally admired, and of which Sir H. Davy, Berzelius, and others
have spoken in terms of unqualified approbation.

Dr. Thomson has in a part of his note endeavoured to bestow
the credit of that theory upon Mr. Dalton, and in anether part
to fritter away the merits and importance of the discovery. And

that the discovery is important, and that merit is due to the
author, I think, is fully established by the opinion of such men as
I haye mentioned.

I shall now proceed to show, i reference to dates and facts,
that the merit of that discovery ‘exclusively belongs to Mr. Hig-
gins, and that Dr. ‘Thomson was not justifiable i in making the
assertions in his note.

It is well known, that for several years the attention of the
chemical world was directed to the consideration of the phlo-
gistic and antiphlogistic doctrines. Whilst these questions were
agitated by their respective advocates, Mr. Higgins, without
adopting either the one theory or the other, commenced, upon
the true ground of experiment and analysis, to examine the foun-
dation of both, and the atomic theory was one result of that in-

D4 ; vestigation,

56 The Discovery of the Atomic Theory.

vestigation. And accordingly Mr. Higgins, in his work printed in
the year 1790, gave that theory to the world, ten years, at least,
before either Mr, Dalton or his learned panegyrist even pub-
lished a hint of such a doctrine. That work which Mr. Higgins
styled 4 comparative View of the Phlogistic and Autiphiogistic
Theories, and which Dr. Thomson calls (and I think disingenu~
ously) a work upon Phlopiston, was very generally read, and is
now to be found in the library of every scientific society and in-
dividual, with that date for its publication prefixed to it.

Reference to dates establishes priority; and reference to the
works of Mr. Higgins and Mr. Dalton will fully establish this,
that Mr. Higgins left the atomic theory fully as perfect as Mr.
Dalton ; and | would with confidence cail upon the most zealous
advocate of the latter gentleman, to show in his work any one
position, or principle, which is not founded upon, or deducible
from, the doctrine first discovered and established by Mr, Higgins.

Dr. Thomson in the note alluded to asserts, that “‘ when Mr.
Higgins wrote, metallic oxides were so litile known, and so few
exact analyses existed, that it was impossible to be acquainted
wiih the grand fact, that oxygen, &c. always unites in deter-
minate proportions which are multiples of the minimum pro-
portion.” ‘To set the Dector right on that head, I will beg
leave to refer him and the reader again to the Comparative View,
page 295 &c. where they will find that treated of which the
Doctor asserts to be then unknown; and what he calls the grand
fact, will be found to be the greatest leading principle which
Mr. Higgins endeavours to establish in that work, particularly in
that part where the molecules of different acids are represented
by diagrams, with their respective number of particles of oxygen
and bases ; and it was that which first gave a clear idea of definite
proportions.

I apprehend the Doctor is not more fortunate in the assertion,
*¢ that the utomic theory was taught by Bergman, Cullen, Black,
Cc. gust as far as ly Higgins.” Now 1 have looked over
. carefully the works of those chemists, and also an accurate ma-
nuscript note or report of Black’s Lectures; and I affirm, there
is not in any of them the slightest mention of the atomic theory,
Indeed I must here remark, that the Doctor has not attempted
to support any of his assertions by quotations : it was prudent net
to make the attempt, he could not succeed.

In contradiction to what the Doctor says, ‘* MZr. Dalton first
generalised the doctrine, and thought of the weight of atoms of
bodies,’ 1 need only refer the reader to. Mr. Higgins’s work,
pages 15, 37, and particularly to pages 0 and 81. As to that
remark of the Doctor’s with which he closes his note, that “ the
doctrine would be started Ly others if Dalton had missed it,” 1

must

Preparation of the new Substance called Iode, 57

must say that it is most disingenuous: first, because it indirectly
makes Mr. Dalton the starter (to use the Doctor’s metaphor) of
that whereof he was only the pursuer, and when it appears, and
that to the Doctor’s knowledge, that Higgins put up the game};
and next, because that sentence conveys a sentiment unworthy
of any scientific man, equally disparaging to merit of any dis-
covery whatsoever, the best answer to whieh is to remind the Doc-
tor of the story of Columbus :and the egg.

I wish it to be clearly understood, that I by no means attempt
to attribute the learned Doctor’s mis-statement to any unworthy
motive ; nor is it any part of my intention to enter into a vindi-
cation, or explanation, of the theories and the positions laid
down in the production of Mr. Higgins. Such were I even ca-
pable of performing would now be superfluous, as 1 understand
there is at present in the press a work on that subject, from the
pen of the learned Professor himself. I mean no more than to
claim for Mr. Higgins the merit of being the original author and
promulgator of the Atomic Theory.
<5 I am, sir, 7.

Your obedient humble servant, -

To Mr. Tillach. Joun NasH.

XII. Preparation of the lately discovered new Substance called
IopE, which possesses the singular Property of becoming con-
verted into a beautiful violet-coloured Gas ly the mere Ap-

plication of Heat. Communicated by Mr. ¥aupnick Accum
in a Letter to the Editors.

Sirs, You will receive with these lines a small glass tube, con-
taining a specimen of the extraordinary substance lately dis-
covered in France, which possesses the singular property of be-
comjng converted into a beantiful violet-coloured gas, by the
mere application of a gentle heat, and condensing again unal-
tered into a solid state, resembling plumnbago or black lead, when
suffered to grow cold.

As this substance, to which the name of iode has been given,
has within these few weeks arrested the attention of chemists,
and as the mode of obtaining it has not yet been published in
this country, I take this opportunity of stating, that it may be
procured hy distilling, with a very gentle heat, the uncrystallizable
saline mass which is obtained, or left behind, after separating all
the crystallizable salts from a lixivium or solution of kelp, or
Spanish barilla of commerce.

For the purpose of experiment or exhibition in a Lecture-
yoom, the following easy process answers exceedingly well ;

Take

58 On the new discovered Substance called Iode.

Take a thin glass tube about 10 or 12 inches long, and 3 -8ths
of an inch in the bore; put into it about one drachm of the un-
crystallizable residue before mentioned, previously fused for a
few minutes, to free it as much as possible from water, and re-
duced to a coarse powder: add to it, without soiling the mside
of the tube*, about half its weight of concentrated sulphuric
acid: shake the whole together, and apply a gentle heat, by
means of a taper or lamp. This being done, a dense white
vapour will make its appearance, and a black glistening powder,
which is iode, become sublimed in the colder part of the tube.
Then cut to a convenient length, with a file, that part of the
tube which contains the iede, and seal the extremities of it by
means of the blow-pipe or spirit-lamp.

The preparation of iode upon a larger scale is equally simple
and easy. Let a long slender-necked tubulated retort be placed
in a sand-bath; surround the whole body of the retort up to the
tubulure with sand, and adapt, without luting, to the beak of it,
a wide-mouthed phial or receiver. This being done, introduce
through the tubulure, first, one part of sulphuric acid, and then
two parts of the saline mass, before-mentioned, broken into small
pieces of the size of split pease, and distil for a few minutes
with a gentle heat. . The iede will become sublimed into the
neck of the retort in a crystalline form, exhibiting a black shining
crust. Cut off the neck of the retort witha file, and collect the
icde by means of a feather or camel’s hair brush.

If the whole of the saline mass of kelp or barilla, freed from
carbonate of soda only, and which of course consists of muriate
of soda, muriate of potash, sulphate of potash, hydrosulphuret of
potash, &c. be treated with sulphuric acid, the preparation of
iede becomes more embarrassing aud difficult.

I have the honour to be, yours,
Compton Strect, Soho, Freprick Accum.

XI. Account of the new Substance discovered by M.Courrois,
and called iopE+.

"Tue new stibstance to which we may give the name of iode,
possesses in a high degree the electric properties of oxygen, and
oxygenated muriatic acid. When it is purified by means of
potash and distillation, it is infusible at the temperature of boil-

* This may be done conveniently, by sucking the acid up with the mouth
into a long small glass tube drawn out to a capillary point, applying the
finger to the upper orifice of it, and thus transferring by means of it the
acid into the larger tube.

+ Translated from the Paris Moniteur of Dec, 12, 1813.

ing

On the new discovered Substance called Iode. 59

ing water, and has nearly the same volatility as this fluid. By
no chemical agent does it offer any trace of muriatie acid. The
iode combines with nearly all the metals ; but’as it is solid, it
does not appear to develop in its combinations so much heat as
the oxygenated muriatic acid, with which it has much analogy
in its general properties, To give an idea of its relations with
other bodies, we shall compare it with this acid, applying also
the two hypotheses which have been formed respecting its nature,
and adding, that on combining with hydrogen it forms a peculiar
very strong acid, which can be procured inthe gaseous state,
which is very soluble in water, and which has the same relation
to iode that muriatic acid has te oxygenated muriatic acid or
chlorine. The action of phosphorus on iode furnishes the means
of obtaining the new acid in both its states, gaseous and liquid.
If we agitate iode and phosphorus together, both perfectly dry,
‘we obtain a reddish-brown substance which emits no gas; if we
moisten this substance, it immediately yields copious fumes very
acid, and at the same time phosphorous acid is formed. We can
easily obtain the new acid in a gaseous state, by using the iode
a little moistened ; there is then enough of water to assist its
formation, but not sufficient to condense it. If we combine the
iode and phosphorus under water, only a very small quantity of
subphosphuretted hydrogen gas is disengaged, and the water be-~
comes very acid; if the new substance be in excess, the liquid is
deeply tinctured of a reddish-brown; on the contrary, it is co-
Jourless if the phosphorus predominates. It generally remains
in a mass of a red colour, insoluble in water, and in which
we find some phosphorus and iode. Nevertheless, their propor-
tions may be such that we can ebtain no residuum, and the li-
quid may be as limpid as water. li we submit this acid liquor
to distillation, water comes over, and the new acid does net pass
into the receiver till the liquid in the retort is highly concen-
trated: in the latter, pure phosphorous acid remains, which
soon yields an abundance of phosphuretted hydrogen gas. Thus,
when phosphorus and iode are dry, a combination analogous to
that of oxygenated muriatic acid with phosphorus is formed ;
and when they are moistened, the same phenomenon is produced
_ as with the liquor of phosphorus poured into the water, while
the oxygen of the latter with the phosphorus forms phosphorous
acid, its hydrogen combining with the iode to form the néw acid.
We now see the characters of this acid: in the gaseous state it
is colourless, smelling nearly like muviatic gas, smoking when in
contact with the air, rapidly absorbable by water, giving with the
oxymuriatic gas a fine purple vapour, and speedily changing over
mercury: it forms with this metal a greenish yellow substance,
similar to that which we obtain directly with mercury and the
vapour

50 On the new discovered Substance called Iode.

vapour of iode, and it produces hydrogen gas -equal in volume te
the half of the acid gas. A few minutes agitation are sufficient to
decompose it entirely. Iron and zine produce a similar effect.

This acid in the liquid state, obtained by dissolving the gas in
water, forms, as is said above, a very dense liquid not very vola-
tile: it rapidly decomposes the carbonates, and dissolves iron
and zine with an extrication of hydrogen gas: but it dees not
attack mercury even when warm; which proves that it has a
strong affinity for water. It forms with barytes a soluble salt,
and it gives with corrosive sublimate a red precipitate soluble in
an excess of acid. When we pour into it some drops of oxy-
muriatic acid, the new substance is instantly regenerated: when
heated with black oxide of manganese, the red and brown oxides
of lead, iode is disengaged, and the oxides are reduced into the
state in which they are generally soluble in the acids. The red
oxide of mercury makes the acid pass to iode, and we may con-
clude that all the oxides which cause the muriatic acid to pass
to that of oxymuriatic will also pass a portion of the new acid
to the state of iode.. Finally, this acid dissolved in water, and
subjected to the action of the Voltaic pile, appears at the positive
pole in the state of iode. When once engaged ina combination,
it is not easy to separate it. The sulphuric acid, for example,
when placed in contact with the combination of the new acid,
and with potash, gives sulphurous acid, and the new substance is
liberated: the nitric gives nitrous acid. If we employ the phos-
phorie and boric acids, dry or dissolved in water, they produce
no decomposition.

It is now easy to conceive what happens when iode is placed
in contact with other bodies.

With hydrogen at a high or low temperature we obtain the
new acid; but it is net usually pure, because it has the property
of dissolving a great quantity of iode, which resists the action of
hydrogen.

Sulphuretted hydrogen speedily takes the colour from iode,
and makes it pass to the state of acid, depositing abundance of
sulphur: it also produces the same effect when the new sub-
stance is in combination with the alkalis, forming brown or
colourless solutions. It is to be remarked, that when we preci-
pitate by the sulphuretted hydrogen gas a solution of iode in
ether or alcohol, sulphur is not deposited in any sensible quantity.

The sulphurous acid speedily converts iode into acid, passing
itself to the state of sulphurie acid *. The phosphorous acid and
the sulpluretted sulphites also give existence to a new acid,

* This assertion contradicts a fact stated in the next paragraph. Pos-
sibly the sulphurous and sulphuric acid should be transposed, Epir.

Hence

On the new discovered Substance called Iode. 6}

Hence we may conclude, that in the sodas of sea-weed in which
there is abundance of sulphuretted sulphites, the new substance
is in the state of acid; it is not even manifested in the mother
waters of these sodas, except when the sulphuretted sulphites
are destroyed.

ode is not altered by charcoal and sulphurous acid, because
these substances cannot furnish it with hydrogen in 6rder to pass
to the state of acid, It does not decompose water at a low er a
high temperature. It takes the colour frem indigo, and is driven
from its combinations by the mineral acids, and even by the
acetous acid. It combines with most of the metals without any
gas being extricated. When any of these combinations are made
under water, for example, that with zinc, nothing is extricated ;
the liquor, at first strongly coloured, soon becomes as limpid as
water: the alkalies precipitate from it a substance which has all
the characters of oxide of zinc, but which nevertheless retains a
little of the new acid. Water has also been decomposed, and
oxide of zine and the new acid are produced. This combination,
like all those which contain the new acid, gives sulphurous acid
when we treat it with sulphuric acid. Eighteen grammes of
iode dissolve nearly three grammes and a half of zine: hence
we may conclude that the relative weight of oxygen is as 1 to 20,
or 15 to 100. With the oxymuriatic acid a compound is formed
of an orange yellow colour, crystalline, volatile, deliquescent,
and appearing to exist in two different proportions.

lode forms, it is said, a fulminating powder with ammonia;
but the theory of this phenomenon is very simple, when we con-
sider that the iode has a great tendency to combine with hy-
drogen,

From the above description we cannot avoid comparing iode
with chlorine, and the new acid with the muriatic acid. It is
also equally remarkable, that the hydrogen is constantly neces-
sary to make the iode pass to the state of acid. It appears that
this substance performs in nature the same functions with
respect to one class of bodies, that oxygen performs for another.
All the above phenomena may be accounted for by supposing that
the iodeis an element, and that it forms an acid on being com-
bined with hydrogen ; or rather, that this last acid is.a com-
pound of water with an unknown base, and that iode is this same
base united with oxygen. The former hypothesis appears more
probable than the latter, and it serves at the same time to give
more probability to that in which we consider the oxymuriatic
acid as a simple body. On adopting the new acid, the name
which suits it best will be that of the hyd) iodic acid.

XIV. On

Said ti

XIV. On the Discoloration of Silver by a hard-boiled Figg. By
Mr. J. Murray, Lecturer'on Experimental Philosophy.

London, Qtst Jannary, 1814.
Sirs, Tue discoloration, of silver by a hard-boiled egg is a
question difficult of solution. It may appear to be an anomalous
phenomenon. :

Observation and experiment enable me to state the following
circumstances :

If ‘a slip of polished silver permeates the albumen of the egg
exclustvely, it suffers no change ; but if it also penetrates the
yolk, itis instantly tarnished, and (what is worthy of particular
remark) the siraium of the metal in contact with the allumen
dlone is coloured, while the surface of the silver embraced by
the yolk retains its pristine lustre and character. ‘The effects
are more imposing, ii the silver be suffered to pass through the
first stratum of albumen, then through the yolk, and then again
through the albumen. The impression is also more sensible the
harder the egg. f

There are two views in which the phenomenon may be consi-
dered; Ist, an clectrical phenomenon ; 2dly, a chemical effect :
—if the former, which I conceive it to be, then it is a modifi-
cation of that Voltaic circle which Davy announces, and where
one metal is concerned. In the present case, however, there is
only one menstruum, namely the yolk furnishing saulphuretted
hydrogen. The effect produced at each end of the silver, it fol-
lows from hence, must be a positive phenomenon, The albu-
men is decomposed, and the olive oxide of silver produced,
compounded according to Davy of 100 parts silver and 7-3 parts
oxygen.

Were it the su!phuret of silver, it ought to be tarnished only on
that part of the slip which the yolk envelops. It receives the
oxygen, according to my estimate of the phenomenon, from the
albumen, which is known to contaia it. '

“ Si quid novisti re: tius istis,
Candidus imperti.”

I may again revert to the subject.

I observe that Mr. Walker of Lynn has, in No. 187, page 368,
of The Philosophical Magazine, given a theory of combustion as
deduced from Galvanic plienomena. In my lecture on Galvanism
at Lynn, I took occasion to point out that there were two opi-
nions respecting the evolution of oxygen and hydrogen at the
respective poles of the Voltaic circle: Ist, Resting on the sup-
position that water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, that a
decomposition might take place, and these constituents be libe-

rated

A Mathematical Question. 53

rated from their combination in the gaseous form. 2dly, Con-
sidering water as an element, an undecompounded body, and
that the radicles of oxygenous aud hydrogenous gas were com-
municated by the positive and negative wires, and these com-
bining with the water, probably in definite portions, constituted
gaseous oxygen and hydrogen. This was the opinion of Ritter
“of Jena, and I remarked that it. was in harmony with our best
views of electrical phenomena. How'can we account for the elec-
trical spark not only decomposing but recomposing water, on the
latter supposition ?—two opposite effects resulting from the same
cause ?—analysis and synthesis accomplished by similar means?
—destruction and reunion, by one agent, under identical medi-
fications? It is hard to be conceived. But a more satisfactory
solution is obtained, if we admit that oxygen and hydrogen in the
form of gas are elements (evolved by means of attrition in the
electrical machine, or the action of acid and alkaliné menstrua
on metallic bodies in the Veltaic trough,) united with water :
then, these gases in definite proportions, by passing the spark
through them, may be united, and the radicles furm a neutral
effect ;—-when the power of holding the water in solution ceas-
ing, the moisture is precipitated.

There is much obscurity in Mr. Walker’s solution of the phz-
nomena of combustion, arising from his using indiscriminately
the terms heat (caloric) and combustion. Now calorie (the mat-
ter of heat) and combustion (the act of ignition) are not iden-
tical. What may be collected, however, from the general tenor
of that paper, is merely the theory of Lavoisier in anew dress.
Mr: Walker may please to be informed that combustion takes
place where there is not the least evidence of the existence of
oxygen, as that elicited from the union of sulphur and some of
the metals, &c.
~ I solicit your pardon for this digression, and am with much
respect,

Sirs, your humble servant,
é Joun Murray.

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

XV. A Mathematical Question. By Sir H. C. Eyeieriztp,
Bart., F.R.S. F.4.8., Gc. Sc.

Petersham, Jan-18, 1814
Sirs, Tus very extraordinary powers of the American bo¥
[Zerah Colburn] in fitding the roots of numbers, among other
wonderful effects of mental computation, led me lately to con-
Sider the subject ; and in the course of what I may esil a meeha-
ical dissection of numbers, I fell on the niethod which, if you
be da

64 On the Quantities of Heat developed in

do not think it beneath the notice of your Journal, I will pro-
pose to the sagacity of your readers to discover. I know that it
is rather cut of fashion to offer these sort of questions to the
public, though it was very common m the beginning of the last
century, and was, I believe, attended with much advantage to
science, by producing a widely extended emulation: even the
questions yearly proposed in The Ladies’ Diary are, I am per+
suaded, very advantageous to the studious in mathematics.

The “question I propose is this :

Of any cube number under a million give the figure of the
anit, the two last figures, and the number of places, mstantly
and without any aid of writing to name its cube root. For ex-
ample, let the cube 438976 be the number whose root is to be
named. Given, the two first figures 43, the last figure 6, the
number of places six. The root is to be immediately named.

Should the ingenuity of some of your correspondents not find
out the very simple method of doing this, I will with great plea-
sure communicate it to you for insertion when required.

I do not pretend that there is much use in this, but it may be
an object of curiosity to some of your numerous readers.

1 am, sirs, your obedient servant,
H. C. ENCLEFIELD.
To Messrs. Nicholson and Tillach.

XVI. On the Quantities of Heat developed in the Condensation
of the Vapour of Water, and in that of Alcohol. By BEn«
JAMIN Count RuMrorD*.

$1. Of the Quantity of Heat developed in the Condealion
of tke Vapour of Water.

Hay ING filled the calorimeter and steed it on its stand, a
current of vapour was introduced into the serpentine through a
cork placed in the lower aperture of the serpentine. This cork
having been perforated with a hole two lines in diameter, in the
direction of its axis, a small cork (two lines in diameter and two
in height) was fitted into it, and four other holes about a line in
diameter, pierced horizontally through the sides of the large
cork at two lines below its upper extremity, and communicating
with the hole two lines in diameter in the axis of this cork, af-
forded a passage to the vapour, to admit of its entering by four
small channels horizontally i into the serpentine.
As the apertures of these small channels were higher than the
level of the flat bottom of the serpentine, the water which re-
* This paper was re ad before the French Institute as a supplement to
the Count’s Inquiry into the Heat developed by Combustion, Vide Phil.
Mag. voi. xlii. p. 296.
sulted
Ss

in the Condensation of the Vapour of Water. 65

sulted from the condensation of this vapour, did not prevent the
vapour from continuing to flow through these passages.

Thisvapour came from a long-necked matrass containing distil-
led water, which was put on a portable stove placed in a chim-
ney at some distance from the calorimeter; and in order to stop
all direct communication of heat between the stove and the ca-
lorimeter, the former was masked by plates, and the tube which
conducted the vapour to the calorimeter was well covered with
flannel.

The cold water which filled the calorimeter was of a lower
temperature than that of the chamber by 6° of Fahrenheit and
‘when the thermometer of the calorimeter announced an aug-
mentation of temperature by 12° of Fahrenheit, an end was put
to the experiment.

The water produced by the condensation of the vapour in the
serpentine was carefully weighed ; and from its quantity, as well
as from the heat communicated to the calorimeter, the heat de-
veloped by the vapour in its condensation was determined.

As a small part of the heat communicated to the calorimeter
proceeded from the cooling of the water condensed in the ser-
pentine, after the vapour had been changed into water, an ac-
count was kept of this heat. It was supposed that the water at
the moment of condensation was at the temperature of 212° F.
being that of boiling water; and it was determined by calculation,
what part of the heat communicated to the calorimeter must
have been owing to this boiling water.

In making this calculation, no account was taken of the dif-
ference in the capacity of water for heat, which depends on its
temperature : this is but imperfectly known; aud besides, the cor-
rection which would have been the result, could not but have
been very small.

The following are the details and results of two experiments
made on the 2\st of January 1812.

a —& | xtate of the Calorimeter (equal| ¢ 3
. ° q
= g in capacity for Heat to2781) 5 = Result.
2 re Grammes of Water.) ea Loy
& 7) n =o — & o an
i P| =e pa yee Sam 2 ce
v = Pairs} 3 ej n oak Be Get rar jae
[=> id 45 ez ae & Se be
al o “hee om pe SS Su |
f we ov oC [oP] uw - baat ib cS oconzo
onl Ws ead eS |e S¢ orgs
te 3 see/5, Oia, | ORS eo eS ol (o
e =< |S22)/e66] 82 mo es Ae oe
a) (3) NE o & ey wert oy hehe Ts
v= ay pat Spl BB Sia a5 eae le Se
FI oO =—25 > wv es
= e sien) <2| Eqs 5 Som |ate
~ oe —_— Ro, . ~ - ae}
Zz es ra = a Gg Shih
grammes. lbs.
| 61° | $50 674 124 | 2961 10293
2 624°! 574° 674 104 2404. 1052°3

Mean Result 7040'8

Vol. 43. Nov489, Jan, 1814, Dy By

66 On the Quantities of Heat developed

By expressing the mean result of these two experiments in the
way employed by Mr. Watt and others, I shall say that 1040
degrees of heat (Fahrenheit) are liberated in the condensation of
steam, and that consequently this very quantity of heat is em-
ployed and rendered latent when the water, already at the tem-
perature of boiling water, is changed into steam.

The duration of each of these two experiments was from ten
to eleven minutes, and I had boiled the water some time in the
matrass (to drive out the air which it contained) before I directed
the steam from it into the serpentine of the calorimeter.

As the results of these experiments have beenvvery uniform,
and as they agree very well with the latter experiments made by
Mr. Watt with a view to determine the same question, I have not
thought it necessary to repeat them.

I have besides been very much occupied with the following
branch of my inquiries.

§ Il. Of the Quantity of Heat developed in the Condensation
of the Vapour of Alcohol.

As chemists are not agreed as to the state of the elements of
the water which exist in alcohol, I thought that, by determining
with precision the quantity of heat which is developed, we should
be better able to form conjectures as to the state of the water, if
it be at all times found in this inflammable liquid.

The results of the experiments which I made with alcohol are
less regular than those of the experiments made with water, as
might have been expected ; but they have nevertheless been sufh-
ciently uniform to establish a fact, which will be regarded without
doubt as very curious and important.

As the vapour which is extricated from spirit of wine when
boiled, varies a little with the intensity of the fire used in boiling
it, | took care to note the time which was taken in every experi-
ment, in order to be able to judge, by comparing the quantity
of vapour condensed, with the time employed to form it, of the
intensity of the heat employed to boil the liquid.

In the following table we shall see the details and results of
five experiments made on the same day (January 21, 1812) with
alcohol of different degrees of strength. The capacity of the
calorimeter was always equal to that of 2781 grammes of water,
and the thermometer employed was that of Fahrenheit.

TABLE.

in the Condensation of the Vapour of Alcohol. 67

TABLE.

ro) Th 2 ek wy Os a bere

2 E = | State of the Calori- | 9 Result

= 3 = | meter. 3 ss
os Of ies A = : z Sire
2 < — S ' 73) 1 = On, © oO:
Se pee : 2, 4 = < = 2) eee
Pst ~ ~ ke: . 2) oa |
a oi ae a {5 Polit Eh te te gee SS
_ . ce aT < s
tee == ES 2 ime is a) 22 jno aot iS
i 2 = Ss re - o oS fee Ol oe
a | > = Cn oa 1 n oS Bo gr
a = 5 io) & S ~ Spr e>ox ts
eee 2 2 Oo ie CEs eeeg
E eso l/s es = S eihtonewu
oe Om = 3. = Ss O75 S=E
o/Oo8)2 2 Shep 2 ah Wi) SCs
3) oye re Pa PS i vere Do |S@sys
ph) eves [Mic ) e's Y S53 )/5e6 (67°58
= agate 6 RS ee = se leela@silees 72
Ss Yo ee ee = T3) a O im San Sans &
Ala ls | & aii ES: TIGL tye

inin gram

Ne Dla
n
rs

°
On
~

°
~_
em

oT
°
=
la
wi Oy
°
~
co
ps
nes
©
Ko)
fos)
or

On determining, by calculation, the quantity of water which
may be heated one degree, by the heat developed in the com-
bustion of one pound of this vapour, I took care to keep an
account of the difference between the capacity of water for heat
and that of alcohol, when I determined how much heat should
have been communicated to the calorimeter by the alcohol, and
produced by the condensation of the steam, by being ‘ool? in
the worm.

In order to prove the state of the elements of the water which
exist in the steam of alcohol, it must be shown how much water
these elements ought to form.

We shall select the experiment which was made with alcohol
of the specific gravity of $1763, and which contained the least
water. The quantity of steam condensed in this experiment was
56°61 grammes.

In 100 parts of this alcohol there were

91-79 parts of pure alcohol of Lowitz,.and

#-21 parts of water.

Consequently there were in the 56-61 grammes of alcohol con-
densed in the calorimeter,

51-962 grammes of alcohol of Lowitz, and

4°648 of water.

Now, as M, de Saussure has shown that there are 47 parts of
water in 100 parts of alcohol of Lowitz, there must have been
24°422 grammes of water in the 51°962 grammes of alcohol of

Lowitz, which were condensed in the calorimeter.
E 2 If

/

68 Heat developed in Condensation of Vapour of Alcohol.

If to this quantity-of water (=24°422 eranumes) we add the
4-648 grammes which were found mixed with 51:962 grammes
of alcchol of Lowitz, in order to compose the 56°61 grammes
of alcohol employed in the experiment, we shall Lave 29°07
grammes of water which ought to have existed, ready iormed
either in the common state ef water, or in some otier state,
in the 56°61 grammes of alcohol condensed in the calori-
meter. ;

But the condensation of 29°07 grammes of steam into liquid
water ought to have of themselves furnished more heat than we
had in the experiment in question, in the eondensation of these
29-07 grammes of elements of water, with 27°57 grammes of
carbon and hydregen, which concur, with these elements, in
forming the steam of the alechol which was condensed.

If we apply a similar calculation to the results of the experi-
ments made with alcohol which contained more water, the re-
sult of the inyuiry will be still more striking.

In the experiment No. 5. the alcohol employed was of the
specific gravity of 85524 : _consequently 100 parts of this al-
cohol were composed of 77°88 parts of alcohol of Lowitz, and

22°12 water.

And in the experiment 71°31 grammes of vapour of aléo-
hol were condensed.

There were therefore in these 71°23 grammes of condensed
ea

3688 grammes of alcohol of Lowitz, and
“622 grammes of water.

In the 55°688 grammes of alcohol of Lowitz there were
26:102 grammes of water, according to the analysis of M. de
Saussure ; and this last quantity of water (=26°012 grammes)
added to the quantity found above, viz. 15-622 grammes, makes
4)-727 grammes of water which ought to have existed, either
as steam or otherwise, in the 71:31 grammes of alcoholic vapour
condensed in the calorimeter , in the experiment in question.

In order to simplify our calculation, and to render our com-
parisons more Bie we shall show how much pure water,
in vapour, ought to have been sufficient to furnish, in its con-
densation, the same quantity of heat which was furnished by the
‘condensation of 71-31 grammes of alcoholic vapour, in the ex-
periment in question.

In this experiment the temperature of the calorimeter was
raised to 144 degrees of Fahrenheit.

In the second experiment, made with the steam of pure
water, the temperature of the same calorimeter was raised 104
degrees of Fahrenheit, with the heat developed in the conden-
sation of 24°4 grammes of this vapour.

Conse-~

: Royal Sociely. 69

Consequently the temperature of the calorimeter must have
been elevated to 144 degrees of Fahrenheit, with the heat which
must have been developed in the con densation of 33-695
grammes of steam from pure water.

Now as the hydrogen and the oxygen forming the elements of
41-727 grammes of water, which are found to ‘form constituent
parts of the 71-51 grammes of vapour of alcohol condensed in
the experiment in question, only per in their condensation
the same Goats) y of heat as 33-695 grammes of steam of pure
water should have furnished, it is clear rly proved, in my opinion,
that these elements are not so united as to form water, so long
as they concur in the formatien of alcohol.

I have discovered that the vapour of sulphuric ether furnishes
about one half less of heat in its condensation than that of
alcohol, and consequently one fourth only of what is furnished
by the steam of water of equal weight; but having been inter-
rupted by ai accident in the course of my experiments with ether,
I am desirous of finishing them before I publish the results.*

—

XVII. Proceedings of Learned Societies.
ROYAL SOCIETY.

Jan. 20. Te President in the Chair. Sir H, Davy com-
miunicated, in a letter to the President, a long paper from
Paris, on a new gas discovered in that city by M. Courtois, a
manufacturer of saltpetre. It appears that this gas was dis~
covered above two years ago; but such is the weed el state
of scientific men i France, that no account of it_ was pub-
lished till the arrival of our English philosopher there. M.
Courtois communicated his discovery to Clement and Desormes,
who made some experiments with the gas, and latterly M.
‘Gay Lusac has devoted his attention to an examination of its
history_and properties. -Mean time Sir Humphry has made a
great number of experiments on it, and would have made _ seve-
ral more had he not wanted the necessary,apparatus in Paris.
M. Courtois was led to the discovery by observing how rapidly
his metal pots were corroded in preparing the different kinds of
sea-weed, which he used for making carbonate of soda. When
the soda is extracted from the sea-weed, the new gas is easily
disengaged ; by pouring strong sulphuric acid on the residuum, at

* In a subsequent number we shall give the learned author's “ Inquiries
into the Capacity for Heat, or the calorific Power of various Liquids,” as

heing connected with the foregoing memolr.— EDITORS.
the

70 Royal Society.—Meteorological Queries.

the temperature of 158°, a beautiful dense violet-coloured elastic
fluid rises. This the French chemists propose calling iode gas,
from iddys, violaceous; but Sir Humphry, considering the
English idiom, denominates it violaceous gas. Its properties
are singular: combined with hydrogen, with phosphorus, and
with oxymuriate of silver, (argentane of Davy) it forms a
peculiar acid; it is a simple or uncompounded gas, at a
suitable temperature a permanently elastic fluid, but heavier
than any known gas, 100 cubic inches weighing 95:5 grains :
it is a non-conductor of electricity, experiences no change ex-
posed to the action of the Voltaic battery with charcoal, is not
inflammable, and does not support combustion, As a simple
substance it has many analogies with oxygen, chlorine, and the
alkalies: like oxygen, it rapidly unites with the metals : mercury,
tin, lead, zinc, and iron, are converted by it, in a moderate tem-
perature, into salts of orange, yellow, and brown tints, which
are soluble in spirits, ether, and water} and form beautiful pig-
ments, and most probably may be equally serviceable in the dye-
house. Exposed to a moderate cold it condenses into solid plum-
bago-coloured crystals. Combined with hydrogen, it forms what
the French call hydroionic gas. Like the alkalies, it unites with
oxygen, from which it can be expelled by heat. The existence of
this substance confirms the opinion previously given by Sir Hum-
phry, that acidity and alkalescence do not depend on any spe-
cifie principle, but on certain modifications of matter. This
chemist concludes his important paper'with some observations on
the necessity of a new nomenclature, and proposing several ar-
bitrary terminations to distinguish the various substances which,
according to the principles of a significant nomenclature, would
be called todais. But his observations on this head are, as
usual, submitted with the utmost diilidence, and merely as hints
on which some general principles may be founded. It is, in-
deed, evident that the whole nomenclatural theory of Lavoisier
is completely set-aside by the subsequent discovery of facts, and
it is time that chemists would unite together to form a new che-
mical vocabulary better adapted to the actual state of our know-

ledge.

‘

XVIII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.
METEOROLOGICAL QUERIES.

F ROM reading Adams’s extracts from his Journals of the wea-
ther, Iam induced through your yaluable miscellany to put two
questions ;

Has

Eruption of Vesuvius. 71

Has the moon a particular influence on the seasons ?
Has noé the moon a particular influence on the weather ?

The first question arises from a nete in the work in page 2,
alluding to the year 1811. The second question arises from the
observations whereby to foretel the weather, in page 93.

I wish, as my Lord Gray and the Duke of Gordon observe,
that these journals were more frequently sent from the silent ¢lo-
set of the meteorologist before the eye of an enlightened public.

noe 3
ERUPTION OF VESUVIUS.
Napies, Dec. 26.

Yesterday, at five in the evening, commenced one of the most
formidable eruptions of which there is any record in the history
of Vesuvius. Happily, though it presented a terrific spectacle,
it caused no great damage. The explosion began by a shower
of volcanic gravel, which was followed by a violent eruption of
lava. This ignited matter having divided itself into two torrents,
flowed over the ancient lavas towards the Torre del Greco. At
ten in the evening the first torrent stopped; but the second
continued to proceed towards Bosco-Reale and Bosco-T're-Case.

This morning the apparent calm of the volcano was followed
by an explosion resembling a violent discharge of cannon. A
column of voleanic ashes rose in the air, and obscured the hori-
zon. At the moment we are writing the eruptions still continue.
Redoubled shocks make the houses of the city shake, but have
as yet done no damage. We do not know the direction of the lava.

The Government has taken every necessary measure to afford
assistance to those who may have need of it. Yesterday the King
sent one of his equerries to inform himself of the state of things,
and to-day the monarch came out hiiself to observe the erup-
tion. When arrived in the neighbourhood of the fiery torrent,
he spoke to every person with that affability which characterizes
him, and pointed out to those who appeared terrified, that the
direction of the lava secured us from any danger,

P.S. It is two o’clock ; the eruption appears to have ceased.

On the 29th of December a second explosion of the Felling
Colliery took place, causing destruction to nearly every living
creature within the range of its explosion. Nine men, 13 boys,
and 12 horses, fell vietims to the fury of the blast, and 8 more
pitmen were severely scorched, though likely to recover. By this
heart-rending occurrence, 8 widows, and 18 fatherless children,
are becoming the deserving objects of public benevolence*.

* Why has no attempt been made to prevent these dreadful calamities,
by applying to coal-mines Mr. John Taylor's cheap and simple exhausting
machine, described in vol. xxxviii. p. 120, which has been found so effec-
tual in the mines of Devon?

72 Contagious Fever at Gibraltar.

A contagious fever producing an alarming and daily increasing
mortality having prevailed at Gibraltar during the summer and
autumnal months of 1813, the following account of it, drawn
up by a medical officer of that garrison, will be found interest-
ing. After stating that on the 3d of December last the disease
totally disappeared, the writer proceeds :

When the disease.commenced, the population was 15,600
inhabitants; and the garrison with their families amounted to
5,500. Of the inhabitants, nearly one-half took shelter on
board of ships, or were forced to encamp on the neutral ground,
where they all continued well, with very few exceptions, none
having been taken ill after they had quitted the place six days,
Of the mbhabitants who remained, to the number of 7,870,
upwards of 3,800 had had the disease in 1804, who all
escaped, no well-authenticated case having appeared of any
person taking the fever a second time: of the remainder, not
more than 4() escaped an attack of the fever; yet upwards ‘of
2,600 of the garrison and their families escaped, by their being
encamped outside of the town and on the heights above it, and
avoiding all communication with the town.

The disease appeared to originate solely from contagion, as
every person outside of the walls, or who kept themselves in
complete seclusion, remained in perfect safety; and all the
numerous vessels lying in the Mole and Bay, though crowded
with inhabitants, ¢ continued perfectly healthy whilst they avoided
communication with the town; but in six different instances,
where they neglected this precaution, the fever appeared on
board.

The average mortality of deaths was one in five. In more
than half of the fatal cases, the black vomit took place. Yel-
lowness of skin was rather an uncommon symptom, and seldom
occurred but in fatal cases, and then was of a dingey mahogany
colour, and commenced a few hours before death,

The faculty now seem genevally to agree that the disease is
the same as that of 1804, and that it is a distinct disease from
the bilious remittent fever, and has been introduced here by
imported contagion, and propagated by contagion alone, as it
has been one of “the coolest and bealthiest seasons ever known.

Some opulent planters in Georgia (says an American paper)
are turning their attention to the cultivation of the sugar-cane,
From experiments lately made, it is ascertained that an acre
planted with cane will yield sufficient to fetch 2400 dollars, de-
ducting the expense of cultivation, which is about four hundred
dollars,

The

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 73

The French Gazette of Health for November contains a de-
tailed relation of the sufferings of a young girl of eight years
old, into whose ear a spider had crawled. She experienced mo-
mentarily a nervous fit resembling epilepsy, of which the strength
gradually increased, impressing those around her with a fear that
it would speedily become fatal. The sur geon, unable to extract
the spider, poured oil of olives into the ear; hereupon she ex-
perienced some convulsive movements, longer and more violent
than those she had before ; and when they terminated she was
quite relieved. S

Professor Mangeli has published in the Milan Journal, a iong
report upon the action of the venom of vipers. He states,
as the result of his experience, that ammoniac is the only sove~
reign remedy for the bite of those reptiles, and that opium and
musk, which have been hitherto prescribed by Italian physicians,
have no certain effect.

An Havanna paper of the 7th inst. mentions that an aged
priest, in Guatimala, had lately applied himself to the produc-
tion of opium in that province, and had succeeded to a degree
that promised to make his discoveries a great national benefit.
_ The Guatimala opium was said to be of a much superior quality
to that obtamed from the Levant.

= \

Cotton and indigo are said to have been successfully cultivated
in the principality of Cintra, in Calabria, Nola, and other places
in Italy. From the leaves of the latter plant, indigo of a qua-
lity not inferior to the American is asserted to have been ex-
tracted. .

Dr. Adams has in the press his long projected work on the er-
roneous opinions and consequent terrors usually entertained con-
cerning hereditary diseases, Connected with the snbject are
some remarks on the attempts at reducing cutaneous complaints
to orders and classes, and the unnecessary revival of so great a
number of exploded Greek terms.

LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS.

To William Pope, of the city of Bristol, perfumer, for an in-
strument or instruments, to be used jointly or separately, for as-
certaining a ship’s way at sea, and assisting in determining the
longitude. —16th Nov. 1813.—6 months.

To William Burge, of the city of Bristol, confectioner, for
certain improvements in the construction of fire-places. —16th
Nov,—2 months.

To

74 List of Patents for new Inventions.

To James Brumsall, of Plymouth, in the county of Devon,
tailor, for certain improvements in different stages of rope-making,
and in machinery adapted for such improvements.—16th Nov.
—6 months.

To Edward Charles Howard, of Westbourn Green, in the
county of Middlesex, Esq. for certain improvements in the pro-
cess of preparing and refining sugars — 20th Nov.—6 months.

To Frederick Cherry, of Croydon, in the county of Surry,
veterinary surgeon in the army, for certain improvements in the
construction of various articles of an officer’s field equipage.—
23d Nov.—2 months.

To Jeremiah Donovan, of Craven Street, Strand, in the county
of Middlesex, Esq. and John Church, of Chelsea, in the same
county, soap-boiler, for their discovered improvement of saponaeous
compounds for deterging in sea water, in hard water, and in soft
water—23d Nov.—6 months.

To Richard Mackenzie Bacon, of the city of Norwich, printer,
and Bryan Donkin, of Fort Place, Bermondsey , in the county of
Surry, engineer, for their improvements in the implements or
apparatus employed in printing, whether irom types, from blocks,
Gr from plates.—23d Nov.—6 months.

To James Bodmer, of Stoke Newington, in the county of
Middlesex, gentleman, for his method of loading fire-arms, can-
non, and all ordnance, except mortars, at the breech, with a
rifle or plain bore; and also a touch-hole for fire-arms and ord-
hance, and also a moveable sight fcr fire-arms and ordnance.

To Edward Biggs, of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick,
brass-founder, for his method of working stamps by a steam en-
gine, water, or horse power.—23d Nov.—2 months.

To John ‘Duncombe, of Woolwich, in the county of Kent, civil
engineer, for his improyement to mathematical and astronomical
instruments in order to render them more portable, accurate,
easy, expeditious and certain in their application to topographical
and nautical surveying, the mensuration of terrestrial and celestial
angles, and the divete distauces of inaccessible objects, at one
station, by land or sea, without the usual modes of calculation, by
a new index which ascertains the measured quantity of an angle
to any proposed rational degree of precision, by rendering the
division of the minute parts hitherto imperceptible to the senses,
truly conspicuous and distinctly legible by the common naked
eye ; also, by an attached new parallel movement, the natural sine
and co-sine of such angles are precisely obtained to any eligible

adius, without tabular or other reference; and by a detached
similar movement, the direct distance of an inaccessible object is
accurately sasasubed at one station, without trigonometrical or
other calentation; and a new improved compass, whose index

points

List of Patents for new Inventions. 79

points due north and south, and which is capable of adjustment
according to the known or observed variation of the magnetic
needle.—25th Nov.—2 months.

To Join Cragg, of Liverpool, in the county palatine of Lan-
easter, Esq. for certain improvements in the facing of exterior
and interior walls of Gothic or other structures, built of brick or
other material, with strong milled or sawn slates bound and se-
cured by mouldi ngs, grooves and ties of cast iron, in such a
manner as to have the appearance, when sanded, of finely wrought
stone-work in ornamental pannels or otherwise, with ceilings of
correspondent tracery form and character of the same materials,
which may be supported by pointed arches rising from single or
clustered columns of cast iron or otherwise; and in capping but-
tresses in Gothic architecture with highly enriched pinnacles or
finials of cast iron only; the which being connected by metal, with
the spouts also of metal, and carried down to the ground. from
conductors for the protection of lofty buildings from the effect of
lightning ; also for a spiral stain (wholly of cast iron) of a light
and simple construction, which may be carried up or inserted
within the corner of a buttressed tower wall, or in the cylinder
of a small turret; by which mode of facing, adorning, and con-
structing the said ‘several parts, churches or other buildings of
pure Gothic design may be erected of brick, and finished with
light ornamental carved-work of appropriate taste and elegance,
at less expense than if wrought in stone, and in materials that
will endure.—29th Nov.—2 months.

To Maurice De Jough, of Kentish Town, in the county of
Middlesex, for his imprevements in the method or methods of
manufacturing or preparing madder roots and madder.—29th
Nov.—2 months.

To Isaac Willson, of the city of Bath, gentleman, for certain
improvements upon stove-grates to prevent smoky rooms, and for
ohtaining an increased heat from the saine quantity of fuel —29th
Nov.—6 months.

Yo Samuel Tyrrell; of Peddinghoe, in the county of Sussex,
farmer, for his broad-cast sowing machine.— 4th Dee. —2
months.

To John Bateman, of the township of Wyke, i in the county of
York, for his improvement on musical instruments.—9th Dec.—
6 months.

To Thomas Wright, of Great St. Helen’s, in the city of Lon-
don, broker, for his improved method of making a composition
or mixture for dyeing scarlet and other colours.—9th Dec.—
6 months.
~ To John Swarbreck Rogers, of the city of Chester, merchant,
for his mode of s;+nning or making a species of wool into yarn,

either

76 Paients.— Meteorology.

either by itself, or with any other material with which yarn may
be beneiicially used in various branches of manufacture.—l4th
Dee.—2 months. SF

To Joseph White, of Leeds, in the county of York, millwright,
for his improvements In steam engines.—i4th Dec.—6 months.

To William Allamus Day, of Poplar, in the county of Middle-
sex, for his method of extracting all the gross or mucilaginous
matter from Finks or Greenland blubber*produced from whales
when boiled into oil ; which method not only renders the oil so
boiled more free from its usual rancid smell and taste, but in a
great degree adds to its burning and inflammable qualities.—
20th Dec.—2 months.

METEOROLOGY.

During the present month the fall of snow has been greater
than for many years, and the thermometer has been lower gene-
rally throughout the kingdom than has ever been known.

A: Basingstoke, Hampshire, at 7 a.m. on the 10th Fahren-
heit’s thermometer was at —3°; at 10 a.m. at 8°+ ; at7
p- m, at 3°+.

January 9, in the morning at Edinburgh. . 24°4

15, at Kelso : ; . : 825
17, at Glasgow, at 8.30 a. m. ‘ Ppt ks
17, inthe fields near Glasgow , . oom

The following observations on Fahrenheit’s Thermometer
were made at Croft House, near Bradford, at alittle before nine
o’clock, on the mornings of each of the following days :

January 4.......3 12°+4 | January 14 /e....7.5 1504

Feces aisty a ne 15: '2h wince ear
Pigsouigg Ors. 4 16 nee seaeeees
105 eidlcia aged” Vier
i ie 219 19° StleeieelS2
Bide lyase! QR¢ 20.2. wa

The Register Thermometer at Jones’s, in Oxendon-street, on
the night between the 9th and 10th, was at 7 degrees Fahrenheit 5
on the same night, at Petersham, it was at 2 degrees, which is
the greatest cold we have had since between the 24th and 25th of
December 1798, when the Register in Tilney-street was at
zero; Sir George Shuckburgh’s, in Park-street, 2 degrees below
zero; Mr. Cavendish’s, at Clapham, 7 below—and near Maid~
stone, 1] or 12 below zero, which was the greatest cold ever ob-

served in England,
Meteoro-

%

~~)
~~

Meteorological Observations.

Meteorological Observations made at Clapton in Hackney,
from December 17, 1813, to January 19, 1814.

Dec. 17-20, 1813.—The weather clouded for the most part,
the Thermometer generally above 40° in the day, with damp hazy
atmosphere and southwesterly winds. On the night of the 20th
a frost set in, with Thermometer 24°.

Dec. 21-25.—Damp atmosphere, a great deal of cloud, and
some rain during this period.

Dec. 26.—Clear day, with tufts of cirrus and cooler air, Wind
northerly.

Dec. 27.—A very great change took place. to-day; a thick
white sératus or fog, of such density as to prevent carriages from
finding their way, prevailed all day, and for a long period after-
wards.

Dec. 28.—Fog somewhat less, but very great.

Dec. 29.—Fog denser in Londen, but rather less in the country.

Dec. 30.—Fog so far cleared off in the country as to let the
sun be seen through it, but very dense in London.

Dec, 31.—Clearer in the middle of the day over-head, and
cirrus observed in tufts; dense fog at night. Barometer 30.36,
Therm. at night 21°.

Jan. 1, 1814.—Fog cleared off again a little in the day-time;
was exceedingly dense and dark in London. Therm. at night
18°. Bar. 30.10.

Jan. 2.—Fog less ; clouds seen aloft. . Barom., sinking, 29.85,
Therm. 30°,

Jan. 3*.—A thaw seemed coming with clouded sky, but the
frost and fog returned at night. Barom. got to 29.61.

Jan. 4.—Suow commenced to-day from NE. Barom. 29.35.
Therm. 25,

Jan. 5.— Snowing all day, and it lay very thick. Windy
night from W. Barom, 29.15.

Jan. 6+.—Windy. Snow lies deep. Barom. 29.20.

Jan. 7.—Cold and clouded early ; then cirrus and cumulus.
Barom, 29.68. Therm, at night 12°,

* This remarkable fog, of so long continuance, appears by accounts to have
commenced earlier in the southern and western parts of England than
in the vorthern and eastern. It was very partial at times, and o!ten sud-
denly abated and returned. To speak of its nature in meteorological lan-
guage, I should say it was a highly clectritied stratus, and was accoimpanied
the whole time by a gradually falling Barometer and an increasing trost.

t The Barometer began rising to-day, and contioued to rise till the 11th;
during all the interyal a very hard frost prevailed. On the 1th the Baro-
meter began to sink again. :

* Jan,

78 Meteorological Observations made at Clapton.

Jan. 8.—Crrri and other doubtful clouds ; sévatus partial and
temporary. Barom. 29.69. Therm. 22°.

Jan. 9.—Clear aloft, save a few flimsy clouds ; intensely ccld.
The Therm. at night as low as 6°. Barom. 29.78.

Jan. 10.— Very cold; some snow fell from N. in which
quarter or NE it has been for the last week. Barom. 29.83.
Therm. lowest 19°.

Jan. 11 —Snow in small flakes from S. Wind east P.M.
Barom. 29.92 in the morning, at night 29.75. Therm. 22°,
Gales of wind.

Jan. }2.—Fine cold day; few clouds: cloudy by times at
night, and rather windy. N.

Jan. 13.—Clear, and clouds by times. Barom. rising 30.18.
Therm. 14°. N.

Jan. 14.—Fair morning; clouds P.M. with gale from S.
Barom. 29.84. Therm. 19°.

Jan. 15.—Barom. 29.70. Wind SE. calm. Cirrostratus, &c.
Sky greenish.

Jan. 16.—Barom. 29.35 rising. Therm. 21° in day. Wind N.
Cloudy.

Jan. 17.—Barom. falling 29.42. Clear morning ; cloudy, and
gale from N. at night.

Jan. 18.—Barom. 29.18 falling. Gale from N. with plenty
of small snow.

Jan. 19.—The Barometer to-day was a long time stationary
at 29.14; towards night it rose ; snow fell from north-east all
day with some sleet. The flakes were seldom large. The Ther-
mometer about 30° and 32° all day. Wind in gales and high,
and thawing by degrees.

During the previous part of this long and severe frost, there
have been very few sea-fowl observed about the marshes, which
were formerly so common in such weather ; nor have wild geese
been observed to go southward. This circumstance suggests the
inquiry, what has been the state of the weather in northern parts
of our island. Any observations on this subject communicated
by northern meteorologists would be interesting. I cannot omit
here mentioning another curious circumstance. The greatest
haziness and fog known for ages before, is well remembered to
have prevailed the year of the last great eruption of Mount
Hecla; the late, great fog began the day of the present eruption ~

of Mount Vesuvius.
Clapton, Jan. 19, 1814. Tuomas ForsTER.

METEORO-

ee

Meteorology. i9

METEOROLOGICAL TA BLE,

Extracted from the Register kept at Kinfauns Castle*, N. Bri-
tain. Supposed Lat. 56° 18’.—Above the Sea 90 feet.

N° of Days.

Morning § o’clock. |Evening, 10 pie Depth

{
Mean height -f || Meunheight of || of Rain. la,
PERE I iG alae MRED EOS GOEL CE
1813. Barom. | Ther. | Barom.} Ther. |jInch. 100 2 F. als |
January. 30-07 | 33:00 |} 30-09 | 53-70 1-05 10 | 91 |
February. | 29-59 | 38:00 |} 29-59 | 38-00 j| 2-66 3 5
March. 30:07 | 41-90 |} 30-08 } 40-90 “41 14 | 47 ;
April, 29-99 | 43-40 | 30-04 | 40-97 -73 11 | 19
May. 99-84 | 49.06 || 29-85 | 4¢-93 2.50 | 22+} 9
June. 80:10 || 54°63 4} 30-10 | 53:00 || 1-07 | 9 | 91
July. 29:89 | 57-90 | 29-88 | 56-50 | 244° | 13 | 18
August. 3C-09 | 5651 || 30:09 | 5416 || 63 | 5 | 96
September.] 30:05 52-40 30:04 } 52:10 | “72 10 | 20
October. 29:82 | 4250 | 29-81 | 43-00 || 1-70 10 | 91 |
jNovember. 29-71 87°50 29°72 37-60. |}. 1-47 il 19
December. | 29-92 | 37-51 | 29:89 | 37-71 | 95 | 12 | 19!
prcraes OF} 90.999 | 45-375 | 29-954] 44-547 || 1798 | 15
ihe year. 2 3S7é 29-95: 547 | 7°33 150 |215

* Kinfauns Castle is the residence of Lord Gray.

ANNUAL RESULTs in 1813,

BAROMETER. |
Highest 22 Jan, - Wind SW. 30.58 1 Highest 31 Jan. Wind NW. 30.57
7 Feb, |

Lowest 1 Apr, SE. 28.74 || Lowest 17 S. 28.73
}

THERMOMETER. |

Highest 12 Aug. WindSE. 64° |; Highest 30 July Wind S. 63%
Lowest 26 Jan. SW. 17° || Lowest’ 25 Jan. W. 19°

By one of Barzon’s best Double Tube THERMOMETERS.
Highest Observ. Afternoon of 30 July, Wind 8. oe

—.

Lowest Observ. Morning of 26 Jan. SW. 16°
Mean Temperature for the year 1813, 46.83
Lo LS ee ee
Weather, Days. | Wind. Times.
PN sh SIR bh NSE oo loge: )
Rain or Snow. . 150 | E&SE. . . 76% 8 o'clock!
— || sasw. - ! aig. inthe |
365 | W&NW. . . 173) Morning.’
|

365

=> GSD eaten Sane

RAIN.

The greatest fall in 24 hours, 16 J uly, Wind W. 0°78
The greatest in one month in February 5 > uo, GE
The least , ‘ - in March ‘ :
Total quantity fallen at Kinfauns Castle in 1813

Se ee

In. 100. |
j

uk |
METEOR(-

#0 Meteorology.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE,

> By Mr. Cary, oF THE STRAND,

For January 1814

Thermometer. aaa
wt OL . | .] Heighe of 23 =
wee: Sel § 78 = | the Baron a5. Weather.
. Y s 3 = = Inches. <2 be
Sz = oo
re) aR gat
Dec. _ 27} 27 | 30 | 28 | 30°52 0 |Foggy
28| 27 | 27 | 25 ‘37 0 |Foggy
291 95 | 28 | 97 °35 0 |Fogey
30} 25 | 30 | 98 *36 0 |Foggv
. 31] 27 | 31 | 96} +30 0 |Foggy
Jane; sd e707 (127, pie7 "13 0 |Foggy
S| 98 | 31 | 30 | 29°83 0 |Foggy
31 30 | 32 | 28 “68 0 {Cloudy
4| 30 | 31 | 30 °30 0 |Snow
5} 30 | 32 | 32 “17 Oo |Snow
6| 32 | 32 | 26 *36 Oo (Snow
7| 22 | 27 | 93 62 0 {Cloudy
8| 23 | 29 | 25 63 0 |Cloudy
G} 24 | 28 | 18 65 0 |Cloudy
10} 15 | 28 | 26 "82 o {Cloudy
tl] 22 | 27 | 25 67 0 |Cloudy ~
121 90 | 25 | 20 +50 O |Fair
13/ 26 | 28 | 20 | 30°05 Oo. {Fair
14| 20 | 24 | 26 | 29°62 0 |Cloudy
15| 26 | 28 | 28 “56 0 |Cloudy
16| ¢8 | 32 | 29 "32 0~ \Cloudy
17| 25 | 2 24, “15 oO |Fair
18| 30.| 32 | 30 "19 _ Oo |Snew
19| 32 | 32 | 28; *10 0 |Snow
20) 28 | 30 | 20 “50 0 |Snow
21! 20 | 2 21 °78 oO. |Fair
29} 94 | 98 | 19 op O {Fair
93} 92 | 31 | 28 "72 O {Fair
24! 95 | 27 | 28 "78 0 |Showers of Snow
25| 28 | 32 | 27 "88 OQ {Fair
26) 32 | 35 | 35 "a5 oO (Snow and Rain
|
N.B. The Baroredtee height is taken at one o'clock.

met .

ERRATA .—By an oversight, in putting our last number to press, some
typographical errors in Mr. W. JowEs’s article were left uncorrected.

In page 465, line 1, for “ plane” read * plano ;” and in line 31, for “ Dr.
Maskeline” read “* Dr, Maskelyne.”

>:

Sass

wae ee) 2
XIX. On the Use of Air-Vessels in Plants, By Mrs.

IBBETSON.

Sins,— Siz George Staunton observes, “that the leaf of the
Nymphea Nelumbo, besides its common use, has from its peculiar
structure, growing entirely round the stalk, the advantage of de-
fending the flewers and fruit within its centre from any contact
with the water, from-whatever depth, (unless in case of a sudden
inundation,) until it attains the surface.” But this property is
common to all water plants. There are curious facts appertaining
to plants of this kind, well worth showing, since they are phzno-
mena which serve as general rules in nature ; and to attain and
collect these, has, from the first of my dissecting plants, been my
most ardent desire ; especially as (in this case) they are never,
or very rare/y varied from. The fact which I now wish to prove,
is the use which Nature makes of air-vessels in plants, while I
attempt also to explain how air in general is received and placed
in them. It was the universal opinion of all the physiologists of
the last age, that all plants have air-vessels : but dissection has
convinced me that ¢his is a mistake ; that when found, they are
too large and beautiful not to be seen and acknowledged: but
they are to be discovered in water- and semi-water plants alone.
There is indeed a quantity of air mixed in the vessels % all ve-
getables, and from this circumstance arises that process which
accelerates or retards the flow of the sap ang other juices: the
mixture of air in the sap-vesseJs is the source of the most won-
derful part of the formation of plants in general, since to that is
owing the constant fluctuation which the heat er cold produces
in the several vessels, filling and emptying them as the thermo-
meter rises or falls: thus, when the cool of the evening, or even
a cold blast approaches, the air which nearly fills half the sap-
vessels is condensed into a much smaller compass ; this calles
a momentary vacuum, which opens the innumerable leaf-valves
of the plant, and in succession those of the hairs, and admits a
stréam of rain er dew into the sap-vessels, which then being per-
fectly replenished, the returning sun as quickly converts into
oxygen for the restoration of that purity of air so necessary to
health; and carbonic acid gas, for the formation of the bark
juices, and other combinations. This process takes place in
‘some measure, in water- as well as in dand-plants: but with
respect to real air-vessels, vessels filled with air alone; they ap-
pear, from all the dissections or study I have made on them, to
*be placed in the plants merely to support them in the water ;

_ and to be fixed in different directions according to the attitude

a “* on the stream in close contact with it, then the leaf-stem

in which the vegetables are required to stand. When the leaf is

Vol, 43, No, 190. Fel. 1814. — F increases

s

82 On the Use of Air-Vessels in Plants.

increases in length with the depth of the water, and it is wholly
filled with air-vessels which sustain it in a perpendicular direction
to where the leaf hegins, and it has a layer of air-vessels also un-
derneath the leaf, to support it on the stream, and keep its upper
surface perfectly dry. But when the plant is to be kept above a
foot under water, the leaves lose their accompaniment of air-
vessels under, and retain only those which surround the leaves,
and a bubble at the apex and bottom of the midrib, which is
increased or diminished according to the necessities of the plant
for rising or falling in the stream. But if leaves are to be main-
tained in a perpendicular direction in the water, then more art
is used for the purpose, which I shall now show in describing the
whole formation of a water-lily, or the Nymphaea lutea; ob-
serving that the dissection is the same in all the species I have
been able to procure for the purpose.

That the water-lily has two sorts of leaves, is a fact, I believe,
not known even to the worthy Baronet who so well observed them
in their native waters im Chima: that they wholly differ in thick-
ness, and in form, as they do also in the various uses for which
they are designed, I shall now show. The first I shall describe,
is that which swims on the water. A double layer of air-vessels
just covered by a skin perfectly impervious to water, forms its
lower surface, that which is in contact with the stream; while
the upper one has a treble net, instead of pabulum, covered by a
double skin through which nowater can pass. I have given a sketch
of the thickness of the leaf in (Plate 11. fig. 1.) that the difference
might be well understood, and the use of air-vesseis fully exem-
plified. I have said that the stem lengthened with the depth of the
water, but the air-vessels in the midrib stop with the commence-
ment of the leaf, so that it lies quite flat, and the upper surface
perfectly dry. But the other leaf is of a very different descrip-
tion: when the corolla has fallen off, and the seeds have dropped
from the receptacle, the pericarpium decays, and a new germ,
which 2s to contain the next year’s fruit and flower, just peeps
above the mud, but is wholly covered with water. This is sur-
rounded with leaves of a very peculiar form, flapped into a kind
of scollop at the edges; they press the bud in every other part ;
while the apex of the midrib just keeps aleve the water, enabled
to do so by a large bubble of air which it encloses, and by all
the midrib being full of air-vessels: of course there are none
under the leaf, and fewer in the leaf-stalk; but the large opening
for air between the skins of the leaf, at the top scollop, keeps it
constantly upright.

The (fig. 2.) will give an idea of the comparative thickness of
the leaf, while (A, fig. 1.) and (B, fig. 2.) will show the shape of
the leaf to. which each dissection belongs; and its interior for-

mation, —

On the Use of Air=Vessels in Plants. 83

mation, and the different mechanism of the two leaves, will point
out the use of air-vessels. The little influence the water has on
the essential properties of the plant will be shown, since it in a
very trifling degree alters either seed, flower, or fruit. I gave
before a letter on Water Plants*. 1 then showed how the water
grass, Festuca fluitans, is supported on the stream by the same
means (a layer of atr-vessels under the leaf) and that almost all
water plants have ¢wo sorts of leaves; Ist, floating ones to yield
oxygen, and form the different compound juices required by the
plant; 2dly, the under leaves to support and invest it, and for
many other purposes yet to be discovered; but in the Potamo-
getons, the lower leaves are too narrow to cover the bud, and this
is wholly left to the vails. In the Potamogeton natans, when
the water happens to dry up, the air-vessels by degrees lose all —
their beauty; they contract in such a manner as soon to become
merely common vessels, and then the plant carries the appear-
ance of a Plantago. Waving found one last summer, I should
not have known it to be a Potwmogeton, but for the observation
of Linneus, who had seen and mentioned the alterations that
sometimes took place in the species, ‘This is remarkably the
case in many of the semi-water plants, which, instead of decaying
for the want of water, become land plants, by losing or contracting
their vessels, particularly the Veronica scutellaria, and some-
times the Beccabunga.

The strange idea that water plants perspired, I think I
should not here have shown to be false, as I flatter myself that
what I have already in former letters proved, is so plain and evi-
dent to common sense, as to carry conviction to every breast that
seeks it: but as the mistake originated in land plants, by figures
(which in reality resembled any thing rather than a bubble of
water), and as water plants are almost divested of hairs, retorts,
or any appearance resembling them, it 1s proper that I should
show what was taken for perspiration in water plants. A very
light species of Conferva, hardly to be distinguished by the naked
eye, very frequently covers the floating leaves of water plants, and
between its pellucid and slender hairs the water is necessarily
detained; the bubbles of oxygen, continually flowing from the
leaves, are caught in its diminutive meshes; and the plant, thus
situated, appears covered with diamonds, which when swept off
by the hand, the no longer imprisoned air disappears, but the
water (the cause of the phenomenon) still remains with the Con-
ferva, as an apparent proof of the perspiration ; it being supposed
to proceed from the bubbles. But I have so often examined the
whole matter, so often placed a large magnifier over the leaves

* Philosophical Journal.

F2 and

84 On the Use of Air-Vessels in Plants.

and watched them for hours, without seeing one.Jubble of waiter
transpire, that I am well assured of the truth of the above fact;
and that, when not covered by a Cryptogamza, the floating leaves
are always perfectly dry; which they could not be with the per-
Spiration attributed tothem. 1 haye said that the water plants
have no hairs, that is, that none of the uninclosed parts have
any; which appears to me to be a strong proof of two facts I
have much wished to establish; viz. that the hairs, and those in-
struments in general taken for perspiration, are on the contrary
intended to bring moisture to the plants, instead of drawing li-
quid from them; and that there exists such a thing in vegetation
as a skin impervious to water, which covers all leaves and most
other parts, and is of peculiar use to water plants. These two
points are of great importance to phytology. 1 have continually
brought them forward in every specimen that gave proof of their
existence; and former evidence is much added to, I think, by what
follows. Though leaves and the parts under water uncovered by
vails, have no hairs, yet the flowers which shoot their spikes
above, and the buds while thoroughly defended from the stream,
have a few ; and what is most curious, they are filled with water.
The bud before the flower develops is covered by a treble vail,
so thoroughly impervious to water, that one of them is usually
inflated with air, that it may more effectually guard the pollen,
and prevent the introduction of moisture. Assured that the hairs
were never replenished from the plant, but that they gained their
liquid from the atmosphere alone, I wished to try how hairs when
so situated, could obtain the water that inflated them: taking
therefore two glasses and placing them one within another, well
guarded below from any moisture by a thick luting, I covered the
whole apparatus with water, and left it for the night; when the
next morning | found the interior of the inward glass strewed
with pellicles of water enough to fill all the little hairy cylinders
the buds contain; showing that evaporation ean pierce through
a double glass. There cannot be a stronger proof that the hairs
possess some peculiar power which enables them to draw mois-
ture from the atmosphere, than this. Though that I gave in a
late letter, shows it is not water alone that is procured in this
manner, since oil is also received by the hair; and in roses,
the luscious red juice produced or concreted in them, may be
traced afterwards entering the plant, and running in appropriate .
vessels even to the valves of the leaf,

Having now shown all that concerned the leaves and air-vessels
of the water plants, I wished to ascertain whether they differed
from other plants in this respect; or whether, like them, they
formed their seeds and buds in the root? To prove this, I pro-
cured a large water-lily of the dutea species, and cut many pieces

°

On the Use of Atr-Vessels in Plants. 85

of the root, which I subjected to the microscope in every possible
way likely to elucidate the truth. They all presented specimens
in which both buds and seeds were plainly to be discovered ; one
ef these, an horizontal slice, I shall give a figure of. In the
centre of the root, buds will be discovered, and the seeds are im-
bedded in the alburnum vessel next the bark (fig. 3. C, buds,)
and (fig. 3. D, seeds.) 1 then divided the stem, and taking a
perpendicular piece down the middle, it presented me with the
line of life (mounting as it always does in’ small plants) in the
eentre, with the buds attached to it; (see fig.4.) To complete
the picture, I continued to cut to the top of the plant, and dis-
covered the buds in a more advanced state, where they are first
collected, for the use of communicating to them the different in-
gredients ; their seeds and pollen (fig. 5.) which they had not
yet received, though so much formed in appearance; for both
stamens and seed-vessel were empty. I never dissected a plant
more fitted to show every truth I wished to prove: Ist, that
water interferes less with the essential properties of a plant than
could be conceived ; that air-vessels are merely supporters ; 2dly,
that the seed, bud, and pollen, are formed in the root in water
plants, and not in ‘the seed-vessel and stamen; 3dly, that there
is no perspiration in water- any more than in land-plants, though
the latter have few hairs ; 4thly, that there is an invisible skin,
which covers almost all vegetation, impervious to water; and that
the hairs receive their liquid from the atmosphere, and not from
the vegetables to which the; y belong. As I enter into the mi-
nutiz of the formation of plents! these facts become more evident,
and not a single vegetable do I dissect without their appearing
too positive to be doubted: there is a curious appearance around
the flowers of the plants of which I have given a specimen,
which I never saw before and cannot account for. (See fig. 3.
and fig. 4. at K.) I can at this time procure only the Potamo-
getons and the Ranunculus aquaticus, and the flower in them
has but just begun to form. ‘That the spiral is discovered in all
corollas, is a fact ; but to see it all round in this manner is novel,
and may, I hope, be the means of procuring further information.
Shall I be pardoned for concluding this letter with breathing
a doubt respecting that account which Theophrastus gives, that
the Nymphea Lotus sinks under water every night? The very
great care Nature takes in all water plants, to defend them from
the element till after impregnation, is such, that I cannot believe
she would suddenly change her laws, merely to make one flower
of a system act in exact contradiction to a known principle.
All water plants rise above the stream to perform the impreg-
en of the seed; and when the flower is under water, before
F3 it

86 On the Use of Air-Vessels in Planis.

it blows, it is covered with a treble vail to defend it from the in-
fluence of the element ; and this defence it loses not till after it
has risen above the water. All the species seem admirably to
coincide in every particular. We have a native in this country,
where the nights are colder in proportion, What reason, then,
can possibly justify such a variation? Prosper Alpinus endeavours
to prove that the Nymphcea Lotus is in every respect the same
as a common lily, and adds that they all equally sink at night.
Now we kuow this to be a mis/ake, as not one of the species
flowering in England does so: but there is another reason that
makes me suppose the observation of Theophrastus unfounded ;
there is 70 mechanism to draw the plant hastily under the water.
I have now for some years dissected plants, and I never yet saw
a purpose of any kind effected without a very visible means to
produce it. A stalk never bends, a leaf turns, or a corolla twists,
without the’ muscles presenting themselves in a proper way to
effect the purpose required. If the interior of the stem had been
found with spirals sufficient to raise or contract it, I should have
credited the account. The Ruppia maritima, which draws un-
der the water soon after fructification is over, has a stalk formed
with proper mechanism to act thus, In the Valisneria spiralis
there is also an evident proof of its being made to be drawn un-
der the stream ; but even in these two plants, they remain above
the water till after the fructification is past. That the flower
closes at night, and lays its head on the water, is certainly true ;
but this is also to take care of the stamen and pistil; it is the
general watchfulness of Nature to perfect that which is to insure
the safety of the future seed, and even the lying down of the flower
is to prevent the dew from entering where the petals close, lest
it should hurt and explode the pollen too early; for, ata certain
time of its formation, it bursts immediately on water getting
through the stamen, and becomes (if not ripe enough) quite in-
capable of performing its part in the fructification of the seeds.
This very case seems to contradict the fact advanced by Theo-
phrastus. But may I be so daring as to hint that neither Greeks
nor Romans were very methodical in their accounts of the phe-
nomena of nature? And though this famous Grecian is thought
to be one of the most exact in whatever he records, yet his flesh-
consuming stone, which he says destroyed in forty days all bat
the bones of the body laid in it, and turned to stone the shoes
and every other different material placed in that repository,
shows that he believed ‘hat which he never took the trouble to
investigate. As to Pliny, he credited that stones brought forth
young; and he repeatedly mentions several sorts of firs that had
tap-roots six cubits in length; though there is but one species ai

r

On the Use of Air-Vessels in Plants. 87

fir that has any tap-root, and that, being the deciduous Cyprus,
and an American tree, could not be known to him. I merely
mention this, not to detract from these great authors, but as
lessening the certainty of the evidence when placed in opposition to
areal law of nature, from which we have as yet seen no variation.

Before I close this paper, I cannot but mention a circumstance,
though irrelevant to the subject, which proves, I hope, the accu-
racy of my observations in this respect, and has given me some
confidence in them, as agreeing with those of so distinguished a
philosopher as Mr, Leslie. I observed in one of my letters last
year, that when I placed the spiral wire suddenly in any degree
of heat, its motion was all by impulses; whenever I breathed
upon it, or exposed it to the focus of the solar microscope, its
Starts were convulsive: now Mr. Leslie in his description of his
new Atmometer, in which he gives so curious an account of the
manner in which heat is communicated to water and odours,
observes, that it is by pulsation. 1 suppose, therefore, that it is
the heat which eccasions the motion in the delicate muscles of the
spiral wire, and not any action peculiar to itself. I am, sirs,

Your obliged servant,
Cowley Cot, Jan. 14, 1814. AGNES IBBETSON.
: ———————

P.S. In cutting the larger buds I divided the last cover (fig. 5.
EE): it is the one generally inflated with air, and it now looks
like a calyx; but it is only a vail to protect it from the water : there
were three buds, and they were cut in halves, but I could not show
them. At the inside there was such a confusion I could make
nothing of it, except that neither pollen nor seeds were yet there.
The moment the seeds enter, or the pollen gets into the stamen
(the latter particularly), the parts inflate, and are much larger at
that time than they ever are afterwards. It is impossible, there-
fore, not to be sensible of the moment in which it is done, if the

flower or bud is divided ; for all is in confusion befere, and beauti-
ful regularity succeeds. 1 shall soon give a view of the buds in
every different stage, viz. in the roof, in the stem, and just before
blowing, which will elucidate this subject greatly. But it requires
such nice instruments of dissection, particularly very sharp and
pointed scissars, that I am waiting for their formation. I have
before given the form of the air-vessels in fig. 2. Journal 144,
‘There are but three sorts, and it is only the shape that differs ; the
interior parts and the mechanism are the same inall. (Fig. 6)
are the water vessels in the Menyanthes. This is the sort Mirbel
dissected, I fancy. He says, ‘Ce ne sont pas des petites utricules
comme le disent la pluspart des auteurs, mais une membrane qui

se dédouble, en quelque sorte pour former des vuides contigues
F4 les

88 On definite Proportions.

les unes aux autres.” This is admirably describing them. Those
in the water-lily are round as in fig. 2. in the Journal just men-
tioned, and the square sort are found in the vail of the same plant,
The water-lily is in the present print. (See fig. 0, GG.)

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

———

XX. An Aitempt to determine the definite and simple Pro-
ortions, in which the constituent Parts of wnorganic Sub-
stances are.united with each other. By Jacoz BERZELIUS,

Professor of Medicine and Pharmacy, and M.R.A. Stock-
holm.

[Continued from p. 54.]
2. Alumina.

Js order to be able to determine the quantity of oxygen con-
tained in alumina, I dissolved some of this earth, which had
been precipitated from alum by caustic ammonia, in sulphuric
acid; and when the acid would take up no more of it, I filtered
the solution, concentrated it by evaporation, and precipitated the
neutral salt from it by the addition of aleohol. The precipitate
was well washed with alcohol, in order to separate any uncom-
bined sulphuric acid which might accidentally be present. The
salt thus prepared had completely the taste of alum, but the taste
was much stronger. In order to drive off the water, I heated it
in a platina crucible over a spirit lamp, and weighed the crucible
from time to time ; when it lost no more of its weight, I con-
sidered the salt as free from water. It melted, swelled up, and
exhibited the appearance of alum; at last I was obliged to force
it down into the crucible, in order that the heat might be able
to penetrate it uniformly. The dry salt appeared not to be so-
luble in water, and in this respect resembled the dry sulphate of
the protoxide of iron, the dry sulphate of magnesia, burnt alum,
and other salts. But with the assistance of heat it was by de-
grees completely dissolved. .

I ignited 10 grammes of this dry sulphate of alumina in a
platina crucible, as long as they lost any weight from the extri-
cation of sulphurous acid ; they left behind 2°9934 gr. of a loose
white andlight alumina. This salt, the dry sulphate of alumina,
must therefore consist of :

Sulphuric acid .. 70:066 100-000
PAMIMIMNA ss 4 6 y0 255... 29 GOOF 42°722

And if 42:722 parts of alumina contain 19°96 of oxygen, 100
parts must contain 46-726.

In order to prepare the hydrate of alumina, | first attempted

4 to

On definite Proportions. 89

fo separate the earth from alum by adding ammonia in excess.
But m this I could not succeed; for, when I burnt the alumina
thus obtained, it always afforded first water, and then sulphurous
acid and oxygen gas, Consequently alumina forms with the
sulphuric acid an insoluble subsalt, which is but imperfectly de-
composed by ammonia.

I therefore took the alumina which had heen freed from sul-
phurie acid by complete ignition, dissolved it by long digestion
in nitric acid, and precipitated it by adding to the solution caustie
ammonia in excess. The gelatinous earth was well washed on a
filter, and slowly dried in the sun: when dry, it was rubbed to
a fine powder, again digested with water, in order to separate the
_ nitrate of ammonia, once more dried, and ignited in a small glass
retort, At first pure water was evolved, but it was followed by
a quantity of nitrous acid vapours, which could only be com-
pletely expelled by a white heat. Consequently the nitric acid
possesses the same property as the sulphuric, of affording with
alumina a subsalt, which is not completely decomposed by am-
monia. The subnitrate of alumina has a considerable resem-
blance to the gelatinous silica, or to a stiff decoction of starch,
and is easily obtained by rubbing unburnt alumina with a little
nitric acid: the mixture exhibits after a few moments an inflated
starch-like mass.

I now dissolved alumina in muriatic acid, precipitated it with
ammonia in great excess, and digested the precipitate for six
hours with the solution, which remained strongly alkaline. The
earth, when taken out of the filter, and well washed, was: dried
in thesun, finely powdered, and again exposed to the sun for a
day. When ignited in a small retort, it afforded nothing but
water, although a small portion of the earth itself was carried up
with the water, and was collected like a fine dust in the receiver.
The loss was somewhat increased by this circumstance.

This compound of waler and alumina left 64-932 per cent.
of earth, which, being dissolved in nitric acid, showed no signs
of sulphuric acid when examined by the test of a salt of baryta.
Consequently 100 parts of dry alumina had been united with 54
of water: and this water contains 47:65 parts of oxygen: the
alumina, on the other hand, as we have seen, contains only
46°726. I cannot insist on the perfect accuracy of either of
these determinations ; but both of them are sufficiently near to
the truth, to show that alumina, like the bases of salts already
mentioned, is capable of combining with a quantity of water of
which the oxygen is equal to that of the earth.

Alumina, after ignition, attracts moisture very rapidly from
the air, but retains it with a slight force; and the quantity de-
pends on the hygrometrical state of the air, The warmth fe
} the

90 On definite Proportions.

the sun is sufficient to expel the greatest part of this water; and
if we heat the alumina on a sand-bath, the whole of it is driven
off ; while the water in the true hydrate requires a red heat in
order to be expelled. After some days, 100 parts of burnt
alumina had absorbed 34°5 of water in an atmosphere saturated
with moisture, hygr. 100°. Of this water it lost in a few days
18:5 parts, when the hygrometer stood at 7°, and the thermo-
meter from 22° to 25° [72° to 77°]; and its weight then re-
mained stationary. It may be questioned in what state of com-
bination this water was retained: certainly not in the same as in
the hydrate,

8. Silica.

The silica, which is separated by acids from the liquor silicum,
contains, after being dried, as is well known, a considerable
quantity of water. I found that it made no difference whether
I employed silica that was precipitated at once, or that was first
separated in a gelatinous form.

Three portions of silica, which | had cbtained by different
analytical operations, were dried in the same saucer on a sand-
bath. When I ignited them after some hours’ exposure to this
heat, they all lost a quantity of water, which varied from 11-2 to
11-3 per cent.

The experiments upon the ignited alumina, and others upon
the oxide of tin, which I shall hereafter relate, determined me
to repeat these experiments at a subsequent time. I found that
the oxide of tin, when dried in different temperatures, retained
different proportions of water. J therefore weighed a portion of
silica dried in the open air, and dried it again in a sand heat:
the loss amounted to 26°8 per cent. Being left in the scale, its
weight increased by degrees. I then dried it again very thoroughly,
and ignited it; and I found the loss 14°2 per cent. It formed
little transparent grains, which lost nothing of their transparency
nor of their form by ignition. It seems, therefore, as if the water
retained by the silica were precisely in the same state as that
which ignited alumina absorbs from the air.

_ | had entertained hopes of being able to calculate the quan-
tity of oxygen in silica, from that of the water retained in
eorilatiation with it in a dry form; and the agreement of the
three first experiments with each other made me suppose, that
silica probably contains four times as much oxygen as the water
combined with it ; and in this case the quantity would be 45 per
cent. But I no longer place any dependence on this mode of
determination. It may perhaps be possible, at a future time, to
ascertain the composition of silica from its combinations with the

fluoric acid, or with the alkalis and the earths.
4, Oxide

; On definite Proportions. 9}

4. Oxide of Iron.

The experiments of Mr. Liedbeck have for some time made it
known in Sweden, that the yellow or brownish ore of iron called
Meadow ore, ‘ Rasenerz,” contains the oxide in the form of a
hydrate. My friend Mr. Tae eine of Cassel [now Professor
of Technology at Gottingen, G.] wrote to me some months since
that he had made the same eee, and kad found from 19 to
21 per cent. of water in this hydrate, but considered the former
number as the more correct. In this case the water would con-
tain a quantity of oxygen amounting to two-thirds of that of the
oxide of iron, or the water would contain as much oxygen as had
been required for converting the given quantity of iron into a
protoxide. Although this does not agree with the laws which
have been laid down, it is evident that this latter view of the
subject may lead to very instructive consequences ; and I was
induced by it to add to these investigations the examination of
the hydrate of the oxide of iron.

Mr. Liedbeck had found, in the ores which he examined,
20-8, 21-1, or 25 per cent. of volatile substances, of which water
eoustituted about 20. Together with the oxide of iron, he found
mechanical mixtures of sand, clay, silica, and so forth, which
being deducted from the oxide, left from 60 to 62 per cent. only:
and this portion of pure oxide contains as much oxygen as the
water combined with it.

I now examined some foreign specimens of this ore, and found
in it 14:4, 13-1, 11-6, ... per cent. of water, accordingly as the
ore was dried in the sun, or in a sand heat. The ore was not
magnetic before ignition, but became more or less so after igni-
tion. Hence it must have contained a little combustible matter,
which must have increased the loss by ignition. When the oxide
was dissolved, after ignition, in muriatic acid, it left behind a
little silica, swollen up into a semi-gelatinous form, which conse-
quently appeared to have been chemically united with the oxide.
But the admixture of foreign substances was such as to render it
impossible to determine the composition of this triple combina-
tion of water, silica, and oxide of iron, with so much precision,
that the result might be of the least utility as a basis for caleu-
Jation.

I now examined the yellow mass which is formed on weather-
ing pyrites, and which I had often found to be free from sulphuric
acid. ‘The specimen taken from one piece lost during ignition
17°5 per cent.; from another 12 only. Both contained silica,
and the first I afterwards found to exhibit traces of copper.

I then prepared some hydrates of iron, by decomposing the
sulphate, the nitrate, and the muriate of the oxide, with caustic

ammonia,

92 On definite Preportions. ’

ammonia. All these solytions afforded however a mixture of
hydrate and subsalt, from which heat expelled first some water,
and then some of the acid. The ignited hydrate lost in eis
experiments from 27 to 15°5 per cent.

I next digested the precipitate obtained from the nitrate with
a great excess of caustic ammonia. The hydrate, when washed,
and dried in the sunshine, now lost 22-15 per cent.: the fluid
which escaped, was not pure water, but a strongly ammoniacal
fluid. I had not therefore yet obtained a pure hydrate.

Two years and a half before, when I was examining the iron
which contained silicium, I had left about 20 gramines of this
iron, moistened with water, to oxidate spontaneously. But the
mass assumed by degrees a solid consisteney, and even after the
expiration of this time, was not completely oxidated throughout
its substance. Not being able therefore to employ it for the
analysis of silica, as I originally intended, I collected and dried
a quantity of the yellow ochre that was formed on it: but acci-
dentally this substance was placed, with others that were to be
dried, ina sand heat, and here in all probability lost a part of
the water that was chemically combined with it ; for the hydrates
of iron support but little heat, without assuming a darker colour,
and losing part of their water. By ignition, its weight was
further diminished 10 per cent. The red oxide that was left
contained 8*2 per cent. of silica. I was therefore working again
upen a triple combination of silica, oxide of iron, and water,
The quantity, which I had to employ for this experiment, was
too small; and was already consumed, so that I could not ex-
amine this preparation of iron with greater accuracy: but it was
evidently an artificial combination resembling the foreign ore
which I have already mentioned. This ove will undoubtedly be-
come the subject of further investigation, and the comparative
analysis of the artificial triple combination, obtained by the oxi-
dation of iron containing silicium, will perhaps be indispensable ;
for the ore is mixed in various and inconstant proportions with
dust, and with different earthy substances, so that it can afford
no certain results. 3

{t is also obvious from what has been related, that it it diffi-
cult to obtain a perfectly pure hydrate of iron, since the oxide
combines, at the moment of precipitation, as well with acids as
with ammonia, according to the degree of excess in which this
alkali is present. 1 ther efore allowed some iron filings to be oxi-
dated in pure water, which I changed daily, and collected the
hydrate. After some weeks I had obtained enough for an ex-
periment on a small scale. I dried it in the sunshine for several
days, and then ignited it in a platina crucible. It left 85:2 per
cent. of red oxide, which was partially magnetic ; a circumstance

which

On definite Proportions. 93

whieh I attribute to some carbon contained in the iron, which
was mixed with the hydrate. This quantity of oxide contains
26°12 parts of oxygen, and the water combined with it 13 parts.
Consequently in this experiment the oxide contained twice as
much oxygen as the water.

But in order that this proportion might have more than a single
experiment for its support, I took some iron whieh contained
less carbon, choosing for this purpose some harpsichord wire,
n. 10; I suffered it to be oxidated in pure water, which was daily
changed, in contact with a plate of platina, which accelerated the
oxidation. After some weeks, I had again coliected enough for
examination. This hydrate, dried for several days in the sun-
shine, had a very light orange yellow colour, and left after igni-
tion a fine red oxide, not at all magnetic, which amounted to
§5°5 per cent. Consequently in this experiment the hydrate
had contained 14-5 per cent. of water, which confirms the pre-
ceding experiment ; and we see that the hydrate of iron, which
forms on iron in water, contains a quantity of water of which

-the oxygen is equal to Aalf-that of the oxide. It is however
probable, as well from Mr. Liedbeck’s experiments, as from
others which will hereafter be mentioned, that the oxide of iron,
when in combination with other substances, is capable of taking
up a quantity of water, of which the oxygen is equal to that of
the oxide.

5. Oxide of Tin.

Ten grammes of pure tinfoil were oxidated in a glass flask by
means of pure nitric acid; the fluid was evaporated, and the
oxide ignited in the flask. It was of a light straw colour, and
weighed 12-72 gr. In another experiment I obtained only12-71 er.
According to the former experiment, the oxide of tin consists of

OTN ea ote ain ose 2 URS | 100°0 ©
BTS RS 4 Es} of 27-2

It is a known fact that oxide of tin, prepared with nitric acid,
reddens litmus paper, but not after ignition. I thought at first
that this might depend on some nitric acid adhering to it; but
when the water, with which it was washed, uo longer reddened
the paper, the oxide still possessed the property. It was only
deprived of it by pouring on it & little ammonia; but the oxide
now afforded, when ignited, water strongly impregnated with
ammonia. ‘The oxide of tin therefore has as much right to the
denomination of an acid as the tungstic acid, and the columbic
acid, or rather the ‘* tantalic” oxide. :

I dried some oxide of tin, which had been well washed, hut
not treated with ammonia, in a sand heat. It lost by ignition
6°6 per cent, After some hours, when the sand-bath was con-
ir siderably

94 On definite Proportions.

siderably colder, 1 repeated the experiment with a part of the
same oxide, which had remained on the sand. It now lost 9-66
per cent.: another portion, left for a longer time, lost 10°8 per
cent. by ignition, and the next morning, when every thing had.
been completely cold for some hours, the loss amounted to 12°5 per
cent. ; the weather being in the mean time very damp and rainy.
It is impossible to determine which of these experiments ought
to be preferred: and although this oxide, which approaches so
nearly to the acids in its nature, when it retains the greatest
portion of water, eontains itself nearly twice as much oxygen as
this water, still we can form no very decided conclusion from this
circumstance.

It may be hoped that similar experiments on the water contain-
ed in the oxides of titanium and tantalium, on the tungstic acid,
and other similar substances, will lead us to a more general and
decided knowledge of the relation of water to these bodies, which
occupy a middle rank between acids and bases.

But what are we to think of the attraction of a body for water,
which retains this fluid so slightly as to be overpowered by its ex-
pansive force at a moderate temperature? It must manifestly be
the same power that causes filtering paper to attract moisture
from the atmosphere, and sometimes to become heavier even
during the operation of weighing it, and that exhibits the well
known effects of hygroscopical substances. Whether this force
differs only in degree from that which is characterized by regu-
larly defined relations between the bodies that are united, or
whether it merely consists in a modification of superficial attrac-
tion, I do not venture to decide. With respect to the modifica-
tions of the force of elective attractions, there still remains much
for us to investigate . for example, in what the force which causes
a salt to be dissolved in water, in quantities dependent on the
temperatures, differs from the force by which the same salt is ca-
pable of rendering solid a greater or less quantity of water of
crystallization. Between these quantities there is no determinate
and unalterable relation; for salts, which contain no water of
crystallization at all, may be very soluble in water, for example,
nitre, and muriate of potass ; while others, which contain it very
abundantly, are completely insoluble, as, for example, subsalts
of iron and copper, carbonate of magnesia, and some others,

C. Combinations of Water with Salts.
Water of Crystallization.
Salts of potass. Inno salt of potass that I have examined,
the sulphate, nitrate, muriate, nor tartrate, have I found a trace
of water of crystallization. If these salts are finely powdered,

and dried in the sunshine, or in any other moderate warmth,
they

On definite Proportions. 95

they lose no more water during ignition. The nitrate of potass
gives off in the operation oxygen gas, nitrous acid, and lastly
nitrous gas, but does not afford a drop of liquid acid. The tar-
trate of potass, precipitated with nitrate of the protoxide of lead,
afferded, for 100 parts of the well dried salt, 155-7 of tartrate
of the protoxide of lead. Consequently, according to the ana-
lysis of this salt lately related, the tartrate of potass consists of
Tartaric acid.. 58°69 100-0
Potasss...... 41°31 70-4

Now 70:4 parts of potass contain 11:93 of oxygen, that is,
with a very slight difference, the same quantity as the protoxide
of lead that saturates 100 parts of the acid. The slight difference
may depend on the unavoidable loss of a small quantity of tar-
trate of leid in the experiment. Hence it is evident, that the
' tartrate of potass can contain no water of crystallization.

The supertartrate of potass, on the contrary, or the crystals
of tartar, contains water of crystallization, which cannot be ex-
pelled by heat. The salt employed for the preceding experiment
had been made of pure tartaric acid with pure carbonate of po-
tass, and was therefore perfectly free from lime. I precipitated
the remaining portion of it with tartaric acid, I dried very care-
fully the powdered precipitate, and bumt 10 grammes of it in a
platina crucible. The coaly alkaline mass was carefully washed
with muriatic acid,the muriatic solution dried, and the salt ignited.
1 obtained in one experiment 3°91, and in another 3-915 gr. of
muriate of potass. I found by another experiment, as Wollaston
had already observed with respect to the oxalic acid, that the re-
siduum of 10 gr. of supertartrate of potass, after ignition, was
sufficient to saturate 10 gr. of the supersalt: so that the potass
must be combined with twice as much acid in the supersalt as in
the neutral salt. But the muriate, which was obtained, answers
precisely to 24-8 per cent. of pure potass, which must conse-
quently form the superacetate with 70°45 of tartaric acid, and
the remaining 4°75 parts must be water. Hence the superacetate
of potass consists of

Tartaric acid.. 70°45
Potass....... 24°80
Water nid. s.<, A479

This quantity of potass contains 4-206, and the water 4-192
parts of oxygen; consequently the water of crystallization in
this salt contains exactly as much oxygen asthe base. But since
this water can only be expelled by the addition of a second base,
and is exactly the same quantity as would have been combined
with the excess of acid in a separate form of crystallization, this
salt may be considered as a double salt, of which water is the
second hase,

Salts

96 On definite Proportions.

Salis of soda. While, according to the experiments whiclt
are here related, the salts of potass seem in general to be with-
out water of crystallization, those of soda on the other hand con-
tain it in abundance, but retain it with a very slight attraction,
so that the greater number of them fall to powder in a dry at-
mosphere. Hence it is very difficult to obtain accurate results
with respect to them, since it may easily happen, that such a
salt may begin to crumble away at the surface, before it is dry in
the middle.

Sulphate of soda, in pure crystals, was washed: with water,
pulverised, and in great measure separated again from the water
on blotting paper, then dried in a press for twenty-four hours,
between several folds of fresh blotting paper, and lastly dried
again by slow degrees, and then ignited, in a platina crucible.
In this process 30 grammes lost 16°8 in weight ; consequently
the salt contains 56 per cent. of water of crystallization, and
must consist of

Sulphuric acid... 24°76
Soda sag Tae» wele (ROA
Water. t:0' 74 ye:+ 0 DOLOO

Now 19:24 parts of soda contain 4:953 of oxygen, and 56 of
water 49°42; so that in this salt the water of crystallization
contains exactly_ten times as much oxygen as the base.

_ Acetate of soda. Ten grammes of acetate of soda, pow-
dered, and dried in the open air, when exposed to the heat of a
sand-bath, fell into dust, and lost 4:011 gr. of their weight.
Five grammes of the acetate which had crumbled to dust, when
muriatic acid was poured on it, and the salt was dried and ignited,
afforded 3°584 of muriate ofsoda. Consequently the acetate of
soda must consist of

Acetic acid 61-689 100-0 86°95

Soda..w..° 38311. 62:1 22:94

L-—,-—- 40:11 Water,
when dry. when containing water.

Now 22:94 parts of soda contain 5:897, and 40:11 of water
35°397 parts of oxygen ; and 5°S97 x 6=35°382. Consequently
in this salt the water of crystallization contains six times as
much oxygen as the base.

Acetate of lime. In order in some measure to check this re-
sult, | converted 10 gr. of acetate of lime, which had been dried
to a powder in a strong heat, into muriate of lime, and obtained
from it 7-005 gr. which contained 35-5782 of pure lime. Con-
sequently the acetate of lime consists of

Py Acetic acid... 64:218 100-00
«. Lime....... 35°782 55°74
The quantity of soda, which decomposes 100 parts of sciataee
; °

On definite Proportions. 97

of lime, contains 15-89 parts of oxygen, and the quantity of the
lime contained in 100 parts of this salt contains 15°71 of oxy-
gen. Consequently this analysis appears to confirm the former,
although"they do not agree in the last figures; but they show at
least that the quantity of oxygen required in a base, by 100 parts
of acetic acid, cannot be materially different from these numbers.
+ Muriate of ammonia. It appears from my analysis of this
salt already related, that it consists of

Muriatic acid...... 50°86

Ammonia..... fee Cel)

WHEEL Ce aera kt Li Lo

[Since lime detaches 31-95 per cent. of ammoniacal gas from
it, and nitrate of silver indicates 50°86 per cent. of muriatic acid 5
the rest being water. G.| | But in 31-95 parts of ammonia there
are 14-98 of oxygen, aud in 17°19 of water there are 15-17 of oxy-
gen. Consequently the water of crystallization of this salt must
contain as much oxygen as the base. If the composition of water
were ascertained with so much certainty, that we could depend on
the last decimals of the determination, the result would indicate a
small error in the analysis of the muriate of ammonia, and it would
appear that I had found +12, too little ammonia in it. But it is
scarcely worth while to attempt to make this correction ; and in
other determinations, for instance, those of the muriatic acid,
we cannot depend on the decimals. If however none of the
analyses, which I have published in this Essay, are perfectly cor-
rect, except by accident, still they appear to me to come near
enough to the truth to allow us to employ them with safety in
the investigation of the laws of the proportions of mixtures. It
will only be possible to undertake the difficult task of discovering
perfectly correct numerical expressions for these proportions, with
better prospects of success, when these laws have been pre-
viously so well established, as to allow us to employ them with
confidence in our analyses. [In this pursuit we may derive suf-
ficient encouragement from the example of astronomers, who
Would never have been led by observation alone to the wonderful
precision which the theory of the science has attained; and Mr.
Berzelius, if I am not mistaken, will enjoy the lasting honour of
having been the first [?] that has observed the possibility of fol-
lowing a similar path in chemical science, and not only of having
pointed out this path, but of having already conducted us a con-
siderable way on in it, by the masterly analyses which he has
performed in this investigation. G.]

Of the nitrate of ammonia I have spoken in the Second Con-
tinuation of this Essay, which related to the capacity of satura-
tion and the true composition of the nitric acid; and I have there
shown that, like the muriate, it contains a quantity of water

Vol. 43, No. 190, Fel, 1814, G of

98 On definite Proportions.

of crystallization of which the oxygen is equal to that of the
base.

Sulphate of ammonia. Ihad mixed 10 grammes of dry sul-
phate of ammonia with 30 gr. of caustic lime in a small glass
retort, and then completely filled up the bulb and the neck of
the retort with lime. I fitted to the mouth of the retort a small
glass tube filled with caustic potass, and then heated the bulb
slowly till it was completely ignited. When no more ammoniacal
gas escaped through the opening of the tube, I withdrew the
heat: the apparatus, when cold, had lost 2°26 gr. of its weight.
In another experiment it lost only 2°25 gr. Now since the am-
monia must saturate a quantity of sulphuric acid which contains
three times as much oxygen as itself, this salt must consist of

| Sulphuric acid...... 53d°l
Ammonia.....e5s0+ 22°6
Waterini civilians seer
This quantity of water contains 21-444 of oxygen, and the
Zs . . .
aumonia, according to my determination, 10°6; and 10°6 x2=
21-2.

In these experiments it is very difficult to drive out the am-
monia completely, for a small portion of it almost always re-
mains in the water which is condensed in the lime and the po-
tass.. But we see from the experiment, that in this-salt the water
of crystallization contains twice as much oxygen as the base.

The oxalate of ammonia exhibits the singular spectacle of an
ammoniacal salt falling to powder. According to some former
experiments, the loss of weight during this efflorescence should
amount to 16 percent. But in several experiments I never ob-
tained a greater diminution than. 13-75 per cent. If now 100
parts of oxalic acid saturate a base which contains 21:2 parts of
oxygen, the salt must be thus constituted:

Oxalic acid..... 59°37
Ammonia ...... 2688
Water «ca swine areca ee

This quantity of ammonia contains 12°586 of oxygen, and the
water 12:134. We may therefore assume it as demonstrated,
that the base and the water of crystallization in this salt contam
equal quantities of oxygen. The variation certainly depends
only on some slight errors in the experiments.

Muriate of baryta. Seventeen grammes of finely powdered
muriate of baryta, dried in the shade, lost 2°505 gr. of their
weight, when ignited in a platina crucible. Consequently the
crystallized salt consists of

Muriatic acid .... 23°349
Baryte ..%.050'. ve) OL852
Water: icrinsyns oe. 14798
This

On definite Proportions. 99

\

This quantity of baryta contains 6-495, and the water 13-05
parts of oxygen. But 6495 x 2=12°99. The water of ery-
stallization in this salt contains therefore twice as much oxygen
as the base.

~ Sulphate of lime. From the analysis of crystallized gypsum,
described by Bucholz, we know that it is composed of the fol-
lowing parts:

Sulphuric acid.... 46

Bimie Woer Sr. se

Witteretea ee ee 621

This quantity of lime contains 9:29 of oxygen, and the water
18°53. Now 9:29x2=18°58. Consequently,the water in this
salt contains twice as much oxygen as the base,

Muriate of lime. 1 had collected and put by some years
ago a quantity of fine crystals of muriate of lime. I pounded
them quickly, and dried them between many folds of blotting
paper, several times changed, in a press, until the salt communi-
cated no more moisture to the paper. I weighed 10 grammes
ofthe salt thus dried, in a well-stopped glass flask, then heated
them in the same flask open, and lastly ignited them. The salt
had lost 49-603 per cent. of its weight. The crystallized muriate
af lime is therefore thus constituted:

Muriatic acid .. .. 24°686
PUNE Sec cera ees eo 7 LL
WISTS les aes Soe. ;

Now 49-603 parts of water contain 43°774 of oxygen, and
25°711 of lime, 7°24 ; and 7:24 x6=43°44. It is easy to see
that a small excess of water could not here be avoided. Con-
sequently the water of crystallization contains six times as much
oxygen as the lime.

Sulphate of the protoxide of iron. 'Ten grammes of the sul-
phate of the protoxide of iron were very strongly heated in a glass
retort, but not raised to a red heat: they lost 45:4 gr. of water.
This salt consists therefore of

Sulphurie acid...... 28:9
Protoxide of iron.... 25°7
WY ECE ate shaiinis'dieip tare, atthe

The oxygen of the water amounts to 40-16, and that of the
protoxide to 5:8; and 5-8 x 7=40-6. Hence we see that the
water of crystallization of this salt contains seven times as much
oxygen as the base.

Sulphate of the protoxide of xine. Ten grammes of this
salt, being heated over a spirit lamp in a pletina crucible, lost
36°45 per cent, But since the dry salt consists of 49°52 parts

G 2 of

100 On definite Proportions.

of sulphuric acid and 50°48 of the base, it contains, when ciy-
stallized, Sulphuric acid.... 30°965

Protoxide of zine.. 32°585

Water ais oaitvelacte ae aao

The base contains 6°39, and the water 32-15 parts of oxygen ;
but 6°39 x 5=31-95 : consequently the water contains five times
as much oxygen as the base.

Sulphate of the oxide of copper. Ten grammes of this salt
in crystals lost, when dried to a powder over a spirit lamp, 36:3
percent. in weight. The crystallized sulphate of the oxide of
copper consists therefore of

' Sulphuric acid .... 31-57
Oxide of copper... 32°13
Water ...: 2.53... 36°30
since, according to the corrected analysis of the sulphate of baryta,
5 grammes of the sulphate of copper consist of 2°477 gr. or 49°55
per cent. of sulphuric acid, and 50°45 per cent. of oxide of cop-
per, or 101-82 parts of oxide of copper for 100 of sulphuric acid.
The oxygen of the oxide of copper, being computed at 24:5 per
cent. amounts to 6°32, and that of the water to 32: but
6°32 X 5 =31°6; so that the water of erystallization contains
jive times as much oxygen as the base.

Nitrate of the protoxide of Lismuth. Ten grammes of this
salt, crystallized, and dried in the air after being powdered, were
heated in a small retort to complete ignition. They afforded in
one experiment 5°13, and in another 5-12 grammes of liquid
nitric acid, not smoking. Consequently this salt must contain
more water than is sufficient to exhibit the acid in its highest .
state of concentration. According to the very accurate experi-
ments of Mr. Lagerhjelm, the protoxide of bismuth contains
10°13 per cent. of oxygen; 48:8 parts must therefore contain
4-9434, and must consequently saturate S3°7 parts of nitric acid,
{since 100 parts of nitric acid suppose 14% of oxygen im the base
which saturates them. G.] The remaining 17°5 parts, which
make up the 100, must have been water. But these contain
15:4 of oxygen; and 4:9434 x 3 = 14°83. We see therefore
that, according to this experiment, which cannot be very accurate,
frem the readiness with which the atmospherieal moisture de-
composes the salt, the water of crystallization must. contain /hree
times as much oxygen as the base.

.

Conclusions.

I consider these examples, for which salts of so different na-
tures have been selected, as sufficient to demonstrate the law,
that ‘the oxygen of the water of crystallization is always an in-

tegral

New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy. 101

tegral multiple, or, as in the cases of the citric acid, and the
subcarbonate of the oxide of copper, an integral submultiple of
the oxygen of the base.”

If we compare the oxygen of the water of crystallization with
that of the acid, we do not always find the same law observed :
_ thus, in the sulphate of soda, for example, the oxygen of the wa-
ter of crystallization is to that of the acid as 34 to 1, and in the
sulphate of ammonia it is ¢ of that of the acid. Hence I have
been led to the following rule : “ In combinations of several oxy-
genized bodies, the, oxygen of the component part, which con-
tains the least of it, is an aliquot part of that of each of the
other component parts.”’

But may not we discover, in combinations of this kind, a pre-
valent component part, of the oxygen of which, although its
quantity may not be the smallest, that of the other parts must
be multiples or submultiples? If, for example, in a subsalt, the
acid contained one-third, and the water half as much oxygen as
the base, the oxygen of the two former would stand in a regular
relation to that of the latter, which might be regarded as the
prevalent component part ; but the oxygen of the water would
not be a multiple of that of the acid, which in this ease would be
the least of the three. Among the few substances which I have
had occasion to examine, I have met with no instance of this
kind; but it does not follow that the latter view may not be a cor-
rect one. Since however every combination depends on the whole
sum of the attractions of each of its component parts, the former
mode of representation appears to me to be the more probable.

1 confess that we have at present too little experience to be
able to set up such inferences as demonstrated laws. But we are
obliged to adopt them at least as teniporary suggestions, in order
to our advancement towards a more certain theory: and I am
convinced that all the opinions which I have here expressed will
in general be confirmed as truths ; although they may require
numerous corrections, in proportion as more and more of the in-
finity of matter, which has hitherto eluded our researches, shall

be made known by future investigations,
[Yo be continued. |

XXI. New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy. By Ez.Wa.ksr,
Esq. of Lynn, Norfolk.
. [Continued from p. 25.]
Combustion.
Taree are very few bodies in nature, that do not contain either

thermogen or photogen, All those bodies which are called com-
G3 , bustibles

102 New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy.

bustibles contain the element of light, which I have been induced
to call photogen to avoid the use of ambiguous terms; and all
those bodies, which are cailed supporters of combustion, contain
the generator of heat, called thermogen for the same reason*.

These elements may be made to unite and produce combustion,
or increase the temperature of bodies, by various means, as: Ist,
by friction; 2dly, by percussion ; Sdly, by pressure; 4thly, by
mixture; 5thly, by increase of temperature ; and Gthly, by the
functions of livi ing animals and vegetables.

Thermogen and photogen in a condensed state, as in a charged .
Leyden jar, have so strong an attraction for euch other, that they
will pass through any of those bodies called conductors, to a very
great disearees to be united. But, when they are united té pon-
derable matter, they will remain mixed together for ages without
producing any effect ; but as soon as they are brought within a
certain distance of each other, which may be called their striking
distance or their sphere of action, either combustion takes place,
or the temperature of the body, in which they meet, is increased.

The following explanations of some well known experiments
will tend to show the importance of a theory founded on facts.

Experiment 1. Ina Memoir read to the National Institute of
France, M. Biot announces the important fact, that a mixture
of hydregen and oxygen gases May be made to explode by me-
chanical compression only, independently of the electric spark,

Explanation. Oxygen and hydrogen gases would remain
mixed together, for any length of time, oukthone combining, the
thermogen and photogen which they contain being kept at too
great a ig aS by their bases ; but } by mechanical compression
only, they are foreed within their striking distance, and light and
heat are produced on the same principle as combustion ‘is pro-
duced by dischar rging a Leyden } jar.

E xperiment 2 2. ‘Take six grains of oxygenized muriate of
potass, and three grains of flour of sulphur, rab them together in
a mortar, and a smart deto: rating noise will be preduced. Con-
tinue to rub the mixture hard, and the report will be frequently re-
peated, accompanied with vivid flashes of light. If the same
Mixture be wi rapped in paper, laid on an anvil, and smartly struck
with a hammer, the report will be as loud as what is usually pro-
duced by a ] pistol. o

E rpianalion, These experiments may be explained’on the
same Boe ie as the last- The two ingredients, though mixed
to gether , produced no effect until the thermogem in one of them
anc the ph otogen in the other were forced into uion, by friction
or perenssion, And on the same principle ‘the effects of many
oiner iulmimating substances may be explamed.

® See page 23,
Experiment

New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy. 103

Experiment 3. © If an ounce of strong nitrous acid be mixed
with about half its weight of sulphuric acid, and poured into a
little oil of turpentine, the whole will immediately burst inte
flame.”

Explanation. The thermogen and photogen contained in
these fluids coming immediately into contact, flame is produced
instantaneously, without any mechanical force or increase of
temperature.

Now, from this experiment it appears impossible that water
should be a compound of oxygen and hydrogen ; for, if it were,
these two principles of combustion would burst into flame like
the acid and the oil. But no pressure, no increase of tempera-
ture, nor any union with combustible matter, can produce a sin-
gle spark of fire from water. In short, nothing combustible is
found in its composition.

Experiment 4. Combustion may also be generated by friction.
Two pieces of hard wood, being smartly rubbed together with
great pressure, will soon burst i into flame.

-Explanation. The first increment of caloric, by friction, is
excited by a portion of the thermogen of the air being forced inte
union with the photogen in the wood; and by continuing the
operation, the temperature of, the inflammable principle of the
wood is increased till flame is produced.

Experiment 5. When a rod of iron is laid upon an anvil and
hammered with a quick succession of heavy strokes, it soon be-
comes red hot; but it cannot be strongly heated a second time
by the same means, unless it has been previously introduced into
a fire.

Explanation. ‘The first stroke of the hammer forces a small
portion of the thermogen of the air into contact with the pho-
togen of the metal, which generates the first increment of caloric;
and by repeated strokes of the hammer the caloric is increased,
till the rod becomes red hot. But the photogen of the metal
becomes exhausted by this means, and cannot, therefore, pro-
duce caloric a second time, till it has recovered its combustible
property in the fire.

The burning of iron wire in oxygen gas shows, in a very bril-
liant manner, how iron loses its photogen and becomes oxidized.

Experiment 6. “ Mr. Thomas Wedgwood has shown that it
has never yet been explained how friction produces caloric.

** He took a piece of common window glass, and held the edge
of it against the edge of a revolving grit-stone, and that part in
contact with the stone became red hot, and thréw off hot parti-
cles which fired gun-powder. The stone and the glass being
both incombustible substances, it remains to be explained how
caloric was produced.”’— Philosophical Transactions for 1792.

G4 Explanation

104 New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy.

Explanation. It has been shown in a former paper, that the
electric machine creates nothing, but by friction only it collects
the two elements which produce caloric from the earth and
the atmosphere. Although the stone and the glass, in Mr,
Wedgwood’s experiment, are both incombustible; yet it is almost
a self-evident conclusion, that they collected the two elements of
caloric from the air aud the earth by-friction in the same manner
as the electric machine.

If this explanation be not sufficiently conclusive, let two small
pieces of plate-glass be rubbed together for a short time, and the
will show electrical phenomena. The two pieces of glass being
incombustible, the elements. which produce those phenomena
must come from the earth and the atmosphere. This experi-
ment is sufficient to show us how combustion was produced by
the pressure of the glass upon the grit-stone when it was revolv-
ing with great velocity.

Experiment 7.‘ It is well known, that when flint and steel
are smartly struck against each other, a spark always makes its
appearance, which is capable of setting fre to tinder or to gun-
powder. The spark in this case, as was long ago ascertained by
Dr. Hooke, is asmall particle of the iron, ‘which is driven off,
and catches fire during its passage through the air. This, there-
fore, and all similar cases, belongs to the class of combustion.
But light often makes its appearance when two bodies are struck
against each other, when we are certain that no such thing as
combustion can happen, because both the bodies are incombusti-
ble. Thus, for instance, sparks are emitted when two quartz
stones are struck smartly against each other, and light is emitted

when they are rubbed against each other. Many other hard
stones also emit sparks in the same circumstances. '

If they be often made to emit sparks above a sheet of white
paper, there are found upon it a number of small black bodies,
not very unlike the eggs of flies. These bodies are hard but
friable, and when rubbed on the paper leave a black stain.
When viewed with a microscope, they seem to have been melted.
Muniatic acid changes their colour to a green, as it does that of
lavas, These substances evidently produced the sparks by being
heated red hot*.

Explanation. It may be necessary to observe, in the first
place, that if the flint be moved over the steel very slowly, no
spark will be produced, nor .will any spark appear if the flint
barely touches the steel, although the velocity of the flint be the
greatest possible : consequently caloric cannot be produced by
¢ollision or friction, but by velocity and pressure conjointly.

* Thomson’s Chemistry, vol. i. p, 421.

Secondly,

On a new Transit Instrument. 105

Secondly, by the collision of the flint and steel, the thermogen
of the atmosphere is forced into union with the photogen of the
metal. The combustion thus produced, melts the minute par-
ticles of steel struck off by the flint into small globules. That
this metal contains the generator of light is well known, by the
burning of iron or steel wire in oxygen gas,

Sparks are emitted when two quartz stones are struck smartly
against each other under water; and Mr. Kirwan affirms, that
sparks are produced by the collision of Aint and steel under com-
mon spring water.

That sparks are produced by the collision of flint and steel un-
der water, I have no doubt, since water is a letter conductor of
thermogen and photogen than almospheric air. And the sparks
so produced, being intensely hot, cannot be extinguished by the
water* as soon as they are generated.

Experiment 8. From Count Rumford’s experiments it ap-
pears, that by a moderate degree of friction the same piece of
metal afforded so much caloric under water as to keep it boil-
ing.—Phil. Trans. for 1798.

This experiment may be explained on the same principle as
the last. Water, being a better conductor of thermogen than
atmospheric wir, cannot preyent the production of caloric by the
collision or friction of hard bodies,

Lynn, Feb. 4, 1814. Ez. WALKER.

XXII, On Sir H. C. ENGLEFIELD’s new Transit Instrument.
By the Rev. James Groosy.

Cirencester, Feb. 4, 1814.
ae OP receiving your last Magazine, I was not a little sur-
prised to see in the new Transit Instrument there described, the
exact representation of one I had thought of more than three

years ago; a drawing and description of which I then sent to
Mr. Banks, astronomical instrument-maker, &c. Strand, request-
ing him to make me a transit upon that plan, unless he saw very
good reasons to suppose it would not answer. He wrote to me
in return, that he had well considered my plan, had shown it to
several scientific gentlemen (among whom he particularly men-
tioned Mr. Pond, the present astronomer royal), that they had
all pronounced such a construction of the instrument. useless,
and he therefore by all means recommended one on the old plan,
and not to put myself to a needless expense about an instrument

* When iron or steel wire is burnt in oxygen gas, the particles of metal
which drop from the end of the wire will fuse the glazing of an earthen
plate, after having passed through water_an inch deep.

that

106 On a new Transit Instrument.

that never could answer the purposes for which it was intended.
Not content with this rejection zz foto, without any particular
fault being pointed out, and seeing Mr. B. so prejudiced against
it, | determined to attempt the constructing of it myself; and,
rude as my instrument was, its performance convinced me that
it had not merited the unqualified censure that had been passed —
upon it. Since that time, I have been procuring glasses, &c. for
a more perfect essay on a larger scale ; and it is something ex*
traordinary that Mr. T. Jones himself, about a month ago, fur-
nished me with the apparatus for adjusting the wires, but with-
out my mentionmg to him the instrument it was intended for.
That Sir H. C. Englefield was one among the scientific gentle-
men to whom my plan was shown by Mr. Banks, or that he got
the hint from it in any other way, I cannot for a moment sup-
pose, since he has mentioned the source from whence he derived
his idea. It must however be considered as a very extraordinary
instance of the same thought occurring to two individuals at
nearly the same time ; and certainly Sir Henry, in meeting with
a person so competent to realise his idea, has been more fortunate
than I. From the little experience I have had with the home-
made instrument above mentioned, I am convinced that, when
properly constructed, it is capable of the greatest possible accu-
racy. By having two marks, one to the north or south, and the
other to the east or west, the position of the instrument may at
all times be ascertained, as nearly as it is possible to place those
marks at right angles to each other; and if the northern or
southern mark be bisected by the central wire at the instant of
observation (as it always ought to be), such observation must be
as perfect as the power of vision in the instrument to distinguish
when the object and wires are in contact. Nor will it be found
impossible, when the object-glass is pretty large, to observe stars
in the day-time. I had at first intended to subjoin a few
observations, to show how far it was capable of being used
by day; but as I have sent the glasses, &c. to Mr. Jones to be
fitted up by hini in a rather more accurate manner than I had
been capable of doing, and as I expect to find it much improved
thereby, I shall defer it to a future opportunity.
I am, gentiemen,
Your obedient servant,

JamEs GROOBY,.
Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

XXIII. Solutions

[ 107° J v1
XXIL. Solutions of Sir H. C. ENcirrienp’s Mathematica
Question given in the last Number of this Journal.
Liverpool, Feb. 4, 1814.
Sirs,—I BEG leave to present you with the following solution
to the question proposed by Sir H. C. Englefield, Bart. F.R.S.
F.A.S. &c. in the last number of your most excellent Magazine ;
and at the same time take the liberty to remark, that in the stating
of the question I think a small typographical error has crept;
for the two last, read the two first (11th line, page-64).

All numbers under a million must consist of six figures or less,
and consequently the cube reots of all such numbers must con-
tain two figures or less. In numbers whose roots have only one
figure, no difficulty can be found, as their roots can be obtained
from simple inspection: the remaining case is then that of such
cubes that their roots may contain two digits. In order to ob-
tain the first digit, from the given number of figures subtract
three, and of the remaining figures we by the supposition know
the two first, and thus we obtain a number consisting of either
one, two, or three digits: the nearest root of this number may
be immediately found by simple inspection; and that root will
be the first digit of the number required.

The second digit of the root may be obtained by considering
that all numbers must end either in 0; or in some of the nine
digits: now the cubes of these digits are respectively 0, 1, 8, 27,
64, 125, 216, 343, 512 and 729; therefore the cubes of all num-
bers ending in 0, 1, 2,3, 4,5, 6,7, 8, or 9, must terminate in 0,
1, 8, 7,4, 5, 6,3, 2,0r9. From this consideration it is evident,
that knowing the terminal digit of any cube, we can immediately
by inspection determine that of the root, and thus the first digit
being before found, we obtain the root itself,

Thus, in the example the learned Baronet has given: from the
given number of figures (6) subtract three, and three will re-
main; we therefore, affix a cypher to the two given figures 43,
and obtain 430, whose nearest root is 7. The terminal figure
being 6, we find that the last figure of the root must also be 6;
and therefore the root required must he 76, whose cube is 438996.
I take the liberty of proposing, for the amusement of your scien-
tific readers, the two following questions: I think they have
both been before proposed, but imagine that they admit of more
interesting solutions than have hitherto appeared.

1. Required a method of determining at sight, or by simple
inspection, whether any given number be a prime number or not.

2. By what methods could the Romans solve simple arith-
metical questions with their mode of notation ?

, I remain, gentlemen,
4 Your obedient humble servant,
To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch, Ecrrron 8, Eyrgs,

108 Solutions of Sir H.C. Englefield’s Mathematical Question.

Chichester, Feh. 5, 1814.

Sir H. ENGLEFIELD’s mathematical question published in your
last number may, I believe, be solved in the following manner :

The cube root of every number under a million must of course
consist of not more than two places of figures. Of these the
Jast may be immediately determined, by observing that with re-
gard to six of the ten integers, viz. 1, 4, 5,6, 9, and 0, the
unit’s place is always the same in the cube and its root ; while
2 and 8, 3 and 7, are reciprocally changed one into the other in
the processes of involution or evolution.

The other figure of the root may be obtained as in the com-
mon rule for extracting the third power, viz. by deducting 3 from
the given number of places, and taking the root of the cube next
less than the amount indicated by the one, two, or three figures
remaining on the left hand.

Thus, in the example proposed, where we have given the unit’s
place 6, the two first figures 43, the number of places 6; .

The unit’s place in the root will of course be 6, as in the cube,

Deducting 3 from the number of places, there remain 3;
therefore, affixing a cypher to the two first figures, we obtain 430,
The cube next less than this is 8343, of which the root is 7. The
root required is therefore 76.

In this way, I find I can obtain the root of any cubic number
almost instantaneously ; but I can hardly suppose so simple and

obvious a principle to have escaped the notice of mathematicians:
B:

Paddington, Feb. 9, 1814.

Sirs,—Havine been induced by the letter of Sir H. C. Engle-
field, inserted in your last, to turn my attention to the subject
of his inquiry; I am enabled by the following simple process to
name immediately the root of any cube under a million, whose
two first figures, last figure, and number of figures are given.

All that appears necessary for the performance of this problem
is a knowledge of the cubes of the digits. As the root consists
of two figures, its tens will be indicated by, and must be sought
for in, its two first figures, and its units in the last figure given.

By obsérving the number of figures in the cube we previously
discover the value of the two first figures given, whether they
contain the units only, or the tens and units, or the hundreds and
tens of the first figure of the root when cubed: having ascer-
tained this, we compare these figures with the cubes of the digits,
and call that digit with whose cube they correspond, or to which
they are next in superiority, the first figure of the root.

The last figure given, which is of course the unit of the cube,

will produce the second figure, or unit of the root, by this simple
rule;

ig

Solutions of Sir H.C. Englefield’s Mathematical Question. 109

rule: 1,4,5,6, 9,0, remain unaltered, while 3 and 7, 2 and 8,
are respectively convertible into each other; or each when oc~
curring in the cube may be represented in the root by what it
wants of 10. :

The instance adduced by Sir H. C. Englefield is a cube of
6 figures, the two first of which are 43, and the last is 6. Now
as in a cube of 6 figures, the eubed tens of the root exist
in the three first figures, these two first, here given, must con-
tain the hundreds and tens of that cube, and 43 represent 430
(the amount of the unit’s place being immaterial). The regular
cube next below 430 is 343, whose root (7) is consequently the
fist figure required. For the second figure, 6 in the cube gives,
as before explained, 6 in the root, and the whole root is there-
fore 76. |

I know not if this be the method used by Sir H. C. Engle-
field, and shall be happy to see any others suggested by your
correspondents ; but must observe that this appears amply suffi-
cient for the purpose, as by it any one, after a practice of less
than half an hour, may tell the root of any number, within the
bounds of the question, as soon as proposed to them.

I remain, sirs,
Your very obedient servant,
Joun Ditton.
To Messrs. Necholson and Tilloch.
—_——
Lansdown Crescent, Bath, Feb. 10, 1814.

Sirs,—Tue solution of the following question proposed is
your last Magazine is not difficult.

«Of any cube number under a million, give the figure of the
unit, the two first figures, and the number of places, instantly
and without any aid of writing to name its cube root.”

In every cube number, two figures, the first and last, may be
known by simple inspection; the first being the nearest cube
root under the first or left hand period, whether consisting of
one, twe, or three figures, and the last being invariably indicated
by the final digit. Thus, if the final digit be 2, the last figure
of the root will be 8; if it be 3, the root indicated will be 7: a
table of the cubes of all the single digits at once exhibits the
unvarying correspondence between the final digit of the cube and
its root. Now, according to the conditions of the question, the
cube whose root is sought, can never exceed six places of figures :
consequently the root must consist merely of a first and a last
figure, which we have seen may be instantly discovered by sim-

inspection. It is true, the intermediate figures between the
final digit and the two first figures are not given; but the number
of places being given, it is (for an obvious reason) only necessary
mentally

110 Solutions of Sir H.C. Englefield’s Mathematical Question.

mentally to substitute noughts in the places of the unknown in~
termediate figures.

I shall subjoin three examples, which comprehend all the va-
rieties of the question ; and am, sirs, your obedient servant,

Francis ELLIs.

Given 94...2. Here the number of places being six, the
first period (according to the rule for extracting the cube root)
must consist of three figures, which after the mental substitution
of noughts will be 940, whose nearest less cube root is 9, and
the final digit 2, indicating S for the remaining figure of the
root: the entire root is ‘“‘ins/anily and without any aid of
wriling’’ perceived to be 98.

Given 50..3. The number of places being five, the first pe-
riod must consist of only two figures, which are (50), the two
first given, whose nearest less cube root is 3, and the final digit 3,
indicating 7 for the other figure of the reot : the whole reat is 37.

Given 6,8. 9. The number of places being only four, the
first period consists of the single figure 6, whose nearest less cube
root is 1, and the final digit 9, indicating 9 for the other figure
of the root: the whole root is at once found to be 19.

The number 438976, given by Sir H. C. Englefield, is not a
cube number*.

Yo Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

ees Fs
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, Feb. 12, 1814.

Sins,—Ir gave me great pleasure to observe the sentiments
with which Sir H. C. Englefield introduced his question in your
last number, relative to the extraction of certain cube roots. He
there justly states, that it is not common to introduce questions
of this kind to the public through the medium of periodical
“Journals, though it was not unusual in the early part of the last
century; and every one acquainted with the progress of the
sciences at that period will admit that much of it was to be
attributed to such communications. I made a similar remark
some little time back, in proposing a question in the Philosophi-
cal Journal, under the signature of “¢ Mathematicus;” and though
I failed in my attempt to bring the subject under examination at
that time, | am not without hopes that the example of a gentle-
man, so well known and esteemed in the scientific world as Sir
H. E. is, may be followed by others, and that we may thus see,
at times, a few pages of your valuable Magazine employed on
subjects of this nature.

With respect to the question proposed, it is far from difficult,
nothing further being necessary for its solution, than that of re-
* Probably a typographical error, Read 438996,—Enrr.

membering

Solutions of Sir H.C. Englefieli’s Mathematical Question. 114

membering the cubes of the nine digits. For all numbers ending
in the same digit, having their cubes ending also in a constant
digit, it follows that the terminating figure of the cube will im-
mediately indicate the unit’s place of the root ; that is, If the ter-
Mminating figure of the cube be Be pe rs epi Be. bg iv
that of the Toot Ce ale 8, 7s 4, 5,6, 35 2 9.
And with regard to the other - of the root, or that in the
tens place, it is found with equal ease from the leading figures of
the cube, viz. If the three rght-hand figures be supposed to be
pointed off, the nearest cube root to the remaining figures will
be the figure in the tens place of the root: or, which is the same,
If after pointing off the three right-hand figures, those remaining
exceed 1, 8, 27, 64, Lass 216, &c. the figure in the tens place
will be accordingly 1,2 2,3, 4, 5, 6, &ec. and which, therefore, is
known as readily from the thrée leading figures of the cube (or
from the two leading ones, if the number of them be also known)
@s that of the unit’s place is by the termination of the cube.

Suppose, for example, the cube root of 658503 were required.

The nearest integral cube root of 658 is 8, and the termi-
nating figure being 3, that of the root is 7; therefore the root
is 87. And it would have been just the same if we had only
known the two first figures 65, provided we had at the same time
known that there were ¢hree figures in the period, or, which is the
same, Six figures in the pr -oposed cube; and in the same manner
may the cube root of any other cube number, within the pro-
posed limits, be immediately ascertained.

It is undoubtedly on these principles that Z. Colbourn performs
his extractions ‘of the cube root, and which he can apply with
great ease to 12 figures, or to four, i in the root. But in order to
effect this, it is necessary for him to know the two terminating
figures of the first 100 numbers, which he is perfectly master of;
but whether absolutely from memory, or from a very rapid hia
tiplication it is difficult to say. At all events, he is able to name
them with great rapidity; and I have by mea table of this kind,
which was set down from his dictation, and is correct in every
figure.

He undoubtedly owes much to an extraordinary memory, as
well as to a remarkably ready perception of the qualities and pro-
perties of numbers ; of which I could mention many instances,
relating to the summation of arithmetical and geometrical pro-
gressions, the naming of prime numbers, &c. In one instance,
he repeated to me every prime number in its order from 1 to 600,
with only one mistake, ‘which he corrected immediately, and was
very anxious to he allowed to proceed to 1000. But here it was
obvious that he did not depend upon his memory only, but on a
sort of computation. 1 know it has been stated that what he can

: perform

112 Solutions of Sir H. C. Englefield’s Mathematical Question.

perform in arithmetical computations is the result of tuition ; and.
that he will not discover his methods. This however, so far as
my observations have been extended, in several examinations of
him both in company and in private, I can positively contradict.
All his ideas were obviously intuitive, yet in most cases correct :
indeed the only instance in which I found that he proceeded on
false principles was in resolving numbers into their factors; and
even here he would succeed in the greater number of cases.

These examinations were undertaken for the purpose of giving a
sketch of his methods or rules (if they may be so called), in a work
which his father intended, and I believe still intends, to publish
by subscription, containing an account of this remarkable boy ;
and I therefore do not wish to enter into further particulars in this
place, lest his father should imagine it to be injurious to the
interests of that publication. But if that plan should be ultimately
given up, I may at some future time furnish you with what I
have been able to ascertain on this subject; not that I conceive
any one of his methods can be employed to any useful purpose ;
they are peculiarly his own, and can only be adv antageously em-
ployed by himself; but as a subject of curiosity they may be ac=
ceptable to some of your readers.

I am, sirs, yours, &c.
To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch. PrrER BaRLow.
—=>—
Plymouth, Feb. 8, 1814.

Sims,—Every attempt to simplify and abridge. calculation
deserves attention, and I cannot therefore but view the question.
proposed by Sir H. Englefield, in your number for January, with
particular pleasure and satisfaction.

In order to resolve it, I would first Papal 2 that when the unit’s
place in any hoebiss 3 dcactd Orly 2, 3, 4, o2-6, is 8, 9,
the unit’s place i in the cube will be 0, 1, 8, 7, 4, 5, 6, 3, 2, 9.

This table, of course, can be acquired i ina “few hinatee by me-
mory. To exemplify its use, we may briefly state, that when
the unit’s place in any cube is 8, the unit’s place in the root
will be 2; or when the unit’s figure in the cube is 3, the unit’s
place in the root will be 7.

Moreover it is a well known law existing amongst cube num-
bers, that if any cube number be divided into periods of three
figures commencing with the unit, the number of these periods
will show the number of figures in the root, which’ in the case
before us never can exceed two; that is, the root of every cube
number under a million consists but of two figures, the first of
which, or that in the unit’s place, being readly obtained by the
application of the above table, there remains only to discover
the other figure, which is the cule root of the greatest cube num-
ber contained in the first period. An

.

On definite Proportions in Chemical Affinity. 118

An example or two will make this clear. Let the cube num-
ber whose root is required be 804857. Here the first figure of
the root will be 3, and the root of the greatest cube contained
in 804 is 9. Hence the root required is 93.

» Again. Required the cube root of 74088. Here 2 is the
first figure of the root, and the root of the greatest cube con-
tained in 74 is 4; hence 42 is the root required,

If ouly the figure of the unit, the two first figures, and the
number of places be given, as stated in the i beh the opera-
tion will be precisely the same. For by taking the example
given in the question, the first figure of the reot is 6; and as the
number consists of 6 places, it remains only to find the root of
the greatest cube number contained in 430, which is 7. Hence the
root is 76. {It may be proper however to remark, that this mode
of stating the question fails when the given cube number ter-
minates with a cypher.

Concerning the performing this “instantly and without any
aid of writing,’ I beg to observe, that when I first discovered
the principle, I explained it to’ two or three young gentlemen,
pupils of mine, about twelve years of age, and who, after practising
it for the short time of half an hour on a slate, would tell without
the aid of writing, the root of any cube number under a million,
instantly, and without the smallest hesitation.

The wnethod applies also to any cube number above a million,
when it terminates in a eypher; but I have not been able to ex-
tend it to cube numbers in general. I make no-doubt but that
with a little pains many other arithmetical operations might be
simplified; and it would perhaps explain in a way not the most
unsatisfactory, the truly astonishing powers of the “wonderful
American boy.” Iam, &e.

Gzorce Harvey.

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

XXIV. Observations on the Doctrines of definite Proportions in

Chemical Affinity By Witttam ae Jun. M.D. of

Boston, Lincolnshire*.

I, is often a pleasing task to view the progressive improvement
that is attendant upon different departments of science ; in doing
which we sometimes meet with hypotheses that were considered
at first as crude, ridiculous, and soon almost forgotten, again re=
Vived, more clearly iNdstrated; and not unfreguently advanced
as entirely new. Among many ‘others that have been proposed in
the science of chemistry, that of bodies uniting in definite pro-
portions to form chemical compounds holds a distinguished place.

* (oO wunieated by the author,

~ Vol. 43. No, 190, Feb. 1814, a ae Mr,

~

114 ~ Observations on the Doctrines

fr. Higgins, in his Comparative View of the Phlogistic and Anti-
phiogistic Theories, conceiving that bodies were composed of
minute atoms, was led, from the well-known fact that oxygen
and hydrogen gases united in the proportion of 1 to 2 in volume
to form water, and as they unite in no other proportion, to con-_
sider them as uniting atom to atom. ‘* We must suppose,” he
observes, ‘* that they contain an equal number of divisions, and
that the difference of their specific gravity depends chiefly on the
size of their ultimate particles; or we must suppose that the
ultimate particles of light inflammable air require 2 or 3 er more
of dephlogisticated air to saturate them.” The latter, he infers,
is not the case, from its being impossible to form such an inter-
mediate combination as can be effected in the union of sulphur
and oxygen. From this also he concludes, that oxygen and hy-
drogen © are incapable of uniting to a third particle of either of
their constituent principles.” Sulphuric acid, according to him,
is formed of 1 particle of sulphur and 2 of oxygen, and sulphureous
acid by | of sulphur and 1 of oxygen.

These speculations, owing to the imperfect state of chemical
analysis, were overlooked and rejected by succeeding chemists,
and little or no notice taken of them until Mr. Dalton, in a work
displaying the vast powers of an enlightened mind, aided by iu-
dustrious research, reproposed this doctrine, and again turned the
attention of chemists to this important subject; and it appears
to me, from perusing Mr. Dalton’s new System of Chemical Phi-
losophy, that he is unacquainted with the writings of Mr. Higgins
on this subject. The former has, in the work just mentioned, stated
that chemical attraction is guided by determinate laws; that
bodies uniting to each other in one proportion only, unite atom
to atom, or those which combine in various proportions form
binary, ternary, &c. geemnlinbions, one atom of the one element
being united to 1, 2,3, &c. atoms of another. Examples are
found in the union of oxygen and hydrogen, oxygen and azote, &c.
one atom of the one uniting to one or more atoms of the other;
according to some fixed mathematical relation, which Mr, Dalton
apparently considers to be in arithmetical progression. In this
view of affinity, it is of importanee to determine the number of
elementary atoms that enter into the formation of a compound
atom. Hence, should this supposition be found correct, the errors
arising from chemical analysis may be regulated by the aid of
mathematical calculation. "The two substances that have claimed
particular attention, by which this may be accomplished, are wa-
ter and ammonia, for the elements of these have as yet been
found to unite in one proportion only.

Mr. Murray, in his Chemistry, has observed, that the facility
with which the numbers can be assumed is one of the means by
which we may be deceived. Dr.

of definite Proportions in Chemical Affinity. 115

_ Dr. Thomson, in his System of Chemistry, gave an outline of
Mr. Dalton’s theory , before the latter had himseli made it public,
and in his paper upon the oxalic acid in the Philosophical Trans-
actions for 1807 has shown a very great coincidence in the com-
position of this acid, by caleulation, with the result of actual
analysis. In the 4th section of this paper he states that “ it has
been ascertained by decisive experiment, that elementary bodies
always enter into combinations in determinate proportions, which
may be represented by.numbers;”’ and he finds an atom of oxy-
gen to be G, if an atom of hy drogen be estimated as 1. The
Doctor has taken this estimate by supposing one atom of oxygen
to unite to one of hydrogen, to form waters estimating the
weight of hydrogen to be 144 "and oxygen to be 852, to form
100 parts of water: hence ‘an atom of hydrogen being to one of
oxygen in the same ratio, it gives when reduced 1 to 6: 48, and
the Doctor rejected the decimals. Mr. Dalton takes his estimate
from the proportion given by Humboldt and Gay-Lussac. It
appears from their experiments tobe 87:4 of oxygen to 12°6 of
hydrogen; and the number representing oxygen will be 6° 96, which
approximates very nearly to 7, the number ‘chosen by Mr. Dalton,

Sir H. Davy estimates the specific gravity of hydrogen to
oxygen as | to 15; and as it takes 2 measures of hy drogen to |
of oxygen in the formation of water, the ratio of the hydrogen
to oxygen is as 2 to 15*; “ and it may be regarded as composed
of 2 proportions of hy drogen and 1 of oxygen, and the number
representing hydrogen ‘will be 1, and that representing oxygen 15.”
This value is not taken by considering the number of ating in

the gases, a doctrine truly hypothetical, but from the proportions

in which they unite, and their specific gravity. In considering
the doctrine of proportion, as Sir H. Davy has observed, we cer-
tainly have no reason to suppose bedies composed of atoms that
are indivisible uniting one to one, &c. In the present state of
cour knowledge this hypothesis of atoms cannot with propriety be
‘admitted, as we have no evidence upon which we can be certain
of the weight or number of atoms in any compound. “ Our
numerical expressions,” as the author last quoted justly says,
af ought ofily to relate to the result of our experiments.”

It is not a little perplexing to observe Mr. Dalton,in his work,
found his whole calculation upon the combination of oxygen and
hydrogen as uniting atom to atom to form water; and in his
chapter upon the combination of these gases, to find him de-
clare that © after all it must be allowed to be possible that waler
may be a ternary compound,” ‘This conclusion appears in a great
measure to be drawn from his experiments upon muriatic: and

* Elements of Chemical Philosophy, p. 112
H 2 fluoric

116 Oliservations on the Doctrines :

fluoric acids, in which he concluded they were formed by the
union of oxygen and hydrogen in different proportions. Later
discoveries have proved this not to be the case. For oxymuriatic
acid, now called chlorine, appears to be the basis of the muriatic
acid; and fluoric acid, from the experiments of Davy, Gay-Lussac
and Thenard, also has a peculiar base.

Notwithstanding the theory of atoms is so very hypothetical,
it is applicable to calculation, as the numbers are relative, and
taken froma fixed ratio. Therefore, if we take the original pro-
position that water be composed of equal atoms of these gases,
I am inclined to think 6-96 as very near the true number for oxy-
gen. I am not fond of rejecting decimals, as these, when there
is.a combination consisting of some high multiple, will lead to
considerable error in the calculation, or when the substance un-
der examination consists of many parts.

Dr. Thomson in his paper on oxalic acid, when calculating the
composition of this acid, takes oxygen at 6, and hydrogen at 1,
and carbon, with Mr. Dalton, at 4°3; and he finds from experi-
ment the composition of oxalic acid to be,

Oxygen.. 64-69, and by calculation Oxygen.. 61
Carbon .. 31°78 bel os Carbon... 34
Hydrogen . 5°53 hee 0 Hydrogen 5

100-00 100

If the number representing oxygen be taken, as I have above
mentioned, 6°96, calculation gives

Oxygen ....00.6...2.. 64°24 which comes ex-

Carbon vospe wold tea) Bs: tremely near.
Hydrogen 1. 4-'S oshe-biewwidievs AG 1
100-00

The numbers given by Sir H. Davy, being reduced to Mr. Dal-
ton’s views, and applying them as above, appear to be too high.
After Dr. Thomson, we find that Dr. Wollaston also read a paper
to the Royal Society, giving an account of some expefiments he
had made upon sub-acid and super-acid salts. These he con-
siders as particular examples of Mr. Dalton’s more general rule,
which he states thus: ‘* that in all cases the simple elements of
bodies are disposed to unite atom to atom singly; or, if either is
in excess, it exceeds by a ratio to be expressed by some simple
multiple of the number of its atoms.”

When examining the oxalates, he found the super-oxalate to
contain twice the quantity of acid the neutral salt contains.
Hence it is probable that it unites in the proportion of 1 of potassa
to 1 of acid, and 2 of acid to 1 of potassa: therefore the next
combination, if it be formed, ought to consist of 3 of acid to 1 of
alkali. To determine this, the Doctor took 400 grains of potassa
and neutralized it with 30 of acid; to this he added 60 grains

ant eee more

of definite Proportions in Chemical Affinity. 117

more of acid; so there were 2 parts of potassa 24 grains each,
and six equivalent parts of acid 15 grains each ; which ought, as
above stated, to form a salt of 3 of acid to 1 of alkali. But upon
crystallization he found 2 salts, the one a binoxalate, the other
a quadroxalate, or one of alkali to 4 of acid.

To make this answer to the theory of Dalton, the Doctor ,
supposes the neutral salt to consist of 2 of alkali to 1 of acid,
and the next 2 to 2, and the third | to 2, or 2 of alkali to 4 of
acid. This is altogether hypothetical; and, as Dr. Wollaston ob-
serves, it is far from satisfactory that the alkali should be in ex-
cess in the neutral salt.

Although this appears against Mr. Dalton’s theory, it is equally
so to the Jaw of Berthollet, that the combinatious of bodies are
as their relative attractions and acting masses : for, Why in that
case are the salts above mentioned formed? The alkali ought
_ to be diffused equally, and a salt consisting of 3 to 1 obtained.

Dr. Wollaston thinks it is probable that other ratios will be
found, arising from the shape and ‘polarity of the atoms, than the
simple arithmetical.

Gay-Lussac has attempted to form a theory departing from
the strict principles of Berthollet’s views of affinity and those of
Dalton. He thinks chemical affinity may be indefinitely exerted
amongst the particles of matter, and compounds may be formed
of variable proportions ; but that insolubility, cohesion, and elas-
ticity have a tendency to produce fixed combinations ; and also
that chemical action takes place with energy when the elements
are in simple ratios, or some multiple of these ratios, by which
compounds are produced that can be easily insulated.

By this means he endeavours to explain the phenomena at-
tending chemical affinity; that bodies can unite in determinate’
proportions, and that under certain circumstances they unite ac-
cording to the quantity of attracting matter, and form com-
pounds of variable relations: and a view of this kind has been
in some measure adopted by Berthollet. With respect to the
combinations of the gases, Gay-Lussac has observed two laws.
1. That they combine in proportions having simple ratios ac-
cording to their volume. 2, ‘That gases by combination appear
to suffer a contraction in volume in a simple ratio to the gas
added. After having stated many examples of his first law, he
also adds, that between the elements of the first combination
there is no simple ratio; but this takes place in the second com-
bination, when the new proportion will be a multiple of that first
added. This, as Mr. Murray observes in his System of Che-
mistry, from which I have taken this outline of Gay-Lussac’s
theory, distinguishes his from that proposed by Dalton. To these
‘speculations of Gay-Lussac, Mr. Dalton has replied in the Ap-

H3 pendix

118 On definite Proportions in Chemical Affinity.

pendix to the Second Part of his work, appealing to his own ex-
periments and those of the most ealebeated chemists, that gases
do not unite in, measures proportionate to their volume.

After haying cited particular cramps that many of them do
not unite in a according to any determinate proportion, he
concludes, ‘‘ that gases in 2o instance combine in equal or exact
measure.” This, Mr. Murray thinks, might be perhaps properly
extended to the whole doctrine of definite proportions.

Sir H, Davy, in his Elements of Chemical Philosophy, advances
an immense number of proofs that the theory of definite pro-
porticns is not founded upon hypot hetical reasoning. He, as is

already observed, rejects the doctrine of atoms, and founds his
calgulations on the result of actual experiment, By this, ong
of the very great ebjections to Mr. Higgins’s and Mr. Dal ton’s
theory is removed ; namely, thar qabstaieee uniting in one pro-
pertion only form a binary compound, for we haye no grounds upon
which we can form such an opinion in the language of Mr. Dal-
ton; it is merely an assumption. He supports, contrary to what
Mr. Dalton has said, the theory advanced by Gay- Lussac, re-
specting the union of gases ; which he beautifully illustrates by
the combinations that are formed by azote and oxygen, carbon
and oxygen,&e. And Mr. J, Davy, in his paper published in the
Philosophical Transactions, On the gaseous Compounds of Car-
bonice Oxide aud Chlori ine, i as given some very decisive examples.
He observes, ‘‘ the proportions in which bodies unite appear to be
etermined by fixed laws, which are exemplified in a variety of
instances, and particularly in the present compounds, Oxy gen
corabiies with twice its volume of hydrogen, and twice its volume
of carbonic oxide, to form watrand carbonic ‘acid; and with double
its volume of chlorine to form euchlorine ; and chlorine reclpro-
cally requires its own volume of hydrogen and its own volume of
cafe oxide to form muriatic acid and the new gas.”

Sir H. Davy in his work has noticed several of the experiments
upon which Berthollet founded his views of affinity, and has
pointed out the source of some errors. According to Berthollet’s
views, precipitates could not be thrown down in a state of purity,
but must retain a portion of the substance with which the pre-
cipitate was previously combined: of this we have many examples
to the contrary, as when one metal in solution is precipitated by

nother; and in the precipitation of magnesia, &c.

Sir H. Davy also observes, “‘ that there is no difficulty in re-
conciling the doctrine of proportions with the influence of quan-
tity. None of th :¢ experiments of M. Berthollet can be considered
as strictly contrary to the doctrine, and some of the most im-
portant results of this sagacious chemist afford its confirmation.”

From the above quotations and observations, I think it will

clearly

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell's Geology. 19

clearly appear that the doctrine of Messrs. Higgins and Dalton
with regard to atoms is truly hypothetical, and cannot with
propriety be at present admitted : objections to this theory have
also been pointed out by Dr. Bostock in Nicholson’s Journal.
The views 1 am most inclined to adopt are those of Sir H. Davy,
as in these we are guided by the result of experiment and fact.
The more accurately our researches are made, the more forcibly
is the doctrine of definite proportions demonstrated. ‘The re-
searches of Mr. J. Davy on the combinations of different metals
and chlorine, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1812,
and the late interesting publication of Berzelius, sufficiently prove
the truth of what is above stated: although not standing the
test of a rigorous mathematical examiination, they are sufficiently
near, considering that chemical analysis is still imperfect, to poit
out this grand law. Objections may undoubtedly still be urged
against it, and that of solution has been considered by some as
the most forcible; since, in this, bodies within certain limits appear
to unite in any proportion. But surely there is some difference
between dissolution and combination: in the former we find
merely the cohesion of the compound aggregates amongst each
other disunited, and the particles of the compound diffused
throughout the fluid: in the latter, a decomposition takes place
amongst the elements of which a compound is formed, it assumes
entirely new properties ; and it is here we are to look for the de-
terminate action of affinity. If it were not guided by such a
law, our results would always be showing different productions,
and compounds consisting of the some proportion of elements
would scarcely ever be obtained.

eee nn

XXV. Notes and Olservations on the remaining part of the
Seventh Chapter of Mr. RopERT BAKEWELL’S “* Introduction
to Geology ;”—embracing incidentally, several new Points
‘of Geological Investigation and Theory. By Mr. Joun
Farey Sen., Mineral Surveyor.

[Continued from p. $4.]
Notes, &c.

P: 182, 1. 6, from the oceant.—t The great south-eastern De-
nudation of England §], probably includes the Basin of Paris
in its upper eastern edge, P. M. xxxv. p. 130 and 134, notes;

but

g The acknowledgement of this characteristic phenomenon of the counties
of Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and the eastern part of Hampshire (the first De-
nedated tract that was well ascertained probably) seems with difficulty or
reluctance made, by the Wernerian School: a learned Doctor, when lately

Il 4) reviewing

120 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.182] but when the actual elevations of the different parts of the
edges of the Chulk around this great denudation, are con-
sidered, it will be seen, that @ Lake, in any great degree

reviewing the progress in 1813, of his favourite Geognosy (Ann. of Phil. it,
29), ascribes to Mr. Thomas Webster (but per aps rather erroneously?) the
assertion, that the Parisian * new series of fletz Rocks, wiich appear to lie
over the Chalk,” * constitute almost the whole of the sonih-eust corner of
England.” Notwithstanding, that all the south-eastern coast between Foik-
stone and Eastborne (a direct distance of 45 Miles or more. shows Strata
that lie under the Chalk, and that the same thing occurs thence inland, as
faras Farnham and Petersfield, (distances of 85 and 5° miies respectively),
wituin which large denudated tract, it is impracticable to find any of the
Parisian or London Strata, or even the Chalk on which they should he:
but a quite different series of strata appear, dipping every where towards
and passing under the nearest Chalk ranges.

Another learned Doctor, who claims, I believe, to be still ‘* better edu-
cated,” in the Wernerian subtilities, thinking perhaps (with an Edinburgh
Professor, and Mr. B. P. M. xlu. p- 167) that the Section previously made
across this district, formed principally on “ Stage-coach observations,” was
utterly beneath the digaity of his Geognosy, and unworthy even of having iés
most obvious fucts as above mentioned, attended to, or examined ; when he
returned two or three ycars ago from a southern Geognostic Tour, presented
an account (as Mr. Webster is stated by Dr. T. to have done). representing,
as I was informed, the strata in this denuduted tract, whose places are
really far below the Chalk Strata of its edges, as lieing above the Chalk! !.
Tt was however then thought proper to strike this part of the Doctor's dis-
coveries from his paper, before it was inserted in the Geo, Tran. vol. i.

A very striking feature of the south-castern Denudation of England, and
which my manuscript Section made in 1806, mentioned P M xiii. p. 167,
was in a principal dezree intended to show, is the rise of the strata from
the vale of the Thames at London, southward, toa strala-ridge line, rang=
ing nearly E and W, which crosses the London and Brigiton Road at
Hand-cross 35 Miles from London, and the contrary dip of the strata from
this place to the Sea at Brighton; and also, that from the hames the
strata hegin to rise again through Islington, from a strata-trough line,
ranging along the vale of the Thames. In your xxxixth vol p. 272 Note,’
I have mentioned, that soine distance beyond Brighton, the strata rise again
southward, from another sérata-trough line, whicn ranges thence be ween
the Isle of Wight and Portsmouth, and proceeds westward into Dorsetshire.
Which Jase Trough in the English strata, 1 investigated to a ceriain de-
gree, near Portsmouth, and made a Section, of which I circulated several
manuscript copies in the spring of 1812; which showed, that the notion
so often published, of the Isle of Wight having been forcibly rent off from
Hampshire, and the channel between them occasioned by the fissure or
chasm thereby opened, was entirely without foundation, and that the
Ts'e of Wight, was on the contrary, a hummock or part remaining, of the
ridge in the strata, south of the trough above mentioned; and that instead
of a chasm. the highest of the known British strata, in unbroken,continuity,
occupies the bed of the Channel! and adjoining coasts of the Isle of Wight
and Hampshire, as my other Section mentioned, had done with respect
to the Thames Trough at London In your last volume, p. 395, Mr.
Webster appears to have given the names of “ Isle of Wight Basin,” and

‘London Basin,” to these two Troughs in the strata, that I had previously
ascertained, as above mentioned.

larger

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 121

{P.182] larger than that part of the channel of the Sea which now
occupies the denudation, (and rests partly on under-s/rata
to the (halk) is a very improbable supposition (see my Note
on p. 185); and Mr, B. must not avail himself, in this case,
of the existence of a vast series of strata on the Chalk,
which supplied edges, (since “broken down” by the Chan-
nel) to retain the waters of his Lake, since these upper strata,
are the very things 4o be accounted for, and for the formation
of which alone, were the Lakes of the Paris Gentlemen and
himself, invented ; although ‘the assumption of imaginary
facts in Geology, has a tendency to retard the progress of the
science, more than any other cause.” Mr.B.P. M. x1. p.47.

183, 1. 19, subsidence of mud*.—* Mud will not form strata,
except perhaps of alluvial Clay or loam, but more probably,
* les marnes argilleises noires,” p. 336.

184, ]. 16, osseous remains *.—* The fossil Rones of Gibraltar
are found im Caves or fissures, partly filled with calcareous
Tufa, near to the Tarfes, at the S end of the Gibraltar
Rock, as I have been informed, see page 18, and M. Cuvier
has stated.

185, 1. 9 and 10, waters in the Baltic*.—* Here Mr. B. seems
supposing, the nerthern edge of the Chalk, from Flam-
borough-head to Jutland, Zealand and Gothland, (P. M.
xxxv. p.131), to be entire, and to act as a partial or an en-
tire dam, to a greater /.ake, than that which 1 have objected
to in my 2nd Note on p. 182, and here my objections will
apply with greater force.

M. Meicrotto long preceded Mr. B, in the assumption of
large Lakes in the north of Europe, see M. De Luc’s Geo.
Trav. in France, &c. i. 420.

1. 20 and 21, in Chalk differ +—+ The organic Remains,
in a large proportion of nearly ell the slrata which contain
them, differ most obviously from each other, Rep. i. 109;
and I entertain no doubt, that when sufficiently minute and
extended examinations and descriptions of the Reliquia are
made (Mont. Mag, xxxiii. p. 514), that the species thereof
will characterize the different sfra/a, and even the different
beds, in many strata, in a very satisfactory manner. Mr,
Sowerby’s work called ‘ Mineral Conchology,” of which
five numbers are publistied (9 now), is deserving of every
encouragement, towards this end, by those who have it in
their power, to send him ample and perfect specimens of

» fossil shells, with their exact loca/ifies ; and when it can be
done, their places in the strata also : and when several sorts
of shells are sent, to distinguish those which are found up-
permost, and ‘how far above each other in the in

y 4

122 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewelt’s Geology.

P.186, 1. 2 and 3, partial formations*.—* There seem na
grounds for stating Chalk to be a partial formation, and
very little, except the modern whims respecting fresh-water
Lakes and Shells, for saying the same of any of its super-
incumbent strata, if the renbedded masses belonging to
them, are properly distinguished, see my Notes on pages
168, 177, 182, &c.: Gravel, Mr. B. will remember, is al-
ways partial in its formation or distribution, and always up-
permost. -

187, |. 15, which protect them *.—* If vegetable soz] was less
liable to be acted on, and displaced by the elements than
hard rocks, we might be more disposed to admit, that ** the
loftiest eminences” are by this means protected from being
levelled ;—where ever did a whole mountain suddenly fall
down ?, such are common-place, yet very unphilosophical
assertions.

188, 1. 5, deep ravines*.—* These and gullies, formed “ in
the sides’ of mountains, are no proof that their tops are
lowering or degrading, sensibly, by the action of the ele-
ments, any more than large blocks found at the foot of a
mountain, prove the same thing; since such blocks will in
general be found, on examination, either to have fallen from
some cliff or steep place, near at hand, or to have been
moved from some distant stratum; or, if much rounded,
perhaps from the antipodes, as likely so, as from the top of
any adjoining mountain, (as seems here assumed), and often,
far more likely [ think, when the completely different nature
of the rounded blocks and the adjacent strata, is taken
into the account.

I. 19 and 20, blocks of white quartz lie+.—+ If the vio-
lence of the waves of the Atlantic ocean, acting on the rocks
and shores of the west of Scotland, is unable to throw
down the veins of Basalt, which there stand up like “ im-
mense walls of.stone,” when the surrounding rocks are de-
composed and torn away, p. 210; how has it happened,
that harder and more compact veins, of White quartz, inter-
secting slate, on Beacon and other hills, in Charnwood
Worest, are found levelled, and that blocks of it “ lie upon
their summits ?:”? and how, if quartz veins were in any de-
gree as numerous in these Rocks, as for a moment to be
supposed, to have furnished the millions of rounded ‘ white
quartz pebbles spread over the midland counties,” has it
happened, that dykes ef quartz, nowhere appear above the
surface in all this forest? ; but on the contrary, that a
smooth surface of Red Marl prevails, over all except a com-
paratively small part, occupied by Slate or Sienite peas i

cliffs

Mr, Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 128

{P,188] cliffs of such, Rep. i. 152: and the quartz veins cbservable
in the cliffs, ave but very few, see p. 287. In short, theory
seems here, and at top of page 191, wildly let loose, in
search of “imaginary” causes, and effects also; see my
Note on p. 285,

Mr. Allan, I observe, p. 192, of your last velume, consi-
ders the white Quartz masses 6n the surface of some parts
of Cornwall, as derived from the decomposition of Veins,
in Killas strata, which once existed on these spots. I beg
to invite your Readers who may have the opportunity, to
investigate the validity of this inference.

190.1, 15, an easy explanation +.—+ The irregular sand pipes
from Drigg in Cumbcrland, P.M. xl. p. 390, seem more
evidently referable to Lightning, than any otlier Geological
phenomenon that I have seen, and are no where noticed in
Mr. B’s volume, [ believe :—when they first came into no-
tice here, I was shown one of these Pipes (at No. 3, on
the north side of Lincoln’s-Inn fields) as an organized re-
main, petrified /Vood, some said:—but I was not for an in-
stant deceived. What relation is there between these Sand
Pipes, and the Osteoco/lu, mentioned under that article in
Dr. Rees’s Cyclopedia?, from No.39, of the Phil. Trans. &c.

192, 1.9, new mountains *.—* It in no degree appears, that
the fanciful, rather than the grand ‘revolutions of the
Globe,” here contended for, are more necessary “ in the
ceconomy of nature,” than they are real ;—-Mountains more
than Continents, do not grow old, and become less fit for the
uses for which their bountiful Creator intended them, but the
reverse of this: and though all the living organized Beings,
which, in such myriads, people its surface, and have their
different, but very limited periods of existence, and then their
visible and material parts quickly loose their bond of con-
nexion, and are fitted to form parts of other living Beings, in
most cases, yet the Mass of the Earth, seems wisely fitted,
to continue the theatre of these grand organic revalutions,
with increasing happiness to the ever changing individuals
(of the Human race in particular) to the most indefinite
periods of time, if it should so please its almighty Author ;
and as we may perhaps reasonably conclude will be the case,
from the recently demonstrated facts of Astronomy, from
whence similar whims, regarding inherent causes of destruc-
tion and end, have been banished.

Although we can see no necessary cause of end to the

duration of the Earth, we can plainly, by means of its im-
bedded organic remains in particular, perceive that it had a
beginning, and reached its present state, by progressive and

/ very

124 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.192] very slow steps; patient investigation of the facts, and just
reasonings upon them, such as the physical astronomers
have persevering applied, in a century which is past, will
certainly be rewarded with results in this science, of no or-
vapeaetl interest to our Race, I venture to think, see my note

n p. 328.
199, 1. 6, unfavourable to vegetation®.—*Rep.ii. 185, and 447.
]. 25, the same purpose ¢.—+ Rep. ii. 107, 409, and 412.
200, 1. 19, worn by attrition *.—* Between the high moun-
tains at the eastern end of the Caledonian Canal in Inver-
nessshire, the largest quantity of alluvial Clay seems lodged,
interspersed with a few huge Bolders, which I have perhaps
any where seen] (see my Note on page 52): to me it seems
probable, after conversing with Mr. Thomas Telford on the
subject, as to the ficts of these and other parts that I had
not seen, that the immensely deep Lakes in the line of this
Canal, may be parts of a valley or chasm, as deep as these
Lakes, which once opened into the German Ocean, and
that enough of this alluvium has since been lodged, not only
to fill up the eastern end of this valley, to its present level,
but even 100 or 150 feet higher, until a subsequent excava-
izon therein, took place, and left a tablet of this Clay,
skirting the mountains, to nearly the same level, for great
distances, as monuments of its state at one period. The
vast

q The allavial chalky Clays of England, which I have mentioned, in
Bedfordshire and other places, see my Note on p. 52, appear very liable to be
mistaken by, and to mislead observers, who have not accurately studied the
circumstances attending sfrutification, in the same school with the practical
sinkers or the superintendants of Coal Pits, and other deep excavations (see

my Note on p. 44); to which classes of Men the distinction is perfectly
known, and evident (however difficult it may be to define the same, so as
to fnstract or even to draw the attention of learned Geognosts, to those di-
stinctions): and the alluvium of the surface, whatever its thickness, or
the téchnical or local Name by which it is distinguished (as Alluvium,
Bareing, Callow, Clay [mixed], Clearing, Corn-soil, Cover, Corn-clay,
Earth-cover, Giax el, Gingle, Keale, Loose-earth or soil, Ratchel, Ridding,
Rock-cover, Rubbis a Rub hile, Rimmel Sammel, Sand [mixed ], Scale,
Skerry, Soil, Ter, Till, Top- earth, &e. &c.) is perfectly known by them
from the regular s.rata ( eneath these disturbed matters, of whatever kinds,
or whatever Names such undisturbed matters may be known by, in the
district (as Fast-country, earth, rock or soil, Measures, Metals, Mine,
Revular-measures, Rock, Shelf, Strata, Undistucbe d-gronnd, whole-ground,
&c. &c.) And among these Men, the merest novice would be ashamed of
making such blunders on this essential head, as have gravely been published
to the world, as to red Marl with Shells in it, on Chellaston Hill, (see my
Note on p. 176), Chalk strata in Huntingdonshire and Rutlandshire (note
on p. 259), &c.

I strongly suspect, that what Mr. Webster in your last volume, page 325,
calls the Chalk Marl (notwithstanding that this name was already ae

priate

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 125

[P.200] vast beds of Till, S of the Ochills (WernerianTrans. i, 48 1)
appear also, other instances to show, that the skirts of
Mountains and mountainous countries, are less commonly,
strewed with the worn fragments of their own Rocks, than
seems here by Mr. B. and is very generally, assumed, by
Geological writers.

201, 1. 18, by other processes *.—* Why may not there be
vast regular strata of Sand? 1 have met with nothing to
contradict such a conclusion ; but much to confirm it, see
my Note on p. 60.

202, 1. 10, classed with alluvial products*.—~ * Very. few
Breccias or Conglomerates, will perhaps, come ‘into this
Class, see my Notes on pages 44 and 50. In Anglesea, I
haye lately had the opportunity, rather unexpectedly, of
seeing a conglomerate Mass or Rock, such as I had not
previously noticed, in examining, what I conceive to be the
same series of Strata, in the Great Forest of Brecon, and
other parts of the edges of the great Seuth-Wales Coal-basin
or Trough, and of those of the Forest of Dean and of the
Clee- Hills.

This Anglesea conglomerate I first observed, at the SW
corner of a very poor common, called Rhos-mirch, 3m.
NE of Llangefni Town, from which a new Road is about
to be made, under Mr. Maughan, the Commissioner for the
Inclosure, across this common, There is a quarry open in
this Rock, from whence a Cottage has lately been bvilt, just
by it, and this stone is used also in several other Buildings
SW.

priated to a stratum below the Chalk, Rep. i. 112), immediately incum-
bent upon Chalk, will turn out to be allwvial Chalky Clay, and not any .
stratum, wuderlicing the red mottled Clay, as is stated, at the top of page
396.

In p. 482, the description is given, of a patch of alluvial chalky clay,
resting on a detached hummock of hard Chalk and green Sand, in the
Chalk-marl district, near Foxton, in Cambridgeshire, “ situated do the west
of the great range of Chalk ;” and yet the writer would persuade us, that
the numerous pieces of worn Chalk and Flints in this Clay patch were
Jodged there, by “ an ancient current, the course of which was from West
to East !.” :

It may perhaps be doubted, whether this Gentleman is possessed of the
means of knowing certainly, the organic remains older than the Chalk, from
other reliquia? or, that he can show, that no such: shelly Limestone Strata,
and Rocks of Greenstone, ashe alludes to, occur in Europe, ¢o the South-east
of Cambridgeshire?—~on failing in which showings, Mr. Smith’s and my
multiplied observations, as to the removal of known alluvia from SE to NW,
will stand unaffected, by this pretended case to the contrary. This is a
subject, which I believe Mr, Bakewell has overlooked, see my Note on

page 52,
f The

126 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.202] The principal masses in ‘this conglomerate are qtiartZ
grains of very various sizes, variously intermixed with masses
of white Chert, of Jasper, of Slate, &c. &c. It forms re-
sular beds, dipping easily SE, and passing under the very
reralar black Marble Rock (in which there is a considerable
Quarry and Lime-Kilns called Cwaise-bangor, about 7.
NNE) constituting the lower part of the Limestone floor or
trough’ to the Coal-measures, mentioned in my note on
p. 108. In general, where I had opportunities of examining
this grifstone below the black Limestone Rock, it consisted
of very variable coarse Grit- -stone, but in athe: places, the
same had a few masses of Jasper in it (as I had noticed in
South-Wales), masses of Chert in others, and on the W
side of Nant-hoorva Quarry, +m. SW of Llangefni, the
masses of Chert are large, resting on coarse Slate, and seem
to graduate or pass into Ji asper, as they do also on the SW
side of Graig-fawr Rock ENE of the Town. I much wish to
eall the attention of Geological observers, to the careful ex-
amination of this and other variable Rocks, as presenting
matter of important consideration, on the formation of
strata: Mr. Jameson’s late opinions and mine, seem very
nearly to coincide, as to their cotemporary formation.

1. 18 and 19, more properly to the vegetable +.—t Rep. le
311, Mont. Mag. XXXili. p. O15.

205, 1. 16, on this coast*.—* Without doubt the ground has
sunk, comparativély at least, on all the British Coasts, see
Encroachment of the Sea in “Dr. Rees’s Cyclopedia, my Ist
Letter, vol. xlii. p. 58, and Note on p. ll.

206, 1. 3, than the Geologist *.—* No true theory of the Earth -
or system of Geology will ever be produced, which does not
embrace a knowledge of ‘alluvial ground,” so universally
spread, equally or more intimate, than with all the ‘ primi-
tive and transition” countries in the World; because-allu-
vium, besides being vastly more spread, indicates later ope-
rations on our Planet, and more within the reach of our in-
vestigations, than the formation of Mountains; the force
of this remark Mr. B. may comprehend, from my Notes on
pages 16, 175, 200, &c.

J. 12 and 13, and explained the principles + ae In 1784,
Dr. James Anderson clearly explained the general principles
of draining Land (in his Essays, i. 150), more of these
principles, “indeed, than Mr. Joseph Elkington knew, in 1794
(Rep. ii. 368, and P. M. xii. p. 215)? Years before either
of which periods, they were practically known to Mr.
William Hart (Rep. ii. 371) and others, engaged exten-
sively in draining, for Proprietors and Occupiers of Land im

_ Various
*

On a saline Substance from Mount Vesuvius. 1y

{P.206] various parts of England. At length, after repeated at=
tempts with Mr. E., had proved, that he could neither suii-
ciently explain, the already well known principles of Draining,
or add any mew one, as the too sanguine zeal of the Presi-
dent of the Board of Agriculture had imagined (see Com-
munications to the Board, vol. i. pages Ixi. and Ixxvi.) and so
persuaded the Legislature; in order to satisfy the condition
annexed by the latter, to the public Reward, thus prema-
turely voted to Mr. E., the measure was adopted, of em-
ploying two or more young Men, to travel through the various
districts in which Mr. E. had effected or attempted to make
drainages, and from their own ebservations and study of the
subject, and what they could draw from Mr. E. to furnish,
in a degree at least, such a work on the subject, as the
Legislature expected, as the result of the national liberality.
Mr. John Johnstone, one of these young Men, very ably
executed his task, and explained more fully than had pre-
viously heen done, the principles and practices of this im-
portant art, in a Work prepared by him, but which is on
almost all occasions (as in the present one by Mr. B. ap-
parently) improperly ascribed to Mr. Elkington, Rep. ii.
372 Note.

[To be continued. ]

——

XXVI. Remarks on the geological Theory supported by Jays
Smiruson, Esq. in his Paper on a saline Substance from
Mount Vesuvies, By-J.A, De Luc, Esq. F.R.S. Se. Se.

Windsor, January 1814.
Sins, —I the number of your Magazine for last Decembe ‘
which contains my paper addressed to you, On a Pheno-
menon of Mount St. Michael in Cornwall,” I have found a paper
under the title: “On a saline Substance from Mount Vesuvins,
by James Smithson, Esq.” intended to support a new geological
system, thus introduced at the beginning of the paper. ** It has
long appeared to me, that when the earth is considered with at=
tention, innumerable circumstances are perceived, which cannot
but lead to the conclusion, that it has been once in a state of
general conflagration. The existence in the skies of planetary
bodies, which seem actually burning, and the appearance of or?~
ginal fire on our globe, I have conceived to be mutually corro-
borative of each other; and at t!

ne same time when no ansier
could be given to the most essential objections to the hypothesis,
the mass of facts in favour of it fully justified, I thought, the _in-
ference that our habitationis an extinct comet or sun.”

Such is the system: and we must now consider what is
that

128 On the geological Theory supported by Mr. Smithson

that mass of facts that justify the hypothesis, of which it may be
supposed the author adduces the most striking: he thus con-
tinues: “* The mighty difficulties which formerly assailed this opi-
nion, great modern discoveries have dissipated. Acquainted now,
that the bases of alkalies and earths are metals eminently oxi-
dable, we are no longer embarrassed either for the pabulum of
the inflammation, or to account for the production of it. In
the primary trata we behold the result of combustion: in them
we see the oxide collected on the surface of the calcined mass,
first melted by heal, then by its increase arresting further com-
bination, and extinguishing the fires which had generated it, and
in fine become solid and crystallized over the metallic ball.
Every thing tells that a large bedy of' combustible matter re-
mains inclosed within the s/ony envelope, of which volcanic
eruptions are partial and small ascensions. Under this point of
view, a high interest attaches itself to vo/canoes and their
ejections; they cease to be local phenomena; they become
principal elements in the history of our globe ; they connect its
resent with its former condition.”

This surely is as new, as it is a grand system ; but what is its
foundation? The author tells it himself in the title of his paper ;
it is on a saline substance from Mount Vesuvius ; and he informs
us that it was sent to him from Naples, while he was at Florence
in May 1794, with the request of ascertaining its nature ; after
which he thus continues: “ The general examination which I
made of it, showed that it was what at that time was called
vitriolated tartar, and it was in consequence mentioned as such
in an Italian publication soon after.”

Then he gives the following particulars concerning the man-
ner in which that substance had been found: ‘1 was informed
by a letter, that it had flowed out liquid from a small aperture
in the cone of Vesuvius, which 1 apprehend to have happened
in 1792 or 1793.”

Thus we may judge, that the author has never observed him-
self Mount Vesuvius, and that he knows. only by report a few of
the phenomena of that volcano. He then proceeds to detail the
chemical analysis which he had made of that saline substance ;
but as he is aware that-so small and even so indirect a fact
could not support his 7gveous system, he ventures on another
ground, in which I shall now follow him, and afterwards return
to volcanoes.

“In support (he says) of the igneous origin here attributed
to our primizive strata, 1 will observe that, not only no crystal
imbedded in them, such as quartz, garnei, tourmaline, &c. has
been seen inclosing drops of water, but that none of the materials
of the strata contain water in any state.”

The

‘in his Paper on a saline Substance from Mount Vesuvius. 129

The author appears not to be acquainted with such mountains .
formed of primitive strata as are those observed in the central
ridge of the Alps, in which is found the rock crystal, of a
quartzeous nature, and even the purest quartz ; a fact directly
contrary to his assertion: but the circumstances attending that
crystal, and the crystal itself, indicate so incontestably its agueous
origin and that of the strata in which it is found, that I shall
describe the most important of them.

At the time when IJ first travelled in the Alps, which was in 1744,
rock crystal was employed, by cutting it, for various ornaments
in houses, as lustres, sconces, and frames of various sorts, as
may be seen in some ancient palaces.

Considering that the circumstances attending that crystal in
the strata could lead to the natural history of the latter, and as
living at Geneva near the Alps, my brother and myself resolved
to visit the places whence that crystal came, and to converse
with those on the spot whose profession it was to extract it, in
order to be informed of the nature of their work.

After having travelled in many parts of the Alps, we generally
found that rock crystal belonged to a’certain class of micaceous
schistose strata, with many circumstances attesting the aqueous
origin of that crystal, and consequently of the strata themselves.
The following was the information which we received.

A general fact is, that rock crystal is never found buéin ecvi-
ties, the sides of which all around are covered with its prisms.
Those of the inhabitants of the Alps who made that crystal the
object of their pursuits, commonly called crystal-hunters, know-
ing by the aspect of the sfrata those in’ which such cavities
were likely to be found, and that they could not be discovered but
in abrupt sides of the rocks, because the rubbish and grass cover
the other parts, used a very hazardous method to find out those
cavities. On the top of such abrupt sides in which they disvo-
vered their characters, they bored some holes in the solid rock at
different places, for the following purpose. They fixed very
solidly poles in these holes, and twisted round them a ‘rope, at
the one end of which hung a sort of basket: in this the most
courageous of them was let down, allowing him a greater share
of the adventure ; while his associates, to whom he trusted his
life, held the other end of the rope at the top. .

- As that man went down aloug the different parts of the rock,
he struck it with a hammer, and by the different sound of the
strokes he judged whether the rock was hollow, If there was
no sensible difference in the sound, he did not think it worth
while to open the cavily; but if the sound gave him the hope of
finding a large cavity, then care was taken to secure him better,
as he was to open it, and, entering it, to detach the prisms.

Vol, 43, No, 190, Feb. 1814, I Fragments

180 On the geological Theory supported by Mr. Smithson,

Fragments being only used for the common purposes, the mary
who entered these cavities broke with his hammer all the pro-
jecting prisms around it; and the quantity was sometimes so
great, that the associates made much money from what they ob-
tained in one of them. Such are the general circumstances con-
cerning rock crystal found in that kind of schistose strata; but
the particulars to which I now come, are. no less important to
the natural history of that mineral,

I shalt mention as a first important circumstance, the size of
some prisms which have been found, I have known two prisms,
one of which was perfectly transparent, employed im a most beauti-
ful work for the late Empress Queen, which prism was from 9 to
10 inches in diameter: the other, less transparent, was above one
foot. _I think I can now say with more certainty than the
author has done for his hypothesis, that swch crystals have never
been seen as the product of fusion. But the character of true
conclusions from the phenomena, is manifested by the coincidence _
of circumstances in the same object; and it is the case in the
system of the aqueous origin of our mineral strata: a confirma-
tion to which 1 now come.

As the men who followed this pursuit knew also that some
curious travellers in the Alps paid them for the trouble of detach-
ing parts of the crust covering the sides of the cavities with its
prisms,—which erust, by naturalists of many countries, is called
druses,—they carefully detached them; and we had the oppor-
tunity of purchasing many which are in our collection of mi-
nerals remaining at'Geneva. Now, in these druses, many proofs
are found that they were formed in cavities during the time that
our continents constituted the led of the sea, and that conse-
quently these cavzies were filled with water. That great geo-
logical fact, so contrary to the igneous system of the author, is
demonstrated by the immense quantity of marine exuviee found
in the strata commonly called secondary.

By the inspection of the druses that we have in our collection,
it is impossible not to be conyinced that the prisms have been
formed, not only in caviéies filled with water, but by a process in
which each prism increased successively in size by new addi-
tions; and that they were as shooting at the same time in dif-
ferent directions from the same points. In one of these druses a
large prism, in its increase of size, has enveloped a small one ;
they are both very transparent ;.and this phenomenon might be
overlooked, did not the small prism project on one side of the
other: but this circumstance directing the sight in the large
prism, the small one.is seen in it by the different refraction of the
light. In another druse, by some change in the successive pro-
cess of crystallization, a large prism has divided itself into small
enes, like the branches of a tree. It

in his Paper on a saline Substance from Mount Vesuvius. 131

It would be endless to describe further the phenomena of
druses, all leading to the same conclusion : the various manners
in which the prisms cross each other, divide and unite again.
But there is a particular circumstance, which is exemplified in a
process that we see going on, that of the crystallization of salts
in liquids. Each salt has its particular character and shape ;
and if a diquid hold in solution different salts, they crystallize
separately in known circumstances, especially in different tem-
peratures. Now there is a similar phenomenon in the crystalli=
zation of rock crystal, showing that in some of the cavities in
which it has been formed, the liquid contained in solution other
mineral substances, one in particular, whence have proceeded
sinall erystals of geen shorl, from which many prisms of rock
erystal ave made, unfit for any other use than that of variety in
mineral collections.

These green shorls were at first supposed to be mosses that
had grown in these cavities; a supposition contradicted by its
being impossible that land vegetables should grow in the sea ;
but by observing these shorls with a magnifying glass, the mis-
take is soon discovered, by the angular form of their thread.
We have a prism of rock crystal made almost opake by these
shorls, in which one of them having been destroyed, has left an
angular hole from one side to the other, through which a horse-
hair can pass. ;

I now come to the assertion of the author, that none of the
erystals has ever been seen inclosing drops of water. This might
be, without affording any argument against the aqueous origin,
and for instance, of rock crystal ; for there is no reason @ priort,
that water should be inclosed in any of its prisms. However, the
fact itself contradicts his assertion. It is natural to infer that he
has not seen the case himself, since he never alludes to rock cry-
stal, though so important to the natural history of the primitive
strata. But I have seen many prisms of that crystal containing
water, and there is one in our collection, the particulars of which
I shall describe.

- This prism is about two inches in diameter ; it is traversed by
many small erystals of green shorl, between which a small quan-
tity of water remained engaged during the increase of its size.
That water is manifested by a bubble of air, which remained in-
closed with the water retained also by the shorls. By inclining
the prism, that bubble moves gradually from nearly one end to~
the other of the prism; but as, according to the shorls that it
meets in its way, its direction is determined, it does not follow the
same course in every trial, except when the inclination of the
prism happens to be the same and on the same side, and it shows
thus the space which is occupied by the inclosed water,

12 Now,

‘

132 On the geological Theory supported by Mr. Smithson,

Now, since the author says in favour of his igneous systems
that no crystal such as quartz has ever been seen inclosing dr ops
of water, which ought to be the ease in that system ; the con-
trary being the fact, is a peremptory proof against it.

I now come to the inferences which the author derives from
the phenomena of volcanoes, making however this previous re=
mark, that in this case again he has made himself no observa-
tions, nor even on Vesuvius, of which alone he speaks; for he
says that he had received his information from a correspondent
at Naples. But besides, the only fact on which he has built his
whole system, is that saline substance, of which even the parti-
culars that he relates are either not wel! expressed, or must’
proceed from a very inaccurate observer. I shall prove hereafter -
that this account is erroneous ; but I must first state the nature
of volcanoes, on which all their phenomena depend.

What are volcanic eminences ? In what manner do they he-
gin to be produced? How do they increase in height and ex-
tent? Fortunately the answer to these questions is obtained
from a known event, transmitted to us by witnesses of the whole
process, from beginning to end, in the formation of a new vol-
canic eminence between Naples and Puzzoli, which has retained:
the name of Aonte Nuovo (new mount), Ihave given the
whole account of the event from those witnesses; in p. 398
of the xith volume of my work, Histoire de la "Terre et de
l’ Homme, of which account the following is a translation.

“‘In the night between the 29th and the 30th of September
1538, after two years of almost contiaual earthquakes, and es-
pecially after a day when the earth had been continually agitated,
at last an opening was produced in a very fertile land; through
which opening came out so much fire, and such a quantity of
stones and cinders, that they produced a small mountain, now
called Monte Nuovo ; it destroyed many houses, fields, men and
eattle, and buried under its materials the borough of Ripercola :
it is about three miles in circumference, and its height is not
much less than that of Mount Barbaro near it, which is esti-s
mated at a thousand steps; the ejections from that opening ex~
tended down to the sea. At the suminit of this mount is stilk
seen the mouth which ejected such a quantity of matter; which
ejection however ceased very soon. The Lago lucrino, thus
called from the ducre or profit reselting from an abundant .
fishery, was so much filled up by the matters thrown out of that
opening, that it is now only a marsh covered with reeds.”

From this known and well circumstantiated event, we are en=
abled to answer the» above important questions conterning the
formation of volcanic cones. A first explosion produces an open-
ing in the mineral sirata of the land; through that openmg

come

in his Paper on a saline Substance from Mount Vesuvius. 133

‘ome out successively /avas and showers of cinders, which b
degrees produce an accumulation in the form of a cone ; wid
the materials of such mounts are as distinct from the original
strata, as iron is from wood.

The author has no real knowledge of the various ejections of |
Mount Vesuvius, since he derives his hypothesis from the speci-
men of a saline substance sent to him from Naples. But to
conclude a system on that spec?men, is the same as to decide the
nature of all the minerad strata of an unknown country, from a
JSragment of stone. If he had known my geological work above
mentioned, Histoire de la Terre et de 1’ Humme, he would have
found in it, from the observations of my brother, such an exact
description of all the phenomena of volcanoes, as must have
superseded in his mind the erroneous information which he ap-
pears to have received from Naples.

Nobody, to my knowledge, has observed the various voleani¢
phenomena more thoroughly than my brother, not only of Ve-
suvius, but of Etna, and of the volcanic islands of Lipari, near
Sicily. He has seen actual eruptions of Vesuvius, and followed
the steps of new davas flowing over old lavas. This progress
continues as long as the new /ava retains a sufficient heat to
maintain its softness; but at a greater or smaller distance,
though still red hot, it hardens and breaks; then the broken
pieces, still propelled by the soft dava, rise in heaps at the ex-
tremity, and tumbling over one another, they produce a particu-
lar noise heard at a considerable distance. Such are the real
characters of davas, unknown to the author, who has never had
the opportunity of observing them himself.

My brother has been no less attentive to the saline and sul-
plureous substances observed on the sides of Vesuvius. The
author says he was informed by a letter, that the saline substance of
which he had received a specimen, had flowed liquid from a small
aperture in the cone of Vesuvius. 1 think he might have judged
himself, that this was impossible. How could so small a quan-
tity of matter, suspposed to be in igneous fusion, preserve the
heat that is supposed to make it liquid, while passing through a
great thickness of old lavas, long reduced to the temperature of
the air? This supposition, therefore, is absolutely improbable.
My brother, who has carefully observed those substances that
appear on the surface of the old davas towards the top of
Vesyvius, and has detached fragments of them preserved in our
collection, has invariably found that they had been, and con-
tinued to be, produced in crevices which emit fumes: thus show-
ing that these substances are a sort of swblimation which accu-
mulates against the sides of the crevices, without any appearance
of their having been ever in a liquid state,

: 7m 13 With

134 On the geological Theory supported by Mr. Smithson,

With respect to the nature of Javas,—a most important point
concerning all the volcanie phenomena, with which the author
is totally unacquainted,—my brother has found in it all the cha~
racters of a combustible substance, which is burning before it
comes out, and continuing to durn outside as long as it retains a
sufficient heat. This combustion is shown by the sw/phurcous
smoke that lavas emit all along their course, But that smoke is
not the immediate product of the combustion ; it proceeds from
the decomposition of some elastic fluids, which, as long as they
find no vent, are the cause of the ascent of /7vas in the cones.

This circumstance is known to the inhabitants around Yesu-
vius; for, when they observe almost a cessation of the smoke
issuing from its crater, they are in fearful expectation of the
consequences, as it indicates that some dava, ascending in the
channel, has cooled and hardened in it. The first consequence
is earthquakes; and the next probable event, which is very dan-
gerous, is the bursting of a dava from some other part of the
cone. If that new lava fiows over cultivated grounds, it sets on
fire trees, vines, and even houses. But the new /ava melting
that which had stopped the channel, the smoke again issues
from the crater, and these fatal effects cease.

The showers of cinders sometimes emitted from the craters of
volcanoes, being an astonishing character of their operations, in-
terested my brother very much, and he resolved to try whether it
would be possible to observe it in the very crater of Vesuvius.
At a time, therefore, when it was observed from Naples that
such showers were frequently emitted, consisting of large red-hot
masses mixed with smaller, always preceded by a thundering
noise, and thrown up very high, which in the night appeared
a most tremendous fire-work ; my brother, taking notice of a
favourable circumstance, that of a strong wind which repelled
these ejections on one side of the crater, thought to avail him-
self of that opportunity. He therefore set out immediately from
Naples, and ascended the cone on the side against which blew
the wind.

Arrived at the top of the mount, he descended imto the crater,
and eame as near the edge of the channel as he thought it pru-
dent. At first he saw only some redness deep in the channel ;
but after a little time he heard the thundering noise ; it began very
deep ; then it was heard to ascend at the same time that the red
matter rose ; and when its column ayrived at a certain height, in
a part of the channel which was wider, the elastic fluid that had
pressed it so far upwards, burst through it, and a shower was
produced. This being a remarkable phenomenon, not to be ex-
pected frequently with the favourable circumstance of a strong
wind, my brother remained there a suificient time to see it re-
peated with its various degrees, Desirous

in his Paper on a saline Substance from Mount Vesuvius. 135

Desirous to know also in what state was the matter thus
thrown up very high, and falling in showers, he followed with
the sight some of the largest masses ; and observing in what part
of the crater they fell, he hastened there before another explo-
sion: he found that they were come out very soft; for the
largest, preserving longer their heat in their way through the
air, were flattened like cakes ; but the smaller masses, though
still red-hot, had preserved their various forms. ,

It is from these ejections, carried out of the circumference of
the crater in different directions by strong winds, that are formed
the slopes of loose cinders which make the ascent to the traler
very difficult, because they slide under the feet : those, therefore,
who are not used to climb on all kinds of mountains, aré obliged
to employ some men, ready there for that purpose. “These men
have a belt, with a loop ef string fixed to it, taken hold of by.
the people who could not ascend without help, who are thus
dragged up. ‘

But my brother, used to climh the slopes of rubbish in’ the.
Alps, which oppose the same difficulty as those of cinders, judg~
ing that on the slopes of cinders might be fuund all the kinds of
ejections from the crater of Vesuvius, waiked over them at diffe-
rent times in different directions, with expectation that they might
lead to some knowledge both of the depth from which they pro-
ceeded, and of the kind of mineral strata through which they
burst. He was net disappointed in that hope: for he found
among the cinders large fragments of granite, sienite, of several
kinds of quartzeous stone, and of hard limestone ; all of which
belonging to the lowermost known strata, indicate clearly that
the substance of which /ava is formed lies under those strata.

Thus, when the real phenomena are attentively studied, nothing
is left for the work of imagination. {s it permitted in presence
of common sense te form general systems, from particular phe-
nomena? Had the author considered this, he could not have
supposed that a particular saline substance found on the slope of
Vesuvius could lead to conclude that the internal part of the
globe shows it to be an extinct sun or comet ; while the ejections
of that volcano demonstrate that the dava is formed under known
mineral strata in whieh no sign of igneous operation is discovered,

Another great fact, with which the author appears to be totally
unacquainted, though I have described it with all its cireum-
stances in the abovementioned work, Histoire de la Terre et de
Ll’ Homme, is this: On the surface of our continents rise many
volcanic eminences, showing indubitable characters of having been
produced on the bed of the sea before it became our continents.

That great gedlogical fact of our continents having been for-
merlv the bed of the sea, so contrary to the author’s system, is

2 14 demon-

136 On a saline Substance'from Mount Vesuvius.

demonstrated, as I have already had oceasion to mention, by the
immense quantity of marine exuvie inclosed in the secondary
strata. Now this character is found in the same countries as the
volcanic eminences that are now the object, which I have parti-
cularly described, along the left bank of the Rhine, between
Coblentz and Bonn, and in the country of Hessia. These emi-
nences have all the characters of the actual volcanoes, and in
particular of Vesuvius. In them and around them are seen not
only lavas of different degrees of porosity and of mere scori@,
which successively flowed over each other, but between them
layers of cinders and an immense quantity of pumice- stones.

The pumice-stones are a known circumstence belonging to
Vesuvius, but with a very remarkable character. It is not an
ejection from the crater, or from any known part of that voleano 5
it rises from the bottom of ihe sea, in parts where the water is
very hot. My brother had the opportunity of discovering that
circumstance by a dog, who was fond of swimming by the side of
his boat, and sometimes cried out as being scorched by the
heat ; and my brother actually found the water hot by plunging his
hand into it. These are probably the places whence the pumice-
slones come up from the bottom of the sea: they are found float-
ing on the surface of the sea, as pumice-stone is specifically
lighter than salt waéer.

Now this very important and known volcanic product is found
around some volcanic eminences near the Rhine. I have seen
very extensive beds of pumice-stones on the left bank of that
river opposite to Coblentz; and in some places these beds of
pumice-stones are intermixed with distinet beds of cinders, thrown
up at some intervals from the crader of these volcanoes. But on
this subject, as on the aqueous origin of our mineral strata,
there are too many circumstances all to be mentioned here; 1
must therefore refer the author to my descriptions.

These are not the only remains of ancient volcanoes observed
on our continents. 1, a new geological work which f have lately
published, under the title of Geological Travels through some
Paris of France, Switzerland and Germany, | have deseribed in
the northern parts of the latter country a multitude of lasaltic
hills, which evideutly are volcanic from the nature of their sub-
stance ; but they are particularly interesting, as they afford a new
proof that some /avas come out from the botiom of the sea: these
lavas from their natures when meeting red-hot the water of the
sea, were broken into the prismatic form of Lasaltes.

Of this effect my brother has seen an instance belonging to
modern volcanoes on the coast of Sicily, near Catana, A lava
having flowed from the side of Mount Etna down to the sea, the
part which remained on the avd retained the land all

avas 3

On the Phenomena of Sleep. 137

Zavas ;-but that part which entered the sea is seen, at the time of
low-water, to be divided into the prismatic form which charac-
terizes basalies.
fee Has
T hope, Sirs, that Mr. Smrruson will read with interest in your
Journal the statement of various geological facts which he had not
had the opportunity of observing, himself. He will thus under-
stand, surely, that geology is tco extensive a science for a general
system being formed with any certainty, witheut having ebserved
the different characters of the surface of the ear th, not in one
country only, but in many; as in some countries the same pha-
nomena are attended with others which may prevent mistakes.
And with respect to information received from countries unknown
to ourselves, he will also conceive that no reliance is to be placed
on the observations of those whose accounts manifest that they
have considered the phenomena with a mind prejudiced by some
previous hypothesis to which they are higoted.
I have the honour to be, sirs,
Your most obedient servant,

To Messrs. Nicholson and 7 ‘loch. Jai. ‘Da Lucy

XXVIII. Onthe Phenomena of Sleep. By a Correspondent.

‘| HE célebrated physiologist Dr. Whytt suggested that conges-~
tion of blood in the head was the immediate cause of sleep.
Though this position was supported by a large induction of facts,
it soon fel] into disrepute, upon the discovery of congestion under
circumstances no way analogous, as in lunacy, convulsions, insa-
nity, and intoxication. Dr. Whyit’s views however have latel
‘been revived, and extended with some modifications to an ample
explanation of all the phenomena. It is. now ascertained that
there is a congestion of blood in the head during sleep; but that
congestion alone is insufficient, a retarded circulation being also
necessary, For this modification we are indebted to Dr. Park,
the author of ‘ An Inquiry into the Laws of Animal Life.” From
this work, which is a general cutline of physiological science, the
grounds upon which the phenomena of sleep may be explained
are chiefly extracted. This writer reasous entirely on an indue-
tive or analytical process: that which I shall use will be syn-
thetic, applyi ing his principles to a very minute statement of facts,
and occasionally advancing ideas of my own.

Two important facts are established in this work; one relating
to the connexion between the function of every organ and its cir-
culation, and the other to the changes incidental to the cireula-

tion itself. ‘The former shows that the faculty of feeling and the
power
i

-138 On the Phenomena of Sleep.

power of motion are subject to change from every change in the
vessels. Thus, when their action is diminished by cold, sensibility

and mobility are both impaired, while both are increased bi
warmth. In like manner a part is rendered morbidly sensible by

inflammation, but restored to its natural state again by abstrac-
tion of blood. The same observation holds equally true with the
function of mind, which changes with every change of circulation
in the bram. Thus, when the action of vessels is moderately in-
creased by wine, we fcel exhilarated, and our ideas flow more ra-
pidly; if hurried by taking it to exeess, the powers of association
are confused, and by imordinate congestion they are altogether

suspended, and a state of stupor comes on. On the other hand,
diminished circulation has an opposite effect; the energies of mind
are enfeebled by it; and if the abstraction of blood be excessive,
faintmg and a suspension of mental powers will ensue. _ The se-
cond fact illustrated in the work alluded to establishes the nature
of the changes incidental to the circulation, and points out the
various modes, whether natural or artificial, by which the parti-
cular state of the vessels inducing sleep may be brought on. It
is shown that the vessels, in common with all moving organs, un-
dergo periodical changes during action, which ultimately render
them incapable of continumg it, and dispose them to relax.
While congestion thus results from changes natural to all organs,
this state of relaxation is also shown to admit of being ateelevated
or retarded by a variety of accidental and artificial means, and

these it will be a principal object to investigate as we proceed.
Sleep, then, results from two combined causes: Ist. A conges-
tion of blood in the brain; 2dly, A retarded circulation ;—and
it will be found that every thing inducing these conditions pro-
motes sicep, while circumstances of a different tendency prevent
its approach. The horizontal posture of the body facilitates
sleep, because, in that state, the heart is relieved from the pres-
sure of some pounds of blood, which, by the feeling of disten-
sion, excites the vessels to action. The limbs also being at rest,
do not employ such an exertion of muscular power as assists to
make circulation more rapid. From the diminished feeling of
distension follows a relaxation of the vascular system, and mode-
rate congestion of blood, with retarded circulation, and conse-
quent sleep. If, however, the congestion be immederate, it ex-
cites the tescels| to inordinate action, and produces a contrary ef-
fect: hence it is dificult to repose without a pillow, or with the
head so placed as to cause a rush of blood on the brain. Men
however of a corpulent and plethorie habit find the horizontal po-
sition not so convenient as a reclining posture in a chair, with
the head hanging down, In persons of this deseription there is
; already

On the Phenomena of Sleep. 139

already a congestion nearly sufficient for sleep, so that a furthee
increase produced by the horizontal posture would excite inordinatr
action. Nothing is required but a circulation somewhat slower
than ordinary, which, in vessels habitually inactive, readily ensues
from the unequal pressure on the seat, and the obstruction of the
dress, rendered more tight round the neck and waist by the pos-
ture of the body.

Exercise brings on sleep by the relaxation of vessels, which
naturally follows their continued exertion. Hence the sound rest
of labouring men; while persons confined to the house sleep very
lightly, their vessels not having been so far fatigued as te undergo
a full relaxation. Children are found to sleep more frequently
and more soundly than old people; the playfulness of the former
soon inducing fatigue, more especially on account of their great
mobility of fibre,—whereas the latter have few excitements to per-
sonal exertion. To this we may add, that the circulation in
childhood is so full, that a slight retardation of the natural ac-
tion creates the requisite conditions, while in old age it is difficult
to cause much congestion without exciting a degree of action,
which at that time of life is inordinate. Fatigue will induce
sleep even under the most extraordinary circumstances, fre-
quently during intense cold, though the person is conscious that
he can never wake again. The cold in this case cooperates with
lassitude, by impairing the sensibility of the vessels. The ha-
rassed soldier will repose in the trenches, and the malefactor be-
fore execution will yield himself up fatigued in mind and body by
his- violent emotions, To the same head may be referred the
cruel artifice of some nurses to make children sleep. This plan
consists in frightening them with the idea of some terrible object
being in the room, so that they lie perfectly still, not daring to
move a muscle. This want of motion retards circulation, while
terror, moreover, constricts the vessels so forcibly, though nearly
exhausted with the play of a whole day, that relaxation and con-
gestion must soon succeed. If fatigue has been such as to leave
the muscles in a state approaching to inflammation, the period
of rest will be a while retarded by painful distension and inordi-
nate action of vessels.

It is found that sleep is induced by fixing the mind perma-
nently on one impression. This phenomenon may be referred

to the principle, that attention to any one impression diminishes
the feeling of others, and consequently the action which, when
felt, they would produce. If therefore the mind be diverted from
attending to the feeling of distension in the vessels, they will be
less excited to action, will gradually relax, and ultimately undergo
congestion. Hence we are lulled by the murmuring of waters,
the humming of bees, the droning sounds of a heavy speaker, and
the

140 On the Phenomena of Sleep.

the monotony of a book too dull to afford a single idea striking.

enough to divert the attention from its general uniformity. In
the same manner, in long stories of one tenor, we at last only hear
the voice of the narrator, and finally fall asleep. The exclusion
of light, and the absence of promiscuous noises, by removing sti-
muli to the attention, have the same tendency. - Regular and
gentle motion, by fixing the mind on its own uniform impression,
lulls us to rest, as we daily witness in the effects of rocking upon
children. Thus also, if the head of a fowl be placed under its
own wing, and it be moved gently in a vertical circle, a few turns
will lay it completely to rest. Here the warmth of the wing re-
laxes the vessels of the head, in which congestion is promoted by
contortion of the neck, while the uniformity of motion completes
the effect. So also children are told to shut their eyes, and look
steadily for some person that they will soon see; and it is found
that, while their attention is so directed, sleep very soon over-
powers them. Grief, when fully settled upon one object, has also
a tendency to bring on heaviness, in which case congestion in the
head is evinced by red and swollen eyes, with other symptoms of
distended vessels.

t is further found that every thing which causes a gentle re-
laxation of vessels, will, by the concomitant congestion and re-
tarded circulation, contribute to sleep. Hence nightcaps, com-
fortabie beds, and the warmth of a fire after dinner, will all pro-

mote drowsiness. If however the warmth be so great as to cause

immoderate congestion, with an accompanying mordinate action
in the circulating system, sleep is prevented, as we find by the un-
easy restlessness arising irom nightcaps too thick and beds too
downy. As internal impressions excite contraction, so those which
are external cause relaxation ; and upon the principles stated, the
latter ought to create sleep. As pleasurable feelings operate in a
similar manner, their effects ought to be the same. Hence we
incline to sleep by the pleasing sensation of a full meal, which at
the same time operates by its external impression on the vessels of
the stomach, already predisposed to relax by the exertion of the
day. If, however, the system be not predisposed to relax fully,
a hearty meal rather exhilarates, by augmenting vaseular motion ;
and if a heavy supper be taken, sleep is disturbed from irregular
circulation, which results from its unequal pressure on the arte-
rial system. From the relaxation following external impressions,
children and the inferior animals are lulled to sleep by a gentle
friction of the head. On the principle that the idea of an impres-
sion produces effects similar to the impression itself, some persons
feel a propensity to sleep from thinking of it, or become drowsy
in company from the very apprehension ; and we find birds go to
roost in a total eglipse of the sun. From habit also the seein

TCsAXCR

ee ee ee ee

Olservations upon the Substance called Iode, or Iodine. 141!

relaxes at stated intervals, so that a lady of fashion will be quite
lively at a period when the regular citizen is seized with an irresisti-
ble drowsiness. Habit will, moreover, so far divert the attention .
from feelings generally causing action, that some persons can sleep
while standing upright, or sitting on horseback.

Upon the principles laid down, it will not be difficult to explain
the operation of some other means by which sleep may be pro-
moted or prevented. If the skull be laid open, and the cerebrum: -
gently pressed upon, the animal sleeps from the retarded circula-
tion and congestion induced. Opium and extreme cold, by im-
pairing the sensibility of the vessels, diminish their resistance
to the contained fluids, thus retarding circulation, and removing
any opposition te congestion. Wine taken to excess, after a cer-
tain period naturally disposes to sleep; for its primary effect being
to increase cireulation, and accumulate blood in the head,—as
soon as relaxation succeeds to inordinate action of vessels, the
brain will be under every circumstance requisite for repose. Strong
tea, both by its sensible impression on the mouths of the vessels,
and by the relaxing effect of warmth, promotes secretion, unloads
the vessels, and so far removes congestion, and quickens circula-
tion, as to promote wakefulness. Opium indeed causes relaxa-
tion of vessels, by impairing their sensibility; but imstead of in-
¢reasing it usually diminishes secretion, and does not therefore
remove congestion, but imereases it. Acids on the contrary, by
promoting secretion, unload the vessels, atid, like tea, remove the
soporific effects of opium.

Such are the very numerous facts referable to Dr. Park’s prin-
ciples ; and should any material points have been passed over,
‘there can be little doubt that they also would reduce themselves
to the same explication. He has extended his researches on this
head to the phenomena of Dreaming, Incubus, and Seomnambu-

lism.

XXVIII. Further Observations concerning the Production of the
singular Substance called Iode, or Iodine ; easy Methods of
obtaining it; with Remarks on the comparative Nature of
Kelp, as far as it regards the rapar asin of lode. By
Freprick Accum, Operative Chemist, ©

Compton Street, oN Feb. 6, 1814.

Sins,— 1 nz obliging manner in which you have noticed in

your Magazine for "January last, the observations which I com-

municated to you, concerning the method of preparing iode,
induces me to send a few additional remarks on the same subject,

; wiih I flatter myself may prove useful to some of your reat es
pon

142 Further Observations

Upon a superficial examination of the varieties of kelp mef
with in the market, we soon become convinced that this sub-
stance differs prodigiously with regard to its external qualities as
well as chemical composition. An extended series of experiments
lately made upon different varieties of kelp, gives me reason to
state, that some sorts contain, besides carbonate of soda and the
usual salts peculiar to the sea-weeds from which kelp is, ob-
tained, a considerable portion of subcarbonate of potash. Others
abound in sulphurets ; again others, are almost wholly composed
of common salt, with scarcely a notable portion of mineral alkali ;
whilst others again furnish from 2 to 34 per cent. of mineral al-
kali. In certain varieties of kelp we find a large quantity of sul-
phurets, and others again are almost free from sulphur.

’ This difference of composition is unquestionably owing to the
mode in which kelp is prepared, as well as the articles of which
it is manufactured. 1am enabled to state from good authority,
which I have received from different quarters, concerviing the
manufacture of this article, that in some places a considerable
quantity of fern, [Pteris aquilina Linn.,} and woods of all kind,
are burnt, together with the leafy fuci, for the production of
kelp; and that in other districts, a mixture of common salt, sul-
phur, and the ashes of peat and brushwood, is added to facilitate
the complete fusion of the ashes of the sea-weeds, to effect which,
is said to require a considerable degree of practical knowledge
of the kelp manufacture.

Without entering into a further detail concerning other abuses
committed in the manufacture and sale of kelp, some of which
are practised with a view of giving to British kelp the appearance
of Sicilian or Teneriffe barilla, I shall confine myself, on the pre-
sent occasion, merely to point out the characters by which the
variety of kelp best suited for the preparation of iode, may be
discriminated, from those sorts which contain almost none of this
substance, or from which at least it cannot be obtained with-
out much trouble and expense; and I shall likewise state the
processes and practical proceedings which I have found to an--
swer best to obtain this substance.

Kelp from which iode may readily be procured in the manner
to be mentioned presently, is of a deep blueish-gray.colour. It
readily attracts moisture when exposed to a damp atmosphere, and
then becomes intensely black. It is of a moderate hardness, and
may easily be pulverized. Its recent fracture is minute cellular,
porous, and earthy age crystalline]. It emits a faint sulphureous
odour when moistened with water or dilute acids. It possesses
a saline alkaline taste. It affords from 2! to 34 per cent. of
carbonate of soda, and when kept in a dry place it becomes co~

vered,

on the new Substance called Iode, or Iodine. 143

vered with a white efflorescence. By these characters kelp con-
taining iode in considerable quantity may readily be recognised.

Those varieties of kelp which are of a greenish gray colour
and crystalline fracture, which emit a strong sulphureous odour
when moistened with water or dilute acids, which are of stony
hardness, and do not readily attract water from a damp air, are
almost unfit for the preparation of it; they yield but very little
iode, and the means of extracting it from those varieties are
tedious and difficult.

The best kelp is said to be manufactured in those places where
the sea-weeds are cut down by means of a scythe frem the rocks
situated between the high- and low-water mark, as is the prac-
tice in the North of Scotland; and the worst kelp is said to be
made in those places where it is customary to pull up the alge,
or leafy marine fuct, from the rocks by the roots, by means of
takes or grappling irons, as is practised by the peasantry in some
kelp districts on the Irish and English coasts.

‘Those who are desirous of preparing iode [and who is there
among the cultivators of chemistry that is not?] will do well to
avoid useless trouble by first assaying the kelp they wish to em-
ploy for that purpose, before they proceed to operate upon it.

To accomplish this object, put a few ounces of it, previously
pulverised, into a glass or earthenware funnel, and suffer eight
or ten ounces of cold water to trickle or run over and through it,
very slowly, so as to wash out the easily soluble matter which it
contains.

To cause the water to pass readily through the mass, and to
obtain the fluid clear at once, a few large pieces of kelp ought
first to be introduced into the throat of the funnel; a stratum of
smaller pieces should be put upon these, and the finer powdered
kelp placed over all. When the water has run through the mass,
pour the obtained solution back again upon the kelp in the fun-
nel, and repeat this operation for several times. This being done,
evaporate the lixivium to about two-thirds of its bulk; a consi-
derable quantity of salt will become deposited during the evapo-
ration ; remove it from ‘time to time, and lastly evaporate the
remaining fluid to dryness. Transfer the mass into a crucible,
and fuse it for a few minutes. From the appearance of the
melted substances when cold, some conjecture may be formed
concerning the nature of the kelp with regard to its contents of
iode. If the mass exhibits a bright peach-blossom colour, we
may predict that it abounds in iode; if it possesses a. flesh or
very pale rose colour, it contains a less quantity of this substance;
and if it is colourless, porcellaneous, resembling white enamel, it
then is almost destitute of it.

The presence of iode may likewise be rendered obvious, by
adding

\

44 Further Observations

adding first sulphuric atid in excess to a lixivium of kelp freed’

by simple evaporation, of the greatest portion of salt which it
contains; then evaporating this solution to dryness, and again
heating it in a flask or retort, with an additional quantity of sul-
phuric acid. If it contains iode, the mass now will acquire a
rose colour, more or less intense, according to the quantity of
iode present ; the vesse! in which the assay is made will become
filled with a beautiful violet-coloured vapour; aud a dense yel-
low or orange-coloured fiuid, which is sulphuret of iode, will con-
dense and run down in strie on the sides of the vessel. If the
solution abounds in hydresulphurets, the sulphur which becomes
precipitated by the admixture of suiphurie acid should be re-
moved before the solution is distilled with sulphuric acid.
Or,

The before-mentioned dry salt, containing the iode cf soda, &e.
may be heated for a few minutes with half a part of its weight
of red oxide of lead, and then distilled with sulphuric acid.
If it contains iode, a violet-coloured vapour will become. disen-
gaged. :

Methed of obtaining Iode.

To procure iode (or iodine) in the most expeditious and
cheapest manner, from kelp, proceed as follows :

Fill a conical bag, made of coarse linen, or any porous ma-
terial, with powdered ke!p. Suspend the bag in some convenient
manner, and suffer cold water to trickle through the kelp in as
slow a way as possible. Four parts of water are thus sufficient
to lixiviate one of kelp. Pour the lixivium which runs from the
bag, back again upon the kelp, and repeat this operation for three
or four times successively. The obtained uid will be perfectly
transparent, and almost colourless. Evaporate this solution in
a Wedgwood-ware bason, and remove the salt which becomes
deposited from time to time. The quantity of salt that falls
down, will diminish as the lixivium becomes concentrated. When
no more salt. becomes separated during the cbullition of the fluid,
or when the quantity deposited is but sma!
evaporated to dryness. This bein

usier into a crucible

odine of soda, &e.
and expose it to a dull red heat. When the mass begins to melt,
a lambent pale blue flame will make its appearance; and when
this has ceased, pour out the melted matter upon aslab, pulverise
it coarsely, aud preserve it for use. ;

To obtain iode from this substance, mix it with one-fourth of its
weight of red oxide of lead, and decompose it with sulphuric acid,
taking care to add this fluid as long as any effervescence takes
place, and proceed as stated No. 189, page 57, Phil. Magazine.

If

g cone, tra
a

1, the solution may be _

a a ee

on the new Substance called Iode, or Iodine. 145

If the operation is to be performed on a tolerably large seale,
that is to say, if a pound, or pounds, of the partly-desulphuretted
salt are operated upon at once, the process is most commodiously
performed by means oi an aleimbic. The iode sublimes in the ca-
pital of the alem!ic in beautiful prismatic needles, possessing a
metallic splendour ; and the residuary saline mass may readily
be removed by the assistance of warm water.

If two or three ounces of the salt are submitted to the opera-
tion, the following process is convenient :

Take a flask holding three times the bulk of the salt, adapt
to the neck of it, by means of luting, a glass tube about 12 or 18
inches long, and from 3-8ths to half an inch in the bore. Pour
into the flask first, two parts of sulphuric acid, and then, one
part of the uncrystallizable salt containing the iede. A violent
action ensues, and the flask becomes filled with a derfse violet-
coloured vapour. When the action has ceased, apply a gentle
heat till no more violet-coloured fumes become disengaged.
Then remove the tube, into which the iode will be found sub=
limed. Wash out the crystals with small portions of water,
and dry the product without heat on unsized paper, placed on
a chalk-stone. The iode thus obtained is not pure. It is
usually soiled with some sulphuret of iode, and hence has a
strong odour resembling chlorine. It stains every part of the
skin, and other animal matter, with a bright orance colour ; the
stain lasts for some days, and only disappears by the natural
change of the cuticle, so that in dead matter it is indelible. In
this state it becomes converted by heat, not into a violet-coloured
gas, but into a rose-coloured gazeous fluid.

To obtain the iode in a pure state, mingle two parts of it
with oné of chalk freed from water by a previous exposure to a
moderate heat, or with quicklime ; put the mixture into a glass
tube, eight or ten inches long-and three quarters of an inch in
the hore, furnished at one extremity with a ball, and then re-
sublime the iode into the colder extremity of the tube, by heating
the ball of the tube over a spirit lamp.

ANOTHER PROCESS.

Having obtaineéd the uncrystallizable saline mass containing the
jode in the manner above stated, redissolve it in three or four
parts of water, and add to the solution, sulphuric acid in excess;
then evaporate the mixture again to dryness. Ming!e the dry
mass with about one-third of its weight of finely powdered red.
oxide of lead or black oxide of manganese, and distill with sul-
phuric acid added in excess, in the manner before directed.

lode is to be found in abundance in the waste or spent lee
of those soap manufacturers who employ kelp in the prepara-

Val, 43, No, 190, Leb, 1814, K tig

146 Ou the Camphoric Acid,

tion of soap. To obtain the iode from the waste lee, let it be
boiled for a few minutes with quicklime; strain. the fluid, and
mingle it witl sulphuric acid in excess. This being done, eva~
porate the fluid to a syrupy consistence, and then distill or
heat it in a flask as directed above with red oxide of lead and sul-
phuric acid. The iode will thus be obtamed in abundance ; and
this in fact forms the cheapest process of obtaining it. If the
waste lee contains much animal matter, soap, &c. it then is es-
sential that they should be first destroyed by exposure to a mo-
derate red heat. :

Before I conclude this paper, I beg leave to state, that I have
reason to believe that iode does not exist in barilla; although:
I spoke otherwise in my former letter. The kelp upon which f
operated, being delivered to me under the name of a sample of
barilla, was the cause of the deception: into which I was led on
that occasion. Indeed, there exists much confusion in the mar-
ket between the articles of kelp and barilla. The latter is fre-
quently adulterated er mixed with kelp m so dexterous a manner,
that even the most skilful dealers in these commodities are ofter
deceived. Those who have an opportunity of readily rendering
the lixivium of kelp caustic, in the usual manner by quicklime,
will do well so todo. The obtained salt, containing the iode,
when then distilled with sulphuric acid and red oxide of lead, does
not effervesce, and the distillatory vessels employed for that pur~
pose may be of a less capacity.

I um, with respect, yours,
‘ FREDRICK Accum.
Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

—— ————

XXIX. On the Camphorie Acid, considered as a peculiar Acids
By M. Bucuoxz*.

M. Bucno1z, after having referred to the different memoirs
which have appeared on the subject of the camphoric acid since
the discovery of Kosegarten to that of M. Bouillon-Lagrange, has
thought it his duty to publish his own observations on the sub-
ject.

The method of proceeding which appeared to M. Bucholz to
be the best adapted for avoiding loss, consisted im treating two
ounces of camphor with a pound and a half of nitric acid of the
specific gravity of 1:250, to which he adds half a pound of pure
nitric acid of the specifie gravity of 1-550, rectifying the whole
three times successively by-employing a middling degree of heat,
and taking away about half the liquor every time, or the quantity
which is necessary that the whole of the camphor might be con-

* Annales de Chimie, tome Ixxxiv. p. 301.
‘ verted

considered as a peculiar Acid. 147

verted into acid. After the second rectification, but a very small
quantity of oil of camphor will be obtained, which floats above
the weak nitric acid.

The camphoric acid, at the end of the evaporation, is found
above the fuming nitric acid, under the form of a white and buty-
raceous substance. It is separated by means of a glass funnel,
redissolved in boiling water and crystallized ‘again, in order to se-
parate from it all the excess of nitric acid. This acid perfectly

. pure weighed five drachms, exclusive of that which still remained

in the concentrated nitric acid, and which might amount to one
drachm anda half. This process therefore seems to abridge the
ordinary manipulation. It appears that the great art consists in
not pushing the distillation with too much activity,’ particularly
towards the end of the operation, because we might run the risk
of decomposing part of the camphoric acid formed by the nitric
acid in excess, which may always be observed by the brown co-
lour which the residue then assumes.

The form of the crystallized camphoric acid is feathery ke
that of the muriate of ammonia, as M. Bouillon-Lagrange has
observed: this crystalline form is very different from 34 those of
the acids composed of several radicals, and particularly from that
‘of the benzoic acid. ~

Comparative Experiments between the Benzoic Acid and the
Canphoric Acid * ,
Camphoric Acid.
1. Solubility of camphoric

Benxoic Acid,
1. Solubility of this acid

acid in cold water. Ten grains
‘of camphoric acid were agitated,
in 500 grains of distilled Water,
in a vessel which might covytain
two ounces of water, for an
hour and a half, at a cempera-
ture of 15° Reaumur:; the liquor
was then filtered on a filter
weighing 45 grains. The filter
when dried avain had retained
five grains of acid. Thus 100
parts of cold water dissolve one
part of camphorie acid. This
experiment differs from that of
Kosegarten, who says that it re-
quires 2045 parts of water, and of
that of Doerfurt, who pretends

that

in cold water. Having opé-
rated under this circumstance
as in the foregoing experiment,
there remained a residue weigh-
ing seven grains and a half;
consequently. there had been
only two grains and a half of
acid dissolved: hence it results
that one part of benzoic acid
requires 200 parts of water to
dissolve it. The benzoie acid
differs considerably, therefore,
from the camphoric acid in this
respect. The result of this ex-
periment also differs much from
that of Doerfurt and other che-
mists, who assert that 500 or

K2 at

* Care was taken to employ acids perfectly purified by crystallization,

148 ~ On the Camphoric Acid;

that it requires 400: it ap-
proaches that of Bouillon-La-
grange ; for he had announced
that this acid is dissolved in 80
parts of water.

If the above chemist has de-
termined the quantity of acid
kept in solution im water, by
estimating what might be re-
tained by a warm solution of
this acid, when its temperature
has fallen back to a lower one,
he would have been right ; for
we know that similar solutions
of salts constantly retain more
salt than the water could dis-
solve at a temperature equally
ae

2. Solubility in boiling we-
ter. One ounce of water, was
heated in a large vase to the
boiling point, then camphoric
acid was added until no more
solution took place, and the
whole was speedily weighed.
It required nearly eleven parts
‘of boiling water to dissolve one
of camphoric acid. This resuit
forms a mean between that of
M. Bouillon-Lagrange who says
that it requires 10, ~and Kose-
garten who asserts that it re-
quires 12

3. Solubility i in cold alcohol.
100 grains of alcohol were
shaken with camphoric acid
until the latter refused to dis-
solve at a temperature of 15°
Reaumur. 106 grains of acid
were dissolved: the liquor was
of the consistence of a clear

syrup.

A, Solu-

at least 400 parts of water are
requisite to dissolve one part of
benzoic acid,

2. The benzoic acid wher
treated in the same manner af-
forded a result which differed
very little from that of the other
chemists ; for I found that it
required 242 parts of boiling
water to one of benzoic acid.
Lichtenstein and Doerfurt have
announced that 24 are requi-
site, and Trommsdorf has said
80. The benzoie differs con-
siderably, therefore, from the
camphoric acid in this pro-
perty.

3. The same quantity of al-
cohol when shaken three times
longer with benzoic acid could
only dissolve 56 grains of it.

This alone is sufficient to de- .

monstrate the difference which
exists between these two acids,
since it must be admitted that
it is the presence of the essen-
tial oil of benzoin which op-
poses the solution of the acid,
this essential oil being very so-
luble in alcohol,

4, 106

considered as a peculiar Acid.

4. Solubility in boiling al-
cohol. The cold solution of
camphotic acid was boiled, and
40 grains more were gradually
added to it: eight grains of
alcohol were volatilized. Thus
92 graivs of alcohol kept in
solution 146 grains of cam-
phoric acid, and this solution
was very fluid. But it may
fairly be presumed that this
acid will unite in any propor-
tion with boiling alcohol, since
it melts by itself alone with
heat. This solution goes into
a crystalline mass at a tempe-
rature of 2° below zero.

9. Action of. caloric in
close vessels. 20 grains of
camphoric acid were heated in
a small retort containing an
ounce of water, until the whole
“was volatilized. Gradually a
humid vapour was formed which
was condensed in the reeeiver,
and presented two drops of li-
quid resembling water, which
had an empyreumatic taste and
sinell, and at the same time the
flavour of acetous acid. The
empyreumatic smell was accom-
panied with that of turnips.
The sublimate which was form-
ed in the neck of the retort
had this smell also: in short,
it was a very white saline mat-
ter, with some brownish spots :
it was opake, and was not sen-
sibly crystallized, resembling in
nothing the crystalline - subli-
mate which is furnished by the
benzoic acid. The taste of this
matter was acidulous and pi-
quant, which was occasioned by
the empyreumatic oil, which
_also diminished a little its solu-

bility:

149
4, 100 parts scarcely dis-

solve so many of benzoic acid:
in this respect this acid differs
much from the camphoric acid,
since alcohol can dissolve more
than double its weight of the
latter.

5. 20 grains of benzoic acid
were heated in the same man-
ner.

The volatilization was much
more prompt than with the
camphorie acid. ~At the com-
mencement there appeared a
slight current of white vapours
which were condensed in the
neck of the retort, under the
form of a whitish dust, weigh-
ing about half a grain; after-
wards the acid was sublimed as
usual in the form of beautiful
white demi-transparent needles.
There was but a very slight
trace of empyreumatic oil, and
charry matter, but not the
smallest vestige of humidity ;
the interior of the retort and
of the receiver had a slight
smell of benzoin. All these ob-
servations are very different
from those presented by the
camphoric acid, when it is
sublimed; and certainly they do
not proceed from an excess of
oil, as Doerfurt pretended,

K 3

150

bility in cold water. This so-
lution reddened turnsole paper.
These two last experiments do
not agree with those of M.Bou-
illon-Lagrange, who asserts
that the sublimate is not solu-
ble in water, and that it does
not redden turnsole paper. But
he must have certainly been
led into an error by a part of
the sublimate surcharged with
empyreumatie oil.

The solution of this sublimed
camphoric acid had also an
aromatic smell like oil of rese-
mary: upon the liquor cooling,
the acid was precipitated in the
form of small leaves. The neck
of the retort towards the belly
was coated with a brownish
empyreumatic cil, opake and
very thick weighing froma grain
to a grain and a half: the bot-
tom and sides of the retort were
covered with a slight coating of
charry matter.

On the Camphoric Acid, — Mi

In spite of the difference between the camphoric and benzoic
acids as above exhibited, I thought it right to subject them to
some new experiments, with a view particularly to neutralize them
by some bases, in order to observe the properties of their salts.

" 6. Neutralization of the
camphoric acid ly lime. 50
grains of camphoric acid were
boiled in four ounces of water,
and it was attempted to neu-
tralize them by pure carbonate
oflime; when 30 grains of this
carbonate were added, the ef-
fervescence ceased; but the li-
quor, although reduced to three
ounces, reddened turnsole still
strongly; it even’ retained this
property when I had added 85
grains of carbonate of hme:
having diluted the liquor in
eight ounces of water, it lost

this

§. Neutralization of the
benzoic acid by lime. 50
grains of benzoic acid were
boiled with 30 grains of car-
bonate of lime, and six ounces
of water, until the liquor no
longer reddened turnsole: the
salt was afterwards separated
by treating the deposit eight
times with eight ounces of wa-
ter each time. The residue,
when well washed and strongly
dried, weighed ten grains, and
was nothing but pure earbonate
of lime: thus 20 grains were
consumed, The liquor having

; been

considered as a peculiar Acid.

this property: it appeared,
therefore, that the camphorate
of lime always exists with an
excess of acid. The liquor was
decanted, and the deposit boiled
with eight ounces of new water;
it was then filtered. The car-
bonate of lime strongly dried
weighed 57 grains: thus 50
grains of camphoric acid re-
quire, in order to be saturated,
28 grains of carbonate of lime.
The liquor was reduced to half
an ounce by evaporation in a
small capsule: but as it refused
to crystallize, another drachm
of liquor was evaporated: a
tolerably strong pellicle was
then exhibited: upon the cooi-
ing of the liquor, there was se-
parated at the end of 48 hours
a considerable quantity of cry-
stallized salt, but the form of
the crystals was not sufficiently
decided. The concentrated so-
lution of camphorate of lime
has not a remarkably salt or
bitter taste; it leaves a taste
of lime, and is a little acrid,
which distinguishes it consi-
derably from calcareous ben-
zoate.

{t must also be remarked,
that always when this acid is
saturated, there is a slight and
transient smell of camphorie
acid, of which however the li-
quor gives no indication even
when it is heated.

7. Action of caloric on the
camphorate of lime. Five
grains of camphorate of lime
were introduced into a phial
with a long neck and narrow
aperture. There was a slight

noise, the crystals were then
dried

151
been reduced to two ounces
gave upon cooling small needlc-
formed erystals, silky and bril-
liant, several of which issued
from a common centre. At
the end of two hours the whole
of the liquor was filled with
these small crystals, and it fur-
nished them to the end by eva-
poration and cooling: the taste
of these crystals was mild, and
a little earthy.

It is also proper to remark
here, that although pure and
white acid was employed, there
was a slight smell of benzoie
developed, which speedily dis-
appeared, and which was ne
longer remarked in the liquor,

7. Action of caloric upon
benzoate of lime. Five grains
of this salt, perfectly pure and
white, treated in the same way,
presented the following phae-
nomena : it was perfectly liuue-
fied ; there was an extrication

K4 of

~

152
dried without melting: the
vapour of water and a keen
aromatic smell were developed,
which resembled greatly oil of
rosemary mixed with a little
of empyreuma, occasioned by
an empyreumatic oil: there was
no sublimate of crystalline mat-
ter: at length we obtained a
little thick empyreumatic oil :
there remained a residue of
carbonate of lime mixed with
a little charcoal,

8. Solubility of camphorate
of lime in cold water, Twenty
grains of this salt well dried were
shaken for an hour and a half
with 60 grains of water, at a
temperature of 15° Reaumur ;
13 grains were dissolved, for
there remained seven grains of
dry salt: thus five parts of cold
water dissolve a little more
than one part of salt, or 100
parts retain 21 and two-thirds
solution.

On the Camphorte Acid,

of aqueous vapours and a little
very liquid oil, the empyreu-
matic smell of which was very
slight, but it had a strong taste
of balsam of Peru. From the
beginning, benzoic acid was
sublimed, but this soon ceased:
the residue was the same with
that of camphorate of lime.

The production of an empy-
reumatic oil analogous to the
balsam of Peru, and obtained
from a benzoate of lime per-
fectly pure aud crystallized, is
certainly worthy the attention
of chemists.

8. Solubility of benzoate of
lime in cold water. Fifty
grains of this salt treated like
the camphorate with 60 grains
of water, were not dissolved, for
there remained two grains in
the filter: 100 parts of water,
therefore, at a medium tempe-
rature cannot dissolve more than
five parts of this salt.

The salts formed by these acids vary therefore considerably,
and may still serve to elucidate the nature of these two acids :
the case is the same with their combination with potash, as I

sha!l now show.

9. Properties of camphorate
of potash. This salt does not
crystallize until its solution has
been brought to the consistence
of a liquid syrup, and it is then
spoita eously evaporated : we
then obtain small crystals: these
crystals meit in their water of
crystallization, the liquor be-
comes brownish, and requires a
long time before the salt is hard-
ened: it has then a pungent
gud caustic taste, while the

crystals

9. Properties of benzoate of
potash. The benzoate of pot-
ash with a slight excess of acid
crystallizes easily in small la-
mine, or thin needles, which
are not very soluble in water,
since this salt requires 10 parts
of water at the temperature of
15° Reaumur. (The neutral
combination of benzoate of pot-
ash is much more soluble, since
this salt attracts humidity from
the air.) The acidulous ben-

zoate

considered as a peculiar Acid. 158

erystals are but slightly salt, a zoate reddens turnsole paper,
Jittle aromatic, and bitter. This it has a less acrid taste than the
combination also retains the camphorate, and is even mild.
same properties when there is, If we redden it, a part of the
an excess of acid, acid is volatilized without being
decomposed, but the major part
is decomposed : empyreumatic
oil is formed, and there remains
charcoal with the alkali in the
state of carbonate of potash.

The want of time and of a greater quantity of camphoric acid
prevented me from prosecuting the foregoing researches : I shall
content myself therefore with a brief recapitulation of the proper-
ties of these two acids :—

1. The camphorie acid is constantly crystallized upon cooling
in the form of quill feathers, as observed by M. Bouillon-Lagrange.
The benzoic acid in the same circumstances crystallizes either in
needles or in lamin, or under a ribband form.

2. The camphoric acid has a decided acid taste, and leaves a

bitter smack. The benzoic acid is mild, sweetish, scarcely acid,
and a little pungent.
. 3. The camphoric aeid, in order to be dissolved, requires 100
parts of water, at a temperature of 15° Reaumur, and 10 or 11
parts of boiling water. The benzoic acid requires 2U0 parts of
cold water, and a little more than 24 of boiling water.

4, 6. of camphoric acid dissolved in one part of alcohol at
_ a middling temperature, and it should seem that it is dissolved in
all proportions in boiling alcohol. The benzoic acid is dissolved
in two parts of alcohol at a middling temperature, and it requires
weight equal to its own of boiling alcohol. ~

5. The camphorie acid is volatilized and sublimed, but the
products are very different. a) It is denser. 4) There is a
greater quantity decomposed : a particular oil is formed, an acid
Jiquor, and more charcoal remains. The sublimate never takes a
crystalline form. The benzoic acid is always sublimed in cry-
stals : aqueous vapours are never produced, scarcely is there anv
empvreumatie oil formed, and there remains but very little char-
coal.

6. The camphoric acid united to the bases produces salts very
different from those formed by the benzoic acid, as may be seen
from the above experiments,

xX

va

. Pra-

a

[154 y

XXX. Proceedings of Learned Societies. _ |
ROYAL SOCIETY.

Jan. 27. Tue Right Hon. President in the chair. A long pa-
per by Dr. Brewster was read, giving a detailed account of his
numerous experiments en light, in addition to those which have
already been laid before the Society. Dr. B. has investigated
with great care the laws which govern the reflexion of light, and
ascertained that its polarization discovered by Malus is not a ge-
neral but a particular law. The phenomenon of double reflexion
has engaged his attention, but it is not possible to convey any
adequate idea of his new observations and discoveries without
drawings in this brief report.

Feb. 3. Sir Humphry Davy communicated to the Society a
tong account of his very accurate and ingenious experiments on
the fluoric principle. Fluor is one of the many substances which
present great difficulties to the inexperienced operator, and pro-
mise no brilliant results to reward his labour; consequently it
remained almost unexamined till the important discoveries of this
philosopher naturally led him to investigate its nature and pro-
perties. His former experiments developed many new and cu-
rious analogies of nature ; his present confirm the observation that
hydrogen produces as many acids as oxygen, and that it unites to
the peculiar base, which he ealls fluorine, to constitute fluorie
acid. His first opinion, founded on analogy, that siliea and boron
were metals, he here abandons, and considers them also as pecu=
liar undecemposed substances, which, in the present state of our
Knowledge, must be admitted as elements, the same as oxygen,
hydrogen, chlorine and fluorine. The result of many complex
and delicate experiments is, that fluo-borats can never be pro-
duced without the aid of hydrogen; and finally that, contrary
to the supposition of Berzelius and others, who have argued the
point with at least as much zeal for distinction as truth, chlorine
contains no oxygen.

A short paper by Mr. A. Carlisle was read on Monstrosities, as
an appendix to his remarks on Zerah Colbourn ; ‘the purport of
which was, that both sacred and profane history record examples
of hereditary monstrosity, particularly in supernumerary fingers
and toes ; and that these extra-appendages are generally attached
to the outer side of the hands and feet, very rarely to the inner,
and almost never to any other limb.

Feb. 10. Mr. Brodie (through the Society for promoting a
Knowledge of Animal Chemistry) communicated an account of
his observations and experiments on the influence of the nerves on
glandular secretion, particularly that of the 8th pair. In conse-

quence

Royal Society. 155

quence of his having found much secreted fluid in the stomach of
dogs poisoned with arsenic, he determined to ascertain, if possible,
whether such secretion was an effect of the poison or of the
nerves; and after dividing the uerve which communicates with
that organ, he inserted some arsenic into the thigh of a deg,.
which shortly after died; but on examining the stomach, al-
though the usual appear ances of inflammation were present, no
secreted matter was found. The experiments were repeated and
varied several times with similar results ; nevertheless, the author
admits that all such experiments on living bodies are inconclu-
sive ; that although it is extremely probable the nerves contribute
to effect secretion, yet it cannot be demonstrated indubitably by
any direct experiments ; in other words, that all the positive
knowledge acquired by his experiments.is but a smal] atonement
for the torture inflicted on so many animals.

A Letter from Mr. Koenig to the Right Hon. President was
also read, describing the fossil human skeleton brought from
Guadaloupe to this country by Admiral Sir A. Cochrane, and de-
posited in the British Museum. This singular fossil was found
on the shores of Guadaloupe below high-water mark, among cal-
careous rocks formed of madrepores, &c., and not very remote
from the volcano called the Souffriere; the block containing the
human skeleton is eight feet long, two hroad, and weighs about
two tons; it is a very hard granular limestone resembling calca-
reous sand-stone, containing a few venus and other she sls, some
of which are unknown, The skeleton is tolerably perfect, with
the exception of the skull and some vertebra of the neck, which
are wanting. Sir H. Davy found some phosphate of lime in the
bones, proving the presence of animal matter. Mr. K. does not
pretend to guess at the age of this fossil skeleton ; but Sir Joseph
Banks, whose experience and observation are more extensive,
considers it of very modern formation. Other fossil bones have
been found in the same vicinity, and calcareous masses or rocks
continue forming there. ‘This circumstance seems to sanction
the judicious opinion of the learned President ; and taking into
consideration the contiguity of a volcano, the probability of the
temperature of the water being considerably raised at some times,
and the known fact that. carbonate of lime dissolved in water is
afterwards deposited in a comparatively short period in masses of
very hard and solid stone—every person may be convinced of
the rapidity of the formation and also of the hardness of such
stone, by inspecting the inside of tea-kettles in which water vul-
garly called hard is boiled,

Feb. 17, The doctrine of animal heat, or rather the compa-
rative heat of arterial and venous blood, has occupied the atten-
tion of Mr, John Davy, who communicated the result of his la~

bours

156 Royal Society.—Lectures.

bours in this department of science to the Scciety. The expe-
riments of Crawford being performed at a time when the process
and means of aualysis were much less perfect than at present, it
is necessary they should be repeated before they can be received
as correct results in the actual state of our knowledge. Mr. Davy
operated on the blood of sheep and lambs; and it must be con-
fessed that the detail of his experiments will be read with more
pleasure, that no animal experienced any pain from his researches.
He began by depriving arterial and venous blood of fibrine, ascer-
taining their specific gravity, the former being 1047 and the lat-
ter 1050, placing them in glasses of equal dimensions, filling a
similar glass with water raised to the same temperature, and ob-
serving their relative rate of cooling. In different experiments he
found arterial blood 957, and venous 92, a result altogether in-
compatible with the theory of Crawford, but reconcileable with
that of Dr. Black or the opinion of Mr. Bredie. The posterior
portion of the brain he found from 1 to 2 degrees higher than the
anterior, and both were as much lower than the rectum. The
heat of the bedy generally diminishes in proportion to the distance
from the heart. (This fact is not very consistent with the no-
tion of the nerves occasioning animal heat, as its focus is not very
replete with nerves.) In general the temperature of arterial blood.
was from 1 to 14 degree higher than that ef venous; only
one degree was observed between the heat of the blood in the
left and right ventricle of the,heart. A newly born child raised
the thermometer to 96; after three days it rose it to99. Mr.
Davy also made a variety of experiments on all parts of the body,
with a view of ascertaining their relative heat ; he avoided all
theoretical speculations, but seemed somewhat inelined to the
supposition of Dr. Black respecting the origin of animal heat.

Part of a paper, by Mr. Ivory, on Comets, was read, in which
this acute matheniatician expounded the judicious theory of
Newton, described their parabolic motion, &c. ; but much of his
communication was of a nature not to be read.

XXXI. Intelligence and Miscelianeous Articles.

Dr. Crarkr’s and Mr, J. CLarke’s Lectures on Midwifery and
the Diseases of Women and Children will commence on Monday,
March 2Ist, at the house of Mr. Clarke, No. 10, Upper John-
street, Golden-square, where they are read every Morning from
a Quarter past Ten to a Quarter:past Eleven, for the convenience
of Students attending the Hospitals.—For particulars apply to
Dr. Clarke, New Burlington-street; or to Mr, Clarke, at the
Leeture-room.

LIST

ee. ee ee eed

~~

a

Patents. — Meteorological Observations. 157

LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS.

To William Spratley, of the Strand, in the county of Middle-
sex, coal-merchant, for his improvement upon the axle-tree of
wheels. for carriages of different descriptions—20th Dec. 1813.
—2 months.

To John Sutherland, of Liverpool, in the county of Lancaster,
copper-smith, for his improvement in the construction of copper
and iron sugar pans and sugar boilers, and a new method of
hanging the same; and also an improvement in the construction
of the furnaces or fire-places in which such pans and boilers
ought to be placed.— 20th Dec.—2 months.

To Sir Thomas Cochrane, knt. commonly called Lord Coch-
rane, for his methods of regulating the atmospheric pressure in
lamps, globes, and ether transparent cases for supplying com-
bustible matter to flames, and preserving, uniform intensity of
light. —24th Dec.—6 months.

To Ralph Sutton, of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick,
brass-founder, for his effectual security to prevent the accidental
discharge of fowling-pieces, which invention is unconnected with
the lock, and applicable to all kind of fire-arms,—24th Dec.—
6 months. —

To James Cavanagh Murphy, of Edward Street, Cavendish
Square, in the county of Middlesex, architect, for his invented
Arabian method of preserving timber and various other substances
from corruption or decayx—24th Dec,—-12 months.

. ‘
Meteorological Observations made at Clapton in Hackney,
from January 20, to February 13, 1814.

Jan. 20.—Therm. 28°. Barom. 29.30—29.70. NE. gale,
cloudy ; wild geese in the form of a V flying in a smail flock,
very low. Sea-gull seen on the Thames. ;

Jan. 2\.—Therm. 16°. 22. Barom. 29.84. N. Clear cold day,
and few clouds.

Jan. 22.—Therm. 24°. 19°. Barom. 29.80.—29.94.N. Gentle
breeze A.M. overcast and a little snow ; gale and clear P.M.

Jan. 23.—At noon Therm. 80. Barom,. 29.85. Showers of
snow from the N. at different times; the snow-flakes of different
sizes ; at night almost sleet fell.

Jan.24*,—Therm. 26. Barom.29.88.—29.84.N. Snow show-
ers from N. The rooks, Corvi frugilegi, came in numbers into the

__ * I understand this great and Jong frost, like the fog which ushered it
in, began first in the western parts of the island, and travelled eastward
and northward, Many of the highways are blocked up with deep snow.

garden,

158 Meteorological Observations made at Clapton.

garden, and near to the house, making a dismal and pitiful deep
cry: during the snow I observed a nnmber on a tree, all with
their heads to the N. facing the wind.

Jan, 25.—Clear A.M.; cloudy P.M.; falling Barometer.
Therm. 11 P.M. 27. N. SW.

Jan. 26.—Barom. 29.70.—29.39. Therm. 34°. 33°. S. The
sky was cloudy, with small snow, and the temperature remarkably
uniform throughout the day.

Jan. 27.—Barometer 29.35.—29.20. Therm. all day 33°,
Cloudy and thaw. 8. Calm.

Jan, 28.—Barom. 29.30.—29.28. Therm. 33°. 30° Small
sleet from the S.

Jan. 29.—The Barometer fell much during last night; at
eight this morning was 28,58., and in the afternoon down so
low as 28.25.! Therm. about 33°. Clouded, with storms of
wind at night. SW.

Jan. 30.—Barom. rising again 29.05.—29.30. Therm. 33°,
Wind got to NW. Floods much out in the marshes of the river
Lea, particularly towards night, when the waters covered the
road, and were over the foot-bridge several inches *.

Jan. 31.—Barom. 29.38.—29.58. Therm. 27° 35°. S. N.
SW. Stratus—snowing.

Feb. |.—Barom. 29.88.—30.10. Therm. 30°. 29°. NW.—
NE. Clear morning; unwholesome kind of day; lobated cirro-
stratus and thaw again P.M. (The lobated cirrostratus is a
cloud having the shallowness and light evanescent texture of one
kind of cirrostratus, but with the rounded superficies of the cirro-
cumulus : when it supervenes on a frosty and clear day, it is often
a token of a state of air which affects the nervous system, and
produces illness in many people : I have noticed this repeatedly.

Feb, 2.—Barom. 29.95.—30.10. NW. Clear and frosty.

Feb. 3.—Barom. 30.10.—30.05. Therm. 24°. White frost
and cirrostratus.

Feb, 4.—Clear—Coming warmth, as indicated by the cirrocu-
mulative tendency of the light clouds by night. _Barom. 30.10.—
30.22.

Feb. 5.,—Rather warmer ; clouded sky, and thaw.

* T noticed during the thawing of the snow to-day, that before the snow
had so far melted as to leave the ground in general bare, a circular disk of
earth was discerned round the roots of the stems of the trees and shrubs in
the varden; a circumstance which seems to show that heat was trans-
mitted from vegetable bodies. If vegetables as wellas animals did not pos-/
sess internal sonrces of heat, it seems that their juices must be frozen
during hard frosts, and life often destroyed. The circumstance above al-
luded to corroborated this doctrine, and inclines one to think that the
communication of the warmth is more considerable than is usually ima-

gined.
Fel.

Meteorological Observations made at Clapton. 159

Fel. 6.—Calm cloudy morning, with mizzling rain: at night’
blew a gale from SW. and a clearer sky, but falling Barometer.

Fel. 7.—Gale from SW. Confused and rainy appearances of
cirrus andother clouds. \Therm, 50. Many sea gulls, Lari cant,
in the marshes. '

Feb. 9.—Wind W. Some cauliflower-like cirrocumulus and
other confused clouds. Barom. getting up to 30.00. The raven
croaking while sailing round and round aloft.

Feb, 10.—SW. breeze. Clouded, damp and warm.

Fel. 11.—Various confused features of the modifications.
Warm and muggy day. Wind SW. and §. Sea gulls abound
about the marshes of the river Lea.

Feb, 12.—Overcast and dark day. The conflagration of the
Custom-house occasioned a curious phenomenon this morning.
Looking out of the window, I observed the air replete with de-
tachments of a black light substance, which on minute inspec-
tion appeared to be fragments of burnt paper, coming over from
the south in a very gentle wind, from the fire at the Custom-
house. ‘These papers must have been carried to a great height
in the air; for after the lower current of wind got to E., which it
. did for a short time, I observed numerous portions of the said papers
coming also from that quarter. Whether they were carried up
aloft merely by the current of heated air from the fire, or whe-
ther the explosion of the gunpowder which took place heaved
them up on high, is uncertain; their long continued appear-
ance, and the extent to which they were carried, (for they went
some miles into Essex,) seems to indicate the former cause.

Fel. 13.—Clouded still day, wind southerly. The floods,
which have been more or less out ever since the thaw, are daily
abating,’ and the water-mills on the Lea work again as usual.

Clapton, Feb. 13, 1814. Tuomas FoRSTER.

P.S.—In a former paper, and also in my Researches about
Atmospheric Phenomena, p. 92, I noticed that the changes of
wind appeared to take place first above, and to be continued
downwards. Some experiments made with Thermometers sus-
pended at different heights, have induced me to believe the same
thing to happen with respect to the changes of temperature, It
would be a good thing to try this by repeated observations ou
Mr. Six’s or the self-registering Thermometer hung at different
altitudes along high-erected poles. ‘The instruments might be
drawn up and down the poles by means of strings hung over pulleys
at the top. The old May-poles, which still remain in many of our
country villages, might be converted to this use. Paper kites,
too, might be made large enough to carry up ‘Thermometers at
their tails.

METEORO-~

Meteorology.

160 ,
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE;
By Mr. Cary, oF THE STRAND;
For February 1814.
Thermometer. prihet
ie =~ _| Height of Age
sited - o-2 6 8s the Barom. gig Weather
Oaths, $6 8 SFO St trehes: 1 ee &, }
faW | OA} SG cat is,
oa : Ast ‘
Jan. 27) 35 | 38 | 36 | 29-20 0 /Cloudy
28} 35 | 39 | 30 “18 10 {Fair
29} 32 | 41 | 35 | 98°38 oO ‘Rain
30) 32 | 38 | 32 | 29°15 12 {Fair
, $1f 98 | 36} 30 “40 10. |Fair
Feb. 1] 98 | 36 | 99 "96 13° Fair
2} 35 | 40 | 30 *g0 4 |Fair
3; 27 | 34 | 26 | 30°01 7 {Fair
4) 91} 30 | 95 ‘08 5 {Fair
5| 2 33 | 37 | 29°95 0 |Snow
6| 40 | 44 | 33 81 0 \Showery
7| 35 | 43 1] 35 ‘70 O |Showery
8} 38 | 40 | 40 *40 0 |Showery
9} 39 | 48 | 44 97 8 |Cloudy
10} 43 | 49 | 46 “99 7 |Cloudy
11] 44 | 50 | 45 "98 8 |Cloudy
12] 44 | 49 | 42 06 14 {Fair
13] 42 | 48 | 40 °06 12 |Fair
14} 41 | 46 | 34 | 30°20 g |Cloudy
15} 33 | 42 | 39 "28 g |Fair
16! 31 | 40 | 28 *30 6 |Fair
17; 28 | 35 | 25 39 5 |Cloudy
18} 21 | 37 | 37 *30 6 {Fair
19} 38 | 69 | 28 35 9 |Cloudy
20| 26 | 30 | 25 “40 5 {Fair
21) 22 | 37 | 27 °34 5 |Fair
22| 26 | 38 | 2 30 6 |Fair
23| 26 | 34 | 24 *26 6 |Fair
24/ 21 | 33 | 24 15 7 {Fair
25; 20 | 3 2 "16 6 {Fair

N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o’clocks

oo rr LR tye

——

f
:
’

j

ao

[ Wl

XXXII. An Attempt to determine the definite and simple Pro-
portions, in which the constituent Parts of unorganic Sub-
stances are uniled with each other. By JacoB BER2ELIUS,
Professor of Medicine and Pharmacy, and M.R.A. Stock»
holm.

[Continued from p. 101.]

II. Laws FoR THE FORMATION OF SUBSALTS,

Every chemist knows what is understood by neutral salts;
but it is by no means easy to give a good definition of what is
properly vewtral. If we take that condition of alkaline salts, in
which both the acid and the base are perfectly indifferent, so as
to produce no reaction on vegetable colours, as an example of
neutrality, it seems that we ought to’consider those salts only as
neutral, in which the same quantity of oxygen in the base com- .
bines with the aeid, as in these alkaline salts, and which in double
decompositions would set neither acid nor base at liberty. Davy,
in his Essay on Electricity as a chemical agent, calls every com-
bination neutral, in which the original electric reactions have
ceased. This is in fact the only correct and scientific conception
of a neutral combination ; but it is only relative. For, according
to this determination, the oxygen in the protoxide of lead, for ex-
ample, must be neutralised; it no longer acts on the greater
number of bodies as a [negatively] electrical substance, yet still
retains the same relation to more combustible bodies, for in-
stance, to potassium. Exactly the same is true of neutral salts.
While potass and soda saturate a quantity of sulphuric acid,
which contains three times as much oxygen as themselves, so
completely, that the acid loses its powers, this is by no means the
case with the protoxide of zinc, the oxide of iron, alumina, or
zirconia. The attractions of these bases being extremely weak,
every substance, which comes into contact with the salts, makes
an effort to deprive them of a part of the acid: hence the action
of the acid is still perceptible, and the salts appear not to be neu-
tral, although they are the most neutral combinations of which
the bases are susceptible. We are accustomed to call them szper-
salts, hecause the acid possesses the strongest powers, and con-
sequently exhibits its effects most distinctly on the taste, and on
vegetable colours. -~But when we consider the combinations of

‘the weaker acids with the stronger bases, we find, that the base

always exhibits its powers the most obviously. Thus, for ex-
ample, the common deliquescent carbonated potass is sometimes
called a subsalt ; although the carbonic acid is united in it with

the same quantity of oxygen, as in the carbonate of baryta or of

lime, and these three salts are consequently in the same com-
Vol. 43,No. 191. March 1814, + JL parative

w

162 On definite Proportions.

parative state of saturation. And-that both these earthy salts
are neutral, appears from the sufficiency of the force of cohesion
in both to prevent the predominant actions of their very powerful
bases.

We may therefore, I believe, consider all those earthy and me-
tallic salts as neutral, in which the acid is united with as much
of oxygen in the base? as is found in another decidedly neutral
combination of the same acid with an alkali or an alkaline earth,
‘Thus, I consider as neutral all those sulphates, in which the base
contains one-third as much oxygen as the acid ; and all arseniates,
carbonates, muriates, and phosphates, in which the base con-
tains half as much oxygen as the acid, Salts in which there is
more oxygen than this in the acid, I call supersalts; and subsalts,
those in which there is less.

In the first series of my experiments on definite proportions,
I have adduced two examples. of subsulphates. I thought that I
had found that in the subsulphate of the oxide of iren the acid
was combined with four times as much of the base as in the
neutral salt, an opinion which appeared to be confirmed by a su-
perficial examination of the subsulphate of the oxide of copper.
But as I obtained more correct ideas on this subject, it appeared
that the rule for the relation of the oxygen of the acid to that of
the base by no means agreed with this determination ; for, if the
result of the analysis had been correct, the oxygen of the acid
would have been 4 of that of the base, and neither an integral
multiple nor a submaltiple. I therefore repeated the analyses
with greater ieedpee

1. Subsulphate of the Oxide of Iron.

I dissolved some red oxide of iron in concentrated sulphuric _
acid; I heated the mixture until the acid was completely sa-
turated, then dissolved the salt in water, filtered the solution,
decomposed it with caustic animonia, but so as not to precipi-
tate the whole of the oxide, and digested the fluid for 24 hours
upon the precipitate ; which was theri washed on a filter, as long
as the presence of any sulphuric acid was indicated by the test
‘of a salt of baryta. The salt, when well dried, had completely
the appearance of the common precipitated oxide. When de-
prived of its water over a spirit lamp, which expelled from it no-
thing but pure water, it left a red pow der, exactly like the col-=
cothar of vitriol. Ten grammes of this powder, strongly ignited,
left behind 7:98 cf oxide of iron, and disengaged sulphurous acid
during the operation: the remaining oxide, dissolved in muriati¢
acid, and tested with a salt of baryta, afforded no perceptible

trace of sulphuric acid.
In this subsalt, therefore, 20-2 parts of af tee acid were
united

pera

On definite Proportions. 163

united with 79:8 of oxide of iron, containing 24°47 of oxygen,
while the acid contained 12°12; or, without any material error,
half as mich as the oxide. We sce therefore that in the sub-
sulphate of the oxide of iron the acid saturates six times as much
of the base as in the neutral sulphate; for, according to the
analysis of the neutral sulphate, whith I have already described,
100 parts of sulphurie ‘acid saturate 65°5 of the oxide of iron,
and 65:5 x 6 =393. But, according to the present analysis of
the subsulphate, 100 parts of the acid are combined m it with
395 of the oxide; and the difference is so small that it can only
be attributed to an error of observation.

I then collected a quantity of orange-yellow ochre, which had
formed itself from a vitriolic solution in a vitriol work ; I washed
it carefully, and dried it in the sun. When the water was ex-
pelled over a spirit lamp, it had lost 21-7 per cent. By ignition
it lost 15-9 per cent. more of sulphuric acid, and the remaining
red mmmagnetical oxide amounted to 6274 per cent. According
to this experiment, 100 parts of sulphuric acid combine, in the
subsalt, with 392-52 of the oxide, and the yellow ochre is thus

eonstituted:

Sulphuric acid...... 15-9 100

Oxide of iron.......) 62°4 392-52

Watters deiia ts sag) DF
The quantity of water contains 19-15, the oxide of iron 19-13,
and the sulphuric acid 9°54 parts of oxygen. Consequently the
base and the water contain equal quantities of oxygen, and the
acid exactly half as much oxygen: so that, notwithstanding the
great difference in their appearance, the yellow ochre and the
brown red precipitate are exactly the same combination. I am
sorry that the former analysis was made at a time when I had
not begun to collect any observations respecting the water of

crystallization.

I was not alittle anxious-to know why this result differed so
much from my former analysis of the same salt, and therefore
prepared some more of the compound in the manner which I had
then employed; dissolving some iron in diluted sulphuric acid,
to which, for the sake of increasing the quantity of the oxide, I
had added a little mitrie acid. When nothing more was dis-
solved, J put, in order to expedite the separation of the subsalt, a
piece of polished iron ‘ato the filtered solution, and exposed it,
in an open vessel, to a temperature of 25° or 30° [77° to 86°]
for several days. 1 thus obtained a considerable quantity of an
ochre-coloured powder, possessing the characteristic property of

‘the subsulphate of iron which I first analysed ; it was very little

soluble in muriatie acid, and when dried scarcely at ‘all so, and
was not altered by caustic potass. Whien | first dried this powe
L der,

164 On definite Proportions,

der, after washing it well, in the sunshine, and then heated it ia
a small glass retort, I obtained in the receiver some water strongly
impregnated with ainmonia, amounting to 18°5 per cent. By
ignition 32 per cent. cf sulphuric acid was expelled, and 49°5
per cent, of red unmagnetic oxide was jeft behind. It appears
therefore that, in my earlier experiments, the nitric acid, which
I had employed for oxidating the iron, and which I then thought
it unnecessary to mention particularly, had produced a combina-
tion of a totally different nature from the pure subsalt; and 1 had,
in all probability, examined a mixture of these substances. This
ammoniacal combination is very remarkable; it appears to be a
triple subsalt, analogous to the ammoniacal copper. When heat
is applied, the sulphuric acid, which had been in combination
with the ammonia, unites with the oxide of iron, and the am-
monia is set at liberty. This substance, in its difficult solubility
in acids, and in its incapability of being altered by caustic alkalis,
seems to approach in some degree to the triple combinations of
ammonia with muriatic acid and tin, described by Davy, and to
the combination with muriatic acid and phosphoric oxide. As
I had probably obtained only a mixture of this substance with
the subsalt of the oxide, I thought it useless to attempt a more
correct determination of its component parts. But I shall en-
deavour on a future occasion to obtain the combination in a state
of purity, and to examine the proportions of its constitution.

{t is demonstrated by the analysis of the pure subsalt of the
oxide of iron, that the relation between the iron and the sulphur,
which I had inferred from my first analysis, is incorrect. We
shall see in the following analyses, that in the subsulphates, the
oxygen of the acid is either equal to that of the base, or an in-
tegral submultipie of it. And hence it will follow, that, in all
the subsulphates, the sulphur is in such a proportion to the metal,
that its quantity is an integral submultiple of the quantity in the
sulphuret at a minimum, or ef the quantity in the neutral sul-
phate of the protexide of iron. In the salt of the oxide of iron
here described, the proportion of the sulphur to the iron is ex-
actly one-fourth of the quantity in the sulphuret at a minimum,
and in the sulphate of the protoxide.

{ must here call the attention of the reader to a circumstance,
whiclr is of the highest importance for the completion of the
doctrine of definite proportions in mixtures, and without attend-
ing to which; we can scarcely hope ever to see the doctrine of
the combination of organic bodies sufiiciently illustrated : that is,
to the existence of the absolute minimum of the combination of
one sulistance with another, of which all other combinations must
be multiples. Sinee only very few degrees of combination can
exist between two bodies separately, that is, without the imter-

yention

——

On definite Proportions. 165

vention of one or more other bodies; and since these perhaps
never, or at least very rarely, exhibit combinations at a minimum,
we are obliged to seek for these minima in more complicated
modes of combination. It will be difficult to discover the true
minimum ; but every good experiment, made with this view, will
be productive of interesting consequences. ‘The subsalt of iron,
just analysed, may serve as an example in illustration of this re-
mark. If we should hereafter discover no combination of the
sulphuric acid with a greater quantity cf iron in the salts of the
protoxide or oxide, and should the prepertion of the sulphur to
the iron, found in this experiment, be the greatest common di-
visor of all the numbers expressing the proportions which are
found in the mixtures of sulphur with iron, we might be allowed
to hope that we had feund the minimum of sulphar with which
iron could combine; 100 parts of iron here bemg united with
14-66 of sulphur. In the magnetical pyrites, called the sulphuret
at a minimum, because it is the lowest stage of combination
which can be separately exhibited; or in the neutral sulphate of
the protoxide of iron, 100 parts of iron are combmed with
14-66 x 4=58-64, in the sulphate of the oxide with 14-66 x6=
87-96, and in the common pyrites with 14°66 x 8=117-28 parts
of sulphur. Consequently these are multiples of the lowest pro-
portion by 4, 6, and 8, and we find that these multiples agree
with the results of the experiments as far as the thousandihs of
the whole. It may be supposed that the multiple by 2, which:
is here wanting, still exists, although perhaps in a combination
which is yet unknown ; for instance, in a subsalt of an oxide, in
which the sulphuric acid and the exide contain equal pertions
of oxygen. If now 14:66 parts of sulphur were the smallest
quantity with which 100 parts of iren could combine, it would
follow, that no subsalt of the protoxide of iron could exist. But
if, on the contrary, such a subsalt should be discovered, 14°66 of
sulphur for 100 of iron would not be the minimum, and it could not
be greater than 4-9, which would be the greatest common divisor
of all the combinations of sulphur with 100 of iron. Nearly in
the same manner I have attempted to find the minimum of oxy-
gen in the combinations of carbon; but in order to discover -
which of the various numbers that might represent the quantity
of oxygen, is the true minimum, a great number of experiments
would be necessary, which would require the labour of several
years before they could afford a tolerably certain result.

2. Subsulphate of the Oxide of Copper.

1 precipitated some sulphate of the oxide of copper with caustic
ammonia, taking care not to throw down the whole of the oxide,
and heated 10 grammes of the precipitate, well washed and

L3 dried,

166 On definite Proportions.

dried, in a glass retort, over a spirit lamp, as long as atiy aqueous
vapours were expelled. ‘The salt, thus dried, had lost 14-5 per
cent. of its weight. When I dissolved it im nitric acid, and
added a salt of baryta to the solution, I obtained 8°55 gr. of
ignited sulphate of baryta, corresponding to 21:28 per cent. of
sulphuric acid. Consequently this salt consists of

Sulphuric acid ..... 21°28 100

Oxidesof copper .... 64°22 3U1°S

WAGER seis, fave <5 ghee CAO

The sulphuric acid contains 12-74, the oxide of copper 12°66,

and the water 12°87 of oxygen; so that each component part
contains an equal quantity. Consequently in this salt 100 parts
of sulphuric acid saturate ¢hree times as much oxide of copper as
in the neutral sulphate.

3. Subsulphate of the Oxide of Bismuth.

Mr, Lagerhjelm found, in his experiments on bismuth, that, im
the sulphate of the protoxide, the acid contains three times as
much oxygen as the base. I therefore decomposed a quantity
of the neutral salt by adding water to it, and washed the subsalt,
which remained undissolved, by the addition of fresh portions of
water. The salt, being long and thoroughly dried on a sand-
bath, was then ignited in a crucible of platina, as long as a trace
of sulphurous acid was disengaged. It had lost 14-5 per cent.
of its weight, and consequently consists of

Sulphuric acid... 14°5 100

Oxide of bismuth, 85:5 590
But this quantity of sulphuric acid contains 8-685, and the
oxide of bismuth 8°66 of oxygen : consequently the acid saturates
three times as much of the base, as in the neutral salt.

A, Subnitrates and Subnitrites.

I have already treated, in the Second Continuation of my Essay,
of the subnitrate, subnitrite, subsubnitrate, and subsubnitrite of
the protoxide of lead, and of the subnitrate of the oxide of cop-
per; and | have shown how far they serve to confirm my opinion
of the composition of nitrogen, as well as the laws which I have
here laid down for the formation of the subsalts.

5. Carlonate of the Oxide of Copper.

Ten grammes of carbonate of the oxide of copper, precipitated
at the boiling temperature, and dried in the sunshine, being
ignited in a small glass retort, afforded in the first experiment
7°16, and in the second 7°17 gr. of black oxide of copper. A
considerable quantity of water was collected in the receiver.
Consequently this salt cannot contain so much carbonie acid, as

te

EE se

—— a, a a

=

On definite Proportions. 167

to constitute with it a neutral compound ; and the acid and the
oxide must therefore contain equal quantities of oxygen; and
71-7 parts of the oxide must take up 1973 of carbonie acid :
the remaining 8°67 must be water, containing 7°5 of oxygen.
This quantity of the oxide contains 14:34 of oxygen; so that
the oxygen of the water is half as muchas that of the base.
The slight difference in the results must depend on a little acci-
dental moisture left in the oxide, from the imperfection of the
process of drying.

Carbonate of copper, precipitated from a cold solution, affords
a very bulky powder, of a blueish-green colour: but when a boil-
ing heat is employed, we obtain a heavy, fine-grained, yellowish-
green precipitate. I at first considered these two precipitates
as different carbonates, and attempted to collect the former, and
to wash it with cold water; but it was converted by this process,
in great measure, into the heavier yellow-green substance, and I
could not obtain it in a pure state. I had accidentally placed on
the sand-bath some carbonate of the oxide of copper, precipi-
tated the day before, and still remaining in the fluid: when the
carbonic acid had been expelled from the fluid, I observed that
the carbonate of the oxide of copper, next to the bottom, col-
lected into masses, and became of a yellow-green, without the
least appearance of effervescence; and this effect extended by
degrees upwards as the fluid became warm. The alteration in
the form appears therefore to depend not on any alteration in the
quantity of carbonic acid, but merely in that of water ; exactly as
the carbonate of the protoxide of zinc, in a temperature below
the boiling point of water, sets at liberty the water combined
with it, and unites into heavier grains, and as the blue hydrate
of copper, when the fluid is heated, separates from the water,
and is deposited in the form of a black oxide. Other subsalts of
coppér also, which, when they are precipitated cold, are light
and bulky, become heavier by the effect of heat, and assume a
yallower colour.

6. Submuriates.

. We have found by some of the former analyses, that the mu-
riatie acid, in the submuriates of the oxide of copper and of the
protoxide of lead, is combined with four times as much of the
base as in the neutral salt. Since the muriatic acid must contain
twice as much oxygen as the base by which it is neutralised, the
oxygen of the acid in these subsalts amounts only to one half of
that of the basis.
7. Conclusions.
From these experiments | think myself authorised in drawing
the following inferences respecting subsalts.
: L4 a.) The

168 On definite Proportions.

a.) The oxygen of the acid in a subsalt may be either a sub-
multiple, or a multiple, by a whole number, of that of the base.

b.) The quantity of a base, which is combined with a given
quentity of an acid in a subsalt, can be a multiple of the quantity
in the neutral salt by such a number only, as is.capable of ex-
pressing the proportion of the quantity of the oxygen of the acid
to that of the base. For instance, in the subsulphates, the base can
only be a multiple by 3, 6, 9, of the quantity in the neutral salt,
and not by 2,4,5, 7,8. On the other hand, acids which con-
tain, in their neutral salts, 2, 4, 6, or 8 times as much oxygen as
the bases, may take up in their subsalts 2, 4, 6, or 8 times as
much of the base as in the neutral salts; but not 3, 5, 7, or 9
times.

It still remains to be inquired, whether there exists a subsalt,
in which the base-is less than double that of the neutral salt ;
for instance, whether any subsulphate exists, in which the acid
contains twice as much oxygen as the base, or a subnitrate, in
which the acid contains exactly four times as much oxygen as the
base.

II. Laws ror Th& FoRMATION OF DOUBLE SALTS.

The combinations which, in the first Antiphlogistic Nomen-
clature, were called ¢ériple salts, have been latterly more properly
denominated double salts ; being always composed of two neutral
combinations ; and they may commonly be obtained by mixing
the solutions, and crystallizing them together.

These double salts may be of different kinds: containing either
one acid and two bases; or two acids, or substances representing
acids, and a single base. Of the former kind we are acquainted
with several salts, of the latter with only a few, and with none
very accurately.

1, Double Salts of a single Acid.

The principle of the formation of these double salts is not dif-
ficult to be found, since we know that most of the supersalts, if
they are saturated with a second base, afford such salts, and it has.
been shown that the supersalts contain twice as much of the acid
as the neutral salts. Consequently the new base must contain
exactly the same quantity of oxygen as the base of the supersalt.
For example, the soda, the protoxide of iron, or the protoxide of
antimony, with which the supertartrate of potass is neutralised
in pharmaceutical preparations, must contain as much oxygen as.
the potass, because it neutralises an equal quantity of the acid.
We shall find from the analysis of alum, that the existence of the
double salt, in these cases, depends not so much on the acid, as
en the affinity of the bases; for alum cannot be obtained by sa-!

. turating

On definite Proportions. 169

turating the superfluous acid of the supersulphate of potass with
alumina, unless the supersulphate be in great excess. Besides,
certain bases afford double salts with almest all acids, although
most of the acids are incapable of forming a supersalt with either
of these bases. ‘Thus ammonia, for example, affords double salts
with magnesia, with the protoxide of manganese, with the oxide
of copper, and with the protoxide of zinc; and we have great
reason to think that these bases always observe the same rela-
tion to each other, containing equal quantities of oxygen. I shall
adduce some few examples of double salts of the first kind, which
may be sufficient to illustrate the law of their formation.

Sulphate of Ammonia and Magnesia.

Ten grammes of this salt, finely powdered, and dried in the
sun, were heated in a platina crucible, and then ignited. They
afforded exactly one-third of their weight of sulphate of mag-
_nesia, whence the magnesia is found to amount to 11:11 per cent.
and its oxygen to 4°45 per cent. of the whole weight. I now
mixed, with these 3°334 gr. of sulphate of magnesia, a quantity
of sulphate of ammonia, in which the oxygen of the ammonia
amounted to "443 gr. that is, 4°18] gr.: the two salts were dis-
solved in boiling water, and dried on a glass dish in the sun-
shine: their joint-weight was found to be 10°006 gr. Conse-
quently the sulphate of magnesia had taken up 2°49 gr. of water,
containing 2-2 gr. of oxygen, that is, five times as much as either
of the bases contained. But since the sulphate of ammoma
contains water of crystallization of which the oxygen is equal to
twice that of the base, the whole water of the salt contains seven
times as much oxygen as that of each of the bases: and the re-
spective portions of oxygen in the different substances entering
into the combination are as 1, 1, 6, and 7.

Sulphate of Ammonia and the Oxide of Copper.

Ten grammes of this salt, finely powdered, and dried in the
sun, were mixed with lime in a small retort, and the ammonia was
expelled in the same manner as in the analysis of the sulphate of
ammonia. The apparatus had lost ‘$27 of its weight. Ten
more grammes, dissolved in water, were mixed with about as
much of the carbonate of potass, as was required for the satura-
tion of the sulphuric acid, and then evaporated to dryness. When
again dissolved in water, they left behind carbonate of the oxide
of copper. The fluid, which had a slight excess of alkali, exhi-
bited, by the test of sulphuretted hydrogen, a slight trace of cop-
per. The oxide of copper obtained, weighed, after ignition, two
grammes, These contain ‘3932 gr. of oxygen; and the *827
gt. of caustic ammonia °3897 gr.; so that the two bases esi

equa

170 On definite Proportion3.

equal quantities of oxygen. If now we compute the quantity of
sulphuric acid necessary for their neutralisation, there will remain
a quantity of water of crystallization containing seven times as
much oxygen as.either base. Consequently in this double salt,
each of the two simple salts retains its appropriate water of:cry-
stallization, as appears from the respective analyses. The quan-
tities of oxygen of the several component parts are here related,
as in the former case, in the proportions of 1, 1, 6, and 7.

a Alum.

Alum is generally considered as a double ii but my
analysis appears to show that it is in fact a neutral double salt.

Twenty grammes of pure alum were heated in a platina eru-
cible, over a spirit lamp, till they lost no more of their weiglit.
The swollen mass was compressed into the crucible, and at last
covered, in order that the heat might pervade every part of it
eaually. It had now lost 9 gr. and [ could find no trace of the
escape of an acid, which must have been discoverable by the
smell. Consequently alum contains 45 per cent. of water of ery-
stallization. The dry salt was again dissolved in water, the as-
sistance of heat being required for the solution; muriate of
baryta was added, and “the precipitate, when ignited, amounted
to 19-973 gr. or very nearly to the original weight of the alum:
so that, in a crystallized state, this substance contains 34°255
per cent. of sulphuric acid [; or, according to the corrected
analysis of the sulphate of baryta, which appears to contain from
34-314 to 34:48 per cent. of sulphuric acid, at least 34:27 per
cent. Gillert.].

Ten grammes of alum were dissolved in water, and digested
with an excess of ammonia: they afforded alumina, which, when
well washed and burnt, amounted to 10°67 per cent. As this did
not agree with Mr. Thenard’s result, I repeated the experiment
with 50 gr. of alum. After filtration, the fluid mixed with the
excess of ammonia, and the water, with which the earth was
washed, were evaporated to dryness, and redissolved in water,
when they afforded a small quantity more of alumina: the whole,
being collected and ignited, weighed 5:43 gr. and lost nothing
“-more of its weight by repeated ignition. Consequently alum
contains only from 1067 to 10:86 per cent. of alumina,

Ten grammes of alum, dissolved in water, and digested in a
small glass flask with carbonate of strontia, as long as any effer~
vescence existed, and then with new portions of the same car-
bonate added in excess, were deprived in this manneryof the
whole of the sulphate of alumina. The precipitate was not swol-
len, as might have been expected from the alumina, but heavy
and easily washed. ‘The fluid, when filtered, was not alkaline,

mor

On definite Proportions. 171

nor did it become turbid upon the addition of ammonia. When
evaporated, together with the water used for washing the powder,
in a platina crucible, and ignited, it afforded 1-515 gr. of sul-
phate of potass, answering to -981 gr. of potass.

Since we have seen that alumina contains about 46°7 per cent.
of oxygen, it is impossible that the bases can here contain equal
parts of oxygen. Alum, according to these experiments, is thus
constituted :

Sulphuric acid.. 34°23 Or,

Alumina ...... 10°86 - Sulphate of alumina 36°85
GAG ss atl PBL Sulphate of potass.. 18-15
Water ........ 45°00 Water cule «0s 1 seaanon

Now, 9-81 parts of potass neutralise 8°37 of sulphuric acid,
and 25-86 parts of sulphuric acid remain for the alumina: con-
sequently the alumina saturates in the alum three times as much
acid as the potass, for 8°37 x 3=25'11; so that the alumina
must contain three times as much.oxygen as the potass. But
9-81 parts of potass contain 1-674 of oxygen, and 10-86 of
alumina 5-077; and 1-674 3=5-022. The 45 parts of water
contain 39-71 of oxygen, and 5-022 x8=40°17. It is true that
this analysis is not correct to the last places of decimals: but it
is at least sufficient to prove, that in alum the alumina contains
three times as much oxygen as the potass; and in this instance
we have a double salt, in which the oxygen of one of the bases is
an integral multiple of that of the other.

Since the proportion of the alumina to the sulphuric acid, in
this analysis, agrees as nearly as possible with that which was
found in the neutral sulphate, it is impossible that alum should be
a supersalt; but it is indebted for its acid properties to the weak
attraction of the alumina to the sulphuric acid which belongs to it;
the sulphate of alumina preponderating so much above that of
potass, that it communicates to the compound almost all its out-
ward characters.

Alum and the other double salts afford us interesting examples
of the combinations of more than two oxygenized bodies. ‘The
potass here contains the smallest quantity of oxygen, which must
therefore be the common divisor for the quantities contained in
the other component parts. If we call this quantity 1, the alu-
mina will contain 8, the sulphuric acid 12, and the water 24.

Finally, 1 must observe, that my analysis of alum difiers in
some measure from that of Thenard and Roard. These chemists
found in alum 124 per cent. of alumina, and only 16 per cent. of
sulphate of potass. [Vauquelin found the component parts al-
ways 10-5 of alumina, 10:4 of potass, 30°52 of sulphuric acid,
and 48-58 of water: the acid and the water taken together agree

’ nearly with Berzelius’s result: the alumina is a little less, per-

haps

172 On definite Proportions.

haps from the same causes of error which affected Berzelius’s first
experiment. Gilbert.| MM. Thenard and Reard employed 489
grammes of alum, from which they obtained 61 or 62 of alumina,
a quantity which, when moist, would occupy the bulk of ten
pounds of water, and which must have been received either on a
very large filter or on several small ones : in both cases, the wash-
ing it, and its separation from the paper, must have been sub-
jected to great difficulties. It is also probable, that the separa-
tion of the sulphate of potass from the fluid obtained, by the ad-
dition of lime, could give no very correct result, Probably there-
fore the difference of our determinations is rather to be attributed
to the more or less appropriate methods employed than to the
experimenters. Besides, it is certain that an analysis on too.
large a scale can never afford a very correct result; nor do these

gentlemen appear to have been in pursuit of very minute ac-.

curacy in their experiments.

A double Subsalt.

There exist also some double subsalts; but I have hitherto
examined only one, that is, the combination known in pharmacy
under the name of cuprum ammoniatum. In order to prepare
this salt, I dissolved some sulphate of the oxide of copper in
caustic ammonia, precipitated the double salt with alcohol, washed
it again with alcohol, and dried it in the air: It is very difficult
to observe with accuracy the moment of the attainment of per-
fect dryness; for the salt is decomposed on the surface, before
the alcohol has been expelled from4ts internal parts; it then be-
comes by degrees of a sky-blue colour, and at the edge green.
Hence it is impossible to obtain a very correct analysis of this
salt; but it will not be difficult, with the assistance of the laws
of combination which have been here developed, to diseover its
true composition, since the result of the analysis cannot deviate
far from the truth.

I drove off the superfluous ammonia from a part ef this salt,
on a sand-bath, until it became quite gray; it had lost 20-33
per cent. in weight. When I repeated the experiment in a smalh
retort, I found that a little water escaped at the same time.
The gray powder, when water was poured on it, became first of
a light blue, and then, as I gently heated it, of a dark-brown
colour. This unquestionably depended on the decomposition of
the salt, and the formation of a portion of neutral sulphate of
ammonia and copper, while some hydrate of copper was first
produced, and then decomposed by the application of heat. The
solution had a faint blue colour, and left 40 per cent. of sulphate
of ammonia, mixed with a small quantity of the double salt.
The part undissolved, being a mixture of black and green oxide,

amounted
é

On definite Proportions. 173

amounted to 48°7 per cent.: so that the products obtained
weighed 9 per cent. more than the salt employed. This partly
depends on the quantity of water of crystallization in the sul-
phate of ammonia, and partly on that of the new double salt.
In order to determine more correctly the composition of this
subsalt, I dissolved 5 grammes of it in water, saturated the so-
lution with muriatic acid, and precipitated the sulphuric acid
with muriate of baryta. The precipitate, when washed and
ignited, weighed in one experiment 4°685, and in another 4:7
gr., answering to 32°25 per cent. of sulphuric acid.
The superfluous baryta was thrown down with sulphate of
, soda, and then the filtered solution mixed with carbonate of
potass, and evaporated to dryness. The mass, when redissolved,
had an excess of potass, and afforded a greenish solution; the
potass was nearly saturated with muriatic acid, and the carbonate
of copper, received on a filter, washed, dried, and ignited. The
liquid, still a little alkaline, exhibited by means of sulphuretted
hydrogen a small residuum of copper, which being separately
ignited, and weighed with the rest, made tegether 1-7 er., or 34
per cent. of oxide of copper. We therefore find in this salt the
+, ame proportion between the acid and the oxide of copper, as in
the neutral sulphate, and its properties as a subsalt ave wholly
dependent on the ammonia. ut does the salt contain a quan-
tity of ammonia capable alone of forining a neutral salt with the
same quantity of sulphuric acid? I was at first persuaded that
it did.

I mixed, in order to examine this, 5 grammes of the same salt
in a small glass retort, with finely levigated lime, and decomposed
it exactly in the same manner as I have related respecting the
sulphate of ammonia. The little apparatus had lost 1-32
grammes, consequently the salt must have afforded 26:4 per
cent. of ammonia, The 7:35 per cent. wanting must have beer
water, so that the cuprum ammoniatum is thus constituted:

Sulphuric acid .... 32°25
Oxide of copper .. 34:00
Ammonia........ 26°40
Watek Baniahia iiss 46." 7-35
This quantity of the oxide of copper contains 6°68, and the
water 6°5 parts of oxygen, so that the oxide and the water are in
«the same proportion in this salt as in the subsulphate of the oxide
of copper. ‘The ammonia contains 12-424 parts of oxygen, or
about twice as much as the other component parts ; for'we have
seen that it is impossible to exhibit this salt in a state of dryness,
without depriving it of a little of its alkali; so that the quantity
must appear too small in this analysis.
It is evident that the two bases taken together here contain
; an

a %

174 On definite Proportions.

an equai quantity of oxygen with the sulphuric acid, that is, the
oxide of copper one-third and the ammonia two-thirds as
much. Consequently this salt isso constituted, considering both
its bases, as to agree with the rule for a simple subsulphate. The
quantities of oxygen are expressed by 1 for the oxide, | for the
water, 2 for the ammonia, and 3 for the sulphuric acid.

It is not so easy to determine the nature of the alteration which
the cuprum ammoniatum undergoes by exposure to the air. But
it appears, when long kept in vessels imperfectly closed, so as to
fall into a sky-blue powder, to lose halt of its ammonia, so that
the sulphuric acid then stands to each base in the same relation
as inthe neutral salts. When it is changed to a green powder,
a still greater quantity of ammonia is lost, and the residue is a
mixture of more or less dry neutral sulphate of ammonia with
subsulphate of oxide of copper, accordingly as the alteration has
been made by the effect of heat, or hy exposure to the air, The
green powder formed by heat is capable of supporting a tem-
perature somewhat higher, without being decomposed, but after-
wards emits sulphurous acid, sulphite of ammonia, water, and
nitrogen, and leaves in the retort a fused dark-brown ‘mass,
which, when water is poured on it, affords neutral sulphate of the
oxide of copper and red protoxide of copper,

It is probable that all other acids are capable of forming si-
milar double salts with these two bases; but they cannot be so
easily exhibited, because they are more soluble in alcohol.

If it were permitted to ground a general rule on a single ex-
ample, I should conclude that, when an acid is supersaturated
with two bases, both of them, taken together, contain the same
quantity of oxygen as a single base must do, in order to form a
subsalt with the acid; and that the oxygen of the one base must
be a multiple of that of the other by 1, 2,3...

2, Double Salis with two Acids, or Substances representing
Acids, and one Base.

These salts have been little examined, and their number‘seems
to be small. The only examples, in any degree well established,
are afforded by the combinations of a base with sulphur and sul- °
phuretted hydrogen, and with sulphur and sulphuric aeid, It is
probable, that in these cases the two [negative] substances di-
vide the [positive] one between them, and take up either equal
portions of it, or such portions as are in the proportion of | to
2, 3, or 4.

I have mentioned, in the First Continuation of my Essay, on
occasion of the investigation of the relation of the oxygen of the
acids to that of the bases of salts, a double salt consisting of the
nitric and arsenic acids with protoxide of lead, When I oe

voured

Observations on Electrical and Chemical Terms. 173

voured to analyse this salt, I found its component parts inde-
finitely varying, accordingly as the solution from which it was
crystallized was more or less concentrated. Since also it is de-
composed by solution in water, it does not appear that it can be
considered as a double salt: and it is perhaps only an intimate
mixture of crystallized particles of the nitrate with those of the
arseniate of the protoxide of lead.

Another similar instance has also occurred to me. I had
mixed together a solution, of muriate of ammonia and ef muriate
of the oxide of iron, and, having concentrated them, left them to
crystallize. The salt which | obtained had formed cubes ofa
fine ruby colour; and upon analysing them, I found only 12 per
cent. of the oxide of iron. When dissoived in water, they lost
their colour, and I obtained from the solution first an almost co-
lourless, and then a light reddish-yellow salt, which in some
parts was free from any tinge of colour, and in others was un-
equally coloured, and only of an orange red. Cousequently this
triple combination is to be considered rather as a mixture, than

as a true double salt.
[To be continued. ]

XXXIII. Observations on Electrical and Chemical Terms. By

Mr. J. Murray. i
Colchester, March 4, 1814.
Sirs,— I THANK you for your prompt insertion of my paper in
No.189 of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. — Be pleased
to supply the word except before “‘ on the latter supposition.”
In reference to the question of theoretic electricity, | may further
remark, that it is a solecism in philosophical language, as in logie,
to use the term negative electricity. To chargea jar with no-
thing, (for the negation must mean here, as it does in common
language, an absolute privation,) is incompatible with a correct
mode of expression, and it happens that this negation exhibits
powers as active and positive as its antagonist. We cannot
attribute to a state of rest, the lively character of motion. If
two powers be intimately blended together (rosin on sulphur and
red lead), and projected by an elastic gum bottle against a figure
described by positive electricity, on the ball connected with au
electric sphere, charged positively, the rosin or inflammable sub-
Stance will separate from the mass, and ‘adhere to the communi-
cated electricity; and if negative electricity is the agent em-
ployed, the metallic oxide willbe the subject of attraction. These
are experiments familiar to ‘every electrician. In my opinion,
the same fluid in different quantities should only attract different
portions of the same substance.

I see

176 On Electrical and Chemical Terms.

I see that Mr. Singer, in “the Elements of Electricity and
Electro-chemistry,’’ does not consider the propulsion of a pith
ball by the electric discharge as any proof of the direction ot the
current; and I agree with Sir H. Davy respecting the inclina-
tion of flame, generally adduced as an evidence on the same
side. Much therefore as I revere the opinions of Canton; Franklin,
&c. I pay no respect to great names if inconsistent with them-
selves, and at variance with iruth;—and as for the terms
“* oxygen and hydrogen electricity,” they unfortunately do not
apply. Surely the more dispassionately our reasoning is con-
ducted, the more truly philosophical it is. . I think Mr. Singer
has much merit as an able practical! electrician ; and under this
impression, I presume with due deference to remark, that though
his application of the term expansion may be conceived to apply
to the phenomenon where the indents are directly opposed to
each other, it can scarce be admitted to weigh as an argument
in my experiment, where two or more wires were used with one
above, &c. Jam at a loss to comprehend what is meant by
“ out of the circle” in the paper alluded to. Perfect insulation,
like absolute contact, is not to be conceived. I think that Mr.
Singer's plan of insulation is exceedingly ingenious, and founded
upon just principles; because, by limiting the ambient conducting
medium, he also confines the conducting power. The following
curious experiment, which I made, presents phenomena not easily
reconcileable with the Franklinian hypothesis. Having coated
the ball connected with the internal coating of the charged
electric, and one of the balls of the imsulated ‘discharging rod,
with China ink, both being uniformly obscured, a vertical card
was placed between. The discharge was then made. The paper
as usual perforated a circular portion of the Chinu ink displaced
from loth balls, and an indent appeared in the centre of each,

I confess J am astonished at Mr. Walker’s mode of reasoning,
in his “ New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy.” Chemistry,
he seems to say, now, is what astronomy was in the days of
Kepler. This appears to me, asif he had said, the facts are suffi-
cient, but as yet system exists not. Now, | happen to think that
discovery has not yet unfolded a sufficient number of data. Let
experiment be diligently cultivated, or the gate leading to im-
provement will be for ever shut. None can more sincerely la-
ment the imperfection of our chemical nomenclaiure than | do,
I should however he sorry that it should be framed anew, by the
insulated effort of one, and not by the united labours of many
competent to a task so arduous.

In No. 189, page 22, Mr. Walker, after condemning terms :n
general use, and want of precision, adopts two new words spe

tione

te

ad

On the Simplification of Mathematical Analyses. 177

tioned by the terms Thermometer and Photometer now in com-
mon use.’’ I shall only remark respecting Mr. Walker’s ‘‘ Pho-
iogen,”’ that in the language of the Greeks (from whence the
two words composing this term are derived) the literal inter-
pretation is to generate dight. How this applies to “the im-
ponderable element of combustibles,” Ihave to learn. In page 24,
Mr. Walker observes “that light and head are produced in the
electric discharge. J observe none sufficient to affect our most
delicate thermometers. 1 have by this means suffered metallie
‘amine to be fused on the back and ether inflamed in the hollow
of the hand, by a spark taken throughit, by means of a person
uninsulated ; and surely, if sensible heat had been excited, I must
have felt it. Ifnone other more competent to the task than my-
self takes up the subject, I shall endeavour shortly to point out
some inadyertencies into which I conceive Mr. Walker has fallen.
I am, with much respect, gentlemen,
Your obliged obedient servant,
J. Murray,
Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

= _...__.__.__.._______

XXXIV. On the Simplification of Mathematical Analyses :—
a Paper read to the Liverpool Philosophical Society, By
Mr. Egerton Smiru Eyres.

<

qT, all inventive sciences, it happens that particular methods for
determining every possible proposition cannot be laid down; for
the science would in that case be no longer an inventive, but
barely a substitutive one. But although we experience the im-
practicability of discerning rules so universal as to include every
known case of the branch of knowledge with which they are con-
nected, yet it is very possible, by proper explanations and con-
cise methods, much to facilitate the operations and assist the in-
vention; for the whole art of solution consists in reducing com-
plex matter to a more simple form ; and therefore, if we can de-~
termine wherein the complexity of problems consists, as opposed
to their simplicity, we may know, not only when we have re-
duced a complex to a simpler problem, but also in some measure
obtain rules concerning the method to be pursued in such re-
ductichs,

I think we may assume it as an axiom,’ that complexity in-
creases with the number of data or things to be considered; that
is, complexity is as the number of data directly; and, therefore,
one division of the method of reduction will consist in diminish-
ing the number of data from a greater to a lower number, till
we arrive at the simplest possible conclusion, and that will be

Vol. 43, No, 191. March 1814, M the

178 On the Simplification of M4athematical Analyses.

the case when the number of data is reduced to one ; of less than
which it is plain no problem can subsist.

There is also another source of complexity in mathematical
propositions, and that is the nature of the data when their num-
ber remains the same; and this will in most cases be found de-
pendent on the peculiar properties of the subject under consi-
deration. But in geometry it has always some relation to the
properties or habitudes of lines considered in a geometrical sense,
as their sum, differenee, ratios, rectangles, squares, cubes, &e.
or the position they are in with respect to other lines known or
unknown. It is not perhaps possible to say decidedly, that any
one of these data is more complex than the others; only it
seems natural to infer, that it is a simpler relation of lines, ta
consider them merely as regarding their length or ratios, than to
draw the inferences necessary to solution from data concerning
the squares or rectangles of lines, which latter combination may
be conceived simpler than one which is connected with the cubes
or solids. Moreover it is found that some relations of lines, whose
habitudes or number of dimensions remain the same, are more
difficult of determination than others, though apparently of equal.
simplicity: thus it is found that © Given the rectangle and dif-
Jerence of the squares of two lines to determine them,” is a much
more difficult problem than “ The rectangle and sum of the
squares.” But we are not acquainted with any method of reason-
ing by which this difficulty might have been foretold; and aré
only able to estimate it by the nature and difficulty of the re-
quisite analysis. There may however a reason be assigned for
this difference of difficulty, and this in great measure depends
upon the almost unaccountable prejudice that most mathema-
ticians have in favour of the circle above all other curves, which
prejudice induces them to reject all other modes of solving pro-
blems, that can by any possible, although intricate, analysis, be
made to depend only upon the intersections of circles with cir-
cles, circles with right lines, er right lines with right lines. And
so it happens, that when in any problem we can obtain the locus
of a certain point connected with the determimations requisite to
the solution of the problem supposed to be under consideration,
that problem is then simplified in a degree proportionate to the
value of the point whose !ocus is determined: but strict meome-
ters confine this method of simplification’ to the cases in which
the determined locus is a circle. And the only reason assigned
for this rejection of other curves is, the greater relative difficulty of
their description. This, as a matter merely practica/ly considered,
is certainly an objection of great weight;, but in the theoretical

. determination of a problem, I cannot conceive why a prejudice
of that nature should be indulged, at least to such an extent as

even

On the Simplification of Mathematical Analyses. 179

even to exclude the conchoid, a curve full as easy to describe as a
circle.

From the very nature of things it follows, that some curves are
more fitted to the solution of some problems than others, and
for that reason it would seem equally rational, to require a ma-
thematician to give solutions to the purely circular loci and pro-
blems, by means of the conie sections, or higher curves, as to
fasten him down to the use of a circle and right line, in problems
whose solution would be much simplified by the use of conic
sections, or curves of the higher genera. It is impossible with
the aid of all the known curves, excluding the circle, to apply a
line of a given length, from a given point, to a curve of an
order : therefore, in this case it plainly appears that the place of
the circle cannot be supplied by any of the other curves; whence
it follows that, strictly speaking, the circle is here a curve of the
highest order, since it overcomes difficulties the others are unequal
to. Whether this rejection of the other curves be well or ill
founded, I may hereafter discuss, but shall for the present confine
myself to problems requiring only the right line and circle. Now
as it was before shown, that one part of the art of analysis con-
sists in diminishing the number of data; therefore it follows,
that we should first of all know how to apply the properties of
our tools, which are here only two, a right line and circle. ‘The
application of those known properties, in a manne: most suitable
to the attainment of the desired end, in a great mvasure depends
on having a perfect knowledge and experience of ‘the nature of
the geometrical loci, by means of whose proper application, one
of the conditions of the given problem may be always so fulfilled,
that there will not be any necessity of that condition occupying
the attention of the geometrician any more; and so, if two loci
be discovered, the problem is still further simplified,

Rules for Analysis,

The great art of obtaining geometrical solutions depends on a
proper application of the geometric loci; therefore our first rule
will direct their substitution whenever the nature of the data ad-
mits of such a simplification,

Rule \. If you have either the sum or the difference of any
two lines given, to determine them with the further assistance of
some other given data,—A line must be taken equal to the given
sum or difference, and the problem will be reduced to finding in
that line a point, such, that the lines determined by that required
point, and the two already known, may satisfy the conditions
specified in the given data. But in case of the two lines pro-
ceeding from two given points to intersect under conditions that

M do

180 On the Simplification of Mathematical Analyses.

do not allow them to form one continued right line, then the
locus of their intersection is the curve of an ellipse or hyperbola,
according as the sum or difference be given; which locus being
described, simplifies the problem to one consisting of a less num-~
ber of data.

Rule 2. If the ratio of any two lines proceeding from two
known points be given with any other data, the construction of
the locus is, by joining the two given points, and finding two others
(one within and the other without), such that the ratio of the
segments intercepted between the two given points may be equal
to the given ratio; then describing a circle to pass through the
two last found points, and whose ceutre shall be in the continua-
tion of the right line passing through the given points :—that
circle will be the required locus.

Rule 3. In case of the difference of the squares of two lines
proceeding from two known points being given, to determine their
locus, we connect the two points by a right line, in which we find
a third point, such that the difference of the squares of the inter-
cepted segments may be equal to the given difference of squares,
and erecting a line from that point perpendicular to the before-
mentioned line, it will be the required locus.

Observation \. If there be given the difference of squares, to —
which. the squares of the lines under consideration have given
ratios, the locus is obtained on the same principle by merely al-
tering the situation of the given points, according to the ratio the
squares bear to each other, on the principle of similar triangles.

Oliservation 2. If the lines in question do not proceed from
two given points, but are tangents to two circles, whose centres
and radii are known, the problem is solved in nearly the same
manner as before shown, on the principle of a tangent being
perpendicular to the radius, passing through the point ‘of contact,
and from that arguing upon the Pythagorean proposition.

Rule 4. But if the sum of the squares, along with any other
data, be given, to determine the locus of lines proceeding
from two given points,—Bisecting the right line that connects
the two given points, and finding another line, such that double
of its squares, together with double the square on half the given
line, may be equal to the sum of the squares of the two lines
whose locus is required; then describing a circle with a radius equal
to the line just found, and whose centre shall be the middle of the
line, joining the given points,—then will that circle be the locus
that was required to be described.

This rule will, as well as the last, admit of two additional
cases. 1. When there is given the sum of squares having given
ratios to the squares of the lines intercepted between the two

given

On the Simplification of Mathematical Analyses. 181

given points and the point of their intersection with the required
locus. 2d. When the two lines do not proceed from the two fixed
points, but are tangents to two circles whose radii and centre
are known. Both these cases will admit of circular loci, on the
same principle as the similar cases adduced to Rule 3.

If you have the ratio of two right lines with other data, varying
according to the circumstances of the case, there are a great
number of loci that may be applied, according to the different
forms the problem may assume. One of the most. generally useful
of that species of loci, is given in the second rule; but the fol-
lowing are some that apply to problems involving other con-
ditions or data.

Rule 5. If it be required to determine the locus of one ex-
tremity of a line revolving round a point as a centre, and meeting
a right line given in position when the ratio of the segments in-
tersected by that line is a given one,——Draw any line from the
fixed point to the line given by position, and continue it till the
parts obtain the given ratig; then drawing through its extremity
a line parallel to that first given, it will be the locus required, as
will be evident by drawing any other line through the given point
to meet the two parallels.

Rule 6. If it be required to determine the locus of one ex-
tremity of a line, which being parallel to a line given in position
is always interposed between two other lines given in position, and
continued, so that the ratio of the segments may be equal to the
ratio of two known lines,—Draw any line parallel to the line
given in position, and continue it so that the ratio of the seg-
ments may be equal to the ratio of the known lines; join the ex-
tremity of the line so continued, and the point of intersection of
the two lines given by position ; then will the line so drawn con-
stitute the required locus.

Much more might undoubtedly have been added to the above
rules on so important a subject as the geometrical loci; but as
most of the higher and therefore more interesting geometry
concerns the conic sections, &c. which are so much more diffi-
cult in their enumeration as hardly ever to admit of being de-
scribed by mere words without diagrams, I have therefore here
emitted them.

M 3 XXXV. Notes

[ 182 ]
XXXV. Noles and Deere on the Ninth* Chapter of

Mr. Rosert BakEwety’s “ Introduction to Geology ;”—
embracing incidentally, several new Points of Geclogical Inz-
vestigation and Theory. By Mr. Joun Farry, Sen., Mi-
nerat Surveyor.

[Continued from p. 127.]

Notes, Se.

P. 208, 1. 7, which fills dykes*.—* I have not observed in Mr.
B’s volume, any proper notice, of the curious and important
Geological fact, that the skirts or sides of a fault, consist~
ing of the ruptured edges of strata, generally (and I believe
always in some degree) show a very considerable wear and
polish, Williams’s Min. Kin, 2d Ed. i. 18, P. M. xxviii.
p. 120, and xxxiii. p. 258, Mont. Mag. xxviii. p. 463,
Wern. Trans. i. 489, &c. Perhaps Mr. B. in speaking of
the strata being often “shattered where they come in con-
tact,”’ (p. 147), may be alluding to this phenomenon? ; see
my Note on p. 209.

1. 7 and 8, is commonly indurated clay +.—+ Rep. i. 500
and 501, and my 2d Letter, vol. xlii. p. 106.

1. 15, has seldom been explored {.—t See p. 212, and
my Note on p. 108, Rep. i. 146, 165, 200, 290, Note,
Phil. Trans. 1811, and P. M. xxxix. p. 29, 95, and 101,

_ my 2d Letter, vol. xlii. p. 106, &c. f
209, 1. 7, they descend is unknown *.—* It is equally unknown,
from observation, to what depths Faw/ts in general descend
into the Earth, as with respect to Stone Veins, or Dykes ¢
I have observed a pheenomenon in the face of several Cliffs,
Quarries, &c. which seems to indicate, that some of the
Faults, whose derangement is small, do not descend a great
way into the Earth. One of these occurred to me in the open-
work for Ironstone, about 300 yards SE of Grass-hill Fur-
uace in Hasland, (Rep. i. 397), as I was observing the same
in November 1808, with William Anderson, the Foreman
of the work ; a fissure or small fault, eight or ten inches
wide, filled with rubble and soil, was seen descending down.
from the surface, threugh the Binds and thin stone beds, for
about ten feet, and there terminating, on an eight-inch strong
stone bed, which was not in the least eracked or disturbed,
or any of its under-measures ; but the measures above, rose
from this bed, towards the fault, and were supported by the
rubbish therefrom that had run into the wedge-like openings,
for four feet in length on the N side, and for 18 or 20 feet

* “and the Eighth” was omitted by mistake before Chapter in the last title.
om

Vr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 183

FP.209] on the S side of the fault or derangement ; whence the
effects of a lifting action on these strata, was most evident,
see my Note on page 50.

__ It was perhaps, to such shallow or superficial faults, that
Mr. Williams alluded, under the name of hiéches, in p. 23
of vol. i. of the 2d Edit. of his “ Mineral Kingdom.”

That all the faw/fs whose derangements are considerable,

_ must extend to vast depths in the Earth, no one can doubt,
and to me it seems most probable, that the Earth is broken
through to the antipodes, by an immense number of these
fissures, in almost every direction, and that the separate
pieces or piles of strata, after having for long periods slidden
ty the side of each other, in obeying the powerful Tidal
actions that then prevailed (by which their surfaces became
worn and polished, see my note on p. 208), at length came
to rest in equilibrio, in their present positions, but from
which positions, the parts of the Earth, thus only slightly
adhering by their mutual attraction, are liable to be again
moved, by any extraordinary Tidal action.

According to the Theories adopted by M. De Luc and
some other Geologists, the faults terminated beneath, in
vast subterranean Caverns, which formerly existed, as they
imagine, but of which [ think they have failed in producing
the least proof: or of their adequacy, for producing the in-
equalities and frequent changes of strata, in position and
kind, now observable on the surface of our Planet: but all
of which complicated phenomena, appear to me, clearly
explainable, by these general dislocations and tiltings of the
strata, (which however, had previously, great inequalities
in their planes and thicknesses), and the subsequent denu-
dations, and the excavations of Valleys, &c. see Rep. i. 117,
123; &c.

The frequency of fazlés, in all districts where the Earth has
been penetrated by Quarriers, Miners, Colliers, &c., and the
absence hitherto, of any general knowledge or principles of
this phenomenon, have occasioned the immense number of
Names (amounting to near eighty) by which they have been
called, see Rep. i. 118 N. Several of these, are very im-
proper to be used by Geologists, because they have also, ap-
plications to other phenomena of the Earth; the term S/ip
is among this number, which notwithstanding its other and
more proper application, to modern subsidences of masses ef
strata, (Rep. 1. 73, 75, &¢.) which have been partly under-
mined, or have given way externally at their feet, into a

valley or other space, and have /eft a cliff standing, to
M4 mark

184

Mr. Farey's Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

{P.209] mark such their modern subsidence, has been used byy

Mr. B. (P. M. xl. p. 46, and vol. xlii. p. 122) to denote
Faults, which are fissures of very different kinds, both as to
their period and manner of formation, as well as their mineral
contents, &c, And although he has not, like M. Werner
(New Theory of Veins, p. 61), completely confounded these
very different phenomena, as observed, Rep. i. 74 Note, I
have nowhere observed the subject of slips, or modern sub-
sidences of tracts of ground, to 4 noticed in Mr. B’s work.

1. 8, dykes which shoot up*.—* Crystallized masses,
like the linings of veins, sometimes extend upwards into the
Shale, Toadstone, or other stratum which covers the Rock
usually containing the Vein, see p. 225, and Rep. i. 245 ;
Gypsum masses in Red Marl, are often seen with projecting
ribs almost like the comb of a cock, shooting out into the
Marl; and Granite and other crystallized masses may in
some instances, in this way ‘shoot up,” for short distances,
into the Rock which covers them.

With Basalt it may perhaps be otherwise, andl in the in=
stances, at the Clee-hills, mentioned by Mr. B. page 124,
in Antrim, P. M. xxxv. p. 365, and in many others, where
Whin-dykes intersect Basalt and its wnder strata, it may
have been, that the fissures below existed, when the Basalt
stratum began to be deposited, and that the same deposit
descended into the fissure, instead of the matter of Whin-
dykes being forced up from below.” The vast stratum of
Basalt, which I believe to have once covered all the Forth
and Clyde Coal-field, before its astonishing denudations
took place, may have occasioned by the descent of its first
deposit, those Whin-dykes therein, which do not now con-
nect with the Basaltic Hummocks remaining.

But there is another, and to me a more probable supposi-
tion, viz. that in the instances mentioned, of Whin-dykes
intersecting strata, which lay ed/her above or below Basaltic
strata, the Dyke, in reality, passes through the Basalt as well
as its upper and under strata, although its similarity in sub-
stance and structure, may require nice discriminations and
well-conducted researches, to trace the Dyke through the
Basalt, where the same does not derange or dislocate the
strata : and the same of Granite or other Dykes, intersecting
similar strata to their own substances. Where the Dyke
does derange the strata, or there is a lift on one side or sink
on the other side of it, there must I think be less hesitation
in coneluding, that the Dyke passes through its similar Rock,
however indistinct the traces of it therein may be, than in

adopting:

Mr. Farey’s Notes‘on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 185

- EP.209] adopting the very unphilosophical supposition, ascribed to
M. Werner by a late writer (F.) in Nicholson’s Journal,
vol. xxxvi. p. 161, viz. “* Werner however, is of opinion,
that in many instances the position of strata is ascribed er-
roneously to change (of level on the different sides of a dyke
or fault), which in fact was the result of ¢heir original for-
mation s—where changes actually have occurred, he ascribes
them to ruptures,” &c.—Still less can we admit with Mr.
Kirwan (Geological Essays, p. 334), that the Dykes existed
in their present situations, before the strata on each side of
them were formed!, and that the filling up of one side of
the dyke with materials for the strata, before the other, forced
the dyke or retaining ‘wall, out of its upright position, and
thus occasioned the hading which so commonly atterids
Dykes !! See the article Colliery in Dr. Rees’s Cyclopedia.

1, 23, charring the beds ¢+.—} Query—see my Note on
pages 108 and 125.

210, 1. 17, are. laid horizontally *.-—* Dr. William Richard-
son, Trans. Roy. Ir. Acad. ix. and P. M. xxxv. p. 373.

211, 1. 16 and 17, produced the irregularity*.—* Why may
not a bump or thicker or higher part of the stratum be-
neath, have often occasioned rocks to rise abruptly, and dip
in opposite directions ?; they have been found to do so in
numerous instances, in Ashover, Crich, Dudley, &c. &c., see
Mont. Mag. xxxiii. p. 516, and P. M. xxxix, p. 128.

And why may not @ in fig. 1, in Plate I. be a case of
denudated regular’stratification ?, ‘the modesty of nature”
being a little over-stepped, in Mr. B’s drawing, see my Note
on p. 61. Sir James Hall has lately described the effects
of denudation on contorted strata of Killas, in the Edinburgh
Trans. /

1. 20, abrupt mountains +.—+ Query, Rep. i. 123 Note,
and my 2d Letter, vol. xlii. p. 106.

212, 1. 3, action of currents*.—* These contribute now, ma-
, terially, to the formation of cliffs on the sea-shores, P. M,
XXxvi. p. 7.

1, 22 and 23, at Nottingham+.—+ I have represented
the great Derbyshire Fault as ‘‘ commencing near Notting-
ham,” (Mr. B’s, line 7) in the Red Marl, or as beginning only
on the west of that place, to derange the measures, and as
increasing rather rapidly in its effects thence westward, to
Allestry, &c.: about Nottingham, therefore, the effects
might be expected to be the less visible, than in any other
part of its course, by one acquainted with my theory of Faults
in Rep. i. 117: to Mr. B’s objections on this head, other
replies will be found in my 2d Letter, vol. xlii. p. 104.

Ra 13,

186 - Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

P.213, 1. 23, from the conjectures *,—* Are not the “ conjecs
tures,’ in the work alluded to, always distinguished as
such ?, and the precise localities, if not the full cireum-
stances, of all the facts stated, and names of authorities
given ?:—en which points, Mr. B. might have taken a use-
ful lesson, for his work.

214, 1. 11 and 12, filled up the fissure *—* Rep. i. 247.

1, 18, crystalline forms are obtained +.—f Rep. i. 247.
1, 24, narrower in their descent {.—{ Rep. i. 251.

215, 1. 14, Ecton copper-mine *,—* Rep. i. 258 and 353.

216, 1. 22, fluor spar mine*.—* Mawe’s Min. of Derb. p. 693
Water-hull, Cliff-side, and Old-tor Mines, Rep. i. 269 and
461.

217, 1. 7, the natural caverns *,—* The remarkable property
of thick Limestone Rocks, in every part of the world, I be-
lieve, to produce Caverns, is not noticed in this work, or
this geological phanemenon mentioned, except here and at
p- 18, [ believe, and when they oceur as wide places in
Veins, at pages 214 and 216 ; although it should seem, from
your account of Mr. B’s Lectures in vol. xxxix. p. 236, that
he there particularly noticed them, and attempted to account
for their formation, in a manner, to which I opposed some
facts (in page 427 of the same volume), to which he has not
replied at p. 47 of vol. xl. but this common and important
phenomenon, is almost excluded from his subsequent work.

That the shrinking or contraction of the masses of Lime-
stone, have occasioned the Caverns and large cracks, whicli
so remarkably distinguish calcareous Rocks, can admit of
no doubt, as observed in my Rep. i. 292; and the same
principle will doubtless account, for nearly all known natural -
Caverns, | believe, as well as for the opening of Mineral
Veins, in general, which I have more effectually shown, I be-
lieve, (Rep. i. 246, P. M. xxxix, p. 428, &c.) than any
other English writer, and yet, at p. 223, Mr. B. persists in
ascribing to M. Werner, only this mode, viz, of shrinking,
for opening of Veins; notwithstanding his own express re-
ference to Slips, (as observed Rep. i. 74 Note) and more
particularly, to the splitting and falling asunder of Rocks
ly their own weight, by M. Werner himself, at pages 49,
50, 82, 88, 89, 95, &c. of the translation of his “* New
theory of Veins,” see my Notes on pages 299 and 223.

-218, 1. 3, and unites again*.—* It seems doubtful, whether
Mr. B. here alludes to what are called Riders, those large
stony masses, which are commonly found in Veins, and
‘which were until lately, said to be fragments rent off from
‘the adjacent Rocks; and many fine theories were accord-

ingly

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 187

{P.218]ingly invented, to account for their suspension in the veire

without touching the skirts or Rock: on all these Mr. B.
is silent. In my Rep.i. 248, I have, I think, clearly shown,
that Riders do not belong to the adjacent Rock, or to any

_ other, but were formed where they are, by a rudely and

2

confused crystallization, since the matler of the vein, in
Tick-holes or Druses, that were previously empty.

- 1, 5, another vein +.—+ A Fault-vein, or Vein intersected
longitudinally by a fault, Rep. i. 249, 245 Note, &c.

220, 1. 19, its two extremities* —* Tideslow-Rake, see Rep.

i. 268 ;—which account of mine, needs correction, in con-
sequence of Mr. Elias Hall’s subsequent investigations
(mentioned in my 2d Letter, vol. xli. p. 113,) by adding,
Peak-Forest, Small-dale and Dove-hole, to the names of
Liberties through, or near which it ranges, according to
Mr. Hall’s Model, now before me; and adding, 5rd and 4th
Limestone, to the Rocks which it intersects. The great
Limestone Fault crosses it (and perhaps terminates its works
to the W), N or NW of Dove-hole, and a branch therefrom,
crosses and breaks its vein-stuff, in High or Hills Rake, near
Windmill-houses.

This Vein, crossing the entire series and limestone di-
strict, and passing unusually far under the shale to the E, is
perhaps the most extraordinary in Derbyshire : and respect-
ing which, I sineerely regret, from mistaken information, as
well as observation, to have yery improperly expressed my-
self, at the top of page 275 of my Report.

221, 1. 23, the year 1803 or 1804 *,—* These dates (see also.

p- 210), as to when carbonate of Lead or /Vhite Ore (Rep.
i. 355) first became known to the miners of Derbyshire, are
somewhat incorrect; since Mr. John Mawe, in his “* Mine-
ralogy of Derbyshire,” published in 1802, says, that it had
been then known by them, a “ few years,” p. 106 and 370,

223, 1. 1 and 2, vegetable fibres, apparently roots*.—* I wish

that Mr. B. had informed us, of the particular Colliery and
situation of the fault-stuff, in which he made this curious
observation. In the clunch or fire-clay floors of the Coal-
seams, (see my Note on page 161) in Castlecomer and
Feroda Collicries in Kilkenny in Ireland, fibres, like roots, are
said to be commonly found, see Mr. William Tighe’s “ sta-
tistical observations on Kilkenny,” p. 56, &c,

When examining the Quarries of blue Lias Limestone at
Barrow-on-Soar, in August 1807, the workmen had just
uncovered a considerable area, of what they called the Rum-
mel floor, a useless bed of blue slaty Limestone, 10 inches

thick,

188 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.223]thick, lieing at a considerable depth from the surface; and
on my asking, which were the beds in which they usually
found Shells ; one of them successively struck the point of
his pick into the floor of stone, on which we were standing,
in places that at first sight presented no unusual appearance,
and thereby turned up several plano-convex lenses of large
size and very regular form, out of the stone floor, which
lenticular masses, he called shells and skelps : on examina=
tion, they proved to be almost entirely composed of cornu-
ammonii, (curiously covered by branching spar, which ap-
peared compressed), and of other shells : but what occasions
my mentioning the same here, is, the appearance of nu-
merous fibres, exactly like small roots, crossing each other
in the manner of a net, which lined the bottom of all these
lenticular cavities in the Limestone.

It might be important, for those who have the oppor-
tunity of repeating these observations, to ascertain, whether
these fibres are of vegetable or of animal origin: it seemed
very unlikely to me, that they could have recently originated
from plants on the surface; but this ought to be well exa-
mined, at the time of removing the stratified clay (called
Rummel carf) and other matters, from off this bed of stone.
The Roots of Coltsfoot, Sainfoin and some other plants, are
said to descend very deep into the fissures of Limestone and
other Rocks: but not through strata of solid Clay, I should
think.

1.5, by the shrinking+.—+ Rep. i. 246. The zealous
disciple of M. Werner, who in 1809 translated his ‘“‘ New
theory of Veins,” with Notes of his own, did not seem to
be aware, nor has it since been stated, I believe, that the
other causes, so principally insisted on for the opening o
veins, have been withdrawn by M. Werner, and this only,
the “ shrinking of the materials,”’ fixed on ; which had been
only casually, and indeed improbably hinted at, as connected
with drying and with earthquakes, as I have mentioned,
Rep. i. 74, Note; see my Notes on pages 209 and 217.

A very recent writer, who under the signature of F. in
Nicholson’s Journal, vol. xxxvi., gives a general view of the
Geological System of M. Werner; at p. 161, thus men-
tions that Geognost’s ideas, of the manner in which ‘rup-
tures of the strata and fissures were occasioned, viz. “ by the
unequal accuniulation of rocky matter, at the time of deposi-
tion, by the loss of support, owing to the diminution of the
Waters,” &c.

1. 12, repugnant to facts t.—t Rep. i. 246, P. M. xxxix.

. 428,
J P.224,

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 189
P.224, 1. 14, bearing measures *,—* Rep. i. 246, P. M. xxxix,
428

: 1, 22 and 23, the round pebbles+.—+ Rep, i. 249.

225, 1. 3, contributed to the effect*,—* At the conclusion of
his work on Veins, M. Werner particularly recommends the
Mines of Konigsberg (transl. p. 53), and of the Peak of
Derbyshire (p. 130), where these anomalies were there stated
to occur, to the careful study of Mineralogists. Mr. B.,
though a native of the latter district, (P.M. xlu. p. 123,)
may perhaps hereafter be thought, to have added but little
to the knowledge thereof.

1.13, ceases to contain any ore+.—t Similar facts, I
believe, with regard to Mines in the north-west of York-
shire, or in Durham, occurred to Mr. John Hutchinson,
more than a century ago, and were in 1749 published im
his Works, vol. xii. p. 253, which were unknown to me,
until very lately, Rep. i.‘245. It has too commonly been
found, that the Veins in the lower part of the Ist Limestone
became dead, or contained spars only, considerably before the
Miners reached the Ist Toadstone, in sinking in these Veins.

1. 20, but in very small quantities .—{ See Rep. i. 250:
in Gang Mine, (Rep. i. 258) the short branches of veins in
the Ist Toadstone, were so very productive, that the late
Mr. Joshua Gregory, the overseer, (see my Note on p. 226)
has assured me, that not less than 1000/. worth of ore was
obtained therefrom ! !

226, 1. 7 and 8, sand-stone *.—* Limestone Shale, see my
Note on p. 93.

1. 24, seams of clayt.—t The thickest of these way-
boards, sometimes divide the Veins, according to the in-
formation of Mr. Joshua Gregory, Rep. i. 245, and my Ist
Letter, vol. xlii. p. 58 Note.—Since the same was written,
I lament to have read of the death of this able and truly re-
spectable individual, (Mont. Mag. xxxy. p. 501).

Mr. Gregory had came to town, in the beginning of May,
on the businesses of the Cromford and Mearbrook Soughs,
(Rep, i. 329 and 330), and the Gang Mine, of which last
he was the Manager ; but finding himself very unwell, he set
off rather suddenly, on his return home; which he never
reached !, but after an illness of some duration, died at
Market-Street, in Hertfordshire, aged 60 years. His loss,
to the proprietors, of the most considerable Mine at present
in Derbyshire, will be most severely felt, as well as by his
relatives and friends ; and by none is his loss more sincerely
lamented, than myself,

[P. 226]

190 On Employment of Oxygen Gas in suspended Animation.

[P.226] 1. 18 and 19, states of electricity t+.—+t I wish, in follow-
ing up this very ingenious idea, (P. M. xxxix. p. 428), that
Mr. B. would consider and examine, how far the Voltaie
influence seems to vary in its effects, in the fault-veins,
(see my note on p. 218), owing to different. Rocks, or beds
of the same Rock, being opposite to each other, instead of
the cheeks being similar, as is usual: as also, that he will
apply the same considerations, to fawlfs, near to the
Hot springs (so general in Derbyshire), which bring strata
beneath, into contact, or nearly, which were not originally
so, see my Notes on pages 304 and 306,

[To be continued. }

XXXVI. Memoir upon the Employment of Oxygen Gas in
various Cases of suspended Animation. By M.SEMENTINI*,

Tur object of this memoir is to suggest a speedy and efficacious
method of contributing to the processes at present in use, for the
restoration to life of drowned or suffocated persons.

What is meant by suspended animation, may be understood by
referring to the cessation of the motion of a pendulum, merely
from a mechanical stoppage of its oscillation, while none of the
parts of the machine have been injured, Now when there is a
want of sensation and motion caused by an absolute suspension
of the same faculty, we may expect the return of life by giving
it such an action that it mav resume its natural state, as the
pendulum resumes its functions when a mechanical impulse has
restored the oscillation which is peculiar to it.

But the animal organization is such, that the state of suspended
animation speedily becomes dangerous, and apparent death is
soon changed into the réality, on account of the facility with,
which the humours of an animal body are changed.

Now suspended animation may be produced by causes which
act either on the general system, or directly upon the organ of
respiration; but I intend to allude here to those cases only which,
deriving their origin from any given cause, have instantly pro-
duced such a derangement in the functions of the lungs as to
produce apparent death.

Recently, when directing my attention to the contrivances
called fumigatory boxes, it occurred to me, that since inflation
was generally regarded as the most energetic methed of restoring
animation, oxygen gas might be employed instead of common
air. I afterwards became acquainted with the work of Dr.

‘*® Annales de Chimie, tome Ixxxvi. p. 140,
Goodwin,

On Employment of Oxygen Gas in suspended Animation. 191

Goodwin, published at London in 1788*, and I found that this
author had tried the oxygen gas administered by inflation to ani-
mals drowned on purpose, and that he had fully ascertained its
efficacy. I repeated his experiments with success, and they
added confidence to my own previous opinions.

But the case of an animal drowned for the express purpose of
an experiment, and which had been saved by the inflation of
oxygen gas previously prepared at leisure, is very different from
that of a man who has been drowned by an unforeseen accident.
In the former case, every thing is arranged for the experiment,
and the oxygen gas is ready beforehand; but if it be requisite
to afford speedy assistance to a human being just taken out of
the water, too much expedition cannot be used in preparing and
administering the gas. It is the object of this short paper, there-
fore, to exhibit the method which I have contrived for introdu-
cing oxygen gas into the lungs instantaneously, and while they
are yet warm.

For this purpose I had recourse to Berthollet’s important dis-

-covery of the hyperoxygenated muriate of potash, which, among
other wonderful properties, possesses that of containing nearly a
third of its weight of oxygen, which, when exposed to a moderate
heat, is reduced to a state of gas; and upon this remarkable pro-
perty my process is founded,

If inflation, therefore, be the principal resouree in cases of sus-
pended animation, if oxygen gas be preferable to atmospheric
air, and if the apparatus which I am about to describe be proper
for developing the oxygen gas in a very short time, and for intro-
ducing it instantly into the lungs, I shall not have uselessly di-
rected my humble talents to the welfare of society,

Description of the Apparatus.

In fig. 1. (Plate III.) is seen a cylinder of wood A, with lead
at bottom to keep it steady. Into this is screwed the neck of
the brass retort B. To the foot of this cylinder a spirit lamp is
fixed, the flame from which embraces the belly of the retort.
To the cylinder a flexible leather tube, ddd, is attached, which
at the other extremity unites at F with the bellows E. These
bellows terminate at G with a portion of a tube of elastic gum,
which is furnished with a small brass plate to fit the human
mouth. The bellows are provided at F with a valvet, and the -
inflation of the gas is effected as follows : The cylinder A is placed
on a small table by the side of the bed on which the patient re-

*« The Conneetion of Life with Respiration; or, An experimental In-
quiry into the Effect of Submersion,”
t This valve might perhaps be attached as efficaciously to the usual aper-
ture in the under side of al! bellows.—Eprrors.
clines.

192 On the Existence of Alcohol in Wine.

clines horizontally: the hyper-oxygenated muriate of potash is
introduced into the retort B, and it is serewed to the cylinder: .
the lamp is lighted, and the bellows E are applied tothe mouth -
of the patient, while an assistant holds the nostrils firmly with
his fingers. ‘The oxygen gas begins to be developed ; and as in
the interior of the cylinder the aperture of the retort communi-
cates with that of the tube ddd, this gas, not having any other
vent, proceeds into the bellows, which are kept open on purpose.
When the bellows are supposed to be full, or nearly so, they, are
shut; and the gas, not having any way of escaping, from the valve
being shut, is compelled to enter into the patient’s mouth and
fungs. This process, which may be repeated at intervals, along
with the other methods already known, forms the essential part
of the very simple method which I propose. I have had the
pleasure, with the above apparatus, to restore animation to one
person, who was taken out of the sea, and supposed to be
drowned.

ee ER A ED ERS EE ET SOE SEES SFG SSS oy

XXXVI. Extract from a Memoir upon the Existence of Alcohol
in Wine. By M.GayLussac. Read at the French Insti-
tute, March 1, 1813*.

I, was my object to determine more precisely than has hitherto
been done, the true epoch at which alcohol is formed in wine.
fs it formed during distillation, as many chemists suppose from
the experiments of M. Fabronit, or at the moment of fermenta~-
tion, as Mr. Brande thinks, without however giving any thing
like satisfactory proofs ?

It will be-recollected that. M. Fabroni established his opinion,
by demonstrating from his experiments that aleohol could not be
extracted from wine when saturated with subcarbonate of potash ;
whereas, by the same method, the smallest quantity of alcohol
which might have been added to the wine was recovered.

Mr. Brande proves incontestablyf, that we cannot extract aleo-
hol from wine by M. Fabroni’s process ; but he does not destroy
his opinion, without showing that we constantly obtain the
same quantity of alcohol from wine by distilling it at the varied
temperatures of 93°,3, 87°,7, and §2°,2. It is nevertheless evi-
dent that the temperature 82°,2 is still high enough for the for-
mation of the alcohol during distillation: hence it follows, that
M. Fabroni’s opinion is not completely overturned—far less is
that of Mr. Brande very clearly established.

I have proved that subcarbonate of potash may be used to de-

* Annales de Chimie, tome lxxxvi. p. 175. + Ibid. tome xxx. p. 220.
{ Phil. Trans. 1811, p.357. Vide Phil, Mag. vol. xxxviil.
monstrate

Incident Light not decomposable into the prismatic Colours. 193

monstrate the presence of alcohol in wine; but we must begin
by isolating the foreign substances which are mixed or combined
with it, and which oppose its separation. The process which I
consider as the most advantageous for this purpose, consists in
shaking the wine with well pounded litharge : it speedily becomes
limpid like water, by giving to the litharge its colouring and ex-
tractive matter: the subearbonate of potash then very easily de-
monstrates the presence of alcohol.

1 can give another proof of the existence of alcohol in wine,
equally conclusive, by distilling wine in vacuum at the tempera-
ture of 15°, which, as is well known, is very inferior to that which
is developed during fermentation, for 1 obtain a product deci-
dedly alcoholic.

These two experiments’ prove beyond doubt that alcohol is
not formed during fermentation, as was generally supposed pre-
viously to M. Fabroni’s experiments.

I shall terminate my memoir, which is about to appear in the
third volume of the Mémoires d’Arcueil, by showing that we
may obtain the pure alcohol of Richter by employing quicklime,
or rather barytes, in place of muriate of lime.

XXXVIL. Experiments tending to prove, that neither Sir Isaac
Newton, HerscuEL, nor any other Person, ever decomposed
incident or impingent Light into the prismatic Colours. By
JoserH Reapr, M.D.

Cork, January 24, 1814.
Sirs, —OrR Isaac Newton, for the purpose of decomposing
light, made a small hole in his window-shutter a quarter of an
inch in diametér, and, having placed a prism so as to refract and
receive a spectrum on a sheet of white paper, perceived seven co-
lours in the following order: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, in-
digo, and violet : these he supposed to be primary colours, which
when combined in certain proportions gave white or transparent
lights. The necessary shortness of a letter will not permit me
to enumerate his experiments; I therefore refer to his Optics.

That this philosopher was mistaken in supposing he analysed in-

eident light, will appear evident from the following experiments

and observations. When we look with a prism at a window, the
light passes through the panes, and likewise through the prism, to
the eye, undecomposed, and consequently colourless ; but when we
look to the frames, we perceive an artificial rainbow of reflected
blue, red, and yellow. Any opaque substance, as a piece of black
cloth or paper, when pasted on the window, will produce the same
effect; and the more dense or dark, the deeper the tints or fringe*.

* T use the word fringe as much more appropriate than penumbra, whose
derivation is absurd.

Vel.43, No.191. March 1814. N The

194 Incident or impingent Light not decomposable

The north or top of the paper will be fringed with blue; the
south or bottom, with red and yellow rays. Now it is evident,
if light were decomposed by merely passing through the prism,
according to the different refrangibilities of its coloured rays,
that light admitted through the panes should be equally de-
_ composed with that in the vicinity of the opaque frames. To
place this objection in a stronger point of view, I made the fol-
lowing experiment.

I cut two holes in my window-shutter, one the diameter of a
quarter of an inch, mentioned by Sir Isaac Newton, the other the
diameter of four inches ; and having darkened the room, and ap-
plied a prism, | found that the small aperture admitted light tinged
with the seven colours, which I could receive on a sheet of white
paper: the larger orifice was also fringed round with seven pris-
matic colours, and pencils of white light passed through the centre.

Here I must again observe, if white incident light were de-
composed by merely passing through the prism, why was ‘not
that coming through the centre equally decomposed with that at
the edges? And however contrary to received opinion, I am con-
fident it is nevertheless true, that incident light has never yet
been decomposed, but that all experiments hitherto made have
been on light condensed and reflected by opaque substances. Ifwe
paste a piece of black cloth on the window, whose colour, as I
have shown in my last communication on blackness, arises from
the reflection of condensed rays of blue, red, and yellow; on
applying the prism, a fringe of red and yellow appears at the
south. This does not proceed from a decomposition of incident
light striking on the edges of the cloth, but it proceeds from an
actual decomposition of the coudensed coloured rays of the black
cloth itself. ‘The prism decomposes these three primary colours
according to the order of their different refrangibilities; and as
' the red and yellow rays are more vefrangible than the blue, as I
shall. show in my next communication, they are brought down
by the prism, and the black cloth remains ofa blue colour. The
further we move from the window, the more refrangible the red
and yellow rays become, and consequently the decomposition is
the greater. In this experiment the north of the cloth reflects
blue rays, the south red and yellow, proving in the most satis-
factory manner that there are but three primary colours; and as
all the secondary or mixed colours ean be formed of blue, red, _
and yellow, to call others into existence would be contrary to the
beautiful simplicity of nature, and unnecessary. But it might be
asked, If there are but three primary colours, how did Sir Isaac
Newton produce a spectrum of seven ?

The following experiment will explain; Paste a strip of black
cloth or paper, six inches by three, on the window ; on the south

you

.

into the prismatic Colours. 195

you perceive a fringe of reflected red and yellow: paste another
similar strip parallel to this, at about four inches distance, on
looking through the prism you perceive the north to be fringed
with blue. Thus we have three primary colours nearly in contact.
The yellow rays of the upper paper, being the most refrangible,
come nearest to the blue of the lower paper; and if we approach
them, a green is formed by their mixture, so that we can now
without any difficulty account for five of Sir Isaac Newton’s co-
lours, red, orange, yellow, green, and blue. By making a small
hole in his window-shutter, he brought the northern and southern
fringes into contact or mixture, and produced five colours with
three. It now remains to account for the indigo and violet; and
here I must again refer my reader to my last communication, in
which I have shown that blackness arises from the refiection of
blue, red, and yellow ; which being granted, the solution of this
otherwise difficult question becomes easy. The red and yellow of
the lower cloth or paper, being more refrangible than the blue,
were brought down by passing through the prism, leaving the
upper part of the lower edge (when illuminated by the undecom-
posed light coming through) blue. Under the blue appeared in-
digo, which, as I shall hereafter show, is composed of blue, red,
and yellow, in a different state of condensation from black. And
at the bottom of all appeared violet, arising from a great quan-
tity of yellow and red, which had been brought down, mixed with
the black rays. From this experiment we might conclude, that

Sir Isaac Newton by mixing three primary colours made seven.
But I am aware, it might be objected, that Sir H. Englefield
and others decomposed, or thought they decomposed, incident
light coming immediately from the sun, by passing it through a
prism placed at an open window. So far however from refuting,
this experiment confirms my opinion, that incident light was
never yet decomposed, as I shall now endeavour to prove. The
prism, being a semitransparent substance, when turned in such
a manner on its axis as partly to reflect and partly to transmit
the rays of light, (for it will never decompose if turned at right
angles to the sun,) condenses and reflects fringes of blue, red, and
yellow, from each of its angles; and these fringes of reflected light,
being carried forward through the prismatic planes by the inci+
dent and undecomposed light, intermix by their different refran-
gibilities, and form a spectrum of seven colours ; and as there are
three angles in every prism, so there are two spectra always
formed, in the same manner as three strips of paper, pasted pa
rallel to one another on the window, will also form two spectra.
As I am well aware that my experiments and opinions are in
opposition to authorities of the ve respectability in science ; and
2% 4 as

196 Incident Light not decomposable into the prismatic Colours.

as I am also certain that science and liberality always go hand in
hand, I rest my ideas on experimental inquiry.

To show that the decomposition of light takes place only at
the prismatic angles, and arises entirely from those fringes of re-
flected light, I made the following experiment: When the sun
was shining very powerfully, I placed my prism on a table at the
open window; and having formed a spectrum on a sheet of white
paper, I slowly turned the instrument on its axis, until I separated
the red and yellow from the blue, and in place of green, white
or undecomposed light passed through between the angles. I
now ascertained that the red and yellow rays passed through the
upper and thin angular edge, by intercepting them with my fin-
ger placed on it; and by running my finger along the middle an-
gle, I intercepted the blue rays; and by pasting a narrow strip
of paper between those two angles I made two spectra. But to
place the fact beyond the possibility of doubt, standing at a little
distance, I looked by means of another prism at the light passing
through, and perceived three beautiful fringes hanging from the
angles. Indeed it is surprising that those fringes, so easily
proved, so evident to the eye, and so highly important in their
consequences, should have escaped the observation of such able
and accurate experimenters as those already mentioned. I shall
conclude this paper with the following deductions.

Ist. That incident light has never yet been decomposed ; and
that Sir Isaac Newton and other philosophers only decomposed
light refiected from opaque substances, or fringes of blue, red, and

ellow.

2dly. That there are but three primary colours, blue, red, and
yellow, by the mixture of which, either by the prism or the painter,
all the others are formed.

3dly. That Herschel, Leslie, Davy, Englefield, and other phi-
losophers, drew their conclusions, relative to the heating power of
the prismatic colours, from erroneous data, viz. from experiments
on reflected light, whose heat must in a great measure depend
on the reflecting media, and also on the thickness or thinness
of those parts of the prism through which the fringes pass. Thus
the red and yellow rays passing through the very thin upper an-
gle, must be accompanied by more radiant caloric than the blue
rays, which pass through the thickest.

The following diagram will demonstrate my opinions; and as
I am at present engaged in a series of experiments, to prove
that the prismatic colours have similar heating powers, I shall
not anticipate.

Let s represent the sun (fig. 3. Plate III.) d. o,f. rays of un-
decomposed light, impinging on the angles A, B, C of the prism.

These

Observattons on Colours. 197

These carry forward the angular fringes formed by reflection,
which being refracted towards the perpendicular fall on the spec-
trum H. The red and yellow rays, passing through the thin
angle A, must be more heated, when falling on the spectrum H,
than the blue rays passing through the angles B. C.
Sir, I beg leave to remain your obedient servant,
JosrPH Reapz, M.D.

*,* In the communication, volume xlii. p. 418, Dr. READE’S
name was printed Reaper, which our friends are requested to
correct with a pen.— Ebr.

eee eee

XXXIX. Observations on Colours, as applicable to the Purposes

of the Artist. By Mr. Tuomas HaRGREAVEs.
Liverpool, Dec. 12, 1813.
Sirs, 3) j TAKE the liberty of addressing to you some observa-
tion on colours, the result of great attention to the subject, and
of long experience as an artist, which may perhaps be useful for
the purpose suggested by Mr. Forster, in his communications
inserted in your last and the preceding numbers.

I agree with him in the theory of three primary colours only,
and with his account of the effects of the binary and ternary
compounds ; but his idea of the precise tint of one of those pri-
mary colours is certainly incorrect, from his having adopted the
prismatic scale, which is defective, as I trust will be evident in
the course of the following remarks.

Before I proceed, I think the annexed figure (fig. 2. Plate III.)

will assist me in my explanations. In this figure the three sim-

ple primary colours, red, yellow, and blue, are placed at the three
angles of a triangle, and the three intermediate colours, orange,
green, and purple, in their proper situations between the respec-
tive colours which compose them, and at the angles of another
triangle. The space between a primary and intermediate com-
pound is likewise marked by the two letters on each side: thus,
between yellow and orange is put yo, to signify yellow orange,
or an orange colour approaching to yellow. It is evident that
the simple colours are like mathematical points, neither extend-
ing one way nor the other; but an intermediate colour has an
infinite variety of tint, from the verge of one of its components to
that of the other. White and black, with all the intermediate
degrees of gray, are equal combinations of the three simple co-
lours. Pure white, by uniting all the colours, can only be pro-
duced with the rays of light, as shown by the prism ; but all the
different degrees of broken white or gray, down to black, may be
produced by the coloured substances used in painting. An equal

N3 portion

i98 Otservaiions on Colours.

portion of two simple colours makes the exact intermediate oné,
as of yellow and blue makes a green ; but another equal portion
of the third simple colour, as red, neutralizes the whole, making
it a gray, light or dark, according as the colours employed are
light or dark. If only a small quantity of the third colour be
used, it breaks the tint, making it approach more to a neutral
tirit, according to the quantity used. By neutral tint, I do not
mean the tint so called by landscape painters, which is inclined
to blue and sometimes to purple, and ought rather to be called
an aérial tint; but I mean by it, that negative gradation between
white and black, which is best given by Indian ink.

A mixture of two intermediate colours will produce a broken
tint of the colour which lies between them in the figure; for in=
stance, green and orange wil] produce a broken yellow ; green

-and purple, a broken blue; and purple and orange, a broken red ;
as may be accounted for thus: Green is one part blue and one
part yellow, orange is one part yellow and one part red: thus, in
the whole, when mixed together, there are two parts yellow, one
part red, and one part blue: the red and blue and one part of
the yellow would produce a neutral tint ; but the additional por-
tion of yellow gives a tinge to the whole, and produces a broken
or brown yellow.

The effect of the three intermediate colours mixed together
will be the same as the three simple ones, that is, they will pro-
duce a gray or neutral tint of a depth proportionate to the
strength of the colours employed, which will be evident on con-
sidering them. It will be unnecessary to say further, that equal
portions of all the colours, simple and intermediate, will still pro-
duce a neutral tint, as will be evident from what is shown al-
ready.

The figure shows at once what colour or tint will neutralise
another, they being directly opposite in the circle. Thus, op-
pesite to yellow stands purple, which used in a proportion of two
to one will neutralise the yellow ; opposite to green stands red,
which will neutralise one the other; and so on with the whole
circle. I have hitherto considéred only those proportions in the
mixtures which produce a neutral colour; but by varying the
quantities of the opposite or neutralising tint, when mixed with
the different colours in the circle, all the variety of what are called
ternary compounds may be produced: thus, a small portion of
blue mixed with orange produces brown orange, the tint of
which may be varied by more or less of the blue into a great
number of different shades, all of which will still belong to the
orange so long as, that colour predominates. Ifthe next per-

ceptible variation from orange towards red be taken and mixed-

with

Observations on Colours. 199

with its opposite in the same way, it will produce as many va-
rieties of gradations ; and by going thus round the whole circle,
every tint that can be seen in nature, or imagined, will be formed.

As it is of consequence that the peculiar tint of each of the
three primary colours should be determined, I will endeavour to
communicate my ideas of each of them by reference to flowers,
or more particularly to those pigments used in (water colour)
painting which approach the nearest to them.

With respect to the primary colour of yellow, there is less un-
certainty in the general application of the term than with either
of the others; for the least tinge of orange readily procures it the
name of orange or golden colour, and so likewise the slightest
tinge of green gives it the name of green. This colour is pro-
cured in all its different degrees of strength from gamboge.

Blue, the name of the second primary colour, is applied with
much less precision ; for we find that it is given to many of the
gradations towards purple, and likewise when it falls into a
greenish hue. From an attentive consideration of the colours of
flowers, I have remarked that the most usual tints are different
gradations of orange, purple, and red. The primary tint of yellow
is seldom seen pure, and the plue still less, scarcely ever; the
pigment approaching the nearest to which is Antwerp blue.
Ultramarine and Prussian blue tend more or less to the purple.

I come now to the third primary, red 5 and here we find the
greatest uncertainty, as the term is given to all the shades of orange.
This error is particularly adopted in the Newtonian theory. This
arises from its being founded on the prismatic experiments : in
the prismatic spectrum the third primary colour is not shown,
the two ends of the spectrum are equally near to it: if there be
any difference, I think the violet is more inclined to it than the
other. Inthe figure, the colour which falls under the denomina-
tion of orange is precisely that which is called red in the prismatic
spectrum: its tint is between that of vermilion and red lead,
and is of course, from what has been said, exactly neutralised by
blue. In the same manner, the colour calied purple in the figure
is nearly the same with the prismatic violet, and is neutralised
by yellow. This will readily be proved likewise with the prism 5
for, if the spectrum is thrown on a strong blue ground, the colour
which is there called red will disappear ; and if on a pure yellow
ground, the violet will be neutralised.

The true primary colour of red is that which is called crim-
son: this colour in its various degrees of strength is very fre-
quent in flowers ; the rose gives it in its paler gradations ; but
the pink or carnation shows it in all its gradations from the palest
to the most deep. This colour is most nearly given by carmine.

With gamboge, Antwerp plue, and carmine, an artist can most

N4 certainly

200 On a pretended Formation of Oxalic Acid.

certainly imitate every tint in nature ; with gamboge and carmine
the prismatic red, and all the other gradations of orange, may be.
made: and carmine with Antwerp blue gives the prismatic vio~
let, indigo, &c. But if instead of carmine he takes vermilion,
or any other pigment of the hue of the prismatic red, he will find
it impossible by joining it with blue to produce crimson, pink,
violet, or any of the purples.

On looking through the prism, or a convex lens, objects are
tinged on their edges with a fringe of colour ; according to the
relative positions of light or dark, that fringe is either yellow
running into prismatic red, or blue running into violet. These
two fringes united in the prismatic spectrum form the whole
range of colours there shown. But, from what I have said, I think
it is evident that it is deficient one third of the circle, which
third includes the true primary colour of red with its most im-
mediate compounds,

1 am unpractised in writing ; but if I have advanced any thing
that may be useful, in language that may be understood, I hope
that any defect of style will be treated with indulgence.

Tam, sir, yours respectfully,
Tuomas HarGREAVES.
P{S.—Is Mr.Sowerby’s work on Colours published ?*
To the Editors of the Phil, Mag.

XL. On the pretended Formation of Oxalic Acid in a Mixture
of Alcohol and Sulphuric Acid. By M. VocErt.

A CONSIDERABLE time has elapsed since M. Cadet de Gassi-
court announced, that oxalic acid could be formed by the sim-
ple contact of sulphuric acid and alcohol. The author expresses
himseif in the following manner{ : “ I made a mixture of equal
weights of well rectified aleohol and sulphuric acid : this mixture
remained at rest for about thirty hours. At the end of this pe-
riod I perceived at the bottom of the flask, and attached to the
lower sides, a quantity of crystals about ten or twelve millimetres
long, and formed by tetrahedral prisms terminated by a dihedral
summit. After having decanted the liquor, [ examined these
erystals ; and I ascertained, with the help of calcareous salts and
reagents, that it was oxalic acid.’ M. Cadet then promises to
resume this experiment ona large scale; which, so far as I know,
he has not yet dove.

This very remarkable result of the formation of oxalic acid by
means of the sulphuric acid, has been nevertheless quoted in a

* Yes; aud may be had of the ingenious Author, No. 2, Mead Place,
Lambeth.
~ + Annales de Chimie, tome Ixxxvi. p. 219. t Ibid. xxxv. p. 200.

great

On the Propagation of Sound. 201

great number of works, and no person has hitherto called the fact
in question.

Having occasion annually to make a quantity of sulphuric
ether, I have always remarked that the mixture of equal parts of
alcohol and sulphuric acid becomes milky, and deposits a white
crystalline powder.

With a view to collect this crystalline deposit, I mixed the li-
quids in a large flask, and | decanted it after a few days in order
to proceed to distillation.

After having preserved the precipitates for several years, I
mixed them together in order to subject them to an ulterior ex-
amination.

This powder, when mixed with some fine needle-formed cry-
stals, being dried with a gentle heat, had an acid taste, owing to
a little sulphuric acid which was interposed, and which I took up
by washing with alcohol. This alcoholic liquor contains merely,
as I have said, sulphuric acid, and not a trace of oxalic acid.
The powder when thus washed was perfectly neutral: it did not
even contain any substance of the organic kingdom; for, when
heated in a retort, it is not carbonised, and no gas is extricated.
Boiling water dissolves a small quantity, and this solution is turbid
with oxalate of ammonia, as well as by the muriate of barytes.
The white residue, insoluble in boiling water, immediately becomes
black on placing it in contact with sulphuretted hydrogen, or
rather with the hydrosulphuret of ammonia.

I pass over other details of experiments ; for it is easily seen
that the crystals, which are deposited from a mixture of equal
parts of sulphuric acid and alcohol, are nothing else than a com-
pound of sulphate of lime and sulphate of lead*.

XLI. The Propagation of Sound, according to the Newtonian
Theory, demonstrated ;—with Remarks on the one advanced
by La Piace, and other Observations. By RicHarD WiNTER.

Whitby, March 15, 1814.

Sirs, Tue theory of the propagation of sound through the atmo-

sphere, is a problem that has engaged the attention of mathema~-

ticians and philosophers of the first celebrity ; but the great dif-
ferences deduced from the most accurate observations of experi-
mentalists, and the investigations of mathematical theorists, have
almost rendered the researches of modern philosophers hopeless
of acquiring the truth frdm theory alone.

We shall merely notice a few of the many observations which
have been made to determine this problem.

* A mixture of twenty pounds of alcohol and sulphuric acid gave only
25 grains of this dried powder,
The

202 On the Propagation of Sound.

The following are the velocities of sound in a second, accord-
ing to the authorities of the names subjoined, expressed in English
feet:

, Roberval ..... 560
Gassendus .... 1473
Mersennus.... 1474
Duhamel .. .. 1338
Newton...... 979 from theory.

Derham ..... 1142
Cassini,&ec.... 1106.

We shall not stop to examine the source of these discordant
results, but merely observe, that the remarkable disagreement ex-
hibited by these philosophers, in all probability, arises either from
their not using proper pendulums vibrating seconds or aliquot
parts of a second, but strings suspended with a plummet oscil-
lating :—or, the distances of the stations from whence the sound
was propagated, and observed, were either too near each other,
or not exactly ascertained, so as to render any degree of preci-
sion to be expected from their inquiries.

The experiments of Dr. Derham are perhaps the most to be.

relied upon of any that have been made in this country ; but the

spaces through which the sound was propagated were not ri-'

gorously verified. This objection does not apply to the labours
of Cassini, Maraldi, &c. who made these observations in France
about the year 1733. They observed the velocity of sound
under a variety of circumstances,—during a diversity of winds,
in calms, and different changes of weather,—with nearly the same
results: besides, the distance of one station from another had been
previously determined, with accuracy, in measuring the terrestrial
meridian through France. The mean velocity of sound, as de-
duced from their experiments, is 1038 Paris feet in a second ;
and if the length of the French foot be to the length of the
English foot as 1°06575 to 1, as stated by General Roy, the
distance will be equal to 1106 English feet; and it is highly pro-
bable, that this determination is more to be relied upon than any
other experiments which have hitherto been made. >

It may not be improper here to mention the excellent oppor-
tunity afforded us in this country, of settling this pomt in the
most satisfactory manner. I allude to the many favourable situ-
ations which present themselves, whose distances from each other
have been most accurately measured during the grand Trigono-
metrical Survey of England by Lieut.-col. Mudge, &c.

The theoretical principles of the propagation of sound, ad-
vanced by Sir Isaac Newton in the 47th proposition of his Ma-
thematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, are simple, elegant,
and appear consonant to the visible operations of nature, so far

as

i
A.

ead
rd
ating

a On the Propagation of Sound. 203

as he procéeded upon the true principles of philosophy: his
subsequent surmises are not worthy of notice, except as coming
from such an exalted character,

This great man has demonstrated in ‘the fore-mentioned pro-
position, that the number of pulses propagated is the same with
the number of vibrations of the tremulous body; that they are not
multiplied in their progress ; and that as soon as the pulses cease
to be propagated from the tremulous body, it will return to a
state of rest. Again, in the 48th proposition of the same book,
Newton has. clearly solved an important question, in favour of
the theory we have ‘advanced ; viz. that the velocities of the pulses
are in a ratio compounded of the subduplicate ratio of the den-
sity of the medium inversely, and the subduplicate ratio of the
elastic force directly.

If the atmosphere were of a uniform density at different di-
stances from the earth’s surface, the velocity of sound as deduced
from the law of pendulous bodies would be exact ; but, as the
air is a medium that decreases in density as the distance from
the earth increases, it Sheree to me to require a different view
of the subject.

When the height of the mercury in the barometer and the
temperature of the atmosphere are obtained, we can easily find
the altitude of a column of air that would reach to the top of
the atmosphere ; and if it were of an equal density and elasti-
city in all its parts, the velocity of sound as recorded by Newton
would be rightly stated. But it is otherwise; the atmosphere is
not equally dense at every elevation, which the proposition of
Newton requires.. The question is then, What force is necessary
to overcome the elastic power of that portion of the air which
exists above the assumed height of the atmosphere, in order to
compress the whole mass of the air within that limit?

Before we proceed in the investigation of the proposed subject,
several preliminary inquiries are requisite. It appears from ex-
periments carefully made by Mr. Tralles*, that the density of
dry air at 32° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and under a pressure
of 29-92 inches, is equa! to -00129918, the specifie gravity of
water being taken as unity, and under the same circumstances 5
and to ‘0012770 when the same thermometer is at 39°83, which
point Mr. Tralles has ascertained to be the maximum density of
water, the barometer remaining as before. The specific gravity
of mercury is 13°59925 at the former standard, and 13°59655 at
‘the latter. Now by ‘taking a mean between the experiments
made by Gay-Lussae and those of Dalton on the expansion of
dry air, it appears that for every additional degree of Fahrenheit’s

* Nicholson’s Journal, vol, xxv. p. 79.

thermometer ~*

204 On the Propagation of Sound.

thermometer a corresponding dilatation of the air equal to
002078 is produced.

According to the researches of Sir George Shuckburgh, the
mean annual range of the barometer at the surface of the sea is
30°04 inches, and this elevation is constant in every degree
of latitude. In calculating the temperature, we have followed
the formula invented by that great philosopher Tobias Mayer of
Gottingen. From these data we find the mean annual tempera-
ture at the surface of the sea in latitude 45° equal. to 57°5 of
Fahrenheit ; and the mean density of the air -0012353 ; and by
making use of the numbers ascertained by Mr. Tralles for the
density of mercury, we find it in the same latitude and tempera-
ture 13°59043. “Then to find the elevation of a column of air of
equal weight, we have

aces X we = 27540-98 feet, or 4590-163 fathoms
for the height of the atmosphere.

Now to find the pressure of the air, or, in other terms, at what
elevation the mercury in the barometer would stand, if taken to
the height of 4590:163 fathoms, is an important part of what we
require.

In order to approach as near to accuracy as possible, it will be
requisite to determine the precise decrease of temperature for
every increase of altitude in the atmosphere. Saussure has found
a decrease of one degree of Fahrenheit for every 289 feet.
Daubuisson* found, under the same circumstances, an elevation of
319 feet corresponding to 1° npon the same scale. The best ob-
servations for deciding this question, we think, are those ob-
tained from the journals of the Monks residing in the venerable
priory situated upon Mount St. Gothard in Switzerland. The
mean annual height of the barometer kept in this place is 21°77
inches, and of Fahrenheit’s thermometer 29°'8. Now the lati-
tude of the place is about 46° 30’ North; and the mean annual
temperature of this latitude at the level of the sea, as appears
from Mayer’s formula before mentioned, is 56°1. Calculating
the height of the priory from these data, by De Luc’s method
for ascertaining the altitudes of mountains by the barometer, we
find it equal to 8557 feet.

Then 56°] —29°8=26°-3, and ~ eon =325 feet

of elevation, corresponding to a depression of Ie aes Fahren-
heit’s scale.

From these deductions we shall be able to find the detglie of
the mercury in the barometer, at any determinate altitude, by
applying the following calculation to that purpose.

* Nicholson’s Journal, vol. xviii. p. 150.
27540°98

On the Propagation of Sound. 205
2754098
$25
below 57°5 the station at the level of the sea; and to make the

first correction for the expansion of the mercury, we have
‘ 85° x 50°04.

= 85° depression of the thermometer

='266 of an inch: this quantity de-

ducted from 30-04 leaves 29°774 inches, the correction for the
barometer.
Then the logarithm of 29°774 is 1-4738372
Altitude of the air in fathoms .. *4590163
Difference .. 10148209
The correction for the expansion of the air, reduced to the
standard temperature 31°, as is done in calculating heights by the
barometer, we find thus:
Temperature at the surface... 57:5
27541 feet =a depression of .. 85°, or 27°°5 below zero.

me hea ie +15° the mean heat; and 15°—31°=16°:

hence we have this proportion :
‘480: 16° :: 4590°163 : 153°005 the correction for
the condensation of the air.
BS Nig i aig. 9 1:0148209
Correction... °01538005

Inches 9°99 = :9995204 the logarithm of the height of
the barometer at the elevation of 4590 fathoms. From hence it
appears demonstrable, that in order to compress the whole cir-
cumambient air within a circle whose semidiameter is 27541 feet
greater than that of the earth, it would require an additional force
equal to a pressure of 9°99 inches of the barometer, or nearly
one-third of the whole weight of the atmosphere. Therefore,
to resolve the proposed problem correctly, we must augment the
velocity of sound, as deduced from the Newtonian theory, in the
subduplicate ratio of the density of air, under a pressure of 30-04
inches, and 20-05 respectively. The density of air made use of
in the preceding part of this memoir is 0012353, the square
root of which is *U3514. ‘The air under a pressure of 20-05
inches requires a correction for temperature ; we shall take its
_ variation from the two extremes at 42°.5.

Then 0012858 * 2005 _ _ .900824493 x 42°°5 x-002078 =

00007 2815,and -000824493 + -000072815 =-000897308 whose
root is -02996.

To find in what space of time a pendulum whose length is
27541 feet will make one vibration ; we shall assume the measure
of the one which oscillates seconds, in latitude 45°, as equal to
29-117 inches, or 3°25975 fect ; and calculating from the esta-

blished

and

206 On the Propagation of Sound.

blished law of pendulous bodies, we find the time in whichi it
will make one vibration 91-766 seconds. But as the pendulum
performs its going and return in the same time that an undula-
tion moves forward over a space which ees e the velocity
of sound in a second; therefore 91°766 x 2= 183-532 seconds ;
and the space passed over in this time is the LO: rence of a
circle whose radius is 27541 feet.

Therefore a a a = 942-9 feet, the velocity of

185°532
sound in a second, according to Sir I. Newton’s method of cal-
culation.

To account then for the wide difference that exists between
the numbers as deduced from this theory, and actual experiments ;
Newton makes surmises very much beneath his usual penetra-
tion: he first supposes the crassitude of the solid particles of the
air, and the intervals between those particles, to be in proportion
to their diameters as 1 to 8 or 9, and from this source he aug-
ments the velocity 109 feet. Still the velocity is deficient ; and
to account for it, he next takes in the vapours floating in the
atmosphere, as being of a different tone from the air, and con-
jectures their proportion to be to that of the air as 21 to 20;
and these vapours are calculated to accelerate the progress of
sound in that ratio; thus increasing the velocity to 1142 ina
second, or until the velocity from theory agrees with that ob-
tained from experiment. That these conjectures are not even
plausible, the most ardent admirers of Newton must admit. In
the first place, the proportions of the diameters of the particles
of air to the intervals between them are merely imaginary, and
the quantity of vapours calculated as existing im the atmo-
sphere is absolutely erroneous. If Newton failed ultimately, in
this problem, to anticipate the law of nature, the superstructure
is raised upon an unerring base that can never fail. He had done
pe for glory; and the specks upon his fame are, like those
upon the luminary of day, invisible to the unassisted eye. But
while we admire the greatness of the man, let us not tamely follow
his splendid path; the perfection of philosophy requires the un-
biassed assistance of the highest fights of human itellect, con-
ducted by reason, and completed by experiment and reflection.

The theory of La Place, though highly ingenious, is nevertheless
very improbable. That a momentary evolution of caloric should
take place during every vibration in the aérial medium, we can-
not imagine. But allow! ing it really to be the case, though the
evolution of caloric might be separated with such rapidity as to
escape our means to detect it from a single tremor of the air;
yet I sav that a sonorous body, kept in‘a continual state of vi-
bration, must finally render the separation of caloric evident to

the

On the Propagation of Sound. 207

thesense. Independent of this consideration, we might inquire,
how much the temperature of the particles of air must be raised,
to cause an increase in the velocity of sound, as obtained from
theory, amounting to nearly one-fifth of the whole ?

What we assert constitutes the real error in Newton’s calcula-
tion is this, that he omits nearly one-third of the elastic power
of the air, by supposing the whole to be compressed within an
assumed limit; and that, although the velocity of sound, as esti-
mated trom the altitude alone, is correct, yet it is evident to us,
that to compress the whole of the atmosphere within the distance
of 27541 feet from the earth’s surface, an additional force,
equal to nearly one-third of the incumbent weight of the atmo-
sphere, is necessary: therefore the velocity of sound at the sur-
face of the globe, as deduced from Newton’s theory, must be in-
creased in the subduplicate ratio of 3004 to 20°05 ; and we
have before ascertained these two numbers to be 3514 and 2996:
942°9 x 3514
2996
in a second, agreeing with the observations of Cassini exactly.

By this method we have calculated the velocity of sound under
the equator, and at the poles; and find it greater by about 53
feet at the former than at the latter place; and this difference
will be observed between the fervid air of a summer’s day and
the chilling atmosphere of December’s reign; and the velocity
of sound in the latitude of London will be about 1102 feet—
estimating the increase and decrease to correspond with the va-
riation of the latitude at the rate of one-sixth of a foot for every
degree.

An interesting paper was published by Modeste Perolette*, in
which he has made it appear extremely probable that the action
of the solar rays materially affects the propagation of sound,
From his ingenious experiments I should infer that the velocity
of sound during the day was greater by about 5 of the whole
than in the night, or 22 feet in a second. Every philosophical
observer must have observed the striking difference between the
notes of a sounding body at midnight and noon ; also the very
different tone of the globe itself between a dry surface, and when
the ground is covered with snow,

I am, &c. .

‘ RicHARD WINTER.
To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

therefore,

= 1105-9 feet, the true velocity of sound

* Nicholson’s Journal, vol. xxv. p. 28.

XLII. On

{ 208 j

XLII. On the supposed Evolution of Heat from Vegetables.

Leskeard, March 19, 1814.
Sims, —Lw your Magazine for February, Mr. Forster in a note
on January 30th, in his meteerological journal, attributes the
thawing of the snow around trees and shrubs to the ‘ heat trans-
mitted from vegetable bodies.”” Having observed the same ap-
pearance, I at first also attributed it to the same cause; but
from further observations I soon found reason to reject such an
explanation of the phenomenon, because the snow, which lies
around any substance whateyer is affected in a similar way.
Stones and rocks, and large or small pieces of wood inserted in
or lying on the ground amidst snow, present the same appear-
ance precisely, as trees, shrubs, or any other living vegetables.
Since then we cannot attribute the disappearance of the snow
in the latter instance to heat, it strikes me that it may be ac-
counted for in another way. During the late snowy season, I ob-
served that the thaw uniformly commenced and proceeded only
on the surfaces of the snow ; even that next the earth being con-
siderably affected. The surface adjacent to a rock or other in-
animate substance thawed slowly for a short time, till a free
passage for the air was formed; afterwards melting as rapidly
as the upper surface, and receding gradually from the rock as a
centre.

Thus, whatever the substance may be around which the snow
has fallen,—when a thaw commences, all the surfaces of the snow
absorb caloric in the same proportion, or nearly so; and conse-
quently an uniform retreat of the whole depth of snow will take
place, and a bare piece of ground will be seen around the sub-
stance, of whatever kind it may be, in the form of a rude circle.

I have not made the above observations as an argument
against the supposition that vegetables give out heat, but merely
to show that Mr. Forster’s explanation of the phenomenon which
has occurred to both of us, does not in all instances hold good.
This he will have an opportunity of observing, in all probability,
during the next winter. It would be interesting to try a few
experiments in order to elucidate this matter ; and also to deter-
mine, by the thermometer, if possible, whether or not heat is
reallyevolved during the circulation of the vegetable fluids. Is
there any sensible heat in cold-blooded animals? If not, it
seems improbable that vegetables should afford any.

Yours, &c.
CoRNUBIENSIS.
To the Editors of the Phil. Mag.

XLIII. Process

a

f 209 j

XLIII. Process for obtaining Iode. By Mr, ALEXANDER
GARDEN.
Old Compton Street, Soho, March 21, 1814.
Sins, — 1 ue following method, which I have lately employed
for procuring iode, I take the liberty of communicating for inser-
tion in the Philosophical Magazine, (should you deem it of suffi-
cient importance,) and which, in addition to the information al-
ready therein contained on the same subject may not be altoge-
ther unacceptable to some of your chemical readers. It is as
follows :

1. To a concentrated watery solution of kelp (or the waste ley
of the soap-maker where kelp has been employed) from which
the greater part of the crystallizable salts have been separated by
the usual processes of evaporation and crystallization, add red
oxide of lead in the proportion of one ounce to about a pint of
the former; boil the mixture over a slow fire to dryness, and in-
crease the heat towards the end of the solution so as to carbonize
any animal or vegetable matter which the substance may contain.
This last may most conveniently be performed in an iron ladle.

2. Digest the dried mass in a quantity of cold water sufli-
cient to extract the greatest portion of the soluble matter, filter,
and evaperate the clear liquid to the consistence of a syrup.

3. Introduce the liquid obtained in the last process, together
with the saline matter which may have separated during the eva-
poration, into a glass mattrass, and pour thereon about twice its
_bulk of alcohol; digest with a gentle heat for a few minutes and
then suffer the vessel with its contents to grow cold.

4, Decant the clear alcoholic solution into a tubulated retort,
adapt a receiver, and by means of a gentle and gradually applied
heat distil off the alcohol. The saline matter which remains in
the retort is to be washed out and evaporated to dryness in a
capsule of Wedgwood’s ware.

5. Intreduce the dry salt thus obtained into a mattrass with a
short neck, to which a glass tube about six or eight inches long,
and sufficiently large to fit over the external diameter of the neck,
has been luted, and pour over the salt by means of a long-
necked funnel twice its weight of strong sulphuric acid. Heat
the mixture gradually by a spirit or Argand’s lamp, and the iode
will immediately begin to rise in the form of a dense and beau-
tiful violet-coloured gas, which will be condensed in the upper
part of the vessel in black shining crystals; when the gas ceases
to be disengaged the mattrass should be allowed to cool: the
iode may then be washed out with water, dried on white filtering
paper at a temperature not exceeding 100° of Fahrenheit, and
inclosed in a bottle accurately fitted with a glass stopper.

The chief advautage of the preceding processes is to separate
Vol. 43. No. 191. March 1814, pretty

210 On the new Sulstance called ode, or Iodine.

pretty completely all the foreign salts contained in the kelp, and
to obtain, in a nearly insulated state, the saline compound, from
which alone iode is to be obtained.

The mass remaining in the mattrass from whieh the iode has
been separated, consists of sulphate of potash with a small pro-
portion of sulphate of soda; hence it would appear probable that
in kelp an iode may exist in combination with potash or soda, or
both, as iodine of potash or of soda. When iode is added to a
solution of subcarbonate of potash a combination takes place,
and the mixture assumes a dark-brown colour. If a gentle heat
be applied, this colour dissappears and the solution remains of a
pale straw-yellow colour, a boiling heat does not separate iode
from this combination, but if the solution be evaporated to dry-
ness, the addition of sulphuric acid to the dry mass separates iode
under its characteristic form.

I am, sirs, yours, &c.
ALEXANDER GARDEN.

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

XLIV. Correction of a typographical Error which occurs in the
Statement of Mr. Accum’s Process of preparing Iode, pub-
lished in the last Number of the Philosophical Magazine ;
with additional Remarks on the Method of obtaining Iode.
Communicated bys Mr. Accum, Operative Chemist, 'c.

Compton Street, Soho, March 1814.

Sirs, wi | wii thank you to notice in the Philosophical Maga- —

zine for next month the following typographical mistake, which

occurs in some copies cf that work, published last month; namely,
for the words oxide of lime, page 146, line 6, read oxide of lead.

Having been applied to from different quarters concerning this-
mistake, you will perhaps do me the favour to reprint by way of
answering my correspondents*, the paragraph again in which
the error occurs. This paragraph should read thus :

“ ANOTHER PROCESS OF OBTAINING IoDE.

‘¢ lode is to be found in abundance in the waste or spent lee
of those soap manufacturers who employ kelp in the preparation
of soap. To obtain the iode from the waste lee, let it be boiled
for a few minutes with quicklime ; strain the fluid and mingle it
with sulphuric acid in excesst. This being done, evaporate the

* Mr. Accum embraces this opportunity of returning thanks to those
correspondents whe have honoured him with their inquiries concerning the
above error of the press, &c. but reminds them that it is usual on such
occasions, to pay postage.

+ The boiling of the lee with quicklime is not essential, but it is neces-
sary that the sulphuric acid should be added greatly in excess.

liquor

2

On the Preparing Iodine. 211

liquor to a sytupy consistence, and then distil, or heat it, in a
flask, or retort with red oxide of lead and sulphuric acid. The
iode will thus be obtained in abundance; and this in fact, con-
stitutes the cheapest process of obtaining it.’

If the product to he distilled with manganese has not been
freed sufficiently from the muriates in which the soap lee abounds,
there then is a copious production of chlorine, together with a
yellow fluid, and then the quantity of iode becomes considerably
diminished. This loss may be guarded against, by adding filings
of zine to the mixture, previously to submiting it to distillation.
In fact, the addition of zinc filings effects the expulsion of an ad-
ditional portion of ivde from the mass, after the oxide of lead
or manganese has ceased to act.

For the knowledge of this fact, I am indebted to the chemical
professor of the Royal Institution,

It is obvious that instead of waste lee, the so called black ash,
dissolyed in water, may be successfully employed.

I remain, yours, &c.

Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

ea

XLV. On Preparing Iodine. By Mr. James Fisuer.
y : Walbrook, March 1814.
Sirs, —Mr. Accum having given to the public through the
medium of your Magazine, some processes for preparing iodine,
I have repeated them with success 3 and I beg, through the same
channel, to point out another method of preparing iodine not
mentioned by that chemist, but which has been found to answer
well. The operation consists in concentrating the waste lees of
the soap manufacturer, by boiling, and then mixing it with spirit
of wine, or alcohol ; the salts of the lee become precipitated, and
fall down to the bottom, but the iodine remains in the spirit of
wine. If the spirit now be distilled off, and the residue be then
heated with a little sulphuric acid, and manganese, or red lead,
the iodine sublimates in the neck of the retort. About one drachm
of iodine was thus procured in the presence of the members of the
new Chemical Society of London, from ten wine gallons of soap
lees, and this substance is therefore unquestionably, as Mr. Accum
observes, the best. substance for obtaining iodine.
I am, sirs,
Your most obedient servant,
JAMES FisHER,

FREpDRIcK Accum.

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch,

02 XLVI. On

ae)

XLVI. On the Capacity for Heat, or Calorific Power of various
Liquids. By Bensamin Count Rumrorp*,

Tae subject is of rather an obscure nature, and it has been so
little examined, that it will be useful to begin by elucidating it as
well as I can.

Let us suppose two cylindrical vessels, with very thick sides,
made of lead or any other metal, and perfectly equal im size, each
being capable of containing a pint.

These two vessels being at the freezing point, we shall pour
into the one a pound of water at the temperature of 96 F
(=28!R) being that of the blood, and into the other a pound
of olive oil at the same temperature.

Each of these liquids will heat the cold vessel in which it is
placed, the vessel in its turn will cool the liquid, and both the
liquid and the vessel will latterly be of the same temperature.

If water and oil of olives had the same calorific power, a
pound of water at the temperature of 96° would heat its cold
vessel precisely as much and not more than a pound of oil would
heat its vessel, the two vessels being of the same weight, and at
the same temperature at the commencement of the experiment.

But experience shews that water heats its vessel much more
than oil does : consequently the calorific power of water is greater
than the calorific power of oil of olives, when the quantities
of these two liquids are estimated by their weight ; and if we de-
signate the calorific power of water by 1. the calorific power of
oil of olives will be expressed by a fraction under 1.

The power with which any given body, solid or liquid, being
at a given temperature, resists the calorific or frigorific action of
bodies warmer or colder than itself, is in proportion to its calo-
rific power; and the greater is this power, the longer it resists
these actions of surrounding bedies.

If, under equal surfaces, a pound of water and a pound of oil
of olives, both at the same temperature (96 F) are placed at
the same time in a place where the temperature is lower (that
of freezing for instance) the oil of olives will be cooled much more
rapidly than the water.

if it be in a warm place that the two liquids are exposed, the
oil of olives will still have its temperature most rapidly changed ;
it will be more heated than the water.

In two cylindrical glass vessels of equal size and very thin,
place equal quantities of water and at the same temperature

(96 F.)

* This paper was read before the French Institute as a supplement to
the Count’s Inquiry into the Heat developed by Combustion, Vide Phil.
Mag, vol. xl, p. 296, and vol, xliii, p. 64,

A piece

On the Capacity for Heat. 213

A piece of lead weighing a pound, and a piece of copper of
the same weight, having been cooled in a mixture of pounded
ice and water, remove them from this cold mixture and plunge
each of them suddenly into one of the vessels of water.

The two masses of water will be cooled: but that which con-
tains the copper most, for the calorific power of copper is greater
than the calorific power of lead.

We may also say that the frigorific power of copper is greater
than the frigorific power otf lead, and in the case in question,
the expression perhaps will be most suitable.

It is always the same power : it is that by means of which any
body resists the action of surrounding bodies, and which tends
to change its temperature either by increase or diminution.

Much obscurity has been introduced into the science by vague
ideas, being attached to the words hof and cold: but it will not
suit my purpose to enlarge upon this subject at present. 1 have
already delivered my opinion in a former paper.

The little heat which I discovered in the condensation of al-
cohol, having induced me to think that the specific heat of this
liquid had not been accurately determined, and wishing to know
it precisely, in order to enable me to finish the calculations which
were necesssary for elucidating the results of some of my experi-
ments, I constructed a small and very simple apparatus, by the
help of which I could easily, and as I presume accurately, deter-
mine it. ‘

This apparatus consists of a small bottle of a particular form —
constructed of thin leaves of red copper, intended to contain
the liquid which is to be the subject of the experiment ; and a
small cylindrical vase, also constructed of thin pieces of red
copper in which I place water at a certain temperature, Into
this water I plunge the bottle of copper containing the liquid
which is the subject of the experiment : this liquid being of a
different temperature from that of the water in the outer vase.

As the capacity of the vase for heat, as well as that of the bot-
tle are known, I determine by a very simple calculation, the ca-
pacity for heat of the liquid contained in the bottle. This cal-
culation which is well known, is founded in the changes which
take place in the temperature of liquids, in the vase and in the
bottle, by taking an uniform temperature, when the bottle is im-
mersed in the water contained in the vessel.

In order that this equality of temperature may be speedily
brought about, the form of the bottle is such that it has a very
great surface relative to its small capacity, and in order to ma-
nage it without touching it, its neck which is small is closed by
a long cork, which serves as a handle.

In order to diminish as much as possible the effect of the at-

O 3 mosphere,

214 On the Capacity for Heat.

mosphere, and of surrounding bodies upon the apparatus, while
the experiment is going on, the quantity ofwater in the vessel
is regulated so as to keep the bottle wholly submerged ‘in the
liquid, and even the upper end of the neck covered, when the
bottle is immersed. The vessel which contains this water is
placed and suspended by a ring of cork in another vessel larger
and higher, and the interval between the two is filled with eider
down.

The form of the bottle is such that its horizontal section pre-
sents the figure of a rectangular cross. Some idea may be
conceived of its form and dimensions, if we suppose a square
piece of stick, each facet of which is four lines broad by four
inches three lines in length, upon the four faces of which we
have fixed four sticks of the same length (7.e. 4 inches 3 lines)
but each of them being four lines thick by eight broad.

The four sticks last described will exhibit the figure of the
bottle: for the square piece of stick will be concealed by them
from our view.

The neck of the bottle is in the prolongation of its axis: if
is four lines diameter by four high: it ought to be circular: the
cork should be an inch long, and the bottle weigh 76°07 grammes
without its cork.

The cylindrical vase which contains the water is two inches
diameter, and four inches nine lines high, and it weighs 74:65
grammes.

The exterior vessel in which the latter is suspended by the cork
ring, is five inches three lines high and three inches diameter, so
that the sides and bottom are every where separated by an interval
of six lines: this interval is filled with eider down as already
mentioned.

To prevent the water from touching the eider down, the cork
ring is covered with a thin coating of mastic.

In order to ascertain the temperature of the bottle, and of the
liquid which it contains, without being obliged to plunge a ther-
mometer into the bottle, which would in this case be mecon-
venient, I employed a very simple method.

J placed a large bucket filled with water in a room with a
northern aspect : I allowed it to assume the temperature of the
rooni, taking care to shut the door and windows day and night.
I placed the smail bottle on a stand in this bucket, keeping the
upper part of the cork only out of the water. As the bottle is
small and has a large surface, it speedily acquires the temperature
of the bucket of water, but in order to be well convinced that
the bottle and the liquid which it contains have acquired the
temperature in question, I leave the bottle a considerable time
in the bucket, frequently half an hour and sometimes more.

In

ee

or Calorific Power of various Liquids. 215

-n giving a detailed account of an experiment made with this
apparatus, I shall have an opportunity of giving clear and precise
ideas of the different parts of my apparatus, and of the particular
objects which they are intended to attain.

Having found by various preliminary experiments made with
water that the capacity for heat of the cylindrical vessel with that
of the thermometer employed to determine the temperature of
the water which it contained, was equal to that of 24:3 grammes
of water, and that the specific heat of the bottle of copper was
equal to that of 8-36 grammes of water. I made the following
experiment with purified linseed oil.

I put into the cylindrical vessel 180 grammes of water: the
temperature of the room was 594° F. | filled the copper bottle
with the above oil, and corked it. I cooled it in a bucket of

“water at the temperature of 444° F. The oil in the bottle
weighed 82:55 grammes.

The bottle having had time to acquire the temperature of
441° F, was withdrawn from the bucket, and placed in a cylin-
drical vessel of tinned iron, of about four inches diameter, and
six high, filled to the height of four inches and a half with water,
at the temperature of 443° F. :

The bottle being submersed in this vessel of cold water, was
carried into the room where I had placed the small vessel of
copper belonging to the apparatus: it was then taken out of the
cold water and plunged into the water contained in the small
cylindrical vessel of copper which contained 180 grammes of
water, at the temperature of 59° F.

A thermometer having a cylindrical reservoir four inches long,
which was placed in this vessel beside the copper bottle, soon
fell, and in three or four minutes it marked 564° of F. where it
remained a long time stationary, and afterwards began to ascend
slowly.

The capacities for heat of the warm bodies which were cooled
in this experiment, were equal to that of 204-3 grammes of
water ; viz. That of the water employed...... 180 grammes.

That of the vases and thermometer 24'3
Total .¢.. 2043

The capacity for heat of the bottle containing the oil was
equal to that of ..........++0+++.+ 8°36 grammes of water,

And to this we must add the cold water
adhering to the bottle, when it came out
of the cold water, and was plunged
into the water contained in the copper
vessel, I found by a particular experi-
ment that this quantity of water was .... 1°04

Totalae ite. O40. -
O04 Now

216 On the Capacity for Heat,

Now as the temperature of the warm water in the cylindrical
vase of copper was that of 59} before the mixture, and 26} after
the communication of the heat had been obtained, it is evident
that this water was cooled 23°. But if we multiply the number
of grammes of water which the specific heat of this water re-
presents, and that of the vessel =204-3 grammes by the number
of degrees which it has been cooled (2;°) we shall have a pro-
duct which will express the number of grammes of water, which
would have been cooled one degree of F. by a loss of heat equal
to that which the vessel and its contents supported im this ex-
periment. It is 204°3 x 2°75 x 561°84 grammes.

We shall now see what part of this heat was communicated to
the bottle, and to the small portion of cold water attached to it,
and what part to the oil contained in the bottle.

As the temperature of the bottle and its contents was 44;° F.
before the mixture, and 654° afterwards, it is evident that the
bottle had acquired 124° of heat: consequently if we multiply
9-4 (the number which expresses the sum of the capacities for
heat of the bottle, and of the cold water adhering to it) by 123°,
we shall have a product which will express the number of
grammes of water, which would have been heated one degree by
the heat communicated during the experiment to the bottle, and
to the small portion of water which adhered to it.

Tt is 9°4 x 12:25=115°14 grammes.

If from the heat lost by the vessel and the
warm water which we have found equal tc
that which is necessary for raising the tem-
perature of 561-86 grammes of water, one
degree of Fe os ..vesseeencesceseeess-s 00183 grammes.

We take the quantities which the bottle and
the water adhering to the bottle have received 115-15

We shall have........ 446°69 grammes
of water heated one degree, expressing the quantity of heat em-
ployed for raising to 12}° F. the temperature of the 82°55
grammes of linseed oil which were put into the bottle.

On dividing this number (446-69) by 12}, we shall see how
many grammes of water would have been heated one degree, by
the quantity of heat in question.

BA ig ae =36'464 grammes of water.

By the results of this calculation we find that the same quan-
tity of heat which is necessary to raise the temperature of 36°464
grammes of water 12 degrees and a half of Fahrenheit’s thermo-
meter, is sufficient to raise the temperature of 82°55 grammes of
oil the same number of degrees.

Consequently

or Calorific Power of various Liquids. 217

Consequently the capacity of water for heat is greater than
that of oil of linseed in the proportion of 82,55 to 36,464: and
if we express the capacity of the-water by wily as is usually done,
the capacity of the above oil ought to be expressed by the frac-
tion 0:44172.

These details must no doubt appear superfluous to those who
are versed in the higher branches of knowledge, and who are
accustomed to express the most complete relations by algebraical
signs: but it must be recollected, that the subject of which |
treat is familiar to few, and that it is necessary to explain with
rigorous accuracy the principles upon which the method em-
ployed is founded, as well as the manner of using the apparatus
which I recommend.

On repeating twice the experiment made with pure linseed oil.
I had as a result in one of these experiments a capacity for heat
equal to....-+. EE shaiagieps =i pie sine aie ae

And in the other equal to.......- hastianie aa tad ioe

If to these two results we add that of the first
experiment, equal tO .. weeecseeessenseceses O44172

We shall have as a mean result ........ eee 045192
The following are the results of some experiments made with
other liquids. Olive oil furnished :
Specific Heat of Olive Ou.

Ist Experiment ......<. 4+ tiaignsipice epee aa
BQ SAperIMeNt 2.5 cee w cece ess scree ...- 0°43422
EIR PCTRIBCRE 2 hod a2 aig Mice ein lola esa) aoe . 0°42185

Mean result .... 0°43849
Three experiments made with naphtha gave the following result :
Specific Heat of Naphtha.
Sree eOPTIMCOE 46 cits anise tee wes ee es ee 0°45408
2d Experiment ........ cece eee were secs 0°39234
OPPMBEHMCNLA2 cs s'o% jess ee isc b's. voceng 41900
Mean result.... 0°41519
Three experiments made with spirits of turpentine gave the
following result :

? Specific Heat of Turpentine.
het Raperiment’. 67. 756, /sla bi ioleee as 6 see O29822

meh Moepreringens “Wi.; cas Glas: tie 00 0 af ehS se d6°0-87031
a Experiment) lic sc deere ess ss vedetds © OD4216

Mean result.... 0°33856
Two experiments with alcohol, of the specific gravity of
817624, gave the following results :
Specific

218 Notices respecting New Books.
Specific Heat of Alcohol.
Tst EXXperiMenth 6 £14 aja: joxcaeiean mip ¥ialdaid she mies
2d EXPEHMENt, sriereis od gingivere adie haidipinia(s-s 10 Oe

Mean result .... 0:54993
Two experiments with spirit of wine of the specific gravity of
$5324, gave the following results :
Specific Heat of Spirit of Wine.
ESE RPERIMICNE espn sy sve coms vc. p coe eee eee
BG EXPETMMOWY oa yin cwisye ws 2,5 a.m 050,» ». 0 ech 3 auie ee

Mean result.... 0°58078
Two experiments with sulphuric ether of the specific gravity
of 72880, gave as results :
Specific Heat of Sulphuric Ether,
Est} Experiment 2 er Pee a Se a

2d Experiment <0 6.24). eens vous we eae s O4768

Mean result... . 0°54329
I was at first much surprised to find so great a capacity for
heat in sulphuric ether, but my astonishment was diminished
when | recollected that this liquid can unite with alcohol in all
proportions, without exhibiting any symptoms of a chemical
action: for this reason therefore, we ought to expect to find the
same capacity for heat in both liquids.

XLVII. Notices respecting New Books.

Oficial Papers, relating to Cperations performed by Order of
the Directors of the Royal Hospital for Seamen at Green-
wich, on several of the Pensioners belonging thereto, for the
Purpose of asceriaining the general Efficacy of the new Modes
of Treatment practised by Mr, Avams, for the Cure of the
various Species of Cataract and the Egyptian Ophthalmia.
Published by Order of the Directors, 1814.. Printed by
Winchester and Son.

We have already had occasion to notice the successful labours
of Mr. Adams in that branch of medical science which regards
the treatment of the diseased eye. We have now before us a
most interesting publication occasioned by the same gentleman’:
professional exertions among the pensioners ef Greenwich Hos-
pital, and since printed by the express order of the directors, after
a careful investigation of the merits of the practice which it re-
commends, the high sanction of official authority is now superin-
duced upon the well earned fame which Mr, Adams has already
acquired, in

Notices respecting New Books. 219

In a short advertisement prefixed to the present publication,
we are informed that the directors of Greenwich Hospital, having
heard of the great improvements made by Mr. Adams, in the
modes of operating on the different kinds of cataract, he was re-
quested to examine the blind pensioners, with a view to ascer-
tain what could be effected for their relief.

Mr. Adams accordingly selected twenty cases for operation,
consisting of cataracts, closed pupils, and the Egyptian ophthalmia.
For the temporary accommodation of these patients, a house in
town was taken by the directors, and they were placed under the
immediate care of Mr. Adams, who very handsomely disclaimed
all expectation of remuneration for his services.

The Reports of the Medical Officers of the Institution having
certified that the operations performed by Mr. Adams had been
attended with the greatest success, a special meeting was called,
at which the directors personally examined and interrogated the
pensioners, who had been under treatment for diseased eyes, “ as
well those who had been under the care of former oculists, as
the patients of Mr. Adams.”

The result was highly honourable to the professional reputa-

tion of Mr. Adams and the directors considered it to be a duty
which they owed to humanity, to give publicity under the au-
thority of their names to the whole proceedings which had taken
place.

In a communication dated May 25, 1813, from Mr. M‘Laugh-
lin, surgeon to Greenwich Hospital, that gentleman informs the
directors * that the first set of patients sent to London, requiring
thirteen eyes to be operated on, are all cured, with the exception
of one man, David Hoar, a person of notoriously perverse charac-
ter, who was attacked with fever, and sent back to the Hospital
for the cure thereof ; but even in this case there is every prospect
of success, from a repetition of the operation.” Eleven other pa-
tients who were sent to replace those already cured, have all been
operated on, and with the prospect of complete success (except-
ing two that had been previously couched by another oculist), five
being already capable of seeing, and the others prepesding, as fa-
vourably as could be expected.

* The superior success of Mr. Adams’s new modes be practice,
when compared with the operation performed on the pensioners
for the last fifteen years, is very striking. On examining the
latter it appears, that out of twenty-four eyes operated upon,
several had been destroyed; in other instances the pupils had
become obliterated, and one only had been benefited, and even
that the success is incomplete.

** Among the men already cured, some of the cases are so re-
markable as to merit particular notice,

« Edward

220 Notices respecting New Books.

<¢ Edward Turner had, during six months that he was a patient
of the London Eye Infirmary, undergone ihirteen operations ;
nevertheless, he obtained but very little benefit in one eye, and
none in the other: Mr. Adams has cured both by one operation
on each.

‘* Hartgill had been blind for near twenty years, and was con-
sidered by every oculist of eminence in London to labour under
Gutta Serena. Mr. Adams has successfully operated on him,
and he is now capable of reading the smallest print.

‘“‘ Bray, aged seventy-nine years, is cured of cataract in both
eyes, and was capable, in the space of a fortnight, of seeing the
minutest objects.

“Douglas, aged thirty-two, with closed pupils, after having
been above five years a patient of the oculist before referred to,
without experiencing the least benefit, has had an artificial pupil
formed, by which he is enabled so see the most minute objects
with distinctness ; his other eye has been since operated on, and
promises to be equally successful.

‘*T cannot, in justice to Mr. Adams, conclude this Report,
without expressing to you how greatly I am indebted to his li-
berality and disinterestedness in communicating to me much va-
luabie information and instruction relating to diseases of the eye,
which I trust will eventually be attended with considerable ad-
vantage to that class of objects, the afflicted blind, who constitute
no small proportion of the invalids admitted into this noble
asylum.

‘Subsequently Mr. M‘Langhlin reported that in consequence
of the absence of Mr. ae from London, for a few months it
was requisite to recal the pensioners to the Hospital—*‘ and,”
this gentleman adds, ‘* I have infinite pleasure in repeating that
Mr. Adams’s practice and operations upon them have been suc-
cessful in a most extraordinary degree. Many are perfectly re-
stored to sight ; and all the others, where there was any reason-
able prospect of a cure, though as yet necessarily only convale-
scent, are going on favourably ; and should it be the pleasure of
the governor and directors to review those that have undergone
operations, I beg that they may be presented before them, for
that purpose, at “the next Board at the Royal Hospital.”

A vote of thanks from the governor and directors sueceeded
these flattering testimonies; and, latterly, the whole medical
officers of the Tnstitution made the following communications to
the Board, which we consider to be so interesting as to require
no apology for giving at length.

“ Royal Infirmary, Dec. 27, 1813.

<¢ Sir,—We inclose herewith, for the information of the Di-
rectors, separate Reports of the results of the mew and old opera-

tions

i

Notices respecting New Books. 221

tions for the cure of cataract which have been practised upon the
pensioners of the Royal Hospital, the great disparity in which ~
cannot fail to make a strong impression on the minds of the ho-
nourable members of the Board.

“ In order to bring them equally acquainted with the extent
of the failures in extracting the cataract, as formerly practised,
as well as with the great success of Mr. Adams’s improved modes
of curing that disease, we have given a detailed description of
the result of each, with the present state of the eyes which have
been submitted to the trial of the two systems.

«<The proportion of the eyes totally destroyed by the operation
of extraction amounts to one-half the number operated upon ;
to this the success of Mr. Adams, more particularly in the cases
which had been considered incurable, as well as those previously
operated upon without benefit, forms a very striking contrast, as
it will be seen that his operations have failed but in one instance,

“To enable the Board fully to appreciate this success, we
think it proper to point out, that even in the men whose vision-
is not at all, or but partially, benefited (with the exception of
Ford), the operations were as perfectly executed as on those
whose sight is completely restored. To the disease of the optic
nerve, therefore, and not to the failure of the operation (as was
the case where extraction had been formerly performed), is to
be attributed the want of that perfectly successful issue which is
so conspicuously displayed in the “¢ wneaxceptionable cases.’

** This diseased state of the optic nerve in those patients was
originally apprehended by Mr. Adams; and when, at their ur-
gent solicitations, he was prevailed upon to perform the necessary
operations, he stipulated, that, should the event confirm his un-
favourable opinions, we should attest the circumstances under
which they were undertaken.

“It is, however, very important to have ascertained, by actual
experiment, as Mr. Adams has done on several of the pensioners,
that the optic nerve, although so much diseased as to have de-
terred a former practitioner from operating, yet, by the removal
of the cataracts, and subjecting the eyes to a particular plan of
discipline, their functions haye been sufficiently recovered to
afford useful, and sometimes almost perfect, vision. An instance
of the latter is shown in the case of Hartgill, blind for nearly
twenty years, as supposed, by all the highest authorities in Lon-
don, from gutta serena, for which disease he had been treated.
Bray’s and Wilkins’s perfect restoration to sight are little less
extraordinary, from the great age of the former, and the latter
having had an artificial pupil formed after a complete obliteration

of

222 Notices respecting New Books.

of that aperture, by an unsuccessful operation of extracting the
cataract, performed seven years since.

“ These, together with the other cases included in the two last
divisions of the Report No. 2, prove that a very large proportion
of persons unhappily afflicted with blindness, and hitherto con-
sidered incurable, are now susceptible of relief from the new and
improved operations, and the after-management of the eyes,
practised by Mr. Adams,

“In addition to the gratifying contents of the second Report,
we think it our duty to state, for the information of the Board,
that Mr. Adams has discovered a mode of curing the Egyptian
ophthalmia, which has been successfully practised upon several
of the pensioners, some of whom had been blind for three or
four years, and given up as incurable by the most*eminent ocu-
lists then in London. The communication that this destructive
and hitherto intractable djsease admits of cure we conceive will
be gladly received by the Board, and the promulgation by Mr.
Adams of this important discovery be considered as a great ma-
tional desideratum.

<¢ By the adoption of his practice we are of opinion, from what
we have seen of its effects, that a very large proportion of the
seamen and soldiers, who have been discharged the service, blind:
of the ophthalmia, might he again rendered fit for duty, or be
made useful members of society.

“ We cannot conclude this letter without stating, in Justice to
Mr. Adams, that he has freely demonstrated his practice; and
that he has, in the most liberal and unreserved manner, given us
every information that we required relating to the treatment of
diseases of the eyes.

We are, sir, your very humble servants,
R. Ropertson, Physician.
B. M‘Laueuirin, Surgeon.
, M. 8. Kent, Apothecary.
John Dyer, Esq.

RESULT

tL NL A

aie rehererate oles Xe! si8'* °° OT OAM Do Asie Renee nie ek. Aare Gio
Ayutojap ou ynq ‘jnyssaoousuy) 2 amie sid Fi grat de
ee SUIT aMOL Beg S eH sage siacnte,< Syetehaacneeting: ninea Boo : som hae

Ayroedo jeijred ‘paiuo yoriejeD t mcr ge Old syraqod Wisilit a

AAION 213dQ oy} jo

223

sajtt Jo sasodnd WoMUIOD ayy toy
juaroyns ynq “y9ajtad you uoTsTA

"aAdaN odo 344 Jo :

3}B4s pasvasip a7 0} Burmo “qoay reeesess pauasog [tdng [B10

qooyop & pure ‘jidng paje.tay! ****rassnqy WRIIITAL
-tad ajinb you ynq ‘Ajivau uolsr A, -Ylsy ue pue ‘paino youreyeD : ae a racsenudeies LSA Me ;
‘od reese tence ee reser eees saggrtag I poeteceereserecesens annie) 99 seeees Kqieq seyig
"0 sreeress nomuog jidag elo 5-4 sieretantOyy K
¢ -yiyty ue pue ‘paino qorieyed T= |ftdnd payerazitqo uyim Goeweyey | 6L uowaag Auy
‘od ee 07d I ee rd ‘od OF =e yoeqgiip, prBapq
. "yoaftad Jrrteeerereeecereeeers soc I occ Ts G), |*doneng UeyreUOP
ne *MOISUD-INO Uo ano pue Ywapiog Ri sTApSS ohvenelereyesocegeretere ele © UNE T: I ee rc. 0 Le |" yooopueyy ywaqoy,
S *apoungrer) Woy rv eal neterer a eel scp Astaxete, aa - steer tee e eee eee eees a SAF.
FQ paip oq uoqm ‘duuanjar 4y51g og, a og OL Ao[Sulyy Waqoy
3 ‘op ‘op oagtag [rrrtctetcttteseseeeeen tog z aes) gidlova wiwigud naiale se PARQ GT 69 {°° Suro paeyory
pO ‘sapoujoadg yoRABIED YIM AoA se Rich CioDD SOD iataier ors lane che Rnaeteto Rielatay SreiS parte <0
= [janse aas 07 ayqe Sa1aq “nayieg emeemmnemanar (1-) 11 f G qoeieyey | 08 Sesy ugor
to 2ae
Gos
= *UOISIA JO ayeIg ‘suoyeiadg ay} Jo WNsay EEEr ‘aseasiq: Jo uondiosaqy B 6 LUOdUY
v B55
= ‘ajqettoijdaoxoun pasapisuod SASV¥O
~~ F ge
$ ‘swvay “Aq Aq siouolsuag ayy uo pouttojsod SNOLLVUAdMO MAN 903 JO LTNSIA
ee LLL
RS) 7 6,00 bevolge ogee vee 680 wrens peurioy.tied
af ndaq pry woNDVNX| Jo uoesado
° ays Yorys uodn sodq Jo caquina [BIO],
ean to eeteeeeeeeee s+ myssaoong .
' Bib ene ss e** of ay] JO sadueyo ‘I LUOday
paseasip soqjo pue ‘Bausog anbedg
¢ **49e1e3eQ Arepuodas puke vua.ag EyNH
t ee ey spidng pazesa3qg

oisiae ste sisters sie sie aay 2s BoA BOAT

“SWAY “1JQ] JO Juaut a ayy 0) snotaead
“eydsoy ay} UL MOU J9RALIBD JO putlq savuotsuag uo pausojsed uoaq yoys NOLLOVULXT JO NOLLVUTdO 24) Jo LTASIN

a ee

"STgI {L3 ‘00d ce
*Ranzayjody wording ‘unrishy ‘Axoldody jo peap aouts st [fepuisy 193309 +
‘LNA ‘SW ‘NITHDAV LI “F ‘NOSNIZOU “8 ‘uoIstA aq} poso.ysap A[tvou sey pay ‘ouLoy yU977}IlIAaqUL Ue

te °°" “1eIOL pauinsse yori ‘ad ay} Jo suoleUUEYyy: yuafoIA payeadad YIM
= i {paand SBx ay oye SyUOU 99.24} “payoeyzze sea MO}eA1G UBYPBUOL x

ing New Books.

Notices respect

224

L ** AjuepoSas s0j padivgosiq 33s patie erage oe

[otttterressss s+ myssaoonsuy)
Botte? puyssaoang 1¢ usaaq aang suoiqetodQ Mau Ui
‘NOLLVTIALIGVOIN yor uodn sadgy jo taquinuyr10,

JOUIS SIVIA UBAIS UOIR.AAXG JO
aInpivjoy; mor idud pazyesez
-1[qo ya ‘Ace puodas 4yoR.tezZD
F pawoy jidng [eloyyse ue pue weep et eee :
oa ; paaowdad JORAL}LO snoaRqlUayy I fidng “payeroyygo Yara “op oT ag UIppeAL Uyor

t pewosreseretesesre ee eeee ‘od

"SULA Ugor

Q2
i

“IU 84} 2VS 0} ajqe Sulay “oajsog paaotwas yoRsezeO Ale puogas auf

**euatag eyjn5y pue §(Arepuoo
-ds 10) snouviquioW szoRIEiZD

‘aiqisuasur AT[e}0} S {
*syesodo G] suoSiopun A[sno1a
6

Sutoq aasan o1dQ “pasosdua yoN; I imate sh
qoopage= fo 7 °° tt pet ee we qoapleg -aid pep "Surjeoy pue peyoeyap Oh [°° ** OUINT PALAPTE
4aqj0 ay {ina laype weseyeygaug
: “SISI[UIG) A9WOF Aq ALjNJssgoonsuN UOdN pazetedo Uoog pey YOLYM SASVO
ee SSS a ee
; ‘ s e pigs gfe lip eiskeidie.eipisisiosa 66 ua Wyr “77 galan OU a4} JO 4oaJ sp
qoajiad you ynq ‘pooS £194 uolstA od o ; -op v quia (quazaype) sioeAejeQ t go }] URmeyUY A, SPUIOT,

BAG ll cos ccs voce eae tae eae Si det toe
0} sanuntos pre 4nyasn ale 499449. it Buslag VyNyH pur yrsejyeg | (4 yepauy swpo+
*wonduinsuoy jo pap ay f * quewes.iejua saqzing satmnb ; . ae,
Vat ‘Sutsoiduat pale [ojasn WolslA U-at pidng ynq Spaano jov.e}e) t a 4 °a 6y | uosdmoyL wertitAt
SSOUUAYUNAP ATGISL
-1OIULIOJ ALVUIYU] 94} Woy I “*11dng paywsoztjqo pue yoerezey =| oO | PLT PLAed

pasivyosip uaqM ‘yuaosa/eauod
*g0ULjSIP a[qedaptstion v ye sjoaf U}............ seeeee eee ronqigy I ‘od “od “og Ie {oe unsny mel AL

-qO a8 0} ajqe pue ‘;njosn AOIS! A

“syoalqo tererecese <* pauog fidnd seetece’ BHoJag BIND YIIN mel ears). 5
][Btus 99s uvo pue ‘jnyasn aa Vodou: ue pee ‘padnd yoetcyeD tT ‘1dug payetajyqo pue yoeie}eD oP Aglleq SBUOUT,
*OSa[BAUND MON "plod w0.y soho

94} JO UONEUMLULBUL FUIJOIA UY yLA Sw aly ceipainca’ sie; pia\4 4) o“olnie: 910. = wieiaiviniotoe «+ 39299, BNP)
paxoeyzye |[t} ‘Aoueny years yy ae by Lire ‘payeatjduies — syeAeeD Sh | IaweH AouMapord

quid jews pres 0} payqeua sey .

ie seeeeoe "+" * pourtoy sjidng oF E / aes 8 =
Ila feroynae pue “pana syoeseyeg z sfidng payetazl[qo qs sjoemryeg | 96 sejsnoq ugor
omt

*s}SI[NOQ Auto} Aq a[qu.nout pasapisuoo SUSVO

Notices respecting New Books. 225

In a letter to the Governor and Directors explanatory of his
practice, which follows the above interesting documents, Mr.
Adams observes, “ from the statements which have been made of
the success of the practice of extraction, the public have been
taught to believe that it possessed all the excellence of which any
operation for the cure of cataract was susceptible. It became,
_ therefore, highly necessary that such an experiment as the pre~
sent should be instituted; and that, under the immediate super-
intendance of impartial and disinterested persons, whose testi-
mony could not be doubted.”

All personal allusions to other operators are thus handsomely
disclaimed.

** And here I beg leave to repeat the observation I made at my
first interview with your honourable Board, that it is the opera-
tion, and not the operator, which I deprecate. Were he to
adopt my operations, or were | to follow his, the results of the
two modes of practice would probably be nearly the same as they
are now found to be; nor shall I hesitate to add my firm belief,
that superior manual dexterity is not to be found in this king-
dom, than is possessed by the operator whose efforts have proved
80 unavailing, in the many instances submitted to your considera-
tion. It is, I conceive, the want of a personal experience of the
superior effiacy of my practice, which prevents his adopting it
with the same promptitude, as another oculist of long-established
celebrity has done, since he saw me operate; who, before that
period, was distinguished by his practice, as well as writings, as
one of the warmest advocates of the operation of extraction.

‘6 It may be proper to inform your honourable Board that I
have not confined myself to any individual operation in the treat-
ment of the pensioners blind of cataract intrusted to my care.
My instruments and modes of operating have varied as the na-
ture of the case required. Where the consistence of the cataract
has adinitted of an immediate and complete division, I have
placed the separated portions in a situation which insured their
“absorption in five or six weeks. In these cases, the general success
of the operation exceeds all credibility with those who have been
in the habit of witnessing the results of other modes of practice.
Of upwards of eighty persons born blind of cataracts, upon whom
i have performed this operation, | have not lost an eye. In three
instances alone, in which I was prevented from repeating the
operation, it did not produce the anticipated benefit ; and I should
consider myself unfortunate were I at any time to be less suc-
cessful in an equal number of persons who became blind from
«ataracts after hirth, provided they admitted of being treated in
the manner already described, and the health of the patients was

Vol. 43. No. 191. March 1814, F ik

226 Notices respecting New Books.

in a state favourable for the operation. Hence arises a very im-
portant question: To what period of life does this particular
practice apply ? To which I have a ready answer ;—That I have
never failed in being enabled to effect this neeessary division in
persons under forty years of age; very rarely in those between
forty and fifiy, and have frequently succeded in persons in the
most advanced periods of life.

« Where the cataract is too hard and solid to admit of this
immediate division, I do not attempt, as was my former practice,
to effect its absorption by a frequent repetition of the operation ;
but I at once extract it. This, however, is accomplished by a
process totally different from that I have felt it a duty to de-
precate ; a process which I must claim to be novel, and which
happily attains the highly important desiderata which had been
hitherto considered unattainable, while it obviates the many
causes of failure which rendered the usual mode of extraction so
generally unsuccessful. From the principle upon which it is
founded, and the favourable results of its termination during the
last two years that I have extensively practised it, I feel myself
warranted in asserting that it possesses the utmost degree of ex-
eellence which it is possible for extraction to arrive at, and that
its general success will prove nearly as great as the operation for
the removal of the soft cataract. To deter other persons from
claiming it as their invention, or anticipating me in its commu-
nication to the public (as was the case with my instruments and
operation for the cure of the soft cataract, and my successful re-

‘vival of an obsolete operation for artificial pupil), | have requested,

Mr. M‘Laughlin to record on the Hospital books, the different
stages of this operation, as he has seen me perform it on several
of the pensioners.

“<< J] trust that it will not be considered as irrelevant to the sub-
ject of the present communications to inform you, that. tise
are different modes of effecting the cure of cataract by the ab-
sorbent practice. My friend and preceptor, the late Mr.
Saunders, pursued a system different from that which I have so
warmly supported in this letter. The operation which he pre-
ferred had been performed thirteen times during six months on
one of the pensioners (Edward Turner) without a removal of the
disease. On one of my private patients the same operation had
been performed seventeen times prior to my having been con-
sulted, ¢em times on one eye, and seven on the other, in the
course of as many months, and with no better success. In both
instances | perfected the cure by a single operation on each eye ;
so that, if these patients had originally been treated according
to my mode of practice, ove, or at most éwo operations, would

have

Royal Society. 227

have effected the complete removal of the cataracts in the space
of five or six weeks, This difference in the two modes of ope-
rating, it is of great importance to myself distinetly to specify,
otherwise, from its being generally known that I was the sole
confidential pupil and assistant of the late Mr. Saunders in his
operations for cataract, among those who are now pursuing the
profession of an oculist, it might be considered by many, who
have not seen my work on diseases of the eye, that I still, as in
the commencement of my practice, follow his modes of opera-
tion, whereas I have long since found it necessary wholly to aban-
don them.”’

In the formal official report, with which the publication con-
cludes, the directors state that having examined the pensioners
“¢ on whom operations had been performed by other oculists of
undoubted character and eminence, it appeared that many of
these pensioners had irrecoverably lost their sight, the eye being
in several instances entirely sunk, and, except in one instance,
none had experienced the desired relief.”

The directors then proceed to pay the following just tribute to
the merits of Mr. Adams :
~ « The pensioners who had been under the care of Mr. Adams
were next examined and interrogated, and their respective cases
were compared with the report enclosed in the above-mentioned
letter from the physician, surgeon, and apothecary ; and the
board were much gratified by so many instances of the great suc-
cess which had attended the operations of Mr.Adams. The
effect of those operations appeared to be accurately in the report
in question.”

While we congratulate our readers on the manifest improve-
ments thus recorded in the treatment of that most delicate of all
human organs, the eye, it affords us additional satisfaction, to
learn that the directors of Greenwich Hospital have requested
Mr. Adams to continue his praiseworthy exertions, haviug placed
an additional number of pensioners under his care.

XLVHI. Proceedings of Learned Societies.
ROYAL SOCIETY.

Feb. 24, and March 3. Tue Right Hon. President in the chair.
A long paper by Dr. Herschell was read, detailing the result of
many years observations on the sidereal and nebulous appearance
of the heavens. The Doctor began by relating his observations
on the relative magnitudes of the stars, considering those of the
first magnitude to be equal to our sun; determined the magni-
tudes and changes in the appearance of a great number of fixed

; PZ stars 5

228 Royal Society.

stars ; gave a history of the alterations which he has noticed in’
the aspect of the sidereal heavens, during the last 30 years ;
and described those stars which have increased in magnitude, or
brilliancy, have lost or acquired surrounding nebula, or have
had wings, tails, or other peculiarities. He seems inclined to
believe, from his observations, that new sidereal bodies are in
a constant and progressive state of formation, that nebulous ap-
pearances gradually assume a globular character ; that the hea-
vens are not infinite, and that stars have a ‘‘compréssing power.”
He considers the origin.and progress of sidereal bodies to be
nearly in the following order : first, vague and indistinct nebule,
like the milky way ; second, detached or clustered nebule, which
consolidate into clusters of stars; thirdly, these stars becoming
more definite appear with nebulous appendages in the different
forms of wings, tails, &c.; and lastly, that all are finally concen-
trated into one clear, bright, and large stare Dr. H. concludes
that the progressive discovery of nebulz will be equal to the im-
provement of our telescopes, and that in proportion as we are
possessed of more powerful space-penetrating instruments, will
our knowledge of the sidereal heavens be extended. Many of
his latter observations directed to ascertain the absorption or con-
densation of nebulz were made on stars, which he had before
described in his numerous papers in the Phil. Transact. ; others
were made on those whose places have been determined by foreign
astronomers.
March 10. Mr. Seppins, one of the surveyors of the Navy, in
a letter to the President, described his new system of ship-build-.
ing; he observed that notwithstanding the rapid progress in all
the arts and sciences, no improvement in nayal architecture has
taken place during many years. In order to make the simple
but great improvement which he has introduced more intel-
ligible, he began by describing the old structure of ships, of
their keel and ribs or timbers placed at right angles, and the
bottom and decks composed of parallel planks. According to
the new construction, on which three ships have already been
built, and four more are building, the timbers are crossed with
diagonal girders at angles of 45, so that the whole frame is ren-
dered much stiffer or more inflexible, and all parts of the struc-
ture made to bear their due portion of the pressure at the same
time. The first advantage of this plan is the prevention of
what is called hogging, or having the centre become convex on
the upper, and concave on the lower side. Mr, Seppins fills up
the space between the timbers with pieces of wood taken from
old ships, made in the form of wedges, which are reversed, driven
in tight, paid with tar, and made impervious to water, so that
should an outer plank start, the vessel will be in no danger of
sinking

Royal Society. 229

sinking, as in the old system. This method not only adds greatly
to the stiffness and strength of the vessel, but also prevents the
timbers and flooring from becoming a prey to the rot occasioned
by moisture and stagnant air. Mr.S. exposes the notion of
ships being elastic, and contends that they are stronger and bet-
ter in proportion as they are non-elastic, and capable of resisting
pressure in whatever direction it may be applied. Considerable
advantage he also considers must attend his plan, from the su-
perior stiffness and strength of the decks, composed of frame-
work with diagonal binders, so that the deck, instead of being a
series of parallel boards, having very little connection with each
other, and susceptible of being detached in any emergency, will
present a continuous mass of timber, having its grain placed in
all directions best adapted to make the greatest possible resist-
ance to any external force. There are many other minor im-
provements in this new method, such as obviating the necessity
of much iron work, so that no extra-weight is occasioned by the
filling-up between the timbers; less ballast is required; much
old ship-timber can be used with advantage; and lastly, in the
construction of a 74 gun ship, 178 trees, of 50 feet each, are
saved.

March 17. A paper by Dr. Alex. Crichton was read, contain-
mg an account of his experiments on the vitality of organized
matter. The author having observed that organized bodies are
influenced by laws very different from those of chemistry, that
living matter overcomes affinity and gravity, and that whenever
life ceases, the decomposition of organized bodies commences,
seems thence to infer that there are two kinds of matter, or that
organized matter still retains some latent vitality, notwithstand-
ing its chemical decomposition. To ascertain this point, he made
a variety of experiments on different vegetables, on dried barks,
flowers, &c. using decoctions of vegetable matter exposed to the
action of oxygen and other gases in glass tubes over mercury,
and in all of them, except a decoction of liquorice root, he dis-
covered traces of vitality or fructification ina few days. The leaves
of flowers he always found yielded the greatest quantities of orga-
nized or vitalic matter.

March 24. Dr. Young, with that acuteness and facility of ap-
plying mathematical principles to practice for which he is di-
stinguished, presented a paper to the Society, which was read,
consisting of remarks on the principles and improvements in naval
architecture proposed by Mr, Seppins.

Ps IMPERIAL

230 Imperial Institute of France.

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE OF FRANCE,
FOR THE YEAR 1813.

Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

M. DEeLAMBRE, the secretary to this branch of the Institute,
commences his report by lamenting the death of M. Lagrange,
and the consequent suspension of the publication of the Me-
chanique Analylique, the printing of the second yolume of which
had just commenced when the author died.

M. Laplace, the report proceeds, who last year favoured
the scientific world with a complete Treatise on Probabilities, has.
this year applied his theory to one of the most abstruse ques-
tions in astronomy; viz . the origin of comets and the nature of
their orbits.

Dr. Herschel’s opinion on this subject is fresh in every one’s
recollection. Perceiving almost every where in the celestial re-
gions a faintly iene matter, interspersed with points, denser
or more luminous, he conceived that in time the system of uni-
versal attraction ‘might unite round these centres the nebulous
matter with which they are surrounded; that in consequence of
their mutual attraction two or more of these centres might ac-
quire a movement, that this motion might carry them to the
surface of the sphere over which the attractive energy of the sun
exerts its influence; and that this motion, combined with the solar
attraction, might convert these centres into as many new comets
circulating around the sun, and obeying the same laws as the
planets + that this may have been the origin of all the planets,
and also of the sun ‘and stars ; for if we are constrained to admit
the anterior existence of these immense bodies, we may with
equal propriety assign the same date to the lesser bodies which
circulate around them.

These new orbits will of course be circular, elliptic, parabolic,
or hyperbolic.

In the ease of the orbits being circular, they will be always in-
visible, unless, in defiance of probability, we suppose that their
mass and inherent lights are sufficient to render them visible
at so great a distance, for the nuclei or centres of Dr. Herschel
are invisible by a common telescope.

If the orbits are elliptical or parabolic, the comets may come
so near the sun that they will become visible in a portion of their
orbits comprehended between the perihelion and the parometer,
and even somewhat beyond it. This supposition accounts with
tolerable plausibility for the penn ena hitherto exhibited by

comets Thei sir larger axis must go beyond the sphgte of the
sun’s energy, which must extend ii eh further than the orbit of
Uranus, ‘Such elongated ellipses will evidently be confounded

with

Imperial Institute of France. 231

with parabolas, having the same summit. The revolutions of
such comets will be so tedious that we can scarcely expect to see or
know them again, after the many alterations which they may have
undergone in that part of their orbit, out of the reach of all hu-
man view, and where so many causes may modify their elements.

The above, if adopted, would also account for the length and
tenuity of their tails. The nebulous matter, condensed by at-
traction so as to form the comet, being dilated by the solar heat,
would resume nearly its primitive tenuity, and might even eva-
porate and be lost in space. Having thus lost its tail and its
nebulosity, the comet will be exactly similar to the four little
planets. It may even by being dissipated, cease to exist, and
astronomers might lose all their labour in calculating its ele-
ments. It would be sufficient for them to be in possession of
the coarse approximation, which puts it in their power to satisfy
the public curiosity, without much trouble, during the short time
that the comet is visible from our éarth.

Some comets, however, have exhibited peculiarities inconsist=
ent with this hypothesis. THialley’s, for instance, has the great
axis of its orbit smaller than that of Uranus. The comet of 1770
had a great axis less than that of Jupiter. According to M. La-
place, these singularities may be produced by the planetary at-
tractions or the resistance of the ethereal medium ; but the pla-
netary attractions ought to be very weak at the entrance of the
comet into the sphere of the sun’s energy; and Laplace himself
has rendered the resistance of the aérial medium very problematic
and inconsistent with the constancy of the great axis of the pla-
netary orbits.

If an elongated elliptical orbit be confounded with a parabola,
the difference is not greater between the parabola and hyperbola.
The insufficiency of the parabola in some cases having been as-
certained, it has been found necessary to have recourse to the
ellipsis. How has it happened that the necessity for the hyper-
bola has never been felt? Of 117 comets whose elements we
are acquainted with, two only are decidedly elliptical : the re-
mainder are parabolic or elliptical. In fact there is nothing to
prevent us from considering these orbits as hyperbolic, but dif-
fering infinitely little from the parabola, and in this case there
would be no occasion for surprise at the nature of these orbits
having escaped us. The elliptical orbit of the comet of 1759
was only ascertained by its various returns in the interval of 75
or 76 years, and but for these returns its orbit would have been
regarded as parabolic. Hyperbolic comets never return; and
hence we have no opportunity of rectifying any mistake : hence
also we have no evidence that the hyperbolic orbits are more rare
than the elliptical, They may be even much more numerous

without

238... Fossil Human Skeleton.

without any suspicions being entertained on the subject, but
M. Laplace confines his observations to those only whose hyper-
bolic orbits may be recognised by actual observation. In fact we
are not acquainted with one of the kind. _

Why are hyperbolic orbits so rare? This is a question which
cannot be completely answered; and all that we can do is to
apply to it the calculus of probabilities. If, among several cases,
all appearing equally probable, there be one which seldom or
never occurs, we may be authorised to conclude that there exists
a cause for its being so rare. The chances which give a para-
bola must be very few in comparison with the others. M. La-
place, in fact, has ascertained that we may safely predicate that
a nebulosity which penetrates within the sphere Ha the sun’s ac-.
tivity, so as to be capable of being seen, will describe a very
elongated ellipse or a hyperbola, which, from the magnitude of
its axis, will sensibly coincide with a paratola in the part ob-
served. It follows, from the analysis of M. Laplace, that in the
case most favourable to hyperbolas it is 56 to 1 that the hyper-
bola will not be perceptible. ‘Thus we might almost exciude
this curve, and it would be so much calculation saved. In fact,
the hyperbola is never tried till both the parabola and ellipsis
have failed.

[To be continued. ]

XLIX. Intelligence and. Miscelianeous Articles.

®
FOSSIL HUMAN SKELETON.

Tus singular fossil is now placed among the minerals in the Bri-
tish Museum ; the mass of stone bearing the skeleton, is fixed nearly
erect in one of the glass compartments; it is little more than
four feet long, about two broad, and from four to nine inches
thick. Although the head, neck, and feet are wanting, it is evi-+
dent that the being to whom these bones belonged must have
been of a stature rather less than men in general. The finger~
bones of the left hand are situated so closely between those of
the pelvis and thigh, being almost touching, that all the integu-
ments must have been destroyed beiore these bones were en-
veloped with the calcareous matter. The block itself is a fine
granular limestone, neither so compact as to appear uniformly
crystallized, nor so porous as our common calcareous sandstones.
There is some very similar limestone in the neighbourhood of
Maidstone and West Malling, in Kent ; the chief difference being
that parts of the fragments of shells in this Guadaloupe stone are
a bright red, while those in the Kentish stone are gray or yel-
lowish. Its fracture presents an appearance between that of a

calcareous

Soundness of Precious Stones.—Patents. 235

taleareous stone formed by simple deposition, and by imperfect
crystallization ; it is just such as might reasonably be expected
to be formed in the vicinity of a voleano, where the solvent was
considerably above the natural temperature of water, and much
below that of metallic fusion.

SOUNDNESS OF PRECIOUS STONES.

It is of great importance to lapidaries, and purchasers of pre-
cious stones, to possess some means of ascertaining their sound-
ness or freedom from flaws when iu the rough state. Hitherto
artists had no rule to direct their judgement in this respect, and
have in consequence often sustained much loss. To remedy this
defect, Dr. Brewster proposes the following method: Immerse
the rough unwrought stone in Canada balsam, oil of sassafras,
or any other fluid of nearly the same refractive density (as oil of
anise seeds) and turn it round with the hand so that the rays of
light may pass through it in every direction. By this means the
slightest flaws or cracks may be instantly perceived in conse-
auence of the changes which they produce on the transmitted
light. If the stone be examined in water the flaws become more
perceptible than when viewed in the air; and the distinctness
with which they are seen increases as the refractive powers of
the fluid approach that of the solid. Thus diamond jargon,
spinelle ruby, &c. which exceed any fluid in refractive power,
have their imperfections detected when immersed in oil of cassia
or muriate of ammonia. Natural and artificial stoves may be
likewise discriminated by oil of cassia, as the refractive powers of
diamond, jargon, ruby, garnet, pyrope, sapphire, tourmaline,
rubellite, pistazite, axinite, cinnamon stone, chrysoberyl, and
chrysolite, exceed it. If an object be viewed through two po-
lished and inclined surfaces, of any substance supposed to be
one of these minerals, when plunged in oil of cassia, the sub-
stance is a paste or artificial stone if the refraction is from the
point to which the surfaces are inclined, and a real mineral when
the refraction is made ¢owards that point. The soundness and
purity of glass for lenses may be ascertained in a similar man-
ner.

LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS.

To William Stocker, of Martock, in the county of Somerset,
gunsmith, for a cock made of metal and wood, for dr awing
liquor from casks, which produces stop superior to that which is
effected by common cocks, and prevents the liquor from coming
in contact with the metals, except when the liquor is in the act
of being drawn, and is running from the cask.—10th January,

1814,.—2 months.
To

234 List of Patents for new Inventions,

To John Duffy, jun. of Ballsbridge, near Dublin, callico-
printer, for his method of producing patterns on cloths, made
of callico or linen, or both, by preserving or defending mordants
or colours previously applied to them from injury, when it is re-
quired to pass such mordants or colours through solutions of
acids, of acid salts, of metallic salts, or of combinations of the
oxymuriatic acid.—8 February.—6 months.

To Timothy Harris, of Foley Place, Portland Chapel, in the
county of Middlesex, Esq. for a machine or machines for plough-
ing, laying on colours, called grounds, printing flocking, and

ressing, so as to produce an even smooth face upon paper,
silk, linen, woollen, cotton, and various other articles.—Sth Fe-
bruary.—2 months.

To John Vallance, junior, of Brighthelmstone, brewer, for his
apparatus for the certainly cooling brewers’, vinegar-makers’, and
distillers’ worts, wash, &c.—8th February —6 months.

To John Kershaw, of Glossop Dale, in the county of Derby,
cotton spinner, and John Wood, of the same place, gentleman,
for their mode of preparing flax for the purpose of being spun
on the like machinery as cotton.— 10th February.—2 months.

To Joseph Bramah, of Pimlico, engineer, for his method of
applying certain species of earth, which will prove useful and be
found productive of great public benefit, inasmuch as it will,
when so applied, prevent, destroy, and finally extirpate what is
called the dry or fungus rot; and wili serve as a substitute for
lead, in making of oil paints.—10 February.—2 months.

To William Francis Hamilton, of Asylum Buildings, West-
minster Road, engineer, for certain improvements in optical in-
struments and apparatus. —12 February.—2 months.

To Richard Price, of Bristol, ironmonger, for his improved
cooking apparatus.—12 February.—6 months.

To John Buddle, of Walls End, in the county of Northumber-
land, gentleman, for his fire-pan or fire-lamp, in which small or
inferior coals may be consumed in the place of large or round
coals ; and hath also invented a fire-grate to be fixed at the bot-
tom of the chimney in the ordinary mode, in which fire-grate
or fire-stove small or inferior coals may be consumed on all.oc-
casions, and for all the same purposes as larger or round coals.
21 February.—2 months.

To James Thomson, of Colebrook Terrace, Islington, for cer-
tain improvements in the construction of fire-arms, and the locks
to fire-arms.—9th March.—4 months.

To Daniel Goodall, of Burton Latimer, in the county of
Northampton, for the manufacturing of English crapes from
silks, dyed and coloured, both before and after they are thrown or
spun

/

=

Meteorological Observations made at Cambridge. 235

spun into silk, or silk for the manufacturing of crape, and in-

troducing weavings or working into the warp and shute of such

crapes, blacks, white, coloured, and fancy silks; and also black,

white, coloured, and fancy cottons and worsted, and also gold

and silver, and every other description of plain or fancy materials.
—14th March.—6 months.

ee doe

Meteorological Observations made at Cambridge,
from February 14, to March 15,1814.

Feb, 14.*—Cold northerly wind, some irregular cumuli.

Feb, 15.*—Very clear sky all day, with east wind.

Fel. 16*.—Clouded over early; then it cleared, and after-
wards cumuli, of light flimsy texture, formed and passed gently
along. Bright clear night, and frosty.

Feb. 17.—Clouded early, then flimsy cumuli, followed by a
clear frosty night, and high barometer.

Feb. 18.—Cold easterly wind in the morning, clouded and
westerly wind by night, with small rain.

Feb. 19.—Cold north wind, light flimsy clouds: bright star-
light night and hard frost.

Feb. 20.—Perfectly clear and calm day, but cold and a gentle
wind of easterly and variable direction.

Feb. 21.—Frosty aud cold early; the formation of eirrocu-
mulus+ aloft, indicated increased temperature, which followed,
with a clear night ; wind southerly.

Ae 22.—Clear still day, easterly wind, and a few flimsy cu-
mult. y

Fel. 23.—Clear day, easterly and southerly wind, but very
calm: very bright nights of late.

Feb. 24.—Cold morning, light cirrus approximating to cir-
rostratus spread aloft, fibrous, flimsy and variously mixed {.

* The observations on the 14, 15, and 16, were made between Hackney
and Cambridge.

+ The nubecule composing this cloud were large and separated, and ex-
panded and became flimsy and looser afterwards. In some places rows
appeared approximating to cirrostratus.

{ L noticed an electrical phenomenon this morning not very usual with
me. On pulling off a great coat from a flannel gown underneath, I heard
the snapping of and also discerned numerous electrical sparks of great
magnitude between the two aforesaid garments, which shews the high elec-
tric properties of fannel capable of throwing even some modifications of
woollen into an opposite state,

Fel.

236 Meteorological Observations made at Cambridge.

Feb, 25.—Clear cold ‘frosty weather, and very bright night.
Wind E. SE.

Fel. 26.—The same clear cold weather, without a cloud, con-
tinues. Wind gentle, E. and SE.

Fel, 27.—Clear cold day. Cirrus approaching to the nature
of cirrostratus aloft.

Feb. 28,—Clouded, with warmer air, and falling barometer ;
some small rain towards night. Moon seen at times, with some
irregular appearances of cirrus, cirrostratus of the rounded cirro=
cumulative form, and of cirrocumulus. Barom. down to 28.82,

March \.—Rainy day, and warmer ; clear night.

March 2.—Snow showers; light flimsy clouds by night.
Barom. at midnight so low as 28.80.

March 3.—Barom. rising again; cold and unpleasant day.

March 4,—Cold raw wet day, wind easterly and snowing.

March 5.—The snow lay thinly, and continued to fall; most
unpleasant easterly wind.

March 6.—The same sort of weather ; clear by times.

March 7.—Snow on the ground and falling, E. and N.

March 8.—Cold wet snowy weather, easterly wind.

March 9.—The same snowy wet weather, E. and N.

March 10.—Very small spicule of snow falling early, when
the blue sky appeared bright above it; very wet snowy unplea-
sant day. Easterly.

March 11.—Snow still lays and falls by times. E. N. NW.

March \12.—Cold cloudy day. E. wind.

March 13.—Cold and cloudy with snow. N. and E.

March 14.—Clouded and cold, raw and frosty air. E. and
variable.

March \5.—The same cold frosty air, with snow on the ground,
and E. wind. ;

The present period has exhibited an example of long con- ©
tinued frost and snow, which has rarely happened this time of
year, in the memory of persons now living. Abundance of sea
fowl have been shot in the marshes. A few days ago a man at
Wisbeach, near Ely, shot four swans out of a large flight passing
over that place on the wing. They appeared to be the wild
swans, (Anates Cycni fer?) for, in one which I dissected, I found
the trachea entering the hollow of the sternum, and reflected

again over it into tlie chest, ’
Bennet College, Cambridge,

March 15, 1814. Tuomas FoRSTER.

METEORO~

Meteorological Observations. 237

METEOROLOGICAL RESULTS

Of the Pressure and Temperature, deduced from diurnal Obser-
vations, made at Manchester, in the year 1813. By Mr,
Tuomas Hanson, Surgeon.

Latitude 53° 25’ North, Longitude 2° 10’ West of London,

PRESSURE. TEMPERATURE.

= =
— u Pry hE
. “Es slo eo wn
of 4 7 o}lvosg 4 é o =
Ss al - = al vo
1813 s a = wo lens e a |G) i256
' S sla | size) & |Sls|s|esa
‘ i =~
‘ a Ose = mea

January,» >. 2.. 30,107/30,75 |28,85]1,90] 50 35°,66)5 1°1220}99°
February, . ..,. |29,536}30,50)28,40/2,10} 1,00 || 40,97 [54 |32 |22
March, 5.522 . .}20,196}30,70 129,371,353) 575 || 44,60 |57 126 {31
April, .... ...-429,909|30,54|28,65]1,89| ,70 || 46,45 166 |29 |3

May,...2.0.... 429641 130,20/29,10]1,10] 455 |] 54,66 72 [38 134
June,......26.-430,060}30,48 }29,40}1,08} 440 |} 58,75 |77 JAL 136
July, ..........429,791 30,41 129,241,171] 445 |] 62,36 183 j44 {3

August,........430,121150,57129,30)1,297| 450 }| 59,54 |'75 [42 133

September, ....|50,083
October, .... ..}29,615
November, ....|29,767
December, .. ..|29,892

30,55 |28,50/2,05| —, 55,91 |68 {41 J27
30,47 |28,2412,25} 1,15 |} 46,64 [65 129 [36
30,54|28,85|1,69} 1,55 |} 40,80 153 |28 {25
50,75 |28,841,91| 37,60 {51 |2

48,66

wo
or

an
_

Annual Means,}29,900

RESULTS OF RAIN, BAROMETER, AND WIND.

RAIN. EVAP.; BAROM, WIND.
a FS y OH |i 2s 4
. a> - . a . . oe ee ee oe a
S lsis2sl € 1 8 | § (Elaeleelzielsisiz|3
wis. | 2 (5/228) 2 | 2 | EERIE BIE
| 3 s : lol l2l|.-|aisle
Seren) = 1? 1S qzlAr agai
January, ,.| 1,445 6; —— | —— } 8,10] 19 | Oj 5} 6} 5) 5} 1} 1) 2} 6} 2] 0
February,.. 2,040 |L4, ——_ 15,15} 21 | O} O} OF O} 7112) J 1p ile 5
March,..,.| 1,490|14] —— | —— ] 7,80) 19 | 5] 1) 0} 1] 9) 3/10) 3] 1) 7 oO
|. hy | 3655 | 7} 4,215] —— | 6,90} 18 | 2} 5} 2] 1] 1] 7 8} 2) 2) 7s
May,......} 7,140 |22}14,890| 2,585] 7,00} 21 | 0) 5} 0} 1] 9] 8 6} Of 2] 2] 1
June, .. ..} 1,935] 9} 4,520} 3,285} 4,95] 12 | 1] 3] 4} 4} 1) 41 6} 31 4) 2] 0
Ds wc ne 3,440 |12) 5,450) 3,075] 6,10) 11 | O] 1] O} O} 6/13} 5] 4] 2) O| O
Angust,....| 2,425 |12] 4,840! 2,665] 5,04] 15 | 3] 3! of a] 1{13] 6f 4] o} ol o
September, ..} 3,008 |10} 9,840} 2,040] 6,60] 13 | 1) 5) 1) 1) 4] 9) 1) 7] VW U1
October, . ..| 5,795 |10]19,220} 1,810{10,15| 22 | O|10} Of 4) 0j14) 1] 2] OF 11 0
November, ..} 4,525 |11/11,550] 1,160}10,00} 13 | 0} 3} O} 7} 2} 8} 9} Of 1} 6} oO
December, ..} 1,065} 9]11,580} ,646]10,04) 7 | 4) 4) 1] 7) 3] 7] 1} 2] 21 2] 0
Total... .|34,903 86,085 ]17,266]95,83]191 |16)45]14/32/47/99]6 1128) 22/42/10

JaNUARY.—The commencement of this period was mild, cloudy, and
humid; the wind being for the most part south; rain fell in six instances,
at intervals, to the 15th; when there was a slight fall of snow, for the first
time:—~an easterly wind diminished temperature, and dry atmosphere,

wera

288 Meteorological Observations.

were now the leading occurrences to the end:—the minimum temperature
of 22° was on the night of the 25th, :

~ Frpruary—Was decidedly a warm month, as it was attended for the
most part with a south and south-west wind, but which blew very strong ;
on five days hurricanes, occurred, they blew chiefly from the south-west
quarter, and were attended with frequent showers of rain—On the 18th,
there was 2 faiut lunar halos; and on the 23d, hoar frost.

Mancy —~the first ten days were mild and warm, with a few showers of
rain; but the tempereture experieuced.a sudden depression on the 12th;
this arose from a change of wind from west to north, but its continuance
in that quarter was of short duration; for the monthly maximum was on
the 18th, being an augmentation of 31°.—Rain, with slight showers of snow,
closed the month.— Wind south, and west, on nineteen days; its strength
never reached a burricane.—Upon the whole, the weather was favourable
to vegetation.

Aprit—W as ushered in with alow pressure, and temperature ; the latter
showed jts monthly minimum on the fourth; previous to which, there were
several showers of snow, and hail, and peals of thunder; which were snc-
ceeded by a quick augmentation of temperature, as well as a gradual one
of pressure.—On the 10th, the weather became so serene, warm, and bril-
liant, that the thermometer indicated a summer’s heat, being as high as 66°,
which was an increase since the fourth, of $7°:—vegetation, of course,
made a rapid progress, but being too early, a check might be expected;
accordingly the last ten days were marked with frequent showers of snow
and hail, and boisterous north and north-east winds, which did great damage
to vegetation, particularly to tender buds, and foliage in exposed situa~
tions.— Blossoms of fruit trees, &c. were never known to be more pro-
mising, but the severity of temperature, and hail-storms, particularly of the
strong east winds, almost stripped them of their beauty.

May.—Although there was a gradual increase of heat, from the com-
mencement of this period, yet the prevailing easterly winds had not ceased
to be destructive ti‘! about the seventh, when the weather became more
mild, and nature seemed once more eager to repair the injury done to trees
and vegetation—Rain about this time was much ‘wanted, as the fall in the
two preceding months had scarcely exceeded two inches in depth.—From
the seventh to the twenty-sixth, rain fell daily, with the exception of the”
twelfth, sometimes.in very heavy and long continued showers, and in four
instances with thunder and lightning. On the 24th, a hail-shower:-—this
period was generally favourable to the productions of the earth.

Junr.—In two instances the diurnal temperature was lowered to 5°, the
first was on the sixth, and was in consequence of an easterly wind; the latter
was on the 19th, and which was immediately preceded by six days of al-
most incessant but gentle showers of rain. On the 18th, a shower of hail.
This month was frequently marked with brilliant days, which, with the
rain, were very seasonable.

JuLy—Was remarkable for much thunder and lightning, interspersed
with showers of rain, and in two instances hail.—On the 80th, after a high
but desultory state of temperature, there was a sudden augmentation of
82°, being as high as 83¢:—the monthly minimum of 44°, occurred on the
third, being a difference of 39°.

AuGust.—The first twelve days of Angust were cloudy aud rainy, which
had the effect of lowering the temperature, for on the 24th the minimum
was as low as 42°.—The force of evaporation obeys the vicissitudes of tem-
perature ; in the present instance, the montbly quantity is four-tenths of
an inch Jess than the evaporation for July —Neither thunder, lightning, or
hail, occurred; and there were few changes of atmospherical pressure, but
‘the two principal ones commanded great ranges.

SEPTEMBER

Meteorological Observations. 239

SEPTEMBER.—The weather for the first fifteen days, was very gloomy,
cloudy, and wet, with an unsettled state of temperature.— In about sixty
hours, viz. from ‘the 7th to the 10th, there was a loss of 27° of temperature,
when it became more settled; with a brilliant serene atmosphere, and a
high barometrical pressure, mitch continued to the end.

Ocrober,—On the fourth, the temperature was at the monthly maximum,
when rain fell very copiously ; the temperature now continued to descend
to the 18th, when fi ‘eezing was observed the first time this season.—The
heat soon after rose, and the weather to the end was fine and dry, with the
exception of the two last days.— Prevailing winds, south-west.

NovVEMBER.—The most prominent variation in this month was, the vi-
bratory impulse g given to the atmospherical pressure during the first half of
the month, indeed a similar occurrence took place at the same time with
the temperature. ‘The weather upon the whole was mild for the season, as
the temperature was very seldom under freezing.—Rain fell copiously from
the Sth to the 18th.—No hail was noticed, and there was only one appear-
ance of snow.

DECEMBER—Was decidedly gloomy, cloudy, and rainy; but not so cold
as is usually the case at this time of the year; except the few last days,
the nightly state of temperature, (in consequence of a continuance of a gen-
tle north wind) was lowered upon three instances, eiglt degrees under
freezing. —-

The annual barometrical pressure for the past year, is 29,900 inches. The
maximum of 30,78 occurred twice, viz. on the 22d of January, and the 26th
of December ; the minimum of 28,24 inches, was on the 17th of October;
the range of the two extremes of course will be 2,51 inches.—The greatest
variation in tw enty-four hours for the whole year, was on the 14th of No-
vember, being 1,55 inches.

The mean annual temperature is 48°,66, being half a degree more than
the annual temperature of 1812; the maximum was on the 20th of July,
and the minimum on the 26th of January; the difference of the two ex-
tremes, will make a range of 61°. Greatest variation in twenty-four hours
was 28°, which occurred on the 14th of April—The mean temperature of
the six summer months.is 56°,28, and for winter 41°,04.

‘The annual fall of ram, snow, hail, &c. is near 35 inches in depth; Mr.
George Walker’s account of rain, is two inches more, Lut the low situation
of his gauge, compared with mine, will partly account for the difference.
I am enabled to state, that May, October, and November, were the wettest
months of the year, and April the dryest. I have been favoured with an
account of rain, taken at White Holme Reservoir, upon Bluckstone-edge, by
my friend Mr. Matthew Leadbetter, at dane Sites near Middleton, agentle-
man whose accuracy of observation I can place implicit confidence in;
his account commences on the first of April, as will be seen,in the above
table; the very great fall of rain upon Blackstone-edge is most astonishing,
being 86 inches in depth, in nine months.—At a future opportunity, I in-
tend to give a description of the place where the gauge is fixed, at present
it piay be proper to observe, that the funnel is exactly the same diameter
as mine, and the same means are used in measuring the quantity collected.
From so remote and elevated a place, situated as it is upon the borders of
the two counties of Lancashire and Yorkshire, perhaps where no observa-
_ tions of the kind were ever before made, it cannot fail of being particularly
interesting, but in au especial manner to the Proprietors of the Rochdale
Canal. as their hopes of supply are principally drawn from that source.

The south, south-west, and west winds, have been the prevailing ones.—
The most brisk and boisterous winds blew in February, March, and April.

Total quantity of water evaporated (from a surface of water exposed to
the effects of winds and the sun, but not to its direct rays,) since the first of
May, is a little more than 17 inches. Meteoro-

f

Days of
Month.

Feb.

March

tO 69 &D

OOnN OME ® IO KH WON D

Meteorology.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLZ,

By Mr. Cary, or THE STRAND, ~—
For March 1814.

|

8 o’Clock,
Morning.

Thermometer.

11. 0’Clock
Night.

Height of
tne Barom.
laches.

Degreesof Dry-

COOBMNHNONDOCOOCOCOCOSCOOOCOOOSCOOOODOOO

ness by Leslie’s

Hygrometer,

Weather.
Fair
Fair
Cloudy
Rain
Snow and Rain
Cloudy

Snow and Rain
Snow and Rain
Fair
Snow
Cloudy
Foggy
Snow
Cloudy
Snow
Cloudy
Cloudy
Cloudy
Cloudy
Cloudy
Cloudy
Cloudy
Fair
Rain
Fair
Fair
Rain
Rain
Fair

N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o’cleck,

eg Tree

3

‘

fo gps Y

L. Influence of atmospheric Moisture on an Electric Column
composed of Discs of Zine and Silver. By’ Mr. Tuomas
How py, of Hereford.

. Hereford, March 24, 1814.

SR Re in the spring of last year, I discovered that the
regularity of the action of Mr. De Luc’s Electric Column was
much affected by the varying state of moisture in the atmosphere ;
and in consequence of this discovery, previous to the 19th of
April, I had repeatedly exposed an instrument of the kind to the
rays of the sun, as well as to the warmth of a fire, in order to
dissipate from the surface of the glass tube the film of moisture
which that substance when unvarnished jnvariably acquires from
the air, except when the latter is in a very dry state. During
the succeeding summer and autumn, as well as the present win=
ter, | have often observed the alternate effects produced on the
column by a moist atmosphere and a dry one. As the quantity
of moisture in the ambient air increases, a greater deposition of
it takes place on the surface of the glass tube; and in proportion
as this effect is produced, the insulatiag faculty of the glass is
impaired, and the electrical phenomena of the.column are di-
minished in intensity; because the electric fluid, which would
otherwise accumulate at the zinc end of the column, seizing on
the moisture, and by its means traversing the exterior surface of
the tube, restores, either partially or entirely, between the ex-
tremities of the column, the equilibrium which its electremotive
power has a tendency to destroy. But in proportion as the am-
bient air grows drier, the film of moisture which had been de-
posited on the surface of the glass tube is lessened; and conse~
quently its resistance to the passage of the fluid is increased :
an accumulation of electric fluid proportioned to that increased
resistance, therefore, takes place at the zinc extremity of the
column 5 and consequently the intensity of its electrical phe-
nomena hecomes augmented.

Experiments evincing the Influence of atmospheric Moisture on
the Action of an Electric Column consisting of one thousand
Dises of Zine and Silver, of a Gonsiruction similar to those
described in Volume xxxy. p. 64, of Nichoison’s Journal ;
made the 6th February 1814,

Series 1, The positive extremity of the column resting on
the cap of an electrometer, the negative communicating with the
round; the gold-leaves diverging about a quarter of an inch,

The extremity of the glass tube at the negative end of the co-

fumn was touched with a finger, and the leaves instantly closed.

They opened again very slowly; and when they had attained their

former divergence, the tube'was touched at”the positive end, and

the leaves closed as before. After they had opened again to
Vol.43, No. 192, April 1814. {) their

242 Influence of atmospheric Moisture on

their former extent, the middle of the glass tube was touched,
and the leaves again closed. The leaves having regained their
original divergence, the waxed extremities of the tube were
touched in succession, the leaves experienced a diminution of
their divergence each time, but did not quite close.

Series 2. The wire of communication was removed from the
negative end, by which the column became insulated: after
waiting some time, the utmost divergence that the leaves attained
was scarcely one-eighth of an inch; the tube was then touched
as before, and the leaves instantly closed; this was repeated se-
veral times with the same effect.

Series 3. The column was now taken and held to the fire for
about four or five seconds only, every part of it being exposed to
its heat. It was then placed as described in Series 1, and the
gold-leaves opened to the extent of three-fourths of an inch. The
glass tube was then touched in various places, as well as its waxed
extremities ; but no decrease in the divergence of the leaves en-
sued; nor did any ensue when the contact was continued for se-
veral seconds. ‘The communication with the ground was re-
moved as in Series 2, and the touching repeated; but the leaves
remained unaffected.

The column was left thus insulated for about six minutes ; on
returning to it at the end of that time, the leaves of the electro-
mieter were seen diverging as in Series 2, about one-eighth of an
inch; and on touching the glass tube they immediately closed,
so quick had been the deposition of moisture on the glass.

At the time the foregoing experiments were made, there ap-
peared to be abundance of moisture in the air; the sky was
covered with a continuous sheet of cloud, which was depositing
moisture in drops so small as to be invisible ; and the streets and
all objects out of doors were very wet.

Series 4. Made on the 14th instant, when the atmosphere
was in a drier state than in the former instance. ‘The column
was in the position described in Series 2, and the gold-leaves di-
verged three-eighths of aninch. The glass tube was touched,
and the contact continued for a second or two, but the leaves
experienced only a very slight diminution of their divergence.
The negative end of the column was now made to communicate
with the ground by putting a finger upon it; the gold-leaves
doubled their divergence almost directly: the finger being re-
moved, the glass tube was touched, and the leaves were imme-
diately reduced to their original divergence of three-eighths of an
inch. The same effect followed when the negative extremity of
the column was kept in the hand while the tube was touched.

The column was next presented to the fire for two or three
seconds; and when its extremity was replaced upon the cap of

“

ther -

an Electric Column composed of Discs of Zinc and Silver. 243

the electrometer, the leaves opened instantly nearly to their full
extent; and though the finger was put upon the tube in various
places, the leaves struck, and continued to strike, the sides of the
electrometer.

For a considerable time, during which a great number of ex-
periments similar to the above were made, the results obtained
were uniformly the same as the preceding, except in two or three
instances which occurred when the column was insulated, and
the leaves of the electrometer had only a small divergence: in
those instances the leaves seemed to éverease rather than diminish
their divergence when the glass tube was touched; especially
when the finger was laid upon it near its negative extremity: but
the difference of divergence being exceedingly small, I was at
first inclined to think that my sight had deceived me. I deter-
mined, however, should the apparent anomaly recur in any future
experiment, to ascertain whether it were real or fantastical ; but
some weeks elapsed before I had the opportunity of decisively
establishing its reality. The subsequent experiments made on
the 18th of the present month exhibit this remarkable fact di-
stinctly, and show that opposite effects may sometimes be pro-
duced by the same cause.

The column had been in the position as in Series 2, for several
hours ; the leaves of the electrometer diverged about +'.th of an
inch. The glass tube was touched near its middle with the
finger ; the divergence of the leaves was not lessened as is ge-
nerally the case, but, on the contrary, seemed to be increased by
it; the finger was therefore again placed upon the tube, and the
contact continued ; it then became evident that the leaves were
opening wider, and in about two seconds their original divergence
was fully doubled ; the finger: was removed from the tube, but
the leaves still retained their divergence. As no alteration took
place in the leaves, the finger was next laid upon the waxed ex-
tremity of the tube next to the electrometer; the leaves then
very slowly lest their divergence, and finally closed. As soon as
their separation was again perceptible, a finger was laid upon the
glass tube near to its negative extremity; the leaves now opened
more quickly than before, and presently attained a divergence of
one-fourth of an inch. The finger was withdrawn from the
tube, and after a few seconds was again laid upon the waxed ex-
tremity next the electrometer; the leaves gradually diminished
their divergence ; hut before they quite closed, the finger was
laid upon the opposite (negative) waxed extremity; the leaves
began to open wider, and as the contact was continued, they
soon regained their former divergence of one-fourth of an inch.

When the negative end of the column was made to communi-
cate with the ground, the leaves attained a divergence of only

Q 2 five-

.

244 Influence of atmospheric Moisture on an Electric Column.

five-cighths of an inch,in three minutes, and when the tube was
simply touched that divergence was reduced to three-eighths of
an inch. The column was then held to the fire for a few se-
conds ; and on replacing it, and laying the finger on its negative
extremity, the leaves struck the sides of the electrometer in less
than half a minute. The finger being withdrawn, the column
became insulated, and the strikings were. prevented: the glass
tube was then touched in various places, as well as its waxed ex-
tremities ; but the divergence of the leaves remained unaffected
by it, as they also did by a continuance of the contact.

To the above, the following observations and conclusions may
not improperly be subjoined.

1. That when the air is tolerably dry, simply touching the
glass. tube is not sufficient to produce the greatest diminution
of divergence in the leaves of the electrometer, but the contact
must be continued for two or three seconds ; and still longer if
the waxed extremities be touched; and when the air is very dry,
the diminution is scarcely perceptible by.any continuance of the
contact.

2. When the column is in an insulated state, and the diver-
gence of the leaves but small; whether that divergence remains
the same, or is increased by touching the glass-tube ; if a finger
he laid upon the negative extremity of the column, the diver-
gence of the leaves will be quickly augmented; aud on with-
drawing the finger, and then touching the tube, they will instantly
be reduced to their original divergence.

3. In a few instances when the tube has been touched in a
considerable number of places; the leaves, after opening to their
former extent, have ceased to diminish their divergence when
the tube was touched; the finger having partially removed from
its surface the film of moisture, as well as the electric fluid
which was creeping along it; but after waiting a few seconds,
on renewing the touching, the same effect has followed as at
first.

4, When the column has been, exposed to the rays of the sun,
or to the heat of a fire ; if the moisture has been completely di-
spersed from its surface, no decrease nor increase in the diver-
gence of the leaves will ensue when the finger is kept in contact
either with the glass tube or its waxed extremities.

5. But after the moisture has been so dispersed, the electrical
power of the column is always found to be augmented.

6. On the whole it may be fairly concluded, that the variation
in the electrical action of the column is principally caused by the
greater or less quantity of moisture adhering to its surface ; ac-
cording as the ambient air is disposed to impart moisture to
that surface, or to take moisture from it.

The

On definite Proportions. 245

The foregeing experiments and observations will, if I mistake
not; place the electric column in a new point of view; for to its
other singular properties maybe added that of an hygrometer:
they will likewise account in an easy, natural, and satisfactory
manner for the phenomenon observed by Mr. De Luc, and de-
seribed by him in Nicholson’s Journal; without compelling us
to have recourse to the hypothesis of ‘* the preduction of a new
quantity of electric fluid in the column by the sunbeams*.”’

The same may be said concerning the phenomena noticed by
Mr. Singer when he placed an electric column, and a bell-ringing
apparatus, before a fire t.

in the experiments alluded to, the heat dispersed from between
the extremities of the columns the moisture which impaired the
insulation ; and thus enabled the electromotive power of the in-
struments to produce a greater accumulation and deficiency of
electric fluid at their opposite extremities than could possibly exist
while that moisture was interposed between them.

; Iam, &c.
Tuomas Howipy.
_ To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

LI. An Attempt to determine the definite and simple Propor-
tions, in which the constituent Parts of unorganic Substances
are united with each other, By Jacop Berz2E.ius, Pro-
fessor of Medicine and Pharmacy, and M.R.A. Stockholm,

[Concluded from p. 175.]

IV. Generar Virw oF THE RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENTS
RELATED IN THESE DIFFERENT Essays.

I

W; HEN two substances, which we consider as simple, ure ca-
pable of being united in more than One proportion, these pro-
portions, for a given quantity of the [positively] electrical body,
are multiples by 14, 2,4... 0f the least proportion in which
the [negatively] electrical body is capable of combining with it.

{We must not, however, understand this multiplication of pro-
portions in the strict mathematical sense of the terms, which is
equivalent to the involution of powers, but simply as relating to
the multiplication of the quantities by the numbers in question,
Gilbert.)

There are however many phenomena which make it probable,
that the multiple \+ ts only apparent ; and hence it follows, that
the combination, from which it is deduced, does not exhibit the

* Nicholson’s Journal, vol. xxxvi. p. $15, + Thid. p. 374.
~. Q38 true

246 On definite Proportions:

true minimum, lut that there are other lower proportions, ac~

cording to which it may be a muliiple by 6,12,0r 18. Thus,
for example, the arsenic acid contains once and half as much
oxygen as the arsenious$ but the black oxide of arsenic, which
is formed by the oxidation of the metal in the open air, contains
only one-fourth as much oxygen as the arsenious acid; and hence
the oxygen of this acid is truly a multiple by 4, and that of the
arsenic acid by 6, of the oxygen in the black oxide, I have
shown how a similar remark is applicable to the acids afforded
by sulphur,

The progressions hitherto discovered are expressed in even
numbers. The only exception is the progression for the com-
binations of oxygen with ammonium, which, if we set aside the
possibility that hydrogen may be an oxide, will advance in the
following irregular manner: 1, 14, 8, 44, 6, 74; that is, sup-
posing the oxygen of ammonia to be unity. Hence we may in-
fer that this series cannot begin from the true minimum, and that
there must be lower stages of oxidation of ammonium, than ni-
trogen, one of which must probably be identical with hydrogen.
If then the oxygen of nitrogen is a multiple of the oxygen of hy-
drogen by 6, 12, or 18, the series will become perfectly regular.
I must also remark, that from the point at which ammonium
changes its electro-chemical modification in forming nitrogen,
the series proceeds with greater multipliers.

The relations, which are found between the component parts
of more compli aied substances, are all conformable to the laws
which regulate the simpler combinations ; for instance, the pro-
portions of sulphur to iron in the sulphates.

2.

When two oxygenized bodies are combined, their proportion
may be most readily determined from the quantities of oxygen
which they contain, the one being always either equal to the
other, or to an integral multiple of it.

To these combinations helong :

a, Salts. In neutral salts the oxygen of the acid is a multi-
ple by 2, 3..8 of that of the base. In the supersalts the num-
ber may be still higher. In the sw/salts, the oxygen of the acid
is sometimes a multiple of that of the base, sometimes equal to
it, and not uncommonly an integral submultiple.

b. Hydrates, or combinations of water: first, with acids.
In these the water takes completely the place of a base ; the acid
takes up a quantity of it which contains exactly as much oxygen
as any other base with which it would be saturated: and this
water is totally distinct from the water of crystallization con-
tained by some of the acids.

Secondly :

On definite Proportions. 247

Secondly: with bases. Here the water takes the place of an
acid, but contains only an equal quantity of oxygen with the base,
or sometimes even a submultiple only. The water of crystalliza-
tion is here again distinct from the water combined in the place
of an acid.

c. Combinations of alkalis, earths, and oxides, with each other
in pairs. Although my experiments exhibit no example of such
a combination, it is obvious that it must be classed in this place.
For, whether we call the oxides of chromium, molybdenum,
tungsten, tantalium, and tin, acids or oxides, the rule must be
equally applicable to them, and that which is a law for one oxide
must also hold good with respect to others. Besides, since such
combinations of two bases are the foundations of double salts
_ with double bases, and since the law prevails with respect to
these salts, we may consider this as a sufficient proof of the ge-
neral law.

Combinations of two acids belong also here, for example, the
fluoboric acid, in which the weaker acid probably occupies the
place of a base,

3.

When three or more oxygenixed bodies unite with each other,
the oxygen of the body which contains the smallest quantity
is a common divisor, or rather an aliquot part of the oxygen of
the others, each of which must therefore be an integral multiple
of this smallest quantity.

To this law belong :_

a. Salts containing water of crystallization. In the neutral
salts the water of erystallization contains 1, 2,3,4,5.. times
as much oxygen as the base, or more rarely 4, 4, } as much.
In subsalts in which the oxygen of the acid is a submultiple of
that of the base, the water of crystallization contains a quantity
of oxygen which is a multiple of both the quantities, in the acid
and in the base.

b. Double salts. Examples of salts in which the oxygen of
the one base is either equal to that of the other, or an integral
multiple of it, are afforded respectively by the double salts of
ammonia and magnesia, and by alum. When water of crystal-
lization is present, the substance is a quadruple compound, and
the oxygen of the component part, which contains the least of
it, is a common divisor, or an aliquot part, of the oxygen of the
others, as we have seen in alum, in which the oxygen of the po-
tass is contained three times in the alumina, 12 times in the sul-
phuric acid, and 24 times in the water.

c. Combinations of several alkalis, earths, and oxides, in-
cluding crystallized minerals. Although we are not authorized

by

248 On definite Proportions:

by any difect experiment related in these Essays to form a cotiz

clusion respecting crystallized minerals, there is however no

doubt of its validity; for why should marble, fluor spar, and pon-

derous spar, be formed according to a law which is not ap-

plicable to other minerals? Such a diversity is scarcely con<-
eelyable. |.

On the other hand; the application of the rule will obtain for
mineralogy a degree of mathematical certainty, and afford to.
chemists, who are engaged in the analysis of minerals; a ready
mode of satisfying themselves; how far their operations are cor-
rect ; while, without some such means, these analyses can never
be brought te a sufficient degree of accuracy. It is true that,
aecording to this view of the subject, the greater number of such
analyses, eve when performed by the greatest, masters, can only
be considered as approximations, which in many eases searcely
come at all near to the truth; but such is the ordinary course of
human labours: Since Bergmain’s analyses of salts, which were
so masterly for his time; 30 years are scartély elapsed, and yet
many of them can at present hardly even be called approxima-
tions. And the numerical determinations of the proportions of
mixture of various substances, which I have attempted to obtain
with the greatest care, and with the utmost possible accuracy,
and which I have inserted in this Essay, will certainly not be
sufficient for the future ; and it will be possible; with the assist-
ance of the laws here developed, to correct them, and to bring
them nearer to the truth. But I am confident that our succes-
sors will pardon the imperfections of my experiments; as it must
be allowed that chemistry, in its present state of advancement,
must still bée grateful for the valuable labours of Klaproth, Vau-
quelin, and others, although most of their analyses are become
insufficient for its putposes of progressive investigation.

4,

Lastly, when several combustible substances, which we cons
sider as simple, unite with each other, the proportions, in which
these combinations are possible, are determined by their capacity
for oxygen, the combinations taking place in such a manner, thats
if they were oxidated in a certain degree, the oxygen taken up by
one of the substances, would lea multiple by 1, 2,3... of the
quantity taken up by the other. ‘Thus sulphur; phosphorus, and
arsenic, unite with metals in such proportions, that a salt may
be produced by the oxygenization of the compound, or at least
would be produced according to the general rule,

The same is also true of other metallic compounds, which are
separated from mixtures in a state of fusion, by chemical causes,

- such as erystallization or heat: for instance, of crystallized amal+
gams,

2

On definite Proportions. 249

gams, or erystallized alloys, which are sometimes obtained in pu~
tifying metals by assaying them. The union by fusion is analo-
gous to the solution of a salt in water; and may be effected in
almost all proportions: but when a salt erystallizes, a definite
combination with water takes place ; and when crystalline alloys
are formed in the gradual cooling of mixtures, the part, still fluid
being pditred off, the crystallized part exhibits a fixed and deti-
nite combination. When a combination of two metals is eapa-
ble of affording saline bases by oxidation, each part, in its con-
version into a protoxide, commonly takes up the same quantity
of oxygen. The arbor Diane affords an example of such a com-
bination which is easily examined. When a compound contams
several metals, it may happen that some of the multipliers may
be very large. It is difficult to obtain such combinations in a
state of purity; and I must defer, for thé present, the publicatiori
of the few experiments which I have hitherto made on them.
The combinations of some combustible substances with oxides,
for instance those of sulphur, sulphuretted hydrogen, béracium,
and telluretted hydrogen, with alkalis and alkaline earths, follow
the same laws, as if they were combined with the metallic ra-
dicals of the alkalis or earths without oxygen ; or as if they were
united with oxysen, and entered into combination, as acids and
oxides, with the alkalis or earths. P

‘In these few lines, we have gone through the wholé structure
of inorganic nature, and have seen, how it may be reduced to a
few very simple principles. Oxygen, the only absolutely [nega-
live] substance in all nature, is every where the standard, by
which the proportions between the component parts of al] com-
binations may be measured. From the existence of such a com-
mon measuré, it follows, as a necessary conséquence, that com-
pound bodies, when they mutually decompose each other, never,
or at least very seldom, set at liberty a single atom of thei com-
ponent parts; that neutral salts, for example, decompose each
other without losing their neutral condition ; and that sulphurets
decompose water without disengaging hydrogen.

It is unnecéssary to expatiate lere cn the additional import-
ance which chemistry gains, as a science, by such a reduction of
its results to mathentatical principles. ‘This is however still but
an inconsiderable step towards the mathematical perfection of
the science; and it requires the united and powerful exertions of
all chenucal philosophers, to bring it nearer and nearer to the
elevated rank, which it inay be hoped that it will ultimately at-
tain in the system of human knowledge.

LII. New

f 250 J

LI. New Outlines af Chemical Philosophy. By Ez. WatkzR,
Esq. of Lynn, Norfolk.

[Continued from p. 105.]

On Respiration.
Lynn, March 28, 1814.

Sins, —Lr has been ascertained by philosophers who have writ-
ten on the respiration of animals, that no air passes through the
membrane of the lungs into the blood, for the same quantity of
air that enters the lungs is returned again into the atmosphere,
but its properties are changed. Messrs. Allen and Pepys have
proved by a series of experiments, that ‘when atmospheric air
alone is respired, no other change takes place in it, than the sub-
stitution of a certain portion of carbonic acid gas for an equal
volume of oxygen *.”

And Mr. Ellis observes, that “ in man, as well as in the lower
animals, the conversion of oxygen gas into carbonic acid con-
stitutes the only essential change which the air of our atmo-
sphere experiences in the lungs during its respiration}.”

The modes in which the atmosphere is depraved by the living
functions of animals, is a chemical process which has never been
clearly explained. But from the preceding theory of combus-
tion ft, the changes induced on the air, and on the temperature
of the blood, in respiration, will admit of an explanation which
may not be deemed unsatisfactory.

Part of the thermogen which is contained in the air, taken
into the lungs, passes through their thin membrane into the
blood, in the same manner as the electric fluid passes through
this or any other animal matter, and, meeting with photogen,
generates animal heat, in a manner which will be more fully ex-
plained hereafter.

But the generation of carbonic acid gas in the lungs may be
explained thus :

Let Q represent a quantity of oxygen gas contained in the
lungs, and let it be divided into two parts, a = the greater part,
and ) = the less: then a+b=Q.

Let the thermogen in LJ be attracted into the blood by the
photogen which it contains, and @ will represent the oxygen
gas remaining. Suppose a attract a quantity of carbon from the
exhalant vessels of the lungs =c=/; then the whole quantity
Q will become carbonic acid gas, when Q is divided according
to the proportion of oxygen and carbon which a given quantity
of that gas contains.

* Phil. Trans. 1809, p. 427. + D. Ellis on Atmospheric Air.
+ Phil. Mag. vol. xlu. p. $67; and vol. xlii. p. 22.
According

New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy. 251

According to M. Lavoisier, carbonic acid gas consists of 28
parts of charcoal united with 72 parts of oxygen, and that car-
bonic acid gas is composed of these two bodies combined in that
proportion.

_ Example. Suppose Q = 100.

Then a+l=100 = the given quantity of oxygen gas; conse-
quently a+c=100 = the quantity of carbonic acid gas expelled
from the lungs in respiration.
a= 72 oxygen.
¢ = 28 charcoal.
a-+c¢= 100 carbonic acid gas.

On Animal Heat.

I believe that it has never been explained, in a satisfactory
manner, how animal heat is generated, although different hypo-
theses have been inyented to account for this wonderful effect.
It is, however, generally supposed that heat is generated in the
lungs. Indeed, from the construction of the lungs, and the
change which takes place in the air in respiration, there remains
little reason to doubt of the truth of this supposition.

The internal surface of the lungs in man is estimated by Dr.
Keil to be about ten times the external surface of the whole
body, or about 150 square feet*. On this surface the blood is
exposed in respiration ;-and part of the thermogen contained in
the air being attracted by the phetogen in the blood, heat is
generated by their union, in the same manner as in all other
processes which cause an increase of temperature. The heat
thus generated is carried through the whole animal system by
means of the circulation of blood, to supply that heat which is
constantly flying off from the surface of the body.

On the Renovation of the Atmosphere.

I¢ has been ascertained in the most satisfactory manner, that
the atmosphere is depraved by the living functions of animals
and vegetables, by combustion, and by various other processes ;
and yet it has been found by Dr. Priestley and other chemical
philosophers, that the air in crowded cities contains as much
oxygen gas as that of any other places. Dr. Priestley supposed
that the purity of the air was preserved by the living functions
of vegetables: but this hypothesis is highly objectionable ; for
the air is as pure in winter when all Europe is covered with
snow, as in summer when vegetation is in the utmost perfection.

It appears, however, an obvious truth, that if the oxygen gas
which is withdrawn from our atmosphere, by entering into new

* Tentam. Med, Phys. p. 80.
: combinations,

252 Mr. Farey's Notes on Mr. Bakewell's Geology.

combinations, were not restored to it again, the air would soon
become unfit for the supporting of animal and vegetable life,
And if the thermogen which enters the animal system, by means
of the lungs, were not conveyed out of the body as fast as it is
received, this invisible element would be constantly accumulating
till it put a total stop to all the animal functions.

As, neither thermogen nor photogen can be annihilated, we
may infer, that the thermogen which is taken into the blood,
after having entered into new combinations and passed through
the animal system, flies off from the surface of the skin in com-
bination with photogen. When this compound comes into the
atmosphere, the thermogen is converted into oxygen gas by
uniting with the moisture contained in the air; and the photo-
gen, by the same means, becomes hydrogen gas, and ascends to
the upper regions of the atmosphere, from whence it descends to
the earth in a manner which will be described in some future
communication. ;

The following facts are sufficient to show in the most satis~
factory manner, that a strong attraction obtains between ther-
mogen and moisture. :

he electric machine never acts so well in a moist atmosphere
as in a dry one, because the moisture attracts the thermogen
(positive electricity). from the apparatus, and prevents its accu-
mulation, And we experience more cold in a damp atmosphere,
the thermometer being at 40°, than when the air is dry, though
the thermometer, may be as low as 25°. The reason is evident :
the moisture in the air attracts the thermogen from the animal
system faster than it is supplied by the lungs.

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch. Ez. WALKER.

[To be continued. |

LIV. Notes and Observations on the Tenth and Part of the
Eleventh Chapters of Mr. Roserr BakEwELv’s “ Intro-
duction to Geology ;’’—embracing incidentally, several new
Points of Geological Investigation and Theory, By Mr.
Jouw Farry, Sen., Mineral Surveyor.

[Continued from p. 190.]

Notes, &c.

P. 231, 1. 23, agitation of the waters *.—* A paper of Sir James
Hall’s, just printed in the Edin. Trans., treats very fully on

this subject. 4
252, 1.25, artificial tarras*.—* The (late patent Cement of
Parker, is made from the Clay-balls or Ludus Helmontii

found in the London Clay, Rep. i. p. 111: a superior arti-
By é. cle

¥

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 253

[P.252] cle is now manufactured on Earl Mulgrave’s Estate, from
’ stone which was discovered to have these properties, by his
Lordship’s architect, Mr. William Atkinson, Rep. ii. p. 6.

Notwithstanding this, a very learned Wernerian periodical
Writer, lately told one of his correspondents, who inquired the
composition of this Cement—“ If I recollect right, it is com-
posed of clay, iron-stone, and lime, beaten together;’’—in-

_ stead of telling him, that the ‘ clay-balls” are merely calcine
to expel the water, and then pounded and ground to a fine
powder, without any admixture, as is now so well known, and
as the specification of Parker’s patent, stated many years ago.

255, Plate IV. See pages 11 and 256 in Mr. B’s volume.

255, 1. 11, were it attainable*.—* Mr. William Smith long
ago attained vastly greater ‘ accuracy of detail”’-in his Geo-
logical Maps, as to nearly all the most important parts of
England and Wales, P. M. xxxix. p. 425; Mr. Cary, in
the Strand, has assured me that his Maps will soon be pub-
lished, as mentioned in my Ist Letter, xl. p. 42. Since these
Notes were principally written, I have observed, P. M. xlii.
p- 125, that Mr. B. acknowledges his theoretic “classes and
orders,” only, to be within his power to delineate on Geo-
logical Maps, and that * mifute accuracy of detail,’ “ can
only be applied to small districts or estates. !”

256, 1. 22, alpine district * —* This is extended from Devon-
shire much too far northward; and so in a less degree on

.the NW of Chester, and in Anglesea, see my Ist Letter, vol.
xlii. p. 57. ‘

257, 1. 6, low district *.—* The extension of this is wanting
in the Map, Plate IV. at its‘northern end and SW corner,
as is pointed out in my Ist Letter. The former of these
errors seems needlessly charged on Mr. Tuke, in page 206.

1. 10, middle district +.—+ The extension of this is too
great on the N of York, and W of Scarborough, and around
and to the E of Exeter, and too little on the W and SW ot —
Bath, &c.see my Ist Letter, xlii. p. 97.

258, 1. 12, upper part of this Clay *.—* The alluvium on it,
see my Note on p. 16, and 181.

1. 18, on the very spot ¢.—+ ‘Phe importance of the fact
here related, (though with considerable obscurity) of an ele-
phant’s tusk being found zm the upper part of the London
Clay, has occasioned me to make several inquiries of persons
resident in and near Shoe-Laue: and the results of these in-
quiries have been, that ‘ the very spot’’ alluded to by Mr. B.

4 Since the above was written, I have observed, that a correspondent of
Dr. Thomson’s in his Ann. of Phil. ii. 148, secms almust to have persuaded
him, that “transitiva limestone,” occurs at Filley, SE of. Scarborough, see
P. M1. alii. p, 94. was

254 Mr. Fareys Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P. 258] was previously to the year 1800, covered by old and al-
most ruinous houses, near which, no Well, answering the
description given by Mr. B. is known. “ Near St. Andrew’s
Church,” seems indeed, a loose and improper reference to
Mr. Taylor’s Printing Office, see Mr. B’s p. 862: and no
where in this neighbourhood could [ hear tidings of any
such event, as the finding of an elephant’s tusk ; perhaps
Mr. B. may have met with the relation in some old maga-
zine or newspaper, which had improperly mentioned a tusk,
as found in the Clay of a deep Well, instead of 2m, or on the
gravel, when beginning to sink such a one?. See my Notes
on pp. 16, 181, &c.

P, 259, 1. 2, of Yorkshire *.—* P. M. xxxv. p. 130.

1, 4, Huntingdonshire and Rutlandshiret.— + Mr. B.
would perform an acceptable piece of service, if he would
point out the situations and proofs, of Chalk strata being
“¢ found below the surface,” in either of the above counties.
I believe the whole to be a mistake, which has often before
been printed, as remarked in my Report i. 07 Note.—The
Rev. Mr. Townsend in his ‘* Character of Moses,”’ p. 141,
mentions chalk at Ridlington, in Rutland, and Stukeley, in
Hunts.: [ have been through both the Stukeleys in Hunts.
which are on the great Clunch-clay, (Rep.i. 113) covered
locally with alluvial clay, flints, small cha/k bolders, &e. :
and I have passed very near to Ridlington, in Rutland, on
its S and on its E sides, and the same must be situated, on
or near to the Northampton Sandstone, (Rep. i. 114): and
not unlikely, has alluvial chalky Clay patches, such as |
have noticed in many places in and near Derbyshire, Bep.i.
308, and of which | saw several instances between Leicester
and Uppingham. _ It is greatly to be lamented, that Mr. T’s
work abounds with errors, wherever he attempts to speak
of the facts of the British strata, beyond his own personal
observations, and neighbourhood, in the west of England.

1, 22, Mr. Townsend has given {.—{ In the preface to
the work here quoted, Mr. T. acknowledges, being unac-
quainted with ¢he succession or manner of tracing the strata,
until he learned the same from Mr. William Smith, in
1801, (they first became acquainted in June 1799, I have
been told), who before then had completed his Map of
this part of the country, and had very freely shown the
same, and communicated his facts to great numbers of per-
sons, during the six or seven preceding years, Rep. i. 111,
and P.M. xxxv. p 114 N: in various parts of his work
Mr. T. refers to Mr. Smith, (sometimes rather erroneously
with regard to Faults, 1 believe} and here at least, Mr. B.

might

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 255

[P.259] might have introduced his name, as hinted in my|stLetter,
vol, xlii. p. 58, as well as noticed the laudable endeavours
towards ascertaining the order und thicknesses of the strata,
by your able correspondent Mr. Dayid Mushet, P. M. vol.
xl. p. 50, and even by the Rev. Mr. Mitchell, Rep. i.
109 N. and P. M. xxxvii. p. 175 N, and xxxix. p. 94 N.
In one point of view, we have all reason to be thankful to
Mr. B, that our Names have not been coupled with such
very erroneous statements, as are made in the following
pages, and at p. 283, by Mr. B, as to the ‘¢ strata containing
Coal” (beneath the Lias and upper Red Mar!) being only 700
yards beneath London !, and not deeper at Woburn, than
some of the Newcastle Coal-pits!!. See the article Coat
in Dr. Rees’s Cyclopedia, written in 1805, where this sub-
ject has been considered.

262, 1. 9, their known limits *.—* Here, and at page 284, is
as bold an attempt to set up wild theory against just in-
ferences, from undeniable and unvarying facts, respecting
England at least, as ever was made :—all experienced Coal-
miners know, that seams of Coal, or other strata, ‘* never
go out to the deep,”’ or never terminate in the direction of
their dip ; except sometimes suddenly against a fault, and
are then only thrown up or down, and are not “ cut off,”
incomprehensibly, see a note on this subject in my 2d Let-
ter, vol. xlii. p. 105. In one page we are recommended
to expend the national Treasures, in search of objects, which
in the next we are told do not exist,—perhaps a sly hit was
here intended, at several wise ministerial expenditures,
within the last 20 years.

263, 1.8, strata under chalk *.—* In one sense, this is un-
doubtedly true, of English Fullers’ Earth, owing to the
Chalk being almost at the top of cur Series, but not in that
here intended, in alluding to the Surry and Bedfordshire
Fullers’ Earth, because Red Marl produces a sort of this
Earth, in different places, as at Brathwell, Rep. i. 465, and
P.M. xxxix. p. 105, near Nottingham, &c. The neighbour-
hood of Bath also produces this Earth, if I mistake not, &c.

1. 24, with fossil wood+.—t+ The wood and animal re-
mains here alluded to, I think, are found in the stratified
blue Clay of Highgate, Hyde-Park, Brentford, &c.; but
the large animal Bones were in the alluvium upon this clay,
see my Notes on pages 16, 181, 258, &e.

264, 1. 19, found east of it*.—* Query, see my Ist Letter,
xlii. 57.

265, 1. 22, expansion of the Basalt*.—* Except the large
Whin-dyke across a very high part of these Moors, where

Coal-

256 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P. 265] Coal-measures occupy the surface, mentioned in my
Note on page 108, and numerous large blocks of Basalt
seattered pretty generally in- the alluvium (derived probably,
from the ruins of the eastern end of this Dyke, in the Sea),
there seem no facts to show the existence of Basalt wnder this
district,for the Alum Shale extends deeper than a boring could
be madé on theCoast near Mulgrave-Castle, (Mr. B. p. 266,
and my Note thereon) and to the northward, to which the
measures are rising, and Red Marl and Gypsum appear, near
the mouth of the Tees ; these I have formerly supposed to be
separated by a great fault? P. M. xxxix. p. 95, and towards
the” bottom of the note in p, 96, have suggested, other
queries respecting this Red Marl, one of which appears to
me of greater importance, since reading an account of the
strata in Gothland, in Dr. Thomson’s Travels in Sweden ;
where, evidently, I think, the Danby-Dale Coal-field occurs,
(and not that of Newcastle, as is\there said) N of Hessing-
borg: the Coal-field near Boulogne, described in the 2d
Lidit. of Williams’s Min. King. il. p. 335, is with difficulty
referred to the Danby-Dale, or to any other of our Coal-
fields, from the particulars there given; it seems however
to occur in the eastern end of our great south-eastern de-
nudation, (P. M. xxxv. p. 130) below the chalk, but how
far? it is extremely interesting to know, more accurately :
perhaps some of your Readers can supply more particulars
of this part of the French Coast, and of the southern part
of Sweden, &e. Do not these Coal-measures also appear
ucross the northern extremity of Jutland, north of the Vi-
borg district ? Do they not occur on the north-eastern side
of Bornholm Island, in the Baltic? Do not lifted and de-
nudated parts of these Coal strata appear at Rehburg on
the NW, and Osterwald on the SE of Hanover? and again
near Aix-la-Chapelle and near Liege? see M. De Luc’s Geo,
Trav. in France, &c. vol. i. pp. 342, 345, 365, 366, and
260 ; Kirwan’s Geo. Ess. p. 305, and Parkinson’ s Organic
Remsiy/181.001 have mentioned, Po ME xXx? pe 100 N,
the probability, that very thin seams of Coal, belonging to
this field, have been noticed in the wells on the north side
of Battel, in Sussex. Mr. Charles Smith, a Coal-master
in Yorkshire, lately informed me, that about the year 1800,
he sent some of his Colliers to Ashdown Park, in Sussex, to
bore there for Coals, for his friend Thomas Bradford, Esq.
and that in boreing 150 yards, they passed through nine
thin seams of Coal ! which probably therefore belong to this
Danby-Dale Coal-field? So may the Coal in Portl and
Island, and at Kimmeridge, which I have not seen.

P.266,

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 257

P. 266, 1. 7, stone on he summit *.—* There are several sum-
mits to this extensive hilly tract, the southern and many of
the highest of these summits, are occupied by the oalite
Limestone of New Malton, as described in your xxxixth
vol. _p. 98, and the others northward, by Coal-measures
of Danby-Dale, (P. M. xxxix. p. 100) or the Alum Shale
from under them, probably answering to the Clunch Clay,
Rep. i. 118, and P. M. xxxix.’p. 100 N ; and the same strata
nowhere appear in Derbyshire, nor is it at all likely that they
do so in Wharfdale, or other parts of the west Riding of
Yorkshire.

1. 17, fifteen miles in breadth +.—+ This is rather an in-
correct description: the Alum Shale first rises on the Shore,
SE of Stowbrow, at first rapidly, and then very easily, pur-
sues the Coast NW (with local coverings of Red Alluvial
Clay and Basalt Bolders, London Cherts, Flints, &c. &c.)
turning some distance up each valley, before the Coal-
measures close over it, all the way to Saltburn, a distance
of 25 Miles; from hence the edge of the Alum Shale turns
SW to near Whorlton and Osmotherly, a distance of 25

“Miles more (making a length of 53 Miles, beset with Alum
Works, ancient or modern), the Shale turning up the valleys
as before, were the Coal-measures close over it: Barnaby-
Moor NW of Gisborough, is also a large detached hum-
mock of the Shale, I believe, but the breadth is nowhere
considerable, of surface made by the Alum Shale, before the
Coal-measures cover it :—unquestionably it underlies the
whole of them.

The Coal-field E and SE of Thirsk, has certainly the
same measures, I think, as Danby-Dale, and therefore the
edge of the Alum Shale may be expected to accompany it
on the west, in proceeding SW and S from Osmotherly, and
if it cannot be so traced? the great fault which I have sup-

- posed to make an angle somewhere near Ainderby-Steeple,
P. M. xxxix. p. 95, may account, why, in crossing a nearly
fiat country partly covered by alluvium, I believe, from the
Alum-Shale (or Clunch Clay?) at Osmotherly, to Leaming
(mentioned in my Ist Letter, vol. xlii. p. 54), we see no
strata, perhaps, until the Red Marl between the Yellow
Lime Rocks is reached, and we miss all the thick strata of
the middle of the Series in the south-east of England.

Many whose knowledge of solid Geometry is scanty, and
others who won't take the pains to study its application
hereto (as | have done and explained in my Report i. 117),
and others also, whose Theories tell them, that there is no
law or regularity in stratification, and have but a slight

Vol, 43, No. 192. April 1814. R know-

258 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.266] knowledge of its facts, will doubtless continue to ery out
- against these “ imaginary faults”? of mine.—They must be
indulged herein, and we will continue our observations, until,
as 1 hope, the Geological facts and structure of all England,

are far better known than at present.

1. 25, by ascending the ravines {.—t The practical Men
employed on this boreing, knew better ; they had invariably
seen, as they ascended the valleys, higher and higher beds
of their Alum Shale, then the Doggers, then Gritstone and
Shale strata, &c. belonging to the Coal-measures, each
crossing in succession and being lost in the beds of the
Brooks, instead of the stone there, rising © from under the
aluminous schist,” which Mr. B. here tells them of !

Since Mr. B’s work was published, and the above was
written, it appears that he has again dravelled across this
district, and made some stay at Whitby, and I cannot avoid
remarking here, that a part of Mr. B’s time on this occa-
sion, might have been more profitably spent, whether we
regard his own reputation as an observer and writer, or the
interests of science, in revising, ‘by a calm investigation of
facts,” and+correcting, the completely erroneous description
(as I know from an actual Survey of part of them), that he
has here published, of the structure of these eastern Moorland
Hills, (see P. M. xxxix. p. 97), than it was in addressing to
you, his very ill-timed Letter, (P. M. xlii. p. 121), dated
s* Whitby, Julh y 15, 1813,” replying rather vauntingly, to a
Letter of mine, that was not written until the day after this
date, or published until the 31st of July !.

Mr. B. owes it, I think, to the practical Men, whose
judgement or something. else, he seems to have ‘arraigned,
merely on the authority of his Hypothesis of * the expan-
sion of Basalt” beneath (p. 265), for making an expensive
boreing on the shore, in search of what (according to Mr.
B’s Hypothesis) they might ‘* by ascending the ravines”’ in
the neighbourhood, have evidently seen, without further
trouble or expense, that he should revise and correct his
north-eastern Yorkshire observations, thus erroneously made
and published to the world.

267, 1. 1, coal 4 to 8 inches*.—* This is Wood Coal, thick
enough in some places to be wrought, see my Note on
p. 157. In your xxxvth vol. p. 257, an account of this
Coal and the other strata, extracted from a fuller one pub-
lished by Mr. Richard Winter, will be found, with some
conjectures of mine thereon, made hefore I had the oppor-
tunity of examining this curious district.

267, 1.8 and 10, coal strata terminate +.—t At the Great

Derbyshire

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 259

[P.267] Derbyshire Fault separating them from Red Marl, Rep. i.
165, and P. M. xxxix. p. 29: but the existence of which
fault, Mr. B. questions at p. 212, see my 2d Letter, P. M.
slii. p. 105.

1. 11, but appear again t.—{ There are reasons to doubt
the identity of these Coal-fields, Rep. i. p. xiii.

1, 12) They are cut off **.—** This may perhaps be
doubted, see my Note on p. 67. a

1. 15, coarse breccia and gravel ++.—tt Red Marl strata
of considerable width, separate these Coal-fields, see my
Note on p. 67.

}. 20, red sand rock {¢.—{{ Red Marl, see my 2d Letter,
P.M. xiii. p. 103.

268, 1.4 and 5, surrounded by red sand rock *.—* By Red
Marl, see Phil. Trans. 1811, and P. M. xxxix. p. 28.

1. 8, South Wales ¢.—t See p. 299, Phil. Trans. 1806,
Will. Min. King. 2d Ed. ii. 291, and P. M. xl. p. 52.—
How far is the ‘ gray greenish micaceous sandstone,” or
Penndard Rock, allied to the Basalt, greenstone, &c., found
covering several other Coal-fields ? see my Notes on page
285.

1. 22 and 23, primary and transition rocks {.— { And
probably they join them, near Exeter, see my Ist Letter,
P.M. xli. p. 57%

270, 1. 7 and 8, hid by the alluvial soil *—* P. M. xxxix.
p. 30 and 95.

1. 21, Pontefract is built +.—t Rep. ii. 169.

271, 1.7, Halifax*.—* On the 3d Grit Rock.

1. 8, Huddersfield +.—+ On or very near to the 4th Grit
Rock, P. M. xxxix. p. 102.

1. 8, Sheffield t.—t On the 9th Grit Rock, Rep. i. 207,
(Pond’s Colliery).

272, 1. 6 and 7, immediately upon Lime *.—* I have never
visited ** Pule Moss,” but have been near “ Stand Edge,”
on the south-west, and have minutes of the strata per-
forated by the Huddersfield Canal Tunnel, under the Grand
Ridge, from two or three Agents or Workmen who were
employed in the Tunnel; from which I understand, that
the eastern end of the Tunnel begins in the Ist Coal Shale,
near the bottom of which, a 15-inch Coal was cut, with
a pretty rapid eastern dip, which was for some time wrought
for the supply of the steam engines, then the thick Ist or
Millstone Grit is penetrated, having the same dip, as had
also the top of the Limestone Shale under it; but as the
middle of the Tunnel is approached, the dip diminishes, the

R2 measures

260

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.272] measures become flat, and then dip slightly westward.

had good reasons to think these representations correct,
because after the Canal has descended many Locks to
Wright’s Mill, near the junction of the three Counties of
York, Lancaster, and Chester, the vale of the Tame is
deeply excavated in the L. Shale, extending thence S for
23 Miles, in which local denudation, I have mentioned,
Rep. i. 236, that probably, the Ist Limestone is not far be-
low the surface, in some parts.

The flat-topped Ridge in the measures, or Strata- Ridge,
(Rep. i. 172), seen in this Tunnel, appears to range south-
eastward under Goodgrave Edge, Woodhead, and Blakelow
Stone, (where I believe the Ist Grit to have a greater
elevation, upon it, than any other spot of ground in Derby-
shire, see Rep. i. 5 and 21, and Mr. B. p. 278, and my
Note thereon,) and to have occasioned the several local
denudations of L. Shale, from near Padfield N, to within a
Mile of Yorkshire, up both the Eden and the Longden
valleys, in the deepest excavations in which, I have also
suggested the probability, of Ist Lime being near at hand,
Rep. i. 236.

I never before heard of the “* Dykes of Limestone,”’ men-
tioned here by Mr. B. p. 272, and shall feel much obliged
if he will mention more precisely, the places, the number,
the directions, inclinations, thicknesses, and qualities of
stone ?, in these Dykes, so uncommon in this part of our
Island.

1. 14, argillaceous Ironstone +. — + Rep. i. 232; in the
draining of Mr. Joseph Gould’s Meadows at Pilsbury, near
to the great Limestone Fault, and 4th Limestone Mountain,
(Rep. i. 286, 232, and ii. 393, and vol. i. p. 232 Note),
similarly ribbed spheroids, or lenses rather, were found, but
composed of Shale Limestone, instead of Ironstone ; for-
merly they would have been called gigantic Nuts, but I hope
these follies have sufficiently had their day.

My Friend Mr. Lawson, of the New Mint, lately men-
tioned to me, that while the Tunnel under Stand-Edge
near Saddleworth, was driving, he saw there, numerous
lenticular round nodules, one side of them more convex
than the other, and having numerous concentric raised lines
upon their surfaces almost as regular as if turned in a lathe;

, they were of various sizes, from 2 to 12 inches diameter, and

he found them composed of calcareous Ironstone !.
1. 24, intersect éhese beds t.—} Quere, see P. M. xxxix.
p. 103 and 100.
P, 2/3,

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 261

P.273, 1.7, red siliceous sandstone*.—* Red Marl and its oc-
casionly imbedded Gritstone, see my 2d Letter, xi. p. 100.

1. 8 and 9, surrounded by this rock+.—+ By Red Marl,
see my Note on p. 268.

1. 10, in clay pits¢.—t{ In alluvial red and brown Marl
Pits, Rep. i. 456.

1. 14, the red rock**.—** Gritstone imbedded in Red
Marl, on which last (with very trifling exceptions, besides its
‘imbedded gritstones), I travelled last summer from Shrews-
bury to Bolton, on the N of Lancaster, as mentioned in my
Ist Letter, v. xlii. p. 53—so far are the “ shale (or shivers),”’
and the “ Millstone Grit” of Whitehurst, anda ‘¢ district of
millstone grit and shale,” from being real, which are shown in
a Map, and mentioned in your xxxviiith vol. pages 27() and
275, or the incumbent “rock or shale which forms the °
basis of the district,” p. 276, &c.—See also my Queries
thereon at p. 237, which have not been noticed, that 1 am
aware of.

1. 23, at Castletont+.—tt See my 2d Letter, vol. xlii.
p- 113, and my Note on p. 48.

274,1.1, the red sandstone of Chester*,—* Red Marl (and
its imbedded Grit, Gypsum, Rock Salt, &c.), Rep. i. 147;
and no notice is taken here, of the intervening Limestone
Shale, 1st Grit and Coal-measures, shown in my Map, p. 97
of Rep.i. p. 172: unless, in the new terms of Mr. B. they
are all ‘* sandstone,” see my 2d Letter vol. xlii. p. 103.

1. 4, limestone in’ Flintshire +.—+ The improbable idea
of some common Miners in Derbyshire, which I have often
heard, and as is mentioned by Mr. B. at p. 220, that the
individual Mineral Veins of Derbyshire, extend into North
Wales, is not sufficient, or anything else which I have met
with in Mr. B’s work, to show the Limestone Rocks of these
two distant Mining districts, to be the same. [n your xxxixth
vol. p. 427, I have suggested, that the Limestone Rocks
underlieing Coal-measures in North and in South Wales,
are the same, and I can now add, that I believe the same
can be traced nearly through all the intermediate Country
(as the upper of three Limestone Rocks, seen near Ludlow,
as mentioned in my Ist Lettei, vol. xlii. p. 53, and which I
wish to name the ‘ Halkin” Rock), with some local inter-
ruptions from Denudations, Faults, and Gravel coverings,
and the same into and across Anglesea, proceeding south-
westward,

[To be continued. ]

R3 LIV. Facts

‘

Pi -B62.09

LIV. Facts and Observations towards a History of the Com~

binations of the yellow Oxide of Lead with the Nitric and.
Nitrous Acids. “By M. Cuevreus *.

1. M. prousr having observed that the octahedral nitrate
of lead, when boiled with lamine of this metal, was converted
into a yellow leafy salt, concluded that the lead was oxidated at,
the expense of the litharge, the base of the octahedral nitrate,
and that consequently there was one oxide more at the minimum
than the latter. Mr. Thomson, in a work upon Lead, resumed
the examination of the yellow salt described by M. Proust: he
was led by his experiments to regard if as a salt which differed
from the octahedral nitrate only by an excess of base. In his
System of Chemistry, Mr. Thomson renounced this opinien for,
that of M. Proust; but at the same time he observed that the
quantity of oxygen in the oxide at the mmimum differed very
little from that of the litharge. He has not besides added any
new fact, in order to prove the existence of a new oxide of lead.

2. At a time when the imagination and experience of che-
mists carefully examined the laws which preside over the com-
bination of bodies, I have been surprised at the very little atten-
tion paid to a salt which might contain a new oxide, and raise to
four the number of the oxides of a single metal. This considera-
tion induced me to resolve the following questions :

Is there an oxide of lead less oxidated than litharge? If this
oxide exists, what is the quantity of oxygen which it contains?
and in what ratio is this quantity with that which constitutes the
yellow, the red, and the puce-coloured oxides of lead?

3. The first inquiry which occupied my attention, was the
analysis of the octahedral nitrate of lead; for I could not deter-
mine the proportion of oxygen which the lead absorbs in order
for its solution in the nitrate, except by being perfectly ac-
quainted with the proportions of the elements of this salt, since
they furnished to the metal the oxygen which it required. I
took octahedral nitrate, which had been crystallized, twice washed
it with water, and reduced it to powder. I dried it by exposing
it for several days to the sun, and afterwards heated it on paper.
This nitrate was divided into several quantities scrupulously
weighed, in’ order to be used in the various experiments about
to be detailed.

4. I put five grammes of nitrate into a platina crucible
weighing one ounce four drachms and 43 grams. I exposed
it to a graduated heat, in order to reduce the salt to its base, and
withdrew the crucible from the fire when no more nitrous va-
pours were extricated. I weighed it, and heated it once more red,

, * Annales du Museum d’ Hist. Nat. ann, x. p. 189.
7, ; : hot

On the Combinations of the yellow Oxide of Lead, Sc, 263

hot in order to discover if all the acid had been volatilized. When
I perceived that there was no more diminution of weight, { found
it necessary to put into the basin of the balance, in which the
crucible was, 1°65 gr. in order to restore the equilibrium. This
weight representing that of the acid contained in five grammes
of nitrate, it follows that this salt is formed of

Acwdiaaae deeds een da 100

Oxidetsd. daa? 93067 203
A result which differs very little from that of M. Berzelius. This
excellent chemist found

Acids, patti aien odds B29775

Oxide ss 'a/0/s heals. i MOF BBD

5. Before commencing the examination of the yellow salt, I
wished to know the action of the oxide of lead on the nitrate.
I heated in boiling water equal weights of these two substances,
and filtered the liquor in a flask while still warm. When the latter
“was full [ closed it up, in order that the liquor might not come
- in contact with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. Upon
cooling, crystals of nitrate of lead were deposited in scales *.
This salt has a slight saccharine and astringent taste: it crystal-
lizes in scales or small needles. It is not acid. When we pass
a stream of carbonic acid into its solution, we reduce it to octahe-
dral nitrate, and to carbonate. Two hundred parts of nitrate
heated in a platina crucible lost 39°72. Previous to decomposing
this salt, I ascertained that no more water was extricated when
heated in a close and very long glass tube. The nitrate is there-
fore formed of Acid......... 19°86 100

Oxides 202.56 8:14 403

-This analysis confirms the law laid down by Dr, Wollaston for
the combination of the elements of salts, for in the nitrate of
lead we find that the quantity of the base is double that which
is contained in the acid nitrate.

6. The nitrate of lead differs so much from the yellow salt in
respect of its physical properties, that it was impossible to regard
them as identical, and to adopt the same opinion with Mr.
Thomson; and what confirms the difference which existed be- —
tween these two salts, is, that having prepared a little yellow salt,
I found that it sent forth nitrous acid gas with nitric acid;
whereas the nitrate did not emit any.. From this moment I was
of opinion with M. Proust that there was an oxide still more at
the minimum than litharge.

7. In order to determine the quantity of oxygen in this oxide,
I put into a matrass 350 grammes of water, four grammes of
acid nitrate, and six grammes of lead cut in small pieces. I
boiled the whole, and took care to pour boiling water into the

* [shall call this salt nitrate of lead, and the octahedral nitrate, acid nitrate.
R4 matrass

/

264 On the Combinations of the yeliow Oxide of Lead

matrass as evaporation took place. ‘The liquor gradually became
of a fine yellow, and after two hours boiling the colour was at its
maximum of intensity: subsequently it gradually diminished,
and ended by entirely disappearing. There was deposited in the
course of the operation a white substance which resembled hy-
drate or carbonate of lead. After twelve hours boiling, the ni-
trate apparently having no more action on the metal, I decanted
the liquor hastily into a vessel, which I shut carefully: the lead
when dried weighed 0-6 gramme: there was therefore 5:4 gr.
of lead dissolved by 4 gr. of nitrate. This result is widely dif-
ferent from Mr. Thomson’s, who says that 100 grains of nitrate
ean dissolve only 44 grains of lead.

8. It was easy to determine the proportion of the elements of
oxide of lead at the minimum, since we knew the quantity of metal
which had been dissolved by the acid nitrate. But two considera-
tions prevented me from attempting it: in the first place, the
yellow colour which the nitrate had assumed in dissolving the
lead was certainly owing to the solution of this metal; but this
colour having disappeared, was it not probable that the oxygen
of the atmosphere was the cause of this discoloration? In the
second place, the white matter which was deposited did it not
proceed from the absorption of the oxygen or the carbonic acid
from the air? In order to appreciate the influence of external
agents, I repeated the experiment in the apparatus about to be
described. Ina matrass similar to that which had served for
the experiment above mentioned, I put water boiled with four

grammes of acid nitrate and six grammes of lead. | adapted to

the matrass two glass tubes, one in the form of S, destined to
replace the water which should be evaporated ; the other doubly
bent, which fitted into the upper part of a bell-glass filled with
air. I had put into this bell-glass, which rested in a lime-bath,
a glass containing a mixture of iron and moistened sulphur. In
three days the oxygen of the air of the vessels having appeared
to be absorbed as well as the carbonic acid, | lighted a fire un-
der the apparatus, and the ebullition of the liquid was kept up
fourteen hours without interruption. When the water began to
boil it became yellow: ihe colour fell away in two hours, and
Jjinally disappeared. There was also, as in the foregoing experi-
ment, a precipitalion of awhile substance. It was evident from
this, that the oxygen and the carbonic acid of the atmosphere
were not the cause of these phenomena. When the operation
was ended, [ allowed the liquor to rest, and decanted it in a flask
which was made auite close. I passed water into the matrass,
in order to detach the white matter from it, as well as the lead

which had not been dissolved.
The latter when washed and well dried weighed six deci-
grammes,

eee eer rh errr. eer eee

with the Nitric and Nitrous Acids. 265

grammes. The white powder was treated with weak nitric
acid, it was dissolved without effervescence with the exception of
a black powder weighing two centigrammes, which was nothing
but sulphuret of lead. As this sulphuret formed part of the lead
employed in the experiment, it is evident that it must be united
to that which had not been dissolved: consequently the four
grammes of nitrate had dissolved 5:38 gr. of metal. As the
sides of the matrass were opaque, I washed them with weak
nitric acid, and added the washings to the solution of the
white matier: notwithstanding this washing they were always
opaque. Finally, by inspecting them more closely, I ascertained
that the glass had been corroded ; and after evaporating the ni-
tric solution to dryness, and taking up the residue by water, I
obtained five centigrammes of silex. The part soluble in the
water of the residue was nitrate of lead, which contained 47 cen-
tigrammes of yellow oxide: the white matter was therefore
formed of silex and hydrate of lead, retaining perhaps a little
acid. ,

9. The solution of acid nitrate of lead which was boiled over lead, _
and which had been decanted in a flask, deposited, after eleven
hours, crystals in silky needles united into stars. (They weighed
5:95 gr. after being dried. The liquor in which they were
formed, concentrated without the contact of the air, gave at se-
veral times 2°71 gr. of crystals similar to the foregoing. There
remained a mother water containing a little of this salt as well
as of nitrite of potash; for the sulphuric acid made it emit a
nitrous vapour, and the muriate of platina made an abundant
precipitate in it of triple salt of potash. I separated almost the
whole alkaline nitrite from the salt of lead by means of alcohol.
This result strongly confirms the decomposition of the glass ob-
served above, and seems to demonstrate that the 47 centi-
grammes of oxide contained in the white matter had been pre-
cipitated from the solution cf the nitrate by the alkali of the
glass which was dissolved.

10. To resume the facts of this experiment, and draw the
consequence which must follow upon the hypothesis of an oxide
more at the minimum than litharge, 5-38 gr. of lead were dis-
solved by 4 gr. of acid nitrate of lead-which contained 2°68 gr,
of litharge ; but as there was 0°47 gr. of the latter precipitated, it
is evident that the lead was not oxidated but at the expense of
2°21 gr. of litharge. Hence it follows, that by adding this
quantity to the 5°38 gr. of lead dissolved, it is easy to ascertain.
the composition of the oxide at the minimum, since we know
that 2°21 gr. of litharge contain 0°158 gr. of oxygen and 2°052
of lead. We find according to these data that 100 parts of lead
ought to absorb 2°125 gr. of oxygen.

11. The

266 On the Combinations of the yellow Oxide of Lead

11. The small quantity of oxygen which the lead seemed to
absorb im order to be oxidated at the minimum, and the reflec-
tion that this quantity did not follow any relation with the
known oxidations of this metal, began to create doubts in my
mind as to the existence of an oxide more at the minimum than
litharge, and incline me to think that it was not improbable that
the lead was oxidated at the expense of the nitric acid of the
nitrate ; that conseque ently the salt obtained from this operation
was only a nitrite with a base of litharge ; ; and that the nitrous
acid extricated from this salt by the nitric acid (6) was merely
separated from it, as when we pour nitric acid over an alkaline
nitrite. What supported this opinion was: Ist, the uitrite of
potash which I found in the mother water of the salt (9)5 2dly,
the litharge and the nitrous acid which this salt constantly
yielded, whether [ decomposed it by heat, treated it with acetic
acid, or with carbonate of potash. It is trie that it may be ob-
jected that in these decompositions the oxide at the minimum
is re-oxygenated in the operation at the expense of the nitric acid
which it converted into nitrous acid; but what weakened this
objection was the observation I made of the non-action of the
oxygen gas upon the solution of the-salt. At first it seemed pro-
bable that, by boiling the lead with the acid nitrate, this metal -
only took fromh the nitric acid the quantity ef oxygen which forms
the difference between this acid and the nitfous acid : but the 5°38
gr. of lead having to absorb 0:41426 of oxygen in order to be
converted into litharge, whilst the nitric acid of the nitrate could
only yield 0°1557204 in order to be converted into nitrous acid,
i concluded that there must have been a decomposition of water,
or rather that a portion of nitrous acid was itself decomposed.
This consideration imduced me to make the following experi-
ment, in order to collect the gas which might have been dis-
charged.

12. I put into a matrass the same quantities of lead, acid
nitrate, and water, which i had employed in the foregoing experi-
ments. I adapted to it a tube doubly curved, the vertical
branches of which were very much elongated. ‘One of these
branches, which entered the upper part of a bel!-glass 15 lines in
diameter, resembled a funnel. When the apparatus was well
luted, the water of the bell-glass was three lines below the edge
of the funnel. According to this arrangement, it was easv to see
if there was any production of gas. [had given agreat length to
the vertical branches of the tube, in order that there should be
the least possible quantity of water to be volatilized ; and I had
widened the branch which communicated into the bell-glass, in
order that all the water which was evaporated might be collected
in the tube, and not mix with that in the bell-glass. I made a
UF 4h . fire

with the Nitric and Nitrous Acids. 267

fire under the matrass, and took care during the whole opera-
tion to keep up a boiling heat only. By these means there was
but very little water to be vaporized. The experiment began
at seven in the morning; at eight the water was boiling. T he
air’in the bell-glass was dilated. At nine the liquor was of a
fine yellow, At half past ten red nitrous vapour was formed in
the tube, and it augmented gradually. When it reached the
bell-glass absorption ‘took place, and a piece of turnsole paper
which I introduced into it was strongly reddened. At eight in
the evening the operation was stopped: it was evident that the
air of the apparatus had been reduced inte azotic gas, and that
there had been a little nitric acid condensed in the tube. This
experim rent puts it beyond doubt, that it is not at the expense of
the oxygén of the litharge that the lead is oxidated, but rather
at the expense of that of the nitric acid; in the second place, that
the nitric acid is reduced by the lead into nitrous acid, which
yemains in combination with the oxides, and into nitrous gas
which is liberated, I am ignorant if the decomposition goes so
far as to give out azotic gas.

13. This decomposition of the nitric acid fixed to one base is

certainly very remarkable; and if actual experiments had not
provedat, I could not have thought it possible. The acid nitrate
of lead is not the only salt of its kind which is susceptible of
being changed into nitrite; for, if we boil a solution of nitrate of
potash over small pieces of lead, and if we concentrate the li-
uor so as that the greatest part of the nitrate is. crystallized
upon cooling, we find in the mother water plenty of nitrite of
potash, which emits the red vapour when we mix sulphuric acid
with it. This mother water contains merely an atom of lead,
which sulphusetted hydrogen demonstrates. In this experiment,
it is to all appearance the atlinity of lead for oxygen and for
water, which determines the decomposition of the nitric acid,
while in the former it is the affinity of lead for oxygen and for
the nitrous acid.

14, I have said above, that when we boiled over lead the solution
of the acid nitrate of this metal, the liquor took a yellow colour,
which ended by entirely disappeari ing. If we stop the eperation
when the colour is pretty deep, we obtain, upon cooling, vellow
leafy crystals: the liquor from which they are deposited yields,
when concentrated and cooled, crystals of the same kind, if the
solution of the nitrate has not boiled too long over the lead.
This salt is the same with that described by Messrs. Proust-and
Thomson, but it differs considerably from that which I obtained
from the three experiments which I have mentioned: in fact,
the latter does not colour the water which holds it in solution ;

instead

268 On the Combinations of the yellow Oxide of Lead

instead of being precipitated in yellow scales, it takes the form
of pale-red needles which unite in stars. As this salt is only
formed after the yellow salt, and with a greater quantity of lead
than that which served to form the latter, it is evident that it
ought to contain more base, and that it ought to be regarded as
asubnitrite. Before explaining the properties of these two salts,
I shall premise that it is very difficult (perhaps even impossible)
to obtain perfectly pure nitrite by M. Proust’s process: in fact,
if we have not boiled the acid nitrate long enough over the lead,
the nitrite may contain nitrate. Finally, if the ebullition has
been too long, the nitrite retains some subnitrite, as appears
from its colour verging towards red. The best process for pre-
paring the nitrite consists in passing a current of carbonic acid
into the solution of subnitrite, and in evaporating the liquor se-
parated from the carbonate of lead: We then obtain crystals of
nitrite, which we must press between bibulous paper to dry them:
afterwards they must be exposed to the sun. Almost all my ex-
periments were made with nitrite of lead produced by the sub-
nitrite.

Examination of the Nitrite of Lead.

15. It crystallizes in yellow leafy flakes.

16. It is not very soluble in cold water: besides, its solution
has but a slightly astringent and saccharine taste. 100 grammes
of boiling water may dissolve about 9°41 gr. 100 parts of water
at 23° of the centigrade thermometer, when mixed with 2 gr. of
nitrite reduced into powder, dissolved 1-26 gr. after bemg 24 hours

in contact. When we make a solution in boiling water, and -

when we cool it to 23°, the water retains more nitrite than it
would have dissolved at the same temperature.

These determinations are not rigorous, because, when we dis-
solve the nitrite in water, there is always a portion of it decom-
posed by the carbonate of ammonia contained in the distilled
water.

It appears to me, that when we crystallize several times the
nitrite (coming from the snbnitrite) the first crystals obtained
from it contain more base than those which are formed alter-
wards, and that the mother water of the latter was slightly acid.
The first crystals were of a deeper yellow than the rest: they
yielded when analysed one centieme of base more than the latter.

17. The solution of nitrite is yellow, it brings back to blue
turnsole paper which has been reddened by an acid: it does not
perceptibly absorb oxygen gas, at least after a contact of three
days ; when exposed to the air it is covered with a white pellicle
of carbonate,

18. The

with the Nitric and Nitrous Acids. 269

18. The sulphuric acid precipitates sulphate from it, it li-
berates a nitrous smell, but the red vapour is not very perceptible.
It would seem that the latter remains in solution.

19. The nitric acid and the acetic acid, which form with the
oxide of lead salts very soluble, emit the nitrous vapour when
we project into these boiling acids the nitrite reduced into
powder.

20. The carbonic acid gas when passed into the solution of
nitrite of lead precipitates from it a part of the oxide in the state
of carbonate. There remain in the liquor oxide of lead, ni-
trous acid in excess, aud carbonic acid. The carbonic gas which
is not absorbed carries with it an atom of nitrous acid. I shall
return to this decomposition of the nitrite by the carbonic acid.

21. The carbonate of potash decomposes it: there is a for-
mation of nitrite of potash and carbonate of lead.

22. When we heat it gently it becomes clammy, and its co-
lour is deeper. At a red heat it is reduced to pure oxide. The
first portions of acid are extricated from it at the heat of boiling
water. —

23. The solution of nitrite, when boiled with yellow oxide of
lead, is converted into subnitrite, but it requires a long time.
When ebullition commences, the oxide, no matter how pulveru-
lent it is, becomes flaky and white, and seems to pass to the state
of hydrate. I am ignorant if it absorbs a little nitrous acid.

Examination of the Subnitrite.

24. It is of a pale red, inclining to yellow. It crystallizes in
small silky needles which unite in stars.

25. 100 grammes of boiling water dissolved three grammes of
subnitrite. 100 grammes of water at 23° of the centigrade
thermometer dissolved about seven decigrammes of it after being
24 hours in contact with it. 100 grammes of boiling water, sa-
turated with subnitrite and cooled to 23°, retain nearly 1:09 gr.
of salt.

26. The carbonate of potash and the sulphuric, nitric, and
acetic acids decompose it like the foregoing.

27. The carbonic acid when passed into its solution forms an
abundant precipitate of carbonate of lead. The liquor becomes
yellow by losing the oxide, and it contains oxide of nitrous acid
in excess and carbonic acid.

28. The solution of subnitrite when poured into the nitrate of
copper precipitates from it a powder of a greenish blue, which is
a combination of the hydrates of copper and lead. I am ig-
norant if the acid, which I obtained from it by distillation, was
essential to it, or if it was occasioned by my not having well

: washed

270 On Electrical Phenoména ; aid

washed it: the former of these opinions is the most probable:
The nitrite of lead equally precipitates the nitrate of copper.

29. The solution of subnitrite forms with the muriate of gold
a vellow flaky precipitate. If when the precipitate is nearly all
collected we filter the liquor, it deposits metallic gold. I should
almost be inclined to think this preaipitata was a double muriate
containing abundance of base.

[Vo be continued. ]

V. On Electrical Phenomena; and on the new Substance
called Iode. By Mr. J: Murray.

Saffron Walden, Essex, April 12, 1814.
Sirs, —Some errata blend with my paper which you did me the
honour to insert in your last number. As the import. suffers
in some measure from this inadvertency, I must solicit the fa-
vour of your making the necessary corrections subjoined.

As there appears some obscurity in that passage which com-
mences “I observe,’ &c. (page 177,) I request that it may stand
as follows ; viz. I observe not heat sufficient to affect our most
delicate thermometers. Thus, have I suffered metallic lamine
to be fused by the electric dischan ge on the back of the hand,
and ether &ec. inflamed.

For “* two powers”? read “two powders ;
line say ‘* rosin or sulphur.”

In the second line succeeding, read ‘or the ball.” In page
176, for “ the paper as usual perforated’’ &c. read “the paper
was as usual perforated, and a circular portion of the China ink
displaced from the balls, while an indent’’ &c.

In the same page, dele should before ‘‘ be framed anew”
therein, (with a spark taken through it, by means of a person
uninsulated,) and surely &c.

I must not be understood as armed with hostility against the
honoured names opposed to the theory I advocate—

”

and in the samé

, ® . . . y .
“«« Amicus Socrates, amicus Plato, sed magis amica Veritas.”

If I am wrong, [shall not he ashamed to own my error, nor,

I trust, be found wanting in my acknowledgements for that in-

formation which may set me right. It is by the collision of

minds that truth is elicited; and this consideration should smooth

those asperities which too often mingle with the sentiments of

the best of men. A reciprocity or mutual interchange of opi-
nion is not too much to hope for.

In reverting to the experiment made with the dlackened balls,

I desire

on the new Substance called Iode. 271

I desire to impress that it affords to my mind a convincing proof,
that the zo fluids (called positive and negative) do not inter-
fere with each other, on their passage in opposile directions ; and
this may be further elucidated by coaling each side of the inter-
mediate card with mucilage (gum), for in this case no bur will
be raised, and two apertures found. -

M. Walsh, in the penultimate number of “ The Annals of
Philosophy,”’ states some interesting experiments on the e/lectri-
city of paper. The attractive power which writing-paper, being
well heated, acquires by.friction with caoutchouc, (andasI find,
also, with wheaten bread, &c.) is a circumstance which most
electricians are aware of. So much is this adhesive property
manifested, that paper thus treated will append to a wall for
some minutes. Paper is a well known electric ;—lurnt paper,
according to my experiments, becomes @ conductor of electricity ;
but when converted, by combustion, further, into white ash, it
reverts to its former electric state.

As every fact, though humble in itself, and insulated, is ne-
cessary, before we report on the nature and properties of a new
substance, I shall deviate in this instance from any thing like a
natural order or arrangement.

Tode, that most singular body, a correct estimate of which
seems to baffle our best researches, appears to me to be “ gifted”
with a most trappropriate tille, and the same objections militate
against the term Jodine.—Jodegene is at once expressive of. its
generating a violet colour by heat. The term gas most in-
aptly applies,—for at common temperatures it is not a perma-
nently elastic fluid ;—and if it should ultimately be pronounced
to be a metal, then, according to the more modern acceptation
of the nomenclature, its name will be Jodium.

In the external characters of opacity and lustre, tode assimi-
lates‘to a metal, and the circumstance of its forming a fulmi-
nating compound with ammonia is allied to this opinion. The
crystals of iode examined with a@ lens present uniformly rhom-
boidal prisms. ode is much like ore of irridium, a specimen
of which I have lately obtained.

I kept for some time a glass tube inclosing iode in a tin case,
and on examining it found the tube broken, and that the ode
had disappeared, wot a trace of tt could be ascertained. 1 then
moistened a slip of litmus paper with distilled water, and intro-
duced it into the tin envelope. When it was withdrawn, a few
red spots appeared on w/; and as on contact of liquid ammonia, .
the original colour was restored; there seemed evident signs
‘of an acid. ;

When iode rises in vapour, its odour is somewhat like that of
chlorine.

By

272 On Alcohol or spirituous Liquors.

By repeatedly exposing this substance in vapour, and the ery-
Stalline state, to the sunbeams, a deposit of a dew of a greenish
colour is effected ; so that, though heat does not alter it, light
produces from its chemical affections a most important change.
Some of the zode I have now with me in a tule hermetically
sealed, has been thus transmuted.

By raising a perpendicular to the iode in the state of vapour;
and placing this in the sunshine, a green shadow is projected.

The violet vapour which rises on application of heat cannot
be regarded as an emanation thrown off from the iode, and
which dissolves the substance, and holds it suspended therein,
but rather the zode itself finely dispersed and comminuted ; the
alteration of the size of the crystalline particles, and the varia-
tions of the figures of the groups, tend to the latter supposition.

Query? Is iode the metallic radicle of chlorine ? or of mu-
riatic gas ? or a substance sui generis, elaborated in the vegetable
economy ?

I am, with much respect and many thanks,
Gentlemen,
Very obediently yours,
J. Murray.
To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch. .

LVI. On Alcohol or Spirituous Liguors, and on the Changes
which they undergo on being rectified with alkaline, saline,
earthy, and other Substances; to which is subjoined a simple
Process for obtaining highly dephlegmated Spirits of Wine
without Injury to its constituent Principles. By M. Dusur,
of Rouen*.

F oR upwards of two centuries, chemists have been proposing
methods for freeing common spirits from a certain quantity of
-water, malic acid, and other foreign bodies which they obstinately
retain, in order to procure pure alcohol, or highly rectified spirits
of wine. It is now about a hundred years since Boerhaave,
Cartheuser, Stahl, and other chemists were occupied with this
object, and since, by means of their improvements, this valuable
fluid has been obtained freed from the heterogeneous substances
which alter its properties. Of all the old methods, that of Lemery
seems the best: it consists in distilling in a vapour-bath spirits
at 22 degrees in a matrass with a very long neck, surmounted
by a head, &c.

' Alcohol thus distilled marks in general from 38 to 40 degrees
in the common hygrometer, (at the temperature from 5° to 12°

* Annales de Chimie, tome Ixxxyi. p. 314,
cent-

.

On Alcohol or spirituous Liquors. 278

centigrade): this liquor, when at such a degree of lightness, is
described by Baumé as highly rectified spirit of wine. “Its
physical and chemical properties, in addition to-its levity, consist
in being perfectly diaphanous, very volatile, very inflammable,
burning without smoke, having an agreeable smell, a hot. taste;
and it does not alter the aqueous tinctures of turnsole, or of the
petals of violets.”

Such are the characters which ought to distinguish every al-
eoholic extract of wine, cider, perry, rum, &c. when well recti-
fied, deprived of water, and of the malic acid which we meet
with almost always in weak spirituous liquors.

We may, by means of salt or alkaline and earthy matters, bring
alcohol to a superior degree of rectification, to the point of
marking 46 or more in the areometer : but it is clear that these
substances act more or less on the elements of alcohol during di-
stillation ; for the liquor which results has new properties, since it
acts differently with the reagents from the spirit of wine obtained
without intermedium, such as that prepared by Lemery’s process,
which we shall henceforth call pure alcohol.

Lowitz, Richter, and other chemists successively suggested
various substances, which have a great atfinity for water, in order
completely to dephlegmate alcohol. In short, if the substances
mixed with spirit of wine, only take up the aqueous principle
which it contained in excess before it attained its last stage of
rectification, we may then conceive what immense advantages,
by these processes, spirituous fluids might confer on the arts and
commerce in general * ; but the series of experiments about to
be detailed will remove all uncertainty on this head, and enable
us in future to appreciate the means hitherto employed in the
rectification of alcohol. We shall show that every saline ad-
mixture changes spirit of wine more or less, either by acting on its
constituent principles, or by being dissolved, or even interposed
in a state of minute division.

The substances which have been alternately employed in these
operations, or the dephlegmation of spirit of wine, are; Ist, the
two fixed alkalis; 2d, the muriate of lime; 3d, the muriate of
potash; 4th, quick- lime 3 dth, calcined gypsum; 6th, sulphate
of soda, and latterly, acetate of potash fused and reduced to
powder.

In consequence I successively distilled pure spirit of wine (from

* Tt would be highly useful, as is now the case with most of the acids,
the sulphuric in particular (the highest degree of concentration of which it
is capable being known), if the maximwn of lightness or rectification, of al-
cohol was also fixed in an invariable manner: but in order to avoid err ors,
the hygrometers ought to be graduated alike in every country. Ma

Vol. 43. No. 192. April 1814. Ss 38 to”

274 On Alcohol or spirituous Liquors.

38 to 40 degrees) with these different salts, following precisely
the processes pointed out. ;

- This alcohol, when rectified with the alkali of tartar or of soda,
either caustic or partly carbonated and very dry, acquires in truth
three or four degrees of lightness: after this proof, its smell be-
comes more subtile; but it loses its natural mellowness. It
greens the aqueous tincture of the petals of the violet: in addi-
tion it abundantly precipitates the water taken from wells charged
with calcareous sulphate; effects which demonstrate that spirit of
wine rectified over alkalis is altered in its elements, or receives in
addition some heterogeneous principle.

Pure alcohol rectified over the muriates of lime and potash
slightly calcined, acquires also levity, and even more than with
the alkalis, but the liquor produced by it also contracts new pro-
perties. These do not belong to good alcohol: they give it a
hot, bitter, pungent taste. It is easy to demonstrate the pre-
sence of the salts employed in this rectification, either by am-
monia, or by the nitrates of silver and mercury, &c.

Quick-lime coarsely pulverized and mixed with pure alcohol,
creates sufficient heat to permit a portion of the fluid to distil over
without employing external heat: this first product gives cer-
tain signs of alkalinity, by acting sensibly on the aqueous juice
of the black plum. The residue distilled in the vapour-bath
contracts more and more the pungent property, and instan-
taneously becomes turbid on mixing with it common water satu-
rated with carbonic acid: it is easy by putting the liquor in a
large conical glass, to perceive at the bottom after it rests two
days a remarkable quantity of carbonate of lime, &c.

Pure alcohol distilled over calcined gypsum also acquires light-
ness, less however than with the four foregoing substances: the
spirit of wine produced contracts a peculiarly disagreeable smell :
besides, it renders turbid the infusion of flowers of red poppy,
whereas pure alcohol heightens the colour of it: it hkewise com-
municates a shade of dead leaves to the tincture of violets,—pro-
perties which indicate its alteration, or the presence of a foreign
body in the spirituous fluid.

Glauber’s salts, or sulphate of soda calcined and deprived com-
pletely of its water of crystallization, seemed an excellent inter-
medium for dephlegmating alcohol without acting on its ele-
mentary principles. I repeated this operation several times with
success, and always obtained, by employing a part of this salt
pulverized over two of liquid at 36, 37 and 38 degrees, a spirit
of wine marking from 38 to 40 degrees, and which had all the
properties of that prepared without any intermedium: but not-
withstanding its agreeable smell, it held in solution a small quan-
tity of the saline substance employed in its distillation, for pure

barytes

On Alcohol or spirituous Liquors. 275

barytes occasioned in it a slight precipitate. It was also easy
afterwards, by means of the blue vegetable colours, to discover in
it the presence of the alkali set free by the subtraction of the
sulphuric acid united to the ponderous earth.

By a second rectification over the same calcined salt, we may
have alcohol at 42 degrees, but vain will be the attempt to give it
a higher degree of levity by other distillations : this liquor differs _
only from spirit of wine prepared without intermedium, in so far
as it contains a slight quantity of sulphate of soda in solution.

By the calcined Acetate of Potash.

This method, which was lately suggested by an eminent che-
mist of Paris, succeeds beyond every other: pure alcohol distil-
led in the vapour-bath over this salt acquires more than 46 de-
grees (at the temperature of 10+0 Reaumur) ; but having ex-
amined this liquor, I soon perceived that it was no longer spirit’
of wine: it differed from it, Ist, by having a very pungent
smell, something like the tincture of salt of tartar of the shops.
2d, It had an acrid soapy and bitterish taste. 3d, It changed
into green the aqueous tincture of the petals of violets, &c.

It is therefore very evident that the alcohol obtained by this
process is of a great levity, but the properties peculiar to this fluid
remove it from the rank of pure spirit of wine, and make it a
new liquid.

From the above short detail, and the facts resulting from ex-
periments carefully made on pure alcohol from 38 to 40 degrees,
extracted from the various mucoso-saccharine substances which
have undergone the spirituous fermentation, it appears demon-
strated that all the six saline substances above cited, have an ac-
tion more or less direct, not only on the last portions of water
which adhere very strongly to the alcohol, but also upon the con-
stituent parts of this same fluid: hence we must conclude, that
all these intermedia do not exactly procure a spirit of wine de-
phlegmated to the maximum, and preserving all the physical and
chemical properties which ought to render it saleable and useful.

It has also been proposed to subtract the water from alcohol
at 36 degrees, by distilling it in the vapour-bath with a weak
dose of sulphuric acid: for instance =1,th of its weight. I have
observed that so long as spirit of wine does not exceed 38 de-
grees, it preserves by this rectification the properties which cha-
racterize it; but if we add a new portion of acid to the latter,
the product then acquires, with its specific lightness, a fragrant
odour slightly ethereated: this already announces an alteration
in the elementary principles of the spirituous fluid.

The common alum of commerce calcined, considering the
great quantity of humidity which it loses during its exposure to fire,

$2 . seems

276 On Alcohol or spirituous Liquors.

seems also very convenient for taking up the superabundant wa-
ter in the composition of alcohol: in consequence I added one
part in powder to two of this liquor marking 36°. After two
days, the whole was distilled in the vapour-bath, and this spirit
of-wine then yielded 5$°. It had a very agreeable taste, but I
was much surprised at the new property which it had acquired:
it reddened strongly the aqueous tinctures of turnsole and flowers
of violet. I then rectified a third time this last alcohol over varied
proportions of calcined sulphate of alumine, and obtained ¢on-
stantly nothing but a liquer from 39 to 40 degrees. Hence I con-
cluded that alum depriv ved of its water of crystallization does not
take up the phlegm which is foreign to pure alcohol, without act-
ing directly on its constituent principles ; but a: weak portion of
this salt is also volatilized during the operations, and held in so-
lution, or in a state of minute division, by the spirituous fluids ;
for not only does it redden the blue vegetable colours, but it is
also evidently disturbed by the water of. barytes; effects which in-
dicate the presence of alum in this alcohol.

I have also rectified alcohol at 39 degrees over gray calcined
muriate of soda: we know that this salt retains a great part of
its weight ‘in water of crystallization, and that a red heat long
continued can remove it: it was in this state that I presented it to
pure spirit of wine, hoping to give it a superior degree of purity:
but after several rectifications and distillations in succession of
these two substances iv the vapour-bath, the alcohol remained
in its primitive state, and with all the properties which charac-
terize it; which proves that the muriate of soda, even when de-
prived of water, does not act in any way upon the spirituous fluid
at a strong degree :—only like the sulphates of soda and of
alumine, a feeble portion of this salt is volatilized by the caloric
and the alcohol during the operation; for this liquor becomes
sensibly whiter by the addition of some drops of nitrate of mer-
cury and silver, an effect which does not take place when the
spirit of wine is very pure. It seems very astonishing that salts
equally well fixed as alum is in the fire, the sulphates and the
muriates of soda, should be volatilized during the distillation of
the alcohol, and by a heat so moderate: but something analogous
has been already noticed in No. 163 of the Annales de Chimie.
Messrs. Dabit and Ducommun of Nantz found muziate of am-
monia, carbonate and sulphate of lime, in the distilled water pro-
ceeding from a reservoir which had previously contained animal
substances, Kirwan and Lavoisier also say that the nitrate of
potash is volatilized with boiling water. I can alse say that I
collected very often the vapours which emanate during the pre-
paration of the alkaline salts, or of tartar emetic, kermes mi-
neral, sulphate of iron, acetate of lead prepared on a very een

scale,

On Alcohol or spirituous Liquors, 277

scale, and 1 found it always easy to discover traces of saline
metallic substances which form the base of it; which explains in
some measure the volatilization of salts which*has been mentioned,
and their solution or mixture in a state of minute division with
alcohol after the distillation of these substances.

Reflecting on the hygrometrical properties of charcoal, and on
the aptitude of pure alumine and common clay for water which
it retains in abundance and even at a high degree of heat, and
considering also the inertnes of these substances towards alcohol,
I employed them successively in the dephlegmation of spirit of
wine : consequently I made various experiments, the chief of
which only I shall detail here.

Ist. By Charcoal.

In one litre of aleohol, at 36° meun temperature, 1 put four
ounces 128 grammes of burnt birch wood while yet warm,
shaking ‘the whole frequently to facilitate the immersion and im-
hibition of the charcoal: in four days I filtered, and the alcohol
still marked 36 degrees. A similar operation took place with
very pure alcohol marking 36 degrees: after several days mace-
ration over charcoal this spirit of wine had also preserved its pri-
mitive state. "These effects tend to establish that charcoal ab-
sorbs both the alcohol, and the water which it contains in super
abundance.

The mixtures_of charcoal and of spirituous liquor were after-
wards distilled to dryness in the water-bath: the alcohol, which
marked originally 86 degrees, rose one degree by this operation,
but the latter remained as it was. [ repeated these experiments,
Ist, upon animal charcoal; 2d, upon the charcoal of various
woods; but I only obtained alcohol at 39 or 40 degrees even when
operating on very considerable masses, and by dividing the products
into fractions in order to establish areometrical points of con-.
tact ; which proves that charcoals have not more affinity for pure
water than for alcohol merely (and this has been already re-
marked). Alcohol, from whatever substance produced, acquires by
its rectification on charcoal, a sweeter smell and a more agreea-
ble taste than that which is obtained in the common manuer or
without intermedium.

By pure Alumine and common Ciay.

Into one litre of alcohol at 39 degrees I put eight ounces of
pure well dried alumine: after two days immersion, and always
at the same temperature, I decanted with precaution a sufficient.
quantity of spirit of wine, and observed that it yielded 40 de-
grees. Afterwards I distilled in the vapour-bath to dryness.
The fluid which came over had a pungent very disagreeable smell,
$3 and

278 On Alcohol or spirituous Liquors.

and marked 41 degrees: I heated the alumine strongly in order
to deprive it of about 32 grammes of moisture which it had im-
bibed from the alcohol, and redistilled the latter over this earth.
The liquor acquired upon a second rectification a new degree of
lightness, to the point of marking 42 degrees of strength mean
temperature.

This alcohol constantly retains all the properties which cha-
racterize good spirit of wine: the smell, taste, and far less the
reagents, do not discover the presence of any foreign body: its
specific gravity as to that of water is nearly : :8°292 : 10-000.

We may also obtain alcohol in its highest degree of rectifica~
tion, by employing, instead of pure alumine, common potters’ clay
well washed, then passed through a sieve, and finally well dried
before using it; but the attempt is vain in this way to give a greater
degree of lightness to alcohol, as I was convinced after successive
distillations and rectifications. I conclude therefore that this
earthy substance has no action upon the elements of alcohol, and
that it only deprives it of the water which is superabundant to
its spirituous essence. In consequence of this, and as we are ig-
norant if this intermedium has already been employed in any si-
milar case, we suggest this new method to chemists and distillers*
with confidence, and from our experiments we are of opinion that
this liquor the most highly rectified, and not at all altered in
its constituent principles, ought always to mark 42 degrees in
Baumé’s areometer mean temperature. We may add that al-
cohols of a higher degree distilled over saline intermedia are more
or less altered in their constituent principles, that nevertheless
the practice may be advantageous in the preparation of varnishes
for the perfumer and watchmaker, and for coating metal work.
But these liquors can never be called good potable alcohol.

We are also of opinion that alcohol rectified over saline and al-
kaline substances, even reduced to a proper degree, cannot be em-
ployed in the composition of medicines, because every thing in-
clines us to believe that it thereby acquires new properties which
might deceive the medical attendant who prescribed it.

We shall conclude our present paper with some general obser-
vations upon alcohol, or ardent spirit, produced by the fermenta-
tion of every kind of mucoso-saccharine substance.

Since the fine experiments of Lavoisier, and of several chemists,
we know that the inflammable liquid known by the name of
spirit of wine is composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and a
little azote according to M. de Saussure. Setting out from
these data, we may conclude generally that all alcohols, from
whatever substance produced, ought to be perfectly identical and

homogeneous in their elementary principles; because, since they
are

On Alcohol or spirituous Liquors. 279

are composed of the same radicals, the proportions of which are
known, they ought to have the same properties, the same taste,
and act in the same way with the reagents, being well purified,
and having attained their highest degree of rectification.

This alcoholic identity may exist within the range of physzco-
chemical possibilities: but I candidly own that I was never
thoroughly convinced of it; for notwithstanding numerous ex-
periments for twenty-five years past on the alcoholic fluids pro-
duced by wine, cyder, rum, cherry brandy, fermented grain, &c.
I constantly remarked that all these liquids, when.distilled and
rectified several times even in the vapour-bath without mixture,
or the intermedium of charcoal as recommended by Lowitz, and
brought to their highest degree of spzritwosity, still exposed their
origin, and that it was always easy to say which alcohol came
from wiue, cider, perry, rum, &c. *.

The odour which issues from the various kinds of alcohol when
rubbed on the hands, the organ of taste, in diluting these fluids
in a sufficient quantity of warm water, and their mixture with a
little sulphuric acid, are the most simple as well as the most cer-
tain methods for instantly unmasking the peculiar aroma of each
kind, and the substance from which it has been produced.

There exists a term, however, at which all these alcohols cease
to be cognizable; but they are then denaturalizxed, if we may so
express ourselves, and this happens in their etherification.

In fact, the extremely volatile odorous and expansive fluid,
long known by the name of ether of Frobenius, which chemists
prepare by distilling equal parts of alcohol at 36 or 37 degrees
and concentrated sulphuric acid, may be made with every kind of
spirituous liquor; and when the product which results from it is
well rectified, and marks from 36 to 60 degrees in Baumeé’s areo-
meter, then I do not hesitate to assert that it is impossible to
ascertain to what kind of alcohol ether thus prepared belongs.
It would seem that at the moment of the affusion of the acid
over the spirituous fluid, the aroma which characterizes it is va-
porized or destroyed by the dissociation or alteration undergone
by the elements which compose it *.

I may add that the various alcohols at an equal degree of veri-
fication do not always produce one and the same quantity of

* By the effect of the reaction of the concentrated acid on alcohols, and
by the aroma which emanates from it, we may always distinguish the kind
of ardent spirit employed in this operation: but as soon as the mixture is
half cooled, then the liquors which result from it are perfectly identical, as
to their smell alone; but their colour is more or less intense: this seems
to depend on the different proportions of the oleaginous aromatic principle
or characterizes each kind of alcohol, and which is acted upon by the
acid,

$4 ether.

280 Description of a Hydro-pneamatie Blow-pipe.

ether. I have met with alechol which produced | 1-16th more:
than any other. Does this arise from the heterogeneous princi-
ples which they contain more or less, or from the varied pro
portions of elementary substances of which they are composed,
or lastly from a still stronger portion of aroma ?

Without attempting to account for these varieties at present,
I shall merely say that the alcohols which seem to give most
ether are: Ist, that produced from perry ; 2d, wine; 3d, cider,
The spirits denominated cherry brandy, rum, geneva, and whisky,
are far inferior to those just enumerated in respect of the quan-
tity of ether which they yield.

LIX. Description of a Hydro-pneumatic Blow-pipe for the Use
of Chemists, Enamellers, Assayers, and Glass-blowers. By
Mr. Joun Titrey, of Whitechapel*.

Sir, — Bate a travelling fancy glass-blower, I work with a
machine which I have contrived for my own use, and which I
have been advised, by a great number of respectable gentlemen,
to lay before the Society of Arts,&c. ‘The invention consists of a
tin-box, with a partition in it reaching from the top at one end
to within an inch of the bottom. The vessel is air-tight at this
end. It is three parts filled with water. By means of a tube
reaching within half an inch of the bottom, I blow into the water
at the air-tight end; the air rises in bubbles through the water
to the top, and forces the water under the partition into the
other compartment. The weight of the water acts upon the air
which had been blown in, and forces it through a blow-pipe di-
rected to the lamp, and keeps up a continued blast till the air is
exhausted. More air may be blown in from time to time, so as
to keep the blast regular and continual. It is thus I execute my
fancy glass-blowing. The whole apparatus, including lamp and
case, weighs only three pounds and a half.

I believe I am the first glass-blower who ever worked with such
a machine.

If the Society should think me deserying of any reward, it will
be very thankfully received by,

Your obedient humble servant,
Joun TILLey,

Direct for me at Mr. Thomas Yandall’s, bookseller, Old Street

Road, near Shoreditch Church.

* From Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Sc.
for 1813.—Fifteen guineas were vated by the Society for this communica-
tion, and one of the machines is preserved for public inspection in the
Society’s Repository,

? The

’ Description of a Hydro-pneumatic Blow-pipe. 28¥

The apparatus is applicable to the business of enamellers,’
jewellers, chemists, and many other arts, and can be furnished
complete for 2/. 12s, 6d. made of tinned copper.

March 27, 1812.

To C. Taylor, M.D. Sec.

Reference to ihe Engraving of Mr. Titury’s Hydro-pneumatic
Blow-pipe.—Plate IV... ‘Fig. 4, 55.6, /5.5-

The utility of the blow-pipe, in the arts, to raise a great heat
in a small object, from the fiame of a lamp, is too well known to
require pointing out. The assay of minerals, the arts of enamel-
ling, jewellery, soldering metal works, but above all the blowing
of small articles in glass, are purposes to which it is better
adapted than almost any,othér mode of applying heat. The
usual manner of producing a stream of air for blowing glass, is
by means of a small pair of double-acting bellows, fixed beneath
a table, and werked by the operator’s foot; a pipe proceeds from
these bellows to the top of the table, and terminates in a small
jet, before which a lamp is placed, and the flame blown by the
current of air upon the object to be heated. The defects of the
bellows are, that the stream of air is not perfectly regular, which
causes a wavering of the flame, so that it does not fall steadily
upon the object which is to be heated. Mr. Tilley’s blow-pipe
corrects these defects, by using the pressure of a column of water
to regulate the stream of air, and the supply is furnished from
the mouth of the operator, by blowing through a tube, fig. 4, C,
at a section of this instrument, and: fig. 5 shows a perspective
view of it in action, AA is a vessel of tinned iron, or copper,
about seventeen inches high, five wide, and nine broad ; the lid
of which opens and shuts on hinges, and supports the lamp B,
which burns tallow instead of oil. C is the blowing-pipe, by
which the air is thrown into the vessel: this, as shown in the
section fig. 4, has an inclined partition D, which divides it into
two chambers, E and F; -but as the partition does not reach
to the bottom of the vessel, the two compartments com-
municate with each other underneath it: that marked F is
closed at the top so as to be air-tight ; but the other is only co-
vered by the lid of the vessel, ‘and may therefore be considered as
being open to the outward air. The pipe C, fig. 4, is soldered
air-tight, where it passes through the top of the chamber, and
descends very near to the bottom of the vessel, deeper than the
partition D does, so that its mouth is always immersed beneath
the water. The metallic part of the blow-pipe G, which, con-
veys the blast of air to the flame of the lamp, is likewise soldered
into the top of the chamber F; it holds a bent glass tube, a,

which

282 Description of a Hydro-pneumatic Blow-pipe.

which terminates in a very small and delicate jet, and is fitted
air-tight into the tin or copper tube G. Now, by blowing into
the tube C, the air is forced out at the bottom of it, and rises in
bubbles through the water into the upper part of ‘the chamber
F; this displaces a corresponding quantity of water, which passes
under the partition D, into the other chamber E, elevating the
surface of the column of water, and depressing the other, as
shown in the figure; the water endeavouring to return to its
original level, causes a constant compressure of the air, and
forces it through the jet a into the flame of the lamp. By this
means, it is not necessary to blow constantly with the mouth ;
for, though the air is forced into the receiver at intervals, yet the
pressure of the water will expel it in a constant stream, and the
operator will not be fatigued by the motion of the foot, necessary
in working bellows, nor need even to keep his mouth at the pipe
constantly, but merely to blow from time to time, as he finds the
stream of air to decrease in its power.
The metal socket which connects the glass tube or blow-pipe
a@ with the vessel A, is made conical, and the tube, having a piece
of paper first wrapped round it, is bound round with cotton-wick
yarn in a conical form, so as to fit the socket tight, and yet per-
mit the tube to be moved in any required direction, to cause the
air toact properly upon the flame; and the curved metal tube C
is also fixed into the upper part of the tube C in the same manner.
HH are the two sides of a tin frame, which is fixed in front of
the vessel, and has grooves withinside of them to receive a tin
plate I, which forms a screen, and can be adjusted in height so
as to keep the light of the lamp from the operator’s eyes, though
he can see the work over the top of it: this screen is held fast
by its foot being placed btween the lid of the vessel and the top
of the close chamber F. K is one of_ two handles, which sup-
port the operator’s arms while holding a glass tube or other mat-
ter in the flame, and there is another like it at the opposite side
of the vessel: these handles are also wrapped round with woollen
list or leather, so as to form cushions ; and the vessel is steadily
fixed upon a chair, bench, &c. by means of a leather strap buckled
to the loops on each side of it, and passing under the chair, &c.
The lamp is made of tin, is of an elliptical, or rather of a bean
or kidney shape, one side being carved inwards ;- across the cen-
tre of it stands a metal wick-holder, having a loop on one side
of it, and which is soldered to its bottom, (see 7, fig. 6.) Through
this loop the wick of cotton is drawn, and being opened both
ways, as shown in that figure, and still plainer in fig. 8, forms a
passage in its middle, through which the current of air from the
jet @ passes as in figs. 4 and 8, and carries the long pointed
fiame upon the object to be heated. The lamp, figs. 6 and 8,
is

Descripiion of a Hydro-pneumatic Blow-pipe. 283

is filled with tallow, which, melting by the heat, becomes fluid,
and burns as well as oil, but with a less offensive smell, and when
cold, being solid, is more conveniently carried than oil. This
lamp is placed within another vessel marked B, figs. 4, 5, and 8,
which supports it at a proper height, leaving a space between
them all round, to receive any tallow which may run over the
edge of the interior vessel or lamp.

In using this blow-pipe, the following observations being at-
tended to, will greatly increase its effect. The long flat cotton
wick of the lamp will be found to act better than the usual round
cotton wick; but in either case, the flame which it raises will be
considerable. The end of the glass pipe a must be just entered
into the flame, and the current of air will throw out a cone
of flame from the opposite side. If it is well managed, this
cone will be distinct and well defined, and extend to a con-
siderable length. Care must be taken, that the stream of air
does not strike against any part of the wick, as it would then be
disturbed, and the cone split into several parts. (A wire bent
at its end, as shown at fig. 7, is very convenient to smooth the
passage through the wick :) the jet of air must be delivered some-
what above the wick ; and as, unless the flame was considera-
ble, there would not be sufficient for the stream of air to act
upon, for this reason the wick is opened, as shown in fig. 6, that
it may expose the largest surface, and produce the greatest
flame; the stream of air from the pipe should be directed through
the channel or opening between the wick, so as to produce a
cone the most perfect and brilliant. On examining this cone of
flame, it appéars to be formed of two different colours, the part
nearest to the lamp being of a yellowish white, and that beyond
of a blue or purple colour.

The subject which is to be heated, is held in the flame at the
termination of the yellowish-white flame, where it receives the
greatest heat, and is not discoloured by the soot which accom-
panies the white flame.

Glass tubes are, when applied to this lame, quickly rendered
pliable, and may be bent or drawn out into threads or points,
and hermetically sealed; or, by blowing into the other end of
the tube, it may be expanded into a small glebe, so as to form
various small articles at the pleasure of the operator.

In chemistry, mineralogy, and the arts, the blow-pipe is an
extremely useful instrument, being capable of throwing such a
powerful heat on a small object, as would be difficult to obtain
on a larger quantity of the same substance, in the most powerful
furnaces; and with this advantage, that the process is always un-
der the inspection of the operator ; whereas he can only con-
jecture what passes in the centre of a furnace. In

284 New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy.

In using the blow-pipe for experiment, a piece of charcoal is
generally used to support the subject, and held in the flame of
the lamp; the charcoal should be of a close compact grain, and
properly burnt ; for, ifit is teo little carbonized, it will flame like
a piece of wood, and obscure the object; and if it is too much
burnt, it is so quickly consumed, and burnt to ashes, that the
object is in danger of being lost im it; the charcoal greatly in-
creases the heat, by reverberating the flame, and by heating the
object at the opposite side; itself being converted into fuel, and
excited by the blast, and thus creates an atmosphere of flame
and heated air around it, which prevents the heat being carried
off so fast, or the object being so much cooled, as if it should for
an instant be moved out of the cone of the flame, from the un-
steadiness of ite hand, or from accidental currents of air, which
would disturb the fame, and cause such a wavering in the point |
of the cone, as to divert it in some measure from the object. In
order to prevent more tallow than is necessary from being con-
sumed, to produce the intended effect, it is convenient to have
several lamps with wicks of different thicknesses, viz. one to hold
two flat cottous (such as are used for the Liverpool lamps) of
about 1} inch broad; another to hold four, and a third to hold
six, or as much common wick yarn as is equal to those wicks in
bulk : glass jets should also be provided of different sized aper-
tures, to suit the greater or lesser sized wicks and flames, and
deliver streams of air upon them proportionately, and their jets
should point upwards in a small degree: hogs-lard is also equal
or perhaps superior to tallow for the lamp.

LX. New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy. By Ez. WALKER,
Esq. of Lynn, Norfotk.

[Continued from p. 105.]

Sirs, aly a paper published in the Philosophical Magazine,
vol. xiii. p. 161, I described an electrometer, which I had con-
trived for determining the mechanical forces of the two elements
that compose the electric spark. From some experiments made
with that instrument it appears that all electrical phenomena
afe produced by two distinct powers acting in contrary directions,
and with equal energy. At that time I had no other way of de-
termining the equality of those forces, than by inspection ; but
I have since added some improvements to the instrument, which
make it more convenient and correct.
The first improvement consists in cutting a hole through the
; card,

New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy. 285

ecard, about an inch square, between the two bobs of the pen-
dulums*. A piece of card paper, rather less than an inch square,
is inserted into the place where the card was cut out, and be-
tween the two ends of the wires, for the electric spark to pass
through. As soon as this card has, been perforated, it is taken
out, and another piece of equal dimensions put into its place ;
and thus a number of experiments may be made with very little
trouble.

The second improvement consists in fixing a thread to each
pendulum rod. These threads pass through two separate holes
in the card in contrary directions, so that by taking hold of their
ends the pendulums may be drawn close to the plane of the in-
strument.

When an electric charge is passed through the two wires, the
pendulums are thrown off in contrary directions, and conse-
quently the threads are drawn through the card, and show the
mechanical forces of the two elements.

The length of the thread drawn through the card in eleven
experiments by the positive force, thermogen, was 23 inches 5
and the thread drawn through the card, at the same time, by the
other force, improperly called negative electricity, measured 22
inches.

In four of these experiments the mechanical forces were equal:
in some of the rest the positive, or thermogen, acted with greater
energy than the photogen; in others it acted with less: but these
differences were only such as might have been expected from the
nature of the elements which were the objects of investigation.

Whence we may infer, notwithstanding this small difference,
that the electric spark is composed of two elements passing
through each other with equal forces, in contrary directions.
Consequently, positive and negative are words that have no de-
finite meanings in chemical philosophy; thermogen and photo-
gen are more appropriate; and as I have clearly defined those

terms, my meaning cannot be misunderstood by men of science.
a

Lynn, April 18, 1814. E, WaLKER.

To Masers. Nicholson and Tilloch.

* See vol. xlii. Plate IIT. fig. 3,

XI. Description

[ 286 J

LXI. Description of a mechanical Substitute for Leeches, in
Bleeding. By Mr.J.Wuirrorp, of St. Bartholomew’s Hos-
pital*.

To the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures,

and Commerce.

Gentiemen,—L HAVE taken the liberty of offering myself a
second time to your notice, and to lay before you a small appa-
ratus [have lately invented, as a substitute for leeches : a deside-
ratum particularly to be cherished, when it is recollected that in
severe frosts leeches cannot always be procured, and very often
at too great a price for the afflicted necessitous to obtain. My
invention consists of a small spring instrument, with three trian-
gular-pointed lancets, which can be regulated to any degree of
depth that may be required; the rest of the apparatus is a small
exhausting syringe, with three glasses, of different sizes, to be
applied as the nature of the case may require; as frequent.com-
plaints have been made by medical men, who were in the habit
of using the exhausting syringe and glasses for cupping, that after
they had applied the glass, in the usual way, with the pump, if
they withdrew the syringe from the glass for the purpose of ap-
plying others, the air would frequently get under the valve and
cause the glass to fall off; and I feel happy in stating, that I have
completely succeeded in the improvement I have made on the
cup of the glass, which will prevent the possibility of that occur-
rence. Notwithstanding the many alterations I have been making
on the apparatus for the last four years, I found that I was in
the exact situation, as to the mode of applying the glasses, as
gentlemen who were in the habit of using the exhausting syringe
and glasses for cupping. I could but apply one glass at a time
without the danger, if I removed the syringe, of the glass falling
off, as it most frequently happens you have occasion to apply two
or more leeches. I found it therefore necessary to make a further
improvement on the instrument, that you might apply as many
glasses at a time as you might think proper, which is done as
follows :—I made a small stop-cock, on the cap of the glass, un-
der the valve, which when the glass and syringe is used in drawing
up the skin, by turning the stop-cock, makes it completely air-
tight, so that it is impossible for the glasses to fall off, until you
may think proper to remove them. 1 have the pleasure of pre-
senting several certificates from some of the most respectable of
the faculty, who have obligingly given me their opinion; and if
you, gentlemen, should require further explanation respectingmy

* From Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, §c. for
1813.—The Society’s lesser silver medal was voted for this communication.
artificial

Description of a mechanical Substitute for Leeches. 287

artificial leeches, I will with pleasure attend your summons ; and
remain,
Your most obedient, grateful,
and very respectful servant,

St. Bartholomew's Hospital, J. WHITFORD.
Noy. 18, 1812.

Certificates.

Sirn,—I Have had frequent opportunities of using your leech-
instrument, and am happy to inform you that it has answered
far beyond my expectation. I have found it particularly useful
in many cases where the indigent class of people have stood in
need of leeches, but from the high price could not procure them.
1 have also found it very convenient in two cases, where the pa-
tients had a great aversion even to the sight of the leech, con-
sequently the instrument proved to them its most beneficial effects.

I am, sir, yours, &c.
W. H. Exuiorr,
City Dispensary, Oct. 20, 1812. Apothecary to the City Dispensary.

To Mr. J. Whitford, 8c. Gc. Be.

Sir,—Havine attentively examined the instrument you put
into my hands, as a substitute for leeches, I am of opinion that
it will afford a valuable means of supplying any deficiency of that
very useful reptile, which, from its dearth and scarcity, cannot
be employed in many cases.

I am, sir,
Your very obedient servant,
Finsbury Dispensary, St. John-Street, MicHaEL BaRtLetr.

Noy. 13, 1813.
To Mr. J. Whitford, 8c. &c. @e.

Sir,—I Have made use of your artificial leech, and, from my
experience, | think it will prove of great utility. In cases where
leeches are necessary I think it will answer every purpose, and in
many instances will be preferable. The operation can be per-
tormed much cleaner, with considerably less fatigue to the patient,
and the quantity of blood taken away can be ascertained with
more accuracy than if drawn by the natural leech. The extra-
vagant price of leeches often puts it out of the power of the lower
class of people to procure them; and frequently, when procured,
they will be found sickly, and their power of action so languid as
to disappoint 'the hopes of the patient, and the expectation of
the practitioner; a disappointment which is prevented by the
artificial leech: and where prompt and immediate Sali

leeches

288 Description of & mechanical Substitute for Leeches.

leeches is necessary, the possession of the artificial leech appears
to me obvious and very desir able.
Iam, &c.
Aldersgate-street, Nov. 18, 1812. J, DEARING,
To Mr. J. Whitford, &c. 8c. Gc.

WE are of opinion that the instrument produced by Mr. Whit-
ford cannot supersede the use of leeches, but that it may occa-
sionally prove a useful substitute for them.

(Signed) , JoHNn PzarRson,
JAMES WILSON,
THomas BamMsDEN,
J. C. Carpug,
Tuomas Mainwaring,
; S. Cooper,
November 24, 1812. HeEenrRY EaRLe.

I nave used Mr. Whitford’s leech-instrument, and approve
the same; | consider it a very ingenious contrivance, and that
it will become an excellent substitute for leeches.

Charter-House-Square, Nov. 24, 1812. J.W. SPRY, Surgeon.

To C. Taylor, M.D. Sec.

Sir,—I Ave great pleasure in being.enabled to say, that
whenever I have used your artificial leech, it has fully answered
My expectations ; and I cannot help thinking, that during the
winter season, when leeches are so exceedingly expensive, and
when generally they are more wanted, it will prove a valuable
substitute. The additition of the stop-cock, as it will preserve
a more perfect vacuum, will enhance its valuc.

i am, &c.
105, St. John-Street. Joun Barnett, Surgeon.

To Mr. Whitford, Sc. Sc. Ge.

Reference to the Engraving of Mr.J. Wurtronp’s Mechanical
Substitute for Leeches, Plate IV. figs. 1, 2, 3.

THIs instrument operates nearly in the same manner as the
scarificator and cupping-glass, but in a more delicate way; the
piercing instrument being provided with sharp points, instead of
lancets, so as to make three very small punctures in the skin (in-
stead of incisions, as by the scarificator) ; upon these a small glass
cup is applied, and a syringe used to exhaust the air from it, and
increase the flow of the blood.

Figs, 2 and 3 show the form of the instrument, called the

‘ leech;

Hints io Cultivators of the Sugar Cane. 289

leech ; the former being a section through the middle of it, and
the latter showing its outside ; it is a brass tube A, having a
cover B at one end, through which a screw C passes; this screw
has a circular piece of brass a fixed upon it, which slides in the
tube, and carries the three piercers J ; a spiral spring surrounds
the screw, and presses upon the piece a, so as to force it always
towards the open end of the tube; but a milled nut b, upon the
screw C, prevents it going too far; dis a small spring catch,
fixed within side the tube, and having a button e proceeding from
it, through the side of the tube; the catch passes through a
small square hole in the piece a,and has a_kind of hook formed
upon it, of a similar shape to the hook of a door latch ; this, when
the screw C is drawn back, by pulling its nut 0, retains it as shown
in the figure, the spring being fully bent ; and in this state the
open end of the tube is to be applied upon the part where the
bleeding is to be performed ; then, by pressing upon the head of
the button e, the spring catch d is discharged, and the spring
throws the piece a forward, causing the points 6 to enter the skin,
and make the punctures, the depth of which is regulated at plea-
sure by the nut 2; which being serewed along the screw C, allows
the points to protrude as far beyond the end of the tube as the
operator’s judgement directs, when the spring is discharged.

Fig. I. is the syringe and cupping-glass, to be applied after this
operation ; Ei is a small glass bell, of which there are several of
different sizes provided; it has a brass cap f, terminating in a
screw &, by which it is attached to the end F of the syringe G;
this exhausts the air, when the handle H is drawn out in the usual
manner; a small valve of bladder being tied over the aperture
in the end of the screw g, to prevent the re-entrance of the air
when the handle of the syringe is returned; fis a small stop-
cock, to shut up the passage when the exhaustion is complete,
as the valve alone would sometimes be insufficient to prevent the
leakage of the air when the syringe is unscrewed.

——as

LXII. Hints to Cultivators of the Sugar Cane. By C. BLacx~-
: ForD, Esq. of Jamaica*,

Tre tenacity of cane liquor, which resisted the power of
white lime to decompose and neutralise its substance, having
been suggested to me, and in some instances confirmed by my
own observation, it has occasioned me much painful solicitude to
divine why the effect should not be the same in all cases. 1 was
well aware, that the richer the liquor the more temper lime was
necessary; the weaker juices more readily deposited its more

* From the Jamaica Royal Gazette of November 1813.

Vol.43, No. 192, April 1814, T ponderous

290 Hints to Cultivators of the Sugar Cae.

ponderous impurities, and a comparatively small quantity of white
lime effected separation and precipitation. Hence, in all cases
of the lighter juices, an error could not happen, and the temper-
glass, when used, was a ready guide. Having lately had an op-
portunity of perusing a work entitled “ Elements of Natural His-
tory and Chemistry,” and guided by other references which it
has been my study to embrace, I find there are earths and stones
that may be calcareous without having the power to effervesce
with acids; and my late experience has confirmed the fact, that
even the best white lime, after having been exposed for some time
to the air, will lose that quality which I conceive to be essential
in decomposing rich, matured, good cane juice. From the fre-
quent stoppage of fire, occasioned by the mill by no means sup-
plying the three small vessels on this estate, the liquor often got
tainted in the, boilers, which its smell immediately made known.
And here I must remark, that neutralised liquor assumes a new
character, and, I have every reason to think, yields soon to the
more powerful agent, acidity, and can only be restored by a free
use of active lime applied to the boiled fiyuor, simply putting it
into the ladle therewith, and straining or rather throwing it on a
skimmer on the liquor in the coppers; nor should the operator
apply lime with too cautious a hand. I take the liberty to affirm,
that half a pint, or even a whole one, applied over and above in
the receiver in tempering, would not have any other effect than
that produced by a like quantity of salt in curing a large round of
beef.’ So also, as a restorative, should the liquor, by staying
process, lean to faint, apply liberally temper lime, to destroy the
acid, aud rather let the smell of alkali predominate ;—do not
fear the result, as no discolouring of the sugar nor scaling the
tache will take place. But to come more immediately to the
point: an excellent small kiln of white lime, composed of the
coarse grained common limestone, and calcined by the strongest

hard wood, was burnt on this estate. Previously to commencing -

crop this year, several hogsheads were headed up, and some was
deposited in the boiling-house in casks; one burst very soon after,
which for a time served the purpose of temper; but in a little I
found it to lose its proper effect. My late reading had given me
the idea of effervescence. On applying a half pint, or rather
more, of this lime to the boiling liquor, it had not that quality,
though it approached to granulation, but not in so active a de-
gree as it ought. I caused another cask to be used, and found
that with a much less quantity, thrown into a ladle of liquor, the
effervescence was so strong and turbulent, as to force its way over
the side of the ladle, and was more efficacious. Hence I| infer,
that too little attention is paid to the quality of the stone, and
the state of the temper lime commonly used. From the works

which

Hints to Cultivators of the Sugar Cane. 291

which I have had the opportunity of perusing, I am induced to
believe, that, if large vessels were in use, alum would very essen-
tially and powerfully resist fermentation. From analogy, in the
animal and vegetable kingdom, I conclude, that as alum is found
to resist putrefaction in a greater degree by forty times thau
common sea-salt, so I think it may act as a preservative from
the great evil to be avoided in the manufacture of our grand
staple, sugar.
Great Pond Estate, St. Ann’s, C.. BLACKForD.

June 9. 1813. ; \
June 29.—Since my last communication I made the following

experiment to prove how far alum acted in resisting fermentation
by applying it to cane-juice in the manufacture of sugar, which
I briefly subjoin:—On the 23d inst. [ filled a large decanter
with cane-juice as it flowed from the mill, and five three-ounce
phials, prepared, the first, as a standard from the mill; into the
second | put a small portion of alum; with the third I teok
clarified liquor from the receiver, in which there was also some
alum; the fourth contained simply clarified liquor ; and the fifth
eane liquor out of the decanter, saturated with white lime. I
then filled up the decanter with Seville orange-juice. The de-
canter was in a rapid fermentation the next morning. The first
phial was not observed to ferment on the 24th, but on the morn-
ing of the 25th it was visible ; the second, with the alum applied
to it, has not to this day any sign of fermentation ; the third has
not yet shown any degree of agitation, though both the latter
smell and taste a little acid; the fourth fermented on the
26th ; and the fifth did not show any sign of fermentation until
the 28th, and then slowly. Thus have I endeavoured in a crude
state to ascertain the power of alum to counteract the great evil
to be avoided in making sugar, leaving to those who are more
able to determine with precision its due effect and properties,
and humbly hoping that the attempt, however imperfect, may be
considered as an offering of one using his best endeavours to pro-
mote useful knowledge.

July 7—The phial alumed from the receiver of clarified liquor
was observed to ferment on the morning of the Ist inst. The
phial also alumed from the cane-juice as it flowed from the mill,
began to be in a state of fermentation on the 2d inst. being from
the 23d of June, both days inclusive, a period of ten days: an in-
controvertible proof of the quality of alum as a powerful cuunter-
actor of fermentation. Many other grand advantages may be
derived from it in the manufacture of sugar. 1 could make some
observations that arose during the trial, but I feel | have been al-
ready too prolix.—I shall only observe, that all the phials were
exposed to the same situation as to air; being also uncorked,

T2 and

a Experiments upon Mushrooms.

and the others ceased to ferment some days before those last men=
tioned showed the least sign of agitation. The alum brightened
the liquor ; consequently, it would have the same effect in the
sugar. This may give rise to further experiments by those more
capable of elucidating its properties and effects, should you con-
sider this as worthy of publication, '

LXIII. Experiments upon Mushrooms. By M. Vauaue.in*.

M. Jaume Sr. Hizare, so well known by his botanical ac-
quirements, having requested me to submit to chemical analysis
three kinds of poisonous mushrooms, viz, the agaricus theo-
galus, lulbosus, and muscarius, 1 turned to the memoir of
M. Braconnot on the subject, inserted in the Ixxixth yolume of
the Annales de Chimie.

The results obtained by this chemist appeared to me to be sa
interesting that I immediately resolved to yerify them by ex-
periments, and with this view I began an accurate analysis of
the common mushroom which is to be procured daily in the
markets of Paris.

It is to the common mushroom, therefore, that my present
work chiefly refers. I shall subjoin the results obtained from the
three kinds of mushroom above mentioned.

M. Braconnot discovered in inushrooms a great number of
principles; the most prominent of which I shall enumerate
here: for instance, in the agaricus volvaceus there are, ac-
cording to him, Ist, Fungine, or the fibrous part common ta
all mushrooms. 2d, Gelatine. 3d, Albumen. 4th, A parti-
cular kind of erystallizable sugar. 5th, Oil. 6th, Wax. 7th,
Adipocire. 8th, Benzoic acid. 9th, A very evanescent delete-
rious principle. 10th, Finally Salts, such as phosphates, acetates
and muriates of potash,

In the other species he sometimes found new agids, an un-
known animal matter, and animal mucus.

ANALYSIS OF THE COMMON EATING MUSHROOM.

Agaricus campestris. After having skinned it, it was pounded
in a marble mortar, adding a little distilled water, and the mois-
ture was afterwards expressed.

These manipulations were repeated until the water which was
added came off almost colourless.

The juice was filtered: it had a slight red colour, and the
husks (mare) were set aside in order to,be treated with alcohol,
as afterwards described.

* Annales de Chimie, tome lxxxv. p. 5.

The

Experiments upon Mushrooms. 293

Thé husks assumed a blackish colour from the contact of the
air, and the juice underwent the same change from the same
vause. . :

The juice, when filtered and subjécted to the action of some
reagents, exhibited the following effects :

1. With the nitric acid, a coagulation like albtmen diluted with
water.

2. With acetate of lead, avery abundant precipitate.

3. With the aqueous infusion’ of gall nuts, the effects were
the same as with diluted albumen.

4, With the nitrate of barytes, a slight precipitate.

5. With oxalic acid, no change. .

6. With ammonia, no precipitate; only the red colour be-
eame brown.

7.: With turnsole paper, no change.

8. This juice when exposed: to heat coagulated like albumen
diluted in water, and the matter which was separated from it
seemed to be of a deep black:

Such are the tests to which the juice of mushrooms was ex-
posed: they prove scarcely any thing, except that it contains a .
substance which acts like animal albumen, but which, according
to appearances, carries with it upon coagulating a body which
communicates a black colour to it.

This juice was evaporated at a very gentle heat to the con-
sistence of a soft extract, and was afterwards treated with boiling
alcohol.

aad essed Husks of Mushrooms subjected to the Action of
Alcohol.

I poured upon them, when deprived of whatever was soluble in
water and strongly pressed, three times their weight of alcohol
at 38°, which was boiled a few minutes. The boiling liquor was
passed through a cloth, and the husks were strongly pressed.

The alcohol, which “had assumed a yellowish red colour, de-
posited upon cooling @ white flaky matter, which was separated,
two days afterwards by filtration.

The surface of this matter when dry was of a slight brown
colour.

Examination of this Substance. It was of a white colour in-
ternally, brownish externally ; its consistence was solid and firm :
to the touch it was unctuous: when thrown. upon burning coals
it melted, but imperfectly, giving out white smoke, like that of
grease.

When again heated with alcohol, this matter was dissolved,
excepting a small quantity of brown flakes which were doubtless
the colouring principle.

TS It

294 Experiments upon Mushrooms.

It is speedily precipitated in the form of flakes, if the
cooling of the solution be rapid; but when the cooling pro-
ceeds very slowly, it takes upon separating the form of crystal-
line lamin, like spermaceti: it is then very white, brilliant,
soft and unctuous to the touch; 3 in short, it does not seem to
differ from common spermaceti.

This substance, which was known and described by the name
of adipocire by M. Braconnot, as one of the elements of mush-
rooms, exhibits a fact as new as it is interesting, since hitherto
chemists have met with it in the animal kingdom only.

Examination of the Alcohol which was boiled over the Husks
of Mushrooms, and which deposited upon cooling the Sper~
maceti just described.

‘This alcohol, when distilled in a retort, left a liquid re-
sidue of a brownish yellow colour, in which grumous greasy
particles were swimming. This residue contained scarcely any
more alcohol; it was the water contained in the mushroom
husks, at the moment of being treated by the alcohol, which
gave it fluidity. This liquor was filtered; and after having se-
parated the fat matter from it, it was evaporated into-a syrupy
consistence.

Examination of the above greasy Matter.

This substance is of a brownish red colour: it is of a con-
crete but soft consistence: it is melted and reduced by heat
into smoke, which has the smell of common fat: the taste is
not caustic, but it has something sharp. It is soluble in alco-
hol, particularly by means of heat.

If it was this substance which M. Braconnot took for ‘vax,
I think he was mistaken: it is rather a kind of fat, which it
resembles more than wax; but it is probably not this body
which M. Braconnot described by the name of wax.

Examination of the fibrous Part of the Mushroom, called
Fungine ly M. Braconnot.

The mushroom having been cleansed, as observed above,
successively by water and by alcohol, from every thing which
was soluble in these two agents, it was afterwards dried, and
submitted to distillation.

The following are the products which it gave:

1. A brownish liquid which reddened strongly turnsole paper,
but which contained however ammonia, which was detected by
potash.

2. A thick brown oil which had the smell of tobacco smoke.

3. A yellow substance under a4 form of crystals attached *

the

Experiments upon Mushrooms. 295

the neck of the retort, and the nature of which could not be
ascertained.

4, A charcoal, the parts of which were not joined into one
mass by heat.

5. This charcoal, when burnt in a platina crucible, gave a
small quantity of whitish ashes, mostly composed of pliosphate
of lime and lime itself.

This result differs essentially from that which M. Braconnot
says he obtained from fungine subjected to the same operation,
since it announces that its product was ammoniacal, without
however containing carbonate; which appeared to be impossible.

I am doubtful whether we ought to form a particular prin-
ciple of this substance : its numerous analogies with the com-
mon ligneous principle seem to indicate that it is merely this
principle slightly modified by some matter which remains mixed
or combined with it.

Juice of Mushrooms extracted by means of Water.

It will be recollected that the juice of mushrooms so ob-
tained was evaporated to the consistence of a soft extract, and
afterwards treated with hot alcohol.

The latter dissolved a considerable quantity of matter, which
communicated to it a brownish red colour ; but it also left a
certain quantity of other substances, the greater part of which
consisted of albumen coagulated durmg the evaporation of the
juice.

The first portion of alcohol not appearing to act any longer,
it was decanted, and replaced by a second, and so on until this
fluid was no longer coloured.

All the portions of alcohol were collected, and distilled in the
vapour bath, in order to obtain the principles which were dis-
solved in it. We shall recur presently to this part of the opera-
tion; in the mean time we shall examine the matter insoluble
in alcohol.

I began by washing it in water, which extracted a deep
brown colour from it: when fresh quantities of water, passed

over this matter, no longer took any colour, it was dried by a
gentle heat, anda portion was distilled, The washings above
mentioned were evaporated, and put by themselves to be used
as will afterwards appear.

When once dried, this matter was of a blackish eolour, and
was considerably hard and brittle: the fracture was shining :
when put upon burning coals it softened, and emitted a smoke
the smell of which resembled burnt horn.

When distilled, it furnished abundance of carbonate of am-
monia crystallized in the neck of the retort: another portion

T4 in

296- Experiments upon Mushrooms.

in the liquid state, abundance of reddish and thick fetid. oil ;
lastly, a charcoal which joined in a single lump, although the
substance had been reduced in very small fragments.

From these properties, it does not appear doubtful that the
substance in question is of an animal nature, and of the albu-
minous kind. ‘This did not escape the sagacity of M. Bracon-
not.

The presence of albumen in these vegetables explains the rea-
son.of their assuming, when roasted, a consistency and firmness
which they had not when raw, being brittle and very spongy.

It also accounts for their soon becoming putrid, ‘and emitting
a fetid smell, when they attain their highest point of vegetation ;
and also shows that they afford substantial food for carnivorous
animals, whereas herbivorous animals never touch them. We
shall see, however, that albumen is not the only animal substance
which mushrooms contain.

Examination of the Matters dissolved by Alcohol when applied
to the Extract of Mushrooms.

We have already observed, that the juice of mushrooms, eva~
porated to a soft extract had been treated with alcohol, which
had dissolved that part of it which had been obtained separate
by the evaporation of the solvent.

This reddish-brown substance, when dried by a gentle heat,
was again treated with alcohol: it was divided into two portions:
the most abundant was dissolved by alcohol, and another portion
remained at the bottom in the form of a brown extract. We
shall see that this last. resembles that which remained with the
albumen, and which we separated from it by means of water.

The alcohol filtered warm deposited upon cooling a crystalline
substance in the form of silky white needles, and having a taste
slightly saccharine. On reducing by evaporation the quantity of
aleohol, we obtamed a fresh quantity of this substance.

)

Examination of the above crystailine saccharine Substance.

This substance, after having been'separated. from alcohol and
dried on Joseph paner, was of a yellowish white colour: it was
dry and brittle. When dissolved again in boiling alcohol, it re-
appeared of a perfect white colour, and always in the form of
fine and silky needles,

It is by no means so sweet as common sugar: the smell which
it gives out when burnt does not resemble that of the latter: it
is sharper, and has more analogy to the smoke of wood. Con-
centrated sulphuric acid dissolves this substance, and makes it
take'a red colour; but it does not char it as common sugar
does, Ifwe put water into a mixttire of this sugar and et sul-

phuric

~

Experiments upon Mushrooms. 29

phuric acid, a white coagulum is formed, which upon agitation
renders the liquor milky.

Although this saccharine principle be more soluble in water
than in alcohol, it is nevertheless not more so than common
sugar, and it crystallizes much more easily than the latter.

I was at first inclined to think that this kind of sugar was si-
milar to that which M. Foureroy and I discovered in the a/ga,
melon, onion, and manna: but as M. Braconnot assures us that the
sugar of the above plants ferments, whereas that of mushsooms
does not, I forbear giving an epinion until I obtain a quantity
large enough to verify the fact. In the mean time I regard the
sugar of mushrooms as being sui generis.

Examination of the extractive Matter of the mushroom which
was insoluble in Alcohol.

We have already shown that, by treating the extract with
alcohol, the ety was divided into two portions, ene of which
was di ssolved, and the other remained at the bottom: it is of the
latter that we shall now speak.

It is of a deep brown colour, and has a decided and rather
pleasant taste of mushrooms. Its solution in water is abundantly
precipitated by the infusion of gall-nuts, as well as by. the nitrate
of silver: when evaporated into a syrupy consistence, it furnishes
crystals of a pungent taste, but entangled in the extractive matter.

As it appeared to be impossible to separate these crystals se
as to have them pure, a portion of the matter which contained
them was burnt in a platina crucible.

sae following, phenomena: were then exhibited: Ist, A bubbling

eok place on account of the humidity which still remained, and
a a agreeable smell of mushrgoms was emitted. 2d, After-
wards ammonia was sent out in such quantities, that it affected
the eyes and nostrils, and instantly revived the colour in turnsole
paper which had been reddened by an acid and moistened.
3d, It furnished a charcoal easily incinerated, and which left an
abundant grayish ash, the taste of which was salt and pungent.
4th, These ashes were almost entirely dissolved in water, there
remaining only some slight molecules of charcoal. The reagents
indicated that the salts contained in the lixivium of these ashes
were the phosphate, the muriate, and the carbonate of potash.

If it he asked, what is the nature of this substance? does it
belong to a species already known in the organic kingdoms? or
is ita peculiar and new composition? I can scarcely answer
the questions in a satisfactory manner.

M. Braconnot found, it is true, in mushrooms, gelatine and
animal mucus; but when I compare this substance with either of
the above, | find no perfect identity. In fact, gelatine properly

evaporated

1 i Experiments upon Mushrooms.

evaporated passes into a jelly more or less solid upon cooling,
which the substance in question does not: the gelatine is not

dissolved in alcohol even weakened to 24 degrees, and the latter

is dissolved in aleohol at upwards of 302.

On the other hand, animal mucus, on being united with
water, communicates to it a. consistence and a viscosity of
which the latter is not susceptible.

Besides, animal mucus is not sensibly precipitated by the
aqueous infusion of gall-nuts, whereas the substance in question
is abundantly.

Can there be a portion of albumen, which in consequence of
the long continued action of heat has become soluble in this
fluid? I am inclined to think so; but I shall not assert it posi-
tively until I make some comparative experiments on a future
occasion.

Examination of the Principle of the Mushroom which is soluble
_ in Water and in Alcohol.

This substance is of a reddish brown colour: in taste and
smell it resembles broth a little salt.

_ When dried’ by a moderate heat, it preserves its transparency
and becomes brittle : in this state it keenlyattracts humidity from
the atmosphere, and all its parts become glued together on the
application of moisture.

When thrown upon burning coals it melts, and is reduced
into smoke which has the smell of fried meat mixed with fat.
It furnishes upon distillation a thick brown oil, and carbonate
of ammonia: its voluminous ‘charcoal is presented in a single
piece.

There were found in the charcoal of this substance murtate
of potash and subcarbonate of potash, proceeding no doubt
from the decomposed acetate.

The solution of this substance in water is entirely precipitated
by the infusion of gall-nuts.

When triturated with a little potash and water, ammonia was
liberated in a very marked manner: it contains ‘in fact a little
muriate of ammonia. |

From the above details it appears that the substance in ques-
tion has all the properties at present known of osmazome, and

‘as such in my opinion it may be considered. I found it in all
the mushrooms I examined.

Eight of the various substances found in the common mush-
room are produced by vegetation: viz. 1. Adipocire. 2. Oil

or grease. 3. Albumen. 4. Saccharine matter. 5. The ani- .

mal substance soluble in alcohol or water (osmaxome). 6. The
animal substance insoluble in aleohol. 7. The fungine of M.
Braconnot,

Analysis of a new Variety of Ore of Antimony. 299

Braconnot, or fibrous part of the mushroom. 8. The acetate
of potash.

It is extremely remarkable that the mushroom, whose struc-
ture is so simple, so homogeneous and short-lived, and which
seems to avoid the light, should form so great a number of
different principles, and in such considerable quantity.

Agaricus bulbosus. It contains: 1. The animal matter in-
soluble in alcohol, similar in every respect to that of the com-
mon mushroom. 2. The animal matter which is soluble in al-
cohol and water, which I take to be osmazome. 3. A fatty
substance of a yellow colour and an acrid taste. 4. An acid
salt which is not a phosphate, for it does not disturb lime
water. The husks of this mushroom furnished an acid product
by distillation.

Agaricus theogalus. It contains: 1. The crystalline sac-
charine matter. 2. The greasy and bitter matter. 3. The
animal matter insoluble in alcohol. 4. Osmazome. 5. An acid
vegetable salt.

Agaricus muscarius. It contains: 1. The two animal mat-
ters above mentioned. 2. The fatty matter. 3, Muriate, phos-
phate, and sulphate of potash.

The parenchyma of the two latter agarici gave also an
acid product upon distillation. |

The above three kinds of mushrooms probably contain
other principles ; but the small quantity which I possessed did
not afford me an opportunity of entering upon a detailed exa-
mination. I shall take up the subject on a future occasion:
in the meantime, if they contain any deleterious substance,
it must be looked for, in my opinion, in the fatty matter already
described.

LXIV. Analysis of a new Variety of Ore of Antimony.
By M. Kiarrotu*.

Tu subject of this analysis is a new mineral, which has
heen recently found in the county of Sain, at Treusbourg. My
preliminary experiments gave me as its chief constituent
parts nickel and antimony. The novelty of this union induced
me to undertake a rigorous analysis.

Its colour is gray inclining to iron black: it is compact, of
a middling metallic lustre, lamellous fracture, and indeterminate

* From Mugazin der Gesellschaft Naturforschender-Freunde. Berlin,
Jan. 1813.

fragments :

300 = Analysis of a new. Variety of Ore of Antimony):

fragments: it is easily pulverized. The specific gravity of @
specimen freed by washing of a brown oehre proceeding from
efflorescent sparry iron is 6°5S0.

A. a.) 300 gras of ore, purified from iron as much as
possible, were brought in contact with a mixture of five parts of
muriatic acid and one of nitric acid. When cold, the solution
of the metals had already taken place in a great measure, and
the sulphur was separated. This residue, when treated again with
the saine acid cold, mixed, and washed afterwards with alcohol,
gave 51 grains of dry sulphur. When burnt there remained ten
grains of a blackish residue, which was almost wholly dissolved
in the above mixed acid by means of a slight heat.

i.) The solution was concentrated in a retort, and the liquor
when highly concentrated was diluted with water, which occa
sioned an abundant white precipitate.

The liquid decanted from the precipitate was concentrated
again, decomposed afterwards by water, and the new sediment
added tothe former. This precipitate, which at a cursory glance
might have been confounded with Algarotti’s muriate of anti-
mony, was recognised to be an arseniate of antimony.

c.) After having separated the precipitate from the solution,
it was again concentrated, and appeared then to be of a deep
green. Ammonia in excess was poured into it, which redissolved
the precipitate except the brown oxide of iron, the weight of
which was found, after washing and calcination, to be thirteen
grains and a half,

d.) The ammoniacal solution was evaporated to dryness, and
the saline mass was afterwards made slightly red-hot in a porce-
lain crucible, in order to decompose the neutral ammoniacal salt.
The residue of muriated oxide of nickel, which presented a heap
of shining micaceous lamine of a brow mish yellow, was wholly
dissolved in the muriatic acid by means of heat, yielding a solution
of a grass green colour. By means of caustic potash, the oxide
of nickel. was precipitated from it, which.in the state of hydrate
was of an apple-green colour. This precipitate when well
washed, dried, and “made red-hot in a platina crucible, left 933
grains ‘of pure oxide of a schistous gray colour, In order to
determine the relation of this oxide to metallic nickel, we dis-
solved in nitric acid 100 parts of pure nickel obtained by re-
duction of the chrysoprase and the pimelite, and the solution
was precipitated by. means of potash. The precipitate when

washed, and made red-hot in a platina crucible, yielded 132 and
a half of oxide of nickel : accor ding to this, the above 933 grains
of oxide of nickel yielded 703 grains of metallic nickel.

B. The precipitate J.) composed of arseniated oxide of anti-

mony

Analysis of a new Variety of Ore of Antimony. 301

mony- was subjected to several experiments with a view to deter-
mine the proportion of arsenic, but the results were not success-
ful. The object was obtained, however, in a satisfactory manner
by the following process,

a.) 200 grains of ore pulverized and mixed with 600 grains
of nitrate of potash were gradually introduced into a red-hot
porcelain crucible: this mixture occasioned but a slight deto-
nation. The pasty mass of a clear brown was diluted with
warm water, and sufficiently washed in this menstruum. We
added to the alkaline liquor a slight excess of nitrie acid, of
which a small quantity only was requisite fer saturation. The
liquor was not made turbid by the addition of the acid : a proof
that the potash had dissolved none of the antimony. I poured
in lime water, which occasioned a voluminous precipitate. This
precipitate when washed and dried was mixed with one-third
its weight of charcoal, and sublimed in a small retort. The
metallic arsenic sublimed in a shining crystalline stratum weighed
194 grains. The residue im the retort mixed with one-half its
weight of boracie acid, and heated again, sublimed two grains
and a half more of metallic arsenic.

b.) ‘The brownish substance when well washed was digested
with a mixture of seven parts of muriatic and one of nitric acid :
almost complete solution was the consequence. The antimony
was precipitated from the filtered liquor by water.

The precipitate when well dried weighed 116 grains. As in
a comparative experiment 100 parts of metallic antimony gave
130 of white oxide, the 116 grains represent 89 grains of metal-
lic antimony.

C. In order to determine with equal accuracy the quantity of
sulphur in this ore, 100 grains were distilled with nitric acid, and
this operation. was repeated with additional portions of acid until
all the sulphur had disappeared from the solid residue. The
matter remaining being well washed by water, and the liquor
mixed with muriate of barytes, gave 102 grains of sulphate of
barytes, in which the sulphuric acid answers to 144 grains of
gulphur.

The constituent parts of this ore will therefore be, saving a
few fractions,

Niekel-metal oi.:5) seston, AQ) ase viereapd es 28°50
Antimony-metal ....... Bd) ........ 44°50
Arsenic-metal ......5.. Ba). P
REIDOU teeta vee Co) cea vena 14°20
Onde of roms pies AC) sds sess 4°50

802. Process for making a useful Pasie from Potatoes.

But as the oxide of iron seems to be owing to the matrix of
the ore only, we may fairly adopt the following results :
Mickel). sae ryels, agin MeOneD
Antimony wis. Oakes Ue vp acy one
ARSPRION 4) 6 dsjnogs tee vgs WD
BUD AUT pu iaiaj cians! side ss wie wit hao

Dottahs ois. ck eieny Os

LXV. Process for making a useful Paste from Potatoes, for
the Use of Weavers, Bookbinders, Trunkmakers, Upholsterers,
&c. By Mr. Cuaryzes Drury, of Mansfield, Nottingham-
shire*,

Six, Permrr me to lay before the Society of Arts, &c. a sub-
stitute for wheat-flour paste. I have given it a fair trial for ten
months past, in order to convince myself and others of its useful-
ness. From these experiments, I have no doubt it will prove
equal to, if not surpass, that made from flour, for paper-hangers,
stationers,. weavers, trunkmakers, calico-printers, &c. and also
for labels, cards, and _pasteboard, as it may, with ease, be made
free from lumps, and does not admit the air to get under the
paper as in common paste, or injure the colour. It is free from
any offensive smell, and not above one-third of the price of that
prepared from flour. The use of potatoe paste will cause a saving
of many thousand bags of flour annually, to be applied to the
nourishment of mankind._

One peck of potatoes, when prepared, will make upwards of
thirty-eight pounds of paste, and one acre of land planted with
potatoes would produce more than many acres of wheat. I
shall be happy to attend, and give the Committee full explana-
tion upon the subject.

I remain, sir,
Your most obedient, humble servant,
Cuaries Drury.
Mansfield, May 1, 1812.

To C. Taylor, M.D. Sec.

Process for preparing Mr. Drury’s Paste from Potatoes.

Take one pound of raw potatoes well washed from dirt, grate
them fine on a common tin grater, without paring them, into two
pints and a half'of water; then boil the whole mixture imme-

* From Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. for
1813.—Ten guineas were voted for this communication,

diately,

Description of a splendtd Meteor. 303

diately, and stir it well during the whole time of boiling, which
should be about two minutes ; then remove it from the fire, and
add to it half an ounce of finely-powdered alym, by gradually
sprinkling it into the paste, and stirring it with a spoon till the
whole is perfectly incorporated. It will then be fit for use, and
forms a beautiful transparent paste.

Letter from Sir Joun Sunctate, Bart. President of the Board
of Agriculture.

Dear Sir,—This will be delivered to you by Mr. Charles
Drury, whose mode of making paste seems entitled to the atten-
tion of the Society of Arts, &c.

i remain, dear sir,
Your very obedient servant,
JOHN SINCLAIR.

27, Old Burlington Street,
May 29, 1812.

To C. Taylor, M.D. See.

Certificates were received from \Mr. Richard Free, trunk-
maker, 115, High Holborn; Mess. J. Viney and Co. trunk-
makers, 122, Aldersgate Street; and Mr. F. Clark, bookseller,
33, Piccadilly ; all stating Mr. Drury’s potatoe paste to be equal to
that made with flour; and that, after being made ten or twelve
days, and exposed to the air, it did not appear to be in the least
changed.

LXVI. Description of a splendid Meteor seén at Dublin on the
17th of April 1814.

Sirs,—As I believe that you will not be unwilling to insert in
your journal any information which may have for its object
the advancement of science, I shall describe to you, as well as
1am able, 2 most remarkable meteoric phenomenon, which
extended across our horizon from about north north-east to
south-west en Sunday night, the {7th of April, and remained
so for a considerable time.

About nine o’clock P. M. I observed the horizon towards
the west north-west strongly illuminated. 1 at first imagined
that this appearance was caused by the zodiacal light; but as
the sun descended, the light extended itself, until at length it
covered nearly the whole hemisphere, and occasionally almost
reached the zenith. About midnight the light was so strong
that the city was illuminated as if there had been moon-light.
At the window where I sat observing it I could see to*read.
At one o’clock it still continued to diffuse the same splendour.
It

304 Description of a splendid Meteor.

It was by some circumstances connected with this phenomenon
that my attention was attracted, much more than by the bril-
liant light whieh it diffused; a portion of the sky towards the
north-west appeared at fir st very dark, as if covered by a heavy
éeloud. When I took notice of it, € rose about 15 degrees
above the horizon, and appeared as if it was a section of an
arch of considerable extent. It gradually increased, preserv-
ing the same shape, until it attammed an elevation of about 45
degrees, and covered nearly one half of the horizon. I should
have supposed it to have been a very dense cloud, had the
stars not been visible through it. That beautiful star Capella
appeared to sparkle through it with increased brilliancy. The
circumference of this immense body of darkness was covered
all round with a strong yellowish light, resembing the morn-
ing’s dawn when the sun approaches the horizon: this circle
of light was in depth about five degrees, in some parts it was
broader, in others narrower.

The wind was at south. The sky was sprinkled with heavy
unconnected masses of clouds, of the kind called cumulus:
by the direction of the wind, they approached towards the
north. According as each cloud arrived at-the dark space
above described, it rapidly diminished in size, until it was en-
tirely dissipated, It appeared to me as if the gradual increase
of size of the dark space was owing to the quantity of heavy
clouds which were decomposed when they came into apparent
contact with it.

When the dark space had attained its greatest size, I ob-
served a gleam of light shooting across it, in two or three
places, close to the horizon, and immediately the upper part
of it all round began to move. The brilliant circumference
was tinctured in many places with prismatic colours, and ap-
peared to be composed of bundles of radii emanating from
acentre. Flashes of light the most vivid darted from every
part of this vast circle, reaching to the zenith; the whole mass
was in mation, and presented a more sublime and splendid ap-
pearance than can well be imagined.

By degrees the dark space diminished; the coruscations be-
came fewer and less brilliant, and the sky resumed the same
appearance as it had at first: but it did not long continue so—
the clouds again moved in the same directioi—the phzeno-
mena were repeated, and the same grand spectacle was again
exhibited. As I ceased to observe these appearances at one
o’clock, I cannot tell haw long they might have continued.

The aurora borealis has not, I believe, been observed for
some years in these latitudes. 7 remember having seen it, ata
time when I was not accustomed to pay much attention to such

matters.

Royal Society. ; 305

mattérs. I am not sure whether the phenomena I have been
describing, may not have been connected with its reappear-
ance with increased brilliancy. I do not know whether there
had been observed any connection between the aurora borealis
and the decomposition of clouds, as appeated in this instance.
As this singularly beautiful phenomenon must have been
seen by many thousands beside myself, I should be glad to hear
an account of it from some intelligent observers. ‘
Yours, &c. OxssERVATOR.
P.S. On the morning of Sunday there was a good deal of
rain; there was also some rain the two preceding days. For

nearly two months before, very little rain had fallen.
sth April, }
To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

LXVII. Proceedings of Learned Societies.
ROYAL SOCIETY.

March 24. Dr. Youne’s Remarks on the Employment of
Oblique Riders, and on other Alterations in the Construction of
Ships, were read. 3

This paper contains a theoretical discussion of the mechanical
properties of the different arrangements of timbers in ships and
other fabries, according to their direction and modes of com-
bination. The author first investigates the nature and magni-
tude of the forces to be resisted, which are the weight, the pres-
sure-of the water, the impulse of the wind, and the resistance of -
the ground, or of a rock: and the action of the pressure in a

‘longitudinal direction, as a cause of arching, which has not hi-
therto been observed, is particularly examined. The force of the
waves, both in a vertical and a transverse direction, is estimated
as far exceeding in magnitude the more permanent causes of
arching, although from its transitory nature it has been less
commonly noticed as requiring particular counteraction. He
next adverts to the insufficiency of a hasty view of the subject
for the determination of the best arrangement, and shows that it
is the stiffness of a fabric, and not its ultimate strength, that is
most materially affected by the obliquity of arrangement, where
the depth is given, and the fastenings are perfect; and that the
question of the utility of oblique braces must be determined by
the manner in which a ship usually breaks, whether by the altera-
tion of the angular situation of the parts, or by the giving way
of the fastenings. From actual observation he concludes that
about half of the effect is generally produced in one way and
half in the other ; and hence infers that the advantage of oblique
timbers must be very considerable, provided they be sufficiently

Vol. 45. No. 192. April 1814. @ U strong

306 Royal Society.

strong to resist the forces to which they are peculiarly exposed:
and he finds upon ,calculation that Mr. Uppings’s braces are
likely to be strong enough to resist any force which ean easily
be applied to them. He concludes by recommending the cau-
tious adoption of these improvements, the most decided of which
appears to be the filling up between the timbers in the hold, as
both increasing the strength, and materially tending to prevent
the decay: and even the obliquity of the planks of the decks, he
thinks, may in some cases be of advantage, especially when it
becomes neccessary to have the ship hove down on her side.

March31. A paper by S. Groombridge, Esq. was read on Atmo-
spherical Refraction, correcting Observations on the circumpolar
Stars by the barometric Pressure and thermometrical Temperature.

This may be considered as a supplement to the author’s for-
mer paper on atmospherical Refraction ; wherein he had pro-
posed a certain formula for the computation of the quantity,
from observations made to less than S0° of zenith’ distance.
Having since applied this formula from 80° to 89° 42’, he has
found that the refraction so computed exceeds that observed
from 80° to 88°; and below 88° gives the quantity less than
from observation. He now proposes another formula, which will
agree with the observed quantity to 87°, and, corrected in a cer-
tain ratio, thence to the horizon. f

The computation of the refraction, with the corrections for the
barometer and thermometer, from the tables prescribed by the
author, will be very direct and simple, and obtained without
the tedious process of logarithms. In the result they will agree
nearly with the French tables, to within 2° of the horizon ; when
both the observation and the refraction become uncertain.

Part of a paper by Dr, Olay was read, on that part of per-
spective which relates to circles as distinct from conic sections.

he author acknowledged his obligations to Mr. Kerrick, the
hbrarian of Cambridge University ; stated candidly what was ori-
ginal, and what was only digested from others; and laid down
Six propositions, only a part of which were of a nature to be read.
The Society then adjourned, in consequence of the holidays, till

April 21. The Right Hon. President in the chair. The first
part of a letter from Dr. Brewster to the President was read,
detailing some further experiments and curious discoveries on
light and colours, particularly some optical effects of mother of
pearl. The prismatic colours exhibited by mother of pearl have
always been considered as furnishing a good démonstration of the
Newtonian theory of colours, by its diversified lamine; and Dr.
B’s experiments do not contradict this explanation. He found
that mother of pearl polarizes light as well as agate and other
bodies, in addition to which it has the singular property of com-
municating

>

Imperial Institute of France. 807

municating its power of developing the prismatic colours to
resin, wax, cement, gold-leaf, lead, &c. and this communicated
quality is retained even after exposing the body to a considerable
degree of heat, so that it is not actually fused. This fact was
discovered by Dr. B. in consequence of having cemented a piece
-of polished mother of pearl on a goniometer to take the angles
of refraction. He cut and polished the mother of pearl as well
as possible in various modes, but still found it retain its strice or
cavities resembling the fine lines used by map engravers to define
the limits of land or water. To these striae he attributed in some
degree the formation of the prismatic colours.

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE OF FRANCE, FOR THE YEAR 1813.
[Continued from p. 232.]
Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

The parabola itself is only a limit, a mere single case be-
tween the ellipse and hyperbola, the dimensions of which may
vary ad infinitum. Hence there is scarcely any probability of
a parabolic orbit. The hyperbolas are scarcely perceptible,
and from experience it would seem that the ellipses are hardly
more so. Hyperbolic comets never return—elliptical return
after a long interval. There is no reason for being surprised
that only one has hitherto returned constantly.

Laplace has discovered in the attraction of Jupiter a probable
cause why the comet of 1770 has not appeared eight times since
that period. Perhaps it is entirely evaporated, or reduced to
a nucleus so small, and so little luminous, that it will remain
for ever invisible. Both these explanations are not incompa-
tible,; and they may have concurred in producing an effect
which has excited the curiosity of mathematicians and astro-
homers. i

It may be presumed that this new hypothesis will consider-
ably diminish the importance ‘of comets: it is similar to the
opinion of the ancients, who considered comets as temporary
collections of vapour which are speedily dissipated and destroyed.
Hence the astronomers of old did not think them worthy of
being scrupulously observed. All the difference is, that Aris-
totle places comets below the moon; whereas, according to Dr.
Herschel, they are formed beyond the planetary system, and
last much longer, since it is only in their perihelion that they
are liable to lose a part of their substance. But if they become
invisible, it is the same thing to us as if they did not. exist.

M. Burckhardt’s Memoir on the Quantity of Matter in the
Planets.

The formulas of MM. Lagrange and Laplace enable us to
U 2 assign

308 Imperial Institute of France.

assign the situation and dimensions of the planetary orbits for
any epoch. In a mathematical sense, the problem is resolved.
The arbitrary constant quantities are mostly determined with a
sufficient degree of accuracy for these researches. We are ac-
quainted even with the quantity of matter in those planets which
have satellites, as Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter, and the Earth; but
Mars, Venus, and Mercury have no satellites. We have no other
means of determining the quantity of matter in them than the
alterations which they produce in the eccentricities and inclina-
tions, or the equations which they give for the movements of the
aphelions and nodes. But these variations are extremely slew.
Good obsefvations go no further back than 60 years. There re-
main only the periodic equations of the longitude, and these
equations are not greater; but their periods are shorter. Half a
period is sufficient to obtain a double effect, since it is alternately
positive and negative. The moon is nearly in the same. situa-
tion with Venus. Notwithstanding the assistance drawn from the
tides, &c. we have not as yet an exact knowledge of the quantity
of matter in our system.

Yet unless we adopt at least a hypothetic value for these un-
known quantities, it is impossible to have exact tables of the ap-
parent motion of the sun. Fortunately, during the last sixty
years we have a prodigious number of good observations. The
estimates of the quantity of matter in these planets, which agree
best with the average of these observations, will be, if not pre-
cise, at least the most probable values of these doubtfu} quan-
tities.

In order to determine them, tle author of tlie tables of the
sun had chosen, out of all the observations which he had calcu-
lated, those where each of the quantities. of matter in the
planets produced sensible effects. The results which he obtained
did not appear.even in his qgwn eyes so certain, that they might
not be somewhat changed, either from other observations, or from
the same observations differently combined, especially if different.
elements be used in reducing them, such as the right ascensions
of the stars.

It is the same with the mean secular motion of the sun. He
had determined it by the comparison of a*great number of ob-
servations made about 1752 and 1890, which only gave him the
movement of 48 years, that is, a little less than one half of the
secular motion. He presented this movement not as certain,
“but as agreeing best with the observations calculated by himself.
He perceived, that the slightest change in the position of the
stars at the two extreme epochs would introduce an equal change
in the movement obtained. He did not venture to affirm that
this movement was preferable to that which M. de Zach pro-

posed

Imperial Institute of France. 309

posed about the same time; and which was fixed upon by him-
self in his first researches. He remarked in his preface, that
time alone could decide upon a point so delicate.

But whatever is to be obtained in a long interval of time, and
by more numerous and more precise observations, may likewise
be obtained, at least in a certam degree, by redoubling present
vigilance, multiplying calculations, and employing more correct
data. This is precisely what M. Burckhardt has attempted.

He began by calculating 36 years of observations from 1774 to
1810, in order without inconvenience to be able to dispense with
the small equation of the latitude of the sun, which ought to
pass several times over all the values of which it is susceptible,
in this double revolution of the nodes of the moon. He em-
ployed besides 310 observations of Bradley in 1752. By this
means he gained eight years, which have elapsed since the con-
struction of the last tables. To calculate these observations, he
took a mean between the corrected right ascensions of Maskelyne
and those of M. Bessel. The author of the tables had employed
the right ascensions of Maskelyne corrected by his own observa
tions in 1800. And for 1752 he had taken the right ascensions
of Bradley, newly corrected by Hornsby, Bradley’s editor. From
these changes, which the researches and observations made of
late years rendered possible, there ought to result a difference
in the mean motion, and probably likewise in the value of the
quantity of matter in the planets.

M. Burckhardt finds 3:8” to be added to the motion for 49
years, which gives 7'7” for the secular motion. This motion is
the mean between that of Zach and that published by La Caille
about 56 years ago. Mayer, who attempted to correct this mo-
tion, considerably increased the small error in it. Lalande di-
minished Mayer’s motion 20”, and gave 2 quantity 8” greater
than that now given by Burckhardt.

We see at least that in these oscillations the error is always
diminishing, and that, if we have not yet obtained the true quan-
tity, we have made an approach to it. The mean length of
the year, according to M. Burckhardt, is 365 days five hours
48' 49-7”. The author of the tables made it 51:5”. But in
the second volume of his Astronomy, which was published about
a year ago, we find that he inclines to 50”, and was therefore
himself approaching to the new determination. The difference
is now only 5-3”, a quantity respecting which it will be always
difficult to decide,

The author of the tables had found for the lunar equation 7°55

La Caille supposed 7:05”, Maskelyne 7-1”, M. Burckhardt 6:8"; -
The mean will be 0°15”. So that the uncertainty is reduced to

a small fraction of a second,

U3 M. Burek-

r

310 Imperial Institute of France.

M. Burckhardt finds that the quantity of matter in Mars pre-
viously determined must be dimished 34,. Now as the equation
itself is very small, this correction, very uncertain on many ac-
counts, does not deserve any attention.

The most considerable correction is that for Venus ; and as the
equation is much more sensible, the uncertainty ought to be much
less. M. Burckhardt diminishes its quantity of matter 1, which
will produce a diminution of about 1” in the greatest equation.

The quantity of matter was supposed by Laplace.... 1-0000

The author of the tables made it........eeee00++ 10743
M. Burckhardt reduces it to .. 1... cceccceeccese's 09549
M. Lindenau has lately found it..........2.....- 1:0797
SAUL IB alg. 'a ned eiaigs Utne \s al'as aoe ee ETE
The mean of these four results is 1:0555, and differs only =!;
from that supposed in the tables. :
It was by the movements of Mercury that M. Lindenau en-
deavoured to determine the quantity of matter in Venus. He
has united the results which he obtained from the motions of the
aphelion and the nodes. His mean is 1:0964, so that he aug-
ments the equation of the tables as much as we should diminish
them if we were to make choice of the above mean. Between
these opposite testimonies, the author of the tables may adhere
to his own number. But he puts no greater confidence in his
determination than in any other. He.even admits that the re-
sult obtained by M. Burckhardt, founded upon a greater number
of observations, and upon newer researches, offers in consequence
a greater degree of probability. A reason of great weight adds
strength to the necessity of diminishing the mass of matter of
Venus, and this reason long excited distrust in the author of the
tables. In whatever manner he combined the observations of
Lacaille, Mayer, Bradley, Le Gentil, Maskelyne, Piazzi, and
his own, he could never obtain more than 48” for the secular
variation of the obliquity of the ecliptic. The mean obliquity
which he found in 1800 has been since confirmed by all the sol-
stices observed at Paris. That which results for 1750, from so
many observations agreeing remarkably well with each other,
cannot be wrong further than 1”. Hence he concludes that the
secular diminution cannot be greater than 50”. He has never
believed that it amounted to 52’. We may therefore ascribe to
Venus a quantity of matter which weuld give 48” or 50” for the
secular diminution, and give to the equation of Venus in the
solar tables the value which will result from this supposition.
M. Burckhardt proposes a diminution of 1” for the greatest
equation of the centre. If we collect together all these corrections,
it will follow, that the sun’s place, calculated at a id
1850,

Travels through Greece. 311

1850, may differ 6” from a perfect observation made at that time.
But, before this can happen, we must suppose, what is scarcely
possible, that all the three errors are at the maximum, and have
the same sign. The greatest error that can be supposed is 3”
at the end of 50 years. We wish the instruments by that time
may be brought to such perfection that an astronomer can make
a single observation with no greater error. But this slight error
may be easily avoided by adopting the corrections of M. Burck -
hardt. The most important of them is that of the secular mo-
tion. It is easy to diminish it , of a second per year. ‘The
two other corrections would give still less trouble; but as they
are periodic, and often of no consequence, they may in many
eases he neglected.

Corrections so little sensible as not to pass the limits of the
errors of the best observations, may pass for a confirmation of the
tables, as well as for a melioration of them. We may be even
sorry for astronomers devoting themselves to calculations so long
and so fastidious, and yet obtaining only results so little different
from those which we possessed before. But the tables of the sun
eonstitute the foundation of all our calculations: they cannot be
too frequently verified. It is particularly the duty of the members
of the Board of Longitude to attend to this verification. It was
on this account that M. Burckhardt has undertaken a still more
laborious investigation of the tables of the moon, in order to ob-
tain meliorations of the same kind. The very minuteness of
these corrections is a most satisfactory proof of the singular per-
fection which astronomical observations and calculations have
reached. :
[To be continued. ]

LXVIII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

M . Miu, the learned Editor of the Magazin Encyclopédique,
is at present engaged on a tour through Greece. He has re-
cently transmitted to Paris an interesting account of the travels
in Greece of two Danish Gentlemen, Messrs. Koes and Bronsted.
They were at one period the fellow travellers of our countryman
Mr. Cockerill. M. Bronsted undertook in 1812 to dig into
the ruins of Cathaia in the island of Zea, near Attica. He ob-
tained three female torsos, one of which is of most singular beauty :
a torso of a colossal statue of Apollo Musagetes: the trunk of a
horse, and several interesting inscriptions which were engraved
_ on the pilasters of the temple. These inscriptions contain trea-
ties of peace or alliance, written in the Doric language, with the
ABtolians of Naupactos, the Athenians, and the Carystians of

U4 Euboea.

312 _—. Ruins of Pompeii.

Euboea. These fine inscriptions, which furnish some novél ideas
upou the sites of the four ancient cities of the island, are the
property of M. Bronsted, who is well qualiied to decypher them.

M. Bronsted in returning stopped at the island of ithaca, so
_much celebrated by the father of Ionian poetry: en passing by
Leucadia to Prevesa, he became acquainted with Ali Pacha, an
old governor, full of energy and of a remarkable character. He
traversed Albania, and was detained at Corfu by contrary winds.
Here he found that abundance of medals had been obtamed in
consequence of the excavations ordered by General Douzelot,

RUINS OF POMPEII,

We translate from L’ falico, a valnable periodical work pub-
lished in the Italian language in London, and conducted by the
learned Dr. Augusto Bozzi Granville, the following account. of
an excavation made among the ruins of Pompeii on the 18th
of March 1813. It is drawn up by an eye witness, and addressed
in the ferm of a letter to Dr, Granville.

‘They have commenced the execution of a great project
here, viz. the clearing of the whole of the walls which sur-
round Pompeii, and ‘which are supposed to be about 1600 or
1700 toises in circumference. Great advantages will of course
be derived in future excavations from the denudation of the wails,
The streets which lead from the various gates will be more easily
found, while there will be a greater facility in transporting the
ashes and earth, and a guard may then bé placed over the mo-
numents to prevent dilapidations.

“ The walls of: this city are rea] fortifications: they are from
18 to 20 feet in height, and in some places higher: they are for-
tified at-intervals with a Kind of quadrangular towers partly
destroyed; and they do not seem to have much exceeded the
height of the wall, ‘They are furnished with small gates, »which
seem to have answered the same purpose with those in mos
dern fortresses. Certain it is that two ef these already diseo-
vered were used by the brave inhabitants of Pompeii in their
sorties against the troops of Sylla.

“< The walls are twelve feet broad: they are ornamented, both
on the side towards the city and towards the country, with para-
pets, which probably served in time of war as a security to the
soldiery, and in peace as a promenade for the inhabitants. The

t

parapets are furnished with loop-holes pretty close to each other, .

and with seuppers to carry off the water :—in several places
there are flights of steps leading up from the city.

“© The walls are not uniform, i in consequence of the injuries
they have sustained at various periods; they are mostly built of
masses of fine stone four feet broad by five long, and two in

. thickness,

Ruins of Pompeti.— Fine Arts. 313

thickness, without lime, and yet well joined together, but so ir-
regularly that the architecture is of the kind denominated incer-
tum. lf we are to believe that these are restorations made in the
last days of the city, about the time of the siege of Sylla, and
the earthquake A. D. 63, then the upper part of this description
of architecture and the lower will be found to be more regular.
Among a great number of these stones there was a monogram
formed of an H and an [I:: on another a resemblance to the
Greek L or cross formed of two Zs, similar to what-we see upon
paintings of ancient vases and in the monograms cf medals.
These probably were the characteristic marks of those who fur-
nished the materials, while the Greek and Roman names which
are so frequently met with, may have been those of the work-
men, who probably did not think they would have been handed
down to so late posterity.

Among the works on coins and meda!s which enrich the Ca-
binet of Meda's at Milan, there is a work in Chinese, published
in 1759 by order of Kien Long. It contains designs of upwards
of 900 antique vases which strongly resemble the Etruscan, and
they ate of a very remote zra.

] )

The Austrian Government has recently directed its particular
attention to the diffusion of the means of education in Hungary.
As the inhabitants of this kingdom speak four or five different
languages, and their manners and religion are also different ;
three large schools have been founded, at which teachers. will in
future be educated, who will afterwards spread themselves over
Hungary. ‘These schools have been established at St. André,
Pest, andArad. Every branch of education necessary for the pre-
sent state of European civilization will be taught at-these semi-
naries, and the learning requisite for the Greek, Wallachian, and
Illyrian churches,

A late number of a Journal entitled Mines d’ Orient; published
at Vienna by M.de Hammer, gives an extract from a curious
letter respecting Arabian horses written by Dr. Seetzen, and
dated Nioka, 14th of November 1810. The writer maintains
that these animals are much less numerous than has generally
been supposed, and he mentions 5,500 as being the whole num-
ber of horses in all Arabia. He also combats the opinion ge-
nerally entertained in Europe, respecting the beauty and good _
qualities of the Arabiam breed of horses.

~

‘FINE ARTS.
Mr. West, the President of the Royal Academy, has we under-
stand furnished Mr, Galt with materials for a history of his life.
The

$14 Literary Intelligence.

The work will embrace a vast number of original anecdotes of
the most celebrated characters of Europe and America during the
last sixty years. It will be particularly interesting to artists and
students of art, not only for the development of the principles
which the president has followed im his long and splendid career,
but for his critical opinions on the remains of ancient sculpture
and the great paintings im France and Italy. Mr. Galt, having
himself visited many of the finest collections both in this country
and abroad, will interweav¢ in the narrative the observations of
ingenious men, whem he has met with in the course of his tra-
vels. No work equally comprehensive, relative; to the moral
utility of the fine arts, and their actual state in the world at this
time, has yet appeared. It will, besides, be as minute in the bio-
graphical details as if it had been executed by Mr. West himself.

Mr. Thelwall is preparing for the press, a Report of the re-
sults of his experience in the Treatment of Cases of Imperfection
of the Roof of the Mouth, Uvula and Velum Palati, and other
defects and malconformations of the Elocutionary Organs. Cases
of this description, the author observes, have hitherto been re-
garded both by medical men and teachers of elocution, as totally
incapable of relief: and though some ingenious dentists have
attempted to supply the deficiences by artificial organs ; these, it
is asserted, have not only been found very imperfectly to answer
the purposes of speech and intonation, but at the same time, in
a considerable degree, to be both inconvenient and dangerous.
Mr. T. maintains that in every one of the cases which have been
submitted to his management, —the details of which will form
the bulk of this little volume,—he had been completely successful,
without any application of artificial apparatus, not only in pro-
ducing a perfect intelligibility of utterance, but also in removing
the offensive peculiarities of voice resulting from such malcon-
formations. To this will be subjoined, Reports of several Cases
of Amentia, or tardy and imperfect development of the faculties.
A considerable portion of this volume was intended to have ap-
peared in a pamphlet announced about this time last year, in
reply to the assertion of the Monthly Review, that Mr. T’s pre-
tended discoveries were nothing more than the most exploded of
poetical errcrs. Professional engagements having prevented at
that time the prosecution of that work, the materials are now
thrown into another form; and it may be interesting to inquire
what connection tuere can possibly be between discoveries or
principles by which such effects are to be produced, and any de-
scription of poetical errors exploded, or unexploded.

Tlie work will be addressed to Mr. Cline, by whom several of
the cases to be detailed have been referred to the Author’s ma-
nagement. , i

New Zealand Flax cultivated with Success in France. 315

Messrs. Kapoutanaki, of Smyrna, are preparing for publica-
eation a complete System of Universal Geography in modern
Greek. That part which relates to the Ottoman Empire will be
more copious than in any other publication known in Europe.

Dr. Wuttig, professor of chemistry and mineralogy in the
university of Kasan in Russia, has announced the discovery of
‘a new mineral, to which he has given the name of miaszito.
According to his analysis, it is a compound of carbonate of lime
and carbonate of strontian; it may therefore be only a variety
of the mineral arragonite discovered by professor Stromeger.

Chevalier Cicognora, President of the Atheneum of Venice,
has published the Prospectus of his History of Sculpture from its
revival in Italy to the present time, in order to form a Supple-
‘ment to the works of Winckelman and M. Leroux d’Agincourt.
The work will be divided into six books. The first will relate to
the origin of the art. The second will contain the history of
those temples, ancient aud modern, which are distinguished by
ornaments of sculpture. And in the four subsequent the author
will give the history of sculpture properly so called, divided into
five periods: Ist, from Nicolo Pisano to Donatello ; 2d, from Do-
natello to Michael Angelo; 3d, from Michael Angelo to Bernini;
4th, from Bernini to Canova; and 5th, to the present day.

NEW ZEALAND FLAX CULTIVATED WITH SUCCESS IN FRANCE.

In a letter from M. Faujas St. Fond to M. Thouin,. inserted in
the Annales du Museum d’ Histoire Naturelle, he announces
that the Phormium tenax, or New Zealand flax, which had _ hi-
therto never flowered in Europe, had given out flowers in the
garden of M, Freycinet, the father of two officers who were in
Capt. Baudin’s expedition.

“°The Phormium tenax,’’.M. Faujas St. Fond adds, * was
cultivated in the garden of M. Freycinet and in my own. We
took care to cover it in winter; but as we were at first anxious
to multiply our plants, we cut off shoots every vear, which greatly
impoverished the principal plants, and of course interrupted their
flowering. At length, when we became anxious to see them flower,
we reserved about a tenth, and left them to themselves.

“* These plants soon increased prodigiously, and on the 10th of
May (1813) M. Freycinet informed me that a very. vigorous
flower-stalk was shooting out fromthe centre of one of his
strongest plants. Seven days afterwards this stalk was three
feet high: on the 31st it was five feet six inches, and on the
7th of June six feet teninches. Onthe 14th, its term of greatest

: increase,

316 City Truss Society.

increase, it was seven feet six lines; the stalk was then three
inches and four lines in circumference at the base, and two inches
and ahalf half way up. The flowers to the number of a hundred -
and nine are borne upon alternate peduncles, and have a pleasing
effect. The colour of the flower is a greenish yellow, that of
the stamina a golden yellow. -

**T intend to make a drawing of the plant, in order that it
may be compared with the figure published by Foster in Capt.
Cook’s Second Voyage. 1 have made some very strong ropes
with the leaves, from which I obtained the flax by a very simple
process. I shall send these ropes to the Museum of Natural
History.”

ClTY OF LONDON TRUSS SOCIETY
For the Relief of the ruptured Poor throughout the Kingdom.

We give puoliaty to the following official statement respect-
ing this useful and extensive charity with great pleasure. From
the great number of persons among the labouring poor who
were afflicted with hernia, and for “whose relief no adequate
provision existed, on the 14th of October 1807 Dr. Squire, Dr.
Herdman, John Taunton, the Rev. H.G. Watkins, James Hor-
wood, Michael Bartlett, Joseph Atkinson, John Middleton,
John Gar duer, and John Whitford, met at the City Dispensary,
and formed themselves into a Suciety “for the Relief of the
ruptured Poor throughout the Kingdom, the City of London Truss
Society.”

From this very humble beginning, the Society has increased
in its meaus by the exertions of a few individuals, and is now
extending relief to nearly 2,000 patients annually.

The following account of herniary cases, and their varieties,
must be interesting to the philosophical as well as medical
reader.

The great facility of obtaining trusses, and the liberality of
the Committee in allowing Governors to recommend patients for
relief, the expense of which often exceeds the amount of their
subscriptions ten-fold, have contributed in no small degree to
the exteriaion. of its benches, whilst the strict ceconomy observed
ia its expenditure has enabled them to meet the demands with
but a trifling defalcation.

The little extra expense and the statement. of accounts are
perhaps unparalleled. The whole subscriptions from the com-
mencemeut of the Society, which are brought into one view,
will enable a liberal public to judge at once of the correctness
with which its benevolence is applied. i

The following statement of the situation and occurrence. of
hernia, at different periods of life, has been extracted from the
register

City Truss Society. 317

* vegister of the patients relieved by the City of London Truss
Society, within the short period of six years.
‘In 6035 cases 4908 were males, and 1127 were females.
Males. Females. f
1089 7 left inguinal A tas
1973 10 right inguinal } AED
29 216 left femoral mint
. 38 224 right femoral t ab idemaral
1599 1 double inguinal

3586 single

90): LO7sdoubl feted ope te" sietorenaiely 1737 double

19 259 umbilical 312

8 26 ventral eeeeene esveesee -
17 24 have undergone operations, all except

one have been completely successful 41
52 65 with umbilical hernia have been

cured without trusses .......... 117

53 7 with prolapsus ani .......0s00-: 60

181 with prolapsus uteri ............ 181

1 with varix of the abdominalveins .. 1

4908 1127 6035 6035

——s OO ee

418 patients were relieved with trusses under
10 years of age. ;

282 ditto, between 10 and 20 ditto.

592 ditto, — 20 and 30 ditto.

' 1029 ditto, 50 and 40 ditto.
11135 ditto, 40 and 50 ditto.
1124 ditto, 50 and 60 ditto.

768 ‘ditto, 60 and 70 ditto.

278 ditto, ——-— 70 and 80 ditto.

30 ditto, 80 and 90 ditto.
2 ditto, 90 and 100 ditte.

——

5636

~ Five females each had umbilical and double femoral hernia,
1 female had large ventral and double femoral hernia, 1 female
had umbilical and ventral hernia, 1 female had ventral and pro-
lapsus uteri, 5 females had umbilical and single femoral hernia,

1 female had right inguinal congenital hernia.
‘Six males each had left femoral and right inguinal hernia,
1 male had left inguinal and left femoral hernia, 2 males had
left inguinal and right femoral hernia, 2 males had right ingui-
‘nal and left femoral hernia, 2 males hael double inguinal and
right femoral hernia, 1 male had double inguinal and left femoral
hernia,

318 Meteorological Observations made at Cambridge

hernia, 1 male had right inguinal and right femoral, 2 males
each had double inguinal and double femoral hernia, 2 males
had ventral and right inguinal hernia, | male had umbilical and
left inguinal hernia, 1 male had umbilical and left femoral hernia,
5 males each had umbilical and double inguinal hernia; 402 pa-
tients had congenital hernia; 1 male had very large varicose
veins on the abdomen.

From the most accurate estimation, it.appears that this ma-
lady exists in one person in eight through the whole male popu-
lation of this kingdom, and even in a much greater proportion
among the labouring classes of the community, in manufacturing
districts, particularly in those persons who are employed in
weaving, or on the water as boatmen.

{n one district in the western part of England, comprising
200,000 inhabitants, it has been ascertained, by actual observa-
tion, that upwards of one in five of the whole population labour

under this malady. JoHNn TAUNTON, )
Surgeon to theCity of LondonTruss Suciety,
21, Greville-Street, Hatton- the City and Finsbury D:spensaries, and
Garden, 30th Dec. 1813. Lecturer on Anatomy aud Surgery.
——_ a

Meteorological Observations made at Cambridge
from March 15 to 31, 1814.

March 15 to 26.— The frosty and winterlike weather with
snow showers and easterly winds continued till the 2Uth, when
signs of a change appeared. From this time the air got con-
tinually warmer, features of cirrocumulus again ornamented the
sky, and foreboded the return of spring. The great change of
temperature about the 23d, the fine warm air and south-west
wind of that day with beautiful forms of the cirrocumulus, the
opening of crocus and other spring flowers, and the singing of
the birds, and busy appearance of rooks constructing their nests ;
were circumstances so rapidly supervening on a long protracted
and unseasonable frost, as to have a very pleasing effect, and to
put one in mind of the sudden return of spring in the northern
countries of the continent. We had a fine warm shower in the
evening of the 26th.

March 27.—Very fine clear day and westerly wind, with
beautiful features of czrrocumulus and cumulus.

March 28.—Fine warm day, cirrus, cumulus, &e.

March 29.—A veil of cloud obscured the sky, with westerly
wind.

March 30.—Calm day: early in the morning a white stratus
obscured the lower atmosphere ; when it cleared off, and the day
became fine, ci77us was seen aloft and light cumuli: towards

two

and at Clapton. 319

two o’clock the cirrus disappeared, and the cwmuli became larger,

and approached in their natute to cumulostratus. Fine whole-

some warm day. Therm. 58° in the shade. Wind westerly *.
March 31.—Cloudy ali day, with some small rain and wind.

Observations made at Clapton from April 1 to 11.

April 1.—Cloudy morning, fair at times in the day. Wind
southerly.

April 2.—Fair. Cirrus, cumuli, and other clouds ; warm and
wholesome air and clear night. Wind southerly.

April 3.—Fair; cloudy at times ; fine afternoon, breeze from
SW. Cumuli and some cirrus.

April 4, Cloudy morning and N wind, but still warm. The
wind became easterly, and much cirrocumulus appeared in the
masses of cloud in the evening, which was warm. Therm. at
‘midnight 42°. Barom, 29-68.

April 5.—Fine day; wind northerly in the morning 3 cumuli
and cirri; by night tufts of corrus.

April 6.—Wind SW variable and gentle; a thick wet mist
or fog in the morning (modification probably of) cirrostratus:
when it cleared off, a fine day with cwmuli, though the atmo-
sphere was still rather hazy. Therm. at 11 P.M. 43°. Barom.
30°10. |

April 7.—Fair day ; fog early, and then cumuli. Therm, in
the day 58°, 11 at night 44°.

April 8.—Mist early; then a few cumuli succeeded by SE
wind, and very clear dry air: indeed the sky was quite cloudless.
Therm. in the day 58°, at 11 P.M. 41°.

April 9.—Wind SE; clear sky with features of cirrus and
other very various appearances ; dry air and very clear distances.

April 1\0.—Clear day ; exact cirri of various figures, and rapid |
changes as usual in this kind of weather, Wind calm and
easterly. Red sunset,

April \1.—Clear day, but of a different kind from yesterday ;

no clouds cxeept, a few small cumuli ; clear sunset, but not much
coloured.

* The daws, (Corn monedule) soared round and round at a very great
height in the air, and the raven croaked aloft: all signs of fine weather.

Corpus Christi College, Cambridge,
April 12, 1814. Tuomas ForsTER.

METEORO-

320

~ Days of
Month.

March 27

April 1

‘Meteorology. °

- METEOROLOGICAL TABLE;

By Mr. Cary, OF THE STRAND;
For April 1814.

Thermometer.

8 o' Clock,
Morning.

a hk PS
ar D

oO
ie 6)

EHP HPO EP
N’npoanoo o

PPP
ag & 2

46

. {~ .. | Height of
& | © = |the Barom.
oF 4 ES Inches.

2
55 | 44 | 29°89
55 | 43 “78
54 | 39 *68
57 | 45 °85
56 | 47 "80
56 | 47 69
56 | 45 ‘40
55 | 43 *43
56 | 45 62
54 | 46 ey
58 | 47 | 30°00
60 | 46 “10
59 | 43 °25.
58 | 46 *20
57 | 492 “15
60 | 48 £04
66 | 57 | 29°90
TEAM Ieia 8) aE
69 | 58 ‘63
66 | 55 *50
67°) 56 "48
62 | 56 259
63 | 52 “64
§0 | 54 “76
629,455 *74
58 | 46 78
56 | 47 “89
55 | 45 ‘O08
50 | 42 "82
51 | 43 °86

s

Degreesof Dry-
ness by LeSlie

Hygrometer.

oro

wD to ie)
ana © 2

wb B®
nHaor

43

eS

Weather,

Fair
Fair C
Rain
Fair
Rain
Fair
Stormy
Pair}
Fair
Fair

Fair
Fair
Fair

Fair

Fair
Fair
Fair
Fair

Fair
Cloudy
Showery
Showery
Showery
Paves:
Cloudy
Cloudy
Cloudy *
Cloudy
Stormy
Stormy
Cloudy

te f 321 J

LXIX. Improvement in the Axts of large Water-Wheels, to
prevent the Gudgeon from getting loose in the Shaft, or to
repair it when damaged. By Mr, Ropert Huaeues, of
Ruaton, Denbighshire*.

on Ot prc leave to observe to you, that from the common
mode in which the gudgeons, for cranes or water-wheels, are
now fixed, they are liable to heat in working, and soon become
loose ; and by attempting to secure them with wedges, the shaft
gets split, injured, and rendered useless. “

To obviate such inconveniences, and even to repair an mjured
shaft, I have invented and practised a plan, which has perfectly
succeeded, and of which I have sent a model to the Society.

Upon this plan, more firmness and security is given, without
weakening the shaft by the deep mortices usually cut therein for
fixing the gudgeons. My invention is also cheaper than the old
method, in which the hoops alone cost about four guineas, and
the cast-iron gudgeon 2/. 12s.; whereas on my plan the expense

of the whole will only be 4/. 165. If necessary, | will furnish ‘cer-
tificates from persons who have made trial of my invention.
I am, sir,
Your-humble servant,

Ruabon, Feb. 12, 1812. ‘ Rozgert HuGHs&s.

To C. Taylor, M.D. Sec. ;

¢

Certificates.
On the 14th of June, 1811, Robert Hughes, of Ruabon, in- -
structed me in making a cast-hoop gudgeon, for a tumbling shaft
of a large and powerful water-wheel for grinding clay for bricks,
tiles, &c. which I have found to be ‘a great improvement, as
witness my hand this 3d day of October 1812.
Trefynant, Ruabon, Denbighshire. Tuomas EVANS.

This is to certify, that Robert Hughes, of Ruabon, formed a
new construction of gudgeons, for the shaft of a water-wheel he
built for me, in the year 1806, which wheel is 28 feet diameter.
These gudgeons took in the whole body of the shaft, and wedged
the outside. I have not been put to amy expense since the
making thereof, nor am likely so to be until the shaft decays by
time. In short, I cannot speak too much in his praise, with re-"
gard to his ingenuity and workmanship. Witness my hand, at
the Pant Mill, August 20, 1812.
‘ dont Tuomas MANLEY.
* From Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. for

1813.—The Society’s silver medal was voted to Mr. Hughes for this com-
munication.

Vol. 43. No. 193. May 1814. x The

322 Improvement on the Axis of large Water-Wheels.

The wood shaft of a water-wheel, 18 feet diameter, was se
worn and decayed at one end, by frequent putting in and wedging
.of the gudgeon, as to render a repetition of that process im-
practicable. Robert Hughes, in this difficulty, contrived a cast-
iron gudgeon, with a hoop to it, which inclosed the end of the
shaft ; it was put on and fastened, and has worked steadily ever
since. [am informed, that he puts the hoop gudgeon now ou
new shafts, and it seems to me a great improvement upon the
gudgeons formerly in use, E.

Ruthin, Sept. 14, 1812. ; Joun JonEs.

Reference to ihe Engraving of Mr. Ronerr Hueuss’s Method
of fixing Pivots, or Gudgeons, into the Shaft or wooden Axis
of a Water Wheel, which will prevent the Danger of their
gelting loose in the Shaft, and permit their being repaired
when damaged, Plate V. Fig. 1, 2,3.

The ordinary method of fixing gudgeons into wooden shafts, is
to have an iron cross, formed on the end of the gudgeon, which
is let into the wood, to a considerable depth, and is held fast by
small wedges, driven in round it, hoops being fitted round the
outside of the shaft, to prevent the wedges splitting it. The
defects of this method are, that the shaft is much weakened, by
the cutting into it; and the constant strain of a heavy wheel,
always acting in different directions, causes the wedges to be-
come loose, and at length fall out ; the failure of the gudgeon is
frequently attended with more serious damage, for the wheel
falling upon the hottom of the race, generally breaks the mm and
buckets by its own weight.

The improvement made by Mr. Hughes, consists in applying
a cast-iron box to the end of the shaft, and to this the iron cross
of the gudgeon is screwed, so as to fasten it more firmly than by
the old method, and without weakening the wood by cutting it
away. AA, fig. 1, of Plate V. represents a portion of the end of
the wooden shaft, which is of an octagonal form, and has the
water-wheel-fixed upon it; it is long enough to reach across the
pit, in which the wheel works, and having a gudgeon at each
end, is supported and revolves upon them in proper bearings.
BB is the cast-iron box, fitted fast upon the end of the shaft,
and being wedged tight, preserves the wood from splitting as
effectually as any hoops can do; upon the end of the box is a
projecting flanch, aa, and in the face of this four grooves or
notches are made, for the reception of the arms of the iron cross
bb, dd, which is part of the gudgeon C, on which the shaft re-
volves ; this cross is firmly attached to the box, by four screw
bolts, which pass through the flanch, and also through the ends
of the arms of the cross, having nuts screwed on the outside 2

make

Description of a Carriage-Wheel Guard. 328

make all fast. The section, fig. 3, shows the cross bl, and box
BB, separated, to explain'the mamner of fitting them together,
the inside face of the cross having projections ee, which enter
the end of the box, and keep the pivot in its true centre: thus
the bolts have only to hold the gudgeons fast on the end of the
box, the principal strain being taken off by this manner of fitting
the cross into the box.

When the gudgeon of a wheel, fitted on this plan, becomes
wort out, so as to require a new one, it can be removed, by
‘taking off the four nuts, and a new one applied.

The cross and gudgeon, being of small dimensions, admit of
its cylindrical part C being very conveniently turned in the
lathe.

LXX. Description of a Carriage-Wheel Guard, by which
the Wheel is retained safe upon the Axis in case of the

Linch-pin coming out. By Mr.Joun Papgury, of Speen-
hamland*.

Sir, — Frou a conviction of the good wishes which the Society,
for which you act as Secretary, ever feel for ingenuity, in its. va~-
rious branches, I am induced to lay before you a plan of my in-
vention, for the more effectually giving safety to the wheels of
carriages, to prevent their breaking, or to avoid any mischief
from loss of that very considerable support, the Linch-pin, on
the dependence of which the lives and limbs of so many are con-
tinually exposed.

The plan I now offer for the investigation of the Society, is
calculated to obviate the danger which may arise from such an
accident ; the great repute it has obtained, and the almost ge- ~
neral application of it by the coach proprietors of the Bath and
other roads, together with the prevention of many accidents
since its adoption, will, I flatter myself, plead a sufficient apology
for my offering it to your notice.

I am, sir, ’
Your obedient humble servant,

Speenhamland, Oct. 1812. JoHN PADBURY.

To C. Taylor, M.D. Sec.

The following gentlemen, residing in this neighbourhood, have
inspected the apparatus, and much approve of it. They have

* From Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Sc.
for 1813.-The silver medal of the Society was voted to Mr Padbury for
this communication.

X 2 done

324 Description of a Carriage-W heel Guard.

done me the honour to affix their names in testimony of its

utility.
JosEPH ANDREWs, Cuarves Dunpas,
WiiiramM Hatvert, Joun Disney, Jun.
James Crort, ANTHONY Bacon,
JoHNn WELLs, Francis 8. 8TEap.

RicHarD BoucHeEr,

Reference to the Engraving of Mr. Joun Papsury’s Guard for
a Carriage-Wheel, by which the Wheel is retained safe upon
the Axle, in case of the Linch-pin coming out. Plate V.fig. 4,5.

This contrivance can be applied to any carriage, as it does not
require any part of the carriage, or axle-tree, to be altered, -
further than the addition of an extra iron hoop upon the inner
end of the nave of the wheel.

This is fully explained by figs. 4 and 5, Plate V, the former
being a section, lengthways, of the axletree, and the latter a
transverse section; AA represents the iron axletree of a carriage,
bolted beneath the wooden bed BB, or frame, of the carriage ;
CC is the wheel ; DD its nave, the axletree box dd being fitted
through the centre of it as usual; a is the linch-pin, passing
through a mortice in the end of the axletree; EE is a circular
’ box, fastened to the bed BB of the carriage, and surrounding the
inner end of the nave of the wheel, to prevent dirt from getting
into the axlétree; the extra hoop, before mentioned, which is
fixed on the end of the nave, is contained within this box, and
runs round without touehing it; it consists of a strong hoop ld,
fixed fast upon the have, and having a fiat circular ring, formed
out of the same piece with it: the latter, when fixed, makes a
circular projecting rim, upon the end of the nave, as the figure
plainly shows.

The same clasp band F, which, by means of two nuts beneath,
fastens the axletree AA to the bed of the carriage, also fastens
down a piece of iron G, upon the bed B; in the extremity of
this piece of iron is a hole for the reception of a screw e, the
point of which enters within the box EE, and comes before the
projecting ring 0), so as to effectually prevent the wheel from
coming-off its axle, even if the lincli-pim should by accident drop
out: the point of the pin e is so situated as not to come in con-
tact with the plate )4, when the linch-pin is in its place; there-
fore it occasions no friction to retardthe motion of the carriage.

When it is required to take off the wheel, for the purpose of |
repairs, or for greasing the axletree, the screw e is taken out,
and the linch-pin being removed, the wheel can be taken off.

In the xxviith volume of the Society’s Transactions, at p. 147,
will be found a description of an invetition, by Mr. J. Varty, of

mat Liverpool,

Mr, Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 325

Liverpool, to he appliéd to the linch-pin of a carriage, to prevent
the wheel coming off its axle, if the linch-pin should drop out ;
this contrivance being wholly applied at the extremity of the
axletree, close to the linch-pin, it may be used in combination
with Mr. Padbury’s invention, and would then render a carriage

so secure that it would be scarcely possible for the wheel to come +
off, by any accident short of the breaking of the axletree: and
even then there would be a chance of the wheel being retained,

in the-circular box EE, by the point of the screw e, so as to
sustain the carriage from falling, until the horses could be stopped. -

LXXI. Notes and Observations on Part of the Eleventh
sand the Twelfth Chapters, and Appendix, of Mr. Ropert
BakEwELv’s “ Introduction to Geology ;’’—embracing inci-
dentally, several new Points of Geclogical Investigation and
Theory. By Mr. Joun Farix, Sen., Mineral Surveyor.
[Concluded from p. 261.]

Notes, Sc.
cP. 274] 1. 8, of Craven.in Yorkshire {|.—t The north-western

parts of which, at least, seem to have the same Limestone
Rock as in North Wales, aud in Shropshire, as Mr. B. is
said to have represented, P. M. xxxix. p. 236, but not the
same with the lowest of those in the Peak of Derbyshire, I
think, see my Ist Letter, vol. xlii. p.59, and 3d Letter, p. 170.
1, 12, exclude the coal **,—** The mode in which this
exclusion happens, is very conveniently passed over in si-
lence, see a Note in my 2d Letter, vol. xlii. p. 105.

1. 18, a few miles onlv}+.—tf Query,—see my Ist Let-
ter, vol. xlii. p. 57, and notes on p. 257:

, P. 275, 1. 14, Some traces of the rocks*.—*The great improbahi- _
lity of this supposed identity of the Peak Limestones, with
those of Ticknall aud Grace-Dieu, is heightened, by another
supposition in p. 166, of Wild-Park, Breedon and Clouds-
hill, contorted magnesian Limestones (intermixed with these)
being identical with the yellow Lime Rock, on the eastern
side of Derbyshire, as observed in my Note on p. 167, see

-also my 2d Letter, vol. xlii. p. 106.—* It will scarcely sa-
tisfy the curious to be told, that these lime rocks are mere
anomalous masses,’’ Mr. B. p. 46, in your xIth volume.

1. 26, west side of Anglesea +.—+} The Coal-field in An-
glesea is situated on its south-east side, rather, (see vol.
xlii. p. 57): here three seams of Coal of good caking quality
have been wrought, at different times, in the parish of Llan-
fihangel Esceifiog, for ages past; the uppermost of these is

X3 a soft

326 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.275] a soft Coal, generally of five yards thick, the next a hard
Coal, mostly of two yards thick, and the lower one is usually
three quarters of a yard thick. Clunch or fire Clay occurs
under each of these three Coals, as usual (Rep. i. 179 and
446 and P.M. xliii. p. 28), and Shale, Bind and Gritstone
beds on and between them ; altogether these Coal-measures

~ seem about 150 yards thick : below the three-quarter seam,
there is a thickness—perhaps 40 yards, of barren Coal-mea-
sures, in which, although the appearances are very pro-
mising and have induced several trials, seams of sufficient.
thickness to work, are rarely met with. Below this occur
what I have denominated the Floor Rocks of the Anglesea
Coal-trough, (vol. xlii. p. 356 and 360) and seem together
to be about 90 yards thick, consisting of a variably and very
coarse Gritstone with Jasper fragments in it occasionally;
below which is a gray Limestone Rock (very cherty and bad
in quality in Llanfihangel) ; then the middle coarse Gritstone
Rock, often containing huge massesof Chert (as Graig-fawr,
vol. xliii. p. 126) and Jasper fragments, coaly masses, &c.
Below this the black Limestone or (Kilkenny) Marble Rock
in thin beds, occurs; and then the lower variously coarse Grit
Rock, graduating locally into Conglomerate, see my Note on
p- 202; and then the coarse Slate succeeds. Both the Lime-
stone Rocks above mentioned, are I believe included in the
Halkin or highest of the three Limestone Rocks mentioned,
vol. xlii. p. 53, 59, &c.; in which case, they would with more
propriety perhaps be called four Rocks of Limestone, that
surround, and basset on more than three sides of the slaty
mountains of Wales. And, if these are classed with the four
Limestones of the Peak of Derbyshire, what very anomalous
substances must we not admit, in the places of its three
Toadstones ?.

277, 1.8, Hills in Derbyshire are *, — * Blakelow-stone ‘is
probably the highest ; higher than Holme-moss, see my Notes
on p. 272 and 278: Whin Hill and Mam Tor here men-
tioned, are inferior in height to several that surround them;
Lords Seat near, at hand, over-looks them both.

278, 1. 21, has omitted the height *.—* Not exactly so, since
the height of Axe-edge N hill is said to be 1875 feet, Rep.
i. 17; at the time my volume was published, the List of a/-
titudes in the “* Account of the Trigonometrical Survey from
1800 to 1809,” had not appeared: and even in this work,
some difficulties arise, from Axe-edge and Lords-Seat,
distant 49,2121 feet, (p. 128) and bearing about 31° 42’
13” E of the N, being each stated tu be. 1751 feet above
the sea (p. 302 and 308); although, at Axe-edge, sc

: eat

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 327

[P.278]Seat appeared depressed 3’ 53” (p.66), and at Lords-Seat,
Axe-edge appeared depressed 5’ 26”; and some calcula-
tions will be necessary (which I have not now time for), to
decide, which height is erroneous : that one of them, or of
the depressions, must be so, is too apparent.

The other altitudes mentioned in this work, of Hills con-
tained in my List, Rep. i. 16, and P. M. xxxvil. p. 161, are
Alport (or Orpit) Hill of Ist Grit 980 feet, Bardon Hill of
coarse Slate 853 feet, Bradfield Moor (or Point) of Ist Grit
1246 feet, Hathersage Ridge of 2d Grit 1377 feet, Hol-
land (Hollin or Holan) Hill of Red Marl 487 feet, Holme
Moss of 2d Grit 1859, Mole-copi of coarse Grit 1091 feet,
Sutton (Sherwood) Forest-Hill of Gravel 600 feet, and
Weaver Hill of 4th Lime 1154 feet.

1. 24, over Kinder Scout +.—7 This great and irregular
Hummock of Ist Grit (Rep. i. 226) has no particular
summit, that is very decidedly higher than several others on
its edges, much less, “ 400 feet” higher, than any line which
could be traced ‘‘ over’? this Mountain: Mr. B’s Work
would have suffered nothing, from the omission of the whole
of this paragraph: and a piece of injustice to an Engineer
of eminence, in publishing this statement would have been
avoided: since I cannot doubt but Mr. Brown has been
completely misunderstood by Mr. B. because, on reference
to a ** Plan of the Ashton under Line, Peak Forest, Hud-
dersfield and Rochdale Canals,” prepared by Mr. Brown,
for publication, by Mr. J. Cary, some years ago, whereon the
levels are stated, of the existing Canals, it appears, that
from the Duke of Bridgewater’; Canal at Manchester to
the Bugsworth branch of the Peak Forest Canal, the rises
are 7of. 7in. 114f. 6in. 48f. Oin. and 212f. Oin; to which
adding 82 feet for the Locks at Runcorn into the Tide-way
in the Mersey, we have 532f. lin. for the elevation of Bugs-
worth Wharf above the Sea. It further appears from the
Map referred to, and the abstract of a Survey that was
made under Mr. Brown’s direction in 1810, contained in
Mr. Rennie’s printed Letter of the 26th of October 1810, on
the intended “ High- Peak Junction Canal,” that the further
rises of 129f. Oin. and 189f. Yin. attain the summit level of
this proposed Canal, which: passing from near Malcalf
through a proposed Tuunel wnder Bowden-Edge, (which
is between Lords-Seat and Kinder Scout) emerges again
at Dale-end in Ecal Valley on the S side of Kinder Scout
mountain, and continues thence to skirt its southern flank
to Nether Booth, before the lockage is to begin, for de-
scending towards the eastern Rivers, (see Rep. vol. ii.
chap. xvi. sect. 3). This

328 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.278] This summit level, at SO9f. 10m. above the Sea, is pro-
bably much more than ‘* 400 feet”’ lower than the bold edges
of the Kinder Scout Hummock, that over-look it, since this
would make their elevation only 1210 feet, instead of Mr.
B’s 2100 feet! or instead of 1770 or 1800 feet as ought I
think to result, according to my comparative estimation, and
recollection of the heights of these hills, and supposing that
we can rely on the height of Lords Seat, as stated by Col.
Mudge: and because Mr. Nuttall in 1789 found the sum-
mit of the Buxton and Manchester Road to be 1198 feet ©
above the Cromford Canal, which probably is about 248 feet
above the Sea, and gives this point of the Road an elevation
of 1446 feet. f

279, 1. 15, 2 rises to the surface*.—* Quere Ist or 4th Lime-
stone ?.—See my Ist Letter, vol, xlii. p. 59, 2d Letter,
p- 112, and 3d Letter, p. 170, and Note on p. 274, 1. 8. —

These Limestone Rocks Mr. B. represents as transition.
Rocks, (see Rep. i. 298 Note); yet a very principal of the
Anglo-Wernerian Writers, after admitting that some pet7i-
factions do occur in transition Limestone, lately said (Ann.
of Phil. iii. 116 Note), “‘ but hitherto as far as I know, no
shells have been found in that Rock, nor anything else,
except madrepores and othoceratites ;”—let any one who
has read William Martin’s ‘‘ Petrificata Derbiensia,” say,
whether this Wernerian dogma, will at all apply to the Peak
hundreds of Derbyshire? The Geognostic assertion, that
particular Classes, Orders, or even Genera of organic re-
mains, characterise the Formations, as to their relative ages,
or priority of deposition, and the consequent order of the su-
perposition of the strata, (see Ann. of Phil. i. 205): appears
to me vastly inferior, either in truth or practical utility, to
the discovery by Mr. William Smith, about the yearl792,
(Rep. i. 109), made without communication with any Wer-
nerian pupil (if any such had appeared in this country at
that time?) as to particular species of Shells, &c. that in-
diseriminately belong to different genera, orders, &c. di-
stinguishing, in a very marked and satisfactory manner, the
greater part of the strata of England ;—has Mr. Jameson
told us in his account of “ the Geognosy,” the sparticular
species of shells and other organic remains, or attempted it,
that characterise the numerous strata of Scotland ?, whence
nearly all his British examples are drawn, or was he able to
give such tests of his Geognostic deductions, as to any other
country ?.

281, 1. 1, red clay*.—* This Ironstone (like that near Coleford
in Dean Forest and Merlin Griffith in Glamorganshire,) oc-

curs

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 329

[P.281 Jeurs inVeins or Cavities in (probably the same, or Halkin ?)
Limestone Rock, P. M. xxxviil. p. 274, and Rep.i. 402
Note, and p. xlvii.

1. 9, the subjacent Rock +.—+ Rep. i. 280.

1. 12 and 13, rests upon slate {.—{ This is an assumption
supported by no just analogy, see my Ist Letrer, vol. xlii.
p- 99, and Notes on pp. 274 and 279.

As 15, 250 yards**.—** 350 yards, and probably much
more; the seven Rocks, four of Lime and three of Toadstone.

i. 17, varying muchft+.—t+ Rep. i. 288 and 276.

1. 20, much thicker t?.—f{f{ Rep. i. 280.

282, 1. 8, our present manager*.—* Mr. Theodore Silverwood,
whose ‘ Section” I have noticed, Rep. i. xxiv. but have
therein, hardly done sufficient justice to his great kindness
to me when on my Survey, or said all which I ought, of such
a benefactor to the Science of Geology, in my 2d Letter,
vol. xlii. p. 109; and in the following page, I have omitted
to mention, that the Section-line I have suggested, would,
on the west side of Golden Valley, pass along the line of
the Butterley Tunnel on the Cromford Canal, whereby an
excellent Section that already exists, of 2978 yards in length
of this line, in the possession of William Jessop, Esq. of
Butterley Hall, would be brought into use, and rendered. ex-
tremely interesting. When I was’at Butterley, Mr. Jessop
kindly lent me this Section to take with me to Mr. Mush-
et’s, where it remained some time, and, if I mistake not,
Mr. Silverwood made and retained a copy of it, which un-
fortunately I had not leisure to do myself, but was content
with noticing an abstract of its results, the greater part of
which will appear in my account of this Canal, in the 3d
volume of my Report now printing.

283, 1. 13 and 14, to reach the coal strata*.—* Seven hun-
dred yards is very far short of the probable distance, of
even the Red Marl, (Rep. i, 116) below London, see my
Note on page 259.

1, 21, in Mr. Townsend’s estimate+.—t+ Which, of “the
Derbyshire strata,” has Mr. Townsend included in his ac-
count, quoted by Mr. B. p, 260 ?—Mr. T. says a great deal
in his work, on very slender grounds, about the “* Mountain
Limestone’”’ of Mendip and its neighbourhood, being the
saine as in the Peak of Derbyshire, yet he expressly says, it
is a different stratum from the “ Lyas,” which last he states

uly at 20 yards thick, arid the Mendip Rock is not there-
fore included in page 260. I think, that these Mendip strata
are greatly thickened beds of the Lias} or perhaps of some of
its

330 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.283] its Marl beds, in a more perfectly calcareous and stony
state, than usual, see my Note on p. 12..

284, 1. 4 and 5, one mile and a quarter*.—* Three Miles,
P. M. xxxv. p. 130.

1. 8, I have before saidt.—t See p. 262, and my Note
thereon.

1. 10, beyond the Peak t.—t Not on the surface ; because
thrown down (comparatively speaking) by the great Lime-
stone Fault, see my 2d Letter, vol. xlii. p. 112, and Note on
p- 279.

1. 12, appears to terminate**.—** See my Note onp.275.

1. 17, considered as primarytt.—tt Although I never
consider any Rocks in this light, for the reasons stated in
P.M. vol. xxxix. p. 29, my Note on pp. 43 and 44, and else-
where, yet I think I perceive (from pp. 57 and 85), that Mr.
B. here means ‘* Transition.”

1. 18, extend about ten miles t{.—{t See Map in Rep.
p. 97 and p. Lol.

I. 25, admit its existence ***,—*** See Rep. i. 166, and
my 2d Letter, vol. xlii. p. 108.

285, 1. 6, Basaltic rock near Nuneaton *.—* See also p. 290.
The Basalt at Griff-hollow, Marston, Harthill, &c. occurs
on the Bedworth Coal strata, I believe], and so does that of
the Clee-Hills on its Coal-field (and the Rowley Hills also
on another Coal-field, which circumstance Mr. B. has over-
looked); and in assimilating these Basalts with the coarse
Slate of Charnwood Forest . (as I have done, Rep. i. 155),
both here and in page 290, Mr. B. was not aware probably,
that he was indeed, granting my very heterodox position, as
to the Ashby-de-la-Zouch Coal-measures passing-under

@ Several months after this was written, my friend Mr. Benjamin Bevan

(in April. 1814) informed me, that he had obtained Sections of the strata
in the Bedworth Coal-field, and had certainly ascertained, that the regularly
stratified Red Marl and imbedded Basalt or Greenstone, &c. are laid un-
conformably over the dipping Coal-measures, in this case; in Somersetshire
the same was long ago asserted by Mr. John Strachey, in No. 360 and
No. 391'0f the Philosophical Transactions; but after'‘many conversations
with Mr. Smith and others, on the facts of the Somersetshire Coal-field,
and very auxious inquiries, as to the correctness of Mr. Strachey’s state-
ments, I never could obtain satisfaction, as to the Red Marl, &c. being
regular and undisturbed, which had been proved by sinking through it, to
overlie the Coal-measures in an unconformable manner: and therefore I
have always doubted the correctness of a fact, so very contrary to my own
observations, and that of hundreds of others, in so many other situations, and
so I have expressed myself in my Notes on pages 45 and 98:—my zeal and
industry shall however be increased, for inquiring fully into this important
fact, and as to the extent of its operation in the structure of England, and
Ishall ba thankful for the assistance of your correspondents herein.
Charnwood

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 331

[ P.285] Charnwood Forest— truth will now and then out;”
see my Note on p. 67.

I long to examine the Malvern Hills, to see what I can
make of them, and of the Coal-measures in their vicinity, of
which my Friend Mr. Mushet speaks, P. M. xl. p. 94, and
the Wrekin and Cardock Hills, &c. p. 293, and the central
parts of the South-Wales Coal-field, P. M. xl. p. 52.

1. 9, and Wales t.—+ I am sorry that I cannot safely go
thus far at present with Mr. B., unless he can show, that
Basalt or its asociates, Porphyry, Sienite, &c. see p. 97, and
289, (perhaps the ‘‘Pennard’’ Rock of Mr. Mushet, P. M.
xl. p.52?) are found on the central parts of Mr. Edw. Mar-
tin’s great Coal-basin, (p. 268 and 299): not being able
to admit, that the porphyritic green-stone on Cader Idris,
p. 112,189 and 297, overlies any Coal strata, that I know of,
in their vicinity. To me it seems not improbable, that the
Coal strata of South and of North Wales, of Shropshire and
Dean Forest and those of Anglesea, (see my Note on p. 275)
and even those of Antrim] and Leitrim, Roscommon, Sli-
go and Kilkenny, were once spread, even over Snowden,
&c. &c. and were absolutely connected, before stupendous
denudations separated them ! see P. M. xxxvii. pp. 441 and
442.

1. 10 and 11, nearly horizontal t+.—t{ Rep. i. 152 and 147.

1. 11, sandstone **,—** Red Marl with its gritstone and
other imbedded substances, Rep. i. 154.

4. 18, evidently formed from them++.—t+ +. I maintain the
Red Marl to be of the very same age with its various im-
bedded substances (even Granite, as Mr. Mushet mentions,
P. M. xl. p.53, and see Rep. i. 280), and so of any other
stratum with respect to its imbedded masses, whether Chalk
and Flints, or micaceous Sandstone and Conglomerate, &c.
see my Note on pp. 43 and 44.

1. 20, of fragments of these Rocks t.—t{ From this pas-
sage, any one would suppose, that fragments of Sienite and
Slate were found in vast quantities, forming Breccia, or
Conglomerate and Gravel, to the NW of Charnwood Forest ;
but no such thing occurs, I think I can assure them, only
occasionally, strata of variously coarse Gritstone, whose ex-
posed surfaces are liable to be mistaken for Gravel Rocks,

_ (Rep. i. p. xiii.) ; and on further search in Mr. B’s Book,
q The information accessible to me in 1812, seemed to leave it doubt-

ful, whether the great Basalt of Antrim overlie its Coals, or not ?, P.M.

XXxix. p. 353, and such doubt still remains; but none [ think, that there is
a Basalt stratum on them.

14 Sir H. Davy in bis Agricultural “Chemistry” informs us, that many of
the highest hills in these Coal-fields “ have basaltic summits.”

these

332 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

{P.285 these multitudes “of fragments” are supposed to be deriv-
ed from supposed veins of white Quartz, (p. 287 and 188) and
by supposttions, equally probable, these fragments’of quartz,

- in travelling a Mile, or 20 at most, within the distance here
alluded to, are supposed to be in a great degree if not per-
fectly rounded ! !, see my Note on page 188.

286, |. 4, of sandstone *.—* Red Marl, see my Note on p. 67.

1.7, rests on the flanks+.—+ When I examined this
‘Forest, it was in too much haste, as observed in my 2d
Letter, vol. xlii. p. 116; had it been situated 7 _Derby-
shire, it would have had a far more minute examination, and
I should have been able to speak rather positively, as to

_ what thick Rocks would be seen in ascending any particular
Brook (except perhaps in some Coal-districts,) here I can-
not be equally confident. In page 158, vol. i. of my Re-
port, I have mentioned the appearances, as justifying the
imference, that the Grace-Dieu limestone rock passes under
the Forest Slate: and when I now recollect, the confidence
with which Mr. B., from Theory only, has asserted, in his
Note on page 266 (see my Note thereon), that similar dis-
coveries of lower strata might be made, by ascending the
yavines in the North Eastern Moorlands of Yorkshire, he must
€xcuse me for continuing to think, that he is not less mistaken
as to the Grace-Dieu ravine, until F shall happen to have
the opportunity of examining the spot more minutely, or of
learning the observations of others, who have so examined it.

1. 15, its termination at this place t.—t See my Note on
p- 279. ‘

1. 16, singularly contorted **,—** Rep. i. 159.

1. 20, nodules of lead ore ++.—t+t Such bolders are found
occasionally, where no adjacent Limestone Rock and Lead
Veins, can easily be supposed to have disappeared, as in the
Gravel Pit at Wyaston, Rep. i. 372, &c.

287, 1.5, at Barrow on Soar *.—* Blue Lias™, Rep. i. 115.

How Mr. B. makes this place to be * on the other side of
¥ This remarkable Limestone Rock (see top of Mr. B’s page 16), from
its pozolanic property, the fossil Bones and flat scaly Fish, the Pentacrinus,

&c. &c. that it contains, seems to me, from the translation of M. Cuvier’s

Geology, p. 260, to enter the Coast of France at the mouth of the Seine,

and to pass inland by a circuitous route westward, to Alengon in the depart-

ment of Orne, and perhaps in the dep. of the Mayne and Loire, &c. IfTam
right in these conjectures, the fine Bath Oa/ite near Caen in the department
of Calvados, whence it is said that Henry the Seventh’s Chapel inWestmiuster
was built, probably occupies the tops of the hills (unless a depression or
trough occurs there ?) as it does to the E and SE of Bath, (see my 2d Note
on page 167); the Bridge in which last City, stands on the eastern edge of
the ring of Lias, that surrounds another of Red Marl, including and over-
lieing a Smal! deuudated Coal-field, occurring between Bath and wai fey

the

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 3383

[P.287] the forest” from the Canal or Water-level belonging to
the Lezcester Navigation (in the cutting of which, nodules
of Lead Ore were found, as mentioned in his Note on the
preceding page) Iam at a loss to conjecture ; when they
are more properly on the same side, and ‘the general direc-
tion. of this crooked Canal points for Barrow on Soar.
Without doubt, I think, the Lias strata, on Red Marl, once
overlaid the whole of Charnwood Forest (but not any of the
Limestones of Derbyshire) before the Denudation thereof,
(P.M. xxxvii. p. 442) 5 and it is perhaps equally prohable,
that the bolders of Lead Ore mentioned, may be moved
from the edges of the Lias strata, or some others further east-
ward, and lodged in the Gravel on the Forest, as that they
are the produce of thin and perhaps unconnected veins of
Lead Ore, in the coarse Slate, of the spots where they are
found. Spars of any kind, are rarely found, in many of the
Lead Mines in Cardiganshire, owing to which, the diseovery
and tracing of Veins there, is far more difficult than in the
Peaks of Derbyshire.

1. 18, the slate quarries +.—+ Rep. i. 153.»

288, 1. 3, erroneously stated*.—* Rep. i. 19.

1.5, the beds are more regular +.—+ In sudden Ridges,
with various apparent dips, at Swithland, &c. Rep. i. 154.

1. 15, nearly at »7ght angles *.—* Said to be 60° at page
87, and in “an opposite direction,” P. M. xl. p. 47, see my
2d Letter, vol. xlii. p. 116.

289, 1. 11 and 12, these rocks are cotemporaneous*.—* Rep.
i. 153, Phil. Trans. 1811, and P. M. xxxix. p. 28, see also
my Notes on pages 43 and 285.

290, 1. 18, inclined as if it rose*.—* This I was unable to dis-
cover, Rep, i. 153, and p. 155 Note. }

1, 20, and Beacon Hill is flinty slate+.—+ Rep. i. 18 and
GP

1, 23 and 24, gradations from sienitet.—j Rep. i. 153

and 154.

291, |. 3, whetstone or hone*.—* On Whittle Hill, Rep. i. 61

and 439, see my Note on p. 171.

1.4, Markfield Knowlt. — + Markfield Windmill-hill,

Rep. i.45 and 144, ~

292, 1. 1, deep perpendicular fissures *.—* Occasioned by the

shrinking of the thick beds or masses, in unequal degrees,

as is often to be observed in Cliffs and Quarries.

1. 16, concealed by plantations and inclosures +.—+ The
many openings and excavations which will be made in
the surface, by the formation of the Roads, and digging of
Stone

\

334 Mr: Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[{P.292] Stone for them, and the Walls, searching for Slate, (Rep.i.
p. 154, at bottom), &c. &c. will greatly increase, instead of
diminishing, the means of observation and of understanding
the internal structure of this curious district.

293, 1. 17 and 18, covered with Limestone*.— * On their
western side only ?, P.M. xl. p. 54.

294, 1. 18, natural history of the island *.—* In August 1807,
the materials were begun to be collected, on a comprehensive
plan, for a Mineral Map and History of Derbyshire and its
Environs, and the field work thereof was persevered in, until
November 1509: an abstract of all the most generally use-
ful parts of which, were purchased by the Board of Agri-
culture (Derby Rep. i. p. v. and vi.), and 150/. paid to me
for the same, on the 29th of April 1810. In the following
Month, Mr. Arthur Aikin§f issued a Prospectus of the Shrop-
shire Survey here alluded to by Mr. B., the field business of
which is yet in hand, I believe.

On the 12th of June I waited on the Board, by desire,
and, as [ had before done, produced and explaimed my large
and reduced Mineral Maps, Sections, &c.4]Q and a part of
the MS. of the Ist vol. of my Derby Report, (since published

' by the Board in June 1511); soon after I retired, the Session
of the Board for the year 1810 was closed, by a long Speech
from the President Sir John Sinclair, which was soon after
printed and circulated. In this Speech, a general review was,
as usual, taken, of the proceedings of the Board, as to the
commencement, progress or conclusion, of any part of the
labours intrusted to them by the Government and the Coun-
try; and herein it was stated, that the Board had recently
patronized the Survey of Shropshire by Mr. Aikin, con-
cluding thus, ‘‘ and which is the first attempt of the sort,
on a regular and extensive plan ;”’ and yet, not a mention or

{ One of the Council and Secretaries of the Geological Society, see a
Note in my 1st Letter, vol. xlii. p. 56.
qq Mr. William Smith has in like manner, on different occasions, attended
meetings of the Board of Agriculture, and submitted and explained his
* Mineral Maps and Sections, of great part of England, as I have mentioned
or hinted, P. M. vol. xxxix. p. 426, and xxxv. p. 114. In Mr. S. and my
own cases, the matters thus submitted, in hopes of obtaining the efficient
patronage, for-lack of which, they are yet unavailable by the Public, (P.M.
xlii. p. 109 and 246) were not merely, proposals aud promises of field-
business, intended to be undertaken, and of Maps, &c. to be prepared there-
from: but the (urge Maps, Sections, &c. themselves, which had been the re-
sults of unwearied researches for years, and of expenses to the parties, al-
most beyond their private means.—Mr, A’s patronage, and Geognostic
connections, will, it is hoped, produce to him a very different and more
agreeable result.
most

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 335

[P.294] most distant allusion was made, to my Derbyshire Mineral
Survey, or, as to the Board having contracted for the Manu-
script of the first Mineral Report on the English Counties
(which series had been promised ever since 1793, Rep. i.
pref. vi. and P. M. xxxvii. p. 8) in this Speech, or in any
other announcement from the Officers of the Board to its
Members or to the Public, as far as | have heard :—I forbear
further comments.

295, 1. 22, similar to, the limestone*.—* And supposed to be
ihe same, in pages 220 and 274, see my Note on the latter

age.
s P 24, eastern side of North Wales+ .—t It is not on the
eastern side only, of the northern Cambrian Mountains, that
Limestone Rocks underlay Coal-measures, but on the NE
and NW sides also; the latter calcareous Rocks, stretching
across Anglesea, see my Note on page 275.

296, 1. 18, said to occur in Anglesea *,—* During my stay in
this Island, I saw, or could hear accounts from the inhabitants
of no Rocks of Granite: the Mile-stones on the Post Road,
seemed formed of reddish Granite, and occasional loose
blocks of it were met with on the surface: but Mr. Wilson
Lowry has since informed me, that in travelling across from
the Post Road at Gwndy to the Paris Mountain, he saw low
Rocks of Granite, not far from the former place.

1. 22, from its hardness, beauty +.—+ See my Note on
p- 92. Very considerable Rocks of Serpentine are found in
the coarse Slate of the NW and W parts of Anglesea.

297, 1. 9 and 10, sulphurous limestone*.—* See my Note on

98.

299, 1, 20, boundary of the coal strata *.—* See p. 268. A
. similar « concavity” or frough of the same Limestone, seems
to underlie the estuary of the Dee, and the Coal-measures
therein, seem to extend from Flint to Park-Gate: how far
this Coal-basin extends westward, under the Sea, towards
the north Coast of Anglesea, &c. we have yet in part to
‘learn, see my Notes on p.°108, 275, and 285.

300, 1. 10, part of Somersetshire *.—* But a very small part
of this County, the Quantook Hills at its western extremity ‘
can I think be either “ primary” or “ transition ;” unless
that Lias, Red Marl, and Coal-measures under these, are
so? see my Note on pages 12 and 283. Mr. Thomas Allan
says in the Edin. Trans., that in his way to Exeter, he first
saw ‘‘ transition strata between Bridgewater and Taunton :’
but on reference to the Appendix to his paper, No. | and 2, |
it appears, 1 think, that the imbedded Grit-stone in the

Red

336 Mr. Parey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.300] Red Marl, something harder than usual perhaps, and tilted,
has been so denominated ; for, near to Taunton, on the SE,
the Lias occurs again, as I have been informed.

302, 1. 11, and worn down *,—* See Mr. John Hutchinson’s
Works xii. p. 261 and 338. Prior:

303, 1.3 and 4, as a field bean*.—* Some of the pieces of
Gold from the Wicklow Mountains are much larger, ap- _
pearing as if kneaded into their present form, by violent
pressure (if not aggregated by this means), and containing
some fragments of quartz, which appear forced i the

old. ane

301, 1. 2, and warm springs *.—* Should not cold or ordinary
Springs also have been noticed in Mr. B’s work?, and
their undoubted sources from the infiltration of rain waters
heen particularly mentioned: few of the Geological phe-
nomena are of more general interest, or have been more su-
perficially, or erroneously treated by Writers; see Rep. i. 500.

1. 10, under the whole district -.—+ This is unsupported
by any facts or observations in the Mines, &c. Rep. i. 487.

‘1. 16 and 17, the Cromford Canal t.—t The cause of the
temperature of the western end of this Canal being often
higher than usual, is perfectly apparent: it is fed by .the
large stream of very warm water issuing from Cromford
Sough, (Rep. i. 329, and vol. iii. chap. xvi. sect, 3), on Sun-
days and often in the night, when Mr. Arkwright’s Cotton
Mill is not at work.

1. 19, be frequently seen rising **.—** Since Mr. B. told
mein May 1812, ofthis supposed prevalence of warm springs
and general heat in the strata, through which the Cromford
Canal is cut, from Cromford to near Crich, I have made
very particular inquiries, while in the neighbourhood, and
concerning the Person, formerly of Crich, whom he mentioned
as his informant. The hot spring which rose at Middleton-
Wood Bath, (Rep. i. 505), in Bonsal Dale, close by the
side of the great Limestone Fault, (Rep. i. bottom of p. 281
and in p. 282), until that by the driving of the Cromford
Sough, a porous stratum of Limestone, or a line of fissures
therein, connected with it, let off its hot water, at a much
lower level, and mixed it with a great deal of cold water,
which the sough still collects, on h sides of that which
enters it hot; this mixed wate most d: ily let into the
Canal at its upper end, will perfec f
canic wonders, which are her
see my Note on p. 226.

305, 1. 1, principally confined to

3 So ‘
Basaltic

ihe

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 337

[P.305] Basaltic strata, or the volcanic substances, near to Bath
andBristol ?: whose Springs seem to me to rise, from some
certain stratum in or near the Lias Limestone; as a line of
Mineral Springs also do, at Cheltenham, (and several places
in its neighbourhood, P. M. xxxii. p. 59), Lemington-Priors,
Kings Newnham (Warwick. Rep. p. 28), and other places,
across the greater part of England.

1. 10, situation of the warm springs+.—t These in Der-
byshire, rise by the sides of the great Faults, see Rep. i. 503,
5U4, 505, and my Notes on p. 226 and 3504.

306, 1. 20, that clearly indicate*.—* Hot springs, and strongly
mineralized ones, more clearly indicate the existence of
Faults, and the chemical and perhaps the Voltaic action of
strata. on each other, than point out dormant Volcanoes,
see my Notes on p. 226 and 304,

309, 1. 20, never will be accomplished*.—* Why not ?—If
Mr. B. could have found as many materials prepared to his
hands, respecting several other English Counties, as he has
with respect to one, he might have given us a work, far
more distinguished by variety, and truth of representation.

I. 25, is what ignorance and chance +.—+ Did these alone,
produce the ‘* Mineralogia Cornubiensis” of W. Pryce,
“ Biitish Mineralogy,” by J. Sowerby, “* The Mineralogy of '

. Derbyshire,” by J. Mawe, &c, &c.? or did they (ignorance
and chance) set on foot, the Surveys of Dumfriesshire, Shrop-
shire and Derbyshire? To say nothing of Mr. Smith.—In
an. Advertisement, such assertions as these may pass current,
but ought to have heen more cautiously introduced into an
elementary work on the Science.

310, 1. 10 and 11, the year 1804*.—* This circumstance, so
perpetually referred to by Mr. B. in his writings, happens
to be rather mcorrect, see my Note on p. 221.

511, 1. 24, resemblance to the Welsh limestone*.—* The
pozolanic quality of the Blwe Lias, near Bath in particular,
(where the name originated) has been well known for ages,
and particularly so since 1791, when Mr. Smeaton made it
so extensively known, by his publication on the Eddystone
Light-House, and since 1794 or 5, when Mr. Smith began
to exhibit at Mitford and Bath, &c. his Maps showing the
range across England of this very important stratum, see
Rep. i. 114, and P. M, xxxvi. p. 105; its use in Coal-
mines, | have mentioned, Rep. i. 327.

314, 1. 1 and 2, its effects on a large scale *,—* Rep. i. 153.
Phil. Trans. 1811, and P. M. xxxvii. p. 441, and xxxix.
p. 29 and 426.

Vol. 43. No. 193. May 1814. 3 1,24,

338 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.314] 1. 24, if slowly cooled $.—+ At the Iron Furnace (and
Coal-works) to which Mr. B. alludes in p. 282, Mr. David
Mushet observed, that the Slag let out of the Furnace and
quickly cooled. by throwing water on it, had often, perfect
short octagonal prisms of whitish slag, found in cavities
within it, and some small transparent cubic crystals, &c.

315, 1. 7, shrinking in of the basalt* —* The crystallization
of Basalt on the large scale, is so imperfect, before exposure
on or near to the surface, that it is found a solid and homo-
geneous Rock (except as to imbedded masses), whenever
sunk or driven to, in the deep, in Mines, and the amyg-
daloidal holes are then all full of spar, &c. Rep. i. 377, see
my Note on p. 123, and P. M. xliii. p. 136. -

317, 1. 4, is owing to the mica *,—* Rep. i. 428 and 466.

1. 9, dividing in a contrary directiont.—t A phenomenon
regarding stratification, which I have called straiula, Rep. i.
155, is here alluded to, and it rather surprises me, that Mr.
B. has not in his work, taken more notice of the fact, that
in many Coal-measure and other Rocks, of Gritstone in
particular, certain beds, are uniformly crossed at a high
angle by inferior stratification ; these stratula ending with
an oblique or bevelled end at top and bottom: in different
beds in the same quarry, the s¢ratu/a will sometimes be found
inclined at different angles, and sometimes in contrary di-
rections, from those in other Beds. Writers, seem to have
been little acquainted with this phenomenon, (Mont. Mag.
xxxill. p. 517, P. M. xxxviii. p. 357, &c.) and many er-
roneous descriptions of the dips of strata have been given
in consequence. Mr. Townsend supposed, when he saw the
stratula of a thick bed of Rock near Bath, that an enormous

- convulsion had happened, by which the strata were first

. tilted almost to an angle of 46°, and then their fop edges
(and he tells us nothing of their lottom edges) were swept
or worn off to 2n exact plane, and that after this, other strata
were horizontally deposited upon them! Such, I am inclined
to think, have in many instances been, the “ unconform-
eble’’ masses, described by the Anglo-Wernerians, see my
Note on p. 45.

318, |. 9, was in a solid state *.—* As happens very frequently ~
to Gritstones, with argillaceous cements, which are burnt for
the Roads, (Rep. i. 164, and iii. 256), and thereby assume
a pretty regular columnar structure.

325, 1: 22, great ecliptic days*.—* But why need these grand
events be measured by days of any kind?, The Mosaic ac»
count, here obliquely glanced at, does not require it ; if A

the

Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology. 339

[P.325] the stratified Animals and Vegetables, successively existed
and became extinct, as the strata were successively Created,
before the periods called days (but improperly so in our
translation) commenced, and to which Creation of matter
and of the now extinct organized races, only the very first
words of Moses apply, see the articles Coa/ and Colliery in
Dr. Rees’s Cyclopedia.

327, 1. 6, in the upper strata*.—* In alluvium upon the
strata, see my Notes on pages I6 and Is1.

328, 1. 15, astronomy for the discovery *.—* Perhaps a more
extended and minute application of Gravity and tidal ac-
tion, than has yet been made, will solve many difficulties,
as to the changes that the Earth has undergone, P. M. xxviii
p. 128 and xxxix. p. 358 note, and my Note on p. 192.

329, 1. 8, concretion of stony masses*.—* Is it not far more
probable, that the meteoric stones have existed through
many ages as satellitule of our Planet, and visit our At-
mosphere at very short intervals, when in Perigeo, as
Shooting Stars, see Mr. Nicholson’s Journal, vol. xxxiv.
p. 298: the hypothesis that makes each one of them a se-
parate volcanic Bomb from the Moon, seems a very lame
and unphilosophical one.

335, 1. 4 and 5, succession of different soils*.—* See P. M.
xxxyv. p. 116.

1. 6, extraordinary organic remains ¢.— ¢ P. M. xxxv.
p. 124. i

1. 28, of fresh-water shells t+.—{ Query ?—see my Note
on page 160. Mr. William Smith lately informed me, that
in driving piles for a drainage Sluice on the sea shore at
Minsmer § of Dunwich in Suffolk, the bottoms of them,
below the Sand, entered a soft limestone Rock, which he
stated, may very probably be part of the same stratum as
that at West Cowes on the northern coast of the Isle of
Wight, that has been supposed to contain the fresh-water
shells, to which Mr. B. here alludes.

336, |. 6, in the following order*.—* See P. M. xxxv. p. 140.

1. 13 and 14, and Gypsum ¢.—t See my Note on page
173.—The Paris Gypsum, &c. seems to have been traced
through France, to the confines of Switzerland; and isolated
hummocks of it to appear, far north-east of the Paris Basin,
(as it is called) at Luneberg in Hanover, and at Segeberg
and Kiel in Holstein, according to Dr. Steffens and M. De
Luc. At Luneberg and at Oldérsboke near Segeberg,
we Salt Springs arise, from this Gypsum stratum, I be-
ieve.

¥ 2 1. 24,

3840 Mr. Farey’s Notes on Mr. Bakewell’s Geology.

[P.336] 1. 24, black earth ¢.—t Bones of Elephants, Oxen, An-
telopes, &c. and large Trees, &c. are found in this most
recent alluvium, with rounded Flints, &c. P.M. xxxv.
p. 58, see my Note on page 18}.

P.348, 1. 11, composed chiefly of gravel* .—* Rep. i. 252.
344, 1. 28, with a floor*.—* A rib or skirt, of Cawk, &c.
350, 1. 15, indurated clay*.—* Bind is indurated Loam, and

Clunch is indurated Clay, see p. 351, and Rep. i. 445 and
A46.

1, 23, composed of rownded stones+.—*+ Breccias contain
angular stones or rubble; Pudding-stones contain round
nodules; and Gravel Rock contains rounded stones. Rep, i.
142, ‘

351, 1. 8, sulphate of barytes*.—* See Rep. i. 355 N;

352, 1. 15, Dip, the point of the compass*.—* The most
common and proper application of this term, when used
alone, is to the degree of descent or inclination, which
practical Men express in numbers thus, | in 5, and authors
for the same write, 11° 32’, &e. The point of the com-
pass or direction of the dip is necessary also, as SE or E
45°S.

361, 1. 22 and 23, upon the above plan ts 2ew*.—* Mr. Wm.
Smith, Mr. John Farey,Sen. Mr. Thomas Bartley, (formerly
a Clerk and Assistant to Mr. Smith), &c. did the same, for
yarious Noblemen and Gentlemen, long before Mr. B.

Postscript.—I beg to mention, before I close these Nofes, that
it appears by a Letter of the 29th of April 1814, from Mr. Elias
Hall, of Castleton, to Sir Joseph Banks, Bart., which he did me
the honour to show me, that in the present Spring Mr. Hall has
extended his survey northward from the Peak of Derbyshire,
and made a Model, (see P. M. xlii. p. 113) of the Strata of the
Grand Ridge, and the adjacent country east and west of it, al-
most as far as Westmorland; and that he finds Pennigant Hill,
N of Settle in Yorkshire, to be capped with the 2d Grit Rock,
and to have a basis of Ist Limestone. -

More than ten years ago, I learned from Mr. Wm. Smith, that
Whernside hill, about 64 miles NW of Pennigant, was capped
with Coal-measures (although esteemed there, to be the highest
hill in England); and this latter circumstance it was, as well as
the want of evidence offered by Mr. B., either in his Lectures
or his Geological Work, of his favourite position ; viz. that the
4th Limestone shewed itself in the lower parts of these and
Ingleborough Hills, and Slate from under this lowest of the
Derbyshire Peak Limestones, which made me doubt the cor-

rectness

On the Combinations of the yellow Oxide of Lead. 341

rectness of Mr. B’s observations, and occasioned me to resist his
conclusions, as | have done in my three Letters and Notes on
Mr. B’s Work, in this and the previous volume of the Phil. Mag.

Mr. Hall’s observations seem to me to render it now almost
certain, that Mr. B. has mistaken the Ist Limestone Rock for
the 4th, as I have often before hinted, and the result seems an
important one ; viz. that the S/ate of Ingleborough (see vol. xlil.
p-99 and 170) must probably be referred to the same stratum
as the Ist Toadstone of Derbyshire! instead of a stratum under
the 4th Limestone, as Mr. B. has contended. How far this new
suggestion, of which I have recently added a hint, in my Note
on page 275, may be correct, and its influence may extend to-
wards the explanation of the real structure of the British Isles,
I shall be industrious to inquire, and shall gladly receive the
facts or suggestions that your Correspondents may be able to
offer: the means for which will now I trust be greatly extended,
by the speedy publication of Mr. Smith’s large Map of the
Strata, which may now be seen, in part, and Prospectus ob-
tained, by application to Mr. John Cary, No. 181, Strand.

I am, sir, your obedient servant,

12, Upper Crown Street, Westminster. JoHN Farey, Sen.

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

LXXII. Facts and Observations towards a History of the Com-
binations of the yellow Oxide of Lead with the Nitric and
Nitrous Acids. By M. Cuevrevr.

[Continued from p. 270. ]
Analysis of the Nitrites of Lead.

30. Tox nitrite of lead, when exposed to the sun for several
days, retains some water, as we may see on heating.it in along
close glass tube: that which has been exposed in a retort at the
heat of boiling water, until no more humidity is extricated, loses
a portion of acid.

100 parts of nitrite which had been exposed to the sun, lost
by heat from 19°5 to 20 of acid and water.

Ol. As the acid of the nitrite begins to be extricated from it
at the temperature which is necessary to separate the water
from it, I preferred analysing a nitrite which could retain water,
rather than trouble myself to analyse one which might have
lost acid: I think therefore that the salt which was used in the
following analysis retained a little water. It had been dried in
the sand-bath with great care. It yielded

AL ys iasmaver newest te LO 100
Onide . Aan eh ses 81°85 450

342 On the Combinations of the yellow Oxide of Lead

As it may reasonably be supposed that a little acid might
have been volatilized when the nitrite was dried, I distilled a
certain quantity of this salt dried in the sun, in a small retort
communicating with a tube filled with muriate of lime: the re-
sult was conformable to that of the preceding analysis ; deducting
the water only, the quantity of base was a little more than in
this analysis.

32. 100 parts of subnitrite which had been exposed to the
sun, and at a temperature of 100° (centigrade), lost by heat 10°5
of acid and water. The same salt dried in the sand-bath with
great care yielded Acid....... Sota s wah oiee 100

Le RAE ASP es a. 90-1 910

33. The analysis of nitrites of lead proves that in the sub-
nitrite the base is double that of the nitrite ; for, if we multiply
by two 450, which is the quantity of oxide found in the nitrite,
we have 900: and in the analysis of the subnitrite we found 910.

34. In the sulphites and alkaline nitrites we know that the
base is in the same proportion with the radical of the acid, as
in the sulphates and the nitrates of the same bases ; so that if we
take away, for example, from the sulphate and nitrate of potash,
the quantity of oxygen which forms the difference between the
sulphuric and the sulphurows acid, and between the nitric and
the nitrous acid, we ought to have sulphite and nitrite at the
same degree of saturation with the salts from which they pro- .
ceed. The same appears to be the case with the nitrate and
nitrite of lead. We may judge of this if we convert the acid
of the nitrate into nitrous acid. According to M. G. Lussac,
100 parts of nitric acid contained 88-208 of nitrous acid. If
what we have said be exact, the nitrite ought to be formed of _
ft a .». 88203 17°85

Oxide.) 4 toe o. 406-000 82°15
494-203 100-000

Now if we compare this proportion with that found by
analysis, we shall see that the difference is only 30 centiemes of
one part in a hundred.

35. I wished to know if there was a nitrite of lead corre-
sponding to the acid nitrate; and I thought that, if this salt ex-
isted, I ought to find it in the solution of nitrites precipitated
_ py the carbonic acid; for 1 have said a little higher, that this
liquor contained oxide of lead and nitrous acid in excess: I cal-
culated in the first place the proportion, and I found that it must
be formed, supposing that it existed, of
BRS BOG 5: ae altneieyee OSU 30:3

Oxide ..........- 203-000 69-7

au208 | 1000
i 36. I

with the Nitric and Nitrous Acids. 3843

_ 36.1 dissolved in water five grammes of subnitrite of lead,
containing
GIG. ain idiots boda cpl eet,
BPBSE ait 0, mnie p) ach ate Lo
WAKER cia: a'x cinn's's a wae 9: phe
5:0000

I passed a current of carbonic acid into the solution, and I
separated 3°18 gr. of oxide in the state of carbonate*: there re-°
mained therefore in the liquor 1-2950 gr. of oxide, and 0°4917
gr. of acid, or

ON ae ele ciat oi ay 4 etain) 400) 1D

1s Es, a ae over (2°48
Which differs by 2°78 from the determination made by calcu-
lation.

37. The solution precipitated by the carbonic acid was con-
centrated, and there was an extrication of nitrous acid; and
upon cooling, yellow leafy crystals of nitrite were deposited.
The mother-water several times concentrated gave leafy nitrite
to the last +.

38. In order to determine what was the decomposition which
the nitrite of lead would undergo by the carbonic acid, I took
five grammes of nitrite (coming from the subnitrite) which con-
tained

BOD vaicins ban aas.sin ODE
BISIAE 09: lao o.0' amo ae AOD
ES a et a NS EB YS

5-000
The carbonic aeid precipitated 1-74 gr. of oxide. There re-
mained therefore in the liquor 2:260 gr. of base and 0-887 of
acid, or
Reid ieleseie.. os y S2B-19
Salle ery ye aoe) ee

100-00

which

* T made two analyses of carbonate of lead coming from the nitrite de-
composed by the carbonic acid gas, and obtained
Acid if oe 16°36 .. 16°35
Base... Pr 83°64 .. 83°65
M. Berzelius found
Acid oe He ae 16°50
Base, ay ee oe ee 83°50 ,
+ Iset aside a portion of this mother-water, with a view to ascertain
if the crystals which it should deposit by a very slow evaporation,
would not contain more acid than those obtained by concentration and
cooling. Iobtained in this way yellow crystals formed of leaves united
Y 4 y in

4

344 On the Comlinations of the yellow Oxide of Lead

which differs by 2:11 from the determination made by the calca-
lation*. The solution of nitrite separated from the carbonate,
and aiterwards concentrated, acted like that of the subnitrite; it
gave out nitrous acid, and yielded crystals of nitrite.

39. It follows from these facts: Ist, that the nitrite and the sub-
nitrite are partly decomposed by the carbonic acid, because the
affinity and the quantity of the nitrous acid are insufficient to
overcome the whole of the tendency which the carbonic acid has
to form an insoluble combination with the oxide of lead; but the
instant there is a certain quantity of nitrous acid set free the
decomposition stops, because this acid is much more soluble than
the carbonic: 2dly, that the nitrous acid of a solution of nitrite,
when passed to the carbonic acid, seems to he to the oxide which
is not precipitated from it in a proportion corresponding to that
of the elements of the acid nitrate of lead: Sdly, that the affi-
nity of the nitrous acid set free for the nitrite is not great, siace
by concentration and crystallization we obtain nitrite only:
Athly, that, the nitrous acid set free being very capable of sepa-
ration from the nitrite, it is possible to decompose a given quan-
tity of nitrite by the carbonic acid.

_ AQ. I shall conclude this memoir with an examination of the
nitrite of lead prepared by M. Proust’s process. I have said a
little higher, that when we wished to prepare this salt, and
when we boiled too long the acid nitrate of lead over this metal,
we obtained a nitrite which contained subnitrite, or more base
than the nitrite¢. In order to avoid the production of the sub-
nitrite, | made” several experiments with a view to ascertain if
each of them would give me a homogeneous and identical pro-
duct. I obtained two varieties of yellow crystals, one in com-
pact leaves, the other in flexible scales, These crystais being of
the same species, | confounded them together. 1 regarded them

H 5
in stars. I thought at first that they were acid, because they reddened
turnsole paper; but, having pressed and dried them, they gave a solution
which reddened at first turnsole paper slightly, but soon became blue again,
Thad not enough of these crystals to ascertain by analysis their quantity
of base. The solution yielded yellow needles.

* In an experiment similar to the latter, T obtained

Acid me sah tae 30:7

Base Hans ti wordt ele 693 which is ostensibly
the same with that of the calculation: but what prevents me from having
as much confidence in it as in the foregoing, is, that the nitrite employed
had been crystallized twice, and that it seemed to contain a little subnitrite,
or more base than the nitrite.

+ This salt is of a redder colour than the nitrite. When we dissolve it
in boiling water, we obtain yellow and orange crystals, which contain much
more base than the nitrite, and less than the subnitrite.

100 parts of this nitrite contained

Acid and water ., «- 16°56
Base Je eee ee
at

with the Nitric and Nitrous Acids. 345

- at first as pure nitrite ; and this appeared so much the more pro-
bable, as they presented to the eye all the characters of a homo-
geneous substance, and as they were'formed in the midst of a
great mass of liquid; but ulterior experiments convinced me
that this salt was formed of nitrite and nitrate, and that it was
a kind of double salt with two acids. I was led to this singular
result by the decomposition which the carbonic acid made it
undergo.

41. In order to show more evidently the difference of these
crystals from the nitrite coming from the subnitrite, 1 shall sup-
pose them formed of Nitrous acid ........ 0°887 gr.

OXTGT) ciate sors oe ae F000"
Water a. sols oo 5552 ORS

5000

I passed into the solution of these five grammes a stream of
carbonic acid, and I separated from it 2°20 gr. of oxide: there
remained therefore in the liquor 1:80 gr. of base and 0°887 of
acid: this report gives for 100,

AGG DS. haa dena ro) aoe
Base. sae s'e nots» OOVS

In this experiment the salt had been dissolved in nine decilitres
of water. In another I put the same salt in powder in three de-
cilitres of water, and obtained by the carbonic acid 2°21 gr.
of base. (1 had made this experiment with a view to ascertain
if the quantity of water had any influence on the quantity of
oxide precipitated.) A third and fourth experiment gave me
2°20 gr. and 2°23. They concur therefore perfectly in proving
that the carbonic acid separates more base from the nitrite pre-
pared with the acid nitrate of lead and the metal than from
that obtained from the subnitrite.

42. The solution precipitated by the carbonic acid evaporated,
gave off nitrous acid, and deposited upon cooling yellowish white
scales: the mother-water of these scales, concentrated, gave
small white needles ; and the mother-water of these needles;
spontaneously evaporated, yellow crystals resembling by their
form the acid nitrate of lead. Now as the nitrite coming from
the subnitrite only gives, when we decompose it by the carbonic
acid, yellow nitrite and nitrous acid, and not white salt, we must

~ eonclude that the nitrite prepared by M. Proust’s process differs
from it in its composition.

-43. I examined in the first place the white needles, and after

having crystallized them several times I found them similar

* The proportion of the base had been determined by experiment, and the
water aud the acid had been calculated fPom the analysis of the nitrite
(31). .

to

346 On the Combinations of the yellow Oxide of Lead

to the nitrate of lead*; for they did not colour water; they
did not give out nitrous acid when boiled in nitric acid :
they did not give nitrite or subnitrite when boiled in water with
oxide of lead; they were reduced by the carbonic acid into car-
bonate and into acid nitrate of lead.

44, The yellowish white scales redissolved in boiling water
gave yellow leaves, and a mother-water not highly coloured,
which gave white needles of nitrate of lead mixed with a little
nitrite. The yellow leaves still retained some nitrate. It was
evident that these scales were a combination of nitrite and ni-
trate of lead.

45. The yellow crystals resembling in form the acid nitrate
of lead, redissolved in boiling water, deposited small needles and
small leaves of nitrate of lead; the mother-water which re-
mained was acid and slightly coloured. The composition of
these crystals is analogous therefore to that of the scales, but they
differ in so far as they contain more nitrate: it is not impro-
bable that they contain acid nitrate: the nitrate of lead which
they yield when dissolved in boiling water does not contradict
this idea; for, if it be true that the acid nitrate of lead when
boiled with the nitrite decomposes it, and passes to the state of
nitrate, this is not a sufficient reason for thinking that this de-
composition takes place in a liquor left to itself, and which
would contain oxide of lead with an excess of nitrous and nitric
acid.
46. The decomposition of the scales and of the yellowish
erystals effected by the affinity of water, and the force of co-
hesion, led me to examine the action of the water on the nitrite
of lead prepared by M. Proust’s process. On dissolving this
salt in boiling water, I obtained, Ist, yellow leafy crystals which
were deposited upon cooling; 2dly, crystals slightly yellow :
they were deposited by concentration and cooling from the
mother-water of the former crystals; 3dly, a slightly coloured
mother-water which yielded small yellow crystals, and small
white grainy crystals. On passing a stream of carbonic acid
into this mother-water, I obtained plenty of nitrate from it.

47. 1 am of opinion that these facts ought to leave no doubt
as to the compound nature of the nitrite of lead prepared after
M. Proust’s method. It is on this account, in the experiments
which I made upon this salt, that I employed the nitrite coming

* In my comparative experiments with the pure nitrite, and that of
M. Proust, I am convinced that the nitrate obtained from the latter was
not formed in the course of the operation. It is nevertheless not impos-
sible that it may be formed under certain circumstances ; for we can con-
ceive that the nitrous acid, which is extricated when we evaporate the acid
nitrate of lead, may, by combining with steam and oxygen, form nitric
acid, a portion of which may be mixed with the nitrite, and oe it.

rom

with the Nitric and Nitrous Acids. 347

from the subnitrite. This result naturally leads to this question:
Is there a term at which the acid nitrate of lead boiled over this
metal is converted into simple nitrite, sv that by stopping the
operation at -this term we may obtain pure nitrite? I do not
think that there are as yet a sufficient number of facts to resolve
this question definitively: but all my experiments have yielded
pure nitrite ; and I have observed besides, that when there was
an evident production of subuitrite, nitrate was still found in the
liquor. Another fact is, that nitrites, prepared in different ope-
rations decomposed by the carbonic acid, have given the same
quantity of carbonate ; which seems to indicate a constant com-
position.

Recapitulation.

1. The oxide of lead boiled with the acid nitrate forms a salt,
the base of which is double that of the acid nitrate.

2. When we boil lead with acid nitrate, the metal is oxidated
at the expense of the nitric acid, and passes to the state of li-
tharge: the latter is united to nitrous acid. In this operation,
therefore, there is a nitrate formed with a base of an oxide more
at the minimum than litharge.

3. The combination of oxide of lead with the nitric acid is
not the only sait-of its kind which is converted into nitrite by
lead ; the nitrate of potash undergoes asimilar decomposition.

4. The nitrous acid gives with oxide of lead two combina-
tions: the one, which is a subnitrite, is formed when we boil
the acid nitrate of lead over this metal until there is no longer
any action ; the other, which is the nitrite, is obtained by passing
a current of carbonic acid into the solution of the subnitrite.

5. The colour of the subnitrite more easily disappears than
that of the nitrite, for the former does not colour the water like
the latter. The proof that non-colouring of the water by the
subnitrite is not owing to the salt being less soluble than the
nitrite, is, that by precipitating from its polation a part of its
oxide, the liquor becomes yellow.

6. The solution of the two nitrites precipitates the nitrate of
copper ; the precipitate is formed of two metallic hydrates, which
probably retain a little nitric acid.

7. The nitric acid and acetic acid, when boiling, emit nitrous
vapour when we project into them the nitrites reduced into powder.

8. The conversion of the nitrite into subnitrite by the oxide
of lead, is very proper to prove that, in the preparation of the
nitrite by M. Proust’s process, there is not formed any oxide more
at the minimum than litharge ; for, if this were the case, instead
of an oxide inferior to litharge, it must be acknowledged that
there were two; since | have demonstrated that, by prolonging
the ebullition of the acid nitrate of! lead over the metal, we ob-

tain

348 — On the Combinations of. the yellow Omide of Lead.

tain a salt quite different from M. Proust’s, insomuch as it
contains more lead. Now this opinion being admitted, it would
be no longer possible to explain how M. Proust’s yellow salt
could be converted by litharge into a salt the base of which was
less oxidated than his.

9. The combinations of the oxide of lead with the nitrous acid

_ confirm the laws established by Richter, Gay-Lussac, Wollaston
and Berzelius: thus the quantity of base of the subnitrite is
double that of the nitrite. The composition of the nitrite cor-
responds with that of the nitrate of lead; and a remarkable re-
sult, if it be not accidental, is, that the carbonic acid, by taking
from the nitrites a portion of base, leaves in the liquor a quan-
tity of oxide, which is to that of the nitrous acid in a proportion
which seems to correspond with that of the elements of the acid
nitrate. But the cohesion of the nitrite and the expansive force
of the acid are sufficient to overcome the affinity of the nitrite for
an excess of its acid ; so that, by concentrating by heat the solu-
tion of the nitrites when passed to the earbonic acid, we obtain
nitrite by cooling *. It would be curious to ascertain if, in the
decompositions analogous to that of the nitrite, something similar
‘does not take place in the proportion of the principle which has ©
become predominant. This would be the means of ascertaining
if the result which I have observed is not accidental. It would
be also interesting to ascertain if the alkalis, in acting on the acid
nitrate of lead, do not produce a subnitrate corresponding to the
subnitrate.

10. I have mentioned several facts in this memoir, which prove
that we obtain nitrites intermediary between the two combina-
tions which I have. described. May we regard these salts as so
many different kinds of nitrite, or as combinations of the two
nitrites? This is precisely what I cannot decide in a definitive
manner: I shall therefore leave to my readers the liberty of
forming any opinion they may think most natural.

11. I have not been able to obtain pure nitrite by M. Proust’s
process: for, if I do not deceive myself, the salts which I have
prepared by this process were a combination of nitrite and ni-
trate: this is what I have endeavoured by examining the action
which they experience from carbonic acid and water. Al-
though I was not able to make pure nitrite by boiling the acid
nitrate of lead over this metal, I have not affirmed that it is
impossible to do so; because the want of success in operations
of this kind is frequently owing to circumstances which it is not
always easy to ascertain.

* It is not improbable that by counteraeting the canses which tend to
prevent the combination of the nitrite of lead with an excess of its acid,
we may succeed in obtaiming this combination in the solid state.

LXXIII. New

f 349 J

. EXXUI. New Outlines of Chemical Philosophy. By Ez.WaLkER,
Esq. of Lynn, Norfolk.

[Continued from p. 285.]
On Light and Heat.

Sirs, EEO theory of combustion is founded on the
supposition, that in every case oxygen combines with the burn-
ing body, and that the weight of the product of every body after.
combustion corresponds with the weight of the body before
combustion, plus that of the oxygen consumed.

But this theory is questionable, for no account is taken of
the light and heat generated in the process. If a long mould
candle, which weighs two ounces troy, be lighted, and placed to
form an angle with the horizon of 60 degrees, it will be so per-
fectly consumed as not to leave a single grain of ashes; the
only product being pure water.

I have observed in a former paper, that oxygen gas is com-
posed of thermogen and water*, so that, when thermogen com-
bines with the burning body, the base of the gas being incom-
bustible becomes the product. :

Now, the important problem to be investigated is, what be-
comes of the two ounces of matter of the candle? Is it con-
verted into light and heat, or is it transmuted into pure watef?
Now, unless it can be demonstrated that tallow, oil, and wax
are transmutable into pure water, the theory of combustion of
M. Lavoisier falls to the ground.

It is well known that a charged Leyden jar contains nothing
that is either tangible, visible, or ponderable; but let it be dis-
charged through the air, or some other conducting substance,
and both light and heat will be generated; nor can either light
or heat be produced, unless the two elements of combustion be
united to ponderable matter. Consequently, light is a triple.
compound of thermogen, photogen, and combustible matter ;
and heat is a compound of the same two elements united to
matter of the same kind, but differently modified.

As light comes from the sun in seven seconds and a half, it,
therefore, passes over five miles in about =,4,,tht part of a
second of time. A candle which weighs two ounces troy will

burn about ten hours, consequently ~3,tht part of a grain will

* Page 24 of this volume.

A Miles. Bass ie Miles 450% 5 ”
+ As 95,000,000 :7 30 (450 His FS * 95,000,000 ='0000 2+ =s5900 ofa
second.
He. Oz

$ As10:2:; 50350 isto of a grain,
be

350 Process for preparing, with a Description of some

be consumed in =>}5,th of a second: and as a candle may be
seen in a dark night, the air being clear, at the distance of five
miles, a sphere of ten miles in diameter, containing 523 cubic
miles, is filled with light in —,,th part of a second.

But as the heat of a candle cannot produce any sensible ef-
fect at a greater distance than a few yards, we may suppose
that heat is specifically heavier than light. Oxygen gas is
heavier than hydrogen gas in the ratio of 15 to 1, because the
former contains more water than the latter. Let it, therefore,
be ‘supposed that the quantities of matter contained in light and
heat be in the ratio of 1 to 15, which appears to be considera-
bly within the bounds of probability, then a quantity of matter
of about >;5th* part of a grain may be so attenuated and
modified by the elements of combustion, thermogen and photo-
gen, as to fill a space =523 cubic miles in =>,5th part ofa
second of time.

Hence we see that, although matter is passive and inert, yet,
by being acted upon by the invisible imponderable elements, it
is made to put on an infinite variety of new forms, without a
single atom being lost. And the wonderful effects which are
thus produced on the. living functions of animals, and vegetables,
is a field of investigation that is almost boundless.

, Lynn, May 12, 1814. E. WALKER.
[To be continued. |

LXXIV. Process for preparing, with a Description of some of
| the Properties of, the refined Ox Gall, invented and prepared
by Pevtro Witt1am Tomxins, Esq. Historical Engraver to
Her Majesty, No. 53, New Bond-Street, Londont.

Ox Gat deprived of its tendency to putridity, and its colouring
matter, so detrimental to all delicate colours, is prepared in the
following manner:

Process.

To a pint of fresh ox gall, boiled and skimmed, put one ounce
of alum, finely powdered; continue it on the fire until combined;
when cold, put it into a bottle, and cork it moderately close.

' To another pint of fresh ox gall, also boiled and skimmed,

“ae of st0 = sooo
+ The above is accompanied in the Transactions of the Society of Arts for
1813, whence we have copied it, with numerous certificates from our first
artists, all concurrang in the valuable properties of the refined ox gall.--
The lesser gold medal of the Society was voted to Mr, Tomkins for his
communication.

: put

of the Properties of, the refined Ox Gail. 351

put one ounce of common salt, and continue it on the fire until
combined; when cold, put it into another bottle, and cork it
moderately close.

Gall, thus prepared, will keep perfectly free from putridity, or
any offensive smell, for years.

When the above preparations have stood in a room, of a mo-
derate temperature, for about three months, they will deposit a
thick sediment, become clear, and fit for use in ordinary pur-
poses; but as they contain a large portion of yellow colouring
matter, tingeing blue of a greenish hue, reds, brown, and sullying
purples, they are unfit for general use in painting in water co-
lours.

Further Process.

The before-mentioned preparations, after standing until become
perfectly clear, are to be decanted and combined in equal pro-
portions ; a thick coagulum is instantly formed of the yellow
colouring matter, which precipitates, leaving a clear liquid,
namely, the colourless ox gall.

N.B. After the combination of the two first preparations, the
process may be assisted by filtering the liquid through paper.
Age renders this preparation more brilliantly clear, and by it, it
seems to obtain an agreeable scent ; nor has it been observed to
contract, at any time, an unpleasant smell, or to lose its useful
properties.

Properties.

The refined ox gall possesses all the valuable properties of ox
gall, as applicable to painting in water colours, with the superior
advantages of being deprived of all tendency to putridity, and of
all colouring matters.

It combines with, and fixes, all water colours, as they are
usually prepared, either by being mixed with them, or washed
over them after they are’ laid upon the paper, &c. It renders
blue, purple, red, green, and all other delicate colours, more
bright and durable ; and, if a small portion of it be added to any
of the colours, it causes them to wash more freely and evenly
over the surface of the paper, ivory, &c.

Combined with gum arabic, it gives depth of tint, without any
unpleasant glossiness upon the surface of the drawing, and_pre-
vents the gum from cracking ; and the colours are so completely
fixed in the paper itself, that subsequent tints can be washed
over them without any risk of their becoming foul, or forming
improper combinations with the under colours.

Combined with fine lamp black, and gum water, it forms a
complete substitute for Indian ink.

If it be floated over the surface of drawings made with chalks,

or

352 Memoir upon the Causes of the long Duration

or black-lead pencil, it fixes them firmly; and they may then be

“washed over with any water colours, previously mixed with a
portion of it, without in the least degree disturbing the chalks or
black-lead.

For miniature painting, being washed over the surface of the
ivory, it completely removes its'greasiness; and being mixed with
the colours, it causes them to float freely thereon, and tints may
be laid over tints, the colours being struck into the ivory.

For transparencies, oiled pdper, being first washed over with
the refined ox gall, and permitted to dry, water colours, mixed
with some of it, will lie freely, and perfectly smooth upon it, and |
be so fixed, as not to wash up by the repetition of different
glazings of colours, over each other; thus producing depth of
colour.

In short, the valuable properties this refined ox gall possesses,
make it equally applicable to historical, landscape, botanical,
and natural history painting, as well as to colouring prints in
general ; and, by its readily combining with all the vehicles used
in the preparation of water colours, and having no colour in it-
self, it enables the artist to paint with ease on surtaces otherwise

unfavourable, at the same time rendering the colours more bright
and durable.

Many other valuable properties will, no doubt, on trial, be
found in this preparation ; and the result cannot fail to facilitate
and improve the art of painting in water colours; and, as the
discovery of it is entirely new, it will in all probability be found
applicable to many other useful purposes.

May 20, 1812. P. W. Tomkins.

LXXV. Memoir upen the Causes of the long Duration of the
Chinese Empire. Read to the Philotechnic Society, 2d of
May 1813. By M. Pacaner, Member of several learned
Societies *.

Ix order to confine my subject within the bounds which cir-
cumstances require, I shali rapidly run over the traits which
characterize all the nations of antiquity, and which distinguish
them from those of Europe. Passing afterwards from these
general considerations to the particular character of the Chinese,
it will be acknowledged that this ancient nation is not less di-
stinct from those who occupy the opposite extremity of Asia,
than the latter are from the Hungarians and Germais.
Institutions in general derive their chief force from local con-
veniences; that is to say, irom the concordance between those

* Magazin Encyclopédique, 1813, tome iy. p, 88.
institutions

of the Chinese Empire. 353

institutions and the climate: a truth the. more evident with re-
spect to the Asiatic nations, whose moral character is derived
among each of them from the physical qualities of the zone
under which they are placed. This is the reason why the set-
tlement of the Turks in Europe, and the translation of the seat
of empire to Constantinople, are regarded as a violation of
natural order, and as at variance with the principles and object
of the Koran. iA
Certain traits of character and usages common to all the peo-
le of Asia seem to indicate that all have a common origin. In
order to find any very striking difference between them, they
must be compared in the two extremities of this great portion of
the globe. Among all, their manners are as ancient as the
societies themselves: as well as the governments, the latter have
an aspect nearly similar, and present the faithful expression of
the influence of climate. _Despotism is an incontestable effect
of this irresistible influence; and Mahomet, confounding the
precepts of religion with the rights of the throne, confiding the
duration of the empire to the human passions, formed out of the
confidants of his impostures the nucleus of an invincible army,
and of all the believers he made blind idolaters. Mahometism
has lost nething in Asia of its force and intolerance.
But Asiatic despotism is variously modified, from the east to
the south. In vain would you endeavour to render it sanguinary
. in China, and paternal where the religion of Mahomet prevails*.
At the two extremities it would overcome all obstacles, and re-
turn to its priniitive state. Conquest or other circumstances
may compress the spring, but they can never break it. It de-
rives its strength from the agreement of human institutions with
the moral character of men, their natural or factitious passions,
and with the means of satisfying them.
In support of this opinion, I shall cite some celebrated facts.
If the first caliphs, tempering the spirit of conquest by the noble

* [do not pretend to say that despotism is stripped of its essential
eharacter in China. There, as in the other Asiatic states, it is divided into
graduated tyraunies, each of which oppresses and is oppressed in its turn,
But in China, more than any where else, the sovereign watches over the
immediate depositaries of his authority or his confidence: there, more than
any where else, he occupies himself with his people, watches over their
subsistence, and protects them against the extortion of the governors, who
in China are more apt to clude the law and to defy all vigilance, on _ac-
count of the system of despotism weighing entirely upon them. It is
true, therefore, as I have said a little further on, that the despotism of the
Chinese emperors is active, paternal, and popular, as much as absolute
power can be. Some emivent writers have given credit to very contrary
doctrines with respect to China, The enthusiastic admiration of some,
and the contempt of others, for the Chinese, has equally impeded the in-
vestigation of truth. I have endeavoured to steer a middle course between
these two extremes.

Vol.43. No. 193. May 1814. Z , If

354 Memoir upon the Causes of the long Duration

protection which they granted to learning and science, raised
the Arabs of the East to the rank of the greatest nations; other
Arabs developed, in the climate of Spain so favourable to genius,
an imagination still more brilliant, more taste in the arts, and
more ardour for the seiences. The glory of the Moors is at-
tested to the world by more durable monuments, and by results
more general. But these aberrations from the sloth and ig-
norance inculcated by Mahometism were but ephemeral. Sooner
or later it recovers its fatal empire over the human mind.

It is possible that Asia may have been inhabited before every
part of the globe. But I am very far from considering it as the
only cradle of the human race. This opinion would imply that
certain great questions had been resolved, which not only are
not, but which probably never will be. For, if the human race
is composed of races essentially different (au opinion more phi-
losophical and more generally adopted of Jate years), must not
each of these races have had its first man* ?

What can never be contested is, that nature has heaped fa-
vours upon Asia: its climate excludes. numerous evils which
every where else beset the paths of men.

Shall I venture to say that happiness is there more constant
and more easy of attainment, because human knowledge is there
confined to a limited sphere, because Providence has refused to
Asia in general the passions which are allied to the splendid
gift of talents, and even genius itself? This is not the place to
inquire wherefore this sublime faculty of the human understand-
img is mdigenous in the temperate zones. It is sufficient for our
purpose to know that nature does most for man where he is able
to do least for himself. Admirable solicitude, which extends over
every organised being! Harmonious benevolence, which more
than the harmony ef worlds upon worlds reveals to our feeble
reason a supreme Intelligence !

Let us acknowledge, I say, that in Asia. the enjoyments of
life are placed nearer human wants, and as it were within the
reach of every man’s hand; that, besides, man is condemned to
ereate and to conquer every thing; that under different skies
he is the slave of the climate, or he becomes its master; that
Europe is a theatre with constantly varying scenes ; that the hu-
man mind as well as empires there undergoes astonishing revo-
lutions ; that it descends to extreme degradation as in the tenth
century, and ascends to the summit of science as in the 18th;
that every thing is in motion; and that it experiences without
interruption the alternations of strength and weakness, enthu-
siasm and stupor, alternatives which depend on the use which is
made of the powers of the human mind. . That in Asia, on the

* None but pscudo-philosophers will ever adopt this method of account-
ing for the apparent varieties of the human race.—EDIT,

contrary,

of the Chinese Empire. 355

contrary, the human mind exhibits no different phases; that the
moral order is there uniform and constant, maxims and usages
invariable; and finally the laws, religion, and government there
triumph over the irruptions of barbarians, war, proselytism, and
even time itself,

Let us now apply these general principles to the empire of
China, which more than any other Asiatic state exhibits the
happy results of local assimilations, that is to say, of the accord-
ance of institutions and climate, and we shall perhaps succeed
in resolving the historical problem now under consideration.

We may, without going too far, suppose that the civil and
religious institutions of China were very ancient, even when
they began to write the history of that country ; and the history
of China, according to M. de Guignes, goes back to the year 2953
before our vulgar zra. Confucius, who lived several centuries
before the reign of Augustus, developed and inculeated the pre-
cepts of pure morality: but he certainly was not the first who
instructed princes and subjects in their duties: the Chinese an-
nals go back more than 5000 years; and probably at that epoch
the science of morals and agriculture had attained in this vast
empire a kind of perfection. '

It is here important to remark the anteriority of the Chinese
over the rest of the world in governing and in feeding mankind,
as well as the limits of their knowledge in the arts of imagina-
tion, and in the sciences which bespeak all the vigour of intellect
and all the fire of genius.

In order to be five thousand years ago what they are at pre-
sent, the Chinese had only to collect the lessons of experience,
always more forward in a paternal government, and under a sky
whose serenity and mildness inspired the desire of pleasure; ex-
perience more certain under a paternal government protected by
patriarchal manners, and which a fertile soil exempts from the dan-
gers which an inconstant temperature occasions in other regions*.

Every thing which human ingenuity can invent and execute
for procuring easy -enjoyments to limited desires has been ef-
fected by the Chinese ; but they will never quit the track which
has been marked out for them by nature. Their affections re-
tain them m some! measure near jnstinct: they trace its pro-
gress, and it directs in turn their industry: this is not the case
with the bee and the beaver. But the former stop, like these
animal architects, at limits which they will never exceed.
Ought we to complain that the inventive arts have exhausted
their patience when they have scarcely seized upon the first

* The government has not yet succeeded, and perhaps never will suc¢

ceed, in establishing a just balance between the subsistences and the im-
mense population of the empire,

2 rules,

356 Memoir upon the Causes of the long Duration

rules, and the infinite domain of genius is for ever closed against
them? Ah! by how many advantages is this magnificent pri-
vilege compensated among these nations who are deprived of it!
The Chinese are born for a life of indifference and tranquillity.
If perfection in the arts, extent and depth in the sciences, are
withheld from them, they are also ignorant of the revolutions
and catastrophes of Europe. No ambitious views interrupt the
stream of their enjoyments. They belong to the soil, like the
plant which feeds them: they never experience the torments of
curiosity; and with respect to them, their caste is that of the
human race, and China the universe.

In China in general the epochs of life are feebly marked by
the advancement and decrease of intellect; and if we descend
to the lower classes, we shudder at beholding immense genera-
tions confusedly pressing upon each other, and continually dis-
appearing in a fixed state of inveterate infancy. For this rea-
‘son the vices of the muititude in China exhibit fickleness and
imbecility, and for this reason also they abstain from the per-
petration of those crimes which sully the annals of so many other
nations.

Let us compare this condition of the Chinese with that of the
people who were formidable by the glory of their arms, and
celebrated by the more solid conquests of their genius ; and we
shall find on one hand a long series of happiness without noise,
and on the other, some brilliant epochs purchased by centuries of
calamity and crime; we shall find also (a problem which it,
would be difficult to solve} that man is happy wherever the
laws reward the useful arts, and that warlike or highly cultivated
nations are so much the more removed from happiness as they
are greedy of glory or renown. We can easily reckon the
happy days of ancient Rome, but we cannot_count the days of
sorrow and ignominy by which she expiated the conquest of
the world.

The civilization of nations-is slow, gradual, and frequently in-
terrupted by a diversity of circumstances. We may therefore
reasonably suppose that the civilization of the Chinese goes
back to an era far anterior to the reign of Fohi. In his time
they were subject to the same usages, the same laws, and the
same form of goyetfiment. Here we may observe that several
things seem to have been established aniong this people to se-
parate them from all other nations: their language is a parti-
cular instance. ‘lo reproach the Chinese with the imperfection
of their language, is to be ignorant of the spirit and object of
their institutions. An uniform system of education, a compli-
cated etiquette, superstitious ceremonies, a life of effeminate in-
dolence for the fair sex, painful for the poor, sumptuous for the

rich,
¢ > ‘

_ of the Chinese Empire. 357

rich, voluptuous for both sexes; every thing in China is sub-
ject to a law of nature, because nature herself is there uniforin,
constant and absolute in her wishes, and leaves nothing to man
but the wish to preserve his life ahd to enjoy it. But what
has preserved China, and will always, from every innovation
contrary to the spirit ‘of the governi ment, its usages and laws, is
the place which it occupies at “the further extr emity of the globe.

Thus for along series of ages has moral and physical order
been reciprocally reflected and protected in this vast empire.
Thus has the social accordance of human institutions from gene-
ration to generation, made the necessity of a paternal govern-
ment more apparent; and all the parts of the empire are so
happily combined, that they present to the eye and to the mind
nothing but unity ‘of movement, thought and desires.

The Chinese fully enjoyed all the benefits of their government
until the time when the Tartars made themselves known to
them by their sudden inroads. They then experienced the
scourge of war; and all the evils which it brings in its train; but
they were still for a long time ignorant of the military art.
Enervated by a long enjoyment of peace, past events left but
few traces on the memory, and they occupied themselves but
little with the future. As invasions however became more fre-
quent, they quitted for a moment this state of listlessness ; but
they proved by their defensive means, how easy it was to subju-
gate them, and when vanquished, how impossible it was for their
conquerors to avoid submitting themselves to the laws of the
empire.

The climate therefore has prescribed to China its govern-
ment, usages and manners. But institutions dictated by nature
ought to be consolidated from the instaut of their birth, and to
be perpetuated without contradiction. Rarely have wicked
princes disgraced the throne of China. , The Chinese, like other
nations, may groan under the abuses of power, but they never
"hate power itself. The strength of the state consists in the in-
variable accordance between ‘the wants of man and the action
of the government—it is to be found in the harmony which
‘reigns among all the parts of this vast edifice. And what
ought not to be the authority of a system of legislation, which
without tyranny is nevertheless despotic, and has regulated for
five thousand years the destinies of an immense population * ?

If the lust of conquest had not united under one chief the
*Tartars adjoining this vast and pacific empire, no revolution

* Tifty millions according to Voltaire, but one hundred and fi fifty millions
according to the calculations of M, de Guignes, who in this point is entitled
to most credit,

Z3 would

358 — Memoir upon the Causes of the long Duration

would have to this day chequered its history, and a conqueror
would never have been seated on the throne.

The Manchou Tartars several times, ravaged the provinces,
before carrying their inroads into the heart of the empire. The
_ government did not oppose numerous armies to the enemy, but
constructed the Great Wall: a feeble rampart against valour
and cupidity; and a memorable monument, according to Vol-
taire, of the love of peace. The Chinese never dreamt that the
facility with which they might be conquered inflamed the desires
of their invaders, and that the hands employed in raising this
useless barrier would have been sufficient to immolate every
Tartar at the frontiers of the empire: so true is it that the ha-
bitudes induced by the gentler passions have expelled from the
breasts of this people the turbulent workings of hatred and re-
venge.

One thing is certain, that the emperors of China have raised
militias or formed regular troops for the purposes of defence only,
History does not reproach them with a single aggression*. With
the interests of states, of which the European cabinets have
formed a distinct science, they were unacquainted. Their po-
licy was confined to,the maintenance of internal tranquillity, the
banishment.of every new opinion, and of every doctrine con-
* trary to the laws of the empire. They were insulated from the
rest of the world, convinced by dire experience, that under the
veil of commercial speculations, Europeans concealed dangerous
projects. Nevertheless, by constancy and importunity, the latter
secures the privilege of trading with certain points of the em-
pire, but under restrictions and conditions so humiliating, that
the love of money only can induce men to submit to them,

The Chinese rather tolerate than desire the presence of
Strangers: every where authority is exerted to keep them in awe,
and no where are they received with hospitality.

From this primary cause arising from climate of the long ,

duration of the Chinese government, other secondary causes
flow, whose action not less constant fortifies that which is ex-~
ercised by the climate.

The paternal regime is indigenous in China, as well as ab-
solute. power: this regime is sacred with respect to the prince,
and this power is revered by his subjects as a law of nature. It
is there that the justice of the head of the state, incessantly en-

* The emperors had frequently, and particularly those of the primitive
dynasties, troubles to appease and:rebel vassals to keep.in submission, A
kind of feudal hierarchy was the principle of these intestine wars. The
supreme power was successively concentrated, and it is now and will be
long an object of adoration with the Chinese people, as the source and the
guarantee of the easy happiness for which nature destines them.

lightened

of the Chinese Empire. 359

lightened by a long hierarchy of authorities, circulates equally
among all ranks*. It is there that the citizens of all classes,
chained to the chief of the state by an immutable order of things,
obey him implicitly as children do their father. Thousands of
centuries have elapsed, and the national character has experiencd
no sensible alteration. Its constancy is that of the climate.
This beautiful feature, which embraces~all institutions and all
interests, commands so much the more admiration and respect,
that the most ferocious conqueror has always bowed his head,
and lowered his spear, when he contemplated it.

The Chinese government recompenses useful labours and vir-
tuous actions by the highest dignities. This noble and rare jus-
tice is the principle of reciprocal confidence between the prince
and his subjects, and consequently one of the causes of the du-
ration of the empire and the government.

Some philosophers have deplored the lot of the Chinese, go-
verned by a despotic power; but these critics do not see that the
real despot is the climate. They do not see that this despotism
is justified by a constant and paternal beneficence ; that nature
prescribes to it at the same time duties and limits ; and that the
history of the empire, written from day to day under the eyes of
the prince by incorruptible magistrates, incessantly presents the
faithful picture of his life and the judgement of posterity.

The Chinese are also reproached with the vilest cruelty, and
the barbarous custom of arresting by infanticide the too rapid
progress of population.

In condemning such usages let me be permitted to observe, that
the severity of punishments in China is a necessary consequence
of despotism, as despotism is in its turn a consequence of the in-
fluence of the climate; and that is moderated perhaps too much
by the power of getting rid of it, by paying contributions gra-
duated according to the magnitude of the crime and the wealth
of the criminal.

As to the exposure of new-born infants, it has been tolerated
only under circumstances which compromised the safety of the
state: it has never been expressly permitted: it would be even
punished, if the fathers, whose extreme poverty dictates such bar-
barous sacrifices, did not elude the vigilance of the magistrates.

Let us not judge the Chinese according to our learned opi-
nions and refined abstractions: the former keep within bounds,
they cid not fall into error from going too far; but we, audacious
reasoners, sometimes leave truth behind to run after brilliant
theories.

* Such at least is the spirit of the institutions and regime of China.

Z4 In

360 Memoir upon the Causes of the long Duration

In the privileged regions where the human mind is developed
in force, in penetration, in extent, and where the imagination is
inflamed by that cieative fire which is called genius, man, by a
fatal compensation, wanders in the wildest paths of error, and
precipitates himself into the most humiliating excesses. It is
there that in one and the same head are united a strong wit and
a timid soul, boldness of thought and humble credulity: it is
there that man is to himself an inexplicable phenomenon of
oppositions and contrasts; it is there that Bossuet armed him-
self with the most profound dialectics to combat mere chimeras,
that Pascal fixed the language extended the domains of science,
and dug for himself a hell ;—and it is there that the genius of
Newton fell from the throne of the universe, repenting that he
was seated there. It is in short upon this theatre of Europe,
where Nature has so often crowned the sage who has surprised
her at work, and the artist who knows how to imitate her,—upon
this theatre covered with the trophies of genius, that genius too
often creates false doctrines for ardent heads, and wanders far
from the object of civil and religious sociability.

This balance of good and evil, which genius produces, is un-
known, and will always be, in Southern Asia. The supersti-
tions of the first ages are there at psesent civilized, and, if I may
be allowed the expression, identified with the manners and
usages. China is peopled with fantastic beings, with good and
evil genii, because there must be in all places where men exist,
fables and bonzes ; and the bonzes must have riches and power *.

The Chinese have also their golden age, their deluge, and their
Bacchus ; they have revelations, mysteries, and prophets ; but
these errors are only the playthings of an infant people: super-
intended by the government, respected by learning itself, in China
they kindle no civil wars, nor priestly quarrels. The word 27-
tolerance is no more in their language than is the idea expressed

* The constant serenity of their atmosphere invited the first people of
India, those of Chaldea and Egypt, to observe the stars and their relation”
to the earth, But these very people, whom frequent catastruphes in the
infancy of the world inspired with terror, soon interrogated the heavens
instead of obserying them. The chiefs of the nations could at their plea-
sure make the gods speak, and the priests arrogated to themselves an ex-
clusive and mysterious science. But latterly astronomy has bauished from
its noble domains the vain formule of astrology. Among all civilized
nations the celestial phenomena are explained by the laws of nature.
Among the Chinese alone, the art of reading the destiny of men in the
heavens, retains its empire. Their intelligence refuses to keep pace with
the progressive improvement of the human mind. ‘The government has
collected some fruits from the missionaries, but these fruits have not spread
among the great mass of the people. The astronomical observations of the
Chinese, however, go back to the year 1122 before our zra,

by

of the Chinese Empire. 361

by it in their minds. When in the heart of their peaceful em-
pire the Jesuits and the Dominicans accused each other of heresy
and impiety, the Chinese did not see two parties animated with
a false zeal for the new religion ; but these monks appeared to
them as dangerous fools, or political agitators from whom the
state must be freed. Such men, in fact, would have long braved
the influence of the climate and every other influence. The
Jesuits wrought with a profound and crafty policy, flattered the
confident credulity of the prince, and humanely twisted the divine
word to accommodate it to the prejudices of a people who were
slaves to their habitudes. The Dominicans, energetic preachers,
as if they still pursued from town to town, and from province to
province, the heretics, armed themseivés with all the arguments
of the schools, proclaimed a holy war, and resolved upon the
overthrow of China, rather than suffer the smallest departure
from the doctrine which tliey were sent to propagate *.

The cause of the line of conduct pursued by the Chinese
government on this occasion was the natural moderation of the
minds of the people. Neither the interests of earth nor of heaven
could inflame them to enthusiasm, and far less to religious fana-
ticism; a blifid passion which absorbs every other sentiment,
which courts darkness, which combats peace as well as light,
and becomes more insatiate the more its appetites are fed. The
dreadful reign of fanaticism has covered with ruins the states
which are embellished by the arts and sciences, which thus have
had to fight their way against intclerance and envy.

Fanaticism has made Europe for several centuries, and even
since the revival of letters, the theatre of the most sanguinary
wars, and of the most scandalous impieties. Extending its ravages
with its doctrines, it has deluged a new hemisphere in the blood
of its inhabitants. In China, on the contrary, the unity of
thoughts and desires, the consequence-of a limited intelligence,
perpetuates, without any obstacle, union, peace, and happiness,
And why? Because there reigns an admirable intelligence be-
‘tween nature and the social institutions ; because good sense is
the wit of the Chinese, and common utility the object of their
industry; hecause the serenity of the air stifles every germ of cu-
riosity; ambition, and heroism; because, in short, every thing
there is stationary, both men and things, so that the government
of China appears seated on the throne of Time.

* Tt results from my opinion as to the influence of climate and the in-
telligence of the Chinese, that they would have derived but feeble advan-
tayes from the settlement of our learned missionaries in their empire. But
it is presumable that the people of Europe would bave derived great bene-

fits both with respect to the arts and commerce as well as with respect to
the natural sciences,

‘ If

362 Memoir upon the long Duration of the Chinese Empire.

If the fables which charm the vulgar in China could have filled
their brains with fanaticism; if the reason of the Chinese had
been so far deranged as to pretend that the worship of the
bonzes ‘is the only one which is agreeable to the divinity, and
that the Father of mankind has chosen the emperor of China
to convert all the world, or to cut their throats; Asia would
have been burnt many centuries before fanaticism carried fire
and sword to the innocent cities of the Incas. Ere the Euro-
peans were in political existence, the Chinese had discovered the
composition of gunpowder, which we have converted into a
weapon of death ; whereas in China it is only used to give éclat
and solemnity to public rejoicings.

It is equally well ascertained that the Chinese invented printing
many centuries before Germany attributed the honour of this dis-
covery to herself, and that they confined the use of it to trans-
mit from age to age the lives of the sovereigns, and the annals of
the empire.

Printing, on the contrary, was scarcely known in Europe, than
it opened all the schools to the most frivolous disputes. Down
to the 17th century it was less serviceable to letters than to the
propagation of lies and errors.

Thus all the secondary causes of the duration of the govern-
ment of China bring us back to the primary cause of this sin-
gular phenomenon, the influence of climate. This influence,
which equally affeets the moral and physical powers, marks limits
to the latter, which the Chinese neither have the power nor the
wish to exceed. Their minds are constantly directed to what
is useful, and there remain fixed; experience is their guide,
good sense their companion, and they never desire a better con
dition. They can conceive none preferable to their mild state
of servitude. Of all our opinions, that which would astonish
them most, even their learned men, is our opinion as to the dig-
nity of man, his honour, and liberty. With sound ways of
thinking, the Chinese therefore never experience violent passions;
their tastes, wants, and institutions bear the impression of uni-
formity, and of a succession of ages, which the authentic history
of the empire has not been able fully to describe.

India presents a far different spectacle to the traveller, who
cannot take one step in this ancient and primitive country with-
out recognising the fatal effects of the revolutions which it has
undergone-since the people of Europe began to dispute for it as
their prey. A single people now holds it in the most complete
subjection. A merchant born on the banks of the Thames im-
poses tributes on the Indian princes; and their thrones have
been levelled perhaps by a tradesman, who dees not know how
to manage any thing but a counting-house,

' AR

Influence of atmospheric Moisture on an electric Column. 363

In this rich portion of the globe, the inhabitants of which were
civilized and learned when Europe could scarcely boast of a few
market towns, traditions are lost, recollections effaced, and we
can only grope our way through ‘heaps of ruins. And whence
comes this difference in the destiny of India and China? The
one country has been able to insulate itself and to maintain its
independence ; while the other, on all sides accessible to naviga-
tors and to Asiatic conquerors, has only changed masters since
the days of Alexander, and striven without effect against the
tyranny and cupidity of its conquerors.

It results from all that I have said, that the climate of China
has given birth to its institutions, and its geographical situation
to its independence ; that the influence of the climate is the pri-
mary cause; its isolation the preserving principle of its manners,
laws, usages ; and that we ought to refer to their combined ef-
fects the duration of the empire, and the longevity of its institu-
tions, of which it offers the only example. '

LXXVI. Influence of atmospheric Moisture on an electric
Column composed of Discs of Zine and Silver. By Mr.
Tuomas How .py, of Hereford,

Hereford, May 17, 1814.
Srrs,— Aurnoven the experiments described in my former

communication * fully demonstrated the influence of atmospherie
moisture on the action of an electric column; yet, as the actual
passage of the electric fluid over its exterior surface from the
zine extremity of the column to its opposite, was rather inferred
from those experiments than directly proved by them, I must
request you to insert (if this does not arrive too late) in the next
number of your Journal the following experiments, which deci-
sively establish that fact.

Experiment 1.—The positive extremity of the column was
insulated, and the negative was made to communicate with the
ground. The eap of a gold-leaf electrometer being brought in
contact with the surface of the glass tube near to ‘the positive
extremity of the column, was left in that position for about two
minutes; the leaves of the electrometer attained in that time
a divergence of ! of an inch; the electrometer being withdrawn,
the leaves still kept their divergence ; 3 their electricity was po-
sitive,

Exp. 2.—The cap of the electrometer was placed in contact
with the glass tube at an equal distance from each extremity of
the column. The leaves gradually opened to the same extent
as in Experiment 1. with the same kind of electricity; the elec-

* Page 241 of this volume,
trometer

364 On Electricity.

trometer being withdrawn, the leaves still retained their diver-
gence.

Exp. 3.—The electrometer was placed in contact with the
glass tube near to the negative extremity of the column. The
results were precisely the same as in the two preceding experi-
ments, except that in this the divergence of the leaves was less
than in those.

Exp. 4.—The electrometer was now put in contact with the
waxed end of the glass tube next to the brass mounting at the
positive extremity of the column. Ina few seconds the leaves
just separated with positive electricity, but the electrometer be-
ing withdraw n, they closed. As the teaves were thus found to
be. only influentially affected,the electrometer was replaced in its
position ; and after the space of a few minutes the leaves di-
verged something more than { of an inch: the electrometet
being withdrawn, the leaves remained positively electrified.

Exp. 5.—The electricity of the waxed end of the tube next
to the brass mounting at the negative extremity of the column
was next ascertained. The leaves at first were only influentially
affected ; but after the contact had been continued for several
minutes, they remained positively electrified.

Exp. 6.—The negative extremity of the column was now in-
sulated as well as the positive. The same places of the column
were examined as before, and the results were similar to the
preceding ; the only difference being that the divergence of the
leaves was much less than in the former instances.

Exp. 7.—The column was now taken and exposed to the
fire for about three minutes, in order to dissipate all the mois ure
from its surface; it was then placed as in Experiment 1. and
the electrometer applied to the different points in the manner
already described. The kind of electricity found at each point
was as before positive ; and now in no instance was any electri-
city communicated to the leaves, which diverged only while the
electrometer was in contact with the column ; their divergence

was very small. I am, gentlemen,
Your obedient and obliged servant,
To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch. Tuomas. How.tpy.

LXXVII. On Electricity: in Answer to Mr. Sinczr’s Re-
marks. By Ez. WALKER, Esq.
; Lynn, May 18, 1814.
Sirs, — Ma. Stncer ‘still maintains that I have fallen into
error, in my experiments on inducted electricity, and has ad-
vanced three statements to prove it*.

* Phil. Mag. vol. xlili, p, 20.
The

On Electricity. wi) 366

The first consists of a reprint of a paragraph from one of his
former papers*, which contains nothing but Mr. Singer’s po-
sitive assertions. Mr. S. then adds, ‘‘ these are facts, which
the constant repetition of such experiments professionally en-
ables me to state with confidence.”

But philosophical statements must be demonstrated, either
mathematically, physically, or experimentally, ere they can be
received as facts. For, as the bare word of Newton would never
be taken on a philosophical subject without a demonstration,
consequently the assertions of Mr. 8, cannot be admitted on
any other terms,

Secondly, Mr. Singer says, ‘ the statement in the preceding
paragraph may be verified in a few minutes by any one suth-
ciently acquainted with the practice of electricity to make the
experiments with due accuracy; and I lelteve it not only ad-
duces a fact in proof of Mr. Walker’s error, but offers the re-
quisite information to show him its cause.”

But the word lLelief is very objectionable, although it is the
foundation on which Mr. S, builds his statement. The geome-
tricians have not suffered this word to stain their pages once in
2000 years: and the experimental philosophers have, long ago,
blotted it out of all their demonstrations.

Had Mr. S. understood the true meaning of this word, he
_would not have used it in the sense he has done, He has ad-
vanced it as a sound argument against my experiments ;_ but will
he admit it as an argument against himself? Let us try the ex-
periment. If any one should say he Jelieved that Mr. S.is a
very superficial reasoner, it is ten to one that Mr. S. would ad-
mit the word belief, in this case, as a demonstration of the
weakness of mental faculties. And if he will not admit this
word as an argument against himself, he ought not to have used
it against my experiments.

And thirdly, Mr. S. observes, “independent of this cireum-
stance, it is amusing to find an individual so confident of the
infallibility of his own observations, as to consider them suffi-
cient to subvert the experience of Canton, Franklin, Wilke,
fpinus, Cavallo, Stanhope, and Robison.

Whether Mr. S. intended this last statement as a specimen of
his wit, or of his reasoning, | know not. But as Mr. S. will
not, I presume, be offended at my mentioning the name of a
great astrouomer on the same page with his own, let it, there-
fore, be supposed that Mr, Singer had lived in the days of Co-
pernicus—Mr, Singer might then have said, that “ it was very
amusing to find an individual so confident of the infallibility of
his own observations, as to consider them sufficient’? to prove

* Phil. Mag. vol. xlii. p. 264,
“ that

366 Process for preserving the Canvass in Oil Paintings.

that the earth moved round the sun,—when all the world he-
lieved that it was stationary.
I am, gentlemen, ;
Your obedient servant,

Ez. WALKER.
To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

LXXVIII. Process for preserving the Canvass in Oil Paintings,
and repairing Defects therein. By Mr. Cuar.es Witson,
Worcester-Street, Borough*.

Ist. Separate the canvass from the pannel, or straining
frame, and lay it on a smooth table, with the painting down-
wards, and nail it securely. !

2d. Take a piece of tin foil, larger than the canvass, place it
on avery smooth table, and make the tin foil as smooth as possi-
ble with your hand. Then melt some Salisbury glue, in the same
manner as for cabinet-makers’ use.

3d. Warm the tinfoil before the fire, and lay it again on the
table, then wash it over with the glue, and place it on the back
of the canvass, secured as above, as quick as possible ; smooth it
perfectly with the hand, and let it remain in a warm room to dry.

4th. To repair the cracks of the canvass, in an old oil painting,
lay it on a very smooth table, the subject downwards; then, with
a brush or fine linen, cover the canvass with some melted white
wax, and, with a warm flat smoothing iron, rub over the wax,
and press it hard, which will draw the colours up to the canvass.

5th. To varnish the painting, clean the picture well, take some
white wax, and spirits of turpentine, with a small quantity of
linseed oil and sugar of lead; melt them over the fire, dip a fine
linen rag therein, with which wash your painting ; then, with a
fine linen rag, rub over the varnish till it begins to be polished ;
let it remain till next day, and then rub it over with a fine waxed
cloth, and afterwards with a soft linen cloth, using them alter-
nately, by which means the painting will receive a very fine po-
lish.

By the above means, the cracks and small holes in old paintings
may be closed and repaired, and a coat of tin fail may be after-
wards glued on the back of the canvass, as above mentioned.

A foot square of the tin foil costs about sixpence; when
wanted of a larger size it will cost considerably more in propor-
tion. It may be procured in sheets of three or four feet if wanted.

* From Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &¢. for
1813.—The Society voted ten guineas to Mr, Wilson for this communica-
tion.

LXXIX. Ez-

SBP]

LXXIX. Experiment on Respiration which had nearly proved
fatal.— Beneficial Effects of Oxygen Gas in restoring sus-
pended Animation. By Samuzt Wirter, Esq. Dublin,

Dublin, May 17, 1814.
Sirs, —Tue following case, which occurred very lately in the

laboratory of the Dublin Society, having excited no small degree
of interest in this city, I am induced to transmit you a brief
detail, in hopes it may prove both interesting and useful to many
of your readers, convinced that every communication tending
towards the enlargement ef our knowledge in this regard may
ultimately produce the most beneficial effects.

When a mixture of carbonate of lime and zinc, or iron filings,
is exposed to an intense heat, the peculiar gaseous substance
named carbonic oxide is disengaged, which has been stated to
bear the same relation to carbonic acid that nitrous gas does to
nitric acid. But agreeably to the striking observations of Mr.
Higgins, professor of chemistry to the Dublin Society, in his
work recently published, wherein his claim to the discovery of
the atomic system is unequivocally established, it would appear
that, in the combination of oxygen with different bases, it is the
atom of oxygen only that is found multiplied, as is beautifully
exemplified in all the metallic oxides, acids, and gases, An ap-
parent anomaly has been noticed with respect to nitrous oxide,
which the experiments of Mr. Higgins on the composition of
nitrous gas tend to obviate, and sanction a comparison of the
proportions of carbon and oxygen in carbonic oxide with those
of azote and oxygen in nitrous oxide, rather than the atomic
coincidence of carbonic oxide and nitrous gas. Carbonic oxide
was discovered and described by Mr. Cruickshank in 1801 ; it is
highly combustible, burning with a fine blue flame, but is utterly’
incapable of supporting animal life?

The diversified experiments of Sir H. Davy on the respiration
of nitrous oxide and some other gases, so interestingly described
in his scientific researches in 1800, in a great measure dissipated
the general apprehensions of fatality resulting from the inhala-
tion of compound gases, and satisfactorily demonstrated that
many of the aérial fluids, before considered as destructive to vi-
tality, might he breathed with perfect safety.

Desirous of witnessing the progressive effects of carbonic oxide
when freely respired, with a view to comparative analogy in rey
ference to nitrous oxide, I was tempted a few days ago to inhale
a portion of it as copiously as possible. The consequence had
very nearly proved fatal to me. A considerable quantity of the
gas having been carefully prepared by Mr. S. Wharmby, the very

. ingenious

368 Experiment on Respiration which had nearly proved fatal.

ingenious and able assistant to Mr. Professor Higgins, a series of
experiments on its respiration were proposed. Mr, Wharmby
first noticed some points of resemblance it bore to the nitrous
oxide, particularly the singularly sweetish taste, and, having made
two or three inspirations, was seized with a degree of convulsive
tremor and giddiness that nearly overpowered sensibility. These
violent effects were but transient, though considerable languor,
head-ache, and debility, remained for many hours’ afterwards.
Anxious to pursue the experiment still further, I next made
three or four hearty inspirations of the gas, having first exhausted
my lungs of common air as completely as possible. The effects
were an inconceivably sudden deprivation of sense and volition.
I fell supine and motionless on the floor, and continued in a state
of total insensibility for nearly half an hour, apparently lifeless,
pulsation being nearly extinct. Several medical gentlemen being
present, various means were employed for my restoration, with-
out. success ; when the introduction of oxygen: gas by com-
pression into the hings was suggested, the effects of which may
be fairly contrasted with those of the carbonic oxide. A very ra-
pid return of animation ensued, though accompanied by convul-
sive agitations, excessive head-ache, and quick irregular pulsation,
and, for some time after mental recovery, total blindness, ex-
treme sickness and vertigo, with alternations of heat and shiver-
ing Gold, were painfully experienced. These unfavourable spasms
were succeeded by an unconquerahle propensity to sleep, which,
as might be expected, was broken and feverish. An emetic of
tartarised antimony finally removed these alarming symptoms,
and the only unpleasant effects felt on the ensuing day were those
occasioned by the fall.

{ very much regret that the confusion arising from the idea of
my death, so disturbed the arrangement that no accurate deter-
mination could afterwards be made, either of the quantity of gas
respired, or the change it underwent in the process; and the ex-
periment is rather too hazardous for repetition. Nevertheless,
the extraordinary efficacy of oxygen gas in cases of suspended
animation produced by carbonic acid, choke damps, and other
suffocating gases, is fairly deducible, and, I conceive, cannot be
too forcibly recommended to the faculty, in such instanceg. |
therefore sincerely hope that the results of this experiment may
be of practical utility in those cases, which are so frequently occur-
ring, and are often so awfully fatal; it being the decided opinion of
the professional gentlemen present on this occasion, that the free
use of the oxygen gas was solely instrumental in restoring me to life.

Mr. Higgins himself had nearly once fallen a victim to a similar
experiment with sulphuretted hydrogen, the effects of wie

alter

Case of Retention of Urine successfully treated. 369

after recovering from a death-like insensibility, were painful and
oppressive for many days.
I am your obedient servant,
SAMUEL WITTER.
To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

LXXX. Case of Retention of Urine successfully treated by
puncturing the Bladder. By Jonn Taunton, Esq., Sur-
geon to the City and Finsbury Dispensaries, and to the City
of London Truss Society for the Relief of the ruptured
Poor, Gc, Se.

amie] ou Jones, aged 67, a brass turner by trade, a stout
muscular man, his general health extremely good, with the ex-
ception of an ulcerated leg for the last twenty years, and during the
last eight or ten hydrocele on one side and hernia on the other.
For the last twelve months also he has experienced some diffi-
culty in voiding his urine, which came away in small quantities
at a time, and with frequent calls. On July 7, 1813, after a
hearty dinner he sat ap hour or two in the open air, during which
time he «was attacked by violent pain in the abdomen, with
purging. These symptoms continued all night, and his urine
came away in drops without any effort. On the 8th he was ad-
mitted a patient of the Finsbury Disvensary.—-The abdomen was
hard, swelled, and painiul; and there was a considerable degree
of fever attended with thirst: the purging 2lso continued. The
leg, which had been much inflamed for the last three months, is
now better. An anodyne tomentation and some powdered rhu-
barb were prescribed for him by the physician who visited him
till the 13th ; and during the interval aperient fomentations, &c.
were resorted to with a view to relieve the complaint in the
bowels and general disorder of the constitution. On the [3th
Mr. Taunton was requested to see him, on account of the stilli-
cidium urine which had existed from the beginning of the attack.
He found him with quick weak pulse, brown tongue, violent pain
in the region of the bladder, which was distended, forming a
tumour reaching above the umbilicus: the urine was dribbling
away involuntarily. The catheter was introduced, but could
not be passed beyond the neck of the bladder. The smallest
gum catheters were also tried without effect. Continuata foment.

14th. The bladder reaches still higher up: the catheter again
attempted, but in vain; other symptoms the same. Punc-
turing above the pubis was determined on, and consented to
by the patient. Upon going to perform the operation at three
o’clock, it was found that a considerable quantity of urine had
come away involuntarily and almost in a stream, and the patient

Vol, 48, No. 193, May 1814, Aa would

370 Case of Retention of Urine successfully treated.

would not now consent to the operation. Nor was it urged, a¢
the bladder was greatly reduced in size. The tongue was still
brown, and the other bad symptoms continued. 15th. The
patient was nearly in the same state: stillicidium constant.
16th. The tumour formed by the bladder is more prominent and
circumscribed ; reaches about two inches above the umbilicus :
in other respects the same :—pain decreased. The operation
was now performed, and between two and three quarts of urine
were taken away; it was not grumous, nor materially altered
from that of a healthy person. During the operation the pulse
fell, but soon regained its strength. A long elastic catheter was
left in the wound, and properly secured. A cordial mixture was
prescribed. In the evening the bougie used as a stilette was
withdrawn, and the urine evacuated: no pain on pressure on the ab-
domen, which was soft, and the tongue clean. 18th. The urine
escapes by the side of the catheter, but is not effused into the cel-
lular membrane ; adhesive inflammation was visible round the
wound. The urine flows involuntarily, but he feels easy. He took
broth yesterday: the tongue was clean, the pulse was stronger
and slower. 19th and 20th. A slight blush of inflammation im-
mediately around the wound: no pain experienced on pressure.
21st. Has felt pain in the night, seemingly from a temporary ob-
struction to the flow of urine,which was secon evacuated, and the
pain went off. 22d. The catheter escaped during the night; but
the urine flows freely from the orifice, and he continues to gain
strength. From this period to August 28th convalescent. The
passage of a small bougie has been attempted two or three times
without success. ‘The patient complains of considerable pain in
the urethra, which prevents his sleeping without opiates ; and he
takes a grain of opium every night. He walks out, and his spirits
are better. September ,10th. The quantity of urine discharged by
the urethra has sensibly increased, until it all comes away by that
channel. The openiug had closed a few days before, but it broke
out when straining at stool; he does not know whether any urine
escaped or not, but nothing comes from it at present. 17th. Much
in the same state ; complains of soreness where the puncture was
made, and a little matter oozes from it ; a considerable quantity
of urine came through on the 13th and 14th. From this time
he gradually recovered, and was discharged cured the beginning
of November, since which he has not had any return of the com-
plaint.

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch. Joun Taunton,

4

)

LXXXI, Some

‘Bae hey

LXXXI. Some Particulars of the Life of Count Boveatn-
VILLE, the French Circumnavigator. By M. DELaMBRE,
Secretary to the French Institute*.

Rous ANTONY DE BoUGAINVILLE was.born at Paris on the
11th of November, 1729. He was the son of a notary at Paris, and
-descended from an ancient family in Picardy.

A celebrated navigator, a general officer, member of the Aca-
demy of Sciences, of the Institute, and of the Board of Longitude,
were so many titles which he owed to his own merit, and which
were the recompense of a long series of illustrious actions.

While at college he was distinguished by an ardent desire for
knowledge. His professor one day was explaining the phases of
the moon, and its various positions: in order to impress his ideas

on the memory of his auditors, he quoted two Latin verses to -

them. Young Bougainville was bold enough to consider them
as of an inferior kind; and being challenged to make better, he
answered almost instantly by four verses more accurate, more in-
structive, and more poetical, than the distich which he had cri-
ticised.

On leaving college he was admitted an advocate in the Par-
liament, by desire of his father; but in order to indulge his own
inclination he inrolled himself in the musqueteers. Chance made
him a neighbour to Clairaut and d’Alembert, and he attached
himself warmly to these two geometricians; he visited them
often, profited by their conversation and writings, and at the age
of 25 he produced the first part of his Integral Calculus, to serve
as a continuation of De ’ Hépital’s Infinitesimals. With that can-
dour which was always one of the most striking traits in his cha-
racter, he declared in his preface, that nothing in the whole work
was his own, but the arrangement which he had endeavoured to
give it. The committee of the Academy, however, attested that by
explaining the methods of the various geometricians, he had made
them his own by the clearness and intelligence with which he
elucidated them. In addition to this flattering testimony he
found also another recompense in the certainty of being useful
to young geometricians, who were greatly in want of guides to
enable them to penetrate into this hitherto obscure branch of the
mathematical science.

In 1755 he was made a major, and visited London as secre-
tary of the embassy, where he was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society. Next year he followed General Montcalm to Canada,
with the title of captain of dragoons. And as a proof that so
many and various functions did not make him neglect the sciences,

* Magazin Encyclopédique 1813, p. $15.
Aa 2 before

372 Some Particulars of the Life of

“before he embarked for America he put to press the second part
of his integral Calculus, having requested Bezout to read the
proof sheets in his absence.

Immediately ou his arrival in America he marched at the head
of a detachment amidst ice and snow, and through almost im-
penetrai le forests, to the extremity of Lake Sacrament, where he
burnt an English flotilla under the guns of the fort which pro-
tected it.

In 1758 a detachment of 5000 French troops was ‘pursued se-
veral d:ys by an army of 24,000 English. Bougainville inspired
his feilow soldiers with resolution to wait for the enemy: they
hastily fortified their position in less than 24 hours, and com-
pelled the English to fall back with a loss of 6000 men. Bou-
gainville was wounded on this occasion in the head by a musket
ball. The French governor despaired, however, of saving the
colony, if he did not receive reimforcements from home. Bou>
gainville was sent to France to solicit them, and he returned with
the rank of colonel and the cross of St, Louis, granted before the
usual time in consequence of his brilliant services. Montcalm
placed him at the head of the grenadiers and volunteers, to cover
the retreat of the army which was forced to fall back on Que-
bec. He performed this important service with his usual intre-
pidity and skill. The death of the general hastened the loss of
the colony ; and Bougainville returned to France. He then fol-
lowed M. Choiseul de Stainville into Germany, where he again
signalized himself, and his bravery was rewarded with the gift of
two pieces of brass cannon. The peace deprived him of further
opportunities of distinguishing himself as a soldier, but it did not
lessen his activity. We have seen him as a geometrician, a war-
rior, and a negotiator. We shall now view him as the founder
of a colony.

His various visits to America had made him acquainted with
the merchants and shipowners of St. Maloes. A vessel which -
left that port at the commencement of last century had anchored
on the south-east shores of a group of islands visited by the En-
glish, who had called them at first Virginia and Hawkins’s Islands,
but now the Falkland Islands. The favourable situation of these
islands gave rise to the idea of forming an establishment there.
The French court took up the idea in 1763, and Bougainville
offered to commence it at,his own expense. In concert with
two of his relatives he fitted out two ships at St. Maloes, and
embarked some families, with whom he reached the islands called
the Malouines on the 3d of April 1764. They were inhabited ; but
no violence and no injustice attended his occupation of them.
An abundant fishery, birds which at first permitted themselves
to he taken with the hand, secured the means of subsistence ;

but

Count Bougainville, the French Circumnavigator. 373

but no wood for: fuel or erecting houses was to be procured.
Rose bushes and excellent rich grass were found in abundance.
The foundations of a fort were laid, and the walls were raised of
earth. Bougainville set the example, and all the colonists took
part in their erection: in the centre of the fort an obelisk was
raised, and the hemistich “ Tibi serviat ultima Thule’? was in-
scribed under a portrait of the French king: another inscription
exhibited the lin@ in Horace, “ Conamur tenues grandia.”
When these first labours were over, Bougainville returned to
France, leaving the government of the infant colony to one of
his relations. Next year he returned with a supply of provisions
and new inhabitants. An excursion to the Straits of Magellan
procured him wood for the purposes of building, and ten thou-
sand young forest-and fruit-trees. An alliance was concluded with
the Patagonians; most kinds of the grain cultivated in Europe were
naturalized, and cultivated with success: the multiplication of
the cattle was a matter of certainty, and the number of the in-
habitants rapidly increased from 80 to 150. But these acquisi-
tions did not satisfy the active mind of the founder. They had
alarmed the Spaniards, however, and complaints had been made
by them to the French government. Bougainville was finally
ordered to déliver up his possession, and the court of Spain agreed
to pay him for his works, and to refund his expenditure. As a
further consolation, the court of France appointed him to make
a voyage round the world. The command of the frigate la Bou-
deuse was given him, and the store-ship E/foile was ordered to
join him. ‘The naturalist Commercon and the astronomer Ve-
ron were embarked with him, at his request, to examine the new
methods of finding the longitude.

It was on the third of May 1765 that Bougainville surren-
dered to the Spaniards the colony, which had been scarcely two
years in existence, and of which he foresaw the speedy destruc-
tion; he regretted in particular the loss of an observatory which
he wished to build there, and which from its position of 51° south
latitude must have been an useful addition to the great observa-
tories of Europe. While preparing to quit the island he saw a
comet for several days, which had ceased to be visible in Europe.
It was the second comet of 1766; and Pingré, who has care-
fully collected all the observations made of it at the Isle of France,
seems to have been ignorant that it was mentioned in Bougain-
ville’s Voyage round the World.

Sinee his projects were overthrown his island became of a se-
condary interest to him: all his thoughts were turned to the
brilliant expedition which he was about to undertake; but the
store-ship which was to join him with provisions not having ar-
rived, he thought that some obstacle must have occurred to pre-

Aa3 vent

374 Some Particulars of the Life of

vent her making the Malouines, and he proceeded to Monte Vi-
deo in quest of her. He resolved to take a range which could
not be less than 800 leagues, and which was in fact 1200; for
he must necessarily return and pass almost within sight of the
Malouines, in order to penetrate inte the Pacific Ocean through
the Straits of Magellan. Scarcely had he arrived at Buenos
Ayres when he witnessed the seizure of the Jesuits of Paraguay.
He speaks like a man free from prejudice, ‘and impartially re-
lates every thing which can be urged in favour of the order ; nor
does he withhold the reproaches which it merits.

Seven months after his departure he found himself not far
from the Malouines, opposite Cape Virgins at the entrance of
Magellan’s Straits. Here, by solar and lunar distances observed,
he again determined the longitude, and ascertained the situation
of the ship.

The passage of the straits was dangerous: thick fogs and im-
petuous winds compelled them to bring-to, and to take sound-
ings incessantly, and the current frequently forced them further
back than they had advanced. The fires kindled by the Pata-
gonians assisted our navigators in making the land. They were
well received by the natives, and Bougainville always retained a
grateful sense of their hindness: This interview impressed him
with a better opinion of their dispositions than he had formerly
entertained. Here his discoveries commenced. The names given
to the islands, bays, and straits in these latitudes are so many
monuments of the exertions of the French for the advancement
of science: but an unpropitious sky rendered almost useless the
labours of the astronomer Veron, in the island which was called
LT’ Observatoire.

Storms accompanied our -voyagers until they left the straits.
This passage, which Bougainville estimates at 132 leagues, oc-
cupied 52 days of a laborious navigation, which however did not
affect the health of the crew, for on entering the Pacific Ocean
no person was on the sick list. The navigation then became
easier and more interesting: discoveries were made daily. To
some of these Bougainville gave names, and of this description
are the Quatre Facardins and the Boudoir. He perceived the
latter island two days before reaching Taiti, (Otaheite). The
necessity for coming to an anchor was then felt, and it would
have been difficult to have found a more hospitable shore,

The anchorage, however, was unsafe, fer it cost them six an-
chors in nine days.

What contributed greatly to the interest of this visit was the
resolution of a young Otaheitean to come to Europe with our
voyagers. He was named Aotourou; but was better known as
Poutaveri, being his pronunciation of the name of his friend Bou-

gainville.

Count Bougainville, the French Circumnavigator. 375

gainville. This young man amused them muchduring the voyage:
it was remarked that he gave names in his own language to the
most brilliant of the stars, and he had made several voyages to
the neighbouring islands, the positions of which and the manners
of the inhabitants he described as well as he could. Aotourou
remained eleven months at Paris. The desire to see him was
great, and his patron neglected no means of making his stay in
France agreeable. * Aotourou repaid these attentions with the
warmest gratitude, and by leaving a collection of anecdotes,
which would have been always read with much pleasure if M. de
Bougainville had introduced them into the account of his voyage.
Nothing was omitted to secure his return to his native island in
a respectable manner. The mest costly presents were made him,
and a sum of 36,000 livres was given him by Bougainville out of his
own pocket. He was received with great attention at the Isle of
France; and Capt. Marion, who was to convey him to Otaheite,
also took the most particular care of him. He died of the small-
pox, however, during the voyage. The same fate had befallen
two other islanders who left Otaheite with an English captain,
eight months before Bougainville.

After leaving this island, the voyage for a long time presented
nothing interesting. The dangers which they met with alone
interrupted the monotony of their nautical observations; and the
most dreadful of all evils, famine, stared them in the face. The
rations were reduced, the route was changed, and they renounced
all attempts at discovering a passage which was long suspected
to exist. The glory of this discovery was reserved for Captain
Cook, who fell in with it most fortunately when his vessel was
on the point of being lost. A similar danger awaited Bougain-
ville, if the want of provisions had not compelled him to abandon
the project. They escaped at length; a cape received the name
of Cape Deliverance, but the scurvy now began to commit ra-
vages among the crew. Fortunately a passage was found through
the Papon Isles, and they entered the sea of Molucca. Bourou
presented a most delicious anchorage, where, notwithstanding
strict orders to exclude every foreign vessel, the resident per-
mitted them to rest after so many fatigues. Aotourou, trans-
ported with joy at the sight of so many objects, asked if Paris
was as fine as Bourou; but his admiration was soon checked at
the sight of the numerous diseased inhabitants contained in Ba-
tavia, to which he gave the appellation of Enowa mati—Land
which kills.

From Batavia the ships proceeded to the Isle of France, from
thence to the Cape of Good Hope, and subsequently to St. Ma-
loes, where they arrived on the 16th of March 1769, after a

Aad voyage

A. -

376 ' Some Particulars of the Life of »

voyage of two years and four months, and the loss’ of only seven
men out of more than 200.

This exvedition justly placed Bougainville in the rank of the
greatest seamen of his day, and yet it was ia some measure his
apprenticeship only. The account which he gave of it was read
with avidity, and afterwards translated by Mr. Foster; for in a se-
cond edition, which he published in 1772, he answers some re-
marks of his. translator. His style is simple and natural: he
there exhibits his character, his intrepidity, his contempt for
danger, and his penchant for pleasantry ; his goodness of heart,
and the gaiety with which he contrived always to enforce subor-
dination, and yet to provide for the enjoyments of his crew as
much as for their health.

It has been truly observed, that the geographical charts and
determinations, with the exception of the latitudes, are the weakest
parts of the work. But it is fair also to remark that he made a
voyage of discovery, and not one of mere reconnoissance ; that
dreadful weather rendered all his astronomical attempts useless ;
that the science of the longitude was in its infancy; that the
tables of the moon were not yet brought to the point of perfec-
tion at which they now are; that navigators then had none of
the assistance which is lavished upon them at present ; that they
were still unacquainted with calculations; and that Bougainville
was the first Frenchman who took an astronomer with ‘him to
profit by his observations.

Upon his return, France was at peace. A wandering and
agitated life had blunted his taste for the mathematics, and he
gave himself up to enjoyments which the bustle of his early life
had not permitted him to share. His celebrity and his elegant
manner procured him admission into the-higher circles ; but his
active mind was again employed in the service of his country
when France declared for America. Under Admirals Lamothe
Piquet, D’Estaing, and De Grasse, he successively commarided
the French ships Bien-aimé, Languedoc, Guerrier, and Auguste.
At the request of D’Estaing he was appointed chef d’escadre,
and the same year he received the rank of field marshal. He
commanded the van at the memorable battle of the Chesapeake
in 1781, and beat off the English van, obtaining the honourable
testimony of Count de Grasse to his having contributed more
than any other person to the victory. On the disastrous 12th
of April, when the commander in chief was reproached with
being more occupied with the safety of his own ship than with
the squadron, and the squadron with not supporting their com-
mander in chief, Bougainville, who commanded the rear guard,
did all that could be expected of him: by a bold manceuvre he

saved

Count Bougainville, the French Circumnavigator. 377

saved the Northumberland; and although the Auguste which he
commanded was one of the most roughly handled of the whole
fleet, he collected and conducted to Saint Eustatia the remains
of the shattered squadron.

The peace which secured the independence of America re-
stored M, de Bougainville to that leisure which is so necessary
for the pursuit of the sciences. The Academy conferred upon him
the title of honorary member. M. Lagrange, whose vote he
asked, observed: ‘* To you it was that I was indebted for being
received into the Academy, since your works opened to me the
career which I pursued.”

About this period he conceived the project of tracing the icy re-
gions of the north, and penetrating to the pole. A distinguished
‘astronomer offered to accompany him, and the route was sketched.
The French ministry however did not accede to his terms, and
the Royal Society of London asked him for his plans. He
transmitted them immediately, pointing out the route which he
would take. Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, preferred
another, one also of Bougainville’s suggesting, but he could pre-
ceed no further than 80°.

When a spirit of insubordination broke out in the French
navy, and in the Brest fleet in particular, M. de Bougainville, by
his reputation, his courage and his firmness, mixed with the most
amiable qualities, seemed to be the only man capable of recalling
the seamen to their duty. But his exertions were unavailing; the
flames of jacobinism had spread too far, and he retired from the
service in disgust. In 1791 his name was put upon the list of
vice-adinirals. . This high distinction redoubled his attachment
to a prince who was abandoned by all. From the massacres of
1792 he escaped as if by miracle, and took refuge on his estate
in Normandy, where he found his two pieces of cannon the only
recompense which he had received for 40 years service.

On the restoration of order he was appointed to the Board of
Longitude; but whether he did not tiink matters sufficiently settled
or the care which it was necessary to take of his fortune prohibited
him from leaving his estate, he sent in his resignation, and was
succeeded by Count Fleurien, who afterwards resigned in favour
of M. de Borda. When the Institute was formed, M. de Bou-
gainville was nominated to a seat at the Board of Navigation
and Geography. As President of the Class of Sciences, it was his
duty to deliver to the emperor the reports of that department,
and he acquitted himself with great dignity.

As a senator his pecuniary circumstances were made perfectly
easy ; but although old age was coming on he possessed all. the
fire and vivacity of youth. He was still desirous of partaking in
some hazardous maritime enterprise ; and when his friends men-

tioned

378 On the Errors in the Nautical Almanac. :

tioned his age, he replied that Nestor was not altogether useless
in an army which boasted such heroes as Achilles, Ajax, and
Diomede. Although his temperance and sobriety were great,
and we had hoped to have him long among us, he died on the
8ist of August 1811, after a sharp illness of ten days.

He had frequently spoken to me of his intention to intrust all
his memoirs and journals to my care. This promise prevented
me in some measure from presenting myself before him when he
was in danger, and I have lost much by this reserve. Let us
hope that some more adequate person will profit by the possession
of his valuable materials.

He was an excellent father and a warm friend. Incessantly
occupied with the interests of science, he seized every oppor-
tunity of being useful to it. Frank and loyal in his disposition,
he rose in life without intrigue, and conducted himself so as to de-
serve the esteem of all parties. He left three sons equally distin-
guished with their father for zeal in the service of their country.
His place at the Institute was filled up by M. de Rossell, the
companion, continuator and editor of D’Entrecasteaux’s voyages.

LXXXI. On the Errors in the Nautical Almanac.

May 24, 1814.
Srrs,— Somz time ago the public attention was called (through
the medium of your Journal) to some errors which had appeared
in one of the Nautical Almanacs; and it was hoped that the
observations then made would have induced the editor of that
truly valuable work to have taken the requisite precautions to
prevent the recurrence of any similar complaint. It is indeed
with much regret that I now write to you, with a view of point-
ing out some very striking errors which appear on opening the
Nautical Almanac for 1816, and which ought to be corrected
as soon as possible; because a discovery of this kind very na-
turally excites a suspiciom that other parts of the work may be
equally inaccurate ; the truth or falsehood of which I have not
time to investigate at present.

To return, however, to the subject above alluded to:—In the
Introduction to the Nautical Almanac for 1816, you will find
that Septuagesima Sunday, Shrove Sunday, Midlent Sunday,
Palm Sunday, Easter Sunday, Low Sunday, Rogation Sunday,
Whit Sunday, Trinity Sunday, and Advent Sunday, are all re-
presented as happening on a Friday: thus, Easter day (which
really falls on Sunday April 14) is said to fall og Friday, March
29; Ash Wednesday is said to fall on a Monday; and Holy
Thursday on a Tuesday ! ! !

The Chronological Cycles likewise are all wrong: the ges
¢

Notices respecting New Books. 379

cal Letters should be G, F, instead of E, D; the Lunar Cycle *
should be 12 instead of 8; the Epact should be | instead of 175
the Solar Cycle should be 5 instead of 1 ; and the Roman Indic-
tion should be 4 instead of 15.

How far the other parts of the work may be correct or not, I
haye not time at present to ascertain : but as even these errors
ought to be corrected as soon as possible, and as 1 do not know
of any more ready method than by means of your widely extended
miscellany, I hope I need not apologize for troubling you with
this letter. -

I am, sir,
Your obedient servant,
Criticus.
To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

bili. pitied. y Qs et et el

LXXXII. Notices respecting New Books.

An Accaunt of Baths, and of a Madeira House at Bristol: with
a Drawiug and Description of a Pulmometer ; and Cases
showing its Utility in ascertaining the State of the Lungs ™m
Diseases of the Chest. By Epwarp Kentiso, M.D. Phy-
sician to the Bristol Dispensary and to St. Peter’s Hospital.
London, Longman and Co.

Tue author of the above treatise has had the merit of being
the first in this country to commence an establishment, which has
long been recommended by medical writers, for the relief of vale-
_ tndinarians*. His Madeira House at Bristol presents most of
the comforts which have been repeatedly suggested as attainable
in our climate, without subjecting persons of delicate or infirm
habits to the expense and risk of a distant voyage.

The first care of Dr. Kentish was to provide a suite of apart-
ments for baths, which promise to be of great service under the
superintendence of a judicious medical attendant. We shall give
the description of this part of the establishment in his own words:
€ The entrance into the baths is by folding doors, by a plait
unornamented portico, which opens opposite to the east end of
the cathedral,—a large open area, very commodious for the ac-
cess to the baths either by carriages, chairs, or on foot. The
situation is extremely convenient, easily accessible to the inha-
bitants of Bristol, and to the visitors of the Hotwells and Clifton,
who may have occasion to use the baths.

* Dr. Adams, the celebrated author of the work on Morbid Poisons,
first suggested the idea of an establishment of this kind in a letter written
while at Madeira, and inserted in the Medical Journal. Dr. Pearsou (to
whom Dr. Kentish pays a well-merited compliment) subsequently exerted
himself to introduce similar improvements in our domestic eeconomy.

‘

¢ The

380 Noiices respecting New Books. :

< The large room, in which the baths are placed, is thirty feet
long, by twenty feet wide ; the cieling is fifteen feet high ; and
the whole is lighted by a dome light from above.

** From the entrance at the portico, a few gentle and easy
steps conduct into the servants’ lobby, through which you pass
into the bath room ; this is divided by partitions, twelve feet high,
into four small chambers, the remaining area forming a sort of
waiting room,—large, well lighted, and provided with seats and
a table, where the bathers may amuse the:nselves with a book
until the bath is prepared ; or, after the use of the bath, remain
in a middle temperature previously to exposing themselves to the
air.

“ In two corners of the room there are large reservoirs ; they are
placed close up to the cieling, and are inclosed by partitions ;
they contain each about four hundred gallons, the one of hot, and
the other of cold water, which is conducted by pipes into each
of the bath rooms, terminating in the baths, which are made of
copper, and japanned in such a manner as to imitate the verd
antique marble. From each of the baths there is a waste pipe,
which carries off the water when done with in the bath ; these
unite into one common pipe, which conveys it through the water-
closets of the house. Thus the bather sees the water drawn fresh
from the reservoirs for his own use, and may see it run to waste
if he chooses. By these means the impossibility of having a bath
which has been used is complete. Adjoining one of the warm
baths there is a shower bath containing twelve gallons, which is
charged with hot or cold water at the wish of the patient. Into
this bath also are conveyed the hot or cold douches.

“€ The warm water reservoir is provided with a false bottom,
about two inches from the real one ; between these two bottoms
a current of strong steam is thrown by the means of a small
boiler placed in a room below the bath room; the water above
the false bottom absorbs the heat of the vapour, condenses it
into water, which falls back into the boiler, where it again re-
ceives a proportion of heat, and carries it back to the false bot-
tom. By this process the water becomes heated in the reser-
voir to about 100 degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer ;: it pro-
_ bably might be carried higher. This is as high as I have had it,
and is much more than an adequate heat for any purpose of
bathing. The main steam’ pipe which passes from the boiler to
the reservoir, goes through the vapour bath room, from whence
the steam is drawn in any manner which may be required ; it is
made to pass in any direction, and may be impregnated with
any substances that might be desired. The various vapour
douches, jets, and other modes of locally applying this power to
different parts of the body, are so arranged as to be under the

guidance

Notices respecting New Books. 381

guidance of the assistant. This combination of local with the
general use of thie vapour bath, is capable of producing effects,
which nothing less than having been a witness to them myself
could have induced me to believe.
<< In ease the warm reservoir should have been too freely
used, and the temperature should not be found equal to the re-
quired degree, each warm bath is provided with the-means of
being heated separately. One has a double bottom, between
which steam is conveyed, which imparts its heat to the water,
and may be thus raised to any temperature. The other warm
baths are provided with a steam pipe, which descends to the
bottem of the bath, and steam is thrown into the water, on the
same principle as Count Rumford fitted up an apparatus for
Mr. Gott of Leeds.
“The manner of heating water according to this mode of
the Count’s, is attended with several inconveniences. The
steam going into cold water, is suddenly robbed of its heat, be-
comes condensed, and forms a vacuum ; according to the quan-
tity condensed, a corresponding report is produced. If the pipeis
of three or four inches diameter, the report would be equal to the
report of a musket or pistol. Another material inconvenience is
the great vibration caused by these reiterated concussions, which in
ashort time would destroy the integrity of any machinery. To
overcome these objections, I have consulted many artists and en-
gineers, and have been at much trouble and expense in a variety
of experiments. The means I have found the most effectual to
overcome the difficulties just enumerated, is to have a small
copper pipe of three quarters of an inch diameter, conveyed
round three sides of the bottom of the bath; this pipe is to be
perforated by an infinite number of small holes, not Jarger than
the perforations made in the top of a copper watering pot; the
perforations should commence in the pipe five or six inches after
it has reached the bottom of the bath, and continue to the en-
tire end; by this means the small bubbles of steam, passing
through these small apertures, are condensed with little noise and
very trifling violence. This is a very good mode of heating
water, and very applicable to the heating of baths. The double
bottom, in many instances, is better, particularly where the ma-
terial would be injured by an addition of water: for the steamy
which is thrown in by the steam pipe, is condensed into water,
and adds considerably to the quantity of fluid in the vessel thus
heated. This is not the case with the false bottom, as the wa-
ter does not communicate with the bath, but is condensed and
collected, being pure distilled water; which is applicable to a
variety of useful purposes, for saline solutions, required in mak-
ing artificial mineral waters. From this account may be col-
lected

582 Notices respecting New Books.

fected the various combinations of power in applying heat 6¥
cold which are concentrated in this establishment. Had I stop-=
ped here, the arrangement would have been incomplete. Mo-=
dern chemistry enables us not only to decompose and recompose:
water itself, which was regarded as a simple element, but also
to analyse, and form, by artificial combinations, compounds si-
milar in every respect to the natural medicated springs, | As
this island, at all times, is wanting in some of the most powerful:
mineral waters which are only found upon the continent, and at
present even the rich of our island cannot benefit from their use,
I trust that Iam doing an acceptable service to the public, when
Tenable them to receive all the beneficial effects, without the
trouble or expense of a sea voyage, and a tedious journey amongst’
strangers in a foreign land.”

After a concise description of the most celebrated baths on
the continent, Dr. Kentish proceeds to show the analogies be-
tween the physiology of plants and animals, and treats of the ef-
fects of climate on animal and vegetable life. This leads him to
another part of his plans for the amelioration of the condition
of the infirm, viz. the Madeira House, of which he gives the
following description :

“ ] adhere to this term in my description, as it has been an-
nounced to the public in the Prospectus republished in the
first part of this Essay. The term Conservatory might be ap-
plied to it with more propriety. The intention is to have the
power, in a building or house, of regulating the temperature in
each apartment. As it might be wished to have a temperature
much above that of Madeira, the term is therefore not strictly
appropriate. The use of fires to warm houses, as well as to
answer the purposes of cooking, bears date from the earliest
times. Wood was for many ages the chief fuel. When coal
was first introduced, it had many prejudices to combat before it
was admitted into general use. The manner in which our houses
were warmed for several centuries was perfectly devoid of all
sound principles of philosophy: it was not until the latter part
of the last century that philosophy deigned to apply its princi-
ples to the useful purposes of life. Society owes more to Count
Rumford, for his investigations respecting the application of fuel
to ali useful purposes, than to any other. Not only are we in-
debted to him for what he has done, but infinitely more so for
what he has caused others to do, by having given a direction to
geiius to employ itself upon the practically useful. Several me-
thods have been devised for warming buildings :—the Russian
and German stoves; flues, after the manner of hot-houses; iron
pipes heated by steam; stone bottles filled with hot water ;
keeping cows in the room, &c, &c. These methods may an-

swer

Notices respecting New Books. 283

swer very well to produce heat, which may be marked by the
thermometer; but more than this is wanted in a conservatory
for invalids or delicate subjects.
<< A supply of warm air must be had; but not merely warm
air; it must possess all its vital principles. There must be a
circulation of air through the apartments, that is, the air which
has served the purposes of respiration and combustion must have
a free egress, and fresh-charged atmospheric air be freely ad-
mitted ; for it is proved by the experiments of Messrs. Lavoisier,
Guyton, Fourcroy, and Davy, that the common atmospheric air,
from the Frozen Ocean to the equator, consists of the same
component parts; the only difference between the air of En-
gland and of the most favoured climate depends upon its pro-
portion of caloric. The best means I know of answering this
purpose, is by placing a stove in the lowest part of the house,
which stove is to heat porcelain tubes, through which the at-
mospheric air will be conveyed into a large main pipe going
from the bottom to the top of the building; from this pipe cur-
rents of warm air may be directed into any apartment, in the
same manner as water is conveyed from a reservoir placed at
the top of the house, in pipes, to all the various parts below its
level, following the laws of specific. gravity. As heated air has
specific levity with regard to the atmospheric air, if we have a
reservoir of heated air in the lowest part of the house, we may
convey it from the bottom to the top, by the same laws as we do
the water fromabove. Thisis the mode of heating the Madeira
House, by thus throwing into any given apartment a current of
warm air. If there be a small fire in the room, the air which
that consumes will be brought into the reom by the warm air
pipe: whereas, in a room not supplied with this current of warm
air, the firé will draw the air it requires either through crevices
in the windows or through the door, causing cold currents of
air, playing upon the persons in the room between these crevices
and the fire. In this new mode of ‘giving warm air to a room,
instead of the room drawing cold air from without, it becomes
filled with warm air, and is ready to expand itself through all
erevices. Thus double windows, which are recommended by
Count Rumford, and almost universally adopted in the north of
Europe, are rendered unnecessary. There is, in this case, a
universal plenum ; in the other, to avoid the vacuum, the air
rushes in from all parts. In a room which I have appropriated
for my study, I have not had a fire for the two last years. I
have a pneumatic stove, which throws in warm air; it issues
from the aperture at 100 degrees up to 150, and diffuses itself
so as to keep the room at the temperature of 60.
* In the common mode of warming rooms, the great difficulty
is,

38f, Notices respecting New Books.

is, to get an equal distribution of heat.. In a room, on a eold,
winter’s day, when the thermometer in the shade stood at 28, L
had as good a fire as the Bath stove, or grate of the room, would:
enable ne to have; I then took a thermometer, and placed it
in different parts of the room—in all the corners of the room:
where it was not under the direct influence of the fire, it stood at
4 degrees; I then brought it into the direct rays of the fire,
and carried it to within a few inches of the bars, when I found it
rise to 159, From this experiment we see to what a great range
of temperature we are exposed, when we imagine ourselves so
situated as to be free from the influence of the external air: on:
the contrary, in my study, there is not a variation of 5 degrees.
in any part of the room, except when. you approach very near to
the aperture at which the warm air enters. A still greater advan-
tage of warming a study with heated air is, that the intolerable
quantity of dust arising from an open fire may be avoided, and
papers and books, which would otherwise be covered an “inch
thick with dust, remain for weeks as clean as at the time they
were placed in order.

“ But as we have strong prejudices to overcome, the Madeira.
House has fire-places in the: rooms ; the air which the fire will
consume only adds to the greater quantity of warm air which is
brought into them by the supplying tubes.

“ In addition to the apartments with regulated temperature,
the different suites of baths are so conveniently placed, that the
occupier of these rooms will be enabled to have the use of them
without being exposed to the vicissitudes of the atmosphere: thus
(except in the great scheme, in which it was proposed to have
attempted promenades and circuses) the inhabitant of the 'Ma-
deira House will possess all the useful means of regaining lost
health.”

The instrument which Dr. Kentish has invented for ascer-
taining the soundness of the lungs is described in an appendix,
The author takes for granted that a healthy man with a well
formed chest is able to throw out and take in at one inspiration
between eight and nine pints of air. The breathing capacity of
individuals of consumptive or asthmatic habits varies from one
pint to four or five. We give the doctor’s description of the
instrument itself:

“‘] have at different times used a variety of means to arrive
at a knowledge of the breathing capacity of the lungs, in all dif-
ferent_states of the subject, when in health or in 1 disease, A
bladder with a pipe attached to it will serve this purpose. If
a person blows into a bladder, when he has drawn in as much
air as his lungs will hold, and only makes one expiration, he
may measure the quantity of air expired, by passing it under a

receiver

Royal Sociely. 385

receiver in a pneumatic trough. This mode, consisting of two
operations, is liable to mistake, as the vessel the air is passed
under should be sufficiently large to receive the whole of the air
at once; otherwise it would require two or three operations,
which would render it more doubtful. As some healthy subjects
inspire above a gallon of air, the jar should hold five quarts at
least, and this is above the rate of common recipients: besides,
it requires some practice and dexterity to convey gaseous fluids
from one vessel to another, and it is also a most unpleasant ope-
ration. These objections induced me to try other means. I
then had a tin apparatus, made upon the principle of the pneu-
matic bellows, as described in Mr. Watts’s pneumatic apparatus.
The difficulty of having this so nicely balanced as to give the ex-
act proportion, obliged me to make further efforts, for the fric-
tion of the inverted cylinder prevented the necessary sensibility
of the instrument.

“<The machine I use at present is a glass jar, which is in-
verted into a pneumatic trough ; it holds two gallons of water,
and is graduated by a scale, divided into pints and half-pints,
unto six quarts. ‘The trough is filled with water. up to number
four, so that two quarts of water stand in the bottom of the jar
when it is ready for use; at the upper part of the jar a tube
passes, in which is fixed a stop cork; about two inches above
the cork the tube turns at a right angle, and is carried horizon-
tally for near six inches; it is then flattened into a mouth-piece,
which enables the person using the machine to close the lips
about it with greater facility.”

A selection of cases in which the pulmometer was applied
with decided advantages closes Dr. Kentish’s performance, which
cannot fail to be read with interest. As his establishment in-
creases additional improvements will no doubt continue to be
made to it, and its advantages will consequently be more widely
diffused, and more duly appreciated. The scheme is of course
still in its infancy; but in the mean time great praise is due to
Dr. Kentish for the zeal and public spirit with which he has set
the establishment on foot.

LXXXIV. Proceedings of Learned Societies.
ROYAL SOCIETY.

April 28, Tue conclusion of Dr. Brewster’s paper on Mother
of Pearl was read. The author considers the optical pheno-
mena of mother of pearl very different from those of all other
bodies: in some of his experiments the thickness of the pearl
plates did not produce any change on the phenomena, in others

Vol, 43. No, 193, May 1814, Bb some

"386 Royal Society.

some difference appeared: the polarization of light by mother
of pearl is different from that of the bedies which he had before
examined : he found it impossible to give wax, cement, &c. ex-
actly the same powers as Iceland spar, although they receive the
impression from mother of pearl, so as to produce similar optical
phenomena. It appears that the particular laminous structure
of mother of pearl is such, that, however finely it may be polished,
it still retains the power of reflecting highly coloured images,
and that if a piece be merely cut it reflects only one image, but
if polished two are seen. These facts are ascribed to the pecu-
liar striz of this substance, which are very fine, yet may in some
specimens be seen with the naked eye; in others there are above
3000 of them in an inch.

May 5. Capt. Cater furnished a long paper, containing a
description of a new instrument for dividing mathematical in-
struments, which he considers an improvement of Troughton’s ;
he acknowledged that he was anticipated in the principles of his
improvement, but alleged that it was never before reduced to
practice. A brief description of this instrument would not be
intelligible without a plate: to it he applies three microscopes,
one of which is fixed and two are moveable, and suggests modes
of correcting the errors of observation, and preventing the mi-
croscopes from coming in contact with each other.

May 12. Dr. B. Heyne reada paper to the Society, relating
the process by which the Hindoos oxidate silver for medical
purposes. The secret was communicated to him by an ancient
and learned Hindoo, by whom it is esteemed of great value; he
afterwards repeated the process himself. A rupee which weighs
three drachms was hammered into a plate three inches broad ;
it was then immersed in the milk of plants, chiefly of the ew-
phorlia genus. The plate was heated, and plunged into this fluid
above twenty times, when it acquired only a dark-gray colour ;
it was afterwards placed between the leaves of plants, and re-
peatedly heated to a degree below smelting, and each time
plunged into the milk of plants or cow-dung, till the plate was
finally oxidated, so that it could be squeezed to powder between
the fingers ; and in this state it is given as a sovereign remedy in

most diseases. Dr. H. found that water produced the same
effect in facilitating the oxidation, as the milk of plants or cow-
dung. As he could find no information in: chemical works re-
specting the particular properties of the milk of plants, he was
induced to make some experiments on that from several species
of euphorbia. In some the. juice is aptly called milk, like the
caoutchouc or elastic gum ; in others it is colourless or thin, and
inspissates when exposed to the air; others again emit a deep-
coloured . fluid, which assumes a gummy or resinous character.

In

“Royal Society. 387

In all these different kinds Dr. H. found traces of ammonia and
azote ; and hence he concludes with Sprengel, that the narcotic
principle is owing to azote, which is probably combined with
ammonia.

May 19. A letter to the President from Dr. Brewster was
read, mentioning his observations on the effects which heated
glass produces on light. Dr. B. being engaged in various ex-
periments of this nature, noticed the effect which wax melted be-
tween two plates of glass had on light, and was thence induced to
experiment on the glass properly heated. For this purpose he
adopted those pieces of glass called Prince Rupert’s drops; he
ground them with perpendicular and parallel faces, and ‘also at
right angles ; but he uniformly found that they either wholly or
partially depolarized light, and that he could not. transmit
through them a ray of pulverized light without its undergoing
some modification.

Mr. Herschel laid before the Society a mathematical paper
_on Analysis: it was divided into four sections ; but being en-
tirely algebraical, it was of a nature not adopted for public read-
ing.

Captain Cater furnished an account of his additional experi-
ments on the comparative powers of the Cassegrainian and Gre-
gotian telescopes. His object was to discover if some error
might not have crept into his former experiments, and whether
he was not deceived by some optical delusion, which occasion-
ally misleads young and sanguine observers. For this purpose
he caused different persons to examine the appearances: some
of them knew nothing of the subject of his inquiry, yet all of
them concurred in the same observation. Nevertheless he ad-
mits the great liability to errors in such experiments, and cor-
rects many of the observations by calculation. He made a va-
riety of experiments with the reflectors, which in general tended
to prove the superiority of the Cassegrainian over the Gregorian
telescope.

May 26. Sir Everard Home, bart. gave an historical sketch
of the nature and effects of the different injuries of the brain,
with a view to embody facts so that inquirers and observers might
more easily direct their researches. Sir Everard did not profess
to state any new discovery, but merely to relate some cases which
had occurred in his own practice: he divided his paper into sec-
tions, each of which describes an injury of the brain, with its
physical and mental effects.. The first was pressure; and if this be
either too great or too little, the consequence is violent head-
aches, vomiting, &c. He next considered the effects of water,
and related some cases where six beer pints were contained in
the brain without destroying the vital functions, or the mind. In
Bb2 other

.

388 Linnean Society.

other cases, a few ounces occasioned delirium, paralysis, and
death. Sir Everard made several sections of the different kinds
of ulceration of the brain, and detailed minutely their corporeal
and mental effects. He also noticed that the cerebellum might
be wounded without the patient knowing it; that part of it might
be extravasated without danger, ,but that any wound in the pia
mater was extremely painful.
The Society then adjourned to the 9th of June.

LINNEAN SOCIETY.

On Tuesday the 24th instant the Anniversary Meeting of the
Linnean Society of London was held at the-Society’s house in.
Gerrard-street, Soho, for the election of a Council and Officers
for the present year, when the following Members were elected
of the Council, viz.

James Edward Smith, M. D. Thomas Marsham, Esq.
Samuel, Lord Bishop of Carlisle. | Wm. George Maton, M.D.

Sir T. G. Cullum, bart. Daniel Moore, Esq.

Philip Derbishire, Esq. Joseph Sabine, Esq.

Mr. James Dickson. Thomas Smith, Esq.
Aylmer Bourke Lambert, Esq. | William Smith, Esq. M. P.
W. E. Leach, M.D. Edward Lord Stanley.

Alexander Macleay, Esq.
And the following were declared to be the Officers for the pre-
sent year, viz.
James Edward Smith, M. D. President.

Samuel, Lord Bishop of Carlisle,

Wm. George Maton, M. D.

Thomas Marsham, Esq.

A. B. Lambert, Esq.

Thomas Marsham, Esq. Treasurer.

Alexander Macleay, Esq. 2 g .

Mr. Richard Taylor, t Fe oat
_ The Members of the Society afterwards dined together at the
Freemasons’ Tavern, Great Queen-street, according to annual
custom.

Vice Presidents.

ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

The Royal Medical Society propose as the subject of their
Prize Essay for the year 1815 the following question : :

“The comparative specific caloric of vemous and arterial
blood.”’

A set of books, or a medal of five guineas value, shall be given,
annually to the author of the best dissertation on an experi-
mental subject“proposed by the Society ; for which all the Mem-
. bers, honorary, extraordinary, ‘atid ordinary, shall alone be in-
vited as candidates,

The

Medical Society, Edin.—Kirwanian Society, Dublin. 389

The dissertations are to be written in English, French, or
Latin, and to be delivered to the Secretary on or before the first
of December of the succeeding year to that in which the sub-
jects are proposed, and the adjudication of the Prize shall take.
place in the last week of February following.

To each dissertation shall be prefixed a motto ; and this motto
is to be written on the outside of a sealed packet containing the
name and address of the author. No dissertation will be re-
ceived with the author’s name affixed; and all dissertations,
except the successful one, shall be returned, if desired, with the
sealed packet unopened.

KIRWANIAN SOCIETY OF DUBLIN.

Dec. 1, 1813. A paper “On the crystallographical Method
of Haiiy,” by Dr. J. O. Reardon, was read.

In this paper a concise statement of the theory of the learned
Abbé was given, and also of the principal arguments brought for-
ward in its, support. The objections that have been offered to the
system by various philosophers, as well as the replies of the Abbé,
were then noticed: and a number of observations were made on
the validity of the former, and the adequacy of the latter.

March 23, 1814. A paper “On an extensive Bed of Mag-
nesian Limestone, found in the vicinity of Dublin,” by S. Witter,
Esq. was read.

An account of the analysis and of some peculiar circumstances
attending the calcination of the stone, was first given. 36 per
cent. of carbonate of magnesia were found in combination with
51 of carbonate of lime; the remaining portion being made up
by silex, oxides of iron, and manganese. After some geological
observations, the paper concluded with some remarks on the ap-
plication of the mineral to the purposes of practical husbandry.

The same gentleman likewise read a series of observations,
_ with an account of some experiments relating to the formation
and properties of iodine. In allusion to the question of its ele-
mentary nature, he referred to some striking similarities in certain
well known compounds.

pe

LXXXV. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

Tue Annales de Chimie had been discontinued for several
months in consequence of the recent events in France ; but: the
work is now resumed. A Number bearing date in February
last has just made its appearance in Paris, but a copy has not
yet reached us. It contains Researches upon Coral, by M . Vogel 5
Experiments of M. d’Arcet on the Alloys of Platina; a Memoir
of M. Vauquelin on Osmium and Iridium ; Observations on phos-

b3 phorescent

390 Pompeit.

phorescent Urines, by M. Guyton Morveau; a Method to sepa-
rate Osmium from Platina, by M. Laugier; a Memoir on the
Boracites and Succi, by M. Pfaff; an Extract of the Treatise
on Poisons, by M. Orfila; Annonces of New Books, &c.

POMPEII.
[Continued from p. 313.]

“ The height of the walls of Pompeii may give some idea of
the labours which their complete excavation requires, and which
is now prosecuting with great vigour. A ditch has been ex-
cavated twelve feet broad. For the space of about eight toises
the walls are completely uncovered, and persons may now walk
upon the pavement of the ancient street leading from Pompeii
to Nola. The other parts still remain buried. The workmen
are already 500 toises from the gate at which they set out, and
have cleared nearly one third of the circumference of the city.
Proceeding along the great street, they have uncovered the upper
part of the portico of the Grand Theatre. The point of the wall
to which it adjoins is not far from the Amphitheatre. This
building, although formerly partly uncovered, was again buried
under rubbish because it did not present any object of sufficient
importance for a museum, or to arrest curiosity. In conse-
quence of this bad system, many houses in Pompeii were again
covered with the ashes from which they had emerged. At the
present moment however, and for many years back, if the exca-
vations did not produce any thing interesting, the workmen have
not desisted. They now consider every thing as new monu-
ments added to those which they already possess. Besides, it is”
well known that all the tablatures, statues, and medals belong-
ing to a cabinet, have not the same value when taken separately,
but will become doubly precious when the collection is made
complete.

‘“¢ The excavations around the walls of the city have not sus-
pended those in other quarters. One of the most interesting
discoveries was made on the 21st of November 1812. During
the preceding week the workmen had been occupied in clearing
the great street leading to the Temple of Isis, and which traverses
the whole, of the city in a straight.line. They suddenly met
with another street opening into the great street, and at the
joining of the two streets discovered the capitals of several co-
lumns which seemed to have composed the portico of a theatre.
The excavations were then directed towards the house known by
the name of La Caza del General Championnet, and two in-
scriptions scarcely legible were discovered, but appearing rather
insignificant. When working about ten feet from the extremity
of the street, where the rubbish consisted alternately of orth

ss an

Pompeii. 391

and ashes, and there appearing, to be no probability of finding
any interesting object, they were about to leave off, when they
unexpectedly found a human skeleton and several bones, some
medals of bronze and silver and one of gold, and finally a large
heap of medals that were collected with great care. They were
for the most part, particularly those of bronze and silver, fused
into each other, and it was difficult to distinguish the inscriptions
on account of. the patina with which they were covered. They
were medals of Domitian and other emperors, of the smallest
‘size, very common, but well preserved ; -316 in silver, and 42 in
bronze. But what attracted most attention was eight beautiful
medals of gold newly struck, wrapt up in several folds of linen,
which seemed to have been injured by humidity and the infection
from the human bodies. However, the texture was So good that
these stripes could hardly be torn. This may be considered as
one of the greatest curiosities which Pompeii ever afforded.

< The skeleton just mentioned was found among the ashes
about ten feet above the level of the street. This is a proof of
the rapidity with which the city was overwhelined, , as it is pro-
bable that this individual was endeavouring to save himself by
flight. It will also make “t evident that Pompeii was buried by
one single and not by repeated eruptions, as some writers are
disposed to insinuate.

< On the same day that this skeleton was discovered near the
Theatre, several others were found in the streets. A mother
flying with part of her family, consisting of two young girls and
an infant, the skeleton of which was still clingmg to the breast
of the mother : all hopes seem to have left them ; trying still to
breathe amid the burning ashes, and clinging to the walls of the
portico, they appear to have sunk under the effects of fatigue and
grief: the lava had buried them in the same grave, and their
bones were mixed with each other as if they were embracing at
the last moment of their existence. Three gold rings and ear-
pendents adorned with pearls, found near them, bespoke their
riches and rank in society; one of the rings was in the form of
a serpent in many folds. On another ring, which from its size
must have belonged to a young girl, a garnet was fixed on which
a thunderbolt was engraved. The ear-rings resembled those of
the same age which are to be seen in the Cabinet of Antiquities
at Paris ; two of the pearls were in good preservation ; the others
have suffered considerably.

«A great quantity of marbles, adorned with forms of animals
elegantly modelled, were found amassed at the foot of a part of
the walls of the house where these skeletons were found, as if
destined to ornament it. It seems to have been a house of the
most elegant architecture, and decorated with excellent pictures,

Bb4 which

392 Pompeii.

which for the sake of antiquarians have been permitted to re=
main for the present. One picture represented the figure of
Peace, upon a red ground, holding an olive branch in the right
hand and in the left a cornucopia: she is winged, and repre-
sented flying to diffuse her blessings over the world: a light
transparent habit covers her body from the girdle downwards :
on the whole, this is one of the best specimens of the style of
painting of the zra in which it was executed

“* Ainong the antique objects found in the inside of this house,
alarge bronze plate was found with a double bottom, which
must have served to keep the victuals hot. It resembled a si-
milar utensil now in use, and which is occasionally filled with.
warm water: the difference between the ancient and modern
utensil seems to be, that in the former the article to be kept
hot was deposited between two thin vessels containing hot
water.

“* There were also a great number of glass vases found,
from three to six inches deep, in the form of cups, and some
drinking cups of singular appearance. They were adorned so as
to represent various figures, of the different colours of silver, gold,
opal, sapphire, and emeralds: time has given them a brillianey
which modern artists will in vain attempt to imitate. The glass
which has been found at Pompeii is generally well wrought: the
forms of the various utensils are different, but they are all regular
and elegant: the bottles, caraffs, and other small vessels used in
domestic affairs, are very round, and present no veins or flaws.
They are mostly of coloured glass. Their utensils of white glass
are by no means so beautiful as those of modern Europe.

“The same house has also produced many pieces of very cu-
rious red earth adorned with foliage, arabesques, and relievos of
the finest workinanship. Some antiquarians think that they
came from ancient Gaul, since many similar have been found in
France. But this is erroneous, in the opinion of others, who think
they are by far too elegant to have been executed in any other
country than Italy.”’

[To be continued. ]

The Class of History and Ancient Literature of the French In-
stitute has appointed M. Vanderbourg, author of a Translation
into French Verse of the Odes of Horace, and of several other
literary productions, to the seat vacant by the death of M. Mer-
cier, author of the Tatleau de Paris.

M. Baptist Lendi, of St. Gall, has invented a new hygrometer,
of which the following description is given :—In a white flint
bottle is suspended a piece of metal, about the size of a hazel

nut,

Progress of Vaccination in the East. 393

nut, which not only looks extremely beautiful, and thus contri-
butes to the ornament of a room, but likewise predicts every
possible change of weather 12 or 14 hours before it occurs. As
soon as the metal is suspended jn the bottle with water, it be-
gins to increase in bulk, and in 10 or 12 days forms an admi-
rable pyramid, which resembles polished brass ; and it under-
goes several changes, till it has attained its full dimensions. In
rainy weather this pyramid is constantly covered with pearly
drops of water ; in case of thunder or hail, it will change to the
finest red, and throw out, rays: in case of wind or fog, it will
appear dull and spotted; and previously to snow it will look
quite muddy. If placed in a moderate temperature, it will re-
quire no other trouble than to pour out a common tumbler full of
water, and to put in the same quantity of fresh. For the first
few days it must not be shaken.

‘

PROGRESS OF VACCINATION IN THE EAST.

Extract of a Letter from Bagdad, dated the 24th of August.

*¢ Jean de Murat of Constantinople, and at present a merchant
in Bagdad, has had the good fortune to introduce vaccination on
the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, Animated by a desire to
be useful to his fellow-creatures in a country where small-pox,
if it be not always mortal, leaves frightful mutilations and defor-
mities, had long exerted himself to make the practice of vacci-
nation general in this city. His humane endeavours were long
fruitless, in consequence of the prejudices inseparable from igno-
rant minds. An accident also happened which strengthened these
prejudices, The British resident eleven years ago attempted it,
and failed, Seconded by Dr. Short, Mr. Jones, the English
surgeon, having obtained vaccine matter from Dr. Carro and
Lord Elgin, vaccinated two poor children, whom he procured
more by means of money than in consequence of any assurances
of success. The vaccine took in the arms of both. Mr. Jones, how-
ever, not having been careful in the choice of these two infants,
one which was in good health recovered well, but the other,
which had been long sickly, died a few days after being vacci-
nated. This accident frightened every body ; and Mr. Jones has
never since been able to procure any other subject for his experi-
ments. The idea of vaccination was therefore abandoned.

“ In the mean time, Jean de Murat sent repeatedly to Constan-
tinople for matter, but all his efforts to introduce it for several
years were in vain. In 1810, however, having a child born to
him, he obtained an opportunity of exhibiting in his own family
the excellence of this preventive of small-pex. He procured vac-
cine matter from Aleppo, and inoculated his new-born re

ne

394 A new Bitumen.

The success answered his expectations, and produced the effect
desired on the minds of several Christians who had been witnesses
to the operation : they immediately brought their children to be
vaccinated, and their example was followed by all the other
Christians. The Turks and the Arabs have since been converted,
notwithstanding their religious prejudices, to a firm belief of “its
utility. Upwards of ninety-six of the children of the latter were
inoculated in the course of the year 1813; and, among others,
those of the Mufti, and the Defterdar Davoud Effendi, brother-
in-law to the Pacha of Bagdad, who has conferred upon Jean de
Murat a public testimony of his approbation.

“Not contented with his success at Bagdad, the same benevo-
lent Turk is endeavouring to propagate vaccination in Mesopo-
tamia and Armenia. He has sent missionaries to Moussoul and
Erivan, furnished with instructions written in Arabic and Arme-
nian, having previously taught them.to perform the operation.”

M. Bucholz has recently analysed a new bitumen found in the
environs of Halle in Saxony, which he thinks strongly resembles
the resino-asphaltum described by Mr. Hatchett some years ago
in the Philosophical Transactions. According to M. Bucholz,
that which is found at Halle is composed of two resins, one of
which is very soluble in alcohol, and approaches to the vegetable
resins, forming 91 parts of the bitumen ; while the other, which
forms nine parts, has some analogy to amber.

The following are a few of the most characteristic marks of
this substance: It is found in balls the size of an apple, en-
veloped in gray crystallized gypsum: in colour it is brownish,
or pale yellow: fracture glossy, and very brittle: it does not
become soft under the fingers; it even does not melt so easily
as other resins, but while melting it exhales an agreeable smell,
something like that of animal resin and styrax. M. Bucholz
remarks that, as Mr. Hatchett could dissolve only 55 parts of
the bitumen examined by him, while the former dissolved 91,
it is extremely probable that this difference was occasioned by
Mr. Hatchett’s using common alcohol.

The nine grains which were insoluble in alcohol were dis-
solved, but with much difficulty, in boiling oil. It was fusible
in a strong heat, and gave out the smell of common resin.

The 91 parts above mentioned, when separated from the al-
coholie solution, were dissolved by ether, and formed a brown-
ish tincture, while ether of a specific gravity of 0-710, rectified
over muriate of lime, made scarcely any impression. Oil of tur-
pentine and rectified petroleum have little or no effect upon this
resin. Caustic potash dissolved in two parts of water does not
dissolve this resin ; but when the lixivium is decanted, the resi-

: due

.

Russia.—French Society for Encouragement of Arts. 395

due of the resinous principle is dissolved in water, from which
we can separate the resin by the addition of muriatic acid.

.

The Russian Government has made considerable progress to-
wards opening a communication with the northern regions of
America by the way of Siberia. The Tschuktsches, a nation
inhabiting the north-east part of Siberia, having been continu-
ally in a state of war with the Kourakes, who inhabit the shores
of the sea of Ochotks, the latter threw themselves under the
protection of Russia. The prudent measures adopted by the
Russian Commissary Banner succeeded in inducing the Tschu-
ktsches to make peace with the Kourakes, and to come every
year into the circle of Nischnekolyma to exchange their furs for
iron, tobacco, and other goods. This traffic was carried on for
several years ; and finally they submitted themselves to the Rus-
sian government in form. On the 9th of March 1813 they
_sent a deputation of 70 persous to fort Angora, on the great
river Anui: these deputies took the oath of fidelity to the Em-
peror of Russia, and many of them were baptized according to_
the rites of the Greek church. The chiefs have engaged a
fox’s skin for every individual baptized, in name of tribute. The
trade with these new subjects of the Russian empire has since
become brisker than ever; and there is every reason to believe
that the Russians will speedily, by advancing over-land to
Behring’s straits, open a communication with the people of
America who inhabit these coasts, and who can supply abundance
of teeth of sea-horses and furs of great value.

The new French Government has resumed the digging of the
grand canal of Ourcq, in the vicinity of Paris. The works had
been suspended for several years in consequence of the late un-
happy state of France.

ey

The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. in France,
held its grand anniversary meeting at Paris on the 11th of the
present month. M. Degeraud commenced the business of the
day by reading an interesting biographical notice of the late
Joseph Montgolfier, the aéronaut.

Among the novelties which were exhibited, and which had
been honoured by the Society’s approbation, were some beautiful
specimens of varnished metal fabricated by M. Deharme: various
kinds of fire-arms on a new construction: some pieces of em-
broidered velvet of superior elegance: shawls of an extraordi-
nary breadth (two ells and a half) ; various modifications of Ar-
gand’s Jamp: platina utensils and instruments: and porcelain

vases,

396 Zoology.

vases, &c. having ornaments in relief of exquisite workmanship,
intended to resemble sculpture.

Lorthier, the celebrated French medallist, died at Paris in the
course of the present month at the advanced age of 82. He
executed nearly all the dies of the medals and coins of France
for the last fifty years.

M. Huber of Geneva last. year presented to the French Insti-
tute a paper on the singular industry of a small caterpillar,
to which he gives the name of Chenille a4 Hamoc, or the
Hammock Caterpillar ; in consequence of the manner in which
it suspends itself in order to pass its dormant state, or during
the period in which it remains as a chrysalis, It belongs to
the family ef those caterpillars which are denominated Mz-
neuses; and it lives in the mterior of some fruit-trees, In the
month of August it ceases to eat, and then begmms to spin its
hammock, for the completion of which it occupies only five
hours. ‘Fwo cords, extended between the sides of a leaf turned
inward, so as to give a concavity to the upper part, form its
principal supports: it is there suspended by some fastenings of
silk ; and two other fastenings, which are fixed to the edges of
the leaf, hold it steady as if at anchor. The hammock itself is
in the shape of a small cylindrical case. M. Huber has not
contented himself with simply following with attention, and de-
scribing with precision, the successive operations of this little
artisan, who constructs this complicated retreat ; but. has en-

eavoured to discover how far these operations are subject to
changes by the insect, and if varied according to circumstances.

A worm which is taken away after it has begun the con-
struction of its hammock, will recommence it as long as it retains
silky materials sufficient for the work. If it is placed on a con-
struction begun by another, it continues it from the point where
the other has left off; but when the one to which it is placed is
far advanced, it seems to prefer recommencing the whole ab
initio. ‘The fly which issues from the worm seems to be the
Phalena Clerkella of Linneus, and one of its enemies is, the
Ichneumon ramicornis.

M. Montigre has made some curious observations on the
habits and the anatomy of the Lumbricus, or earthworm. These
animals are hermaphrodites, and all productive: and accord-
ing to the observation of M. Montigre, they produce their young
alive. They nevertheless require a copulation, which seems
to be performed without the least intromission of parts, so
that one might be led to suppose that it had no other oi

than

List of Patents for new Inventions. 397

than to excite in them some orgasm necessary for the produc-
tion of fecundity. This copulation generally takes place in the
months of June and July, and is performed by means of an in-
flation, which is observable in the anterior part of the body of
the worm; and these parts of different worms are, as it were,
glued together; the anterior part of one worm to that of the
worm opposed to it. The young ones are at first perceived in
the white organs which are placed forward on both sides of the
stomach, and then glide between the intestines and the exterior
muscles, until they reach a reserveir situated in the thick part of
the tail, where they are easily seen full of animation. M. Mon-
tigre has likewise ascertained that earthworms do not live alto-
gether on earth, as he has found in their intestines the remains
both of animals and of plants.

Theatre of Anatomy, Barilett’s Court, Holborn.—Lectures on
Anatomy, Physiology, Pathology, and Surgery, by Mr. John
Taunton, F.A.S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons of
London, Surgeon to the City and Finsbury Dispensaries, City of
London Truss Society, &c.

In this Course of Lectures it is proposed to take a compre-
hensive view of the structure and ceconomy of the living body,
and to consider the causes, symptoms, nature, and trealment of
surgical diseases, with the mode of performing the different sur-
gical operations ; forming a complete course of anatomical and
physiological instruction for the medical or surgical student, the
artist, the professional or private gentleman.

An ample field for professional edification will be afforded by
the opportunity which pupils may have of attending the clinical
and other practice of both the City and Finsbury Dispensaries.

The Summer Course commenced on Saturday, May 28,1814,
at Eight o’clock in the Evening precisely, and will be con-
tinued every Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, at the same hour.

Particulars may be had, on applying to Mr. Taunton, Greville
Street, Hatton Garden.

LIST, OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS.

To Alexander Cock, of the Strand, in the county of Middlesex,
gentleman, for his prevention and cure of the dry. rot and common
decay in timber, and for preserving woollen, linen, and other
articles from mildew. —12th March, 1814.—2 months.

To Roger Haslewood, of Great Russel Street, Bloomsbury
Square, ironmonger, for a contrivance for folding-screens adapted
to impede the passage of air, smoke, fire, and light, applied to
fire-places, grates, stoves, windows, and doors, which he deno-

minates The improved Folding Screen,—12th March,—2 mo.
To

‘

398 Meteorological Observations made at Clapton

To Edward Steers, of the Inner Temple, gentleman, for a
method of rendering the stoppers of bottles, jars, &c. air-tight.—
12th March.—2 months.

To James Barclay and William Cuming, of Cambridge, for
their iniproved wheels and axletrees for carriages.—12th March.
—2 months. }

To John Slater, of Birmingham, for his improvement in a,
steam boiler, and apparatus for the purpose of washing, steaming,
cleansing, and whitening clothes, clothing, and cloths, and for
warming or heating closets, laundries, and other rooms, by the
same.—12th March.—6 months.

To Mare Isambard Brunel, of Chelsea, in the county of Mid-
dlesex} civil engineer, for a method of giving additional durability
to certain descriptions of leather.—12th March.—6 months.

To Matthew Murray, of Leeds, in the county of York, en-
gineer, for his improvements in the construction of hydraulic
presses for pressing cloth and paper, and for other purposes.—
12th March.—2 months.

re

Meteorological Observations made at Clapton and Cambridge
‘from April 12 to May 10, 1814.

April 12*,—Early was cirrocumulus in the sky; then cu-
muli ; very hot day. Thermometer rose to 72°. Barometer falling.

April 13.—Fair hot day, cumuli and rather hazy air ; features
of large cirrocumulus about noon. Therm. midday 73°; mid-
night 49°. Barom. 29.90. Wind SE, and gentle.

April 14,—Fine dry weather, cumuli the prevailing clouds.
Wind southerly. Therm. midday 73°.

April 15,—Fine warm weather, and showers P.M. Therm.
72. -

April 16.—Cumuli and some cirrus and cirrocumulus ; and as
on former days, the cwmuli prevail. Fine and dry. Therm. above
70°. Barom. falling. April showers from SW.

April 17 —Some showers early; fine day afterwards, and clear
evening.

April 18.—Rainy morning ; then showery, and finer towards
evening ; very warm.

April 19.—Rather windy, but warm with showers.

April 20.—,Fine April weather, and showery features of the
clouds. Wind westerly.

April 21.—April showers from W. Air warm.

* The dew rising from ponds remarkably white and visible this morning.

April

and at Cambridge. 399

April 22*,—Cooler; fair morning, and chiefly cloudy. W.

April 23,—Early, features of flimsy large cirrocumulus, clouds
through the day; cloudy evening. W.,

April 24.—Mild air with showers. Wind S and SW.

April 25.—Much rain.

April 26.—Some rain in the morning ; fair afternoon.

April 27.—The same weather, with gentle showers.

April 28,—Fair day, mild and warm.

April 29.—Fair ; various clouds ; warm.

April 30.—Fair ; cirrocumulus and cirrus, with light gales
as in warm weather. SW.

May 1.—Warm air, chiefly clouded, with bright intervals;
cirrus and cirrocumulus; sometimes heavy clouds threatening
rain. SW.

May 2.—Cloudy morning ; a great deal of cloud prevailed
all day; with sunny intervals; fine mild air. Wind southerly.

ay 3.—Fine warm clear day, wafted by light and irregular
gales and small whirlwinds as often in hot weather. Cirrus and
cirrocumulus with cumuli forming, increasing after noon, and
by evening becoming large masses; cirrus too remained after.
sunset, At midnight lofty spread clouds, with scuddy nimbiform
masses sailing along lower. Wind SE.+

May 4,—Clouded day and cooler; warmer P.M. As the
moon rose the clouds by degrees. disappeared; the last seen were
the light flimsy czrrocumulz.

May 5.—Cooler with a great deal of cloud and rain. Wind
easterly.

May 6.—-Cool morning; in the afternoon showers and much
warmer. Wind SE and W.

May 7.—Clear, and cloudy intervals; much cumulostratus ;
yellow colour in the sky above, black cwmulostratus in the west.
By night, though clear, small clouds were still seen, cirri rapidly
forming here and there, and some long elevated little cwmuli ;
also cumulostratus barred towards one end of it at midnight.

May 8.—Somewhat cooler; fair day. |

May 9.—Cold cloudy morning, Wind E and NE; very un-
wholesome raw air,

May 10.—The edges of the cusuli ill-defined, which is al-
ways a symptom of unwholesome atmosphere. Cold N wind.

Corpus Christi College, Cambridge,
May 12, 1814. Tuomas Forster.

* The observations following were made at Cambridge.

+ This fine day brought numerous insects, particularly many of the
coleopterous kind. Many of these suddenly make their first appearance
and are numerous on one day, Swallows are not common here yet.

METEORO-

400 Meteorology.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE,
By Mr. Cary, OF THE STRAND,
For May 1814.
Thermometer. eres
Ee Ras
wf bb ~ | Heightof |S 8%
stabi 8 8 aa the Bacayh 3°. 8 Weather.
Ys| = os Inches. Ea &n
oe, ae oo =|,
o = ack
April 27) 42 | 52 | 43 | 30°18 41 |Showery
28| 43 | 49 | 45 18 0. {Fair
29| 46 | 55 | 47 “10 o {Rain
30| 47 | 57 | 45 "10 47 |Fair
May ‘11 47 | 62 | 47 “28 52 {Fair
2| 46 | 55 | 46 02 33 \Cloudy
3} 45 | 60 | 47 | 29°99 42 (Fair
4\ 44 | 42 | 42 "63 30 |Cloudy
5} 40 | 42 | 45 “51 o {Rain
6| 47 | 52 | 47 “78 0 |Showery
7| 48 } 62 | 46 “90 46 |Fair
8] 51 | 57 | 47 | 30°01 35 \Cloudy
9| 46 | 56 | 44 "35 30 |Cloudy
10] 42 | 53 | 41 "42 46 |Fair
tl] 44 | 51 | 42 "42 51 |Fair
12| 42 | 54 | 46 “39 36 |\Cloudy
13| 46 | 57 | 43 “O01 o {Rain
14| 45 | 52 | 44 “Ol 29 |Cloudy
15| 45 | 53 | 43 | 30°00 30 |Cloudy
16| 46 | 56 | 44 ‘ol 44 {Cloudy
17| 47 | 60 | 47 “19 48 |Fair
' 18] 52 | 64 | 46 “19 44 {Fair
19] 51 | 60 | 45 *10 46 [Fair
20| 53 | 67 | 45 | 20°95 44 |Fair
21| 46 | 59 | 46 88 47 |Fair
22| 46 | 52 | 41 62 46 |Cloudy
23| 45 | 52 | 48 *53 | 45 (Cloudy
94) 44. | 46 | 40 "50 o {Rain
25| 44 | 57 | 48 ef 33 |Cloudy
26| 48 | 59 | 45 90 47 |Fair

N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o’clock,

I

{ 401 J

LXXXVI. Supplement to the Memoir on the Nitrates and
Nitrites of Lead. By M,. Curvreur*.

Sixce the publication of my Memoir on the Combinations of
Lead with the nitric and nitrous Acids +, there have appeared
in the Annales de Chimie two memoirs on the saihe subject by
M. Berzelius, being the conclusion of his experiments upon the
determinate proportions in which the elements of inorganic
nature exist. I purpose in the present supplement to compare
our results, in order that a judgement may be formed of the dif-

’ ferences between those of each.

M. Berzelius has described by the name of subnitrate at the
minimum the salt which I have called nitrate of lead: he ob-
tained it by putting into the solution of octohedral nitrate a
quaiitity of ammonia insufficient to saturate its acid: I pre-
pared it by boiling the octohedral nitrate over litharge. Our
analyses differ but very little, as may be seen:

Berzclius. Chevreul.
SittiGineil. <s:dsreterdid «9h 990)) \., 5319786
BURG. ii hcatiof ele ta afl SUDO ys tein) SUA14
They agree in proving that this salt contains twice as much base
as the octohedral nitrate.

According to the observation which I have made of the cor-
respondence between the composition of the subnitrite of lead
at the minimum t with the subnitrate at the minimum§, and
from the consideration that the carbonic acid when sa od, into
the solution of subnitrite separated from it such a quantity
of base, that what remained in it was to the acid in a propor-
tion which appéared to correspond with the composition of the
octohedral nitrate ||, I suspected that there must be a subnitrate
corresponding with the subnitrite oflead at the maximum; and
I have even said that it would be interesting to inquire if the
alkalis in acting upon the nitrate of lead would not produce it.

* Annales de Chimie, tome lxxxiv. p. 5.

+ See the two preceding numbers of this Magazine.

t Vor the same reason that M. Berzelius has called the foregoing nitrate
of lead, subnitrate at the minimum, he has called the subnitrite at the mini-
mum, the salt which [ have called nitrite; and subnitrite at the maximum,
that which I have called subnitrite. - I shall adopt this aomenclature, in
order to avoid all confusion.

§ Adopting the analysis of the nitric and nitrous acids of M. Gay-
Lussac.

|| 1 have said “ appeared to correspond,” because there is a difference of
2:78 between the result of the experiment and that of the calculation: bit
this difference may be owing to there remaining iv the solution of the sub-
nitrite precipitated by the carbonic acid, an excess of this acid which may
concur in retaining a portion of base. If this be the case, the quantity of
oxide remaining in the liquor is augmented,

Vol,43, No. 194. June 1814. Ce This

402 Supplement to the Memoir on

This presumption has been verified by M. Berzelius; but the
analysis which he made of this salt does not correspond exactly
with the composition of the subnitrite at the maximum. Ac-
cording to this chemist, the subnitrate at the maximum contains :
Acid. possi pba s rSl
cr A a wea ge DOD
He thinks that it contains more than four times as much base as
the octohedral nitrate. If, according to my analysis of the sub-
nitrate of lead at the minimum, we admit that it only contains
four times as much, we shall have the following proportions:
AGG ia ins aoe es . ow LOY ay 108
Oxide), dotpvsds i « 89°04". 812
and for the proportions of the subnitrite at the maximum:

Acid paises feats oe «1/980

OXIGE HS. cies se bee's 90:20
and | found by experiment the composition of this last salt to
be: Acithiia ssi oeuivied pow) B90

Oxides. ces's/sis Poereiare OUR ke

M. Berzelius and I have seen that when we boiled the octo-
hedral nitrate of lead with lead, there was not formed any ni-
trate at the minimum of oxidation, but a combination of nitrous
acid and of oxide of lead; that according to the duration of
the ebtllition, and the quantity of lead employed, we obtained
two different subnitrites. We have seen besides, that a portion
of the acid was reduced into nitrous gas. The agreement which
subsists between these observations does not admit of there
being any doubt on the subject. The same agreement seems
to subsist between our analyses of the subnitrites ; for the sub-
nitrite at the minimum is formed :

Berzelius. Chevreul.

Acid and’ water: ..0\\o.4< ate aisle) 20 wre: 220
Oxide vs... in ein ista ghis oe Ne Oibey Gl
The subnitrite at the maximum:
Berzelius. Chevreul.

AME wid ose as gs nal in ALTO oma), OA

RPEICE 5 Het hi ens oh aaa eae: |
The difference is zero in the first analysis, and 0°275 in the
second, Although there is this agreement, I have every reason
to think that the nitrites which M. Berzelius has examined dif-
fered from those which | prepared, and this is the place to ex-
plain the results on which we differ. I premise that I do not
mean to assert positively by this exposition, that I am right: I
wish merely to obtain new foundations for the facts and reason-
ings which led me to the conclusions published in my former

paper. : ‘ ri

M. Berzelius didnot find any water in the subnitrite at the
maximum :

the Nitrates and Nitrites of Lead, 403

maximum : nevertheless, after having exposed it in a retort to a
temperature of 100° (centigrade), as well as to the rays of the
sun, | obtained water from it which I heated in an elongated tube.
M. Berzelius says that this salt crystallizes in small scales of
a brick-coloured red: that which I have described was in needles
of a flesh colour; and what led me to think that the salt of
M. Berzelius was not so well saturated with base as mine, was,
that I obtained erystals similar to these which he has described,
when the solution of octohedral nitrate had not been long enough
boiled over the lead: besides, in my experiment, 100 parts of
octohedral nitrate dissolved 134°5 of lead, whereas in that of
M. Berzelius they only dissolved 116-5: and finally, I obtained
to the very last needles of flesh colour from the solution of ni-
trate boiled over lead, whereas M. Berzelius obtained subnitrite
at the minimum with his subnitrite at the maximum.

M. Berzelius prepared the subnitrite at the minimum by
M. Proust’s process; but, according to mine, the salt thus pre-
pared is not a pure nitrite: it contains nitrate of lead. I think
that my experiments ought to leave no doubt on the subject:
for (a) when we dissolve this salt’ in water, we obtain subnitrate
at the minimum; (l) when we treat its solution by the carbonic
acid, we separate from it a part of the oxide, and by evaporating
the liquor we obtain, Ist, scales of a yellowish white, formed
of subnitrite and subnitrate at the minimum ; 2d, white needles
of subnitrate at the minimum ; 3d, yellow crystals, resembling
in form the octohedral nitrate of lead. (c) When we decom-
pose the subnitrite at the maximum by the carbonic acid, and
evaporate the solution in the sand-bath, there are separated
yellow crystals of subnitrite at the minimum*, which being re-
dissolved.in water yield only yellow scales of subnitrite at the
minimum, whether we concentrate the solution, or treat it by
the carbonic acid, and afterwards evaporate it in the sand-bath.
Now if the nitrate of lead which we get from M. Proust’s nitrite
is formed during the treatment given to this salt, why should
it not be formed, also, when we submit to the same treatment
the subnitrite at the minimum coming from the subnitrite at the
maximum ? d

M. Berzelius, in treating the subnitrite at the minimum with
a quantity of sulphuric acid sufficient to separate from it the
half of the oxide, obtained octohedral crystals of a citron yellow
which he regarded as neutral nitrite. It is evident that these
crystals are the same with those which | have extracted fron

* Notwithstanding all this, there may be a little nitrate of lead in these
crystals: [ have even tried to account for their formation. See the note

to No, 43 of my memoir. I have had no other evidence, however, of this
formation, except the pale colour assumed by the scales in soine operations,
t ”
C 6 2iaee the
- 7. eR
ie ee in
may re ‘BD;

404 ~ Supplement to the Memoir on

the subnitrite at the minimum of M. Proust, decomposed by the
carbonic acid. M. Berzelius in treating them with water ob-
tained subnitrate from them. He thinks that this last is formed
during the operation; but what I have reported above seems to
contradict this opinion. These crystals, according to this che-
mist, give 0°70 of residue when we distil them. I have said
that they may be formed of acid nitrate and of nitrite: the re-
sult of M. Berzelius supports this conjecture. If there exists a
neutral nitrite, we ought to find it im the solution of pure sub-
nitrite at the minimum passed over earboric acid and left to
itself. See the note to No. 37 in my memoir.

M. Berzelius says that the white pellicle which is formed by
the contact of the air in the solution of the subnitrates is sub-
nitrate: I regard it as being produced by the combination of
the carbonic acid of the air with the oxide of lead. 1 found my
opinion upon the subnitrite at the minimum, when dissolved in
water, not giving any white pellicle when it is in contact with
pure oxygen gas, and when it is disturbed by a single atom of
carbonic acid: I do not pretend, in short, that the carbonate of
lead which is precipitated is not mixed with a little subnitrate :
I have not made any experiment to enable me to ascertain the
contrary. >

M. Berzelius, having seen that the subnitrite at the minimum
left 0-SO of base when it was distilled, and that the greatest
part of the acid disengaged was condensed in the water of ery-
stallization in the state of fuming nitric acid, endeavoured to
determine, according to the laws which he had discovered, the
relation of the water to the acid. He determined this ratio on
the hypothesis that azote is a simple body, and also that it is a
compound of oxygen and ammonium. On the first hypothesis,
the subnitrite at the minimum ought to be formed :

NCid a) caiimnd se ABI
BASES abe sm ainjnipc ol eer ao
Wate’ | 00a tigen WSF

But according to M. Berzelius, this result is inadmissible, be-
cause the, water is in too small quantity to enable it to con-
dense the greater part of the acid to the liquid state, and this
quantity does not agree with the law of the water of crystal-
lization of salts. According to the second hypothesis, the sub-
nitrite ought to be formed:

Gg oss Sa re
Oxide... sera Scie ee SO
WREST 3: pe aie tal Wiet'oi ate CMa oe

M. Berzelius admits this result, because it agrees with the
laws which he has established: thus the base contains 5°72
oxygen, water 5-88, and the nitrous acid twice as much.

T have

the Nitrates and Nitrites of Lead. 405

I have spoken in my memoir of the difficulty of determining
the water of the subnitrite at the minimum, because the acid
begins to be disengaged from it at a temperature of 100° centi-
grade: in order to attain this, I heated on a sand-bath at a
gentle heat some subnitrite at the minimum, until no more di-
minution of weight took place. The salt when thus heated
still retained some water. As it may be objected with reason
that a portion of acid may have been volatilized, I made a test,
by distilling the subnitrite with its water in a small glass retort
communicating with a tube filled with muriate of lime: the re-
sult of this experiment confirmed the former; only the propor-
sion of base was a little stronger. It would be needless to detail
this experiment; but, as M. Berzelius is of a different opinion,
I shall describe it minutely.

I put 100 parts of pure subnitrite at the minimum which con-
tained 80 of base into a very small glass retort blown with a
lamp. A tube 14 millimetres in diameter, curved, comniuni-
eated with the retort by one of its extremities, and by the other
to a bent tube filled with calcined muriate of lime. The ex-
tremities of this tube by which the gases were extricated were
inserted into mercury. The weight of the whole apparatus was
determined with a very nice balance. I put the retort on a
wire grating supported by bricks, and placed under it a spirit
lamp: when the retort was heated, | surrounded it with burning
coals: a little water was extricated, nitrous acid gas in great
quantity, which soon filled the whole apparatus, and a part of
which escaped. When the operation was terminated, and when
all the liquid which moistened the sides of the retort had passed
into the intermediary-tube, I stopped the operation : I closed
this tube, and that containing the muriate of lime with stoppers
previously’ weighed ; I introduced a tube into the retort, and
blew into it, in order to drive away the nitrous vapour : without
this, the latter would have been absorbed when the oxide of lead
was cooled.

When the retort was weighed, I passed joseph paper into the
neck, in order to take up the water which might be there. I
weighed it again, and found that it had not perceptibly di-
minished in weight: there remained in the retort 825 of oxide,
while the same salt decomposed in a crucible had given 80. I
ascribe this difference to a portion of the acid not having been
disengaged hy heat; or, in spite of the precaution which I had
observed of blowing into the retort, a portion of the vapour had
already entered into combination, ‘The intermediary tube con-
tained 4-6 parts of water, and the tube with the muriate of lime
0:5, which makes for 100 parts of subnitrite at the minimum
5-1 of water, But this water was saturated with nitrous acid,

Ces and

406 On the Nitrates and Nitrites of Lead.

*e

and the tubes which had been weighed full of air, made it full
of nitrous acid gas: hence the subnitrite at the minimum can-
not contain 6°4 of pure water, as M. Berzelius says. I have
said that this result confirmed that of my analysis; for, accord-
ing to the latter, there must have been more than 2°26 of water
in 100 of subnitrite at the minimum: now we can easily con-
ceive that the latter had been able to absorb nearly its weight
of nitrous and nitric acid. I shall now detail another method of
determining the water of crystallization of the subnitrite at the
minimum, and it is entitled to the more confidence as I shall
deduce it from experiments described in my memoir.

When we pass into a solution at the maximum a stream of
carbonic acid, we precipitate from it such a portion of oxide
that the portion which is not precipitated is to the acid in the
relation of 72:48 to. 27°52: this ratio seems constant; for I
have shown that the quantity of water in which the subnitrite
was dissolved had no sensible influence on the result. The de-
composition is stopped by the presence of an excess of nitrous
acid: now the subnitrite at the minimum being partly decom-
posed by the carbonic acid, it is evident that the two decompo-
sitions ought to expose a quantity of nitrous acid, which ought
to be to the oxide not precipitated in the same ratio. This
being the case, we may know the quantity of acid contained in
the subnitrite at the minimum, if we have determined the pro-
portion of the elements of the subnitrite at the maximum, and
the quantity of the base of the subnitrite at the minimum. Now
M. Berzelius and I are agreed as to these quantities: we admit
80 as the base in the subnitrite at the minimum: several ex-
periments which I made on the decomposition of the subnitrite
at the minimum proved to me that the carbonic acid separated
from five grammes of this salt 1°74 gr. oxide, of which there re-
mained in the liquor 2:26 of base: now when we establish this
proportion, 72°48: 27°52: : 2°26: 9, we shall have 0-858 of ni-
trous acid contained in five gr. of subnitrite at the minimum,
Now if we subtract from 5 gr. 4 gr. of base and 0°858 of acid,
there will remain 0-142 for the water of crystallization, or for

100 Aer Le be eSB Go. ty Od enh
Oxide cen gee. .o000) 3 S253 23465
Water..... eT A

According to the first determination, I had admitted a little
more than 2:26 of water. If we now calculate the proportion
of base contained in the subnitrite at the maximum, supposing
that it is double that of the subnitrite at the minimum, we shall
have 90:2 instead of 90:1, which I found by experience.

ma | LXXXVII. On

{ 407 Jj

LXXXVII. On Errors in the Nautical Almanac.

June 1, 1814.

Sirs,— Baume much struck with the notices of the numerous
and remarkable errors in the Nautical Almanac for the year
1816, mentioned in your last number (193), on immediately
turning to the work, I found that all those errors, though
really existing, are not to be found in the several months in the
body of the work, but are all contained in what may be consi-
dered the 2d page after the preface, titled Principal Articles,

&c. where are found not only all the said errors mentioned by

Criticus, but many others also, which he has passed over in

his haste; for I find that all the twelve Ember days, mentioned

in the said page of the Almanac, are every one of them
wrong. Thus,

What are said to be Feb. 19, 21, 22, ought tobe March 6, 8, 9;
and instead of May 20, 22, 23, ought tobe June 5, ii 8;
and instead of Sept. 16, 18, 19, ought to be Sept. 18, 20, 21 é
and instead of Dec. 16, 18, 19, ought to be Dec. 18, 20, 21.

It then occurred that possibly similar errors might exist in
some of the other year’s Almanacs ; and accordingly, in turning
over that for 1815, many errors soon appeared. Thus, in the
column of Holidays, &c. in the month of May, page 49, there
are two, VIZ.

Oxford Term ends on the 11th, instead of the 13th day;
and Oxford Term legins onthe 24th, instead of the 20th.

Again, in the like column of June, page 61, we find

Trinity Term begins on the 3d, which was on May 24,

Trinity Term ends on the 2\st, instead of the 14th.
On the 5th day, in 8 days 2d return, for in 15 days 3d return.
On the 12th day, for 15 days 3d ret. read 3 weeks 4th return.

Again, in July, page 73, in the like column, all the numbers
of the Sundays are wrong, being all 1 too many; so that instead
of 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th, should be the oth, 6th, 7th,
8th, and 9th.

The same mistake happens in the month of August, where
the llth, }2th, 13th, 14th Sundays should be the 10th, 11th,
12th, 13th.

Under the article Other Phenomena, in the last column of
the first page of every month, many things, particularly the
Occultations, are omitted, which it was usual formerly to insert.
There are several other smaller omissions in different places, be-
sides one of more remarkable import entirely omitted; viz. the
Transit of the planet Mercury over the Sun, which will take
place on the 12th of November that year.

Such discoveries as these naturally create a suspicion as to.

Cc4 the —

408 New Inquiries inio the Nature of the Liquor obtained

the accuracy of other parts of the work, if time would permit
the investigation. .
I am, sirs,

Your obedient servant;
To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch. Critricus SEcuNDUs.

LXXXVIII. New Inquiries, into the Nature of the Liquor ob-
tained ly the reciprocal Action of Sulphur and Charcoal.
By M. Ciuzer*. Read before the Institute.

I, 1796, M. Lampadius having had oceasion to distil iron py-
Nites with charcoal, in order to extract more sulphur than by
the common process, obtained a liquor to which he gave the
name of alcohol of sulphur, and which he regarded as being
formed of sulphur and hydrogen. Messrs. Clement and Des-
ormes some years afterwards obtained the same liquor by passing
sulphur into a porcelain tube made red hot through charcoal
» previously calcined: they submitted it to a great number of ex-
periments, which induced them to regard it as carburetted sul-
phur; they thought that this liquor resulted from the combina-
tion of one-third in weight of charcoal and two-thirds sulphur :
they admit of no hydrogen. Subsequently, M. Amadée Ber-
tholiet, ina very excellent paper inserted in the first volume of
the Mémoires a’ Arcuetl, has communicated a series of re-
searches on this same liquor, which led him to conclude that it
did not contain an atom of charcoal, and that it resulted from
the union of sulphur and. hydrogen in variable proportions, but
always, with respect to hydrogen, less considerable than in the
sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and stronger than in the hydroge-
nated sulphur obtained from the hydrogenated sulphurets by
M. Berthollet’s process. M. Vanuquelin at the same time made
inquiries into those bedies, which led him to consider them also
as hydrogenated sulphur.

Struck with the variety of opinions of chemists so eminent,
and whose observations merit so much confidence, I thought
that this liquor must be variable’ in its composition, and that
probably some circumstances had hitherto escaped the authors
to whom | have alluded. I thought that it would be interesting
for science to undertake once more some fresh inquiries re-
specting this singular liquor. Circumstances prevented me
from carrying my labours so far as I could have wished, al-
though I made a great number of experiments; but I am of
opinion that the facts which I have had occasion to observe will
be agreeable to the class.

* Annales de Chimie, tome Ixxxiv. p. 72.

My

by the reciprocal Action of Sulphur and Charcoal. 409

My first care was to procure a sufficient quantity of this li-
quor. The process of Messrs. Clement and Desormes requiring
the use ‘of porcelain tubes, and consequently an expensive ap-
paratus, I endeavoured to procure a sulphuret which should
easily give out its sulphur, and I thought that none would better
serve, the purpose than the sulphuret of iron at the maximum:
viz. iron pyrites. M. Lampadius only sueceeded once in ob-
taining it by this process, but the cause must have been owing
to something which I proposed to discover.

Operation 1, I took one kilogramme of pyrites from the
Pas-de-Calais, clean and pure, and 50! gramines of common
charcoal, light, brilliant and sonorous. These two substances,
when reduced to a very fine powder and passed through a hair
sieve, were perfectly mixed, and intreduced into a stone retort.
To the neck of the latter was. fitted a lengthening tube entering
a bell-glass with three necks (fuludures): one of them entered
a very dry flask, and the other a bell-glass with two tubulures to
-which was adapted a tube thrice curved, the extremity of which
entered into an earthen pot full of water. The whole being
perfectly well luted with fat luting, and the first joint covered
with linen smeared with white of eggs and lime, a fire was
kindled under the retort, which was made red-hot, and towards
the end of the operation the dome of the furnace was sur-
mounted by a funnel or vent. At first, before the retort became
red, there was extricated a small quantity of a diaphanous li-
quid which had all the appearance of water. Afterwards there
came over a considerable quantity of gas. Several flasks of it
were collected at various stages of the operation, care being
taken always to use the same water contained in the earthen-
ware jar, in order to fill the flasks. This extrication of gas
lasted during the whole of the operation. The two bell-glasses
were covered with cloths, which were wetted with cold water
from time to time. .The liquor, which was at first diaphanous,
became milky in about an hour. After four or five hours of
heat carried the length of actual incandescence, the diseng gage-
ment of the gas having stopped, and nothing more Passing over
into the receiver, the operation was stopped, the earthen jar
removed, the extremity of the tube well dried with joseph pa-
per, the aperture was well closed with fat luting to prevent the
access of air, and after the apparatus was cooled the matters
which it contained were examined.

Three products were obtained by this operation :

1. Gases in a very great quantity, which were ascertained to
be a mixture of sulphuretted hydrogen, part soluble and part
insoluble in water, oxycarburetted hydrogen, carbonic acid and
azote, in proportions variable according to the stage of the ope-
ration, 2. A

410 New Inquiries into the Nature of the Liquor obtained

2. A milky liquid, weighing 43°5 grammes, apparently water
saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen and mixed with precipi-
tated sulphur, probably from the reaction of a small quantity of
sulphurous acid on a portion of sulphuretted hydrogen.

3. A very slight layer of a solid, flexible, lamellous reddish
matter, having a slight smell of hydrogenated sulphur, and lining
the inside of the two bell-glasses.

Operation Il. The substance remaining in the retort, which
had been carefully closed, was withdrawn: immediately upon
taking away the lengthening tube, one kilogramme was added
of the same sulphuret of iron pulverized and well dried in a
melting-pot. It was mixed perfectly and very speedily, in order
that the matter might be as little as possible in contact with
the air. The mixture was introduced into a retort, the ap-
paratus above described was adapted, and the operation con-
ducted in the same way.

Much less gas was set free: several flasks were collected at
various stages of the operation, always using the same water.
These gases were, as in the first operation, a mixture of sulphu-
retted hydrogen, carbonic acid, oxycarburetted hydrogen and
azote in variable proportions. There was remarked, as in the
first operation, a liquor at first diaphanous, afterwards milky, and
then slightly citron-coloured. The operation was stopped in
four or five hours, and the apparatus dismounted. In the flask
there were 30°4 grammes of a liquor composed of two layers :
the upper was slightly yellow, the under slightly citron.

The lengthening tube contained a much thicker coating of
reddish brown matter, flexible, lamellous, and slightly elastic.

Operation III. There was added as above | kilogramme of
the same sulphuret of iron pulverized and dried, but only one
half of the residue of the preceding operation, and the operation
was conducted in the same way. The same phenomena were
observed, but the gas was less considerable ; and it was suffo-
cating, having the smell of sulphureous acid at the same time
with that of sulphuretted hydrogen. This smell had not been re-
marked in the first two operations, and we were far from ex-
pecting it. M. Proust, however, in his experiments upon the
metallic sulphurets* had remarked a similar circumstance. We
shall see a little further on, under what circumstances these two
gases may be in contact without being decomposed. The water
in the earthen jar, which in the first two operations had remained
nearly transparent, was milky on this occasion.

Operation 1V. Two kilogrammes of the same sulphuret of
iron were added to the half of the residue of the preceding ope-
ration. 72°5 grammes of liquor formed like the former were

* Journal de Physique, tome liii, p. 90.
obtained.

<

by the reciprocal Action of Sulphur and Charcoal. 4\\

obtained. “The lengthening tube contained a greater quantity
of reddish-brown matter.

Operation V. To the residue from the preceding operation was
added 1-500 kilogramme of the same substance. 8°S grammes
of a milky liquor resulted from this operation.

Examination of the ethereated liquor *. Overlooking the pro-
ducts of the first and fifth operations, which were merely water
saturated, the former with sulphuretted hydrogen, and the latter
with sulphurous acid, | collected the liquors of the second, third,
and fourth operations, which seemed to be identically the same.
They were introduced under distilled water into a small glass re-
tort, the beak of which entered into the neck of a tubulated
matrass filled with distilled water up to the bottom of the neck,
so as to make the gasified matter arrive immediately into the
water, without the latter being able to reascend into the retort.
To the tubulure of the matrass was fitted a tube for collecting
the gases. The whole being closely luted, heat was applied, and
120 grammes of a limpid and volatile colourless liquor were ob-
tained. Its specific gravity was obtained by filling a bottle
with a ground stopper, which weighed, the temperature being
20°, 100-357 grammes; when full of distilled water, 167-712
grammes ; and when full of the liquor, 185-423: hence it weighed
1-263. Its taste was acrid and caustic; smell fetid, very pun-
gent, and not at all resembling that of sulphuretted hydrogen :
it is in short a smell per se.

Its elasticity (tension) is very great: it was found, as will be
afterwards seen, from 03154 metre to 0°7527 metre of pressure,
and 22° 5° of temperature.

It is not very soluble in water, but very soluble in alcohol.
This solution when poured into the water rendered it milky, like

the volatile oils and resins precipitated by water from their al-

coholic solutions. M. Vauquelin thought that this precipitate
was sulphur in a very minute state of division f ; but I have as-
certained it to be the liquor itself, apparently not altered, and
abandoned by the aleohol, which unites in preference with
the water. This liquor being in astate of extreme division,
and heing but slightly soluble in water, affects its transparency,
and gives it a milky appearance, analogous in fact to that pro-
duced by sulphur slightly hydrogenated, precipitated from the
sulphuretted hydrosulphurets by an acid: but this cannot from

_ the nature of things be sulphur. When we pour this alcoholic

solution into a great quantity of water, the turbidness which is
at first formed disappears entirely, on account of the solubility of

* Thus [ denominate the liquor obtained from pyrites calcined with
charcoal, or directly from sulphur and charcoal when exposed to a high
temperature. t Annales de Chimie, tome Ixt. p. 151.

the

412 New Inquiries into the Nature of the Liquor obtained

the liquor: if it were sulphur, this could not take place. Be-~
sides, when we do not use too much water, we see the milky li-
quid gradually become transparent, and drops of liquor are col-
feeted at the bottom of the vessel; they have the same appear-
ance, the same transparency, volatility, taste, and in short th
same properties in every respect above enumerated.

Liquid sulphurous acid effects no change in it: two grammes
of liquor kept in contact for about two months, and frequently
agitated with 60 grammes of concentrated sulphuric acid, exhi-
bited no alteration.

The sulphurous acid gas causes no kind of alteration, as we
may be assured by placing some in centact with azotic gas sa-
turated with liquer.

It burns without: leaving any charry residue. Four grammes’
were burnt in a porcelain saucer: no traces of charcoal were
discovered, but merely a little sulphur. The flame was white,
violet at the extremity, and shaded now and then with red: it
gave out a very strong smell of sulphurous acid,

When it was volatilized out of the contact of the air, it left
(although it was absolutely colourless and limpid) a small black
residue which might be taken for eharcoal, but in such a
small quantity that it would be difficult to decide upon it: there
are only some distinct traces of it when we act upon 17
grammes.

The water of the matrass of the apparatus above described
for the rectification of this liquor was colourless, diaphanous,
and had a peculiar smell which seemed to be that of the ethere-
ated liquor very dilute, and not that of sulphuretted hydrogen:
it was water, holding in solution a very small quantity of li-
quor. ‘The water contained in the retort was transparent, and
had the same smell, but» was-slightly citron-coloured. At the
bottom of the retort was a yellow, friable and crystalline matter,
which seemed to be nothing but sulphur. There was 15-3
grammes.

M. Amadée Berthollet inferred the presence of hydrogen in
this liquor from very strong analogies, { demonstrated this fact
in an incontestable manner by isolating the hydrogen by means
of a body which seizes upon the sulphur—iron or copper for in-
stancé—and the latter in preference, because it does not possess
the property of combining with the carbon, which I hoped to iso-
late at the same time, if the liquer contained any. The fol-
lowing is the apparatus I used:

I took 20-13 grammes of very fine copper wire, and introduced
it coiled up into a glass tube luted externally. This tube passed
through a furnace. To one of the extremities was fitted a small
glass retort containing ten grammes of ethereated liquor: vi

- the

by the reciprocal Action of Sulphur and Charcoal. 413

the other extremity was fitted a very small lengthening tube
communicating with a very small tubulated matrass, furnished
with a tube for collecting the gases, the extremity of which was
inserted into water. The whole apparatus had previously beer
most carefully dried; and the whole being perfectly luted, the
retort was heated a little to drive off all the air contained in the
retort and in the tube. The luted tube was then gradually heated:
scarcely had it become red, whenthere was aconsiderable explosion.
The matrass and lengthening tube were driven a great distance,
and broken to atoms. The tube appearing to be untouched, there
was substituted, after every thing was cooled, another lengthening
tube, and another small matrass fitted with a tube to collect the
gases. The whole being well luted, the retort was heated
longer than at first, on the idea that the explosion was owing
to a small quantity of air which remained in the apparatus: the
luted tube was made red hot, and the retort slightly heated.
No gas was emitted. All the liquor having disappeared, the heat
was gradually slackened, and I sealed hermetically with fat
luting the extremity of the bent tube, after having dried it well
with bibulous matter to prevent the admission of water.

Next day the apparatus was taken to pieces: the tube was
in part fused, but there was no fissure in it. When broken,
the:e was found among the broken glass the copper, which was
very brittle, and covered with a black, brilliant, light matter
having the appearance of charcoal. It weighed 22°15 gr.: it
had therefore augmented in weight 2-02 grammes: there was
besides a little matter disseminated and incrusted in the melted
glass. There were found in the matrass two or three grammes
of a pink liquor of an acid taste, and so volatile that a few drops
only could be collected. There remained in the retort a small
black, solid residue, adhering strongly to the side of the retort,
and in so small a quantity that it was impossible to examine it.

Since no gas was extricated during this operation, if the hquor
subjected to the experiment contained hydrogen, it must have
been found in the new red-coloured liquor, which would account
extremely well for its volatility, since the copper seems to have
taken from it sulphur, and to have isolated from it a portion of
charcoal. To ascertain this, I made the following experiment:

The copper, which had become brittle, and covered with a
blackish charry matter, was bruised in an agate mortar: the
pieces of copper which were still ductile were separated from it,
and about one part of pure crystallized mitre was added to it:
the whole being pulverized and mixed, it was projected from the
burning charcoal, and far from the furnace, into a red-hot
Hessian crucible very clean. The deflagration was very prompt.
Afterwards we treated with distilled water, filtered speedily, and

precipitated

414 Experiments on the variable « stion of the Electric Column.

precipitated the liquor by lime ater in a long and narrow
bottle. There was an abundant and flaky precipitate. The
bottle was corked and luted, and next day the water was de-
canted. The precipitate was in a heap, and adhering to the
bottom of the bottle: it was filled with mereury, and turned up-
side down in the trough; acetie acid was introduced, diluted with
about an equal part of water. A brisk effervescence took place.
The gas disengaged was passed into a smaller bottle, and it was
several times passed from one bottle to another through water, in
order te wash it, and free it from the little acetic acid with which
it might have been mixed. ‘This gas was without any sensible
- smell: it extinguished combustion, reddened turnsole tincture,
and precipitated lime water. It was not very soluble in water,
but nevertheless entirely absorbable by it: it was carbonic acid.
There was charcoal, therefore, in the ethereated liquor. We
cannot suppose that this carbonic acid was owing to carbon
foreign to the liquor: every precaution had been taken to re-
move every cause of error. In short, we shall see other proofs
of this in the course of this paper. The liquor from which the
carbonic acid had been precipitated by the lime water was pre-
cipitated by the water of barytes. The precipitate formed was
sulphate of barytes.

The blackish matter found in the tube after the operation
was therefore sulphuret of copper mixed with charcoal. At
least it is not probable that these three bodies are united: and
if we may be permitted to refer it to the appearance, we might
even affirm that the carbon was deposited on the surface of the
sulphuret of copper, which seemed really to have been strewed
with it.

[To be continued. ]

LXXXIX. Experiments on the variable Action of the Electric
Column.
London, June 13, 1814.
Sirs, oa HAVE the pleasure to inclose you an account of some

experiments on the action of the electric column, communicated
to me by an electrician of great promise, whose scrupulous at-
tention to the essentials .of accurate experimental inquiry it has
frequently afforded me pleasure to observe.

' It will be seen that these experiments render the conclusion
drawa by Mr. Howldy, from the ingenious experiments related
at page 241, vol. xlili. of your Magazine, rather exceptionable ;
and that they tend to confirm the opinion I have advanced in the
** Elements of Electricity,” page 478, that variations of tem-
perature have the most evident influence of any known cause on
the action of the electric column.

T have

Experiments on the variable Action of the Electric Column. 415

I have commenced a series of experiments on the effects of
heat applied to various Voltaic combinations, which may possibly
present an answer to the question proposed in this paper by
Mr. Ronalds: but, from the necessity of constructing new ap-
paratus for this purpose, it may be some time ere I am able to
publish their results. 1 am, sirs, yours, &c.

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch. G. J. Sincer.

Experiments on the variable Action of the Electric Column,
By Francis Ronaxps, Esq. Communicated by Mr.Sincep. ©
Hammersmith, June 10, 1814.

Very soon after I had constructed a pendulum apparatus si-
milar in principle to that of M. De Luc described in vol. xxvii.
page 161 of Nicholson’s Journal, and had observed the variety
of its action, I suspended an hygrometer and a thermometer near
it, by which I found that when the latter rose but one degree,
a difference of four to five vibrations in five minutes took place,
whilst no such effect occurred if the former advanced two or
three degrees towards dryness unaccompanied by a correspond-
ing rise of the thermometer. It was therefore evident that heat
is the principal cause of the variable action of the electric co-
lumn.

The following experiments were made with a gold-leaf elec-
trometer, in order that they might be: repeated and varied by
any one who may not be inclined to construct the pendulum ap-
paratus of M. De Luc’s contrivance, or provide himself with one.

The negative end of a column consisting of 1000 groups of
zine and gold paper, inclosed in a glass tube with interposed
discs of paper as improved hy Mr. Singer, was screwed upon one
side of a brass tripod, an electrometer on another side, and an
hygrometer and thermometer on the third side. A glass dish
was placed under the tripod, and the whole apparatus arranged
upon the plate of an air pump.

An observation was generally made every five minutes. In
the 3d Experiment the mean of several observations is set down
instead of each, for the sake of brevity. The first columns give
the time; the 2d, the degree of the hygrometer; the 3d, that
of the thermometer; and the 4th gives the number of strikings
per minute of the gold leaves.

Experiment 1. in open Air. Experiment 2. in the Receiver.

Time. Hygrom. Therm. Strik. Time. Hygrom, Therm. Strik.
Hour. Min. Hour. Min.

3 41 534 5 Leora hy WA HSS * 745
B.S 41% Idem Idem ! 410 Idem Idem Idem
3 10 Idem Jd Id 4:15 aid Id Id
Sis Id Id Td 430 Id Id Id

3 45 Al 54 dd 6°15 *'a2is., «58 3

4 Id ue Id I}

Experiment

416 Experiments on the variable Action of the Electric Columms

: Experiment 3. Room gradually heated. ~ ©
ot Time. ~Hygrom. Therm, Strik. :
HouryMiae m
6 50 to 6 45 al ha ee Oo te 3:75 ae
6 50 to 7 “- “A033 55°33 5 66 : *
7 5 toy 7 154) 89S 575 65 3
7 20 to 7 40 38°28 58°38 74 “—?
745 to 8 375 O13), ye wt
- 8 Sto 8 30 86°83 63:38 8 66
8 35 to 8 45 35 66 65°33 866
3.50, tor 9 5 35 22 66°25 10°5
9 10 to G9 2% 345 67 25 OE ne
9 30 to 9 50 33 25 68°5 13°5
9 50 32° 70° Lr
9 55 te 10. 31°5 ZT se leaves stuck tothe |
) sides frequently, —
Exper iment 4, Receiver re- Experiment 7 7. Water placed
moved, in the Dish, and Receiver re«
Time. Hygrom. Therm. Strik. placed.
Hour. Min. $ , Time. Hygrom. Therme Strik.
Q@ 20 40° 52 25 Hour. Min-
Q5 Idem Idem 5:3 715 89 55 4°5
30 Id Id Idem 7 20 43 545 Id
35 Id Id Id 7 25 48 jd Id
40 Id Id Id 7 35.° 63... ld 0% Sian *
457" > Id Id lad he 46 66. Yad Id
Experiment 5. Sulphuric Acid| 745 . 69 Id Be
; 7 1% 50 71 id Id
placed in the Dish. Tbs hide odd 5
‘Time. Hygrom. Therm. Strik. — 8 0 75 Id old f
Hour. Min. i ae : > Cree
8 5 765 Id 2 ’
ee a 31 Td Id 8 15 79:5° Id lesen
PS ee ae 830. 62" Id Idee ee,
1.25 18 Id 3 8 40 83 Id D)
150. Sad wir Abs ociyad "3.45. 88.6 Id? *ahogae
915 ft 53" ld . 8 50 84 Id Td
230 10 53:25 $5 ena UP
245 95 53°53 9 0 35 Id Id ,
3.0 a 54 35 ones coy rela Ta’
330 8 Ad 5 4 9 915 865eId 1
me eee Sad tae 92 875 Id’ 03
4 30 Id 645 Jd 9 35 885 Id Id
4 45 7 Td Id 9 40 39 Id 0.95
Sow es 5425 ame | o * son Ta se
9, 55 90 Td 0

Experiment 6.. Receiver and | 40 0 90:5 55°25 1 in. div.

_ Acid removed. 14010 gt Id 07 do.

‘rime. Hygrom, Therm. Strik. 10 20 91:5 Id 0'6 do.
Hour. Min. 40 3 92 Id Td
6 5 95 555 Gy! 10 40 92°5 55 Id
6 20 36 Id Id 10 50 93 Id Id
eae Id Id 1155 95 58 Id

~<

in

Experiments on the variable Action of the ElectricColumn, 417

Experiment 1. Was destined to try whether at equal degrees
of heat aud moisture in the open air an uniform action prevailed,
and the result shows that it was very nearly so.

Experiment 2. Shows that the same uniformity continued
in the receiver, which was not air-tight,

Experiment 3. Shows that when the air of the receiver was
gradually heated from 53 to 70, and by this means the hygro-
meter made to advance 94 degrees towards dryness, the electro-
meter increased its strikings progressively from 3°75 to 17 times
per minute.

Experiment 4, Proves that the column had not undergone
@ permanent change by Experiment 3.

Experiment 5. Shows that when the air of the receiver was
dried by means of sulphuric acid from 37 to 64, giving for the
whole diminution of moisture 304 degrees, no increased inten-
sity took place.

Experiment 6. Proves that the column had not been pers
manently affected by the last Experiment.

Experiment 7. Shows that when the the air was moistened
56 degrees, the intensity was diminished from 44 strikings per
minute te a divergence of 48; inch.

It would be unnecessary and tedious to detail some other
Experiments which were made with a different view, but which
conspired with the above to indicate that heat is the principal
cause of the phenomenon, and that a moist atmosphere pro-
duces exactly the same effect on the glass tube of the column
that it does on the insulators in all other electrical experiments.

It now therefore seems a matter of some interest to resolve
several queries relative to the mode in which heat acts: for in-
stance, Does it promote the electromotive powers of the metals?
Does it produce the effect by giving motion to the combined mois-
ture of the interposed disks of paper ? or by rendering those disks
more or less conducting ? Is there any analogy between the column
andthe tourmalin? The justly celebrated inventor of this modifi-
cation of the Voltaic pile, having first observed that equal degrees
of heat and moisture were not accompanied at different times
with a corresponding intensity of action, conceived that this dif-
ference was occasioned by changes in the electrical state of the
ambient air, for which reason he gave it the name of Aérial
Electroscope, and I think the evidence of our present experience
preponderates in favour of the conjecture.

Becearia, Read, and others haye shown that the state of
moisture of the higher regions of the atmosphere is intimately
connected with that of its electricity: a height of only six or
eight feet above the surface of the earth is even sometimes suffi-
aient for collecting powerful electrie signs in an open situation,

Vol, 43, No. 194, June 1814, Dd I have

418 Experiments on the variable Action of the Electric Colunin.

I have by means of a long wire insulated on Mr. Singer’s plan,
when a copious dew was falling, collected pungent sparks when
the height of the wire did not exceed five feet above the surface
of the earth in any part of it. Hence it is concluded, that we
cannot measure the electricity of the higher strata of the atmo-
sphere until that of the lower, which may be excited by the eva-
poration or condensation of moisture, or by position, has been
first measured. Now, if this electricity of the lower strata could
be proved to exist in a very small degree in closer situations,
there would be no reason why it should not influence the column.

Mr. Read has in my opinion done much towards this, by the
aid of the doubler.

The signs which the doubler produced were certainly strongly
analogous to those of his rod, and there are several other ex-
periments which appear to me to prove that what is called the
Adhesive Electricity of such-like instruments is occasionally no
other than that of the ambient air, which their peculiar structure
is caleulated to collect and display.

P. S.—Since writing the above, I have shown the tables to
Mr. Singer, and was glad to find that he not only coincided in
the conclusions drawn from them, but also in the idea that the
electric state of the ambient air may be sufficiently powerful to
influence the column: but I wished to ascertain the effeet of heat.
upon a column not inclosed in a tube, as it might be objected,
that the air immediately in contact with the pile I used, and the.
inner surface, was not dried by the acid, although the hygrome- _
tric equilibrium might have been varied by heat. I therefore
borrowed from Mr. Singer a pile consisting of 800 groups of
zinc, silver, and paper supported between three pillars of glass
covered with sealing-wax, and placed it in a very large receiver,
together with an hygrometer, thermometer, and electrometer :
the receiver was now placed over mercury.

The divergence of the gold-leaves was estimated as nearly as
T could guess by the.eye, and the following results were obtained

Time. Hygrom. Therm. Electrom.
June 2d. 11 40 A.M. 45 564 divergence 1:5 inch
3.0 — 42 76£ struck 3 times per mimute
10 0 — 45 64 ‘1-2 — per minute
June 8d. 1 0 P.M. 44 58 divergence 1-5 inch
Receiver taken off,
3.30 — 464 58 idem
3 37 receiver replaced and acid introduced
437 — 3821 591 idem
6 0 — 294 591 idem
6 30.acid removed and potash substituted
8 0 — 36 59. idem

*s

June

Description of an efficacious Temporary Rudder. 419

Time. Hygrom. Therm: Electrom.
June 4th, 9 30 A.M. 32 56 © divergence 1-25 inch
June Sth, 3S 30 P.M. 30 53 1-1

8 — 29154 idem
10 — 24 80 = divergence 1°5
Potash removed.
June 6th. 11 0 A.M. 35 53 idem

June 7th. O QO — _ a moistened card placed in receiver,
June Sth. 11 30 A.M. 40 50 divergence 1:25 inch
20 — 40 61 1°5
3.30 — 37477 © struck 1 per minute
345 — 374 80 3
445 — 39 76 2-5
545 — 40 71 5
June 9th, 9 another moistened card placed in receiver,
June 10th. 6 O P.M. 42 60 divergence 1°25 inch
640 — 40 69 1:5
650 — 39573 © struck 2 per minute
725 — 39 77 3
8 0 — 39% 80 45

‘There are several circumstances deserving observation in these
experiments, but one in particular; viz. that on the 5th of June,
when the air had been dried- by a long continued action of the
alkali, the power of the column was not increased by a rise of
temperature im its usual degree. Possibly the disks of paper
had been also deprived of a part of the moisture which eepse
necessary to the action of the column.

XC. Description of an efficacious Temporary Rudder.
By Captain Joun Peat, of Bloomsbury Square*.

Sir,— I BEG to submit, through you, for the consideration. of
the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and
Commerce, a sketch of a temporary rudder, invented and used
by me on board of the ship Cornwall under my command, -on
my voyage from this country to Jamaica, in January 18115
which ship was engaged by the Transport Board for the con-
veyance of 14 officers, 200 privates, 7 women, and 4 children,
to Barbadoes.

In lat. 44° 0 long. 19° 30’ on my passage out, I encountered
a very severe gale of wind with a heavy sea, which carried away
my rudder, and the rudder braces on the stern-post: I was,

* From Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. for
1813.— The gold medal of the Society was voted to Capt. Peat for this

useful i invention.
Dd2 therefore,

‘

420 Description of an efficacious Temporary Rudder.

therefore, under the necessity of fixing a temporary one from
the best materials 1 had then on board.. On reference to a plan
of Pakenham’s temporary rudder, I found it impracticable to fix
a rudder constructed on his plan, on account of the heavy sea
to which we were exposed. It was therefore absolutely neces-
sary, for the preservation of the lives intrusted to my care, that
I should set about the construction of a rudder, which could be
brought to act in a heavy sea, or under any circumstances what-
ever. This, I am happy to say, I accomplished, after a pro-
gressive improvement of fifteen days, and found this machine,
when substantially fixed, to act in every point with the same
effect as the regular rudder. One of the great advantages of the
rudder invented by me is, that it can be shipped and unshipped
at pleasure with the greatest facility, and under any circum-
stances.

At my request, a survey was held upon this rudder by the
_ principal officers of His Majesty’s yard, and all the old masters
ot the ships lying at Barbadoes; who were unanimous in their
opinion that the same was a better rudder than could be pro-
cured at that island; and recommended my proceeding with
the ship in that state to Jamaica, which I had no hesitation in
doing.

I have had the honour to submit a sketch of this temporary
mudder to the Honourable the Elder Brethren of the Trinity House,
who were pleased to speak in high terms of the invention, and
have subscribed for twenty copies of the above-mentioned en-
graving for their use.

I am, sir, '
Your most obedient humble servant,
No. 11, Bloomsbury-square, Joun PEar.
Oct. 24, 1812.
To C. Taylor, M.D. Sec.
——

Str,—BEING requested by Captain Peat to confirm and state
the particulars of what I know respecting his invention of a
temporary rudder, that he had made on board the ship Corn-
wall, then commanded by him, when on a voyage from England
to Jamaica :

I lament that I am not in London, where I have some papers
whereby [ could give dates of particular occurrences, which I
stated fully in the Barbadoes newspapers on our arrival there.
However, I recollect that it was on the night of the 3d of Ja-
nuary 181] that the ship parted with her rudder, when it blew
a perfect hurricane, and which continued, without any abate-
ment, the succeeding day and night. When the storm subsided,

} Captain

Description of an efficacious Temporary Rudder. 421

Captain Peat devised a plan of making a rudder, with a spare
fore-top-sail yard fixed over the stern, and by means of blocks
reefed on each side, it served as a kind of paddle. The first
trial was not a successful one, for want of a sufficient weight to
keep the paddle under water; but which was soon remedied,
for I think that it was on the 10th of January the ship an-—
swered the -helm, and we proceeded on our voyage, everv day
discovering some new improvements ; inasmuch that on or about
the 16th he fixed his helm to the wheel, and we proceeded the
rest of the voyage without any interruption, unless it was by
negligence of the man who steered.

So confident was I of the safety and utility of this new inven-
tion, that on my arrival at Barbadoes I proceeded in her to
Jamaica, when I might have gone in other conveyances, a di-
stance of 1000 miles.

At Barbadoes, the master-attendant of the king’s yard pro-
ceeded to séa in the Cornwall, by directions of Admiral Laforey,
for the purpose of forming an opinion of the new rudder. On
his return to Carlisle Bay, he declared that he would have no
hesitation to sail to the Pacific Ocean with the rudder. He took
a drawing of it, which the Admiral was to send to the Admiralty
Board. :

This new discovery J cannot too much praise, as being the
means of once preserving my life; ‘and the fatigue and labour
which Captain Peat endured in accomplishing this machine,
had nearly cost him his, by a severe fit of illness brought on by
anxiety and exertions. If Captain Peat can derive any benefit
from the British Government for his discovery, and of which I
have bore testimony, I will add to his merits, by stating his hu-
manity in affording comforts to 220 recruits whom he had on
board, together with their wives, who were in the most deplo-
rable situation occasioned by the storm, when the ship was un-
manageable, and it being necessary to throw their beds over-
board : many were sick, and received nourishment from Captaiw
Peat’s liberality.

I have the honour to be, sir,
Your obedient humble servant,

Birmingham, Nov. 10, 1812. Joun RICHARDS.
To C. Taylor, M.D. Sec.

Sir,—Ir having been represented to us by Captain John Peat,
late commander of the ship Cornwall of London, in our employ,
then engaged in the Jamaica trade, that he had submitted, for
the consideration of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts,.
Manufactures, &c. &c. &c. an engraving and model of a tem-
porary rudder, invented and ip by him gn his passage ye

3 this

422 Description of an efficacious Temporary Rudder.

this country to Barbadoes in January 1811, to which place he
was conveying 235 of His Majesty’s troops :

We consider that it would be doing Captain Peat a great deal
of injustice, were we not to give him every credit due for so valu-
able and simple an invention, the efficacy of which has been
proved by the distance run in so short a time, and the docu-
ments we have in our possession, with the information received
from many experienced nautical men of great respectability, who
were aboard at the time, and had an opportunity of witnessing
the great ease with which the vessel was steered on the different
points of sailing under all sail, and from the high terms with
which it has been spoken of in this country by nautical men of
the greatest experience and respectability, it cannot fail of being
of great utility to the public ; and we consider that great praise
is due to Captain Peat for his perseverance and daily improve
ment in substantially fitting the machine, from the idea which
first suggested the-fonstruction of it, ,

We have the honour to inclose a letter received from Mr. Lock-
wood, of His Majesty’s Naval Yard, Barbadoes, accompanied

with a sketch from that gentleman on the subject.
We have the honour to be, sir,
Your obedient humble servants,

, THOMsoN, OsBOURNE, AND Co,
Billiter-square, Nov. 12, 1812.

To C. Taylor, M.D, Sec.

GENTLEMEN,—I HAVE the honour to forward a sketeh of the
temporary rudder, by which Captain Peat governed the Cornwall
to this island.

The apparent ease with which the ship reached this anchor-
age, the direct course she made under a press of sail, even stud-
ding-sails, and the account of its action, led me to investigate
the circumstance minutely, and enable me to speak very confi-
dently of its properties; and, in order that you may have yet
more information than I have time to write, I inclose the sketch
with a Barbadoes paper, It was my first intention to send the
plan to Mr. Robert Blachford, Chartseller, Minories, for imme-
diate impression, and to propose giving him a right or title to
the plan, by sending me 200 copies, Captain Peat suggested
the idea of my sending it to you.

_ I therefore, gentlemen, beg your acceptance of my humble
labour; my sole wish was to render it public for the good of
society, as in my opinion it not only supersedes Pakenham’s.
rudder, which stands in such high repute, but every attempt of
that nature “hitherto made, and reflects the highest credit on

Captain

Description of an efficacious Temporary Rudder, 423

Captain Peat for his progressive improvement upon the rude
idea that first presented itself.
f I have the honour to be, gentlemen,

Your very obedient humble seruant,

> A. T, Lockwoop,
Naval Yard, Barbadoes, ae Late Master R. N.
Feb. 18, 1811. Master-Attendant of Barbadoes Naval Yard.

To Messrs. Thomson and Co.

Opinions of Officers in His Majesty's Royal Navy, respecting
Captain Prar’s Temporary Rudder.

Captain Losack, of H. M. R.N., thinks that the simplicity of
Captain Peat’s temporary rudder, is its great qualification, and
never saw any thing so good under every circumstance ; that it
can be shipped in cases where Captain Pakenham’s cannot ; that
few merchant-ships have spare caps; that every merchant-ship
has the materials to form Captain Peat’s rudder; that Captain
Peat’s method is much superior to that which was adopted by
Mr. ‘Nicholson, described in his “‘ Treatise on Practical Sea-
manship,” and as used by him for the Grafton and Elizabeth.

It appears to Captain Losack, that with Captain Peat’s rudder
a ship will tack, but not with the rudder described by Mr. Ni-
cholson ; which is a matter of great consequence.

Captain HanweE t, of H. M. R.N., is of opinion, that Captain
Peat’s invention can be executed by any merchant-ship, and
readily shipped in any weather ; that Captain Pakenham’s rud-
der cannot be so shipped; that he has no doubt cf a ship tack-
ing with Captain Peat’s temporary rudder. He adds, that he
agrees generally with Captain Losack in the observations made
by him.

Captain Jackson, of H. M. R. N., thinks Captain Peat’s tem-
porary rudder has much superiority over every other invention
for the purpose that he is acquainted with; that it possesses
great simplicity, and that ships of all descriptions have the means
of constructing it,

That in eases of heavy sea and bad. weather, he is of opinion
that it may be more easily applied than Captain Pakenham’s
rudder, but he thinks Captain Pakenham’s rudder superior when
once applied.

That Captain Peat’s rudder appears to him more generally
applicable to merchant-vessels and small ships of war than to
ships of the line; that he cannot judge with precision ‘of its
power, from not having seen it in practice, but he believes it can
sack in all common cases.

Dd4 Re-

424 Description of an efficacious Temporary Rudder:

Reference to the Engraving of Captain Prat’s Temporary’
Rudder, which can be quickly fitted out by a Ship’s Com-
pany when at Sea, and from such Materials as they always
have on board. See Plate VI. fig¢ 1, 2, and 3, ;

Plate VI. fig. 3. shows all the part of this contrivance de-
tached, and ready for launching over the ship’s stern; fig. 1.
shows an elevation of it in action; and fig. 2. a plan answering
thereto. The invention consists of a top-mast, placed out of
the ship’s stern, having planks fixed at the end of it, which go
edgeways through the water; the mast is attached to the stern
by a kind of joint or socket, on which, by proper guys, it ¢an be
inclined in an angle, with the keel either larboard or starboard ;
and will steer the ship as effectually as a proper rudder.

To fit out a ship on this plan, the following materials must be
collected and prepared as soon as the rudder is gone, or ex-
pected to be lost.

Ist. A spare top-mast AB, fig. 2. and two top blocks Ah,
which must be securely lashed on at each end of it.

2d. A top-sail-yard CD, which must have cleats, nailed se-
curely upon it, forming a shoulder at the end C, which is to be
kept on board; and at the opposite end must be framed a
case eee, formed of pieces of oak plank, nailed firm to the yard,
on each side, the left or foremast part being chamfered off and
leaded: so that by presenting a narrow edge it may make the
less resistance in passing through the water.

As the taff-rail will not, in general, be found sufficiently strong
to resist the force of the machine; a frame Admn, must be com-
posed of substantial pieces of oak, and erected behind it, upon
the deck ; it consists of two uprights mm, set up from a sill-x,
which is spiked down upon the deck: and they support a
rail p, which is firmly lashed to the taff-rail: and the whole is
strengthened by three shores kk, stepped from the deck to the
uprights mm: between these is supported a piece of oak ?,
4+ inches thick, with a hole through it, of a proper size to re-
ceive the end f, of the yard: the hole is leathered inside,’ in
which the end f of the yard acts with perfect ease, and can swivel
about in all directions ; the tapered end f of the yard is leathered
also, that the whole may act easily.

While these parts are preparing by one part of the crew, some
should get the top-mast A athwart-ship, over her quarter, and
make it fast by proper lashings; the others should be ready
with the several tackles which rig it out, to give motion to the
rudder when in the water. They are as follows: two principal
guys, aa, madé of rope which is 5$ inches girt, and should be
ef very good materials; they are to be made fast to the boards

' at

Description of an efficacious Temporary Rudder. 423

#t ee, and carried through the top blocks at 4A; the end has
the block r, of a liff tackle purchase, turned in; the other block
being lashed to one of the stanchions on the ship’s quarter, and
the fall carried through the leading blocks ss to the steering-
wheel F, situated upon the ship’s deck.

A topping-lift, b4, suspends the weight of the rudder from the
spanker-boom G: it is a gun tackle purchase, and is of great
use in getting the machine out of the water, and also to assist
im getting it in; the fall of the ‘purchase is carried along the
boom to a cleat spiked to it.

¢ is another topping-lift from the rudder to the mizen-mast
head ; it likewise assists to get in the machine, as well as for a
substitute, should either of the guys break ; it should be 3+ inch
rope.

Two short luff tackles dd, fixed to the taff-rail and cross
piece p: they are for the purpose of holding the end of the mast
firm in the socket, and materially aid“in placing and displacing it.

A jack-stay, i. This is a rope stretched tight from the planks
at ee, to the other end of the mast; on this a weight, é, is sus-
pended. The machine is hallasted sufficiently for common
occasions when the ship is going less than eight knots; but this
additional weight, consisting of shot sewed up in canvass, is to
assist in keeping the whole of the machine in the water, when
going more than eight knots ; and when going less, to be hauled
up by the line v.

The mode of operation in this machine will appear evident
from the above description: the steering wheel F, being turned
either way, acts to bring in the fall of one of the guys a, and
give out the other, producing an inclination of the rudder, as in
fig. 2, so as to put the ship about as expeditiously as a common
rudder; and upon the same principle, viz. that of making a re-
sistance to the ship’s motion, on either side of her keel, at plea
sure. The ship Cornwall, in which the contrivance was first
tried, had her wheel fitted close to the rudder-head, and she
steered with a short tiller abaft the rudder, In ships fitted in
the common manner, the tackles would Jead to their wheels in
a similar way; the only alteration from the figure being, that
the wheel is placed much further forward on the deck, and
the leading blocks ss, are of course placed opposite to it.
Certificate and further Observations from Mr. A. Lockwoop,

Master-Attendant of H. M. Naval Arsenal, Barbadoes.

The Cornwall lost her rudder on the morning of the 4th of
January, and got this machine over on the 7th at noon; arrived
at Barbadoes on the 11th of February, and at Port Royal on the
23d. During the passage from Barbadoes to Jamaica, this ma-

} chine

426 Description of an efficacious Temporary Rudder.

chine acted with great effect, the ship carrying royals and all
studding-sails night and day, and for several hours together going
10 and 103 knots; during which time she required less wheel
than with the eommon rudder, and at no time did the temporary
rudder require to make an angle of more than 10 degrees, either
in the act of wearing or tacking.

This simple and truly ingenious method of governing a vessel
in distress, ] recommend earnestly to the notice of all persons
subject to casualties, that may require an expedient of this kind;
and although temporary rudders are no new subject, yet the one
here delineated is unquestionably the best ever held to public
view. Little more need be said in its praise, than the concur-
rent opinions of seven professional men (whom | know to possess
clear judgement) that the rudder was superior to any that could
be made at this island, and they had no hesitation in recom-
mending Captain John Peat to proceed on his voyage to Jamaica,
without any alteration in it whatever; and I can venture to as-
sert, without hesitation, that the machine in question not only
supersedes Pakenham’s rudder, which stands in such high repute,
but every attempt of that nature hitherto made, and reflects the
highest credit on Captain Peat for his progressive improvement
upon the rude idea which first presented itself.

The circumstanees favourable to the machine are, first, its
being composed of such materials as vessels of any description
are possessed of; secondly, the simplicity of its composition
superseding the absolute necessity of a carpenter; thirdly, that
it may be constructed and put in action, even in a gale of wind,
in, two, or at most three hours. Its properties are, Ist, that
it can be shipped at pleasure without delay, and with very little
trouble; 2d, that it cannot, by any shock or violence, be ren-
dered unfit or useless ; 3d, that the guy tackle fall, being brought
to the wheel, requires only the same force to steer as the ecom-
mon rudder; that the ship is under complete command, as will
appear by the ship’s log-book, in all the following cases ;

“ Gale of wind, heavy sea, wind quarterly.”

«© Light winds, heavy swell.”

“ Fresh wind, spanker, main-sail and all sail, on a wind, off
the wind.”

*¢ Staying and wearing.”

The sole object of this, my humble labour, being to promote,
in however small a degree, the good of ‘the nautical world; I
cannot in justice drop the subject without suggesting what, in
my opinion, would be, with little additional trouble, a very great
improvement. The body of dead water occasioned by the flat
open part x, of the planks at the end of the yard, tends to im-
pede the ship’s progress, and to force the case upwards, which

consequently

Report of the Progress of the Sciences in France. 427

éonsequently strains the guys when going very quick. The
dotted lines at x, fig.3, 1 propose to be a piece of plank to be
continued on the end of the topsail-yard, so formed or filled up
as to carry off the body of water complained of.

(Signed) ANnrHony Lockwoop,

BGI: Report of the Progress of the Sciences in France in 1813,
By J, C. DELAMETHERIE*.

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.

On the influence which the temperature of the air exercises in

the chemical phenomena of respiration.

Respiration has been latterly regarded as a kind of com-
bustion, viz. that of the carbon and hydrogen contained in the
venous blood. The oxygen absorbed by this combustion forms
carbonic acid and water.

It has been endeavoured to ascertain the quantity of atmo-
spheric air which a man of a middling stature inspires at each
inspiration, and’expires at each expiration. It has been sup-
posed that it was from 20 to 50 and even 40 cubic inches ; but
I have shown that this supposition is not correct. A man of a
middling stature inspires only a few inches of atmospheric air.
Now the atmospheric air contains only about one fifth oxygen,
or 0°21.

In the act of respiration a very small portion of this oxide
inspired is combined with carbon, and forms carbonic acid.

Another portion of this oxygen is combined with a portion of
inflammable gas, and there is a production or disengagement of
water. But the greater part of this light portion of oxygen is
not combined, and it is found in the air expired mixed with car-
bonic acid,

But Delaroche, like myself, has discovered that there is a pro-
duction of azote.

He made a great number of experiments in order to deter-
mine the influence which the temperature of the air exercises in
the chemical phenomenon of respiration. He placed at different
temperatures animals in manomeires or glass vessels with large
apertures, hermetically closed by copper plates and screws. If
‘we compare, he says, the results of the experiments made on
one and the same animal placed in the same circumstances and
at different temperatures, we shall see that almost in all the
experiments upon the cold-blooded animals, the quantity of

oxygen absorbed was a little greater when the temperature was
low than when it was high.

* Abridged from the Journal de Physique, de Chimie, et d’ Histoire Na-
turelle, for Jan, 1814.
The

428 Report of the Progress of the Sciences in France.

The difference between the quantities of carbonic acid formed
at different temperatures is still less considerable.

In all cases there is less carbonic acid produced than oxygen
absorbed. I concluded, he says, with M. Berthollet, that there
was a production of azote.

In an experiment made upon a hare, the manometre con-
tained 0:7900 azote, 0 2100 oxygen.

After the experiment, the azote was 0°7991, the oxygen
0°1516, and the carbonic acid 0-0416.

There was therefore a production of 0:0091 of azote, and
0-054 of oxygen absorbed. I had remarked the same pheno-
mena, and I have observed in my Essay upon pure Air, that in
the air expired there was always a production of a portion of
impure aur, the azote of the new nomenclature.

Spallanzani has proved that a contrary effect takes place in
the cold-blooded animals. My experiments, says M. Delaroche,
prove also that heat augments in a most remarkable manner the
activity of respiration in these animals. The quantity of oxy-
gen absorbed by frogs exposed to a heat of 27° has been in one
experiment doulle, and in the other quadruple, to what it was
when the external temperature did not exceed six or seven de-
grees.

ANIMAL HEAT.

Respiration being regarded as a kind of combustion, it has
been considered as the principal cause of the heat of animals;
but I have shown that too much stress has been laid on this
cause.

1. a. We find that a man of middling stature only takes in
at every inspiration a few cubic inches of atmospheric air. Now
atmospheric air contains but little more than one-fifth of oxy-
gen, or 0-21.

b. There is but a small quantity of this oxygen combined in
respiration, certainly less than a cubic inch.

2. a. Aman who sleeps tranquilly takes cold, although he
breathes quite at his ease.

Lb. If he takes exercise, he acquires heat, and even perspires.

¢. An animal exposed to a severe cold may perish if it does
not take exercise. If, on the contrary, it moves or carries bur-
dens, it preserves its life.

d. Consequently the muscular motion has the greatest in-
fluence on animal heat.

3. Oxygen gas contains very little heat ; therefore the small
portion which is combined in the act of respiration has produced
very little heat.

I have concluded from these facts, that animal heat pro

ceedec

Report of the Progress of the Sciences in France. 429

teeded but in a very trifling degree from the caloric extri-
cated from the oxygen inspired.

4, If animal heat proceeded from respiration, or from the
combustion of the carbon in the act of respiration, the lungs
ought te possess a greater degree of heat than the other parts
of the system, as Brodie has asserted, which is not the fact.
He thinks that animal heat is in a great measure under the in-
fluence of the nervous system and of the brain. -

In the muscular movements the nervous system is in a state
of activity more or less considerable; this is the reason that
heat is produced in the animal body.

5. The fermentation of the various animal liquors contri-
_ butes much to the heat of animals, for we know that every fer
mentable substance contracts heat. Now all the animal liquors
are in a perpetual state of fermentation.

_ 6. There are continual combinations in the animal economy
iehich give new products, such as the phosphoric, uric, sebic,
acids, glutine, fibrine, &c. &c. Now all these combinations are
uniformly accompanied with an extrication of caloric.

7. The galvanic action is powerfully exerted among the va-
rious heterogeneous particles of the bodies of animals which fer-
ment. ‘This galvanism is very intense in the electric eel, &c.
and contributes powerfully to animal heat.

BOTANY.

Picot la Peyrouse has given a complete history of the plants
of the Pyrenees. Cassini has published an elegant work on the
Synanthere, or Syngenesie of Linnzus, the Composita of Tour-
nefort.

Palisot de Beauvois, having ascertained that the methods for
the study of the Graminea were imperfect, has proposed a new
one, which he calls Agrostographia. Desvaux has published
some additional observations on the Lycopodiacee, of which
Jussieu and Mirbel have furnished us with an extract.

Bonpland has published the second nurhber of the rare plants
of Navarre and Malmaison.

Redouté continues his work on the Liliacee, Mirbel has
published the description of various new fruits, and also a Hi-
story of Botany from its infancy among the Greeks to the pre-
sent time.

Decandolle has given an elementary treatise on botany, or an
explanation of the principles of natural classification, and of the
art of describing and studying vegetables. Tristan has pub-
lished a fine work on the budding of plants.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

» Under this head M. Delametherie, after stating it to be his
opinion

430 Report of the Progress of the Sciences ix France,

opinion that the analogy between the organization of plants and
animals becomes daily more evident, gives a sketch ef the me~
moir of M. Link on the structure of vegetables, which has been
already given at length in the Philosophical Magazine.

MINERALOGY:

Cordier has made some researches respecting the stone calleé
by some mineralogists water sapphire; and by some others blue
quartz. It is brought from India, and particularly from Ceylon.
Its gravity is 2-980, which removes it from the sapphire. Its
colour is blue at first sight ; but when we view it in a plane
perpendicular to the directton which had shown the blue, its
colour is of a clear browu inclining to gray, This double colour
made M. Cordier suppose that this stone was a variety of the
dichroite.

Of the Ligurite-—This stone has been discovered by Viviani
im the mountains of Liguria near Genoa. This substance, whicls
I have not seen, appears to several naturalists to be a variety
of Titanite.

Of the Chlorite in secondary strata.—It was once supposed
that chlorite existed only in primitive strata, but it has since
been found in secondary also. It is met with in the vicinity of
Paris. Risso has also observed it in the environs of Nice. Near
the castle of Nice, he says, there are regular beds of chloritous
marl with belemnites. These facts show that minerals, which
have been thought peculiar to primitive strata, may be trans~
ported into secondary. Lambotin has found fluor also in the
environs of Paris; but it is crystallized with calcareous spar,
which proves that it has been brought there and deposited.

Of the Lherzolite.—I have given this name to a stone from
Lhers in the Pyrenees, where Le Lievre found it: it appears to
be a variety of smaragdite.

Charpentier junior saw large beds of it in the same place.
He regards it as a variety of augite, but augite has not as yet
been found en masse. Vogel analysed it, and found as follows :

RULER Weal alc stare v0 8m

PRIME 2 is 5s Sin =. 6 Halen tod

Lie os on ise cohae & hee
Magnesia .....-seeeee 16
Oxide.of fon! S35. .s0 12
Oxide of chrome ...... 0°50
Oxide of manganese a slight trace.
AOS aa acer aie Ais aie boy oi

This analysis approaches very closely to that of the green
smaragdite, made by Vauquelin.

Picotite—We sometimes find in the heart of the masses of

lherzolite,

Report of the Progress of the Sciences in France. 431

lherzolite, a blackish substance which seems to have some con~
nection with Gadolinite. Charpentier gave it the name of Pi-
cotite, from the name of Picot de la Peyrouse.

Mines of Tin discovered in France —Tin mines have been
discovered near Limoges, and others at Pirac near Nantes.

Of Rocks.—~The year 1813 has supplied us with various
works upon rocks; but they have not all met with the approba-
tioa of mineralogists, and they continue to adopt the nomen-
clature of rocks given by the Germans, imperfect as it is.

Pinkerton has published a work of considerable extent upon
rocks.

Other mineralogists have also proposed a new nomenclature
for rocks : but it may be fairly thought that they wished them
to have been unanimously rejected, for they are removed from all
the philosophical principles of language. They gave, for exam-
ple, the name of mimosa to a rock composed of feldspar and au-
gite. Now there is no naturalist, or even amateur, who does not
know that a celebrated plant, viz. the sensitive plant, is called
mimosa ; when we read the word mimosa, who can tell whether
a stone or a plant is alluded to?

It would be useless to detail the other defects of works so
unanimously disapproved.

Crystailography.—After noticing Dr. Wollaston’s labours on
the molecules of crystals, M. Delametherie proceeds :—Werner
told me during his last visit to Paris, that he thought the figure
of the primitive molecules of matter was spherical.

Preschtal adopted the same opinion. Bodies, he says, do not
crystallize but when they are in a liquid state. Now every fact
seems to prove that the molecules of liquids are spherical.
Descartes had published the same opinion. He said that the
molecules of his two first elements, fire and the luminous fluid,
were spherical.

GEOLOGY.

’ This branch of science has been this year the subject of the la+
bours of a great number of scientific men. Geology is equally
advanced with the other branches of natural philosophy. It has
problems, it is true, which have not been as yet resolved, but
there are problems ia all the other natural sciences.

Of primitive Earihs.—The primitive earths form the major
part of our globe. The geologist cannot therefore study too
minutely those with which we are acquainted, such as granites,
porphyries, gneiss, schists, amygdaloids, the metals, the anthra-
cites, &c.

Charpentier jun. has given some interesting details respecting
the Pyrenees. Hoff and Jacobi have visited, as intelligent mi-
Bi Da neralogists,

432 Report of the Progress of the Sciences in France.

neralogists, the Thuringewald, and Braun Neergard has given,
us an account of their journey. In similar researches we
ought chiefly to mark out the chains of primitive earths which
traverse the surface of the globe. I have distinguished for in-
stance five great masses of primitive earths in France :

1. A portion of the Alps.

2. The Cevennes. ;

3. A porticn of the Pyrenees.

A. The mountains of Bretagne.

5. The Vosges.

Secondary Earths. —On this subject Risso has given a de»
“scription of the caleareous earths in the vicinity of Nice. All
these secondary earths contain quantities more or less consr~
derable, of fossils, 2. e. traces of animals and vegetables.

The knowledge of fossils may afford some notions as to the
formation of the strata of the globe in latter times: this branch
of geology, therefore, is making rapid progress, as we are better
acquainted with living animals and vegetables. J have distin-
guished three fossil orders :

Marine fossils deposited at the bottom of the sea.

Fresh-water fossils deposited in fresh water.

Land fossils deposited in the bowels of the earth, or buried by
the fall of mountains, without having been touched by water.

We can also distinguish ‘

The fossils of organized beings which live in the ocean.

The fossils of organized beings which live in fresh water.

The fossils of organized beings which live on the continents.

FRESH-WATER STRATIFICATIONS.

It cannot be doubted that there were strata formed in fresh-
water lakes after the lowering of the level of the water of the
ocean, as I have proved in my Theory of the Earth, tome v.

137.

3 Lamanon long since recognised fresh-water shells in the strata
of the environs of Paris; which made him say that several of these
strata, and particularly the chalks, were formed in fresh-water
lakes. He has said the same of the chalks of Aix in Provence.

Coupé has also given accurate descriptions of the soils in the
environs of Paris: he there recognised fresh-water shells.

Cuvier and Brongniart have adopted the opinion of Lamanou
with respect to certain soils in the environs of Paris. They sup-
pose that they have been formed in fresh water, hecause fresh-
water shells are there found. They found at Montmartre a cy-
olustome of a blackish colour.

Brongniart, Prevost, and Desmaret jun. also observed fresh-
water shells in part of ‘Auvergne. Bendaut has also found /ym-
nee (fresh-water shells) near Vaucluse. ‘They have also pepe

2 oun

Report of the Progress of the Sciences in France. 433

found near Valence in Dauphiny; near Roanne, and Orleans; in
the plains of Ulm, and at Rome; in Silesia, and at Burgos in
Spain.

The Isle of Sheppy at the mouth of the Tharfes has also
presented sone fresh-water shells. Faujas has also seen them
on the banks of the Rhine, near Mentz, and at Frankfort on
the Maine.

Risto has made us acquainted with the shells which are found
in the environs of Nice.

«© The waves,” he observes, “ acting continually on the rock,
detach these marine petrifactions, polish them, mix them with
the sea shells of the present day, and the remains of the terres-
trial mollusce carried along by the pluvial waters :—the whole
form new deposits, which will perhaps be znigmatical subjects of
meditation for future generations.

Most of these naturalists have said that the soils in which
these fresh-water shells are found had always been formed in
these fresh waters, and they call them soils of fresh-water for~

mation.

’ It. cannot be denied that there have been strata formed in
fresh water after the retreat of the sea. We see them formed
every day in lakes of fresh water ; but we cannot say that all the
soils in which fossil fresh-water shells are found have always
been formed in fresh water. For we have seen in these very soils,
as at Montmartre, shells which are not sea shells, bones of qua-
drupeds of terra firma, &c. ; the latter evidently washed by cur-
rents of water. The fresh-water shells must also have been
brought there by the waters, as observed by Risso at Nice. In
fact, it cannot be doubted that the fresh water which daily flows
into the sea, carries with it the remains of animals and vegeta-
bles of terra firma, and the remains of animals and vegetables
which live in fresh water. Thus the waters of the Seine may
carry to Havre planorbes, lymnew, bulimi, from the fresh water
of the environs of Paris.

The greatest part of these shells is broken, as observed at
Grignon, but some are preserved perfectly entire,

4 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. .

We have had a great number of observations on the fossils of
the mammiferous and oviparous quadrupeds. Cuvier has brought
them all under view in one work, and added his own obser-
vations,

He has spoken of 78 fossil quadrupeds, as well viviparous as
viparous.

Twelve are analogous, he says, to living animals: these are,

1. Akind of hippopotamus.

2. The stag. ‘

Vol. 43, No. 194, June 1814, Ee 2. The

434 Report of the Progress of the Sciences in France.

. The goat.

. The ox.

. The aurochs.
. The musk ox,
- The deer.

. The hyena,

. The wolf.

10. The dog.

11. The horse.

12, The sheep.

Sixteen or eighteen other species of fossils appear to be ana-
logous to existing genera, but not to existing species ; these are,

The elephant,

The rhinoceros.

The tapir.

The small hippopotamus.

The bear,

The jacuar.

The hare.

The fox.

The crocodile.

The turtle, &c. &c.

Finally, 48 other fossil species do not appear analogous either
to existing species or existing genera: these are,

The megalonix.

The megatherium.

Five species of mastodonta.

Ten species of paleotherium.

Five species of anoplotherium.

A petrodactyl.

Some authors have spoken of fossil remains of apes. Swe-
denborg says that the bones of the sapajon have been found in
copper-mines at Menungen; but Cuvier thinks that these bones
rather belonged to the bat genus.

Fossil bones of the human species have also been spoken of.
Cuvier thinks that these bones are not human bones.

Fossil Birds.—There are fossil birds. I have stated in my
Theory of the Earth, that I have seen’ them in the chalks of
Montmartre. Doubts have been raised improperly on this sub-
ject, for soon afterwards I saw several. But we do not know
of any others.

. Fossil Fishes.—In the great number of fossil fishes which have
been observed in several places, as at Mount Bolca, several have
been recognised similar to those of the present day.

Fossil Shells.—Fossil shells have been observed from the high-
est antiquity. The priests of Egypt spoke of them to Herodo-
tus,

CO OST OD On 0 -

}
»

Report of the Progress of the Sciences in France. 435-

tus. Pythagoras had seen them, according to Ovid. But our
knowledge in this respect has made great progress latterly.

Lamarck and Defrance have made us well acquainted with
those in the environs of Paris. Cuvier, Brognard, Faujas, and
Brard, have laboured in the same field with success.

We distinguish three orders of fossil shells, viz. sea shells,
fluviatile, and terrestrial.

The sea shells are the most numerous. In the depot of Gri-
gnon alone, nearly 690 species are found, the species or genera
of which exist at present in different seas, far asunder.

Most of the same species are to be found at Courtagnon near
Rheims, according to Lamarck.

Fluviatile and terrestrial shells are less numerous. Daudebert
Ferrusac counts 83 known species: 21 helices and bulimi;
1 vertigo; 24 lymnee; 10 planorbi; 1 physis ; 5 cyclostomes ;
11 paludines; 1 potanidis; 3 melanopsides ; 3 melanies; 2
shells approaching to the bulimus glans; J neritine. Twenty-
five of these species, he adds, have their analogous species in
the same soil. Eight have their analogous species now existing
in the Indies and America, Fifty have no analogies, so far as has
been hitherto discovered.

Of Crustaceous and Fossil Insects. —At Maestricht as well as
at other places crustaceous fossil insects have been discovered,

and every naturalist is acquainted with the insects in amber.

Of Fossil Madrepores.—All these productions in the fossil
state are very abundant.

Of Fossil Vegetables.—Fossil vegetables are extremely abun-
dant, since they enter into the composition of the immense
quantity of coal and peat moss with which the earth abounds.

We also find great quantities of fossil and petrified wood, &c.
Some of these productions seem never to have been removed
from the place where they are found, such as the forest of Palm-
trees observed by Audenrieth on the banks of the Neekar, and
Mas forest observed by La Fruglaie on the sea-coast near Mor-

alx. ,

But the greater number appear to have been carried to di-
stances more or less considerable.

a. Generally we only find separate portions of the skeletons
of animals, such as the teeth, thigh bones, and never the en-
tire organized beings.

Lb. We find collected in the same depot, marine, fluvial, and
terrestrial fossils.

c. Fossils have their analogous fossils in countries far distant
from each other.

The above facts therefore indicate that these fossils have been
carried ;

Ee2 d. by

436 Report of the Progress of the Sciences in France.

d. by the currents which take place at sea; e. by those whicfi
take place in lakes ; f. by the currents of rivers; g. by catastro-
phes which have happened on the surface of the globe,

CATASTROPHES ON THE SURFACE OF THE GLOBE.

Geologists, proceeding upon the various facts exhibited by
the theory of the earth, conclude, with the priests of Memphis
and all subsequent philosophers, that various catastrophes,
more or less considerable, have happened on the earth’s sur-
face. Some even suppose that there have been general cata-
strophes, ,

‘In my Theory of the Earth I have cited the following causes
as likely to have produced these particular catastrophes : viz.

1. Particular Inundations.—a. Abundant rains which have
swoln the streams of the Nile, the Niger, and the Menau.
b. Overflowings of lakes, of which history makes mention. in
abundance : such were the deluges of Ogyges, Deucalion, Pro-
metheus, &c. c. Violent winds have produced great inundations
in Holland, by swelling the sea, as in 1218 and 1646.

These sea waters have remained a more or less considerable.
time on peat mosses and other strata formed in fresh water, and
deposited fossil shells. Poiret observed near Soissons peat
mosses containing fluvial shells, covered with strata containing
sea shells, cerites, venuses, and oysters,

d. Explosions of snbterraneous fires throw up part of the sea,
aud cause particular inundations. .

e. The fall of some mountains has produced some local in-
undations.

2. Earthquakes have occasioned many singular catastrophes
on the surface of the globe; but these have been confined to
certain countries only. That of Lisbon in 1755 shook some
countries very distant ; but its effects were far frem producing 3
general catastrophe.

The dreadful explosions of the enormous volcanoes of Mexico
and Peru produce only limited catastrophes.

3. The passage of a comet close to the earth has also been
regarded as a cause which must have produced a great cata-
strophe on the surface of the globe, by swelling the waters of
the ocean ; but all astronomers are now agreed that this hypo-
thesis has no probable foundation.

4. But there is another cause which ought to produce, after
some centuries, great changes on our globe: this is the increase
of its mass, which I] have proved ought to take place. I have
said, in my Theory of the Earth, that “a great part of the
secondary strata is formed of the remains of organized beings :
such are the bitumens which form immense and very deep ay

(OSSi

Report of the Progress of the Sciences in France. 437

fossil plants, shells which form the major part of a great num-
ber of stones, fossil bones, several saline substances of these
stratifications.”

The mass of the terrestrial globe augmenting, ought to pro-
duce changes in its relations with the other planetary bodies:
their mutuat attractions will change. The sun, on the other
hand, perhaps loses part of its mass. It appears clear to me,
therefore, that after some centuries great changes will take place
upon our globe. This was the doctrine of the ancient philoso-
phers, Ovid makes Pythagoras say in his Metamorphoses,
book xv.

Nihil eqnidem durare diu sub imagine eadem
Crediderim.

Lucretius has also said, book v.

— multosque per annos.
Sastentata ruet moles et machina mundi.

But of what nature will these changes be? We are not in
possession of a sufficient number of facts to be able to predict
their nature,

As to the hypothesis of De Luc, who has advanced that the
existence of the human spectes is posterior to that of other spe~
cies, it appears to me to be defective. We do not find, he says,
fossil human skeletons. To this I answer ;

1. We find only about 12 species of known quadrupeds, and
from 16 to 1S genera. Are we to conclude that none of the
other species and genera existed at the epoch in question ?

But, it is added, the human species is now-a-days so multi-
plied.—It is easy to answer that the human species was not, at
that period, so numerous as it has been since large societies have
been formed. j

3, Lastly, we know that the bones of the largest animals
which die in the fields, in the woods, &c, are speedily decom-
posed if they are exposed to the air. We do not find in our fo-
rests any bones of our modern boars, stags, and wolves, nor in
Africa any bones of the elephant or rhinoceros.

4. Those which are fossil have been preserved, therefore, by
being enveloped soon after the death of the animal in earth or
sand. This event must have taken place under extraordinary
and unexpected circumstances. Thus we meet with very few
fossils of quadrupeds, fishes, birds, and vegetables, in compa=
rison with the immense quantity which has existed.

It is otherwise with fossil shells: they are very abundant.
Nevertheless this quantity is very small when compared with
those which have existed; and we ought to consider well, that
we find in some places immense heaps of shells of various coun-

Ee3 tries,

438 Report of the Progress of the Sciences in France.

tries, with fossils of quadrupeds, whales, &c. ; they seem to have
been heaped together by local circumstances.

Fossil vegetables are also very abundant. All the species of
vegetables and animals now in existence may not have com-
menced their existence at the sam epoch and in the same coun-
tries: thus the animals of the continents have begun to exist
long before the sea animals; but nothing shows that the human
species began to exist after the ape and monkey, species, &c.

Epochs at which Fossils have been deposited.—It is difficult
to assign these epochs; but it may be asserted in general, that

a. The fossils which are found in calcareous, gypseous, schis-
tous, or bituminous stones, were deposited when these stones
were formed, and consequently are the most ancient of fossils.

b. Ravines (breches) having been formed subsequently to
stones, the fossils of ravines are therefore posterior to those of
stones.

c. Coal and peat moss are also posterior to secondary stones.
The fossils which exist in coal and peat moss are therefore also
posterior to those of stenes.

d. Alluvial strata are also posterior to the above; consequently
the fossils contained in these soils are in general more modern.

e. Caverns have never been discovered until after the sea had
retired. The troglodyte animals could only have retired thither
at very recent periods, and left their remains there. Fossils of
sea animals have never been found there.

Volcanoes.—The city of Caraccas in South America has been
destroyed by an earthquake, and various parts of Europe have

experienced similar visitations ; but they were not so violent, nor
"attended with any new phenomena. There has also been an
eruption of volcanic substances from the sea near the Azores,
Earthquakes may be occasioned by volcanic eruptions: the gases
which are emitted from inflamed substances pass throygh the
chinks of the strata with rapidity, and produce shocks more or
less violent. But other earthquakes, such as those which take
place without any appearance of volcanic eruptions, seem to be
occasioned by the galvanic action of different heterogeneous
particles of the globe, particularly metallic substances.
| In order to measure the intensity of earthquakes, an instru-
ment called the Elkysmometer has been invented. This in-
“strument makes oscillations when it is shaken. We estimate the
intensity of subterranean commotions by the size and number
of the oscillations of the instrument.

GEOGRAPHY,

Gosselin, in his Inquiries into the Geography of the Ancients,
has shown that the Greek geographers, Eratosthenes, Hippar-
: chus,

~

ne

4

On the Assay of Minerals by means of the Blowpipe. 439

thus, Posidonius, Strabo, and Ptolemy, had drawn their in-
formation from a people of still greater antiquity. He supposes
‘them to have been the Hindoos, But it appears more probable
to me that it was the Tartars and Chinese. The latter were ac-
quainted long before any other nation, with printing, the mari-
ners’ compass, gunpowder, the use of silk, and astronomy.

~ The knowledge of the mariners’ compass announces that ¢hey
were great navigators, and consequently they must haya had
‘an extensive knowledge of geography. Their astronomical ac-
quirements gave them the means of ascertaining longitudes and
latitudes. The desire for travelling is now general, and learned
travellers daily extend our geographical knowledge. Morier has
given us some geographical details respecting Persia, Armenia,
and Asia minor. Kimmel has published his Journey to Mount
Caucasus. Mawe has made us better acquainted with the Bra-
zils, and given us some interesting’ détails on the mineralogy of
those countries, their diamond and gold mines, &c.

[To be continued. }

XCII. On the Assay of Minerals by means of the Blowpipe.
By M. Haussman, Inspector General of Mines at Cassel*.

Circumstances necessary to be observed in the preparation for
the experiment : volume of the fragment to be assayed.

Ir ought to be proportioned to the size of the flame to which
it isexposed. If the aperture of the blowpipe be only the dia-
meter of a pin, the volume of the fragment ought not to be
larger than a pepper corn. In order to support the fragment,
we may use: 1, Pincers of platina, or’ with platina points at
least. 2. A small glass tube or eylinder, the end of which is
to be softened in order to fix the fragment to it. 3. A small bit
of cyanite, according to Saussure’s method. 4. Charcoal of
good quality, particularly poplar and elm, flattened on one side,
and with a small hole in it in which to place the fragment. We
may cover this piece of charcoal with another piece ; and in this
case a passage must be made for the flame, which ought to fall
on the fragment contained in the hole. 5. We may compose
a stud for support with charcoal dust pounded in mucilage of gum
tragacanth. We must form of this paste parallelopipedons,
and dry them slowly. 6. We may use a small spoon of gold or
silver, but above all of platina, the end of which is fixed in a
pipe or in a wooden handle, to preserve the fingers from being
scorched,

* Journal des Mines, Jan, 1811, vol. xxix, p. 61.
: Ee4 As

440 On the Assay of Minerals ly means of the Blowpipe.

As to the method of presenting the fragment to the flame ef
the blowpipe, we may place it, 1. Half within the flame. 2. In
the yellow part of the flame, which produces oxidation. 3. In
the blue part, which effects the process of reduction.

Duration of the experiment.—lIt depends on the different
parts of the flame where the fragment is exposed, and upon the
degree of intensity of the heat. This intensity depends on the
volume of air which the blowpipe gives out according to the
breadth of its aperture, which we may vary occasionally if the
blowpipe be properly constructed : the best is of metal, and in
three pieces, a tube, a reservoir, and a point in the form of a
cone; the reservoir, placed between the tube and the point, re-
tains ‘the humidity of the breath, and serves at the same time as
a moderator, by means of the compressed air which it contains,
We may adapt to this reservoir tubes of different diameters and
points with different apertures. We may also procure a stronger
or weaker current of air. The abundance of the current of air
depends on the power of the blowing instrument : the air is fur-
nished to the blowpipe either by means of a bellows with a dou-
ble vent, or by means of the mouth: the air is taken in through
the nostrils, and blown out through the mouth. ‘This is the me-
thod most in use and most convenient, and renders the opefator
more master of the experiment. The stud or support of the
fragment assayed is to be held in the left hand, and the blowpipe
in the right, with the elbows resting on the table. We may also
manage the experiment by placing the fragment on a fixed or
moveable support ; but it is better to hold it in the hand,

The intensity of the flame is different ;

1. According to the state of the air which issues from the —

blowpipe, it is clear that the stream furnished by the bellows is
better than that from the mouth ;: the difference has but little in-
fluence, however, on the result of the experiment,

2. This intensity is different according to the nature of the
light employed: a candle, lamp, or taper. A candle is better
than a lamp, but a wax taper is best of all,, The wick as well
as the taper ought to be flat, and the flame has of course a flat
appearance. The current of air should be so directed as to
make the flame act upon the fragment at an angle of 45 degrees.

3. Its intensity is different according to the different parts of
the flame where the fragment. is exposed. The place where this
intensity is strongest is the extremity of the blue point of the
flame. We get at this point by management, moving the fragment
about till we find it reddish.

In the course of the experiment we ought to observe the va-
rious phenomena presented by the fragments under assay.

In those which exhibit no considerable change we remark. the

various

OO ———— —

On the Assay of Minerals by means of the Blowpipe. 44)

warious tints Which they assume on becoming red, from the
faint red to the white. . ;

Phosphorescence, when it takes place, presents also various
colours, which change sometimes, as we see in the apatite and
fluor spar. ‘We may remark also the colour assumed by the
flame itself; the sulphate of strontian, for instance, gives to
the blue part of the flame a reddish tinge.

As to changes in the mineral, these may take place without
any alteration in its form, such as the change or loss of colour.
The surface may become deeper, either in whole or in part, as
is the case with pyrites.

The yellow oxide of iron becomes totally red, the flowers of
cobalt blue, &e. There is also a change of colour, or loss of
lustre, in white mica, lamellated gypsum, &c, There is a change
in the refrangent property, when the molecules of a fragment
which was diaphanous separate, from the loss of the water of
erystallization, or the enlargement of their interstices, which fre-
quently gives an opportunity of discovering the texture of varjous
substances, such as ponderous spar, &c. There is also a change
of consistence : it inereases, as in potter’s clay, and diminishes in
others, such as lime, which the action of heat renders porous.
Various odours and tastes are also developed by heat ; and there
may be an alteration of form without change of substance, by
the liquefaction of the water of crystallization, of alum, bo-
rax, &c.

Decrepitation.—When a mineral bursts into fragments, we
must distinguish whether the noise be great, and the pieces large,
er the contrary.

Evaporation.—In this case the molecules of a substance are
detached in form of vapour, without any alteration in their sub-
stance; as water, mercury, &c.

Exfoliation.—Separation of the lamine of a mineral, from
which an increase of volume results; as in lamellated gypsum,
apophyllite, stilbite, triphane, &c.

Effiorescence.—Is the formation’ of smal] mossy excrescences
on the edges of the fragment, a phenomenon probably pro-
duced by some disengagement of gas.

Formation of air bubbles.—-Solitary air bubbles are formed
on the surface of the mineral, as in the pyrophysalite, probably
by the disengagement of the fluoric gas.

General swelling.—When the mineral increases in volume by
the formation of a multitude of small bubbles, which give it
the appearance of a froth ; is this to be ascribed to a disengage-
ment of gas, or a development of vapours? It is difficult to
say which. ‘This fact is remarkable in the meionite, the lepi-
dolite, &c,

Boiling.

442 On the Assay of Minerals by means of the Blowpipe.

Boiling.—I1s when a mineral entering into fusion presents the
appearance of ebullition, like borax, basaltic hornblende, &c.

Vegetation.—In some instances a mineral presents the forms
of buds, branches, &c. like borax, mesotype, gadolinite, preh-
nite, &c. ’

Rounding of the edges, as in talc, &c.

Varnishing, as in some saurolites, &c.

Fritte is when certain molecules are fused and others are not,
as in the rock composed of quartz and feldspar; the fritte in
this case affords a method of discovering a mixture which other-
wise would not be apparent. | |

Scorification is when the whole mass passes into imperfec
fusion, so as not to form one but several globules, as in certain
chlorites.

Complete fusion is when the whole mass becomes completely
fluid, and forms globules or pearls.

Crystallization—When a fused mineral assumes upon cool-
ing a regular form, like the phosphate of lead, carbonate of
soda, &c.

Changes which attack the form and substance itself.

Combustion or oxidation —When all the parts of a mineral,
or some of them, are combined with exygen, hence result the
following phenomena :

Consumption.—Slow combustion and volatilization of the
combustible particles, without flame or smoke, like the an-
thracite. 8 cr

Inflammation.—Rapid combustion with flame, like coal.

Dissipation in smoke.—V olatilization of the combustible parts,
with visible smoke, which is condensed, and adheres to the cold
bodies, like coal, native antimony, &c.

Calcination.—Conversion of a mineral into a metallic oxide
in an earthy form: this change may be complete, or only on the
surface.

Vitrification.—Conversion of a mineral into a vitreous me-
tallic oxide.

Carbonizxation—Conversion of a mineral into charry matter,
like coal.

Incineration.—Conversion of a mineral into ashes by the ef-
fect of-combustion. It may be manifested, either at the surface,
as in the kohleblende, at the beginning of the experiment, or in
the whole mass, as in the braun kohle.

Reduction is effeeted by taking away the oxygen from an acid,
or other mineralizer, like the carbonate of lead, tin ore, cinna-
bar, &c.

We ought also .to observe the circumstances of the other
phenomena which are presented during the course of the ex-

periment :

_ at

On the Assay of Minerals ly means of the Blowpipe. 443

periment: that is to say, whether they are easy and rapid, or
slow and dificult, and simple or compound : they are simple,
when one phenomenon only i is presented, as in the fusion of
compact feldspar; compound, when several are manifested ;
and the latter may be simultaneous, like the smell, flame, smoke,
and carbonization of coal; or successive, like the divis on, swell-
ing, and fusion of borax,

The change undergone by a mineral may be strong or feeble,
as the greater or smaller part of it is attacked. Universal or
partial : universal, when it attacks all the particles of a mineral,
like native antimony, which is totally converted into smoke; and
partial, when it affects only certain particles, as in antimonial
silver, when the antimony is reduced to smoke, while the silver
remains fixed.

_The way in which minerals act is various, according to the
methods employed.

When the assay is made with additions, we must consider
the nature of the substance added in order to facilitate the fu-
sion of the mineral. Among the fluxes, some operate the reduc-
tion and others the oxidation of the metal, as nitre.

The fluxes employed are used either dry, by mixing them
with the mineral after reducing both into powder, or by melt-
ing the mixture and forming a paste, which is exposed to the
action of the flame. Before employing fluxes, it is proper to
take the water of crystallization from such as contain it.

The fluxes most in use are, 1. Mintum, for earthy substances.
2. Fluor Spar, which is a very good flux for gypsum, with
which it forms an enamel. 3, Gypsum is reciprocally an ex-
cellent flux for fluor spar. 4. Borax, which is often employed
indiscriminately for earthy and metallic substances, and which
frequently acts as a reductive flux: but before employing it we
ought to take care to reduce it to glass. 5. Nitrated Borax, i. e.
the superabundant soda of which is saturated with nitric acid:
this is one of the best fluxes, particularly for metalliferous sub-
stances. 6. Carbonate of Soda, which is advantageously em-
ployed with siliceous substances. 7. Carbonate of Potash. 8.
Microcosmic Salt, which is very efficacious. 9. Glass of Phos-
phorus, i. e. the phosphoric acid reduced to the vitreous state.
10. Mitre, which is an excellent assay for inflammable sub-
stances, and a powerful flux for metallic substances.

With the exception of nitre and borax, we may employ the
various fluxes on all kinds of studs; but with those which pos-
sess the property of detonating with charcoal we must use the
small platina spoon.

The reductive fluxes are those which take u up the oxygen from
minerals, or which prevent it from combining with them.

The

444 On the Assay of Minerals ly means of the Blowpipe.

The charcoal which serves for the stud fulfils this object : but
in order to increase the effect, it must be reduced to powder, and
mixed with the mineral, before submitting it to the blowpipe.

Oil is also a very good reductive when applied to the mineral
in powder. In the assays with additional substances we observe
the way in which the mineral acts with the flux, if it is fusible, or
resists fusion. If fusible, we must notice, ist, if it be tranquil-
ly; 2d, if it be with the disengagement of gas, as in the fusion
of gray manganese with borax; 3d, if it be in the form of
froth. ‘

We observe what is the time necessary for the fusion, and whe-
ther it be quickly or slowly performed; the colour of the flux ;
and whether it be permanent or fugacious.

The colour may also change when we hold the mineral in va-
rious parts of the flame: for instance, the glass of borax, with
a slight addition of manganese, is a violet-blue colour while we
hold it in the oxidating part of the flame, and it loses this colour
when we make it pass into the reductive part.

We observe, also, if a mineral has the property of being re-.
duced, and whether its reduction be complete or incomplete, as
in the red ore of copper when treated with borax. Detona-
tion is another phenomenon in the combustion of inflammable
bodies, which must be observed.

The products of assays may be:

1. 4 glass: i, e. a transparent or translucid body with a
glossy or shelly fracture. We must observe if it be compact, ho-
neycombed, or frothy, as in the obsidian and pechstein, or clean
and transparent, coloured or colourless.

2. An enamel: i, e. an opaque body with a fracture like
wax, and the same observations with the above must be made.

3. A scoria: 1. e. a body generally opaque, or at most trans+
lucid, with a surface honeycombed: we observe if its fracture
be dull, vitreous, or metallic, and its colour black or brown, &c.
We observe if it possesses any polarity, like that of chlorite,
some micas, &c.

4, dfritte: i.e. a body the fracture of which presents vi-
treous particles, and others not vitreous.

5. A regulus: i. e. a metallic globule.

6. An ochre, or earthy substance containing a metallic ox-
ide: we observe its colour.

7. A coke, a charry and cellular residue of coal, having
much consistence after the combustion of its bituminous part. —

8. A charcoal, a black, light, friable substance composed of
hydrogen and oxydulated carbon.

9. Ashes, an earthy, pulverulent, alkaline substance contain-
ing molecules of metallic oxides ; that is, the residue of the com-

bustion _

On whitening Copper Plates with Vapour. 445

bustion of yarious bodies; in colour it is gray or white, yellow
or reddish.

10. Flowers. A very fine pulverulent deposit, produced by
the volatilization of certain substances, and which are attached
to the stud, or to some cold body placed above. This deposited
matter is sometimes a soot, as in coal, sometimes sulphur, and
sometimes a metallic oxide: this last is of various colours: that
of antimony and arsenic is white, and that of lead is yellow.
The colour is permanent, as in the flowers of antimony ; or va-
tiable according to the temperature of the oxide, as we see in
the oxide of bismuth, which is yellow so long as it is exposed
to the flame of the blowpipe, and white as soon as it cools.

Lastly, we ought to observe the changes which the products
of the experiments undergo some time after they are terminated,
as in the enamel produced by the fusion of barytes, which spreads
into small fragments a few hours after fusion.

XCIIL. On the Phenomenon of Arsenic and other Bodies whiten-
ing Copper Plates with their Vapour. By L.V. Braugna-
TELLI™.

Warn concrete arsenic is thrown upon burning charcoal it
emits a white vapour, which may be condensed in a white crust
on a plate of copper held over it. This has been considered as
an exclusive characteristic of arsenic, and the most convenient
practical mode of discovering its presence. An occasion offered _
of submitting this generally received opinion to the test of ex-
perience, by examining the matter contained in the stomach of
a young child which was subject to worms and accustomed to
take calomel (mercurius dulcis). The concrete matter existing in
the fluids of the stomach, being carefully separated, was found
insoluble in water, and, when placed on burning charcoal, rose
in a white vapour which whitened the surface of a plate held
over it. Here there was no suspicion of arsenic, particularly as
it was insoluble in water, and instantly recognised by other ex-
periments tobe calomel. This mercurial preparation, therefore,
whitens a plate of metal precisely like arsenic. Experimenting
on several other bodies which produce this effect, I found that
the vapour of phosphorus during combustion, that of oxymuriate
of ammonia placed over burning charcoal, and the vapours from
corrosive sublimate treated in the same manner, all whitened
plates of copper ; the white spots appear to the eye almost iden-
tical; at the moment they cannot be distinguished one from
another, and may lead the most experienced observer into error.
It is necessary, however, to observe, that the white spots made
* Trom Furmacopea Generale, Pavia 18144.
on

446 Observations of « polaris for determining

on the plate with the vapour of oxymuriate of ammonia become
green. in the course of a few days, and that those produced by
the vapour of phosphorus endure a very short time till they be-
come brown with the air, and are entirely dissipated. If the
white spot produced by the vapour of corrosive sublimate be
uncovered, and the white crust entirely rubbed on the plate, the
latter then unites in whitening its surface with the original
sublimate (mercurio repr istinato) : : the same phenomenon takes
place with the crust formed by the vapour of calomel. Hence we
have an easy means of discovering the matter which forms a
white crust on the surface of copper or brass plates, indepen-
dent of arsenic.

XCIV. Olena of a polaris, ly the Rev. Mr. L. Evans,
of the Royal Military Academy, for determining the North
Polar Distance of that Star at the Beginning of the Year
1813.

Royal Military Academy, June 16th, 1814.
Sirs, His 5 SET but a -few days ago, seen the Astronomer
Royal’s most excellent Catalogue of north polar distances of 84
principal fixed stars, and noticing a curious coincidence in the
polar distance of @ polaris, as determined with the new mural
circle made by Mr. E. Troughton, and that of the same star
as determined by myself with a transit circle of 24 inches dia-
meter only, made by the same great mechanist ; I am induced
to request your publication of the whole of my observations and
their respective computations, with a view to encourage more
attention to the use of transit circles of nearly the same dimen-
sions: for 1 am inclined to believe that they ought to be ap- .
pretiated more than they generally are. They “require, as in
the large instruments, particular precision in their adjustments,
prior to any observation, which ought to be taken with great
care, calmness, and perfect ease. ° An excellent opportunity,
too, is now afforded for comparison of observations with those
in the Catalogue before intimated, for deciding upon their accu-
racy. And if we take the expense of such small instruments
ito account, we shail find, that it is not to be mentioned, when
compared with the enormous one of the large mural or transit
circles, which is far beyond the reach of very many ingenious
astronomical amateurs,~of limited incomes, though they may
have it in their power to purchase the smaller ones. Besides,
it is my opinion, that the improvement of instruments is not ex-
actly in the direct ratio of their magnitude.
I am, sirs,
Your most obedient servant,

L, Evans.

To Messrs. Nicholson and Tilloch.

447

of 1813.

imning O

at the Beg

ts North Polar Distance

i

ne nnn aemeenmnensimnn mmm dmmenenmememmn metmmnetenmentaasamcnaieeeeedeiseteneiachtaaiteeeueaa ciate ceed

ay ;
69:L 66 1S errr errr reer ree eee eee ee Axoyeazasqo Aur Jo apnyiyey ayy,

LS-2 OS gs a ee) apnyyzey-o0d ayj aq [Im uns 3yy

6GL:1G Ib I Age aati ere ejRinr ats a) cTo’einie\w. 6m ayeis.t/e © vis We e/a/nTonig omc cle #2 AA 30 douess prac [OU ONG

89-08 6b 98 sTastaasn esainig)# Wie! wdus eins ace = Gieleeecei ase the o Rotel ik> Aue “SRT Le OUn ea aoueIsIp yIUIZ,

ree ; tsnyy UMOUY sauroreq apniney ayy ¢
#00 souarayI

Gh1S TET Jott ete eho saurou0sisy aya Jo suoneArasqo ay) WOT) ‘Oy

61S IRU [ott S TRL Jo SurmuiSaq soy staejod » Jo aoucisip rejod yyo uvau Jo aouaraytp FEY Py,L

L6-6¢ OS 8S {° ~~ ‘ee *ajod jO DOURISIP YUaZ 10 ‘op 7O tans JTPH . z
agen zag |orttttetttstt t+ ‘op Jo aauasayig

bLbPI LL tteeere seeees sans qa eidns jo wing

89-08 6F 98 reveuedng cf tettreseese sees ee soc

9I-bI GI OF |" rate “qus suol}eAtasqo aay jo Poy

Soll OB 9T— | bL8 68:9=—_|°S6:0™ | OLSL™ $813 6L:96-+ $09 9-66 Lb? €L
9L6T TL91— | O48 Gl: 9e=) 9650 = Sars le Lt-08 _} 28-96+ $69 Sv-63 L-F ét
8b9L Pal Feas's S8:9— |.86:0— | Sh8t= LOS L6-964- $9 S66 L:Lb Tt
SL:bI SSO TS 2098 So Se OS O =e ORs De tes . 1096+ 4-69 £66 SF ot
S3-b1 GI OF } bP-9I— | OSB LS) GeO = sO re 60:18 G1 0 69:96+ 06S $8.63 9-+% TL OF] 8 CUNY

‘ojod qns stsejod »
8¢-08 6b 9G | “dns suoneasasqo aay Jo uRoyy

LO-66 s-91+ | $9:8— | 69-9+ | 93-0 SL:81+ rare | 6-16 + G.LG 59-63 6-08 SI
GS-08 oL-91+ | F98— | 89-9 | 83-0 os-g1-+ $9°S1 69.1b+ 0-89 ohES 1-38 I
PLS 1S-91+ | OS-8— | 69-9+ | 28.0 Stsit 89-ST 6-1b+ O-6¢ 88-63 L868 g aune
SL+6S PL:Si+ | s0-s— | 99-94+ | 1F-0 gs-91+ 66-91 66-1F G.39 9-63 9.65 1s
19-86 6F 96 | SSSI | 962— | G9-9+ | Sr-O+F | Ig-9I+ | BOEI GF 96 | BB.TF $-9$ 9-65. | G18 Sb 96) 66 Aw

ta EE | eS RT |S om |
"TBO K ssuowenbg

- *LONIBaY *mOulayy, | “LozaMloleg *oereys "SISt
ii
erat, att meg 2M | -norssadoag| worNetAeq cwibae suoettaqy | 3° Patea[9 | «monowzay Jo Jo “IG avez | suOR es res
afcoos ace £0 WNSHY aouRsig: yrs, wsIeH wey paasasggQ | -Qo jo ava x,
3 4 + .

-umjod vidns stiejod
*s.injod » fo.asunjsiqg 4nj0g ay; Sururusajzap sof suorjna.asgQ }
a : °

{ 448. J ;
XCV. Chronological Catalogue of Stones and other large
' Masses, which are presumed to have fallen on the Earth.
By Bicor DE Morocuss, of the Mineralogical Society of
Jena*. .
Yrs. bef.
Christ :
1451. A SHOWER Of stones fell at Gibeori.— Cited by Moses.
654. Stones fell upon Mount Albanus.—Livy.
644. Ditto in China.—De Guigne.
520. A stone fell in Crete in the time of Pythagoras.—
Calmet.
467. Ditto in Thrace.—Pliny.
Ditto at Cassandria.—Id.
Ditto at Abydos.—Id. y
461. Ditto.in the March of Ancona.—Valerius Maximus.
343. A shower of stones near Rome.—Julius Obsequens.
211. A stone fell in China.—De Guigne.
192. Ditto.—Id.
89. Ditto.—Id.
52. A shower of iron in Lucania.—Pliny.
A6. A shower of stones at Acilla.—Czsar.
38. Stones fell in China.—De Guigne.
29. Ditto at P6 in China.—Id.
Ditto at Tehin-Tong-Fou in China.—Id.
22. Ditto in China.—ld.
19. Ditto.—Id.
15. A star fell in the form of rain in China.—Id,
12. A stone fell at Toukouan in China.—lId.
9. Ditto m China.—Id.
6.. Ditto at Ning-Tcheou.—Id.
Other stones at Yu.—Id.
A stone seen in the country of the Vocoutins.—Pliny.
Yrs. after Christ.
452. Three stones fell in Thrace.—Cited by Ammianus Mare
cellinus, -=-
6th century. A stone fell on Mount Lebanon.—Photius.
742. A shower of dust near Edessa.—Quatremére.
823. A shower of flints in Saxony.—Meézerai and Bonaven-
ture de S.-Amable.
$52. A stone fell in the Tabarestan.—Quatrem¢ére.
898. Ditto at Ahmed-Dad.—Id. |
930. Red sand fell near Bagdad.—Id.
From 965 to 971. A stone fell in Italy.—Platina.
Ditto at Lurgea.—Avicenna.

* From the Journal des Mines, vol, xxxi. p. 430.
From

Catalogue of Stones, &e. fallen on the Earth, 449

Yrs. after Christ.
From 965 to 971. A stone fell at Cordova.—Id.
Ditto in the Djord-Jan.—Id.
998. Stones fell in and near Magdeburg.—Spangenberg.
1071. Balls of earth fell in the Irak.—Quatremére.
1136. A stone fell at Oldisleben.—Spangenberg.
1164. Iron fell in Misnia.—Georgius Fabricius.
1198. Stones fell near Paris.—Henry Sauval.
1249. Ditto near Quedlimbourg.—Spangenherg.
1303. Ditto in the Province of Mortahiah.—Quatremére.
1304. Ditto at Friedberg.—Spangenberg.
1305. Burning stones fell among the Vandals .—Bonaventure de
S.-Amable. - 5
1438. Spongy stones fell at Roa.—Proust.
1492. A stone fell at Ensisheim, near Maximilian.—-Bartholdt,
1496. Stones fell near Cezena.—Sabellicus. °
1510. Ditto to the number of 1200 at Crema.—Cardau.
Commencement of the 16th century. A mass of. iron fell be-
tween Leipsic and Grimm:—Albini Menische.
1540. Stones fell in the Limosin.—Bonaventure de S.-Amable.
From 1540 to 1550. A shower of iron in Piedmont.—Mercati,
1548. A blackish mass fell at Mansfeld-—Spangenberg.
1552. A shower of stones rear Schlensingen.—Id.
1559. Stones fell at Miskoz.—Nic. Ysthuanhi.
1561. A stone fell at Torgau.—Boéce de Boot.
Ditto at Seplitz. Land
1564. Stones fell between Malines and Brussels. _=Gilbért,
1581. A stone fell in Thuringia.—Chronique de Thuri inge.
1583. Stones fell at Castrovillari—Mercati.
1583. A stone fell in Piedmont.—Id.
1585. Ditto in Italy.—Imperati.
1591, Ditto at Kunersdorf—Angelus.
1603. Ditto in the kingdom of Valencia,—The ovate of Co-
. imbra.
1620. A mass of iron fell.in the empire of the Mogul —D’ge--
han-Guir. :
1627. A stone fell in Provence.—Gassendi.
1635. Ditto at Vago.—Franc. Carli.
1636. Ditto between Segau and Dubrow.—Lucas.
1647. Ditto at Stolzenau in Westphalia.—Gilbert.
From 1647 to 1654, Ditto in the open sea.—Malte-Brun,
1650. Ditto at Dordrecht.—Arnold Sanguerd.
1654. Ashower of stones fell in the Isle of Fionia.—Bartholin.
17th century. A stone fell near Copinsha in the or cades,—James
~ Wallace. f
Vol, 43, No, 194, June 1814. Ff 1667.

450 Catalogue of Stones, &§c. fallen on the Earths

Yrs. after Christ.
1667. A stone fell at Schiras.—Chladni.
1672. Stones fell at Verona.—Le Gallois.
1674. A stone fell in the canton of Glarus. —Scheuchzer.
1677. Many stones fell near Ermensdorf.— Baldwin.
1697. Ditto at Pentolina—Phil. Soc.
1698. A mass of stone fell at Waltring in the canton of Berne.
—Scheuchzer.
1706. A stone fell at Larissa in Macedonia.—Paul Lucas.
1723. Stones fell at Plesecowitz.—Stepling.
1731. Fall of fused metal at Lessay. —Halley.
1738. A shower of stones near Champfort.—Castillon,
1743. Ditto at Liboschitz.—Stepling.
1750. A stone fell at Nicorps.—De la Lande.
1751. Masses of iron fell at Hraschina.—Consistoire d’Agram.
1753. Stones fell at Plaw.—Stepling and De Born,
Ditto at Liponas in Bresse.— De la Lande.
1766. Ditto at Alboretto.—Vassali.
A stone fell near Noveltlara.—Chladni.
1768. Ditto at Lucé.—Bachelay.
Ditto at Aue.—Gurson de Boyaval.
Ditto in Normandy.—Morand fils.
Ditto near Maurkirchen.—Imhof, Annales de Gilbert.
1773.. Ditto at Sena in Arragon.—Proust.
1775. Ditto near Rodach.—Gilbert.
1776 or 1777. A fall of stones at Fabriano.—Chladni.
1779. Stones fell at Petriswood.—Id.
1785. Ditto in the Principality of d’Eichstedt.—Le Baron de
; Moll.
1790. Ditto in Landes.—Baudin.
1791. Ditto at Cassel-Berardenga.—Philom, Soc.
1794. Ditto at Sienna.—Ear! of Bristol.
1795. A stone fell in Yorkshire.—Topham,
1796. Ditto in Portugal.—Southey.
1798. Stones fell at Sale-—De Drée.
A stone fell at Bialoczerkew.—Chladni.
Stones fell at Benarés—Edward Howard.
1803. A shower of stones at L’Aigle.—Biot.
A stone fell at Saurette.—Laugier.
A fall of stones at Eggenfeld.— Woigt.
1804, Ditto near Glasgow.—Philos. Mag.
1805. Ditto near Doroninsk.—Chladni.
Ditto at Constantinople—Hair-Kougas-Ingisian. |
1806. Ditto near Alais.—Pagés and d’Hombres Firmas.
1807. A stone fell at Juchnow.—Klaproth.

1807.

Description of a Sofa Bed. 451

Yrs. after Christ.
1807. A fall of stones at Weston in America.—Warden.
1808, Ditto at Borgo Santo-Denino.—Guidotti.
Stones fell near Staunern.—Klaproth and Vauquelin.
Ditto near Lissa.—Klaproth.
1809. Ditto on the coast of the United States of America.—
Gaz. de France.
1810. Ditto at Charsonville.—Pellieux.
1811. Ditto near Pultawa.—Gaz. de France.
Ditto at Berlanguillas,—Id.
1812. Ditto in the environs of Grenada (near Toulouse), —~
Moniteur.

Masses presumed to have fallen on the Earth.

Iron as mentioned by Scaliger.

Stone, which forms part of the collection of De Dree.

Mass of native iron seen in Siberia by Pallas.

Mass of iron at Otumpa seen by Rubin de Celis.

Another mass of iron seen in America by Ditto.

Native iron seen in several parts of Mexico by Humboldt.
Ditto of Durango and Zacatecas.—Ditto.

Ditto at the Cape of Good Hope.—Smithson Tennant.
Ditto of Senegal seen by Adamson.

Ditto at Aken by Leeber.

Ditto in Bohemia mentioned by Born. ;
Masses of iron found.near the Red River in Louisiana.—Gibbs,

XCVI. Description of a Sofa invented by Mr. Samurt James,
Surgeon, Hoddesdon, Herts, for the Use of Persons confined
to Bed by Fractures or other Causes.

P ROFESSIONAL men have long regretted the want of a machine
to assist the practitioner in the proper treatment of afflicted
persons, who, from fractures or other causes, may be confined
to their beds, without any power of locomotion, or any substi-
tute for it.

Among the numerous improvements of the present age, the
public will be highly gratified to learn that this useful desidera-
tum has been at length accomplished by Mr. S. James, Surgeon,
of Hoddesdon, Herts. After numerous trials, this is found to be
the most complete machine ever invented for the relief of man-
kind; combining the ease of a bed with a mechanical substitute

- for locomotion.

Ff2 The

Ad52 Description of a Sofa for the Use of

The invention appears to have long occupied the humane at-
tention of Mr. James. Seventeen years since, an account of a
machine invented by this gentleman for’fractures of the legs and
thighs appeared in the Encyclopedia Britannica, which is still
highly approved of by the faculty in general.

Attestations to the great utility of the present invention have:
been given by the highest authorities in medicine and surgery.
The following letters form but a small part of the flattering tes-
timonials with which the inventor has been honoured.

“ Lincoln’s Inn Fields, July $1, 1813.

* Dear sir,—I have carefully inspected the drawing of the
sofa, which you have invented for patients who are incapable of
moving by their own exertions.

“ Jt appears to me that this invention is very superior to any
other that I am acquainted with, for such purposes. The sim-
plicity of its construction, and the ease with which the body and
limbs can be moved into the most’ favourable positions, must
' greatly contribute to the comfort of the patient.

«I remain, dear sir, yours faithfully,
“ HENRY Cine.
* To Samuel James, Esq.
sao ag: Herts.”

* Russel Square, Nov. 15, 1813.

«| have attentively examined the sofa so admirably contrived,
and so ingeniously constructed; the discovery of Mr. Samuel
James, surgeon, at Hoddesdon.

“ It facilitates the motion of the whole body, or any distinct
part of it, without any exertion on the side of the invalid, and
without any painful effort ; it is therefore calculated to afford the
greatest relief in cases of gout or rheumatism, in fractures, and
all other external injuries whére surgical aid is necessary. It keeps
the diseased parts’in the most tranquil and relaxed situation: it
preserves them ina steady and uniform postion, so that external
injury is avoided, It has, likewise, the advantage of being so
commodious and accommodating, as to assume the appearance
of an elegant sofa,

‘ (Signed) .Wm. SaunpErs, M. D.”

« Aldermanbury, Nov. 18, 1813.
“ My dear sir,—It must be known to every person engaged
in the management of the sick, that the instances are innume-
rable in which it is of the greatest moment, as in severe affec-
tions of the chest, compound fractures, &c. that the patient
should be furnished with the means of having his body easily
placed,

*

Persons confined to Bed by Fractures or other Causes. 453

placed, and maintained in that position which the nature of his
illness requires : and from the drawings which you did me the

_favour to show me when you were last in town, I am of opinion

that a couch or sofa, made on the construction you propose, is
well calculated to answer the intended purpose ; and will be the
more generally useful, from the facility with which its machinery
ean be transferred to a common bed or sofa.
“Tam, dear sir, yours very truly,

> “ WILLIAM BaBINGron;

* To Samuel James, Esq. Surgeon,
Hoddesdon, Herts.”

“ New Broad Street, Nov. 26, 1813.

“* My dear sir,—The sofa bed which you have sent me a
drawing of, is a highly ingenious invention, well constructed to
move and support those who from long-continued disease have
lost the use of their limbs; and admirably designed to give a
good position to fractures, more especially in that most difficult
case to manage well, the fractures of the thigh,

“Few, who are occupied in business as you are, give them-
selves time to think of such improvements; and I therefore |
consider this invention as highly creditable to your character
and talents.

“J am yours very truly,
“ AstLEY CooPER.
“ To Samuel James, Esq. Surgeon,
Hoddesdon, Herts,”

Plate VII. will enable the reader. to judge of the capability
of this-sofa to administer ease to the sick and infirm, and to fa-
cilitate the cure of fractured limbs in particular.

In all cases of palsy, asthma, consumption, dropsy, rheuma-
tism, gout, fractures, and distressing debility, or that excessive
languor which is sometimes caused by severe fatigue, and at
other times is the consequence of long continued illness, great.
relief will be received from the use of this invaluable machine,
which is manufactured under the inspection of the inventor,
by Prentice and Son, Little Wild Street, Lincoln’s Inn Fields,
where specimens are exhibited for inspection and trial!—The
machinery is so constructed that it may be readily transferred
to a common bed,

FS » XCVII, No-~

[ 454 J

XCVII. Notices respecting New Books.

A Treatise on the supposed hereditary Properties of Diseases,
containing Remarks on the unfounded Terrors and ill-judged
Cautions consequent on such erroneous Opinions; with Notes
illustraiive of the Subject, particularly in Madness and
Scrofula. By JoserpH Apams, M.D. F.L.S. of the London
College of Physicians, Ge.

Ts inquiry is equally novel and important. Hitherto one
class of philosophers has shrunk from it with a kind of supersti-
tious awe, while another has been deterred from ever spending
a thought on the subject, by the vulgar disgusting manner in
which it has been viewed by some foreign writers. Yet there
is perhaps no physical inquiry more intimately allied with mo-
rality, of which all persons consider themselyes competent
judges. Many of the diseases called hereditary are rather the
result of similarity in moral and physical education, of imitative
habits, than of any physical organization. Others depend on
local climate, disparity of age, intemperance either in regimen
or exercise, or erroneous theories. To ascertain the constitu-
tional from the accidentally transmitted diseases, Dr. Adams
makes the necessary distinctions between a family and an here-
ditary peculiarity of constitution, the former being confined to
a single generation, to brothers and sisters of the same parents,
while the latter is traced from generation to generation. “‘ Dis-
eases either appear at birth, and are called congenital or connate,
or they arise afterwards: the first only can with propriety be
called hereditary or family diseases: all others should be consi-

dered as hereditary or family susceptibilities to certain diseases.

The degrees of susceptibility should be distinguished by appro-~
priate terms. If the family or hereditary susceptibility is such
that the disease, though not existing at birth, is afterwards in-
duced without any external causes, or by causes which cannot be
distinguished from the functions of the ceconomy, such a state
may be called a Disposition to the disease. But if the suscepti-
bility, though greater than. is remarked in other families, is so
far less than a disposition as always to require the operation of
some external cause to induce the disease ; this minor suscepti-
bility may he called a PREDISPosITION to the disease. Connate or
congenital diseases are more commonly family than hereditary ;
some of them, being mortal, as connate hydrocephalus, cannot
be transmitted; other connate peculiarities are more properly
organic privations or imperfections, as connate deafness or cons
nate cataract, DuisposiTions are found in some fainilies to dis-

eases

——s

Notices respecting New Books. 455

eases which are connate in others: hydrocephalus, which is con-
nate in some families, in others occurs to several brothers and
sisters in succession as they arrive at a certain age.’ The dis-
position to blindness and deafness is often hereditary, though the
connate privation of these senses is generally confined to a single
generation. When the disposition is hereditary, the children are
born with perfect organs, but usually about the age of puberty
their vision declines, Predispositions also are found in some
families, and dispositions in others, to diseases of the same or-
gans, and called by the same name, as pulmonary consumption.
In some farnilies, a number of brothers. and sisters fall into con-
sumption on arriving at a certain age: this may strictly be called
a family disposition to the disease, inasmuch as it is confined to
a single generation, and as we can discover no external cause to
excite it. Another kind of consumption, and the most common
in cold climates, is hereditary; but only in predisposition, al-
ways requiring the influence of climate to induce it, and conse-
quently always to be prevented, and often relieved, by avoiding
the exciting cause. Gout and madness are, by almost universal
consent, deemed hereditary; yet, if we admit the general im-
plication as to their immediate causes, both these diseases, and
particularly the former, should be considered as only hereditary
in predisposition.” .

Dr. A, illustrates these accurate distinctions by well authenti-
eated cases, which must contribute to diffuse a more correct
kuowledge of such diseases into the language of popular con-
versation, as well as tend to remove erroneous prejudices, and
many serious obstacles to social happiness. From his extensive
medical practice, however, and his acute observation, we ex-
pected a curious section on family cutaneous diseases, which, in
an age when external appearance is one of the most general
studies, could not fail to interest great numbers of his fashionable
readers. ‘The remarks on elephantiasis occasionally digress

_from principles to persons, The author’s concluding summary,
indeed, is worthy of his talents and medical skill, ‘The result is,
_ That connate diseases or privations are not hereditary; that
dispositions to certain diseases are more commonly family than
hereditary; that the diseases arising from them usually show
themselves at certain ages; if early in life, that we have little
chance of preventing or curing them, but that such of the chil-
dren as escape that age, are as safe as the descendants from
other families, That hereditary predispositions to the most
prevalent diseases are brought into action either by climate,
which destroys at an early age those who would be the means
of transmitting such predispositions to posterity, or by such ex-
ternal causes as may often be preyented, That whenever an
Ff4 hereditary

456 Notices respecting New Books.

hereditary or family susceptibility to any disease is suspected,
the changes in the constitution induced by gestation, parturition,
and the more advanced climacterics, should be particularly at-
tended to. That if the human race, like other animals, has.a
constant disposition to restore itself from every irregularity, the
divine law, which forbids any sexual intercourse between near
relations, seems sufficient to correct ev: ery peculiarity unconnected
with climate. That if an her edilary disposition is generated
by climate, it must progressively increase from the constant ope-
ration of such combined causes, That no remedy, therefore,
can be sufficient, but the prevention-of propagation as soon as
‘the disposition becomes hereditary, and that such provision is
made by the diseased action itself, That as far as our inquiries
into-these irregularities have hitherto extended, sufficient provi-
sion is made for correcting them by the influence of climate, by
the interdiction of marriage between near relations, and by the
effects which the irregularities themselves induce. That all in-
terference, therefore, with the dictates of nature, beyond the.
expression of revealed will, appears unnecessary. Finally, that
_to lessen anxiety, as well as from a regard to the moral principle,
family peculiarities, instead of being carefully concealed, should
be accurately traced and faithfully recorded, with a delicacy
suited to the subject, and with a discrimination adapted to the
only purpose for which such registers can be useful.” ;
The practical wisdom ard good sense of these conclusions
must be obvious to every reader. Dr. A. in the notes has also
‘some judicious remarks on goitre, which he considers a family
disease, An instance tending to confirm this opinion may be
given. In a valley near Guadir, in Granada, goitres appear: in
an adjoining one watered by the same river, and subject to the
same winds, no traces of them are found. The family descent
of calculous diseases might also be traced; but Dr. A. who has
so well begun the inquiry, under the enlightened auspices of the’
worthy :President of the Royal Society, will doubtless pursue it. ~

The second volume of the Transactions of the Geological So.
ciety will be ready for delivery to the members early in July.

A Manual of Mineralogy has been published ge Mr. Arthur
“Aikin, Secretary to the Geological Society,

M. Mionnet of Paris, has published a description of ancient
Greek and Roman medals, with a table appreciating their scar-
city and value. It. consists of six volumes in- octavo, and one
volume of plates, and comprises a series of 20,000 impressions
taken in sulphur, . > dmittea |
, ; XCVIM. Pro-

»

[- 457 J
_ XCVIIL. Proceedings of Learned Societies.
ROYAL SOCIETY.

June 9-and 16. A LONG and interesting paper, by Sir Humphry
Davy, was read, detailing this philosopher’s experiments in Italy,
on the combinations of iodine with the alkalis, potassium, so-
dium, hydrogen, &e.

June 23. Another paper by Sir H. Davy, sent from Rome,

-was read, containing an account of his experiments on diamonds

and carbonaceous matter, performed at Florence and Rome with
burning lenses. Sir H. having conjectured ia his third Bakerian
Lecture that the diamond owes its peculiar characters to a small
portion of oxygen, availed himself of an opportunity while at
Florence to operate on this substance with a very powerful lens
and the concentrated rays of the sun, instead of the Voltaic_pile.
He made a variety of experiments on the combustion of small
diamonds laid in a platina cup and placed in a glass globe,
through which the solar rays were made to pass and burn the
diamonds; but in none of them was there any oxygen evolved:

whence he was induced-to abanden the idea of oxygen forming
any part of the diamond. He next directed his attention to as-
certain whether, according to the opinion of Guyten Morveau,
hydrogen or water might not exist in diamond; but the result
was similar, no trace of either appearing. Moisture, indeed, in
his first experiments was discovered; but it was entirely owing
to an imperfection in the apparatus, which was afterwards re-
medied.s Charcoal was then submitted to similar experiments,
and emitted some hydrogen. Hence Sir H. concludes that dia-
mond is perfectly pure carbon, and that its hardness and trans-

-parency are derived from its erystallization, and not from the

admixture of any other elementary hody.

Sir H. has examined six different species of sea-weed on the
coast of the Mediterranean, without finding any iodine in them,
except some very slight traces. He also suggested some improved
methods of detecting this singular substance ; and described a
number of its combinations and appearances with muriatic and
other acids, as well as with hydrogen and the gases.

Smithson Tenant, Esq. furnished a paper giving a description
of a cheap and easy “method of preparing potassium in consider-
able quantities. The author, after mentioning the different
methods hitherto adopted to prepare this metal, stated his own,
which consists in an improvement of Gay-Lussac’s application of
a gun-barrel. Instead of having a peculiar furnace and different
gun-barrels, he merely takes two iron tubes, one considerably
wider than the other; the wide one is filled with iron filings and

potash,

458 Institute of France.

potash, and one end of it is welded together: in the other is in-
serted a smaller tube perfectly air-tight, and destined to collect
and retain the potassium. The apparatus thus adjusted, the
wide tube is placed in a furnace, smith’s forge, or any powerful
fire, when the potassium is sublimed, rises into the small tube,
and is there collected pure and fit for use. ‘

Dr. Kidd communicated to the Society a short paper on the
Formation of Nitre on the Walls of the Laboratory in Oxford.
The walls are composed of a calcareous stone containing some
shells, and the nitre forms on its surface in the greatest quan-
tities where the walls are below the surface of the ground. It
appears that the atmosphere assists its formation, as Dr. K,
placed a glass over a part of the wall which yielded the nitre in
greatest abundance, when the rapidity of its production was
greatly impaired. The nitre produced is tolerably pure.

Sir Everard Home, Bart. read a paper containing a deserip-
tion of some fossil bones found in Dorsetshire, and new in Mr.
Bullock’s museum.

Sir E. has examined these fossil bones with great attention,
but without being able perfectly to satisfy himself to what par-
ticular species of animal they have belonged. The teeth he at
first conjectured might be these of the crocodile, but on more
mature examination he discovered that they could not possibly
belong to that animal; the same uncertainty exists respecting
the jaws and skull, which he determined not to be those of the
shark genus. The non-existence of the elephant, hippopotamus,
&c. in this country be considered as no argument why some of
the bones found in Dorsetshire should not have belonged to
those animals; but the depressions which the bones have ex-
perienced, rendered it impossible for him to say positively to
what species of animal they had belonged. Sir E.’s paper was
illustrated by drawings of the different fossil bones alluded to.

“PROCEEDINGS OF THE FRENCH INSTITUTE FOR THE YEAR 1813,
BY M. CUVIER.

[Continued from p. 311.]

In our analysis for 1811, it has been seen how by accelerating
evaporation in vacuo, and by thie presence of a strongly ab-
sorbent body, Mr. Leslie of Edinburgh succeeded in freezing
water at all times of the year. An apparatus which he subse-~
quently invented has been exhibited to the Class by M. Pictet;
and our colleague M. Gay-Lussac, in repeating the experiment,
recalled a well-known fact connected with the same subject,
namely, that cold is produced in certain machines from which

we

Institute of France. 459

we allow condensed air to escape: he has also proved that at
all times of the year it is sufficient that the air should be c n-
densed in a two-fold degree, in order to obtain ice, and he
thinks that we may procure it easily in warm countries by con-
densing the air by means of a fall of water.

We may, by employing bodies more evaporable than water,
attain degrees of cold truly astonishing, and freeze not only
quicksilver but the purest alcohol. M. Configliacchi of Pavia
has frozen mercury by the evaporation of water alone. It was
thought that this pressure of the air, the influence of which is
so powerful in retarding the evaporation of liquids, also retarded
the solution of salts, or, what comes to the same thing, accele-
rated their crystallization when they were dissolved ; and in fact
a saturated solution of Glauber salts, or sulphate of soda, which
preserves its fluidity when itis cooled in vacuo, also crystallizes
when we admit air toit. But M. Gay-Lussac says that this dues not
happen to all salts indiscriminately ; and even with respect to the
sulphate of soda, the phznomenon is not occasioned by the cir-
cumstance alleged. When we intercept the contact of the
air, by a stratum of oil for instance, the crystallization is re~
tarded as when we suppress its pressure by making a vacuum ;
whereas, on the contrary, the pressure of a column of mercury
in no respect accelerates this crystallization. A solution which
passes through mercury, from which the air has been driven by
ebullition, does not crystallize, and if it passes through common
mercury it coagulates instantly. Agitation, the introduction of
a small crystal, and many other causes, produce the crystalliza-
tion, whatever be the degree of pressure. Thus M. Gay-Lussac
concludes, that it is not by its pressure that the air diminishes
the dissolving power of water. He affirms also, that it is not
by absorbing air that water loses this power; but he thinks that
it is a phenomenon more or less analogous to that of pure wa-
ter, which, as is well known, remains fluid at some degrees below
its real freezing point, when we prevent it from being shaken ;
but it freezes the instant we give it the least shake.

The most evident source of heat in the world is the sun’s
rays. But it has been long remarked that these rays divided by
the prism do not all give an equal heat; and M. Herschel, the
celebrated astronomer, ascertained some years since that their
power of heating went on augmenting from the violet to the
red: he even ascertained that outside of the spectrum there
were rays which, without being luminous, possessed a heating
property more powerful than that of the red rays. Messrs.
Ritter, Beckmann, and Wollaston announced soon afterwards
that the power of the luminous rays to produce certain chemical

changes

460 Institute of France.

changes is distributed in an inverse ratio, and is exercised parti-
eularly in the violet ray, and beyond this ray.

M. Berard, a young chemist of Montpelier, who repeated with

much precision both sets of experiments, ascertained their ex-
aetiinite in several, respects: he even found that. the chemical
power of light diminishes in proportion as we approach the
middle of the spectrum, and that it vanishes beyond it. “But ac-~
cording to him, it is at the extremity of the red ray that the
maximum of the heating power resides, and outside of the spec-
trum it diminishes. M. Berard has also ascertained that these
properties belong to the light reflected by ice, and to that which
has been divided by the Iceland spar, as well as to the direct
light.

Decisive results have not yet been obtained on the power of |
magnetizing iron, ascribed to the violet-coloured rays by M. Mo-
richini, an ingenious Italian chemist. Although the magnetic
needies exposed to these rays were apparently affected under
certain circumstances, they exhibited no signs whatever in others,
without our being able hitherto to account for this difference ;
for, in both cases, all other causes known to produce polarity had
been carefully enews: It is true that the summer of 1813 had
not favoured this kind of inquiry, on account of the unsettled
weather.

Of all the phenomena which heat presents, the dilatation
which it produces in bodies is that of which the laws admit of
heing expressed most naturally by mathematical formule ; and
the knowledge of these laws, which forms an essential part of
‘physics, is also very important in a host of chemical experi-
ments. M. Biot has been considerably occupied with this sub-
ject ; and taking the dilatation of mercury as a term of compari-
son, he finds that the real dilatation of other liquids may always
be obtained by the sum of this dilatation, of its square, and of its
cube ; multiplying each of these three terms by a particular co-
efficient, which we must determine for every liquid, but which
being once determined remains the same at all degrees. As the
substance of the thermometer which contains the liquid under
examination dilates also, the apparent dilatation is different
from the true: nevertheless, M. Biot demonstrates that it takes
place according to a similar law. He calculates afterwards, ac-
cording to the experiments of M. De Luc, the coefficients adapt-
ed for eight of the liquids whose laws it is most necessary to
‘know; and shows that, these coefficients once obtained, its for-
mula gives the dilatation of each degree equally well with the
experiment. Lastly, he has made the application to the com-
, bined dilatations of the vase and of the liquid, and has shown
that

*

New Heliometer. 463

that we may separate the effects-which belong to the liquid and
to its envelepe, and appreciate their influence with sufficient ac-
curacy to recovery, by calculation alone all the results observed ;
so that calculators may in future dispense, in an infinite number
of cases, with immediate observation, and we may introduce
with confidence its data into the elements of phenomena. This
is an advantage of the more consequence, as these kinds of re-
searches are extremely delicate ; and if we do not pay the great- -
est attention to them, a multitude of trifling causes will disturb
the observer. “fe

A dispute has long existed among chemists, as to the precise’
moment at which alcohol was formed.in wine. The greater num-
ber formerly thought that alcohol, or spirits of wine, was an essen-
tial product of fermentation; but M. Fabroni has maintained a
contrary opinion. According to him, it is only accidentally, and
when it excites too much heat, that fermentation engenders alco-
hol ; but in common wines, the alcohol is produced merely by
the heat applied for their distillation ; and the chief proof which
he gives of this is, that we cannot extract it from these wines hy
potash, although the latter exposes the slightest particle of al-
cohol which we introduce on purpose. . M. Gay-Lussac has ad-
hered to the old opinion, by showing that potash also demon-
states the alcohol which is natural to wine, when we previously
cleanse it by litharge from the principles which surrounded it
and opposed its separation ; and that we may obtain this spiri-
tuous liquor by distilling wine at a temperature of 15 degrees,
which is far inferior to that of the common fermentation. M.
Gay-Lussac, to avoid all adulteration, made the wine himself
upon which he made his experiments, and found alcohol in it as
well as in the other kinds. He has also shown that we may ob-
tain the pure alcohol of Richter by employing quicklime, or ra-
ther barytes, instead of muriate of lime.

[ Yo be continued. |

XCIX. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.
O; the 13th of June 1814, the first Class of the French In-

stitute (being that for the encouragement of mathematics and
the physical sciences) held a meeting, when a paper was read
with the following title: “ Account of a new Heliometer, in-
tended to give the precise measurement of the diameter of the
Sun, by Alexis Rochon, member of the Institute, and of the
Academy of St. Petersburgh.” After stating that the subject
had been propounded as a prize dissertation by the Petersburgh
Academy for last year, M. Rochon proceeds; ¢ In the Moniteur

for,

462 Stained Glass.

for 1812 will be found the description of a micrometer of rock
crystal, which I presented to the Institute, not only for taking
the diameters of the sun and moon, but also intended to be used
in difficult problems in naval tactics and geodosy. Not being
fully satisfied of the degree of precision which I obtained in the
measurement of the sun, became desirous of destroying, in the
two solar images, the aberration oceasioned by the unequal re-
frangibility of the rays which traverse crystallized substances in
which we develop the effects of double refraction: for this rea~
son I renounced the idea of becoming a candidate for the Pe-
tersburgh medal. vata

~ 1 owe it to my colleague Arago, to acknowledge that from
him I first learnt, that the old pieces of stained glass in our
churches possessed the astonishing property of transmitting ho-
mogeneous rays only when they were painted with the oxide of
copper. These pieces of stained glass are either of a beautiful
red or bright green; for according as the painting is more or
less fired (cuite) the oxide assumes these colours ; although they
are very different; and it was by using glass of a red colour that
I finally attained the achromatism necessary for the precise
measurement of the sun’s diameter.

“The Memoirs of the old Academy of Sciences prove that
M. Monge was the first to make the observation, and subse-
quently M. Hassenfratz affirms that he made the same remark —
on painted glass which was stained of a green colour by the
oxide of copper. ‘This second remark will prove very useful to
me, if it produces the same effect with glass painted red by
~ means of the same oxide; and I beseech Messrs. Vauquelin and
Thenard to assist me in my new inquiries. It is with a piece’
of glass painted red with the oxide of copper, that I obtain at
this instant two images of the sun perfectly well defined, and
henceforward I have the means of increasing at pleasure the
.effect of double refraction. Artists who are employed to cut
prisms of this substance, in order to procure heliometers for
astronomers, ought to proceed in the éollowing manner. They
will select very pure and finely crystallized specimens. The
cube will not give in the direction of the axis any sign of double
refraction ; but this cube when cut transversely to the axis will
give two prisms, which will have attained the maximum of
double refraction. A second cube similar to the first, but cut
in an opposite direction, will produce an effect similar to the
first, with this very remarkable difference, that by putting them
close together in oppesite directions the effect of the double
refraction will be doubled: in this way we shall procure, with,
these two cubes, two new cubes producing a quadruple refrac-
tion. Thus, by multiplying the cubes, we shall increase at plea-

sure,

New Heliometer.—Antiques.—Earthquake. 463

sure, and indefinitely, the effect of the property of double re-
fraction in those crystallized substances which present this in-
comprehensible phenomenon. !

« We are indebted to the late M. Malus for an entirely new
process for discovering in substances, whatever may be the al-
teration from their primitive form, their axis of crystallization.
The instrument which he contrived for this purpose is so in-
genious, that it ought to be engraved on his tomb, like the cy-
linder inserted within the sphere, which enabled Cicero to dis-
cover the tomb of Archimedes in Sicily. It is best for the mea-
surement of the sun, which we know to be about 32 minutes, to
employ in my heliometer three or four cubes, shaped as I have
deseribed, in order that this micrometer may be very close to
the focus of the eye-glass, without altering in a sensible manner
the goodness of the object-glass, and its dimensions not exceed-
ing that of the diameter of the eye-glass. The importance to
astronomy of the precise measurement of the diameter of the
sun made me desirous that my colleague Arago should verify
the heliometers which I sent to the Royal Observatory. This
eminent astronomer has already verified, by numerous observa-
tions, the diameter of the' principal planets by the microscope,
on which the heliometer which I have now described is abso-
Jutely calculated.”

Mr. Sowerby is making a sword of meteoric iron, to present
to the Emperor of Russia.

"A very interesting discovery of ancient medals has been re-
cently made in the department of Jura, in the Alps. A boy who
was feeding sheep having ascended a very high rock, struck his
stick against it, when to his surprise it entered easily. Having
called the attention of some of his companions to the circum-
stance, they dug into the aperture, and discovered a pot half zinc
and half copper of the capacity of about two pints. It was
filled with copper medals edged with silver, bearing the effigies of
various emperors, of exeellent workmanship. Several have le-
gends and exergues of various kinds, and all were covered with
verdigrise. They are of the reign of Dioclesian, Constantine,
Maximinus, &c. The form of the pot which contained these
medals is antique: it is' contracted greatly at the upper part, its

colour is whitish, but it exhibits neither inscriptions nor en-
gravings.

On the 22d of May, at half past 11 A. M.,. a shock of an
earthquake was perceived at Oleron, in the South of France.
| & Never,” says an eyewitness, “in the memory of the oldest in-
habitants

464 Earthquake. Avalanche.

habitants was any former shock so violent or of so long dum

tion. It appeared that an eruption followed by a thick and.

black smoke burst from the mountain of Louvie, three leagues
from Oleren. Some large rocks were detached from the moun-

tain, and their fall killed five cows and demolished a house, The

second shock was so violent that several houses at Gand, on the
road to Pace, were destroyed. Here 2 great number of chim-
neys were thrown down, and terror filled every breast. ~The
churehes were in an instant crowded with the flying inhabitants,

and a young girl was crushed to death in the attempt to gain

an asylum.”

A similar shock was perceived at Marmand. on the same day.
and at the same hour. It was from west to east, and was pre=:

ceded by a clap of thunder in the west, accompanied by large
black clouds. ‘he shock lasted two seconds.

Some travellers recently arrived from Wallachia have brought,

an account of a terrible calamity which has befallen the inhabi-
tants of Oybestein. This district, one of the most populous in

the country, was situated in the neighbourhood of several lofty _
mountains ; some of these were cultivated to their summits, and >

the sides were covered with the dwellings of the natives; .the
base of the highest, however, is supposed to have been sapped
by the long rains. On the night of the 20th of April, while the
inhabitants, unsuspicious of such a calamity, were buried in re-
pose, the peak called the Devil’s Neck descended with a noise

resembling -an earthquake, and overwhelmed in its progress ~

houses, forests, and innumerable cattle. The concussion was
so frightful, that the inhabitants of the adjacent villages started
from their beds, and were seen renning nakedfrom their habi-
tations to seek safety in the plains. The extent of this ca-
lamity had not been ascertained ; but it was supposed that 400
persons had been buried beneath the ponderous fragments, which
extended and covered a mile of ground. The general distress
was much increased by the groans which were heard issuing
from the ruins four days after the avalanche.

M. Sergel, the celebrated Swedish sculptor, died lately at
Stockholm at the age of 74. He had resided nearly twenty
years at Rome, and was a member of the Academy of Painting
and Sculpture at Paris, and of the French Institute. His prifi-
cipal works are the groupe of Psyche and Love, and that of Mars
and Venus, the monument erected to Descartes in’ one of the
churches at Stockholm, and the statue of Gustavus II[. placed
near the palace. M. Sergel has left several pupils behind him,
one of whom (M. Bystroem) has obtained a pension to enable

him

Physiology and Practice of Medicine. 465

him to travel in Italy. It was upon M. Sergel’s suggestion that
Gustavus purchased the Endymion, one of the chefs d’auvre of
antiquity at Rome, and which now forms the chief ornament of
the Stockholm museuin.

M. Le Gallois, of the Faculty of Medicine of Paris, has
lately made some interesting inquiries on the principle of life,
and particularly on the motion of the heart as connected
with it. He was led by an adventitious circumstance to consi-
der how long the young of rabbits can live without respiring,
immediately after their separation from the mother, before the
natural period of utero-gestation terminates. He found the
time to be variable, and greater in proportion to its proximity
to the termination of pregnancy. He then attempted to dis-
cover, how long these animals can live after decapitation ; and
found this to be also variable according to the age of the ani-
mal: but he likewise observed, that it is always precisely equal
to the time during which the animal resists suffocation, or takes
in dying by asphyxia. M, Le Gallois thence concluded, that
decapitation only destroys animals by suffocating them; that is,
by impeding the respiration necessary to-their existence.

The analogy being once assumed, required to be proved by
direct experiments. There was, besides, this difference between
the effects of simple asphyxia and decapitation ; viz. the animal
under asphyxia made vain efforts to breathe, whilst in that .
decapitated all the motions of respiration were destroyed. It
became requisite to discover the cause of this difference. To
resolve the first question, M. Le Gallois endeavoured to supply
the material of respiration in the decapitated animal, hy inflat-
_ ing the thorax, after having tied the arteries: this experiment
sueceeded. Sensation and voluntary motion were seen to return
with inflation ; they were of various duration in different rabbits,
but even in the youngest continued for several hours.

As it was thus proved that the destruction of the brain oc-
casioned death by the interruption of respiration, it hecame ne-
cessary to inquire whether the principle of the motion resided
in this viscus generally, or was confined to one of its parts?
For this purpose, our experimentalist opened the cranium of a
young rabbit, and removed the brain by successive portions,
cutting it horizontally, from before, backwards. He found that
all the cerebrum could be thus removed, and the whole of the
cerebellum, and even part of the medulla oblongata, without
interrupting respiration ; but this function suddenly ceased
when the origin of the eighth pair of nerves was included in
the slice cut from the medulla oblongata. It therefore became
evident, that the principle of motion in the respiratory organs

Vol.43. No. 194. June 1534. Gg proceeds

- ?
466 Physiology and Practice of Medicine,

proceeds from this point: in fact, respiration is no longer per-
formed when’ these nerves only are divided, without injury to
other parts, and the animal dies from asphyxia, accompanied by
some peculiarities which M. Le Gallois has noticed.

We are told that the total removal of the medulla oblongata
im a rabbit, decapitated and revived, instantly kills it. If the
same operation be performed on one which has not been so cir-
" eumstanced, and in which the brain is perfect, it dies, although
not in the same manner; the trunk of the body is instantly,
deprived of life; but the head continues to live a short time,
and is proved by a gaping (ai/lement) indicative of efforts made
by the animal to carry on the function of respiration.

If a rabbit be divided transversely into two equal portions,
each of these continues to live separately during a certain time,
which. is shorter or longer according to the age of the animal ;
and longer the younger it is. ach of these parts feels and acts
by itself: and they also die separately as soon as their respective
portions of spinal marrow are destroyed. From this ‘view of
the subject, it is evident there are two centres of vitality, or
rather two sources of distinct sensations, The life of the whole
trunk depends on the spinal marrow, and the life of each por-
tion of the trunk on the portion ef spinal marrow which gives
off nerves to it: besides, it so completely and entirely depends
on this cause, that after the heart, liver, intestines, and internal
organs of the animal have been removed, it continues to survive
as long as the portion of spinal marrow which animates it is
left entire. —

Since it is not possible to remove the whole of the head of a
warm-blooded animal, and leave the medulla oblongata in con-
. tinuity with the spinal marrow, without dividing many con-

siderable blood-vessels, the loss of blood from which greatly
lowers vitality, experiments were made on some cold-blooded
animals, such as salamanders. The wound caused by decapi-
‘ tation cicatrised. and they continued to exist until life was ex-
hausted by simple want of nutrition. : i

These united: experiments prove that the maintenance of
life in any part of an animal essentially depends on two cireum-
stances; one of which is the integrity of that portion of the
‘spinal marrow corresponding with the part; the other, the
continuance of the circulation of arterial blood in this part, an
effect produced by respiration: it follows then, that any portion
of an animal can be made to exist separately (?solément) so long
as both these conditions can be fulfilled.

M. Le Gallois supposes that the brain wills and regulates all
the animal motions, but the movements themselyes depend on
the influence of the spinal marrow. . A cold-blooded animal, for

example,

Physiology Universities. —Lectures. 467

example, tra for some days, and moves’ its limbs after the
brain is removed ; but its movements are useless, and those of
the feet in contrary directions, so that, if it takes one step for-
ward, the next is perhaps made backward. He i imagines that
the spinal marrow is acted upon by the brain, in the same man-
ner as the muscles are acted upon by the spinal marrow.

' The results of M. Le Gallois’ physiological labours were sub-
mitted, by the National Institute, to Messrs. Humboldt, Hallé,
and Percy, by whom a particular examination of the filets was
made. The Doctor repeated all the experiments in their pre-
sence with complete success; and their report is highly credita-
ble to the talents of the ingenious ‘author. The subject is one
of great interest: and we should be glad to see’it investigated
on this side of the Channel.

ABSENCE OF MAGNESIA IN HUMAN BONES.

_ According to the latest experiments made on human bones,
by Hildebrandt, the analysis of Fourcroy and Vauquelin is con-
firmed, that they do not contain any oxyphosphate of magnesia, |
as maintained by Berzelius in his Animal Chemistry.

A nervous fever prevails at Basle, in Switzerland, which at-
tacks young persons, and has assumed a character of malignity.
‘In four or five days the patient expires, and the disease has hi-
therto proved fatal in every instance.

In May last the plague raged violently at Smyrna, Odessa,
and in several islands of the Archipelago. It had also made its
appearance at Constantinople, but not to such an extent.

‘. The university of Wilna, in the Russian empire, has resumed
its former rank among the learned institutions in Europe, and a
veterinary school has been added to its other lectureships. The
number of students is from 6 to 700 annually.

The universities of Halle and Berlin. have been restored to
their former rank under the auspices of the King of Prussia.-
The Saxon students have preferred visiting the latter school,
where 49 professors are to give sia in the course of the
summer. ate

The celebrated Dr. Sparzheim, the colleague of Dr. Gall,
being now in London, purposes to give a Course of Lectures on
the Physiology of the Brain, at his Rooms, No. 11, Rathbone-
place, where further particulars may be learnt of him. The
Lectures are to begin on the 11th of July.

Geg2 Meteoro-

[ 468 }

Meteorological Olservations made at Clapton from the 9th to
the 20th of June 1814.

Since the date of my last observations I have not kept regular
accounts of the weather till the 9th of June: the weather in the
interval was chiefly cold, the Ao crenaen: winds easterly, and a
great deal of cloudiness.

June 9.—Easterly wind; clear sky, and hot in the sun, with
cirrus, &e.

June \0.—Clear and cloudy by intervals; air warmer.

June 11.—Fair day; various clouds. Easterly wind, and a
breeze. .

June 12.—Cloudiness and rain in the morning; fair after-
noon. Wind southward.

June 13.—Much warmer, with gentle showers.

June 14.—Very hot day. Thermometer 84° in the shade
much cirrus, cumulostratus, aud that dense white feature of
cirrocumulus which precedes storms. I predicted from it the
storms of next morning. SW. and variable.

- June 15.—Early this morning a thunder shower ; warm day
after the rain, with light gales from south, and cumuli, &c.

June 16.—Warm but showery; various clouds, as in such
weather.

June \7.—Fair, warm day ; various clouds and showers. SW,

June 18.—Warm and gentle showers. Southerly.

June 19.—Rainy morning; fair evening:

Jung 20.—Fair, but a great deal of cloud, and rather cooler
than yesterday.

The weather for the last ten days has been mild, pleasant and
wholesome, with, showers at intervals, which have contributed
much to complete the vegetation this backward spring. The
Monkshood Poppy (Papaver orientale) and the Tragopoga po-
lyfolium et pratense, came into flower later than usual. The
clouds have been such as usually accompany summer showers 5
a continual tendency to eumulostratus and nimbus, with cirro-
cumulus, cirrus and cirrostratus of the common sort in the fine
intervals.

Clapton,
June 21, 1814. THOMAS FORSTER.

METEORO-

Meteorology. . 469
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE,
By Mr. Cary, OF THE STRAND,
For June 1814.

Thermometer. ar ie
x Aa 2
a2 oo} , |= Height of | ‘% 8 a
tig 8 = 6 So the Barom. et: Weather.
38 7% \*Siz | Inches. bo Be
) Fi 2D sa
May .27| 45.| 58 | 51 | 29-80 54 jCloudy
28} 52165 | 55 | -60 66 |Fair
29| 58 | 64 | 47 78 80. |Fair
30) 56 { 67 | 52 | 30°10 76 «| Fair
31) 54 | 66 | 48 *02 64 (Fair
June 1}! 47 | 60} 47 | 29°99 60 \Fair
g| 48 | 56 | 46 “87 « 0 |Foggy with rain,
3)-51 | 54 | 45 “75 oO (Rain
4| 50 | 52 | 48 "82 O {Rain
5| 50 | 51 | 46 | 30°00 27 |Cloudy
6) 50 | 52 | 47 01 38 [Cloudy
7, 46 | 51 | 44 02 87 |Cloudy
8} 49 | 54 | 46 04 39 Cloudy
9| 45 | 59 | 47 “06 66 |Fair
10] 52 3 | 48 °05.~= |) «60-Ss| Fair
t1| 54 | 62 | 53 | 299-992 69 Fair
12| 55 | 70 | 56 “76 60 |Fair
13] 57 | 70 | 56 | 30°05 72 |Fair
14| 68 | 79 | 67 | 29°92 86 |Fair (thunder at
15| 60 | 70 | 56 85 57 Cloudy night)
16} 56 | 69 | 54 "92 46 |Sbowery
17| 55 | 64 | 53 | 30°08 53 jCloudy
18| 54 | GO | 52 | 29°96 36 {|Showery
19] 56 | 56 | 51 °85 .25 {Rain
20] 51 | 57 | 52 By 35 {Cloudy
21] 54 | 58 | 51 -s0 | 40 |Cloudy
22) 51 | 57 | 53 | 30°02 43 |Cloudy
23} 52} 57 | 514 26 44 {Cloudy
24] 51 | 55 | 51 “31 36 {Cloudy
25| 50 | 56 |} 54 28 35 {Cloudy
26) 51 | 55 | 52 "10 34 |Cloudy

N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o’clock,

rate

EX, ; Ev 470 ] :

INDEX to VOL. XLUL,

see -

Accuu on iode,’ 57,141, 210
Acids not obtainable without. water, sul-

phuric, 43; nitric, 44; miurialic, 44;
_ tartaric, 47; citric, 48; oxalic, 49;

on camphoric and benzoic, 146
Adams, (Jos.)on hereditary diseases,454
Adams on cataract, &c. 218
Adipocere, how formed, - 36

Aevolitesy catalogue of, 448
Air-vessels in plants. On use of, 81
_Aicohol. How formed, 192; how

rectified, 272; formation of, 461
Alcohol of sulphur. Cluzel on, 408

Almanac, Nautical, errors in, 378, 407
Alumina. Compounds of, 89
Amlergris, how formed, 37
Ammonia, a remedy for viper’s bite, 73
Analyses of sulphate of alumina 88,
soda 96, ammonia 98, lime 99, prot-
oxide of iron 99, and oxide of copper
, 100; of oxide of tin 93; of tartrate
of potash 95; of superacetate of
» potash 95; of acetate of soda and of
lime 96; of oxalate of ammonia 983
ef muriate of baryta 98, of lime 99,
and of zine 100; of oré of antimony
299; of nitrates and nitrites of lead
262, $41, 401

Animal heat. On, 473
Animal heat. 'T. Davy on, 155
Antimony. New variety, 299

Antiques, $12, 388, S90, 463
Aralian horses. Notice respecting,3i3
Astronomical instrument, 1
Astronomy, 228, 230, $07; polar di-
stance of a polaris, “ 446
Atmospheric refraciion. On, 806
Alomic theory claimed for Mr. Higgins,
54

Avalanche at Oybestein, 464
Batington on concretions of olive 011,37
Bakewell’s Geology. On, 27, 119, 182,

252, 325
Basalies, Formation of, 136
Benzoic acid. Bucholz on, 147
Berxelius on chemical proportions, 42,
88,161, 245

Biography. Bougainville, 371
Blackford on cane juice, 289
“Blind. Hope to the, 218

Blow-pipe, hydropneumatic, 280; uses

of, 439
Books, New, 37, 218, 313, 379,454
Bougainville. Biography of, 371
Botany, 429
Brain. On injuries of the, 337

Brande on concretions of olive oil, 8%
Brewster on light, 154, 306, 385, 38T
Burns and scalds, to cure, 8
Brugnatelli on whitening copper, 445
Calorific pewer of liquids, . 212
Campheric acid, Bucholz on, 146
Carbonic oxide. On respiration of, 367
Cary’s Meteorological Tables, 80, 160,

240, 320, 400, 469

Cataract and ephihalmia._ On, 218
Cater on dividing instrument, 586
Caterpillar. Natice on, $96

Charcoal and sulphur. Reciprocal sac-
tion of, . : 403°
Chemical affinity, the force of, com-
pared with gravity, , 53
Chemical philosophy. Walker on, 225
101, 250, 284, 349
Chemical proportions. Berzelius on, 42,
88, i161, 245

Chevreul on nitrates and nitrites of lead,
262, 341, 401

Chinese empire. _Duratior of, 352
Cluzel on alcohol of sulphur, 408
Colowrs. Hargreaves on, 197

Combustion, Agency af electricity in,

17

Comets. On, 807
Concretions of olive oil, formed in hug
man intestines, 37
Copper. On whitening, 445
Crane on definite proportions, 113

Crichton on vitality of organized mat-
ter, ; 229
Crystallization of salts. On, 459; Ber-
zelius on, 42, 94, 247; Craneon,113
Duvy on the fluoric principle, 154
Davy, 'T. on animal heat, 155
Definite proportions. Berzeliuson, 42,
88, 161, 245

Delametherie’s progress of sciences in
France, 472

De Luc on geology, 127
Diamond void of oxygen, 457
Dilatation by heat, 460

Discoloration. of silver by a hard boile

egg. On, : 62
Dividing instrument. Cater’s, 386
Double salts. Formation of, 168,247
Drury’s paste from potatoes, 302
Earthquake at Oleron, ‘ 464
Earthworm. On habits of, 396

Education extending in Hungary, 313
Electricity. Agency of, in combustion,
17; Murray on, 175; influence of
moisture on Galvanic, 241, 363;

INDEX. a 471
Walker on, $64; electric column, Learned societies, 69,154, 227, 805, 385,

414 457
Englefield’'s transit instrument, 1; on Leeches. Mechanical substitute for, 268
cubic numbers, 63 Light. Decomposition of, denied, 1935

Evans (Rev- Mr. L.) on « polaris, 446
Explosion of the Felling colliery, 71

Eyres on mathematical analyses, 177
Furey on gcvlogy, 27, 119, 182, ma
32
Fat. On formation of, 35
Fever at Gibraltar. Account of, 72
Fisher on iodine, 211
Fluoric principle. On the, 154

Forster's. meteorological nettces, 26, 77,
157, 238, 318, 398, 468

Fossil human skeleton, 155, 232
Fossil shells, 482; quadrupeds, 433 ;
birds and fishes, 434; insects, ma-
drepores, vegetables, 435; bones, 453
Freexing, Experiments on, 458
French Measures and Weights, Y

Gall, ox, to refine, for painters, 350
Gallvis on the principle of life, 465
Garden on iode, 209

Gay-Lussae on formation of alcohol,

192
Gems, to ascertain soundness of, 233
Geological changes, 436

Geology. Farey on, 27, 119, 182, 2523
De Luc on, 127
Greece. Travels in, 311
Grooly on Englefield’s transit instru-
ment, 105
Groombridge on atmospheric refrac-

tion, 306

’ Hargreaves on colours, 197
Haussman on assaying, 439
Heat developed in condensation, 64

Heat. On supposed evolution of, from

vegetables, 208; on effects of, 460
Heliometer. Rochon’s, 461
Hereditary diseases. On, 454
Herschel. Ou the heavens, 221, 230

Hindoo oxidation of, silver, for medi-
cine, 386
Home on formation of fat in intestines,
35 ; on injuries of the brain, 387: on

fossil bones, 453
Howldy on electric column, 241, 368
Huler on caterpillar, 296
Hughes's improved gudgeon, 321
Hydro-pneumatic Lowpipe, 280
James’s sofa, 451

Ibhetson, Mrs.on air-vessels in plants,$1
Igneous theory,-combated by De Luc,
1s7-

Imperial Institute of France. 230, 307,453"

Iode. To obtain, 57; account of, 58,
69, 141, 209, 210, 211, 270
_dodine.

Davy on, 457
"Kidd on production of nitre, 458
Harwanian society, 389

remarks on, 459°
Light and colours. Brewster on, 154,
306, 385, 387

Liquids. On expansion of, by. heat, 460

Linnean Sociely, 388
Madeira house. Account of, $79
Magnesian limestone, 389
Mathematical papers, 63, 107, 177 -
Measures. The French, th
Meteor, Fiery, seen, e 26, 303
Meteoric stones. Catalogue of, 448

Meteorology, 26, 71, 76, 157, 160, 238,
318, $98, 450, 468

Mill-work. Improved gudgeon, 321
Mineralogy, 480
Minerals. On assaying, 439
Montigre on earth-worm, 396

Mother ofpearl, Brewster on, 306, $85
Muriatic acid, Berzelius on, 45
Murray .on discoloration of silver by a
boiled egg, 62; on electrical and
chemical terms, 175; on iode, 270
Mushrooms. Vauquelin on, 292
Nashon origin of atomic theory, 54
Nautical Almanac. Errors in, 378, 407
ae Zealand flax cultivated in France,
315

Nitrates and nitrites of lead, 262,341,401

WNitre. On production of, 458.
Ophthalmia. Adams on, 1s
Ovalic acid, not formed by alcohol ‘and

sulphuric acid, , i 200
Ox gall, to refine, for painters, $50"

Oxygen gas apparatus for cases of sud~
pended animation, 190
Oxygen the measuring standard of the
component parts of all combinations,

249
Padlury’s wheel-cuard, 323
Paganel on Chinese empire, 352
Painters. Ox gall for, 350
Paintings in oil, to preserve, 366
Park cn phenomena of sleep, 137
Paste from potatoes, 302
Patents, 73,157, 233, 397
Peai’s temporary rudder, 419
Pholtogen, 23, 101
Planets, Matter in the, 307
Pompeii. Excavations at, 912, 390

Potassium, to prepare, in considerable

quantity, 457
Precious stones, to test, 233
Prize question, $88
Reade on incident light, 193
Rectification of alcohol, 272
Refrigeration. On, 458

Respiration, Interesting experiment on,
367

472 INDEX.
Respiration. On, ~ 472 Tilley’s blowpipe, _ 280
Rochon’s heliometer, 461 Transit instrument. .Englefield’s, 1;
Ronalds on electric column, 415 Grooby on, °105
Royal Medical Society, Edinlurgh, 388 Truss Socrety, 317
Royal Soctely,69,154, 227, 305, 385,457 Urine. Case of retention of, 369
Rudder, temporary: Peat’s 419 Faccinalion at Bagdad, &e. 393
Rumford on heat developed-in con- F/ases, antique, 313
densation, |» 64 Fauguelin on mushrooms, 292
Rumford on calorific power, 212 Vesuvius, eruption 25th Dec. 1818—713
Scalds and Lurns, to cure, 8 on lava of, 127
Sementin’s oxygen gas apparatus, 190 Vipers, Remedy for. bite of, 73
Seppins on ship-building, 228 Jnriality of organized matter, 229
Ghip-Luilding. New system of, 228,305 Vogel on pretended formation of oxalic
Silica. Experimenton, _ 90 acid; a4 200
Silver, On discoloration of, by eggs;62 Volcanoes. De Luc on, + 128

Singer on electricity, 20, 414; answer

to, : 364
Sleep. On phznomena of, 137
Smithson’s geological theory, De Luc on,

127
Sofa for invalids, 451
Sound, Winter on velocity of, 201
Stones, meteoric. Catalogue of, 448

Subsalts. On formation of, 161. pro-

portions in, 168
Sugar cane. To cultivators of, 289
Sulphur, alcohol of. Cluzelon, 408
Sulphur and charcoal. Reciprocal ac-

tion of, 408

Sulphur and oxygen. Combinations, 43
Surgical cases, 369
Taunton on retention of urine,

Telescope. Superiority of the Casse-
rainian, 387
Telescopes. Englefield on, 1

Tennant’s process for obtaining potas-
sium, : 457
Thermogen, 23, 101

369 °

Walker (E.) on chemical philosophy,
22, 101, 250, 284, 349
Walker (R.) on burns and scalds, 8
Water, combinations of, with alkalies
and earths, 51, 887 with salts, 94
Water of crystallization, Berzelius on,
‘ ~ 43, 94
Water, Walker on composition of, 24
Water-wheels. Improvementon, 321
Webster on electricity, 17; Singer on,20

Weights. The French,
Wheel guard for carriages, $28
I hitford’s mechanical leech, 268

Wilson's way to preserve paintings,366
Winter on propagation of sound, 201
Witter on respiration of carboni¢ oxide,

367
Worms. On habits of, 396
Year. New determination of length

of, 309

Yellow oxide of lead, combinations of
acids with, 262, 341
Young on ship-building, 308

END OF THE FORTY-THIRD VOLUME.

hl nt

Printed ly Richard and Arikur Taylor, Shae Lane, London.

Phat. Mag Vol XUN J

The Eng le Improved Stale seagrass:
"9 Sw A of Oxendon Street.

189

PhitMag Vol XL.

MWorter, se,

Lhil, Mag Vol XUILLN.
MI Whittords Mechanical Substitute tor L eeches.

uit

Cc

Theumatic Blow-pipe.

Fig.6. Hi

Phil Mag. Vol XIMLPLN.

MM Ritughess Gudgeor,
for the Shatt of a Water Wheel.

1,

&
Padbury s, Guard for a Carriage Wheel.

erter, we,

RAY
HASTA ALE

Lhil, Magno ALILL 77°

aorer
bie
7
j

Z
Same, JANCIS

Talent Soft or Machine for livalids

This Day is published. in 8vo. with Four Plates by Lowry,
Price 16s. Boards,
LEMENTS of ELECTRICITY and ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY,
including GaLVANISM and Vorraic Execrricity : with original
eriments, and a Description of a new System of Electrical Insulation.
By GEORGE JOHN SINGER.
rinted for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, Paternoster-Row ;

R. Triphook, St. James’s-Strect.

«* A few Copies are printed on superior Paper, and illustrated with two real
imens of the Electrical Oxides. Price 1/. 10s. extra Boards. These are
had only by application to Mr. Sincer, No. 3, Prince’s Street, Caven-

Square.

ENGRAVINGS.

ol. XX XIX. Mr.STEEVENS’s New Levelling-Staff—A Map illustrating
Great Derbyshire Denudation.—A Quarto Plate to illustrate the Opti-
Instrument called the Diacatoptron.— A Plate of Mr. SrEEVENs’s
ntrivance for freeing Water-pipes from Air: engraved by Mr. PorTER.—
r, ALLan’s improved Reflecting Circle—Mr. Woon’s inclosed Grind-
e for Pointing Needles, and Mr. WE nstER’s Method of carryin oft
eam from Boilers.—Mr. Bruxton’s improved Pump for raising Water
hile Shafts or Pits are sinking.—Mr. Hopcson’s improved Mariner’s
rrecting the Magnetic Variations. —A Quarto coloured Plate
illustrate the Geology of Part of the Vicinity of Dublin,

Vol. XL. A Plate to illustrate the Foundation of Mr. Witt1am Jonas's
mporary Corn Rick.—Mr. SterHens’s Method of dividing Bricks.—
ction of Mr. WiLtL1AM Jones's temporary Corn Rick.—Mr. WalsTgLu's

ine for Pumping Water.—T wo Plates descriptive of the Muscular Mo-
ion of Snakes.—Figures to illustrate such Portions of a Sphere as have
heir Attraction expressed by an algebraic Quantity. —VaN Hetmont’s

e Influence of the Brain on the Generation of Animal Heat.
Vol. XLI. Perys’s Mercurial Voltaic Conductor.—Lestiz’s Dif-
ferential Thermometer.. Diagrams to illustrate Dr. Wottasron’s Peri-
scopic Camera Obscura and Microscope.—-Count Rum FoRD’s improved
Coffee-pots.—Mr. Goss’s Instrument to work Addition of Numbers
with Accuracy and Dispatch.—Mr. Davis’s hanging Scaffold; and
Mr. Martix’s Method of relieving a Horse from a Gart when fallen
down in its Shafts— A Quarto Plate to illustrate Mr. J. Hicxs’s Ac-
‘count of the Situation and Means of raising the Royal George.—A Plate
‘to illustrate Mr. Souru ern’s Essay on the Equilibrium of a Combination
of Beams, Blocks, &c. and on the Polygon of Forces.—-A Plate to illustrate
Mr, SteeveENs’s Account of a Meteor seen at London and other Places in
March last.—A Plate to ‘Hustrate Mr. Macuexu’s Annular Saw.

Vol. XLII. A Plate containing Professor Lesire’s Atmometer, and
Figures to illustrate Dr. Wottaston’s Paper on the elementary Particles

certain Crystals—A Sketch of that Part of the Island of Java which
eontains the natural Lake of Sulphuric Acid.—Interior of Volcano in the
Island of Java, and Figures to illustrate Mr. Wakex’s Paper on the Elec-
tric Fluid.—A Plate to illustrate M. Linx’s Memoir on the Anatomy of
Plants, and Dr. Wotvasron's Cryophorus.—A third Plate to illustrate
M. Linx’s Memoir on the Anatomy of Plants.—Mr. T. Jones's Secto-

h,—a new Instrument for dividing right Lines into equal Parts, measur-

ing Angles, and inscribing Polygons in the Circle, &c.

ADVERTISEMENT |

k a ~ |
EARLY seventeen years have elapsed since the Putrosopnie
JOURNAL was commenced by Mr. Nicroxson, and sixteen Si
pearance of the first Number of the PutLosopuicar Ma

gress. Numerous Philosophical and Mechanical Instruments and Machin’
have been invented and improved :~the theory and Practice of Astron
has been greatly advanced *—new Planets have been discovered, and. th
structure of the Sun more clearly ascertained. The Rays of Light ha
been subjected to new experiments, which have demonstrated their sep:
rate and distinct powers of illuminating and of heatin $ and that won
derfui Property upon which the Phenomena of the sland Crystal de
pend, but which is now known to be inherent in both kinds of ang
universally operative in all the cases of Reflection and Refraction, Che.
mistry has a second ' time, within the above period, become a new Science
—by the discovery of the effects of Galvanism upon its Processes, ang

become “very year more ntimerous and rapid in, their increase ; at the;

same time that new Roads, Bridges, Canals, and other National Works, |

as well as private undertakings, ;

unprecedented extent.
nder such circumstances of national vigour and exertion, we have

found that the situation of Journalists of the Discoveries and Improve.

Ments made by Philosophers and Men of Research, in every part of the
civilized world, i most honourable and truly Statifying, Public appro.

ation, private friendship, and a reasonable remuneration, have COnsti-

rate letters, requested us to consult together upon some means of remedy-~
ing this inconvenience, and increased expense upon many of our Readers,
ut it seemed impossible to obviate this inconvenience i two distinct.

works ; both equally under engasements to present to the Public every |]

thing that might. prove new, interesting, and valuable, We have conferred:

tions has been, that it would certainly be best that we should unite, and
that the joint product of our exertions and our correspondence should be
consolidated in one Periodical Work ; affording all that has hitherto been
considered us desirable in the plans and conduct of both 3 but free from
the objection just stated, and Ferhaps one or two more upon which it js

the Editors, and the Communications of their Friends and Correspondents
can afford. °

Mr. Nicoxson, therefore, requests from his Readers a continuance of

that intercourse with which he has so long been Statified ; and that the

Patrons of the Philosophical Journal Will give their orders for the Philaso.
Phical Magazine and Journal, through the medium of their own Book-

sellers, as usual, Communications addressed to the Editers, Picket Place,

ave been every: where established to an)

\

This 5 Day it publishe ed i in 8vo. with Four Plates by Lowry,
yen Price 3 16s. Boards, CUR ae

EME TS of ELECTRICI rY and ELECTRO- CHEMISTRY,
ie ycludit GatvanisM and Vorraic. Exvgcrricity : with original.
e its, and a Description « of a new System of Electrical Insulation. —

"By GEORGE JOHN SINGER.
. Printéd for ee , Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, Paternoster- Row; ;
nd R. * ee Co St. cone wn Gee aii

t A fe superior Paper, Bue contain two real
Price 17. 10s. extra Boards. These are

"s. ‘Steet Cavendish Square. ata

ENGRAVINGS. : SUE

hire Denudation —A Quarto Plate to illustrate the Opti-
called the Diacatoptron.— A Plate of Mr. STBevens’s
g Water- pipes | from Air: engraved by Mr. Porter.—
d Reflecting ‘Circle —Mr. Woon’s inclosed Grind-
and Mr. Wensrten’s Method of carrying off
s improved Pump for raising Water
r ie. Hopeson’s improved Mariner’s
the Magnetic Variations—A_ Quarto coloured Plate
sy of Part of the Vicinity of Dublin.

illustrate t the Foundation of Mr. WILLIAM Jonss's s
Mr. Srepuens’s Method of dividing Bricks,—
am Jc s temporary Corn ‘Rick.—Mr. WaisTz.v’s
orn Dibble —A Plate to illustrate Mr. Tawney’s
ctavo Plates” descriptive of a New Ma-

ra

h Portions of a Sphere as have

s for Gaeta as en Ai2 SE's”

re "Scaffold; and
‘a Car teres fallen

Me. SrervEns’s s New Levelling-Staff.—A Map ilustrating

lates descriptive of the Muscular Mo- ©

Quantity—Vay Heumont’s ©

batey: Particles:

1 of Java which —
‘Volcano in, the
Paper on the. Elec-
iron the Anatomy of —
Plate. to “illustrate ot
Jo

ADVERTISEMENT.

: - - d
Nearty seventeen years have elapsed since the Puitegornicat
JourNaL was commenced by Mr. Nicuoxson, and sixteen since the aps
pearance of the first Number of the Puttosopnicar Macazine, -

During this period the sciences and arts have miade the most rapid pro=

ress. Numerous Philosophical and Mechani:al Instruments and Machines
fave been invented and improved :+-the theory and practice of Astrononry
has been greatly advanced :—new Planets have been discovered, and thé
structure of the Sim more clearly ascertained. The Rays of Light have:
been subjected to new experiments, which have demonstrated their sepa-
rate and distinct powers of illuminating and of heating; and that» won
derful property upon which the phenomena of the Island Crystalde-
pend, but which is now known to be inherent in both kinds of rays, and
universally operative in all the cases of Reflection and Retraction. ‘Che-
tistry has a second time, within the above period, tecome a new Science,
~—by the discovery of the effects of Galvanism: upon. its processes, and.
the development of elementary substances of higher simplicity than were
before known ;—by the ‘definite proportions of the component. parts of
bodies ;—by the laws of Elective Attractions and of crystalline forms ;—
and, even to a c#rtain.extent, by a discovery of the remoter causes of,
those laws and forms. ,he cultivators of the Sciences, the directors of!
the operations of the Arts, with public Institutions. and Societies, have)
become every year more numerous and rapid in their increase; at the
same time that new Roads, Bridges, Canals, and other National Works,
as well as private undertakings, have been every where established to an:
unprecedented extent. f

Under such circumstances of national vigour and exertion, we have
found the situation of Journalists of the Discoveries and Improvements
made by Philosophers and Men of Research, in every part of the civie
lized world, to be most honourable and truly gratifymg. “Public appro-
bation, private friendship, and a reasonable remuneration, have consti-
tuted our reward. Upon various occasions, however, our Correspondents
have complained that the same Academical F'apers, and Articles of Infors
mation, have been printed in beth Journals ; and they have, inv’ ir sepas
rate letters, requested us to consult together upon some means ¢ : remedy-
ing this inconvenience, and increased expense upon many of our Readers.
Lut it seemed impossible to obviate this inconvenience in two distinct
works; both equally under engagements to present to the Public every
thing that might prove new, interesting, and valuable. We have conferred
upon this and other considerations” which raight render our intercourse
with the public more effectually useful; and the result of our deliberas
tions has been, that it would certainly be best that we should unite, and
that the joint product of our exerticns and our correspondence should’ be
consolidated in one Periodical Work; affprding all that has hitherto been
considered as desirable in the plans and. ¢onduct of both; bu 2& from
the objection just stated, aud perhaps.one or two more.upon waich it is
needless to enlarge. a ora

The Philosophical Journal will henceforth be discontinued; and TA
Philosophical Magazine will be conducted by Wirtiam Nicuotson anc
Axvexanper Tittocn, in the same manner as it has always been carries
en; but with every attention to improvement which the joint exertions 0}
the Editors, and the Communications of their Friends and Correspondent
ean afford.

Mr, Nicuorson, therefore, requests from his Readers a continuance
that intercourse with which he has so long been gratified ; and that thi
patrons of the Philosophical Journal will give their orders for the Pailos
phical Magazine and Journal, through the medium of their own Book
sellers, as usual. Communications, addressed to the Editors, Pickett Place
Temple Bar, will meet with due attention,

owdon, Dec, G1, 1833 ,

gaa
ae SED,
Spe oe =
See oe

- ain =z.
ce Deas ote