‘i v Ny; 5 ‘ =n wet "3 t I — ¢ P 4 aA : Ps vA yp ey “~ A yn bah ee eat As : Sa ‘ ; ae ~ re wae ae a ners alta ts et eee vo ihe eee: ayetigte : ie MRNA siicie’ . ve os eae Lkegi os Lc « an Oke ne m ’ i ~ a “A N Vor. . 59. eee Fepat vARY 1892. No. 286. ~ Published tie Jae Day of every ) Menthe Bee ABBICE Qs. 6d.J- THE. PHILOSOPHICAL MAGA ZIN E AND JOURNAL: _€0 MPREHENDING “THE VARIOUS ‘BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, ie tr THE LIBERAL AND FINE. ARTS, | GEOLOGY; AGRICULTURE, ars MANUFACTURES. AND ‘COMMERCE. pe) “wir A PLATE BY PORTER, sseriptiv ve of dl the Instruments employed i in ifecerniining Altitudes e Cit pleas Station on Rumbles Moor, Forkabirest BY ALEXANDER ‘TILLOCH, LLD. sold te Cangtut Lisa tenales Pees mutes “ N3 Hicuvey; "Snckvdon and Co.; Harpinc; Unper- pa sod NR ea Eyandon: Consranuvand Co - . to other subjects will allow. TO CORRESPONDENTS. Mr. Stock ron appears to. have misunderstood the import of our hae i, notice. ‘A summary of the resuits of his Journal of observations, (which : is possessed of more than usual merit) made up at 'theend of each year,is — what *we expressed a wish to have. Any addition to our’ monthly reports would extend this department of the Magazine beyond what a pees ; nae 4 A Correspondent whose communication is coeeted: in this Numbers 5 is. ipionerd that the price of the Instrument will be three guineas. — 4 CATON ON DEBILILY, ILLUSTRATED ‘WITH: CASES. This day was ‘published, price 3s. 6d. a “New Edition | SE RACTICAL OBSERVATIONS on the ‘DEBILITIES, | and contracted, of the GENERATIVE ‘ORGANS o including Remarks on Onanism, Seminal Weakness, Noctur Fleets Tabes Dorsalis, Fluor Albus, &c. with the Theory of erie: a "al By T. M. CATON, Surgeon, Sate. 0 No. 10. Buiphonederect. 3 Newcastle-street, Strand ~ Late of the United Hospitals of St. Thomas’s and G Sold by W. Neely, 22, Change-alley ; ; and C. Chee 69, Pall-ma or by the Author, as ‘above. y , Peis ‘Where may be had, ‘Caton on the Venereal Disease and its Consequences, aN w Edition, — rice 5s. illustrated with Cases : A Practical Treatise on the Prevention — and Cure of the Venereal Disease, exhibiting the character, ehnay aud treatment of the diseases immediately or remotely connected - taining Observations on Gleet, Stricture, Muca) Discharges - Caustic and common Bougie, Cutaneous Eruptions, Imaginar Diseases, &c. &c. comprising an Elementary Work for Studen Guide to the general Reader ; Soll a ve with select Pee pecable to each division of the. Disease. . 2 tala ; ENG RAVIN Gs. Vol. L. A Plate to dnnace> Sir Humeney Davy’s new ‘on Flame, and Sir Georce- Cayvey’s Paper on Aérial | Na eu —~ A Plate representing a Section of the Pneumatic Cistern, w with, com- — “pound Blow-pipe of Mr. Hare; and a Sketch of a Steam-Vesset in- tended to run between London and Exeter .—Representation of Apparatus — if for Sublimation of Iodine—Model of a Safety Furnace by M K AKEWELL — —Apparatus for consuming Fire-damp in the Mine—and_ se a, for — re-lighting’ the Miners’ Davy.—A Plate illustrative of the New Patent — H - Horizontal Water- Wheel of Mr. Apamson,—A Plate illustrative of Mrs, Ispetson’s Theory of the Physiology of Vegetables. aa Plate to illus { trate Mr, Dickinson's new System of Beaconing. 4 Vol. LI. “A Piate illustrative of Mr. Caper Lorrr' 's Paper. on ae Probability of Meteorolites _ being projected from the Moon. . ‘| - Plates: one, of Mr. H. Tritton’ s Improved Apparatus for ‘Dist and another, of the Figures in Braptey’s Gardening illustrative o tl ticle on the Kareiposcore.—A Plate illustrative of Mrs, IpBe per on the Anatomy of Vegetables; and Mr. Trepgon’s pare hae Vol. LIJ, A> Plate illustrative of Mr.-Ueincron’s Electrical. In- greaser for the unerring Manifestation of small Portions of the Electric Fluid. —A Pilate illustrative of Mrs, Inperson’s. Paper on the Bricti ~ tion of Plants.—A Plate illustrative of the Rev, Joun Micuerv’s, Theory — of the Formation of the Earth.—A_ Plate illustrative of Capt. Katzr’s” _ Article onthe Pendulum ; and New Apparatus for impregnating L juids with Gases.—A Plate illustrative of Sir H. Davy’s Apparatus for Vola- tilization of Phosphorus, and Mr, Smiru’s Essay on the Saeuire: of the poisonous Fangs of Besar "Published the East Day of ag Month, 3 RRICE Qs. 6d.) | PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE. ae SCAND JOURN Als & > 3 we cay COMPREHENDING THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, piGROL OGY |.- : AGRICULTURE, ‘ MANUFACTURES AND ‘COMMERCE. 7. at Fn rad _ NUMBER CCLXXXVIL. For MAR CH 1822, _ wITH A PLATE ‘BY PORTER, Til iciee eo Mr. Ivory’s Theory of Parallel Lines in Geometry; ~ Mr. Legson’s Safety Blowpipe Appendages; Mr. Moore’s $0 _.new Apparatus for’ restoring the Action of the Lungs in Cases of suspend HESsPiration(s ; and. Diy apa Ap es 's 1 eg Refraction. Ss a Ne L f) ND O Ree D AND ARTHUR TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE : Gaver; ‘Loxeman, Hourst,. Rees, Oxme, and Ww GHLEY; Sure oop and Co.; Haxpinc; Unner- S&S yooD; Siweeisand Maxsiaces London: : Consranurand Co. nbu ; : our next. - chy : cae _ TO: CORRESPONDENTS. Pe Sore Mr. eae s Conimunication of the 9th March has been received. : It 1 was found impossible to gett the Figure required to illustrat Low’s Communication ik. in time ee ens Number : bin Number for Apel irene: x. Sarees Dr. Burney’s Meseorlogit ae for a 1901 came too ie - ae _ Number. e emer yk i Enos OF. THE, ASTRONOMIC \. a: “LONDON. Vol. 1. Published by Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, P. *,* The Members of the Society may obtain their es eich) of. Mr. cists Collector ¢ to the eS: Becton, garden. i THE OLD ) MASTERS. oo This Day is , published, in One Volume, ‘Atlas Quarto, pr extra Boards; Proof Impressions, on n‘India Paper, Colon 95/1, 4s. in extra Boards ; BLOF exquisitely. Coloured, in imi Original Pictures, price- 15... As. elegantly b bound in Russ HE BRITISH GALLERY OF PICTURES, selec most admired Productions of the OLD. MASTERS Z Britain; accompanied with Descriptions, Historical and Critica “late HENRY TRESHAM, R.A.; Professor of Painting int “Academy, and WILLIAM. YOUNG OTTLEY, Esq. Fy Executive Part under the managemént of Pevrro Witt ; Esq., Historical Engraver | to Her late Majesty Queen Charlo Printed for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, Pz tern : row; T. Cadell, Strand ;. and P. W. Tomkins, New Bon ret *,* This unique andi interesting volume: contains, Tw ENTY- IVE H SinssnED Enoravines of the most Sdenired Productions of ‘Masters, carefully selected from the Collections of Noble: ~ tlemen in the United Kingdom. ers The late Sir Benjamin West s eaks. of chix Werks ce eing will be honoured and admired by subsequent ages. ‘Th dent of the Royal Academy thinks the colouring an imitation of the Originals, as is capable of being distinguished Royal Academicians have testified that they: there can be two opinions on the merits of the Plates, both in: engraving and colouring, and; that they, re certainly mos finished, and unique. ‘gare The Copper Plates of this Wark Bave hes dete fs ca, Parliament ; and as there are very few crop ae Sian become Sey, and i increase in wale BE em , ed pee ta. » the i Vor, 59. | APRIL 1822, oy 3 Nos 288. ” Published the oe Do Ui of every “Month, ; (PRICE 2s. 6d.] : ai THE © aries 3 : PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL: "COMPREHENDING S58 - » THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, . “THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, then ed ‘Plate illustrative of Mr, Merxxe’s Paper on Calorific Radiatio _ Lowe’s on the Purification of Coal Gas; and Mr. Hucues’s 0 TO CORRESPONDENTS. Mr. Wootcar on the Pantograph in our next. _ Mrs. Ispetson is requested to favour the Editor with: her present j Address, Her Paper on Pollen has been received. ee 7 Mr. Piriy on Fossil bc, will appear in our next Nambset) 5 hy ) Ni . d CATON ON DEBILITY, ILLUSTRATED wir CASES, aed This day was published, price 3s. 6d. a New Edition of. © ae yRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS on the DEBILITIES, natural q and contracted, of the GENERATIVE ORGANS of both Sexes ; 4 including Remarks on Onanism, Seminal Weakness, Nocturnal Emission, 4 ~ Gleet, Tabes Dorsalis, Fluor Albus, &¢. with the Theory of Generation. eh _By T.M. CATON, Surgeon, — i No. 10, Stanhope-street, Newcastleestreet, | EE : Late of the United Hospitals of St. Thomas and Guy. ¥ Sold by W. Neely, 22 » Change-alley ; and Le Chapple, 59, bs or by the Author, as above. ‘ Where may be had, - Caer eg Caton on the Venereal Disease and its Gentcqucnees a ‘New Edition, | y price 5s. illustrated with Cases: A Practical Treatise on the Prevention | and Cure of the Venereal Disease, exhibiting the character, symptoms, and. treatment of the diseases immediately or remotely. connected withit; con- | _ taining Observations on Gleet, Stricture, Macal Discharges, t the use ofthe Caustic and common Bougie, Cutaneous Eruptions, Imaginary Venereal ( _ Diseases, &c. &c. comprising an Elementary Work: for Students, and a ' Guide to the general Reader ; interspersed with select wii co8 ae plicable to each division of the Disease.» : i - ENGRAVINGS. © . . ear 4 Vol. LI. A Plate aie of Mr. Carex Lorrt’s Pipe on the Probability of Meteorolites -being projected from the Moon.—Two ' Plates: one, of Mr. H. Trirrox’s Improved Apparatus for Distillation ; and another, of the Figures in Braptey’s Gardening illustrative o e Are ig ticle on the Karerposcopz.—A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Iz: ii) per on the Anatomy of Vegetables; and Mr. Trepco Lp’s on Revetemt oe Vol, LIT... A Plate illustrative of Mr: Urincron’s Electrical hi a creaser for the unerring: Manifestation of small Portions of the Electric a Fluid.—A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Inserson’s Paper on the | i 3 tion of Plants.—A Plate illustrative of the Rev, J oun. Micue: _ of the Formation of the Earth.—A Plate illustrative of Capt. K - Article on the Pendulum ; and New Apparatus: for i imprégnatin Li with Gases.—A Plate illustrative of Sir i. Davy’s Apparatus tilization of Phosphorus, and Mr. Sm ITH’S yt on the Structure poisonous Fangs of Serpents. Vol. LIII. A Plate illustrative of Dr. Une’s $ Experiments on Calo Mr. Lucxcocx’s Paper onthe Atomic Philosophy, and Mr. Bor on the Purification of Coal.Gas.—A Plate representing Mr. Ren Apparatus employed in his. Experiments ‘on ce Strength | of ‘Materials; and the Marquis Rivotpni’s Improvement on the Gas Blow-pipe.—A taining Distances, — A Plate illustrative of Dr. Otinruus-Grec oe ibe ‘Paper on the different Rates of PennincTon’s Astronomical Clock at the ra nae Tsland | of Bangi). abe at Wcpyich Rocha ; ~TPRICE ae 6d. j THE “AND JOURNAL: <2 COMPREHENDING ” PTH ev VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, ’ " GEOLOGY, AGRICULTURE, _ MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. aes MA y 1822. very: BY ALEXANDER TILLOCH, LL.D. ree A. BLG.8) M.A.S. F.S.A, EDIN. AND PERTH; 3} CORRESPONDING MEM- BER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, MUNICH} AND, OF THE | p CADEMY oF SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND ARTS, LEGHORN, Se. Ke. | ee ee eee a ‘LONDON: : eee by Cabrie: LoncMman,. Hurst, Rexs, cidien ve Brown; ‘Hicwitr;SHexwoop and Co.; Harvinc; Unver-\& woop; Simpxrs and Manguauu; London: Consranurand Co. g esa: and Zab hag Glasgow. woe @ ce é ~ n Flame, and Sir Georce Cayey’s Paper on Aeri: : This Day is published, Aoi Rey ‘f. FP LE SABO cae EEE coat Part I. of Eh iia \UTLINES of she GEOLOGY of ENGLAND ik WAL with an Introductory Compendium of the General Principles of that Science and comparative Views of the Structure of Foreign | Countries, » Illustrated by a coloured Map and Sections, &c. # ae kl . 4= os NEF les . © Opinionum commenta delet dies, Nature judicia confirmat. —Ciceno, oe! By the Rev. W. D. CONYBEARE, ies ee. a BS ¢ 2 OST ete ENGRAVINGS. a Voll. A Plate t to Mlaserate Sir Humpury. pire ew R A Plate representing a Section of the Pneumatic Cistern, w © pound Blow-pipe of Mr. Hare; and a Sketch of a Steam.V ssel in- __ tended to run between London’ and Exeter,—Representation of st pparatus | , for Sublimation of Iodine—Model of a Safety Furnace by MaBantocy’ ; —Apparatus for consuming Fire-damp in the Mine—and_ Apparatus for . re-lighting the Miners’ Davy.—A Plate illustrative of the New Patent Horizontal Water-Wheel of Mr. Apamson,—A Plate illustrative of Mrs, _ Iszetson’s Theory of the Physiology of Vegetables. — \ Plate to id 4 _» trate Mr. Dicxrnson? *s new System of - Beaconing. ey : ] 1 Vol. LL A Plate illustrative of Mr. Carer Lorrr’ s pee | on. the Probability of Meteorolites being projected from the Moo ~Two | Plates: one, of Mr..H. Tritron’s Improved Apparatus for Distillation; and another, of the Figures in Braptey’s Gardening illustrative of the Ar. ticle on the Kavesposcore.—A Plate illustrative ot Mrs. Inpetson’s Pa- per on the Anatomy of Vegetables; 3; and Mr.TrepGoin’s on Revetements. Vol. LU. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Upincron’s Electrical In- creaser for the unerring Manifestation of small Portions of the Electric Fluid—A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Innetson’s Paper on the Fructifica- ~. tion of Plants.—A Plate illustrative of the Rev. Jonny Miceexe? 's Theory of the Formation of the Rarth.—A Plate illustrative of Capt. Karer’s. 4 Article on the Pendulum ; and New Apparatus for impregnating Liquids | with Gases.—A Plate illustrative of Sir H. Davy’s Apparatus for Vola-- ‘tilization of Phosphorus, and Mr. ~Smitu’s iors on he Struct sure of the poisonous Fangs of Serpents. “- rN , | , Vol. LIII. A Plate illustrative of Dr. Ure’ s napedln n Caloric, | . Mr. Lucxcocx’s Paper on the Atomic. Philosophy, and Mr Boutows | . on the Purification © a; Coal Gas.—A Plate representing Mrs Rewwn ie) Apparatus employed, in his. Experiments on the Strength of Meee and. the Marquis Ripovrr’s Improveinent, | on the Gas Blow-pipe— ~ Plate illustrative of Mr, Mrrxux’s Paper on Calorific Radiation; “Mr, +s Lowe’s. on the Purification of Coal Gas; and Mr. Hucues’s on Bd = SA ieee —A Plate illustrative of Dr. Ouwrnus Ge eGoRY’s. Paper on the different Rates of Prnwineton’s s Astr onumical Clock the Islandeof Balta, and at Woolwich Common. : 4 dailies > ies ve Bars 200. a Ges ai vs > «Published he Law Day Wee ever y Mbith ie PRRIGE 2e: 64) 2:59): 0\0 bare "AND JOURNAL: co MPREHENDING “GEOLOGY,. RERTCULTURE, | NUFACTURES. AND, COMMERCE. on > NUMBUR Coxe, | For J U N Ee 1822. ors A PLATE BY PORTER, Mir, Maxsn’s Paper on a particular Construction es M. gebinoa $ Rotating’ Sylindcs. bi zs BY ALEXANDER TILLOCH, LL.D. 8. M.A.S. Fs SiAe pDIN. AND-PERTH ; CORRESPONDING: meM= mY) OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, MUNICH; AND OF THE ADEMY OF SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND ARTS, LEGHORN, Ber. Bec. . - ~/ By HD OND 0 Ne INTED. BY RICHARD AND ARTHUR FAYLOR, SHOE- “LANE 2 And ld by Cavey 5; Loneman,’ Hurst, Rees, Orme: and fi WN 5 Hicuey; SHERWooD and Co.; Harpine; Unper-X py Simpkin and Maksmanrs London: Consramueand ab: eps he and, PENMAN, Glasgow. ah a) ohig ow perspectively and geometrically. Illustrated by « _ppropriat TO CORRESPONDENTS. "Lhe Rev. J. Gaoosy’s communication came to hand too late for thi Number. - Mrs, Inpetson’s Paper On the formation of the heart of the seeds in thy Radicle has been received. Mr. Moore’s Reply to Mr. Murray has’ ae been teetived: ‘Mr. Newron’s Papers do not entirely suit the nature of our Publi cation. Mr. Srarn’s aries observations on Dr, Reape’ 's Paper on Refraction w “ appear in our next Number.’ Mr. Muxsay’ s E agers on pe heat produced by C Chilo ne, Se. in ou next. Ree ot ’ Pe ETRE A IC SEEN TEES ~ oe ; \ This Day i is eran In = Octavo, price 16s., or in Demy Octavo, POS. Part I. of UTLINES of tha: GEOLOGY of ENGLAND ea WALES with an Introductory Compendium of the General Principles oi that Science, and comparative Views of the Structure of Foreign Countrieg of $6 Opinionum commenta delet dies, Nature judicia confirmat.” — Cicero. | By the Rev. W. D. CONYBEARE, F.R.S. M.G.S.&. and WILLIAM PHILLIPS, F. L.S. M. .G. Se, &e. fA London : Printed and Published iby William Philips, George-ard Lombard-street. | New Works publistted by ts TAYLOR, at . the Afchitectural Library 59, High Holborn. erat eae a ‘hh Quarto, illustrated by 32° Plates, many of which ee coloured, ig Price 11. 1Ts. 6d.in Boards, -. — BoC ane on | _ IF QVHE RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. CABINET AND’ UP. -| HOLSTERY FURNITURE: containing ample Instructions for designing und. delineating the different Articles of those r ; Jiagram: and Designs, proportioned upon architectural Principles, — ‘The. See cond} Edition. To which is added, an. ELUCIDATION. or ‘tHE PRINCE ‘PLES or DRAWING ORNAMENTS, exemplified on See Elaten By RICHAD BROWN. Onis plates 8vo. price Qs. Bare NS! ah 2. SCIOGRAPHY ; or Examples of Shadows, and Ralec fox thei - Projection. Intended for the Use of the Architectural Drafisman ra By JOSEPH GWILT, Architect. . Mustrated with’ thirty-eight Plates, engraved by Lowry, Octav i Boards, — ‘ oes. THE RUDIMENTS of PERSPECTIV E; 3 in which he’ Repren sentation cf Objects is described by two Methods; 3 one depending upon the Plan of the Object; the other, on its Dimensions and Position : each | Method being entirely free from the usual Complication of Lines, and from the Difficulties arising from remote vanishing sei ; 4; a By real NIGHOLION. Wag * \ THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE “AND JOURNAL: COMPREHENDING afte ye THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, ~ GEOLOGY: AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE. BY ALEXANDER TILLOCH, LL.D. M.R.I.A. M.G.S. M.A.S. F.S.A. EDIN. AND PERTH 5 CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, MUNICH; AND OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCHS, LITERATURE AND ARTS, LEGHORN, &c. &c. &c. “ Nec aranearum sane textus ideo melior quia ex se fila gignunt, nec noster vilior quia ex alienis libamus ut apes.”’ Just. Lirs. Monit. Polit. lib. i. cap. 1. ee VOL. LIX. For JANUARY, FEBRUARY, MARCH, APRIL, MAY, and Lisi TUNE, 1822. aye Mel > radi) Qe wt? LOND ON: "0 PRINTED BY RICHARD AND ARTHUR TAYLOR, SHOE LANE: - And sold by Capert; Loncman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown; HicuLey; Suerwoop and Co.; Haxvinc; UNpERWoOD; SIMPKIN and Maxsuaczt, London: Consrasie and Co, Edin- burgh: and Penman, Glasgow. errs Mt a We ee ee ae | ‘7-31, , “thas gO Tis ru nae aes ait COT Sk ae a a, BAO ee oi ds hoe mena Ces a sta ve pm “Moa Ae a nas BF et SRAM . Satie, ae CONTENTS OF THE FIFTY-NINTH VOLUME. ON the Flower-buds of Trees passing ENE. the ood, as noticed by Ciceroand Pliny, .. oe Page 3 Observations on Naphthaline, a peculiar Subbanses resembling a concrete essential Oil, which is apparently produced durin the Decomposition of Coal Tar by Exposure toa red Heat, Reply to the * Apology for the Postscript on the Refractions” tn No. 24 of the Quarterly Journal of Science, «. 16 On Short-hand Writing, 06 wid 2s oo 21 Ephemeris of the newly-discovered Planets for their several Oppositions in 1822, sie ee ee 28 On the boiling Springs of haben Ete *e ee On a new Compound of Chlorine and Carbon, ee 33 Table of the periodical Variation of the Star ALGOL, from Fe- bruary to December 1822 inclusive, oe 36 True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. MasKELYNE’s ‘36 Stars for every Day in the Year 1822, at the Time of rei the 97 Meridian of Greenwich, .. oe oe ’ Trial of the Meridian Circle made by Chaneuesen for the Observatory at Konigsberg, .. oe -. 44 On Addition and Subtraction of Algebra, ey 48, 116 A Question addressed to the Rev. J. Groosy, respecting the Tables employed by him in meer the Corrections of Dr. MaskELYNr’s 36 Stars, oh 50 On the Temperature of a Room indicated by two Tharmonmeder’ at different Altitudes, - oe os’ at On the Absurdity of buryin Weeds va turning-in young Crops with the Intention “ making them serve as Ma anure, — l Vol. 59. No, 290, June 1822, a CONTENTS. On the Separation of Iron from other Metals, Byh 86 Calculation of the horizontal Refraction in an Atmosphere of uniform Temperature, ay is ee edna On the Formation of Hail, be he a PS | On the Circle, the Sphere, the Square, and the equilateral Tri- angle, .. se a oe i se gee 4 Letter from Rozert Hare, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, in opposition to the Con- jecture that Heat may be Motion, und in favour of the Ex- istence of a material Cause of calorific Repulsion, .. 104 On the Breeding of Eels, : se A ee 109 On the Use of Phosphoric Acid in Jaundice, .. os WO On the Culture of Indian Corn, Bc. .. acon) i On the Galvanic Deflagrator of Professor RopErt Hare, M.D. of the University of Pennsylvania, .. ee se 113 On Flame, int he nN “o are AALS On setting Cutting Instruments, oe ve SoualklO Answer. to the Question addressed to the Rev. J. Groosy, 120 Observations on the dangerous Rock usually called The Drunken Sailor, lying off the Flag-Staff Point, Colombo, Island of Ceylon, ont, : ois ea” 121 Account of an improved Method of planting Vines for Forcing, 122 Report from ihe National Vaccine Establishment , ». 124 On some Compounds of Chrome, wet lle! iat R127 Description of the Methods employed in determining the Alti- tudes of several of the principal Mountains and other re- markable Oljects visible from the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire, .. Se ave 130, 190 On the Pheory of parallel Lines in Geometry, ..» «» 161 Further Observations on Mr. Luxson’s Safety Blowpipe Ap- pendages, ee ee ee ee ee ee 168 Description of anew Apparatus proposed for restoring the Action of the Lungs in Cases of suspended Respiration, e, 169 Process for procuring pure Platinum, Palladium, Rhodium, Iridium, and Osmium, from the Ores of Platinum, .. 171 Observations on Mr. Newton’s Articles on Algebra, .. 179 Remarks on the Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs, e 80 ee ee es -e ee CONTENTS. On the Solar Eclipse which will happen on the 28th and 29th of November 1826, oe ee ee ee 182 ~ On the Combination of Silicium with Platina; and on its Pre- sence.in Steel, ‘% ae es ee ana ‘On Refraction, oe oe ee ee ee oe 200 An Account of some Experiments on the Action of Iodine on volatile and fixed Oils, Fc... ee oe sa 308 On the early Blowing of Plants during the present Winter, 212 A curious electro-magnetic Experiment ly P. Bartow, Esq. 241 =~ On the Combination of Chrome with Sulphuric Acid, .. 242 On the Perspiration alleged to take placein Plants, .. 243 Observations on Magnetism, .. oe ee .. 248 Reply to Mr. H.B. LEEson, .. ee alg aud Comparison of the Expense attending the English and Scotch Systems of Husbandry, a eerie Oath mee oes On dilating Caoutchouc Bottles by Inflation, .. -- 263 On melting Caoutchouc, or India- Rubber, and opie: Tron. and Steel from Rust, .. as : ~- 264 On the Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites beara the present aie 265 ‘On the Culture of the Pear Tree, ee oe oe 269 Results of a Meteorological Journal for the Year 1821, kept at the Observatory of the Academy, Gosport, .. AL On the Distillation of Spirits from Grain, and on the Water most conducive to Fermentation, Hi eas wae’ ee On a Method of fixing a Transit Instrument exactly in the . Meridian, rae Lh Bs oe eo On the Cure of a Case of Poabalyjsts by Lightning, .. 287 On Matting made from the Typha latifolia, or Greater Cat’s- Tail, ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 288 On a luminous Appearance seen on the dark Purt of the Moon in May 1821, ee ee ee 290 An alphabetical ft SR of, Phin Srom whence Fos- sit SHELLS have been obtained by Mr. James Sowensy, and drawn and described in Volume Ill. of his “ Mineral Con- chology,” with the geographical and stratigraphical Situa- tions of those Places, and the Species of Fowl iprisily €Fc, 321 Some Memoranda respecting Caoutchouc, a‘ . 336 CONTENTS. On two new Compounds of Chlorine and Carbon, and on a new Compound of Iodine, Carbon, and Hydrogen,- .«. 337 An Analysis of Mr. Baity’s ae Tables and Remarks for the Year 1822, ... ae, es bad On the best Kind of Steel mad fore fora | eae Needle, 359 On the Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs in oF parent Death, 26.0 oes 00 AOS Loh bed Ail On Spade Husbandry, «2 >. bs aa whe a On the Graduation of the Ruakiprenls oe ee 401 On. the Porcelain Clay and Buhkr-stone of Halkin Mountain, Flintshire, .. Bis ss ee uae on 404 Description of the Petrifaction Ponds at Shirameen, (a Village near the Lake of Ourmia, in Persia,) which produce the transparent Stone known by the Name of Tubriz Marble, 413 Process of prepuring Saltpetre, and Mode of manufacturing Gunpowder, in Ceylon, .. ee ee 415 On Embanking 166 Acres of Marsh oe from the Sea, 416 On the Smelting of Tin Ores in Cornwall and Devonshire, 417 Successful Result of an Experiment on Draining of Land, 424 Account of a Volcanic Eruption in Iceland, .. ee 428 On a particular Construction of M. Ampure’s Rotating os in er, ee ee ee ee ee eo Dewan of the Gooseberry. Caterpillar; and practical Means for preventing its Ravages, «. : ee 435 Onan Insect which is occasionally very injurious to 0. Fruit-Trees, 439 Ona new Method of determining the Latitude of a Place iia Observations of the Pole- Star, é 7 ad Experiments on the Combination of Acetis ‘Acid and ya with volatile Oils, aa ak SO et Notices respecting New Books, . - 54, 213, 293, 384, 454 Proceedings of Learned Societies, 56, 143, 217,501, 385, 455 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles, 57, 145, 221, 305, 389, 460 List of Patents, ”" -» 68, 152, 236, 319, 399,471 Meteorological Tables, 79, 159, 239, 320, 400, 472 \ THE THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL. 1. On the Flower-buds of Trees passing through the Wood, as noticed by Cicero and Pliny. By Mrs. Acnss IBBETSON, To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — Some late dissections of wood have enabled me to no- tice the curious manner in which the flower-buds pass layer by layer through the wood even to the root, and have shown me that each mark is peculiar to the sort of wood to which it belongs. Thus, in the Oak, the bud being sessile, or without stalk, and in large numbers together; they generally appear grouped in a circle, as at Plate I. fig. 1; and it is hardly possible to pass through the wood, and then take fibre from fibre, without en- countering innumerable buds thus passing up from the root per- pendicularly, or crossing the stem at right angles to its former direction. As itis in old wood torn down, not cut, the gastric juice (which always precedes the bud) is rarely seen, though its effects are most visible and remain permanently so; for, if a set of buds have to cross a knot, many holes are perceived in the knot through which they have passed, and in which the gastric juice has formed them a passage; but which do not close again as the wood usually does, because of the hardness of the parts around the knot. In the Beech, where the buds follow each other in a sort of laxus racemi, it presents a very different picture. Here the buds being small, they will run up between the layers of the wood, and are not so conspicuous as in the Oak ; though when the wood is torn up, not cut, the whole number show with pe- culiar grace, as forming a sort of stripe of apparent flowers, which the figure of the bud produces, thus passing up perpendicularly (fig.2.). In the Yew, they are an assemblage which shows buds of all ages, many just peeping through the wood, others more ad- Vol. 59. No. 285, Jan, 1822. A2 vanced \, A On the Flower-luds of Trees vanced towards the bark; but all generally surrounding an old one (fig.3.): an innumerable assemblage that are hastening on to the bark, What should cause some buds to proceed all the way up the wood perpendicularly, and others to cross at once to the. bark, I canuot conceive, and have never been able to guess: but — so itis. The Olive shows like one large peaked bud, appearing: at some little distance from each other; but I suspect that it is a collection, since it carries that divided appearance when it is followed into the interior. It is certain the wood-lines diverge (fig. 4, aa) in a manner that proves that innumerable buds are hourly passing, for the yearly lines ever move out of the circle, but to effect this purpose:—a most striking circumstance. That any person can deny.afact.so evident to sight ‘* as the passing of the flower-bud through the wood, even from the root upwards, is most strange. But when I add, that not oue bo- tanist ina thousand has really examined the woods when newly uncovered by the bark, and then followed it with the knife as far as its marks go through the ligneous part; J advance only what my experience teaches, and what they will not I fancy deny: for many, when they saw the specimens I showed, were astonished, allowed the evidence to be complete, and the facts to be just as I had represented them. Thuis, it is only those that do not see my specimens, who do not believe in the system : nor am I surprised, when I recollect with what indifference’ * we view all novel objects, though ever so beautiful, till some m= terest draws our attention to them; that the mind rarely ac= companies the eyes in the investigation, till our curiosity is ex- cited, and our thoughts turned into that chanrel;—then the whole breaks at once upon us, éruth becomes conspicuous, and we are astonished we did not remark it sooner.. How few are there whose mind always accompanies their eyes, who can- not perambulate Nature’s garden without noticing each plant, or each unpractised figure, which presents itself, not before seen! How few are there whose mind. will always be alive to every novel object ; who, when they disgover it, must follow it in a pro- gressive manner through every part of the picture, till they have made themselves masters of the subject, and not allow prejudice to stand between them and truth! To walk with such a man through Nature’s garden, is indeed a treat, yet but rarely met with; not a tree, not a leaf, but presents something curious to the eyé of the observer, and brings its observation with it. It is scarcely to be believed how carelessly my work has been no- ticed, and how little botanists are agreed on, the subject, ex- ~ cept in the wish to get rid of it, when it is certainly a mew science which they have not yet examined, but which might ‘ prove (if well followed up) of the greatest utility to both farm- ing J passing through the Wood. 5 ing* and gardening, besides displaying so.exact an analogy be-~ tween the animal and vegetable world. In the varicds*¢omnients made on my work, many said it was absolutely: impossible” the-bud should come from the root, that there was no occasion to dissect wood to be convinced of that proposition ; in short, it was affirmed in as many words that there was io occasion to examine woods; that they possessed so per- fect and so intuitive a knowledge of nature independent of in- quiry,as made it unnecessary. Another gentleman assured my friend that the fact was well known, and exactly described by Sir J. Smith... To put an end to this objection, I shall transcribe his own observation in his work on physiological botany. He says, ** Mr. Knight in the Philosophical Transactions: for 1805 has shown that buds originate in the alburnum next the bark, as might indeed have been expected.” This seems to show that Sir J. Smith is of the same opinion. This opinion is certainly very different from mine, as I have repeatedly shown that they protrude from the root. Willdenow thought that they were formed in the bark. Da Hamel gave no decided opinion. on the subject. How these gentlemen. could suppose they passed * through the bark first, when the round head of the bud first ap- pears peeping through the wood, I cannot conceive. Grew alone has announced that he has seen the bud pass up through the middle of the plant in the interior full six months before it shows itself at the exterior of the plant: he must therefore have seen it in the root; for the new shoot, at the top of which they afterwards appear, could not at that time be formed. How then should the bud be protruded there? ’Tis plain, therefore, it ap- pears, even at the exterior, first in a lower part of the plant. The buds passing from the root will aloue explain some cu- rious passages to be found in Cicero and: Pliny, where they de- scribe the situation of the tree when the buds were running up: and it is plain that the secret of cutting down the tree at the proper season, was carefully preserved by the few who possessed it, with the most strict.attention paid to the time; otherwise the price of the wood.could never have been raised to the enormous height it was. Small tables made from the root of the trees so * The Flemish farmers find their weeds not only drawn for them, but taken off, and the ground thoroughly weeded by hand labour in spring; and the weeds, instead of being turned back into the ground, are collected and boiled for the milch cows, when green food is so scarce and difficult to be had, without expense. The farmers thus get their land weeded for nothing by the neighbouring poor, for the purpose of procuring the food for their cattle; and those very poor who have not cattle, are paid for gathering it for those that have. The farmer is thus freed froma nuisance, and the food is excellent. This might be admirably done in Devon and Somersetshire, where such nourishing weeds (according to the soil) are constantly found. marked 6 On the Flower-luds of Trees marked or spotted, were the mania of that period, and even the grave Cicero yielded to the folly. Pliny’s description of the lesser Maple (the ancient Bruscum) is well worth citing in the original; and immediately brought, to my mind the different figures of the roots of various trees when cut down at the proper season; for this does not last above a fortnight or three weeks at most, in any free ; but if taken within that time, most roots form a very beautiful picture which explains many passages in both authors. The trees which have this pro- perty are the Yew, theCitron, and the Maple, not only the Italian but the French one. Pliny’s description is: ‘* Acer, operum ele- gantid et subtilitate Citro secundum, Gallicum in Transpadana Italia transque Alpes nascens. Alterum genus, crispo macularum discursu, qui,ciim excellentior fuit, asimilitudine caude pavonum nomen accepit.” There are several kinds, especially the white, which is wonderfully beautiful. This is called the French Maple, growing in that part of Italy that is on the other side of the Po, beyond the Alps. The other has a curled appearance so curious (fig. 5), that from a near resemblance it was usually called the Peacock’s 'Tail. Lib. xvi. c. 16. It is very curious that I should have some of this curled figured wood so exactly described by Pliny, in many foreign woods (fig. 7) as well as the Mapies, and in the Bird’s Eye American Maple, which of course they could not then know, that directly showed me what Pliny meant. He goes on to comment on those of Istria, and those trees growing on the moun- tains, and esteemed the best, and to sing forth the praises of the Bruscum knots. But the Molluscum was counted by the Romans as the most precious. 1 have among my Indian woods many spe- cimens admirably marked; I have also one which rises up in stripes, and bears the appearance of a Fir within (fig. 6). They are not large enough to make any thing but the ladies’ sets of tables in fashion a few years past, but served to stand by the couches of the Romans when they dined, or after dinner ; which gives a higher idea of their luxurious customs than any fact I have yet read of them. But I hope I shall never live to see that extra- vagance imitated in this country, which gave rise to the curious Roman saying coimmon among the gentlemen of Rome, when they exclaimed that the ladies had * turned the tables on them.” As when they reproached the ladies with the expense of their jewels and ornaments, the ladies reminded them of the tables that had often cost from six to ten thousand sesterces; even the grave Cicero gave, I think, and boasts of giving, eight thousand for a set, and they must have been small. The Bruscum is more intricately crisped and curled than the Molluscum (fig. 8); but the planks are larger and the pattern is fuller; “ and had we,” says Cicero, ‘ trees to make or passing through the Wood. 7 or saw into broader planks, they would be preferred to Citron.” I have some very beautiful specimens of the Ash that takes a perfect polish ; it had the exact resemblance of a large crab, or rather spider, which was not only displayed in the root, but showed itself in one of the branches of a smaller size. 1 had also one of Beech that was in regular stripes of green, brown, or pale yellow, constantly flowing from the iron and copper which must have been nearly under the tap root, and which plainly proyes in what an exact line the sap flows: although this is not the general opinion, it certainly evinces that there is no aperture to let the sap pass from one layer of wood to the other; but that each is completely inclosed within its own cylinder. If it was not so, indeed, how could poison flow in one cylinder, and a per- fectly insipid liquid in the next, as in the Laudanum plant? ora strong caustic in one layer, as in the Ranunculus, and a totally innocent juice in the adjoining layer? I could name a hundred plants in which the same circumstances occur. ‘* The knots and interior parts of the timber of the trees which produce at this season the bruscum,”’ says Cicero, ‘* most resemble the female Cypress ;” except, he might have added, that the buds cross the wood as well as run up it perpendicularly, which is not the case in the abovementioned tree. The bruseum is of a blackish wood with larger buds. ‘‘I havea piece,” says Cicero, *‘ from which the molluscum came, which is most perfect,” so that he called any trees thus that were so marked. The famous Tigrine and Pantherine curiosities, are tables spotted or made of the roots of trees while the buds were passing up; but the curious circumstance of numbers hunting for some pieces, and finding them quite plain though taken from the same sort of tree in which another who knew the secret had at an earlier season suc- ceeded, formed a sort of marvellous discovery that caused the price to be kept up (I suppose) im Rome. I should never have found out the time myself, but from so often cutting the buds on the outward bark, or rind, to discover the season at which the nucleus of the bud entered under the scales in the bark. When the nucleus could not be found, and nevertheless the scales appeared on the bark, I was sure it must be the time to cut down the tree: and when I cut open the root they were all within it ready to run up, and pass under their scales. By de- laying therefore one fortnight the tree being cut down, I soon found both the molluscum and bruscum of Pliny: and taking a fresh tree of the same kind a month after, and cutting open the buds, the nucleus was within them, and a very few remained scattered in the root and up the bark; they had therefore re- _ paired to the scales at the exterior. I found in the root of the Lime tree, which affects a very rich loam, a most beautifully nT range § Observations on Naphthaline. ranged figure, with a little stretch of the imagination we might suppose a peacock, or at least the tail: the spots are larger than in the Maple, and the curl more decided. In-some Indian woods the small bad is almost hidden in theflourishes round it. The Tilia is, I believe, supposed to be the Philyraof the ancients. They used to maké bottles of it; and it is mentioned that they were often seen spotted, and that the spots often fell out. This is so exact a description of the bark and alburnum, with which they were made, and of the hearts of the seeds falling out, that much is gained to my present studies by examining with care into every thing that has vegetables for its object, when either Pliny, Virgil, or Cicero mention that subject. I think I have heard of the paper of the Tilia being as good as that of the Betula alla, and I have repeatedly tried; but the hearts of, the seeds are so strongly impressed upon it, that I could never make it bear the writing on both sides, which I have effected with the Betula alba when well prepared and pressed. Yet I have found a passage in one of my books of observations, of a work of Cicero, ‘* De ordinanda republica,”’ written on this species of paper formed from the Tilia, and now in the public library at Vienna. I possess a root which. I suppose to be one of the greatest Ihave. It is the root of an Elm of the small leaves, one which never flowers in this country though common in our hedges : it is hollow, though with a thick exterior ;.in the mid- dle an immense bud projects six inches in circumferenee, and the root is nearly twelve inches in diameter." ‘The bud when cut perpendicularly down, shows a quantity of the nucleus of the flower or bud, only not covered with the scales of the bark. It was sent me by a gentleman not conversant in botany, but quick of observation, who found it in one of the lanes adjoining Ex- mouth, Fig. 10. II. Observations on Naphthaline, a peculiar Substance resem- bling a concrete essential Oil, which is apparently produced during the Decomposition of Coal Tar by Exposure to a red Heat. By J. Kipp, M.D. Professor of Chemistry, Oxford. Communicated by W.H. Wottaston, M.D. F.R.S.* Auruoven the existence, and many of the properties of the substance above mentioned, have been already noticed in two of the Philosophical Journals of this country +, there has not yet ap- peared, as far as I can discover, any systematic description of * From the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1821, Part I + Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, January 1820, page 74; and Mr. Brande’s Quarterly Journal, January 1820, page 287... ° the Observations on Naphthaline. 9 the mode by which it may be obtained, or of its relation to the substance from which it is produced; on which account I have been induced to offer to the Royal Society the following obser- vations respecting these points of its history. In the experiments which led, in the present instance, to the detection of the substance in question, it was proposed to effect the decomposition of coal tar, by passing its vapour through an ignited iron tube; and, in order to increase to the utmost the extent of the ignited surface, that portion of the tube which was constantly kept up to a red heat, was filled, in the first instance, with a series of hollow iron cylinders open at both extremities, and successively decreasing in diameter, so as to be included one within another. In other instances these cylinders were re- moved, and their place supplied by sand, or by pieces of well burnt coke, or by pieces of brick 3 but it was found that the in- terstices between the cylinders, or between the particles of sand, &c. were so soon choked up with carbon from the decomposi-, tion of the tar, as to be rendered absolutely impervious to the gas produced during the decomposition ; so that it became ne- cessary to pass the vapour of the tar simply through the tube itself, Connected with the tube in which the tar was decomposed was a vessel, in which any undecomposed vapour of the tar, or any products resulting from its decomposition, might be con- densed; and at the end of every experiment this condensing vessel was found to contain an aqueous fluid having an ammo- niacal odour, and a dark coloured liquid resembling tar in ap- pearance. This dark coloured liquid is characterized by the following properties : Its colour, in the mass, is black; but when spread in a thin stratum on paper or glass, it is of a clear deep reddish brown colour. It is a much thinner liquid than the coal tar from which it was produced; and has a peculiar and slightly aromatic odour, together with the smell of ammonia; about three-fourths of a given quantity of it pass through unsized paper; and that which remains on the paper resembles common tar. Sp. gr. 1050; the sp. gr. of the tar from which it was produced being 1109. Readily and entirely soluble in ether. Soluble, but not entirely, in alcohol; the solution becoming milky upon the addition of water, and this milky mixture passing unaltered through the pores of the closest filtering paper. Not miscible with water; but readily communicating to it a light brown colour, and a taste at first sweet, but followed by an aromatic pungency. The water acquires alkaline properties, and Vol, 59, No, 285, Jan. 1822. B holds 10 Observations on Naphthaline. holds ammonia in solution. When poured out on a flat surface, it catches fire almost immediately on the application of flame, and burns for a time exactly in the same manner as a thin stra- tum of alcohol, the flame being blue and lambent, and without smoke; but after a few seconds the flame becomes white, and the liquid begins to burn with much black smoke, and with a erackling noise. A pint of this dark coloured liquid was submitted to very slow distillation in a lage glass restort connected with a large glass receiver, from the interior of which all communication with the external air was excluded by means of a common safety valve. The heat was supplied from the flame of an Argand gas burner, and was so slight as scarcely to inconvenience the naked hand, when held over it immediately under the bottom of the retort. The same degree of heat was applied constantly during forty hours ; at the end of which time there had distilled into the re- ceiver rather more than half a pint of a liquid, which consisted of two perfectly distinct portions, which, however, had uniformly passed over together from the very commencement of the distil- lation. The uppermost of these portions, in appearance, resembled. pale olive oil, and amoanted to not quite a quarter of a pint. The lowermost portion resembied water, but was not perfectly’ sf Py transparent, and amounted to rather more than a quarter of a pint; but there is ground for believing, from the results of sub- sequent distillations, that the proportion of the aqueous product is variable ; and that it is greater when the distillation is earried on slowly, than when it is carried on rapidly. After the above-mentioned products had passed over, a con- crete substance as white as snow began to collect in dispersed crystalline floceuli, in the upper part of the body and neck of the retort, so as in a short time almost wholly to obstruct the pas- sage; the oily uid and the water continuing to pass over at the same time, but much more slowly than before. At the end of sixty hours the original quantity of the dark co- Joured liquid was reduced to about a quarter of a pint ; and what remained was much thickened in consistence: the heat was therefore increased ; and now there began to pass over a darker coloured and thicker oil, which, as it advanced further from the source of heat, congealed into a substance of the consistence of butter, The heat being still more increased, this oil became darker coloured and more dense; and when at the last there remained in the retort not above one-eighth of the quantity ori- ginally poured into it, and the heat of the gas burner had been jucreased to the utmost, there arose a heavy yellow vapour, which was condensed in the neck of the retort in the form of a farina of a bright yellow colour, wa a Be Observations on Naphthaline. It Whien it appeared that the heat no longer separated any thing from the black matter in the retort, which still however retained a degree of fluidity, the apparatus was suffered to cool; during which time the residuum became fixed, and to the eye resembled pitch, The several products of the distillation above described being carefully separated. from each other, the more remarkable of them were submitted to examination ; but as leisure was wanting for a full investigation of their characters, the Society is requested to accept, with some indulgence, the following description of such of their properties as were ascertained. Properties of the aqueous Product. Taste, saline and alkaline; with an ammoniacal and slightly aromatic odour. Sp. gr. 1023. Became faintly blue by the addition of a solution of prussiate of potash. Grs. 700 of this aqueous fluid were evaporated under an ex- hausted receiver inclosing a quantity of dry muriate of lime: the residuum of the 700 grains weighed not more than half a grain, and consisted partly of a brown oil and partly of a sparingly so- luble saline matter, which by the proper tests was found to con tain sulphuric acid and muriatic acid; the former apparently in greater quantity than the latter. Properties of the oily Fluid. Taste, pungent, bituminous, and aromatic; with an odour similar to the taste, and slightly ammoniacal. Sp. gr. 0-9204. Boils at about 210° of Fahrenheit: remains perfectly fluid at 32°. Evaporated at a medium atmospheric temperature, it leaves about one-sixth of its weight of the peculiar concrete substance, which will be described in the next section: by the assistance of heat, dissolves about one-third its own weight of that sub- stance. Readily catches fire upon the application of flame, and emits a very great quantity of smoke while burning. By agitation mixes temporarily with water at the common temperature ; from which. however it soon separates like oil. Shghtly soluble in boiling water; but in cooling is deposited so as to give a milky appearance to the water, which remains perfectly transparent while at or near the boiling point. Unites readily with alcohol and with ether at all tempera- tures, B2 By }2 Observations on Naphthaline. By agitation with an aqueous solution of potash, or of am- monia, it communicates a slight wheyishness to those fluids ; but soon separates from and floats on the top of them. Absorbs several times its volume of ammoniacal gas, without any sensible change. Absorbs also several times its volume of muriatic acid gas; becoming, in consequence, opaque and thick. Forms a uniform white soapy curd with a solution of acetate of lead, by the invervention of an aqueous solution of potash or of ammonia; but, if simply mixed with the metallic solution, it soon separates without any sensible change. Properties of the white concrete Substance. Taste, pungent and aromatic. It is particularly characterized by its odour, which is faintly aromatic, and not unlike that of the narcissus and some other fragrant flowers, This odour is readily diffused through the surrounding atmosphere to the distance of several feet, and ob- stinately adheres for along time to any substance to which it has been communicated. When in its purest state, and reduced to powder, it is ex- ceedingly smooth and slightly unctuous to the touch; is perfectly white, and of a silvery lustre. Sp. gr. rather greater than that of water. It does not very readily evaporate at the common atmospheri- cal temperature: for, a comparison being made between this substance and camphor, in the quantity of half a grain of each in a very minute state of division, it was found that the camphor had entirely disappeared at the end of 18 hours, while the sub- Pg tit in question had not disappeared entirely at the end of four ays. A quantity of it being exposed to heat, in a glass vessel, soon melted; but did not begin to boil till the temperature had reached 410° of Fahrenheit: the heat being then withdrawn, it remained liquid till cooled down to 180; at which point the lowest por- tion was seen suddenly to congeal; the remaining portion con- gealed gradually; and when the whole had become solid, its temperature was 170°. The structure of the congealed mass was distinctly crystalline, and the crystalline laminz were slightly flexible. It is not very readily inflamed; but when inflamed it burns rapidly, and emits an unusually copious and dense smoke, which soon breaks into distinct particles that fall down in every di- rection, } Does not affect the colour either of litmus or of turmeric. Insoluble in cold water ; and very sparingly soluble in boiling water, Observations on Naphthaline. 13 water, from which it separates, in cooling, in such a manner as to render the water milky, which was before transparent: a por- tion however still remains dissolved, for the water, when filtered, postesses in a slight degree the taste and odour of the substance, and after a few hours deposits it in minute crystals. Readily soluble in alcohol, and still more so in ether, at any temperature; the solubility, in either instance, greatly increased by increase of temperature. A solution of this substance in four times its weight of boiling alcohol becomes, in cooling, a solid crystalline mass. _ It is pre- cipitated from its solution in alcohol by water, without acquiring any additional weight. It is soluble in olive oil, and in oil of turpentine. It does not combine either with an aqueous solution of potash or ammonia ; nor is it sensibly affected by contact with ammo- niacal gas. Soluble in acetic and in oxalic acid, to each of which it com- municates a clear pink colour. A saturated hot acetic solution becomes a solid crystalline mass in cooling. It blackens sulphuric acid when boiled in it; the addition of water to the mixture having no other effect than to dilute the colour: neither does any precipitation take place upon saturat- ing the acid with ammonia. Sparingly soluble in hot muriatic acid, to which it communi- cates a purplish pink colour. When boiled in nitric acid, it both decomposes the acid, and is itself altered in its composition ; and, in cooling, is abundantly deposited in short acicular crystals aggregated in stelliform groups. These crystals pressed between folds of unsized paper, in order to separate the adhering acid, and then exposed to heat, are readily melted: in cooling, the migltel mass shows evident traces of acicular crystallization, and the crystals are of a yellow colour. This yellow substance is readily inflamed, burns with a bright fame, emits much smoke, and leaves a considerable residuum of carbon, Of all the characters of the white concrete substance described in this section, its ready disposition to crystallize is perhaps the most remarkable. If thrown into a red hot crucible, a dense white vapour arises from it; which being received into a bell glass placed over the crucible, is condensed round the lower part of the glass in the form of a white powder; but in the upper and cooler part of the lass distinctly crystalline plates are formed, of a beautiful silvery Rostre: A similar and equally beautiful crystallization may be obtained by boiling this substance in water, in a glass matrass joi: a ong 14 Observations on Naphthaline. long neck ; in the ypper part of which erystals will be formed, and deposited during the boiling. If exposed to a degree of heat not more than sufficient to melt it under a bell glass, the vapour that rises from it crystallizes before it reaches the surface of the glass, and flies about the in- terior with exactly the appearance of a shower of minute parti- cles of snow- If a piece of cotton twine be coiled up like the wick of a can- dle, and after having been dipped in this substance while melted be set on fire for a second or two, and then blown out, the va- pour will soon begin to crystallize round the wick in very distinct thin transparent lamine. This experiment affords one mark of distinction between this substance and benzoic acid, and also between it and camphor : for, under similar circumstances, benzoic acid crystallizes in aci- cular crystals, which are often grouped in a stelliform manner ; and camphor crystallizes, or is rather congealed, in globular particles having a stalagmitic appearance. The most usual crystalline form of this substance is a rhombic plate, of which the greater angle appears to be from 100° to 105°: crystals at least- of that form I have repeatedly obtained from its solutions in water, in alcohol, in acetic acid, in the yel- low oil described in the last section ; and lastly, by melting and very slowly cooling the substance itself. Sometimes several of these plates are variously grouped together ; sometimes a single plate intersects another plate at nearly nght angles, so that in some points of view the compound crystal appears simply cruci- form. The only distinct modifications I have observed of the common form are a rhomboidal plate, which is very nearly rect- angular; and an hexagonal plate: the latter variety may be easily traced from the rhombic plate by the incomplete development of the smaller angles of the usual rhomb. The following process has been found most successful in il- lustrating the crystallization of this substance : If 25 grains of it be dissolved by the assistance of heat in half a fluid ounce of alcohol, and the solution be cooled slowly in a glass matrass, it will begin to crystallize when nearly cool; and the matrass being placed between the eye aad a tolerably strong light, numerous transparent rhombic crystals will be visible; some of them reflecting from their whole surface a green colour; others, a blue; or a red; or some other of the prismatic colours. With respect to the elementary constitution of this substance I am not enabled to give any satisfactory information; but it is evident that it contains a very great proportion of carbon, A small quantity of it was passed in the state of vapour through peroxide of copper heated to reduess, and the only gaseous pro- duct —— Observations on Naphthaline. 15 duct was carbonic acid : whether any water were formed, I could not ascertain. It cannot be irrelevant to the object of this paper to state, that the white concrete substance which I have been describing, has twice been observed by me in the form of minute crystals, which beautifully reflected the prismatic colours, in the neck of an earthen retort in which animal matter had been submitted to destructive distillation. Properties of the yellow Farina. From the minute quantity of this substance which I was ca- pable of obtaining, I could only ascertain one or two of its pro- perties. It is soluble in alcohol, and forms a solution of a bright yellow colour: and it is precipitable from the solution, by the addition of water, in the form of a yellow powder, which remains permanently suspended in the mixture. When heated, it melts into a substance of the consistence of a soft tough gum of a deep reddish brown colour. Of the four several substances which result from the distil- lation of the black liquid described in the former part of this paper, it is probable that the water and the yellow farina are the only real products, and that the others are mere educts of that distillation: for, with respect to the water, its proportion is va- riable according to the greater or less degree of rapidity with which the distillation is conducted; and if it were present as water in the black liquid, there is reason to believe it would be found supernatant on its surface, after having remained still for some time. ‘The essential liquid oil, and the white concrete sub- stance, which pass over during the distillation, are probably con- tained originally in that thin portion of the black liquid which may be filtered through unsized paper ; for the odour of this fil- tered portion closely resembles that of the oil; and the oil, by exposure to light, frequently becomes of a darker and darker shade, so as at last to he nearly of a deep brown colour; and with respect to the white concrete substance, this was not only found crystallized in that part of the original apparatus where the black liquid was condensed, but has been obtained from that liquid by simple evaporation of it at the common temperature of the atmosphere. The yellow farina is probably produced fron the tar which is contained in the proportion of about one-fourth in the black liquid ; for it does not make its appearance till towards the end of the distillation; when the more volatile substances have ceased to pass over, and the heat has been increased to the utmost : aud if common coal tar be exposed to a low red heat, it mi " ound, 16 | Reply to the found, that when the tar has been nearly evaporated; this yel- low farina will begin to pass off. It remains for me to propose a name for the white concrete substance which has been described in this paper: and, unless a more appropriate term should be suggested by others, I would propose to call it Naphthaline. III. Reply to the “ Apology for the. Postscript on the Refrac- tions”’ in No. 24 of The Quarterly Journal of Science. By James Ivory, M.A. F.R.S. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — I HAVE to request the favour of your inserting the fol- lowing observations in reply to an article that has appeared in the last Quarterly Journal of Science. I shall take no notice of what is merely personal; but it would not be right to allow a writing so entirely calculated to mislead, to go before the public without making some attempt to enable it to judge of the merits of the case. Although drawn up with some art and great apparent confi- dence, the article, in fact, leaves the observations I wrote on the new method of computing the refractions just in the same predicament they would be, if no such apology had been pub- lished. I found that the series, or the development of the density of the air in terms of the refraction, was not sufficiently convergent to he of use. Does the author contradict this? He does not: on the contrary he allows it, by flying off to a different and more laborious method of computation, which has nothing to do with the construction of the table in the Nautical Almanack, the only point I proposed to examine, and the only point about which it is worth while to bestow a thought. The method he employs consists in considering the variable quantities in the several stages of their increase, and computing their successive values by repeated operations. It is a method resorted to when all others fail. Recourse is had to it here from the want of convergency of the series first contemplated, and by which his table is constructed, with the hope, no doubt, of re- scuing his mode of calculation from the reproach of a total failure. The methods of calculation proposed by Dr. Young are not new, although he may be the only mathematician that has ap- plied them to the problem of the refractions. They are the first that occurred in the progress of the integral Calculus. Would it not * Apology for the Postscript on the Refractions,” Bc. 17 not therefore have been better to refer to some work of undoubted reputation with the public, than to have attempted to explain ‘them by calculations, of which it cannot be said that any one result is accurate? But in this manner his readers would have been better able to judge of his consistency and fairness of arguing, when they found him affirming gravely that there is no want of conyergency of the series, at the very time the default of convergency obliges him to employ subsidiary expedients. By taking the whole values of the variable quantities at two intervals, he seems to have considerably diminished the error arising from the want of convergency of the series, But, how many intervals must be taken in order to exhaust it completely ? We thus fall upon the same discussions agitated from the origin of the science. At any rate it appears necessary that he push his calculations up to the mark of truth, at least in some one instance, before the methods he recommends can be fairly com- pared with those usually followed. But, however this be, it must not be forgotten that the method of calcnlating by intervals, has nothing to do with the construction of the table in the Nautical Almanack. The formula used in the construction of the table contains four terms; and the horizontal refraction in the table, is imme- diately found by solving the proper equation. But when we take a case of real theory; that is, one proceeding upon a given hy- pothesis of density, by which means the coefficients of the series are taken out of the clutches of the computer, and are derived solely from the nature of the case; then six terms of the series, not to say four, are totally inadequate for finding the refraction with the requisite exactness. What is the reason of this? Is it not that, in the.one case, the coefficients are so adjusted as to bring out the desired result; while, in the other case, the ex- _pectation of the computer is balked, because the modelling of the series is placed out of his power? The coefficient of the first of the four terms is unavoidably de- . termined by the nature of the case, or by the differential equa- tion: the other three are empirical. Nor will much be abated from this, if it be allowed that some assistance has been derived from a small exertion of the reasoning faculty in fixing the form of the coefficients, while their quantity is obtained entirely by a tentative method aiming at given results. Nothing in the apology is contrary to what is here advanced. It is admitted that the . formula is partly empirical, and we are referred to Euler’s Lunar Theory, as a parallel case. This instance is not very much to the point: for although the immensity of the calculations, and the impracticability of performing them, made it necessary to seek from observation what could not be found by theory, vet Vol. 59. No, 285, Jan. 1822. C this 18 : Reply to the this must be considered as an imperfection and a blemish, if we may be allowed to use such words in speaking of a matter that so highly concerned the benefit of mankind. A few years ago, the Academy of Sciences proposed, for their prize-question, the Construction of Lunar Tables by Theory alone, the fortunate competitors being M. Damoiseau and MM. Plana and Carlini. But, in the case of the refractions, we are desired to hold a re- trograde course, aud are required to re-compute by an, empirical formula the very same numbers already calculated by theory. The author of the Apology misquotes my words, and slurs over the question of the identity of his table with that of the French. It is not enough to say that they agree in all ordinary cases ; for there is no difference between them in the mean refractions. This isa fact of which any one may satisfy himself by reducing both tables to bar. 30, or both to bar, 29-93, the mean tempera- ture being the same in both cases. The slight differences that occur will generally be found less than the discrepancies arising in solving over again the equations of the new method. As there is no particular hypothesis of density adopted, the theory of the formula, if there be any, can be nothing but the general consideration that the density of the air, being a function of the refraction, may be developed in a series of the powers of that quantity. It therefore became necessary to prove not only that the series converged in every possible hypothesis of density, but that it converged so fast as to permit the rejecting of all the terms after the four first. Now this is not only not done, but it is not true. But, it may be asked, how then does it happen that the for- mula represents the French mean refractions so exactly? Now even this question may, I think, be answered in a satisfactory manner. By adopting the hypothesis of-a density decreasing uniformly, we obtain an exact solution of the problem of refrac- tions in the form of an equation containing the two first powers of the quantity sought. The rules of Bradley, Mayer, &c. are all equivalent to the solution of a quadratic equation®*. In their original form these rules can be applied only to compute the re- fractions at altitudes greater than 12°, or 14°; nearer the hori- zon they diverge from the truth. But if we relax from the strictly theoretical quantities, and determine the coefficients so as to represent the refractions at the horizon and at 45° from the zenith, we obtain empirical formule that apply with consi- derable exactness even at low altitudes. Now if to the two terms of such a formula, two more be added, so as to have three terms with indeterminate coefficients, a great latitude of calculation , " Kramp, Ref. Ast., p. 164. , will < Apology for the Postscript on the Refractions,’’ &c. 19 will be acquired ; and we may so determine the arbitrary quan- tities as greatly to diminish, and even almost to annihilate, the differences between the formula and observation, or between the formula and a given table of refractions. And this, I conceive, is a just and sufficient account of the coincidence between the tables of mean refraction in the Nautical Almanack and the Connaissance des Tems. Suppose Dr. Young’s formula with literal coefficients was given to each of two computers, one in London and one in Paris; and they were directed to determine the numerical values so as to represent the French table: it is by no means clear that both would hit upon the same numbers for the coefficients. It will not appear improbable to any one who has attended to the va- riety of numerical formule for calculating the refractions *, that the result of such an experiment might be, two different for- mule equally representing the prescribed table. Tt will not, 1 hope, be inferred from any thing that has been said, that an empirical table of refractions is supposed to be of little value. It can indeed have no value at all unless it have a proper foundation of its own, which can only be the case when it is constructed from an extensive series of observations made in every diversity of circumstances. A table, however con- structed, that is a mere copy of another, can have no authority which the original does not possess. Upon the method of allowing for the variations of the baro- meter and thermometer, I made no observatious. It would be very difficult to prove in a strict manner either its correctness or incorrectness. Besides, it is independent of the new method for the mean refractions, which alone I undertook to examine, This independence of the two methods arises from the empiricism, of the formula. For had the formula been theoretical, the coeffi- cieuts, instead of being numbers, would have contained the quantities that vary with the state of the atmosphere ; and one expression would have served, as ought to be the case, both for the mean refractions, and the mutations they undergo by the barometrical and thermometrical changes. The safest way to deal with this part of the table, is to compare it with some other table of at least equal authority. That of Dr. Brinkley will answer best, because the two tables agree in having the same mean horizontal refraction. Thus, for bar. 30 and ther, 50°, the horizontal refraction is, Dr. Brinkley) .. «= oe 33” 50" N, A. er ae ee Now, suppose a change of temperature of 18°, and compute * De Lambre’s Astronomy, vol. i. chap. 13, C2 the i , ‘Apellgy orthblonicrtst on the Re afiabtions.” as fe a the zenith-distances 90° and 89°, bar. 30 and Z.D. 90° Z. D. 89° 36051” 20” 2” Biv 36 17 25 50 be ee. 34 12 And saeh differences must always occur, unless some general principles be adopted, or some general mode of solution can be found out. Allow me, sir, hefore I conclude, to say a word about the "nd “ Concessions ” in your Mag. for last November. It is not easy ae to state. distinctly what is conceded and what is withheld. The sie balance ‘seems to be poised with a very even hand, between the ¢ essions to be made, and the tone of authority to be kept up. it presume to give an opinion, I would say that the only error am now charged with, relates to my number ‘00419 which he makes 00416 ; amounting to +,,2,-55 of an inch, if we speak eel absolutely ; 3 or, relatively as my untagonist takes it, to ;4, of the existing quantity. There is some refinement in this way of 2 reckoning ; for the less the quantity, the greater the error. I am sure there is nobody who has attended to the controversy, but will, allow that the chance of an error in his nnmber is greatly’ in my favour; ; but the whole difference is so very little, and he has already deseanted upon it so amply, that it would be a pity ~ to add another word upon the subject. Besides, we shall soon have a table of surpassing accuracy; when he has spent his money in hiring a host of computers to complete his lucubrations. ‘Thave some consolation, sir, in thinking that the discussions, in your work, on the subject of the refractions, will be found not altogether unimportant or uninteresting to the astronomer. I allude to the general view of the problem in your Magazine for May last, and to the formulse for the mean refractions in the same, and the following, number; to the observations made on the hypothesis of Cassini; and particularly to the remarks on Mayer’s formula in the Magazine for November. Since writing that article I have looked into the Fundamenta Astronomie of Professor Bessel, who is the only author I have met with that | does justice to the astronomer of Gottingen. In speaking of the correction for the thermometer, he thus expresses himself, p.26, ** Ceterum in hoc quoque capite non equales solum, verum etiam posteriores astronomos antecessit Tobias Mayer, in re- fractionis formula rectius adhibens thermometri correctionem ; utrumobservationes an theoria eum huc perduxerint latet: ced confitendum est, correctionem illam postea inutilem atque falsam judicatam ejusque auctorem vituperatum esse quod eam calculis we inseruerit, On Short-hand. Writing, eee inseruerit. Etsi subtilis theoretica thermometri ‘correctionis determinatio non prorsus congruit cum Mayer hujus rei trac- tandez ratione: tamen, si eam recipissent astronomi, maximam partem evitassent errorum, quos gignet refractio, aeris densitati in observatoris loco aut reft agendl facultati tota proportioaalis posita.”” It now remains that I thank you, sir, for your attention ‘to 8 st communications, and that I express my regret you were trouble with the short letter in your last Number: but I was not then’ aware that a public man, upon a public question, would descend to personal abuse, even if he found himself without good argu- ments to urge in his defence. I am, sir, &e. Jan. 7, 1822. JAMES Ivory. IV. On Short-hand Writing. By Huwry Uprneton, Esq. To Dr. Tilloch. Blair's Hill, Cork, Noy. 5, 1821. Dear Sir, — Give me leave to occupy your attention for a short time, upon a subject which, although in itself not a branch of philosophy or literature, must, if successfully cultivated, be acknowledged as a valuable acquisition by every one who is ‘de- sirous of occasionally taking down the heads of a discourse, or who devotes a considerable portion of his life either to the tran- seribing of the works of others, or to original composition. You will very easily perceive, sir, by this prefatory observation, that I should willingly realize, as far as in my power, the sug- gestion of Mr. Locke, by putting every gentleman in possession of the most expeditious method of short-writing compatible with perspicuity and ordinary muscular execution. This is most cer- tainly my irtention ; and if I should be so fortunate as to enable the literary part of my countrymen to save, in the course of every day, even one or two hours which must otherwise be devoted to manual drudgery, I shall feel myself most amply recompensed. The prominent objection of the most intelligent persons with whom I have conversed, to the cultivation of short-hand as generally practised, is in my opinion extremely rational. They insist that even years are necessary to execute with sufficient ease the various crabbed angles, aud consequent difficult combina- tions dependent upon the four different positions, left, right, perpendicular and horizontal, as thus 7 \ | —: and that until an absolutely automatical command of these be obtained, even the intellectual Note-taker or Reporter who uses short- hand is very aT SS pame: 22 On Short-hand Writing. very little superior to a mere operating mechanic, for ever at- tending to his fingers, but incapable of exercising his head, whether for the necessary rejection of tautology or the judicious condensation of the subject. In confirmation of the justness of this objection I may add, if ‘necessary, my own experience. These five-and-twenty years I have been in the habit of using short-hand for my private pur- poses: and, although I had very early the good fortune to ob- tain for myself what practical short-hand writers would call a superior method, as embracing the principal conveniences and rejecting the principal inconveniences of the methods of Dr. Byron, Mr. Gurney, Mr. Taylor, and Dr. Mavor, while at the same time it was somewhat swifter than all; yet so opposite are the muscular motions, even on this plan, to those to which I am every day accustomed in common writing, that after a lapse of two or three weeks without using short-hand, I am compelled to repractise it for half an hour at least, in order to attain my pre- vious facility. As to the taking down a public discourse, verba- tim, I know not what extraordinary application may have ac- complished; but in candour I must acknowledge my incapacity. Although a tolerably quick writer, I have never at any time been able to take down in a desirably copious manner, even the sub- stance of a sermon: certain difficult combinations never failed to obtrude themselves—my attention was distracted—and | lost the speaker. 7 After having thus stated one formidable argument against the study of short-writing by the gentleman who does not mean to use it as a profession—to which argument may be added, the un- deniable ‘difficulty of reading it; you will naturally be desirous to learn, what method I ean propose that shali operate, in any material degree, towards the removal of such rational objections. My intended answer is the result of experience, not of theory ; and therefore I shall not hesitate to make it. It is briefly this: First, That the simplest and most easily executed scheme of consonants be contrived—in which scheme, all characters de- scending in straight lines towards the right shall be rejected, un- less in the middle or ending of a word when preceded, and at all times, even in the beginning of a word, unless followed by an ascending stroke,as thus A/ or thus \/: and by which scheme no definite angle, nor even perpendicular line unless when alone, shall ever be required; while, for perspicuity, all the common stops may without confusion be introduced. Secondly, That with regard to vowels—the Masoretic me- thod of writing the Hebrew language be almost exactly adopted : by which I mean—that every word shall be expressed by its con- ‘ sonants On Short-hand Writing. 23 sonants alone—the simplest vowel characters devisable being subsequently applied, whether in the beginning, the middle or the end of words, as the writer shall consider them expedient. Thirdly, As to the reading of an extensive manuscript in which these or any other short-hand characters are solely used, with satisfactory readiness, at a glance, when the subject itself is al- together or very nearly forgotten by the writer: although some of our stenographic bookmakers may insist on the facility of so doing, after a few months or even weeks of application; yet I eannot by any means hold out so fallacious an expectation. On the contrary, years are indispensable: nor is it likely that any one gentleman in a thousand (I speak not of the professional stenographist) shall ever attain this ultimate object by any other process than that which I have seen successfully adopted ;—the intermixing, with his common writing, the pronouns, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions and other minor parts of speech expressed in short-hand; and proceeding from thence, step by step, slowly yet. systematically, to encroach upon his long-hand. Lastly, With respect to the possibility of ever. following a speaker, verbatim, by the apparently slow method I have sug- gested—the sequel shall determine. In the mean time let the literary gentleman reflect, that even if no other object be attain- able than that of expressing all our ordinary words in short- hand, with about four times his usual expedition, by which means more than one-third of his whole time shall, in a few weeks, be saved ;—let him, I say, reflect, that these few weeks devoted to such an attainment will have been very judiciously employed. Were I in the least disposed, tediously to engross the pages of your Journal, and consequently to exhaust the patience of its readers, I should enter into a long detail of the history of short- writing taken from the voluminous works of our very learned English authors upon this art, to which, not satisfied with the generally understood name of Short hand, they have assigned the very lofty appellation: of brachygraphy, cryptography, steno- graphy, tachygraphy, zeitography, semigraphy, or ‘* the world’s rarity,’ with a numerous train of eteederas all dignified by the title ‘of “ systems :” I should literally carry my reader to China; from thence to Egypt, and from Egypt to Greece and Rome— where I should leave him no wiser than I found him, unless it be deemed worthy of our notice that, in addition to the methods of abbreviation practised by the Romaus, and of which even Ainsworth’s Dictionary has given us most copious specimens, there were also used by some of their notarii, certain arbitrary characters called not in opposition to liter@, by which not only certain terminations but several thousand Latin words were ex- peditiously expressed. From 24 On Short-hand Writing. From Rome I should travel to England, and there introduce my reader to the unparalleled Timothy Bright, who lived in the reign of Elizabeth, and who, as we are informed, was the first inventor of a stenographic Alphabet, which he dedicated to that Queen. I should even rally my countrymen upon their various whimsies styled dmprovements of the art; such as the writing of whole sentences without taking off the pen—or the crea- tion of three or even five real or imaginary lines called ‘ places,” which, like our musical stave, shall metamorphose one letter into another at pleasure, or even dispense altogether with cer- tain commencing letters, through the agency of the name of that place upon which the second letter shall be made. “Neither should I hesitate to set forth the pedantic introduction, called “© Invention,”’ of a whole host of Latin prepositions, such as omni, post, and preter—ill suited to the genius of our language, and calculated neither for perspicuity, nor, on the great average of syllables, even for brevity itself. I should perhaps also state the various important controversies of our very learned crypto- graphists—whether, in the writing of any individual word, the hand should or should not be ever lifted at all: but as I cannot ensure to myself a patient reading, by the unlearned world, of such enlightened topics, I shall pass on in my own way with the subject, and lay before you what many will consider a very usefu though perhaps not a very amusing Table of all the short- hand characters deserving the name of alphaletical, TABLE OF ALPHABETICAL SHORT-HAND CHARACTERS, arranged in the order of Simplicity, i.e. commencing with the most simple and regularly proceeding to the most complex. Ist. Right lines ee ee 4/% |— ee a) ee ee =5 2d. Curves [any thing ap- (> sly proaching semicircles] - ae a 3d. Right lines beginning | —a RMN oie with acurveorhook (27 ¢% NO If mA= Ath. Right lines begin- “US GS a ean ts ning with a loop \Bo7 LPO NET Ca 5th. Curves (nearly semi- >. crcles)beginning | C9) NRA 8 bots =2 withaloop .. J —. Reject, as explained below .. 3 Remain} |). «2 ..aael On Short-hand Writing. 25 Note. As it may appear rather strange to those who are un- acquainted with short-hand, why the two first characters of the first series are apparently similar; it may not be impertinent to observe, that almost all our stenographists have, by a very sim- ple contrivance, rendered them virtually distinct—the one be- ing an ascending stroke and connected with the following letter thus 7 , the other descending and connected thus rai ! Note also, that the first four characters of the third series, as well as the third and fourth characters of the fourth series, are ineligible for general purposes. If we add to this the necessity for junction, or at least the extreme convenience cf appropriat- ing two hooked characters (that is, our choice of either) to an individual letter; and the similar necessity uf appropriating two looped characters, in like manner, as indicated by the respective braces set over those characters in the table—we shall find the number of our truly alphabetical letters reduced to eighteen. Now with regard to the utility of this table, is it not obviously a material guidance for the construction of an alptioinet 2—and who, without a thorough knowledge of all the existing characters, together with a knowledge of the ease or difficulty ef their for- mation, their comparative swiftness, their eligibility for junction, their distinctness when swiftly written, or their tendency to pro- mote or injure lineality, shall pretend to lay down a rational scheme of shert-hand? But even this knowledge i is insufficient. The ratio of occurrence of all the consonandés of the language for which a short-hand alphabet is intended, must be . tolerably well ascertained; the incipient ones, or those whick first present themselves in every word, as the 2 in on, m0, never, being distin- uisbed from the subsequently. occurring consonants in every word [I shall call them sulsequents], as the v and r in the last- mentioned dissyllable never, or the grd in the word regard, Here I must request of the intelligent ‘reader already conversant in the principles of short-hand; that he will not censure my pro- lixity. This paper is intended inerely for the information of those gentlemen who may wish to obtain a mastery of this art— but whose valuable time may otherwise be sacrificed to the ig- norance or cunning of an empiric. Nor is this observation un- called for: more than one gentleman of my acquaintance has reason to regret his unprofitable labour, The difficulty, or rather the trouble, of forming such a “ ratio of occurreice” as that of which I have just spoken, is indeed so great, that were it not for the indefatigable exertions of a literary friend, I should in all probability have never obtained so valuable a document. Several weeks were devoted by him to the scrutiny. Parliamentary and forensic speeches, sermons, philosophical Vol, 59. No. 285. Jan. 1822. D lectures, 26 On Short-hand Writing. lectures, polite litagary correspondence—all were separately ex- plored; and an average was taken of the whole. ‘This very useful table, formed from upwards of one hundred thousand letters, was constituted thus; the highest number, N, being reduced to 1000 as the standard. Tuble of the relative occurrence of the various Consonants | quies- ~ cent ones not reckoned] of English classical Composition— whether incipient consonants or subsequents : commencing or incipient y (together with the double letters ch, sh, th, wh, wherever found) being considered among the number of those consonants; and also the treble letter thr, whether a vowel be interposed or not between the h andr. Str was too un- important to introduce. wn las Alone; or Subse- Totals. incipient. quent. BORE ae aces. OS ics apie, Se Meret SS Sat ce vee ie poimnnieieers, a: PSCERBEO OY) Snce Dee WS aac OW ce ne 20c ect! Vas ry COS ana SOO Cl.tese) Cones ee INS: tee Lae Hee TT ae cae hee, 7 fy USCC NEM i Euan connected with C, S, T or W, is consi- Jo ncee 5 weve 5 weve 10 dered an aspirate. Bes ae ND HRS vs log Pave dled name 27S ae tSab bah SOD 0.90890. er 269 eye OOky 366639 .. 4.000 dt a bhaGr och eORw esos B45 Swee UMD Hee NG Se, a TE se ROS 17k STAs OPS See eRaai ey G07 it tir 762 ete 2SG. ayieeb “2se0c817 5 inal 7 Aahib eeie OOS 25 hee DS dela Zar adeeesace 120 Site A ek es LOOK ets 27 ; vace D2 cece oe eves 592:Almost all occasion- ' ed by the 2d person, you, ye, your. Inde- pendently of these, it occurred but thrice. rs Oe Bees Oe a, Bats Petter. 2.0 sares not occur once on the present scale, as an incipient. Ch aK SdHnDoOvzar On Short-hand Writing. 27 per lao a res Alone; or Subse- - Totals. incipient. quent. Choncts Dicuss BBw.dsse Ade iCh hues represented by K when so sounded, as in “© chymist.” FA be - bir ced DBL oi BY tage ye ees —eEeEeeee 2636 3782 6418 Arrancement in the order of frequency. N, T, 8, R, D, L, Th, F, M,P, K, B, V, G, W, H, Wh, Y, Thr, Ch, Sh, X, Q, J; Z. Note. The average number of words attachable to the fore- going table; or, in other terms, the average number of words expressed by 6413 short-hand consonants, is 2743, which is ‘almost fractionally equal to 25* such consonants for every indi- vidual word. Arbitraries, it is true, may provide for some of these ; but comparatively for so few that this table must serve, with sufficient accuracy, as the basis of any intended calculation. Suppose that, for example’s sake, I were to start a question, Let the descending oblique right line 7 ve excluded as an inde- pendent letter; and the writer be privileged to exchange, when desirable, the perpendicular line | for the foregoing oblique one ....thus obviating many difficult angles: What loss, then, shall be sustained by adopting, for the letter L, the looped cha- racter 4 in place of the relinquished line 7; taking it for granted that looped characters, except in the beginning of words, are nearly equal to simples +;—but that in the beginning of words, or when alone, a loss equal to 1} right line is sustained by every looped character ? | In my opinion, this question may be solved by the judicious application of our table, thus : Let the aggregate of our consonants, 6418, be rated on the average, as equal to 1} right line each [near enough for our * This average does not hold good with vulgar composition, which almost constantly takes but two short-hand characters, or thereabout, to every word. + When the license of turning the loop in the requisite direction is given to the writer—as thus @ in place of Q_ ° D2 purpose | : 28 Ephemeris of the newly-discovered Planets purpose]: there shall result from this a number equal to ta oi To which add the lines formed z7 air, by 274: ; lifting the hand between each word ... ae Add also the supposed number of vowels” (including A and I when necessary) which \ _ 350 cannot, without too much risk of illegibi- ( v7 lity, be dispensed with ..) .. ca. 2. And add likewise ; loss by lifting id, 3350 hand zz air to form those vowels Aig Total = 13069 right lines, 9627 right lines. ee P fe ~~ t or, in round numbers, 13,000. ~ Now, if in writing a number =13,090 right lines, the let- ter L, as an incipient, shall oecur but 77 times, producing a loss = 115 right lines; the aggregated loss is evidently but the 113th part of the whole, or very nearly equal to half a minute in an hour. Pursuing the same mode of calculation, incipient K, too, if expressed by G> in place of \, will yield a loss of almost ex- actly one minute in an hour ;—and this sacrifice, as well as that arising from the looped L (supposing even the aggregate loss in- creased by one-halfyin consequence of the disadvantage of these characters when intermediate or final), I shall make to a cer- tain extent® in the formation of my alphabet. [To he continued. ] * The plan of prepositives which I mean, by and by, to suggest, will almost wholly remove the incipient disadvantage, V. Ephemeris of the newly-discovered Planets for their several Oppositions in 1822: calculated by S. GroomsripcE, Esq. F.R.S., and presented by him to the Astronomical Society of London. Patuas and Cres being near the aphelion, it is doubtful whether they will be visible at the opposition; particularly the former, by reason of the great excentricity of its orbit. It was therefore unnecessary to compute their places to the stationary points. The orbit of Vesta having been found from later obser- vations less than heretofore computed, the mean longitude in the tables of Mr. P. Daussy (published in the Connaissance des Tems 1820) has become nearly 20 minutes in arrear. a VESTA. for their several Oppositions in 1822. 29 ed VESTA. 1822. AR Dec. §.] 1822. MR | Dec. S. | : h TBA ° / h Ly ° ‘ April19 | 18. 0.53} 17. 9 | June 21 |17.31.57] 19.24 22 2.14 9k | 94 | ) 98.57 36 25 3.17 11 97 | | 26.4 As} | 28 4. 2 192 30 | 23.20} 20. 08 | May 1 4,99 141} July 3] 20.47 13 | 4.38 17 6 | | 48.97 253 4.29} 20 9{ 16.21 38 10 4. 2 QA. 12| 14.30 50x 13 3.15 282 15 | 12.56] 21. 3 16 2.11 34 1g | 11.40 16 19 0.47 394 21] 10.43 ast 22 117.59. 7 46 94] 10. 4 41 25 | 57.10 531 27 9.43 53% ag| 54.58/18. 13 | 30 9.41| 22. 6 31 52.33 10 jAug. 2 9.59 18 June 3] 49.56 194 5 | 10.35 31 47. 9 29 s| 11.29 43% 44,12 393 11 | 12.39 554 12) 41.11 50 14:]. B14. 6.) Bs." | ©38. 7|19. 1 17 \ oat 192 is |< 35.0 194 20 | 17.51 31 April 30. ‘Jn perihelio. May 4. Retrograde in long. June 16. © Opposition. July 28. — Direct in long. August 13. In descending node. PAL. 30 Ephemeris of the newly-discovered Planets. PALLAS. CERES. h / a“ 20.43.52 16] 41.40 41 19 | 39.26 294 92| 37.11 15 95 | 34.56] 15.583 28 | 32.40 40} 31 | 30.20 20 Aug. 3} 27.58} 14.58 6| 25.33 334 9| 23.10 74 12| 20.55} 13.40 15| 18.47 10 18 | 16.46] 19.39 21} 14.51 6 24| 13. 2] 11.32 97 | 11.22} 10.573 30 9.50 93 8.27 June 18. In aphelio, July 25. In aphelio. August 4. Opposition. August 22, Opposition. JUNO. for their several Oppositions in 1822. 51 JUNO. 1822. R Dec. N.}] 1823. MR Dec. N. sd hoy ou oly hoya Ord Noy. 13 | 8. 1.48 9.56 | Jan. 12 | 7.44.54| 1.394 16 oe 35 15 492. 5 pea 19| 4.57 144 1g | 39.29} 24 92} 6.6 | 1.55% 21! 36.53) 482 25 6.59 38 24 34.22 3.154 28 7.35 214 et 32. O 43 Dec. 1 7.51 7 30 29.48 4.12 4) 7.50| 0.54 |Feb. 2| 27.49] 413 7| 7.32 424 5| 26.2) 5.114 10 6.56 34 8 24.27 42 Bathe. 6 A Q7 11 | 23. 9| 6.194 16 4.51 223 14 22.8 43 -19 3.24 21 17 21.22 ¥ PAB? 92 1.43 214 20 20.52 425 25 | 7.59.46 25 23 20.40 8.115 28 57.39 30 26 20.44 394 31 55.20 39 March 1 oY, 3 Oar 1823. 4 21.41 33 Jan. 3 52.51 51 7 22.30 58 6 50.17 1. 44 10 23.36.) 10.22} 9| 47.38 204 13) 25.0] 465 1822. July 30. In perihelio. December 7. Retrograde in long. 1823. January 17. | Opposition. February 27. Direct in long. VI. On [ 92 J VI. On the boiling Springs of Iceland. By Mr. Joun Murray.* Tx reading the description of the boiling springs or geysers of Iceland, as given to us by Stanley, Hooker, Mackenzie, and by Henderson, I found it difficult to account for the zntermission of the jets, supposing the subterranean fire to continue wnifurm in temperature. ] caused an apparatus to be con- structed, which tended to explain the phenomena of the intermission of the jet and recession from the basin into the central pipe. A section of that simple apparatus is on the margin, and its phenomena clearly and satis- factorily prove that the circumstances adverted to, are ascribable to the cooling of the water from the united influences of radiation and evapo- x ration. Radiation, from the sur- () face of the water in the basin into ob which it rises ; and Evaporation, from ep, that dispersed into the atmosphere SF ee in the play of the geyser. The apparatus consists of a cylindrical tin case surmonnted by a concave basin, into which the water rises through a central pipe (representative of the siliceous stalactitic pipe obtaining in the geysers, the consequence of deposition of siliceous matter from the water containing silica and soda in solution), and which descends nearly to the bottom of the cylinder. The apparatus being supplied with water, and a spirit lamp introduced, the water ‘will, in a short time, be perceived slowly ascending into the basin. The steam finally bursts through the water and forms an irregular jet; and so soon as the water ts cooled by the causes adverted to, it retires from the basin into the pipe, and the same phenomena are reiterated at intervals. The experiment is a very beautiful one, and alwavs gratifying. Dr. Heuderson has stated a curious fact with respect to these wondrous phzenemena; and though it has been rudely ques- tioned, it is one, surely, that may be conceived a necessary re- sult. ‘L advert to the circumstance of the play of the geysers being more promptly determined by casting stones into the pipe. This is easily explaiied by supposing the pipe at its lower extremity curved (a phenomenon which I myself have * This paper was transmitted to the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh. witnessed On a new Compound of Chlorine and Carbon. 33 witnessed in some of the caverns of Derbyshire, where the ends of the stalactites depending from the roof are hooked, or curved upwards). Now on this supposition, if a stone or stones were thrown in, either wholly or partially to blockade that orifice, the steam mae be thereby confined, and sooner be raised to a maximum, because the water is then prevented from its slow and gradual ascent into the basin, and thus diminishing the amount of the elasticity of the steam; whereas, in common cir- cumstances the steam sallies forth at slants through the water, before it obtains the force necessary to the propulsion of the jet into the atmosphere. Vil. On a new Compound of Chlorine and Carbon. By Ri- cHarp Puituips, F.R.S. E. F.L.S. M.G.S., @c., and MIcHAEL Farapay, Chemical Assistant in the Royal Insti- tution. Communicated by Sir Humpnry Davy, Bart. Pens. M Jutix, of Abo, in Finland, is proprietor of a manufactory, in which nitric acid is prepared by distilling calcined sulphate of iron with crude nitre in iron retorts, and collecting the products in receivers connected by glass tubes, in the manner of Woulfe’s apparatus. In this process he observed, that when a peculiar kind of calcined vitriol, obtained from the waters of the mine of Fahlun, and containing a small portion of pyrites, known in Sweden by the name of ealcinil aquafortis vitriol No, 3, was used, the first tube was lined with sulphur, and the second with fine white feathery crystals. These were in very small quantity, amounting only to a few grains from each ‘distillation ; but M. Julin, by degrees, collected a portion of it, and, having brought it to this country, inserted a short account of its pro- perties in The Annals of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 216, to which a few observations were added by ourselves. The following are the properties of this substance, as deseribed by M. Julin. — It is white ; consists of small soft adhesive yeni sinks slowly in water; is innolibldsi in it whether hot or cold; tasteless; has a peculiar smell, somewhat resembling rie ceti; is not acted on by sulphuric, muriatic, or wale: acid, ex- cept that the latter by boiling on it gives traces of suiphurie acid; boiled with caustic potash, has a small portion of sulphur dis- solved from it; dissolves in hot oil of turpentine, but most of it erystallizes in needles from the solution on cooling 5 dissolves in * From the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1821, Part I. Vol. 59. No. 285. Jan. 1822, ib ‘wiling 34 On a new Compound boiling alcohol of 816, but by far the greater part crystallizes on cooling ; burns in the fae of a lamp with a greenish blue flame, giving a slight smell of chlorine gas; when heated, melting, boiling, and subliming at a temperature between 350° and 400°, and subliming slowly “without melting at a heat of about 250°, forming long needles, Potassium burned with a vivid flame in its vapour in an open tube, and carbon was deposited; a solution made of the residuum, and saturated with nitric acid, gave a co- pious precipitate with nitrate of silver. M. Julin then remarks, that the small quantity he possessed, with want of leisure, pre- vented him from making any further experiments on it; and concludes, by comparing it with the chlorides of carbon that have lately been formed. The small quantity of the substance which, by the kindness of M. Julin, we had at our disposal at that time, was insufficient to enable us satisfactorily to ascertain its nature. We found it mixed with free sulphur, and sulphate and muriate of ammonia, When purified, our first object, in consequence of M. Julin’s suggestion, was to compare it with the per-chloride of carbon, but it was found entirely distinct from it in its properties. Since M. Julin’s return froin the continent, he has very kindly placed some further portions of this substance at our disposal. We have therefore been enabled to continue our experiments, and have come to the very unexpected conclusion of its being another chloride of carbon, in addition to the two, an account of which has been published in the Transactions of the Royal Society for this year. The substance, after being boiled in solution of potash, washed in water, dried and sublimed, formed beautiful acicular crystals, which appeared to Mr. W. Phillips to be four-sided prisms. They contained no sulphur, and, when dissolved in alcohol or ether, gave no traces of chlorine or muriates, by nitrate of silver. They burned in the air with a strong bright flame at a heat below red- ness, and agreed with the description given by M. Julin of the properties ef the substance. When heated moderately, it sublimed unaltered; but on pass- ing a portion over rock crystal, heated to bright ‘redness, ina green glass tube, it was decomposed, charcoal was deposited, and the gas, passed inte solution of nitrate of silver, precipitated it, and proved to be chlorine. A portion was repeatedly sublimed in a small retort filled with chlorine, which was made red hot in several places; it however underwent no change: but on cooling crystallized as at first. It was also exposed in the same gas to sun light for many days, but no change took place. When of Chlorine and Carbon. 35 When raised in vapour over hot mercury, and detonated with excess of oxygen, a quantity of carbonic acid gas and chloride of mercury were produced. ‘There was no change in the volume of gas used; and lime water being passed into it absorbed the carbonic gas, became turbid, and left a residuum of pure oxy- gen. Acetic acid being then added, to dissolve the carbonate of lime, the solution was tested for chlorine, which was readily found init, When detonated with oxygen, the substance being in excess, there was expansion of volume, carbonic oxide, car- bonic acid, and chloride of mercury being formed. When phosphorus, iron, tin, &c. were heated to redness in its vapour over mercury, it was decomposed, chlorides of those sub- stances being formed, and charcoal deposited ; and M. Julin has shown that the same effect is produced by potassium. Three grains of this substance were passed in vapour over pure peroxide of copper, heated to redness in a green glass tube: a very small portion passed undecomposed, The gas received over mercury equalled 5:7 cubic inches; it was carbonic acid gas. A small part of the oxide of copper was reduced, and portions of a crystalline body appeared within the tube, which, on examina- tion, proved to be chloride of copper. Some of this was used in making experiments on its nature; but when that was ascer- tained, the remaining contents of the tube were dissolved in nitric acid, and precipitated by nitrate of silver: 6:1 grains of chloride of silver were obtained. Two grains were passed over pure quick lime, raised to a red heat in a green glass tube. The moment the vapour came in contact with the hot lime, ignition took place, and the earth berned as long as the vapour passed over it. When cold, the tube was examined, and much. charcoal found deposited at the spot where the ignition occurred. The contents of the tube were dissolved in nitric acid, and the filtered solution precipi- tated by nitrate of silver: 5°9 grains of chloride of silver were obtained. These results afford us sufficient data from which to deduce the nature and composition of this body. All the experiments of de- composition indicate it to contain chlorine and carbon, and those with oxygen and the metals sufficiently prove the absence of hydrogen and oxygen. With regard to the proportions of the elements, three grains of the substance gave 5-7 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas, therefore two grains will give 3-8 cubic inches. One hundred cubic inches of carbonic acid gas weigh 46°47 grains, and contain 12°72 grains of carbon; and 3°8 cubic inches will therefore contain 0-483 grains of carbon. The two grains of | the substance decomposed by heated lime gave 5°9 grains of sl E2 ride 36 On a new Compound of Chlorine and Carlon. ride of silver, which, according to Dr. Wollaston’s scale, equal 1-45 of chlorine; hence the two grains gave chlorine .. 1-45 carbon .. 483 1-933 The loss here is 0-067, which is by no means important, when the small quantity of the substance and the nature of the experi- ments are cousidéred. As to the proportion of these two bodies to each other, if we consider chlorine as represented by 33-5, and carbon by 5:7, or with Dr. Wollaston by 44:1 and 7:5, then the 1°45 of chlorine would be equivalent to 0°2466 of carbon. This is the constitu- tion of the fluid or proto-chloride of carbon; and if we double the 0:2466, the product 0-4932 approaches so near to the ex- perimental result 0°483, that we do not hesitate to regard this compound as consisting of one portion of chlorine and two por- tions of carbon, or Chiorme "sos 44-1 33°5 Carhon’ * 627028" ORS 11-4 It is remarkable, that another of these compout.ds should be found so soon after the discovery of the two former chlorides of carbon. Its physical properties, aud its chemical energies, are in every respect analogous to those of the former compounds ; and its constitution increases the probability, that another chlo- ride of carbon may be found, consisting of two portions of chlo. rine and one of carbon, All the endeavours we have vet made to form the chloride of carbon now described, or to convert it into either of the other chlorides, have been unsuccessful. We expected that, when de- composed by heat, it would produce the proto-chloride with the liberation of carbon, as the perchloride does with the liberation of chlorine, but we have not yet been able to ascertain that point. We have only to offer as an apology for this and other imper- fections in the present paper, the smallness of the quantity of this substance that we possessed. VIM. Table of the periodical Variation of the Star Algol, from February to December 1822, inclusive. To Dr. Tilloch. Sirk, — As1 conceive every gentleman attached to astronomical pursuits is in the habit of seeing your excellent monthly publica- tion, it is probable that the insertion of the followmg Table of the periodical variation of A/gol may enable some of your readers to amuse themselves with the observation of that curious phe- nomenon. ‘The table has been long since printed in Bode’s Ephemeris Table of the periodical Variation of the Star Algol. 37 Ephemeris for 1822, and contains the period of the star’s least magnitude, according to Paris time. Jt commences January 4, 1820, and contitues to the end of the present year—that part, therefore, which remains unexpired, I now transmit. It is rather singular, that no one has already pointed out this circumstance to the public, as the Berlin Ephemeris, from being written in the German language, is not very generally circulated in this country. Winterdyne, Jan. 19, 1822. W. M.M. Table by Professor Wurm, of Stuttgart, in mean Puris Time. 1822. 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I HOPED to be enabled to furnish you with a complete account of the observations hitherto made with the meridian circle of Reichenbach ; but several examinations (which appear to me to he necessary) have not yet been completed ; partly on account of the very bad weather in this year, and partly on account of the Jate arrival of a particular microscopical apparatus which Privy Counsellor Prstor has net only admirably contrived, but also correctly executed for me. This apparatus has been in my pos- session about a month, and I have already attained by it the ob- ject [ had in view: but, there are still some things which I must ascertain before I can assert that my declinations are so correctly deterinined as this beautiful instrament seems capable of doing. I could, indeed, produce many observations, such as the instru- ment has given them; and I could add that several improve- ments (which are not yet made) wil! be very trifling, and that I might even effect them by approximation: but yet all my data would be only preliminary, and these appear to me to be little in- teresting, since we already possess several similar data which want, more or less, the required confidence. I shall therefore, for the present, pass over the declinations in total silence. On the other hand, J have completed a very severe trial of the instrument in regard to the Right Ascensions ; which I shail give in the Oth part of my Observations, now in the press: and I shall there prove that, from the natnre of the instrument and its cor- tecting property, no constant error can arise. ‘This part of the ohservations | consider therefore to be already completed, with the exception of what may properly be called the accidental errors of observation ; which, in comparison with the mean con- stant errors, are of né importance, and which. moreover appear clearly enough f-om the observations themselves. I think there- fore that I may venture to give you some results. Mr. Ponp has given, in the Nautical Almanac for 1823, a new catalogue of the right ascensions of the principal stars for 1820, founded on some solar observations of his own. These being reduced to the year 1815 (by comparing their proper mo- tions ewrith the catalogue for 1759) we have the following dif- ferences between his values and mine. I should, however, pre-~ viously remark that I have altered the double star « Geminorum 0,20; Mr. Pow having-observed the second of the two stars. whilst 1 observe the mean of the two: and moreover that there is in the above-mentioned Nautical Almanac an obvious error of 1” in the place of « Scorpii. * From Bode's Astronomische Jahrbuch for 1824, page 232. y Pegasi Trial of the Meridian Circle, &c. 45 vy Pegasi 2% +0,021 a! Libree alte 40,032 a Arietis .. +0,036 a? -. +0,055 a Ceti -. —0,042 a Corone .. +0,081 a Tauri -. +0,131 a Serpentis .. +0,074 a Aurige .. +4,137 a Scorpii .. —0,105 8B Orionis .. +0,119 a Hereulis .. +0,128 6 Tauri -- +0,161 a Ophiuchi ... +0,183 a Orionis ., +0,213 a Lyre ~~ +0,137 a CanisMaj. +0,113 y Aquile .. +0,104 a Gemin. .. +0,206 a -» +0,088 @ Canis Min. +0,196 -.» +0,062 B.Gemin, “..' +-0;146 «' Capricorni .+0,014 a Hydre .. +0,257 ae -- —0,042 a Leonis .. +0,214 a Cygni -. +0,116 B — 2s. +-0,158 a Aquarii .. +0,028 B.Virginis .. +0,123 a Piscis Aust. —0,142 a -» +0,073 a Pegasi -- +0,047 a Bootis .. +0,137 a Andromede +0,090 The mean of these differences is +0’,095; being about the quantity by which Mr. Pond’s right ascensions, in the whole, exceed mine. You will remember that the observations, made with my former instruments, induced me to add +0",241 to Dr. Maskelyne’s determination of « Aguile: Mr. Pond has now added still more. But, neither of ae determinations has yet that agreement which might be desired in so momentous an object, the foundation of all astronomical observations. The probable error of Mr. Pond’s determinations is not pointed out ; that of mine is 0’,0235. It is therefore yet doubtful, whether there is here a constant error, or an a¢cidental one which would disappear by continued observations. In the mean time I have been desirous to know, what result the meridian circle of Reichenbach would give respecting it; and I have therefore cal- culated 25 observations of the sun from 27th March to 16th September 1820. According to these observations the amend- ment of my former catalogue is +0",006 in time; which is ab- * solutely imperceptible. It convinces me, however, that I should not be justified in deciding on the difference between Mr. Pond and myself; since the observations of one year (although they should be free of all constant errors of the instrument, as I have reason to believe is the ease with mine) are not yet sufficient to decide so nice aud difficult a point. According to my ideas, a long continuation of observations is requisite, if we wish to have the most accurate results. I have indeed sometimes found that a well according series of observations will deviate further from another series than the probable errors would lead us to uate rom, 46 Trial of the Meridian Cirele, From the change of the daily-and annual temperature, the de- gree of light, &c. &c. as well as from the reductions which must be applied in observations, small errors may arise, which perhaps we shall never learn how to bring into account; but which, by a continuation through several seasons, we may render of less importance. If we deduct the mean difference of the two catalogues from the several differences above given, the result of Mr. Pond’s in- dividual determinations in reference to mine will more clearly appear ; and as this comparison gives occasion for some obser- vations, I will here insert it. y Pegasi «. —0,072 at Libre to en a Arietis : — 0,057 a? os we = O085 a Ceti eo. —0,135 a Corone .. —0,012 « Tauri -» +0,038 a Serpentis .. —0,919 a Aurige .. +0,043 a Scorpii .. —0,198 B Orionis .. +0,026 # Herculis .. +40,035 6 Tauri -» +0,0€8 a Ophiuchi ., +0,090 a Orionis .. +0,120 a Lyre .. +0,044 a Canis Maj. +0,020 y Aquile .. 40,011 « Gemin. .. +0,113 a .» ee —0,005 a Canis Min. +0,1038 B of Ses 6 Gemin. .. +0,053 a' Capricorni —U,079 a Hydre .. +0,164 ae— —.. —0,135 « Leonis .. +0,121 - a Cygni .. +0,023 B oa ee, = 0G5 a Aquarii .. —0,065 6 Virginis .. +0,030 a Piscis Aust. —0,235 a -- —0,020 a Pegasi .. —0,046 a Bootis .. +0,044 a Androm. ... —0,003 It is certainly difficult to form an agreement in the hundredths of the second of time; and, with half the stars, the differences are below 0’,05. But it is yet very improbable that these dif- ferences should all have arisen from accidental errors of obser- vations. We may even perceive a regularity in their march ; for, in the vicinity of « Canis minoris, the positive quantities clearly preponderate; whilst in the southern stars, the negative are most numerous. The first of these discrepancies would be explained if, in my catalogue, « Canis minoris (which star is a point of comparison for the others) were incorrectly determined; © and, in fact, if it were one-tenth of a second too small. This however is improbable; since its determination is founded on — 75 observations. Yet it cannot be denied that the stars, situ- ated at a distance of 12 hours from each other, offer the greatest difficulties ; partly from the going of the clock, and partly from the made by Reichenbach for the Observatory at Konigsberg. 47 the influence of temperature on the adjustments of the instru- ments. In my “ Treatise on the Fundamental Catalogue,” I have given data which confirm the correctness of my former de- terminations ; yet the opportunity for a new trial, which the particular excellence of the new erection (aufstellung) and the admirable regularity of Repsold’s clock offered to me, were par- ticularly favourable for this purpose. 1 therefore reduced the 25 observations that have as yet occurred, and find for 1820 as follows : 1820. H: M. S. 1821. H. M. 8. March 22 = 7.29.52,70 February 8 = 7.29.52,49 June 23 3 37 "9 ue 69 July 28 x: 37 11 fs 54 30 a 44 13 a ites | August 5 a 2 27 uit 32 8 ee 44 March 23 es 45 29 as 62 _ 24 ey 64 September 8 te 47 25 Ke 63 9 Os 40) 26 ae 50 11 a6 44 29 os 56 13 as 37 30 ee 59 15 a, 32 31 - 33 December30 es 38 The mean is 7" 29’ 52”,494, or only 0’,033 greater than my determination for 1815. So that the correctness of the former determination is hereby confirmed. I also believe that the me- thod employed by Mr. Pond will not protect him from a con- stant error in opposite groups of stars. By his method a star is reduced with the mean of all that have been observed on the same day, according to the data in Dr. Maskelyne’s catalogue ; and the new catalogue thence arising is settled with reference to the equinoxes. This method would be strictly correct, if the 36 stars were all observed in one day; but as there will be many more days, where the stars in one quarter of the heavens are observed alone, than where they are observed at the same time with those opposite thereto, it is evident that an error arising in such quarter can only disappear in part; and the less so the more frequently the stars are observed in such particular quarter : since thereby the error obtains a greater preponderance. As Mr. Pond’s determinations are founded on 151 observations with a celebrated instrument, and by so celebrated an astronomer, and as my determinations too have received undeniable confir- mation ; I can see only this mode. of accounting tor the discord- ancies, The 48 On Addition and Subtraction he other difference of the two catalogues (viz. that the southern stars have, according to Mr, Pond, much less right ascension than with me) seems to proceed from a constant error in the fixing of one of the two transit instruments. This difference shows itself very clearly in the comparison above mentioned; and amounts, in the case of « Piscis Australis, to as much as 0,235. It may indeed have its origin in a bend of the telescope, or in a wrong determination of the line of collimation (perhaps produced by the former), since this must occasion an erroneous reduction to the meridian. Assuming that the transit instrument describes a great circle, then an error of the collimation, =Ac, has the influence Ac tang (45—142), onthe reduction ; provided the correction is determined by the pole star. This error of the collimation however would be so great, that it could not escape the observer ; whence it is not improbable, that there are still other causes which have occasioned a deviation from the meri- dian. The above-mentioned rigorous trial, of the meridional circle of Reichenbach, was principally directed to this point: and I be- lieve I shall be ‘able to prove, that the method, followed by me, cannot leave a perceptible doubt in the determination of the col- limation. I have thence been enabled also in this respect to try by new observations my former data, and shall mention here what I obtained for « Scorpii, and a Piscis Australis, viz. for 1820 a Scorpii = 16°, 18™.23*,249 25 obs. a Piscis Aust. =22. 47. 41 ,197 21 obs. differing from my former determination —0’,085 and +0’,0771; and from that of Mr. Pond +0’,112 and +0’,330. So that, in this too, the new observations speak in favour of the Konigsberg Catalogue. In a few years I hope to be able to give a perfectly new fun- damental Catalogue. I merely undertook the present preliminary investigation of some stars, in order to ascertain whether any constant errors have crept into my former catalogne, in spite of every precaution. I believe that I may apprehend this less now than before. XI. On Addition and Subtraction of Algebra. By Mr. Pau NEWTON. To Dr. Tilloch. Old Assembly House, Newark, Jan. 3, 1822. Sir, — Au. those authors who have treated on Addition of Algebra, at least all those authors (a numerous class) to whose works of Algebra. 49 works I have had access, make no essential difference between some parts of Addition and some parts of Subtraction of Algebra. From an attentive consideration of the subject, I feel persuaded that the operations of Addition should be restricted to quantities, whether like or unlike, which have like signs. That part of Addition which is employed in collecting quantities, whether like or unlike, which have unlike signs, should be classed under the rule for the Subtraction of simple quantities. Our authors de- fine clearly enough that the sign + denotes Addition, and that the sign — denotes Subtraction; they then blend these signs, or blend the quantities to which these signs are prefixed, and sometimes call the mixture Addition, and sometimes call it Sub- traction. Dissatisfied with this procedure, Mr. Bonnycastle re- commends new names for these two primary rules; as if there were some secret charm in a name absurdly epplied. If any ob- Jection lie against the term Subtraction, as Mr. Bounycastle sup- poses and affirms, that objection may be obviated by remoying the cause, whether real or imaginary.‘ The incongruous mix- ture,” as Mr. Bonnycasle styles it, may be removed or avoided, if offensive, by transposing the negative term or terms from the minuend to the subtrahend, and by transposing, also, the nega- tive term or terms from the subtrahend to the minuend ; by which means, we shall have nothing but positive terms in the minuend, and nothing but negative terms in the subtrahend. Thus, retaining the old furm of writing the quantities, if from 4g 4+ a— WU wetake 42+ b — 8a, we shall obtain, by trausposing the negative terms, this arrange- ment, viz. 4xn+a4+3a —(4xr+6 +b) or this, viz. 42 +4a—4x2 —2$b=4a—2)— diff. required. For, the difference between any two quantities will remain the same, whether we equally augment or equally diminish them. Thus, let a excéed ; and, to avoid ambiguity, let a, as well as b, exceed c; then will a—b=(a+c)— (b+c) =(a—c)—(b—c). Therefore, if from 42 +a—J we take 4x + b ~ 3a, first, augment both quantities by J, and we obtain this arrange- ment, viz. From 4x+a Take 42 + 2b —3a., Now augmeut both quantities by 3a, and we shall have this arrangement, viz. From 4x2 + 4a Take 4x2 + 20, or this, viz, 42 + 4a — (4a + 21) = 4a—2) = diff, as be- fore, - Both quantities, in a manner analogous to the method em- Vol. 59, No. 285. Jan. 1822. G ployed 50 Question addressed to the Rev. J. Grooby. ployed in common arithmetic, have been equally augmented, and the augment of each quantity, in this case, is = 3a +1; but the difference between these augmented quantities is, as I have shown, the same as it would have been between the original pro- posed quantities. Iam sir, very respectfully, Your obedient humble servant, PauL Newron. XII. A Question addressed to the Rev. J. Groosy, respecting the Tables employed by him in calculating the Corrections of Dr. MaskELynx’s 36 Stars. By A CorRESPONDENT. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir,—Wrar you permit me, through your Journal, to ask your correspondent Mr. Grooby, what tables of Professor Bessel’s he makes use of in the calculation of the Corrections of Maskelyne’s Stars. I have not heard of any except those annexed to his Ob- servations, and | do not find that they give the same corrections as Mr. G. uses, though very neartoit. It is a circumstance not generally known, perhaps, to your astronomical readers, that the Professor himself does not use his own tables in reducing his ob- servations ; as any one may satisfy himself, if he will only take the trouble of reducing a few of the transits he has published, and comparing the results with the corrected Right Ascension given by the Professor himself. I have calculated some hundreds, and never found one agree: hence I had supposed that I must have mistaken Lis mode of calculation, particularly as he has given no example of his method of using his tables. But in his .4s¢rono- mie Fundamenta he has given examples, and, what is most ex- traordinary, not one of the corrections in those examples agrees, with the one given by the table. Give me leave to notice one more particularly,—and I will take the first., Where the cor- rection of « Lyr@ is required on the 13th of December 1756. Adding, as the two preliminary tables direct, 1.56, I am to look out in Table Ist for the correction answering to December 14. 56. Now opposite to December 6. I find +0.273, and opposite to December 16. +0.246, difference ,027. I say therefore,—As 10 days is to ,027, so is 8.56 to ,023; which, as the numbers are diminishing, is to be subtracted from +0.273, and give +0.250 for the correction ; but in the example it is +0.247. This, it is true, is no great difference ; but small as it is, it ought not to be, and Mr. Grooby will perhaps find some difficulty in accounting for it, as well as in maintaining his opinion, that M. Bessel’s Tables are the most correct yet published. I am sir, your obedient servant, OxBsERVER. XIII. On [ ol J XII. On the Temperature of a Room indicated by two Thermo- meters at different Altitudes. By Jonn Murray, F.L.S. M.W.S. &c. Se. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — Ox my return from the Continent in 1819, I brought with me Breguet’s * Thermometre Métaluique,” —an instrument susceptible of the most delicate sensibility, aud with which J have made many interesting experiments. In a still room without a fire, in the summer months, it readily communicated the differ- ebce in temperature between the floor and a chair, and this last and the table. The phenomena induced me to make a series of experiments on the difference of temperature indicated by two thermometers at different altitudes, yet otherwise under similar circumstances. In the first series of experiments made at Nottingham from the 21st to the 28th October last inclusive, 1 was surprised to find, that any deviation from its uniformity had an immediate relation to the radiation of the terrestrial temperature to the heavens ;— indeed, I am much deceived if the difference in question may not be found as accurate a guide as the barometer itself. Since I came to London, I have kept a pretty accurate register of the difference between two thermometers: one placed with its bulb on the floor, and the other suspended 63 feet above it, embracing the period betweeen 5th and 24th November, On the IlthI began first to note the phenomena of the weather in correspon- dence with these changes, and it will be there seen, that when the difference exceeds 2° to 2°5 F. the weather has been variable and wet. The following comprise the results of the observations in a tabular form. The following experiments were made at Nottingham with thin calico curtains to the windows of my room. Date of pour Pos, ot} Temp. |Dif. be- Obser. opr, Therm.| indicated. | tween Ts21. | ua. Mm. 4 Oct 21) 9 30 a.m.|Floor | 56°5 F. wy ER 6ytect| 575 | $|) F- 9 30 v.m.!Floor | 58 Ul a5 63 feet | 59°5 ) 24| 7 30 pe. .|Floor | 59 tly 64 feet | 61 5 25) 2 p. m.\Floor | 59 lo \64 feet | 61 5 8 p. M.|Floor | 60°5 iiss 64 feet | G4 Wie 26)10 30 »..|Floor | 63 a| 25 64 feet | 66 i Pi 28) 9 p.M.|Floor | 70:5 Ye 1G) feet |° 72°7 § ee mm acenmmmmnn eemenaenits 52 On the Temperature of a Room indicated Note of experiments made in London, with two Thermometers at different altitudes.—Shutters of wood to the room. Date of} Period of |Pos. off Temp. rm.| indicated. Weather. 5-5 |Continued rain 2-5 |Fine 2-5 |Clear evening 2 Foggy 4 Slight rain, and during the [night incessant. (12:5 |Cloudy 3-5 |Rain 4 Rain Rain 4 4 Rain 3:5 |Cloudy and rain .|Floor 64 feet t § 2 5 § a § t § a ) q 5 ?] § a 5 a § pea ?] § ?] § 2 § a § a 5 a ) a § a 5 a 5 a § , 4 Rain by two Thermometers at different Altitudes. 53 Dif. be- tween. Date of] Period of |Pos. off Temp. Obser. Day. |Therm) indicated. 1821. | w. m. Noy.16] 9 P.y Weather. = Floor | 640 F. 2 62 feet) 66°65 Floor | 60 64 feet} 62:5 6 30 ep. m./Floor | 62 64 feet} 65°5 2:5 F. |Clear star-light sky = i eee 2-5 |Bright unclouded sky oo Some rain 9 10 20 r. m. plead = 5 Constant heavy rain 18/10 20 a. ».|/Floor | 61:5 f : GE feet| 64 2:5 ‘|Fine day 19/10 a. M.|Floor | 59 4 Rai 62 feet| 63 sl 6 p.M.|Floor | 58 63 feet | 62 9 p. M.|Floor | 61 64 feet} 63°5 20/10 a. M.|Floor | 58 64 feet] 60 21/10 a.M.|Floor | 60 63 feet| 62:5 8 p. M.|Floor | 58 63 feet] 63°5 4 Rain 25 {Clear sky 2:5 |Fine day 2:5‘ |Fine day 5°5 Continued rain during the 22) 9 30 a. m./Floor | 57 As __ [night 62 feet] 59°5 2:5 Cloudy, but dry resin + ede es 4 Rain during the night 6E feet| 64 23) 9 20 a. .jFloor | 59:5 6% feet| 62 6 p.m Floor | 59-5 64 feet} 62 2419 p.M.|/Floor | 57 64 feet) 59:5 2:5 |Cloudy, but dry 25 Fine evening PM BO BO BOD BO BD AD Bm ON we mw Ow 25 Good day I have only to regret occasional omissions, and that my avoca~ tions did not permit me te attend to more regular intervals of time.—The question appears to me to be a curious one, and to solicit further and more delicate attention. The correspondence is remarkable, though it will doubtless be violated by circum- stances, which in the present state of our meteorological science cannot perhaps be always or altogether estimated. I have the honour to be, sir, Your most obedient and very humble servant, J. Murray, Surry Institution, January 11, 1822. XIV. No- [Bde] XIV. Notices respecting New Books. Recent Publications. Aacuirecrurat Antiquities of Rome, in 130 Engravings of Views, Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Details of the Ancient Edifices, in that City, with Historical, Descriptive, and Critical Accounts of the Style, Character; Construction and Peculiarities ofeach. By G. L. Taylor and Edward Cresy, Architects: to consist of }2 Numbers, imperial folio, 1/. 11s. 6d. each.—India paper, 2/. 2s. Star Tables for the year 1822, for more readily ascertaining the Latitude and Longitude at Sea, during the Night. By Tho- mas Lynn, royal 8vo, 10s. Solar Tables, being the Logarithmic versed Sines of Time, re- duced to Degrees, commonly called Log rising, calculated to every Second of Time, and thereby facilitating the Operation of finding the Latitude by double Altitudes of the Sun or Stars, and the Longitude by Chronometer. By the same Author. 10s. Evening Amusements ; or, The Beauty of the Heavens dis- played; in which several striking Appearances in the Heavens during the year 1822 are described. By W. Frend, 12mo, 3s. 6d. Bds. A Natural Arrangement of British Plants, according to their relations to each other, as pointed out by Jussieu and others, in- cluding those cultivated for Use, with their Characters, &c. With — an Introduction to Botany, By Samuel Frederick Gray, with 21 — Plates. 2 vols. 8vo. 2/. 25, Bds. A Letter to Charles Henry Parry, M.D. &c. on the Influ- ence of Artificial Eruptions in certain Diseases incicental to the Human Body. By Edward Jenner, M.D. &c. 4to. 955. Essays on Surgery and Midwifery, with Practical Observations and Select Cases, with Plates. By James Barlow, Surgeon. Svo. 12s. Treatise on Bulbous Roots, with Directions for their Cultiva- tion. By the Hon. and Rev. William Herbert. 8vo. 55. The Botanical Register. By Sydenham Edwards, F.L.S. con- taining 8 coloured Specimens of exotic Plants. Number 82, price 45. Geraniacee ; or Natural Order of Geraniums. By R. Sweet, F.L.S. Number 24, price 3s.—Continued Monthly. a The Botanical Cultivator; or APractical Treatise on propagat ing, rearing, and preserving all Descriptions of Plants. By R. Sweet, F.L.S. 10s. 6d. Rosarum Monographia ; or A Botanical History of Roses, wit an Appendix for the Use of Cultivators, By John Lindley, Esq: F.L.S. Royal Svo. 21s. 4 y | Notices respecting New Books. 55 The Eighth Number, completing the Views of the Cathedral Churches of England and Wales. By John Chessell Buckler. The History and Antiquities of the See and Cathedral Church of Lichfield ; illustrated by a Series of Engravings of Views, Eleva- tions, Plans, and Details of the Architecture of the Church; with biographical Anecdotes of the Bishops of Lichfield and Coventry. By John Britton, F.S.A. 4to. pp. 50. 16 Engravings. 1/. 18s. Medium. 3/. 3s. Imperial. Preparing for Publication. MM: Spix and Martius, who have lately returned from a Voyage to the Brazi's, are preparing a detailed Account of their Observations, which will be published at the Expense of the King of Bavaria, with Charts, Plans, &e. The Plants which these Na- turalists have collected in Brazil and sent to Munich, form already a Section of the grand Botanical Garden, The King has been pleased to confer on both of them the decoration of the Order of the Bavarian Crown. . M. Gamba, banker of Paris, has terminated his journeys through the provinces of Caucasus and Georgia, undertaken by order of the French Government in 1820 and 21. The numerous documents and articles which he has collected, are valuable in their relation to science, as well as to commercial and manufac- turing interests. He was constantly attended in his travels by his son, M. J. Gamba, lieutenant of dragoons, who has just ar- rived in Paris from St. Petersburgh. An Atlas of Ancient Geography, by S. Butler, DD. Author of Modern and Ancient Geography; also an Atlas of Modern Geography, by the same, are in considerable forwardness. The Duke of Rutland has in the Press, A Tour through Bel- gium, embellished with Plates after Drawings by the Duchess. In the Press, Cases illustrative of the Treatment of Diseases of the Ear, with practical Remarks relative to the Deaf and Dumb. By John Harrison Curtis, Aurist to the King, &e. Instructions for Civil and Military Surveyors in Topographi- cal Plan Drawing ; forming a Guide to the just Conception and accurate Representation of the Surface of the Earth, in Maps and Plans. Founded upon the System of Major John George Leh- mann. By William Siborn, Lieut. H.P. 9th Infantry, The Plates will be engraved by Lowry. XV.. Pro- [ 56] XV. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. Jan. 1.—A PaPER was read “On the Theory of Astro- nomical Instruments” by B. Gompertz, Esq. wherein the author, after stating the respective provinces of the practice and theory in relation to the construction of astronomical instruments, pro ceeds to divide them into two classes: viz. those constructed ac- cording to the best rules of the art, which he proposes to call instruments formed by direct construction; whilst others of in- ferior merit, and whose formation is not so perfect. he proposes to call instruments formed by inverse construction. 'The ob- ject of the paper is to examine the results which may be pro- duced by instruments of the datfer kind ; and to show that, pro- vided they are strong, and the parts, not intended for motion well fixed, a proper application of theory and observation will nevertheless enable the astronomer to obtain accurate results. His method is illustrated by several formule and examples. A notice was also communicated from Mr. Bowdich, re- specting some errors which appear to have crept into Mr. Park’s calculations of the latitudes of several places in Africa. These errors seem to have arisen from Mr. Park having madvertently reckoned on the month of April as having thirty ove days; in consequence of which all his subsequent dates were incorrect. And when the declinations of the sun and moon were taken from the Nautical Almanac, for the purpose of computation, they were taken out for the wrong day. Mr. Bowdich gives a ~table of the corrected latitudes of upwards of twenty places; the differences of which vary from 1’ to 55’ from Mr. Park’s caleu- lations. A paper was also read ‘on the collimation-adjustment of a transit instrument by circumpolar stars,” by J. South, Esq. in which the author, after some remarks on the several modes of adjusting the collimation of a transit instrument, proposes the observation of certain circumpolar stars, whose slow motion renders them applicable to this purpose. He directs the instru- ment to one of these stars, when nearly on the meridian, and notes its transit over the first, second, and third wires: then, reversing the instrument, he notes its transit over the fourth and fifth wires; which are in fact the first and second wires already alluded to; and consequently the error of collimation (if any) is detected by a comparison of the intervals of time. ‘The author then points out several advantages attending this plan; and suggests the propriety of adding a few more of such cireumpolar stars to our fundamental catalogue, in order that their use, in this respect, may become more general. XVI. In- XVI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. IODINE. M. HEevusmans read before the Society of Medicine of Louvain, at its sitting of the 16th of January, 1821, a paper upon the preparation of the tincture of iodine, and the re-establishment of that tincture deteriorated by time ; as also on the non-existerice of iodine in burnt sponge and in the ashes of the turf of Holland and the Netherlands. MM. Fyfe and Straub had announced the presence of this comburant in the ashes of Swiss turf. As to the means of re-establishing the tincture of iodine, when by the decomposition of the alcohol it has passed into the acid state, it consists in infusing the tincture with an excess of super-oxide of manganese ; the hydrogen is expelled, and the io- dine regenerated ; but the alcohol does not recover its primitive force, and is thus prevented frora holding the iodine in solution. This tincture, which M. Heusmans exhibited to the Society, was of a deep brownish red, it stained the hands intensely, and con- tained 48 grains of iodine per ounce of alcohol, at 35° B. This tincture is employed with success in the treatment of goi- tres and similar tumours.—Annales Generales des Sciences Physiques. POLYHALITES. The Polyhalite is a new mineral species established by Pro- fessor Stromeyer. It is in shapeless masses of a compact or fi- bro-lamellar texture ; its fracture is irregular, it is middling bard, not scratching glass ; its specific gravity is 2,7689 ; its colour is a brick-red, with the gloss of wax ; it is translucid at the edges 5 it attracts humidity ; it is almost soluble in boiling water ; its solution is bitter and salt ; it is easily fusible into an opaque mass of a whitish red. The analysis yields Anhydrous sulphate of lime .. .. .. 22,4216 Sulphate of lime combined with water .. 28,2548 Anhydrous sulphate of magnesia... .. 20,0347 SE se rr 7 A (5 Muriate of soda SP Prob elated > soft ; 0,1910 Red oxideiofimm. 4. «sce et 0,3376 This mineral has been found at Isebel in Austria in the midst of strata of rock salt.—.Journal de Physique. STEINHEILITE. An analysis of the blue quartz of Finland, by M. Gadolin, has shown the principal constituents of this mineral (most unappro- priately ranged among the quartz) to be —455 of silex; 230 of alumina ; 100 of a particular rose-red matter which cannot be Vol. 59, No, 285, Jan. 1822, H re- 58 A new Green Colour.—Geritian. referred to any other known substance ; 085 of magnesia; 056 of oxidulate of iron ; 074 of water. M. Gadolin proposes to change the name of blue quartz into Steinheilite, as a mark of respect to M, Steinheil, Governor of Finland, who has distin- guished himself as a mineralogist, aud was the first. to remark that this species should not be confounded with the quartz.— Revue Encyclopédique. A NEW GREEN COLOUR DISCOVERED BY M. BIZIO OF VENICE. In repeating the beautiful experiment of Brugnatelli on the colouring matter of coffee, 1 had occasion to observe some new phenomena. When a drop of the infusion or decoction of the grain fell upon a piece of cloth, it formed a yellow spot sur- rounded with a beautiful green border. I attributed this green colour to the oxidation of the oil of coffee. In order to fix that colour I boiled a hectogramme of coffee powder and reduced the decoction to eight hectogrammes. I added an equal quantity of sulphate of copper dissolved in water, and used as a precipitate a solution of caustic soda. A deposit was formed weighing 105 grammes, which on drying in the air took a green colour; the more it was exposed to the air while it remained humid, the brighter the colour became. Water, ether, alcohol and the al- kaline subearbonates had no effect on the colour. Ammonia in- dicated the presence of copper; caustic potash changed it to sky blue, and took itself a green colour; caustic soda did not alter it, and received but a slight tinge of the green. The deposit, which is a true lac, resists acids sufficiently well, and, with the exception of the sulphuric and oxalic, no others destroy the colour totally, Acetic acid in dissolving this lae pro- duces a solution of a much finer green.— Annales Generales des Sciences Physiques, par MM. St.Vincent, Drapiex et Van Mons. The Editor of the Bibliotheque Physico- Economique, after an- * nouncing the preceding discovery, affirms that twenty years ago a Frenchman named Magnan, of Chaumont (Haute-Marne), had by accident discovered the same colouring property in coffee when surcharged with soda. 4 GENTIAN. Some researches into the cause of the bitterness in the root of Gentian (Gentiana lutea) have led Messrs. Henry and Caven- ton to ascertain several important facts with respect to this me- dicament. They recognised: 1. A very. fugitive odoriferous principle. 2. A bitter yellow crystalline substance which they have named Centianin. 3, A matter identically the same as glue, OE See ee oe Pee - Rhubarl.— Growth of Wood.—Junction of Trees.— Query. 959 glue. 4. An oily matter, greenish and fixed. 5. A free or- ganic acid. 6. Uncrystallizable sugar. 7. Gum. 8. A fawn- colouring matter. 9. Wood.—Journal de Pharmacie. RHUBARB. A cultivator of Rhubarb on a large scale states, that the best means of drying it is to strip it of its epidermis. It is a long operation, but both time and expence are found saved in the end by the promptness and regularity of the drying. Several other persons, who have repeated the experiment, have met with the same results.— Biol. Phys. Econ. GROWTH OF WooD. It has been ascertained that wood increases in the following proportion ; the first year as 1, the second as 4, the third as 9, the fourth as 15, the fifth as 22, the sixth as 30, the seventh as 40, the eighth as 54, the ninth as 70, and the tenth as 92. From this itis concluded, that wood ought never to be cut till it is in the tenth year of its growth.— Biob. Phys. Econ. SINGULAR JUNCTION OF TWO TREES. In the forest of Rousse and commune of Simandre, near Bourg, in France, there are two beeches, which from an ex- traordinary junction are called the married pair. The trees are at the root about four metres (12 feet) distant; their greatest circumference is from twelve to sixteen decimetres, and the diameter of one is somewhat less thau that of the other. Both shoot up vertically, but at the height of three metres and half, (104 feet) the trunk of the one bends over, and, forming al- most. a right angle, projects itself horizontally into the trunk of the other tree, and becomes completely incorporated with it, without the least appearance of fracture or piecing. From this point the joint trunk rises eight or ten metres (24 or 30 feet), and it is crowned at the summit bya tuft of branches. The united trees present the exact figure of the letter h. The inferior part looks like a rustie triumphant arch.— Biol. Physico Economique. BOTANICAL QUERY. When all trees and even herbs point naturally towards the East, as to the source of light, how comes it that the Cedar of Lebanon should point towards the North? By what chemical cause, by what law of physiology, can this sort of transgres- sion of the natural laws of vegetation be explained ?— Biol. Phys. Econ. JI 2 EGYP- on 60 Egyptian Obelisk. EGYPTIAN OBELISK. The Journal des Debats gives the following as the version of the inscription on the Egyptian Obelisk lately brought from the Island of Philz to this country by Mr. Banks. The translator, M. Letronne, says that it contains a Petition from the Priests of Isis, in the Island of Phil, to Ptolomeus Euergetus the Second : “To the King Ptolomeus; to the Queen Cleopatra, his sis- ter*; to the Queen Cleopatra, his wifet; the gods of Euer- getus, greeting: “© We the Priests of Isis, who is adored in the Abatum ft and at Phil, the most mighty goddess. Considering that the Stra- tegists ||, the Epistatists §, the Thebarchons4, the Royal Regis- trars, the Commanders of the troops guarding the frontiers, and all others of the King’s Officers, who come to Phile; in skort, that the troops which accompany them, and the whole of their suite, compel us to furnish them with abundant supplies belong- ing to the Temple ; the consequence of whichis, that the Temple . is impoverished, and we run the risk of not having means to de- fray the regular and fixed expenses, caused by the ceremonies and libations, the object of which is the preservation of yourselves and your children. We supplicate vou, most powerful gods, to authorize your kinsman ** and epistolographist ++ Numenius, to write to Lorchus, also your kinsman, and the Strategist of the Thebaid, enjoining him not to practise such vexations with re- gard to us, nor to permit any persons whomsoever to do so; to grant us, moreover, letters testifying your decision on this sub- ject, and granting us permission to erect a Stele tf, on which we will inscribe the beneficence you have displayed to us on this occasion, in order that this Stele may transmit to the remotest posterity the eternal memory of the favours you have granted us. This being permitted us, we shall be, we and the Temple of Isis, in this, as in all other things, your grateful servants. May you be ever happy.” * Widow and sister of Ptolomzus Philometor, afterwards wife of Ptolo- meus Euergetus, and repudiated by him. + Daughter of the other Cleopatra, and of Ptolomzus Philometor; after- wards the wife of Ptolomzeus Euergetus, her uncle. + An island near Philz, consecrated to Isis. || Governors of the Provinces of Egypt. § Officers whose functions are not known. “| Governors of the whole of the Thebaid. ** An honorary title, similar to that of ‘‘Our Cousin,” by which the King addresses the chief dignitaries. tft Secretary of State. t{ The word signifies the obelisk itself, on the base of which the Greek inscription is found. » . Ac- The late Explosion at Corville Colliery. 61 According to M. Letronne, the date of this Petition must have been previous to the year 126 of our era. The object of his Memoir is to extol and explain the various peculiarities which the Greek text presents, to explain the customs to which several passages of the Petition refer, and to form from it some idea of the state to which the cast of Priests was reduced under the do- mination of Ptolemy. M. Letronne by no means joins in the expectations which have been conceived of the advantages of comparing the Greek text engraved upon the pedestal with the hieroglyphics on the obelisk itself. He seems to think, both from the sense and the object of the Greek inscription, that, if the obelisk is not of a more ancient date, and afterwards re- stored by the priests of Isis, and consequently, if the hierogly- phics which cover it were really sculptured on this occasion, which seems to him the more reasonable hypothesis, these hiero- glyphics contain, in the terms of the Greek text, a testimonial of the gratitude of the Priests to the Princes, and not a second copy, in the Sacred Language, of the Petition inscribed on the pedestal. THE LATE EXPLOSION AT CORVILLE COLLIERY. Extract of a letter from Mr. H. Atkinson of Newcastle, to Mr. Rippie of the Royal Naval Asylum, Greenwich. «* You would see in the papers an account of the dreadful ex- plosion which took place in the pit beside Mr. Buddle’s, where they have lately begun working the principal seam that lies be- tween the high and low mains. It was not true, however, as was stated, that Mr. Buddle himself went down immediately, he was not there at the time it happened; it was an overman who ventured his own life in endeavouring to save the lives of his companions. You may judge of the quantity of gas which is continually escaping from the coal, from this circumstance: Ifa hole of about three quarters of an inch in diameter be bored five yards into the coal, it affords a constant supply of gas suffi- cient to keep up a flame, at the orifice, two inches in length, for about a fortnight. There were several such lights in the pit, and yet the men were working with candles: although they not only knew this, but were also aware that the discharge of gas from the surface of the coal, wherever it had been lately ex- posed, was so great as to keep the air immediately in contact with it almost constantly at the firing point. The result how- ever will surely be a lesson to them not to rely upon ventilation alone, where they have other means of safety, and where the danger is so great,” A FEW 62 Notes on a Subterraneous. Excursion A FEW NOTES ON A SUBTERRANEOUS EXCURSION INTO A LEAD AND SILVER MINE, IN THE PARISH OF ALSTON, JN THE COUNTY OF CUMBERLAND. On the 19th of February 1618, a party of gentlemen made an excursion in the mine of Hudgilburn, to view a cavern in the limestone rock there, discovered but a short time previous to that date. At about 4 ». M. being dressed in the working habiliments of the miners, and seated in ore waggons, two in each, vis a vis, we were hurled along into the interior region of the mountain of Middle Fell. We entered the cavern—a light was sent forward, which show- ed the direction to be in a straight line for a great distance. The light appeared dim, and like a star peeping through a dingy cloud. The width varies from about three to six feet, as I thought, but we did not then measure either the width or the height. The roof has along its centre an indentation the whole length, and its chasm appeared somewhat wider at the top than it is at the bottom; which, with the groove or rent in the mid- dle of the roof, impressed a conception on the mind, of the sides having been thrown to recline backwards by some convulsion of nature. The groove is shallow, and appears like a wound healed up, leaving the sear as a mark of the injury formerly received. Advancing about half way, we came to a thin rock which di- vided our passage into two. We pursued the right hand pas- sage, now become so narrow, that a bulky man could scarcely brush through, but widened a little further on. As we passed along, several openings and small recesses on our right and left were seen, but not of a sort to excite much interest, until we reached the far end of this passage, where there is an open space equal to a room of ordinary size, with a beautiful cabin on one side, nearly square, lined with smooth jet black walls, richly spangled with stalactites, that sparkled equal to brilliants of the first water. The solemn grandeur of this place inclined the whole to pause, and contemplate the sublimity of the novel scene around us. We rested on the floor of solid limestone, and gazed on this charm of nature with awe and wonder. When I beheld a scene so superior to what can be produced by all the arts of man on earth, I could not conceal my regret that such treasares should be made so difficult of access, that they should be where— «© At each step « Solemn and slow the shadows darker fall, ** And all is awful, listning gloom around,” The substance of so jet a black with which this charming lit- . . . . , . . ” o zi tle cabin is lined, is called by miners * black jack.” It contains a por- a into a Lead and Silver Mine. 63 a portion of the ore of zinc, and is smelted for its valuable pro- dace in great demand throughout this realm for potteries, me- dical purposes, brass, &c. ‘In this beautiful little room, there are two openings, in form, nearly square, from the floor upwards, about 17 foot each side, lined with the same substance, and em- bellished with gtittering spar, of exquisite brillianey. These transparent particles are very regularly distributed over the walls, neither too thick nor too thin, to give the effect of genuine taste and finish; but the process of nature is going on, and that bril- liant spar will most probably become a thick crust, if not im- peded by the hand of the workman, and will in time attain to a solid mass of quartz, of which numerous large pieces are found in these mines. While we rested here, men were sent further in advance, to ex- plore the extent and nature of the several low and narrow pas- sages and openings in the reck, which communicated with this open space; and having taken hold of the end of the clew of pack-thread to direct their retrograde steps by the same way, they tried to advance :—they proceeded on hands and knees, or feet, as necessity dictated, a considerable way forward in the largest openings they could find, until they were called back by the voice and a tug of the line. They found no end to these numerous in- tersecting openings in the rock, the passages of which are ex- tremely intricate and dangerous) without proper precautions taken ; for, to retrace exploring steps in such a labyrinth, if lights should fail, without a clew, or their companions stationed as we were in the main track, would be to hazard their lives. Ovr curiosity on that occasion being gratified, we commenced on our return, by the same passage before described, but disco- vered some other passages that communicated with it, and in which some of our fellow travellers ventured to wander, and were able to join us again, without being obliged to return to the part where they entered the by-way. The length of the main chasm is 320 yards. Evident signs would seem to prove that this cavern and all its communicating fissures have been filled at no very distant period, with water, and the probability is, it has been drained off by the adits in the mine, in which there runs, as I said before, a constant stream from some contiguous part of the works. The rocks of the cavern are covered by a sooty mucus in nearly a dried state, which it may be presumed, was generated by the stagnant water and impure air, previous to its draining. There is a little mud left on the bot- tom of the cavern in a moist state, and the smell tends to con- firm the conjecture of these concavities having been a reservoir for thousands of years, and drained off by the level of the mine. It appeared to me that some little ventilation passes through the whole, 64 Quadrature of the Circle.—Clock Work Machinery. whole, which might have been so ever since the water was let off ; for the air from the level would follow the vent of the stream, and since the opening to the cavern was effected, a slight circu- lation of air would probably be created. There were, I think, nine of us altogether ; we were in the cavern upwards of half an hour, and we felt no material difficulty in breathing, while our candles, one to each, burnt sufficiently clear ; which, with the animal breathing, must together have consumed a very considerable quantity of pure air, such as to have made a scarcity perceptible, if no fresh air had been sup- plied.— Newcastle Magazine. QUADRATURE OF THE CIRCLE. M. Scamarella, a Venetian geometrician, announces in the Gazette of Venice of 23d November, that he has solved the pro- blem of the quadrature of the circle, and that he is ready to de- monstrate it incontrovertibly to all the mathematicians in the world. According to M. Scamarella, the superficies of a circle is equal to the square of the proportional between the diameter of the circle and a line equal to three-fourths of the same diameter. It is also equal to the square of the circumference multiplied by half the radius, estimating their ratio as 7 to 21, and not as 7 to 22,as Archimedes taught. M. Scamarella further engages to solve all the most difficult problems of this nature, in faccia a qualcun- que Matematico.—New Monthiy Magazine, No. 18. CLOCK WORK MACHINERY. (From the New York National Advocate.) There are now exhibiting at Mr. Vogel’s in Broadway, several wonderful pieces of clock work machinery, which, perhaps, equal the masterly ingenuity of the automata of Vaucauson, or of Albert the Great. The first is a small elegantly wrought gold cage, surmounting a musical clock work. In this cage is a fountain, and a bird not larger than a bee, which sings, flutters its wings, and flies from one part of the cage to another. The base of the second is also occupied bya musical clock work ; it represents a group of qua- drupeds around the basin of a fountain, where a goat drinks, and performs a variety of movements. In front is a basket with a pear in it: the moment the pear is touched, a dog on the other side gnashes his teeth, barks, and shakes himself till the pear is replaced, while a monkey behind threatens him with astick, and in the mean time munches an apple. A butterfly rests on a pil- lar above the fountain, and moves its wings and feet. The back ground to this group is a mass of rocks, from among which, now and then, afox makes its appearance. Above these rocks there is a small-patch of blue sky, and the sun turning on his axis, and Clock Work Machinery. 65 and also accomplishing his diurnal reyolution. This is aremark- ably complicated piece of machinery, none of the figures being more than an inch in length. The third is a cage, very large and highly ornamented. On the top is a black man who beats time to the chiming of several Satyrs and two monkeys, one of whom grins quite ludicrously, But the most wonderful things are two Canary birds that sing the natural notes of these birds, flutter and flap their wings, and Spring from one perch to another. In this cage is a fountain, which falls by several stories ; and the artificial arrangement of pieces of glass represents so naturally the sound and glitter of falling water, that both the eye and the ear may be deceived. The fourth is a park with two country seats, out of which come two ladies, who exchange mutual salutations, and bow to the company. Attracted by the sudden flight and song of a bird in a grove beside them, they turn and listen. The bird, not larger than a bee, sings and flutters for some time, and then flies away among the trees. Upon this, the ladies repeat their bows and curtsies to each other and to the company, and withdraw to their houses. On the top of the dome above, is a large but- terfly, which closes and expands its wings and moves its feet ina rfectly natural manner, This and indeed all the machinery Bis a variety of tunes, The fifth and sixth are two magicians, the French and the American. ‘There is a set number of questions to each; and on y one of these being placed in a drawer for the purpose, the magician goes through a variety of ceremonies and gives the an- swer, which is always appropriate. It is said that several cele- brated mechanicians have been allowed to take these machines D pieces, yet have never been able to discover by what contri- ince the right answer js always given, ‘The last is called a perpetual motion; although perhaps the power that it possesses is not strong enough for any application P extensive machinery. It consists of a large wheel, around le edge of which are placed at equal distances a certain num- ler of moveable hollow cylinders, each containing an equal pro- ion of quicksilver, The weight of the quicksilver, which 1e other as the wheel turns, determines € horizontal or perpendicular position of the cylinders. B ir horizontal position, in falling, the circumference of the eel is continually enlarged on one side, and diminished on the t by their perpendicular position in rising ; this creates two lequal semicircles, the one more eccentric than the other, and Mis causes a perpetual rotation, ‘Vol. 59. No, 285. Jan. 1829. I Fuas- * 66 Fascination of the Snake. FASCINATION OF THE SNAKE. (From a letter signed Caroliniensis, in the New York Columbian.) A friend in South Carolina, to whom I was on a visit, invited me to a morning walk round kis plantation, and recommended our fowling-pieces as companions. The day proved to be very sultry ; and while my friend proceeded to give some directions —| to a gang of his Negroes at a distance, he advised me to take_ the beneht of a shade formed by a wood adjoining the field in which we then were. I took the hint; and while leaning on © the fence, (which was constructed on a bank between two dry 7 ditches,) I was alarmed by the rattle of a snake very near me. I instantly sprung on the top rail of the fence, and the next | noment discovered the monster in one of the ditches within ten © feet of the spot where I was seated. As I levelled my gun at his head, and was in the act of pulling the trigger, his tali ceased to vibrate. Conscious, from his position, that I was not the | object of bis regard, and that } was in no danger from him, and confident that I could destroy him at any moment I pleased, 1 sat still to observe his further movements. As his eyes seemed to be riveted to a particular spot, I followed their direction, | and discovered 2 wood-rat. At the moment of my first seeing this little animal, he was rising from a crouching posture, and7) endeavouring to retire by a retrograde movement. This attempt was immediately followed by a second tremendous exercise the rattle, and the rat again sunk to the ground, I witnesse¢ several repetitions of this operation ; and the result was, that, at length, the rat appeared perfectly exhausted 5 the snake ad vanced towards his prey, and was in the act of taking it into his mouth, when I discharged my two barrels at his head, an¢ killed him on the spot. Whether any of my pellets struck the? rat, Lamunable to say; but, after the closest search, we coul detect no mark of violence about his body, and he was dea when I took him up. Some years after the foregoing circumstance had taken place as | was accompanying a lady to church in a gig, we wet alarmed by the rattle of a snake on the road side. After I had tranquillized the horse, and prevailed on the lady to hold th reins, I returned to the spot from whence the noise seemed t issue, and soon discovered the subject of our alarm. The mo ster was lying in a coil, ready to strike, but manifested no con cern at my approach. Having armed myself with a long fene rail, I was in the act of crushing his head, when I saw a rab in the very same posture and condition which the rat had e hibited. —The fall of my weapon disabled the snake, and [ soc Lampyris Italica.— Aerolite.—Almos. Phenomena. 67 dispatched him.—The rabbit I took into my hands, without an effort on its part to resist or escape, and deposited it in my com- panion’s !ap: but it died before we reached the church. I am confident that the animal had sustained no bodily injury either from the snake or myself. LAMPYRIS ITALICA. M. Grorruus being lately at Rome, paid particular atten - tion to the phosphorescent organ of the Lampyris Italica. This insect plunged into water, continued luminous for several hours ; under oil of olives the light diminished after a quarter of an hour, and disappeared entirely after twenty minutes. The case was nearly the same with hydrogen . gas and carbonic acid. When the insect was withdrawn from this gas and transported imme- diately into an ordinary atmosphere, the phosphorescence recom- menced on the instant. Some Lampyre in which the phosphores- cent power was so far extinct that oxygen gas could not revive it, recovered it when plunged into an atmosphere of nitric vapours. When the phosphorescence became extinguished by the nitric vapour, it could no longer be developed by any other agent.— Grotthus’s Forschungen, 1820. —— AN AEROLITE. On the 15th of June last at three o’clock in the afternoon, and at the same instant when the high mountain called the Gerbier de Jone, near Aubenas (department of Ardeche), disappeared and gave place to a lake, a globe of fire which threatened to swallow up the whole village of Berias in the canton of Argentiere (same department) descended perpendicularly upon @ smiling valley near Croz, where it left after two strong detonations an aerolite of the weight of ninety-two kile grammes, sunk more than two metres into the ground.— Bib, Phys. Econ. ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA. Bamberg, December 25, 1821. Yesterday, about seven o’clock in the evening, the sky being clear and serene, there was observed in the neighbourhood of Battenheim and Altendorf an igneous meteor, of a globular form, about the apparent size of a full moon, which, after taking a di- rection from north-east to south-east, fell to the ground and dis- appeared, with an explosion as loud as the report of acannon. Its light was as strong as that of a bright flash of lightning. On the 925th the mercury in the barometer fell lower than had ever been seen by the oldest inhabitants. [ This phanomenon, says a letter from Frankfort of the 31st ult., appears to have been seen at places very distant from each 2 other. 68 Trigonometrical Survey.— Lectures. —Patents. other. On the nights of the 24th and 25th the mercury likewise fell at Frankfort to 26 inches six lines, without being accompa- nied by any other change in the atmosphere but a strong wind, which did not rise to a tempest as in other places. ‘The wind was stronger in the night of the 29th, though the mercury had risen a little.] ——_——- TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. Captain Vetch and Mr. Drummond, the engineer officers in- trusted with the conduct of the Trigonometrical Survey in the North of Scotland, have finished their task in Orkney and Zet- land, by establishing in those clusters of islands the several posi- tions which serve to connect them with the main land of Scot- land. In their operations they were attended by the Protector gun-brig, Captain Hewet commander; and that gentleman was employed at the same time in a nautical suryey of various har- bours among those islands, which stood in need, particularly in Zetland, of more accurate charts than have yet been given to mariners. The laborious and hazardous task has been brought to a conclusion, with one loss; Mr. Fitzjames, midshipman, and four men, having gone from the rendezvous at Calfsound in Eda, to the island of Sanda for some provisions, were lost on their re- turn, in one of those fearful currents of tide (the Lashy roast), which are frequent among those islands. MEDICAL AND CHEMICAL LECTURES. Dr. Pearson’s Lectures on Physic will commence on Friday the Sth of February, at No. 9, George-street, Hanover-square, at 9 o’clock in the morning; and Professor Brande will com- mence his Course of Chemistry in the same week, Pupils to either of the Lecturers are free to both, ey LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS. To Julius Griffith, of Brompton Crescent, Middlesex, esq , who, in consequence of discoveries made by himself, and commn- nications made to him by foreigners residing abroad, is in pos- session of certain imprevements in steam carriages, and which steam carriages are capable of transporting merchandize of all kinds as well as passengers upon common roads, without the aid of horses. —Dated 20th December 1821.—6 months allowed to _ enrol specifications. To Pierre Erard, of Great Marlborough-street, Middlesex, musical-instrument maker, who, in consequence of communica- tions made to him by a certain foreigner residing abroad, is in possession of an inyention of certain improvements on piano fortes and other keyed musical instruments.—22d Dec.—6 a o List of Patents for New Inventions. 69 To George Linton, of Gloucester-street, Queen-square, mer-— chant, for a new method of impelling machinery without the aid of steam, water, wind, air, or fire.-—22d December.—6 mo. To Richard Or mobs of Manchester, Lancashire, iron founder, in consequence of a communication made to him by a certain person residing abroad, for an improvement in the mode of heat- ing liquids in oilers, and thereby accelerating and increasing the production of steam.—7th Jan. 1822.—6 months. To William Ravenscroft, of Serle-street, Lincoln’s Inn, Mid- dlesex, peruke-maker, for his forensic wig, the curls whereof are constructed on a priueiple to supersede the necessity of frizzing, curling, or using hard pomatum, and for forming ‘the curls in ‘ way not to be uncurled ; and also for the tails of the wig, not to require tying in dressing, and further the apossibility “of any person untying them.—14th Jan.—2 months. To Righard Sumniers Har ford, of Ebbw Vale Iron Works in the parish of Aberystwith, Monmouthshire, iron master, for his improvement in that department of manufacture of iron com- monly called Puddling.—9th January.—4 months. To James Harris, of St. Mildred’s-court, city of London, tea- dealer, for his improvement in the manufacture of shoes for horses, and other cattle:-—9th Jan.—6 months. To David Loescham, of Newman-street, Oxford-road, Mid- dlesex, musical-instrument maker; and James Allwright, of Lit- tle Newport-street, parish of St. Ann, Soho, cheesemonger, in consequence of a communication from a foreiguer residing abroad, of a new or improved keyed musical instrument, comprising in itself many qualities never hitherto produced in one instrument, and possessing those qualities in clearness of sound, quality, di- stinctness, forte piano, delicacy of touch and shake on the keys or notes by increasing to forte, and decreasing to piano at the will of the performer.— 14th Jan.—6 months. To Alexander Gordon, of the city of London, and David Gor- don, of the city and county of Edinburgh, esquires, for certain improvenients and additions in the construction of lamps, and of compositions and materials to be burned in the lamps, and which may also be burned in other Jamps.—14th Jan.—6 mo. To David Gordon, of the city and county of Edinburgh, esq., for certain improvements and additions to steam packets and other vessels, part of which improvements are applicable to other vaval and marine purposes.—1I4th Jan.—6 months. To Augustus Applegath, of Duke-street, Lett’s Town, Lam- beth, Surrey, printer, for certain improvements in printing ma- chines. —14th Jan.—4 months. PARQ- a ee 70 Barometric Observations. BAROMETRIC OBSERVATIONS. Arundel, Jan. 15, 1822. S1r,—I send you the Barometrical Observations made at this place on November 12th, December 10th, and the 14th instant. Your obedient servant, To Dr. Tilloch. G. ConstaBLE. 1821. Barom. morph ee Wind. Weather. . Noy. 12th. 8°| 29-890 {55°5/55-0} S.W. calm. | Fair. 9 | 29°915 |55°5155-0} S.W. do. Do. 10 | 29°920 |56:0/55-0| S.W. do. Do. 11 | 29-922 |56:0|55-5; S.W. mod. | Cloudy. 12 | 29°925 |56°5/56 0) S.W. do. Fair. .P.M. 1 | 29-928 |57-0/56:5; S.W. fresh.} Do. Dec. 10th. 8 | 30-020 |(52-0)51°5) S. fresh Cloudy. . 9 | 30-020 (52-0/51-5| S. by W. do. | Do. 10 | 30-020 (53-0|53-0| S. by W. do. | Do. Il | 380-015 [53:0/53-0! S. do. Do. 12 | 29-992 |53:5153:0! S. do Do. P.M. 1 | 29-985 |54°5|54:0| S. do Do. Jan. 14th 1822, 8 | 80:298 |48-5|48-0| W. calm. Fair. 9 | 80°305 |48°5/48-0| W. do. Do. 10 | 30°320 (48-0/48-°0; W. mod. Do. 11 | 30°352 |48-0/48-0| W. do. Do. 12 | 30°325 |48°5|48:0| W. fresh. Do. P.M. 1 | 30°312 |48:5/48-0} W. mod. Do. Croom’s Hill, Greenwich, Dec 31, 1821. Sir,—With my last register of 1820, I mentioned that less rain had fallen that year than for several preceding, and that a want of water had been felt both by mills and canals. A similar observation will not be applicable to the year past, for the re- gister now sent shows a very great excess to the quantity of London and its neighbourhood, beyond many former years. The evaporation has been rather less than the average of the last four years. It may be worthy of remark, that the rainy and imost tempestuous weather in the two last months has been of wide extent, and that the great storm about Christmas, when the ba- rometer was so low as 28-07 (say twenty-eight inches and seven hundredths), was very disastrous both here and in the Mediter- ranean, and that earthquakes occurred in Bavaria and other places, As the different heights of rain gauges above the con- tiguous ground on which they are placed, has a wiaterial effect Barometric Observations. 7\ on the quantity of rain-caught, it would be well if every person fa- vouring the public with their observations would with every re- gister mention the height at which their instruments were placed above the ground. I remain, sir, your obedient servant, To Dr. Titiloch. Henry Lawson. P.S. Having made atmospheric electrical observations, both day and night, with an exploring wire (sixty yards in length) from the 24th to the 26th of December, during the time the barometer was so low, I found all the electrical indications were constantly negative. Height of Rain Gauge and Evaporator above the ‘Ground— Four Feet. Evapo- Evapo- in. | ration. Months. Rain. |ration. | He PE a Sy Jul. 8 to 0:155 | 0°653 0°574 | 0:225 15 to 2% 0:417 | 0-758 22 to 2! 0-687 | 0-803 0-386 | 0-081 29 to . | 0-238 | 0-760 0-055 | 0-041 ||Aug.5 to 1: 0-677 | 0-789 .| 0-018 | 0-156 12 to If 0-359 | 0-589 0-004 | 0-139 19 to 0-057 | 9.927 0-000 | frozen 26 to 2 . | 1536 | 0-550 . |\Sep.2 to 9 ():170 | 0-487 1-045 | 0 374 0:741 | 0-468 0-389 | 0:357 0-949 | 0 403 0-298 | 0-203 0-424 | 0-134 0-738 | 0-116 .| 0-561 | 0-167 0-059 | 0-107 2-230 | 0-158 0:668 | 0-108 . | 0-987 | 0:207 0:979 | 0:079 0:090 | 0-076 1:229 | 0-166 2:477 | 0:107 31-143 |20:507 Rain. Evaporation There fell in in 1817. .. 25349 .. «. 1817 .. 22:227 1818 .. 24252 ..*.. I8I8 .. 27-064 1819 1. 27389"... .. 1819 .. 21°369 1820 /.. 23°274 .. o» 1820 .,. 19°621 1921 .. 31143 4... 1821 .. 20507 72 Barometric Observations. Ther. | Ther. attach: detach: Wind moderate. 1891. Barom. Dec. 10. 8} 29-308 | 51-5 | 51° [s.w. blowing down an inclined 9 | 29-314 | 59- 5)-5 plane from the house. s 16 | 29-300 | 52: 52: |S. blowing freely to and past ( 2 1] ; 29-278 |} 63: 53° the house. — Oo 1822. ie Jan. 14. 8 | 29:750 | 46:5 | 40: |S.W. blowing, &c. rather } £5 9 | 29:772 | 52:5 | 4l- Do. [strong. | E> 10 | 29-780 | 54: 42: Do. = 2 ll | 29-788 | 545 | 42° Iw. Do. f wo 12 | 29:772 } 59:5 | 42-5 Do. ' ‘5 4 1 | 29-770 | 55 | 43: Do. Jes Sir, Hafod, near Mold, Flintshire, Jan. 16, 1822. The above are the heights of my Barometer at the specified times. But | beg leave to observe, that neither these nor my obser- vations in February last were corrected by the fraction marked on the Barometer, namely, ;!;, for I conceive that the differ- ence is too minute to be regarded until the general operation of the instrument is found to be less varied with reference to the desired object. leh. It will be seen that there is a very material difference in the comparative heights of my Barometer, and those of your other correspondents in February and December. In the former month the prevailing wind (which was very moderate) came up the Vale of Mold almost directly against the front of my house, which is sheltered by a plantation of 27 years growth, and of considerable extent, on a hill at a short distance behind it; and at that time the average height of the mercury in my Barometer appears to have been very nearly the same as in that of Col. Beaufoy at Bushey Park. Whereas in December, with the wind from an opposite quarter, mine appears to have been lower by -245, though with a higher temperature. Is it possible that from this cause the atmosphere here in Fe- bruary may have been locally condensed? Allow me to throw out this hint, as I conceive that experiments might be made to ascertain whether this is the case under such circumstances, but which I have not leisure at present to attempt. At any rate, it ap- pears to me to be desirable that each communication should be accompanied by a statement of the situation of the instrument with reference to the adjacent country or buildings, &¢. as op- posed or otlierwise-to the prevailing winds at the times of obser- vation. I am, sir, Your most obedient servant, Wm. Warp. Pia. a Barometric Observations. 73 P. S. Upon a hasty observation of the winds that have pre- vailed in different months, with reference to the greatest discre- pancies, such as Crumpsall and Leighton in June and August, Manchester and Leighton in April aud June, &c. &c, these winds appear to me to have been always from opposite quarters. Your correspondents will be able to appreciate the probable ef- fects of the variation of the wind at their respective stations. The following Barometrical Observations for 1521, taken at 10 o’clock daily, were made by Mr.R. Wesstrer, Cornhill, London, Inches. Inches. January . 30-229032 | July .. 29:942193 Maximum... 30:95 Maximum ., 3()225 Minimum .. 29-125 Minimum .. 29:65 February .. .. 30°21160 | August .. 29:937096 Maximum... 30°65 Maximum,.. 30:15 Minimum... 29°35 Minimum .. 29°55 March 29°679932 | September., .. 29-8425 Maximum... 30°50 Maximum... 30-20 Minimum .. 29°15 Minimum .. 29:45 April... =... +=-29°655833 | October .. 2. 29:901774 Maximum... 30°05 Maximum... 30°255 Minimum .. 29°35 Minimum .. 25:20 May. 3s .. 2%:866935 | November .. 29°830833 Maximum,.. 30°20 Maximum... 38():25 Minimum .. 29:25 Minimum ., 29°35 June 4 pate ha December -. 28°880 Maximum... 30°25 Maximum... 380-20 Minimum .. 29°65 H Minimum .. 28°35 The mean atmospheric pressure of the whole year — 29833236 The maximum of the year .. .. oe oe e+ 30°95 The minimum of the year .. .. «2 ee ee =628'35 The barometrical range ER Gaede \ ich 0: PS O26 The elevation of the place of observation (as measured by a capital mountain barometer by Mr. Jones, taken at the mean of several observations,) at 60 feet above the level of the sea; the latitude at 51 deg. 830 min. 88 sec. North; the radius of the earth considered 3954°590 miles. N. B. The elevation is particularly given, as the force of gravity increases inversely as the square of the distance from the earth’s centre, Vol. 59, No, 285, Jan, 1822, K Re- Eb-6G | SIT\Oa/L J 9T 1 ; $8 | 006-9F £6-08 | 98% | $0.86 | 06-08 | LF9-66 “OZST IO7 96-86 | ISIIL |O1pFs SI 806-1 09:16 | OG-S | 86-16 88-06 | L89-6¢ ‘op ‘suBaTAT jenuuy s Leg 0 lo fe te Ir \o {2 IF lor|p It 669-66 9E-FI 86-22 103-08 | 00-6a|"** zaquiaaq s CLS O |O FOT|s | [0 |F |6 |ST (0) 6EL-SP 66-41 SE8G |0G-06 | P66-6G)/"** JOqQUIBAONT -< 96:6 O |O {3G |G |I {I |@ |6L\P I 896-6F $98 OF-8G | [6-08 | 169-6G)"***** 484039 = 88-6 0 jO 1G j4 |G |3 \9 {4 |8 0 S66-L¢ 19-9 08-86 |F0 OS | SSE-6a|"** tequieydag 5 O8T 0 0 Jo [a {a |t |r |6 |e |o |e L119 SLE 8-86 |80.08 |00L-6a|"***** sn3ny S 86°36 O JO FT |G 13 16 |¢ |S Ib 3 006-89 00-9 OL-63 |8I-0s | 289-6al"** *** ***Aqne DS 08-0 0 10 Jo |O {s JO |t |O jo 0 I OOF-&9 S36 SE-6G |86-08 |0L6-64)""* "** “**aune? o FOG 3 Ie IT 13 |r lo |g | |e Io It OLS 6F P19 08-83 |ST-08 | 669-6a]"*""** "AEP -< 80-6 0 |F 18.16 |S |O IL IS 18 T 689-6b 16-6 68-83 |86-66 |996-6a]""""* Tudy s OF & 6 \L |p |Z 0 |8 jb iI et 6 SIL-It SO-TL OL+86 |G6-08 | 466-66)" * Yore yar & 96-0 I |. Jo |L {3 It |8 |9 [0 6 O91-S& 65-9 40:66 |#9-08 |OLL-O8)"** Areniqay S $G>1 G |O 1G |G j0 |6 |6 18 IP I OF8:96 16:9 69°86 | 88-08 POL-6a|"***** Arenuve 3 ; "Foe belpdcdadde 25 ‘soyouy Els e ce s|2|= eo “ura yA ‘soyouy |‘asury] ‘urpyT | *XByAL |*uvayl “SIPUOT ur a eee ay paris Ayguene? ; ill : § >| -ap Saovdy soa UTE YP "ray AA “SPUuLAA *JOJOULOULIOY T, *1aOULOLE ie "L2G ua Sasiysysox Suonnpy mapz yo yday sajsisoy qonsojosoajayyy D JO szpnsay Barometric Observations. 75 ANNUAL RESULTS. ; Barometer. Inches. Highest observation, January 23d... = .. Wind N, 30-880 Lowest do. (continuing 14 hours) Dec. 26th. S. 27:380 Range of the mercury Lo cs ob eA oh Gan UU Mean annual barometrical pressure .. .. +. «+ 29°987 Greatest range of the mercury in December .. «2 —2°820 Least do. HG.) sie Mie es) Sel Neea sO eu Mean annual range of do... «. «2 oe oe 1-606 Spaces described by do... 2. «. «+ «2 «+ 97°600 Total number of changes in the year Bell) vale rah GUEeRRD Srx’s Thermometer. Greatest observation, August 23d. .. WindS.E. 78-000 Least do. January 2d and 3d. Ni fi ap and February 26th. \ EY cine Range of the mercury in the thermometer sel, wa) 08000 Mean annual temperature ST pais) laiots dees 0 ty Ad aOO Greatest range in August 2 ah Tt SOS ae ee Pe OOO Least do. December dal 20 PRO ges oe BOOO Mean annual do. os LOS Oras Wal 006" sete, tk TEA TG Winds. Days. North and East .. .. ahd F Kat com Ue North-East and South-East seh die aS 8 Vn South and West .. .. « ete? Widen iguane F a ht oe LOOT) South-West and North-West .. eo. gam ace SECU WEHA DLE Wor fey 0%, tinh ah cat abets Pumps sete -aUOue Rain, ec. Inches. Greatest quantity in December Se ee ee iene a One Least do. Febtaary Sees ak 268 Total amount for the year... .. «- «¢ «eo «+ 28960 Observations. Pressure.—The most prominent features which present them-, selves, and the most worthy of remark, are, the great elevation of the Barometer in January, and its unprecedented depressions in December, the greatest of which, and the minimum for the year, occurred near midnight on the 24th, and continued until 2p.m. the 25th, attended with a most violent gale from the South; thunder and lightning, and torrents of rain amounting with what had fallen the previous night to nearly three inches, On the 29th, the Barometer again fell to 27:73, after which it rose rapidly. From the 16th to the 3lst it never attained 29-00, though the changes in its direction were almost daily, and frequently considerable. Temperature.—The mean annual temperature, which , one ey degree 76 Barometric Observations. degree above that of the preceding year, and is owing to the mildness of the autumnal and winter months, fully compensated for the decrease from the usual averages experienced in May, June, and July, which were the only months below the means of the corresponding periods in 1820. Wind.—The prevailing winds are again S.W. and W. The North and Southerly ones are nearly equal, and the N.W. and S.E. exactly so. The strongest winds have blown from the South, and particularly towards the close of the year. Rain.—The amount of rain, which has annually and gradually decreased since the wet year 1816, is less than that of the pre- ceding one, though the two Jast months have nearly brought up the usual average. Ifthe rain be taken from the last quarter of the moon, commencing the 16th ult. up to the same time of the present period (the 15th), the total amount exceeds six inches , and a half,—a most unusual quantity for these parts. New Malton, Jan. 15, 1822. JS Dear Sir,—Having for a considerable time past kept a Me- teorological Journal at this place, I beg leave to transmit my last year’s table, &c. for insertion in the Philosophical Journal. The instruments made use of are the best J could procure in London, except the rain-gauge, for which I am indebted to Luke Howard, Esq. and the register is kept with great exactness, Your most obedient servant, New Malton, Jan. 15, 1822, Jas. STOCKTON, To Dr. Tilloch. The following account of the quantities of Rain which has fallen in each month, in the years 1820 and 1821, is furnished by a gentleman residing in St. Thomas’s, near Exeter, in which parish the account was kept; 1820. Inches. January .. 3°68 February .. 1:38 March 32 184 1821. Inches. January .. 2°53 February .. 0°32 March hore Aap | 26 inches 57-100dths | 41 inches 58=100dths Aprilogye onda Aprils 2, Sas May 02.6 °2:23)|'May .. .. 3°06 June {ae gS sOo7 Sunes yo. 126 daly, PERO PS Pilly ee, 6 208 August -- 2°17 | August Go “abe September .. 2°42 | September .. 3:10 October. .. 5°68; October .. 3°36 November ... 1°62 | November .. 5:44 December .. 2°49] December .. 8:56 Jan, Barometric Observations. 77 Jan, 22, 1822. Dear Sir,—Having sent the calculated results of the ob- servations on the Barometer in my last, up to November, and haying completed the year 1821, as to the monthly observations, I consider it due to yourself and correspondents to acknowledge the obligation J feel for the attention shown to the subject pro- posed by me; and to assure you that I shall feel great pleasure, at some future period, in renewing the course under some im- provements, and hope to be able to fix the zero by a permanent mark, in one or more convenient places in London ; whence, by means of a revised section of the Grand Junction Canal, extend the line of determined altitudes over a large district. The connexion of other canals, when their sections have been revised, will carry the line of known altitudes to nearly all the towns of importance in the country. The intermediate places may afterwards be deter- mined with considerable accuracy, by taking short distances and proper states of the atmosphere. It is highly to be regretted that the heights determined by the late Col. Mudge and others, in the great National Trigono- metrical Survey, cannot be depended on. I have been at the trou- bie of levelling, to determine the relative heights of several near the borders of the Grand Junction Canal, and am sorry to find a variation of 20, 30, and 40 feet from the heights published in the Survey. Considering the importance of some of the principal stations, particularly those used in ascertaining the relative length of degrees in the different sections of the English are, it would not be unworthy of the Honourable Board of Ordnance to correct these heights by actual levelling: the necessary time and expense would be very small. In your last Number are two months observations at Crump- sall and Manchester, and one at Pocklington, the calculated heights of which relative to Leighton | beg leave to send, in ad- dition to those of last month, viz. Crumpsall above Leighton. Manchester above Leighton. November 187 feet. November & feet. December 247 December 86. Pocklington above Leighton. December 11 feet. To Dr. Tilloch. Yours truly, B, BEvaANn. P.S. In Jast month’s letter I omitted to say Mr. Cary’s ba- rometer was Lelow Leighton, METEORO- 78 Meteorology. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE Extracted from the Register kept at Kinfauns Castle, N. Bri- tain. Lat. 56° 23’ 30”.—Above the level of the Sea 129 feet. Mean Tempr. by Six’s |} Rain. Ther. |/Inch. 100|/% Morning, Evening, 10 o’clock. 100’clock. Mean height of ||Meanheight o 1821, |Barom.| Ther. |/Barom.| Ther. January. 29-791 |37'645]| 29-780|36-9083 || 37.225 3-20 14 February. 30-191 }40°7.50}| 30-124/38-928 || 40-357 0-60 7 March. 29.465 |42°096 41-290 3.50 18 April, 29.31()|49°366 || 29-503/45-200 || 47-366 3:35 16 May. 29-768 |50*193]| 29-758/44-935 |} 47-838 1-7 15 June. 30-779 |56'666 || 30-112/50-866 || 54-800 0-50 6 July. 29-784(59°161 || 29-786]54.709 || 58-419 1:10 12 August. 29-802 |59°612 || 29-800/55-222 || 59-290 115 9 September. | 29-642 57°366 56-666 2-10 i6 October. | 29°654/48°967 49-000 1.75 14 November. | 29°463|43°233 42-633 5:25 20 December. | 29°176|40°290 40-290 4-80 25 all ie oo 47-931 29-00 172 |193 —— Average of | 99.747148-779 |] 29-686] 45-768 the year. ANNUAL RESULTS. MORNING, Barometer. Thermometer. Observations. Wind. Wind. Highest, 23dJan. W. 30°74 6th, Sept...07'S. ody tt su enore Lowest, 25th Dec. W. 28°14 Sd Jans. SW. . . . . 20° EVENING. Highest, 22d Jan. NW. 30°69 3d Sept.) SWia cin. jonyau) aiGee Lowest, 25th Dec. W. 28°12 4th Jan. NE. . . «eke ——— Weather. Days. Wind. Times, Raley: < einvhé arenes ep tlDS N. aad NES hoy er r/c: icy oO RainorSnow . . . . 172 Band. SE. 0,7 Sy: > lease ae — Sand SWier sos). at) st) eee S65" |. W.and NW. oy.) Uaiwen AtS abl 365 Extreme Cold and Heat, by Six’s Thermometer. Coldest. (Sd ian.) oe oan" | oe Wind SW. «). «a. 188 Hottest, 23d August. . . . 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On theCirele, ithe Sphere, the Square,and the equilateral Triangle. By Mr. James Utrine. To Dr. Tilloch. Dzar Sir, —Suouxp the following statement relative to the sides and areas of the ©, , and equilateral A, &c. be thought worthy a place in the Philosophical Magazine, it is at your ser- vice. ea ae ofa © todiame- 5.1 4159,26535,89793,23846 Area of a © to Gtamcter “unity *78539,81633,97448,80962 Solidity of a sphere to diameter unity '52359,87755,98298,87308 The diameter of a @ = 1. ‘The side of the circum~ | __ 1 .,a9r 2935 scribed equilateral A == 1:75205,08075,888/fse0203 The diameter of a® = 1. - The side of theinscribed| _ , ey * eptilatebal Reo: = *86602,54037,84435,64676 The diameter ofa © = l. The side of an equila- » San 79 teral A of equal nat sec kal ia The diameter ofa © = 1. The side of a 1 of a = +88622,69254,52758,01365 Same area .. ee The diameter of a ©@ = fe Es nse = -70710,67811,86547,52440 The side o0f a Q = 1. The diameter of the cir- | _ ,., 925 ae he } = 1-41421,35623,73095,04880 The side of a QO = 1. ; The side of the circum: | __9.45 440 ar =9Q9%) F901) Poet cone | = 2-15470,05383,79251,52902 The side. of arO)="). The side of an equilate- | __,, . se WOR toe aT =1°51967,13713,03185,00466 The side of an A = 1. a The diameter of its in-ear poe OROn TA4. statins HE ae 57735,02691,89625,7645 | . The side of an A = Bi The diameter-of its cir- 7) __ 1,245 qreae yo0R 1 KOON Sai a jes 15470,05383,7925 1,52902 The side of an A = 1. The diameter of a © a 7425 1,52492,857 equal’areay'.. "3. The On the Circle, the Sphere, the Squate, and Triangle. 103 The side of an A= 1. ; RPGR AB: inscribed | _ -46530,24295,51049,79947 The side of an A = 1. The side of a O of equal area... = *65803,70064,76246,23041 Theside of an A given to find its |_ 9, sae : area x the ( of the side by 0 43301,27018,92219,32338 The lines circumscribing a 0, and ©, of the same area, are in proportion to each other as 3:54490,77018,11032,05460, to 3°14159, &c. Or, as 1. to °88622,69254,52758,01365. The lines cireumscribing a 0, and A, of the same area, are as 1. to 1°51967,13713,03185,09466. The lines circumscribing an A, and ©, of the same area, are as 1. to :77756,01507,781066. The area of a hexagon to that of its circumscribing circle is as 1. to 1-20919,9576156. Or, as °82699,33431,32688 to 1}. Lynn Regis, Noy. 15, 1821. JAMEs Utrtinc. Errata. —In the Table of the ©’s R.A. in degrees, &c. vol. lvii. page 29: Argument. R.A. Diff. 8s. é i i 1 320 for Si 6 11-53 es t read 31 6 11-73 § 27792 Argument. Diff 134 2b 597°76 596-76 Of: i : * sot for 3 oF 98 ' read ; 596-98 R.A. NU ede Alb Bias Edi Al 116 50 for 4421 44:98 read 44 21 41-98 In the Table of the ©’s R.A. in time, page 184: Diff. s. 2 / “ ul Ape 10% for 3600 read 37-00 In the Reduction of the Ecliptic to the Equator, page 435: _ Argument. Reduction. Be isos ast pay aot db 2 380 for 2 1 31:97 read 2 1 31:96 The signs, &c. at the bottom of pages 435 and 436 are wrong inserted, they ought to be the same as at the bottom of pages 457 and 438, In the Table of the Var. of the ©’s R.A. and Decl., page 440: Argument. Var. R.A. Be oo J “ ut -0 7 50 ¢ 5:49 ? 5°39 or < Var. Declin. > read 1 10 50 13 6113S - ~ [ lod J XXL. Letter from Rovert Hare, M.D. Professor of Chemi- stry in the University of Pennsylvania, &8c. &$c. to the Editor of the American Journal of Science and Arts, in Opposition | to the Conjecture that Heat may be Motion, and in favour of the Existence of a material Cause of calorific Repulsion*. Deak Sir,—Ln two memoirs published in your Journal, I have endeavoured to show that caloric and electricity are collateral agents in galvanism, the ratio of the former to the latter, in quantity, being as the extent of the operating superficies to the number of pairs into which it may be divided. In those publi- cations, I assumed that the causes of heat and electricity are material fluids. Although this view of the origin of calorific re- pulsion is taken by a great majority of chemists, it has been com- bated, both by Rumford and Davy: the former famous for his ingenious, instructive and laborious experiments ; and the latter distinguished by the most splendid discoveries. With the utmost deference for the authority of these great men, especially the lat- ter, I send the following remarks made in answer to his hypo- thetical views, which I shall here quote from his Elements in order to introduce the subject more intelligibly. “It seems possible,” says the illustrious author, ‘ to account - for all the phzenomena of heat, if it be supposed, that in solids the particles are in a constant state of vibratory motion, the particles of the hottest bodies moving with the greatest velocity, and through the greatest space; that in liquids and elastic fluids, besides the vibratory motion, which must be conceived greatest in the last, the particles have a motion round their own axes, with different velocities, the particles of elastic fluids mov- ing with the greatest quickness ; and that in ethereal substances, the particles move round their own axes, and, separating from each other, penetrate in right lines through space. ‘Tempera- ture may be conceived to depend upon the velocities of the vi- brations; increase of capacity on the motion being performed in greater space; and the diminution of temperature, during the conversion of solids into fluids or gases, may be explained on the idea of the loss of vibratory motion, in consequence of the revo- lution of particles round their axes, at the moment when the body becomes liquid or aériform ; or from the loss of rapidity of vibration, in consequence of the motion of the particles through greater space. ‘If a specific fluid of heat be admitted, it must be supposed liable to most of the affections which the particles of common matter are assumed to possess, to account for the phenomena ; * From Silliman’s Journal, No, IX. és sich On the Cause of Heat. 105 such as losing its motion when combining with bodies, producing motion when transmitted from one body to another, aud gaining projectile motion when passing into free space; so that many hypotheses must be adopted to account for its agency, which renders this view of the subject less simple than the other. Very delicate experiments have been made, which show that bodies, when heated, do not increase in weight. This, as far as it goes, is an evidence against a subtile elastic fluid, producing the calo- rific expansion ; but it cannot be considered as decisive on ac- count of the imperfection of our instruments. A cubical inch of inflammable air requires a good balance to ascertain that it has any sensible weight, and a substance bearing the same relation to this, that this bears to platinum, could not perhaps be weighed by any method in our possession.” These suggestions of Sir H. Davy’s are to me unsatisfactory. It is fully established in mechanics, that when a body in mo- tion is blended with and thus made to communicate motion to another body, previously at rest, or moving slower, the velocity of the compound mass after the impact will be found, by multi- plying the weight of each body by its respective velocity, and dividing the sum of the products by the aggregate weight of both bodies. Of course it will be more than a mean or less than a mean, accordingly as the quicker body was lighter or heavier than the other. Now, according to Sir Humphry Davy, the par- ticles of substances which are unequally heated are moving with unequal degrees of velocity: of course when they are reduced by contact to a common temperature, the heat, or, what is the same (in his view), the velocity of the movements of their particles, ought to be found by multiplying the heat of each by its weight and dividing the sum of the product by the aggregate weight. Hence if equal weights of matter be mixed, the temperature ought to be a mean; and if equal bulks, it ought to be as much nearer the previous temperature of the heavier substance as the weight of the latter is greater ; but the opposite is in most instances true. When equiponderant quantities of mercury and water are mixed at different temperatures, the result is such as might be expected from the mixture of the water, were it twenty-six times heavier ; so much nearer to the previous heat of the water is the consequent temperature, It may be said that this motion is not measurable upon mechanical principles, How then, 1 ask, does it produce mechanical effects?) These must be produced by the force of the vibrations, which are by the hypothesis mechanical : for whatever laws hold good in relation to moving matter in mass, must operate in regard to each particle of that matter ; the effect of the former can only be a multiple of that of the latter. Indeed, one of Sir Humphry Davy’s reasons for thinking heat to Vol, 59. No, 286, Feb, 1822, O consist 106 On the Cause of Heat. consist of corpuscular motions is, that mechanical attritiow ge- nerates it. Surely then a motion produced by mechanical means, and which produces mechanical effects, may be estimated on me- chanical principles, In the case cited above, the power of reciprocal communica- tion of heat in two fluids, .is shown to be inconsistent with the views of this ingenious theorist. If we compare the same power in solids, the result will be equally objectionable. ‘Thus the heating power of glass being 443, that of an equal bulk of lead will be 487, though so many times heavier ;. and if equal weights be compared, the effect of the glass will be four times greater than that of the lead. If it be said, that the movements of the denser matter are made in less space, and therefore require less motion, I answer, that if they be made with equal velocity, they must go through equal space in the same time, their alternations being more frequent. And if they be not made with the same velocity, they could not communicate to matter of a lighter kind a heat equally great; since, agreeably to experience, no supe- riority of weight will enable a body, acting directly on another, to produce in it a motion quicker than its own. Consistently with this doctrine, the particles of an aériform fluid, when they oppose a mechanical resistance, do it by aid of a certain move- ment, which causes them effectively to occupy a greater space than when at rest. Itis true, a body by moving backwards and forwards may keep off other bodies from the space in which it moves. Thus, let a weight be partially counterbalanced by means of a scale beam, so that if left to itself it would descend gently. Place exactly under it another equally solid mass, on which the weight would fall. If between the two bedies thus situated a third be caused to undergo an alternate motion, it may keep the upper weight from descending, provided the force with which the latter descends be no greater than that of the movement in the interposed mass, and the latter acts with such celerity, that between each stroke the time be too-small for the weight to moye any sensible distance. Here then we have a case analogous to that supposed, in which the alternate inovements or vibrations of matter enable it to preserve to itself a greater space 1n oppo- sition to a force impressed; and it must be evident that lengthen- ing or shortening the extent of the vibrations of the interposed body, provided they are made in the same time, will increase or diminish the space apparently occupied by it, as the volume of substances is affected by an increase or reduction of heat. It ought however to be recollected that in the case we have imagined, there is a constant expenditure of momentum to compensate for that generated in the weight by gravity, during each vibration. lu the vibrations conceived to constitute heat, there is no gene- rating On the Cause of Heat. 107 rating power to make up for this loss. A body preserves the expansion communicated by heat 7 vacuo, where, insulated from all other matter, the only momentum, by which the vibrations of its particles can be supported, must have been received before its ' being thus situated. If we pour mercury into a glass tube shaped like a shepherd’s crook, the hook being downwards, the fluid will be prevented from occupying that part of the tube where the air isin such position as not to escape. In this case, ac- cording to the hypothesis in question, the mercury is prevented from eutering the space the air occupies, by a series of impalpa- ble gyratory movements ; so that the collision of the aérial par- ticles against each other, causes each to occupy a larger share of space in the manner above illustrated by the descending weight and interposed body. The analogy will be greater, if we sup- pose a row of interposed bodies alternately striking against each other, and the descending weight; or we may imagine a vibra- tion in all the particles of the interposed mass equal in aggregate extent and force to that of the whole, when performing a com- mon movement. If the aggregate extent of the vibration of the particles very much exceed that which when performed in mass would be necessary to preserve a certain space, it may be sup- posed productive of a substance like the air by which the mer- cury is resisted. But whence is the momentum adequate in such rare media to resist a pressure of a fluid so heavy as mercury, which in this case performs a part similar to that of the weight, cited for the purpose of illustration? If it be said that the mer- cury and glass being at the same temperature as the air, the par- ticles of these substances vibrate in a manner to keep up the aérial pulsations ; I ask, when the experiment is tried in an ex- hausted receiver, what is to supply momentum to the mercury and glass? There is no small difficulty in conceiving under the most favourable circumstances, that a species of motion, that exists according to the hypothesis as the cause of expansion in a heated solid, should cause a motion productive of fluidity or va- porization, as when by means of a hot iron we convert ice into water, and water into vapour. How inconceivable is it that the iron boiler of a steam engine should give to the particles of water, a motion so totally different from any it can itself possess, and at the same time capable of such wonderful effects, as are produced by the agency of steam ! Is it to be imagined that in particles whose weight does not ex- ceed a few ounces, sufficient momentum can be accumulated to move as many tons? There appears to me another very serious obstacle to this explanation of the nature of heat. How are we to account for its radiation im vacuo, which the distinguished advocate of the hypothesis has himself shown to ensue? There O02 can 108 On the Cause of Heat. can be no motion without matter. To surmount this difficulty, he calls up a suggestion of Newton’s, that the calorific vibrations of matter may send off radiant particles, which lose their own momentum in communicating vibrations to bodies remote from those whence they emanate. Thus, according to Sir Humphry, there is radiant matter producing heat, and radiant matter pro- ducing light. Now, the only serious objection made by him to the doctrine which considers heat as material, will apply equally against the existence of material calorific emanations. That the cannon, heated by friction in the noted experiment of Rumford, would have radiated as well as if heated in any other way, there can, J think, be no doubt; and as well zz vacuo, as the heat ex- cited by Sir Humphry in a similar situation. That its emission in this way would have been as inexhaustible as by the conducting process cannot be questioned. Why then is it not as easy to have an inexhaustible supply of heat as a material substance, as to have an inexhaustible supply of radiant matter, communicat- ing the vibrations in which he represents heat to consist ? We see the same matter, at different times, rendered self- attractive, or self-repellent ; now cohering in the solid form with great tenacity, and now flying apart with explosive violence in the state of vapour. Hence the existence, in nature, of two op- posite kinds of reaction, between particles, is self-evident. There can be no property without matter, in which it may be inherent. Nothing can have no property. The question then is, whether these opposite properties can belong to the same particles. Is it not evident, that the same particles cannot, at the same time, be self-repellent, and self-attractive ? Suppose them to be so, one of the two properties must predominate, and in that case we should not perceive the existence of the other, It would be use- Jess, and the particles would in effect possess the predominant property alone, whether attraction or repulsion. If the properties were equal] in power, they would annihilate each other, and the matter would be, as if void of either property. ‘There must, therefore, be a matter, in which the self-repellent power resides, as well as matter in which attraction resides. ho There must also be as many kinds of matter, as there are kinds of repulsion, of which the affinities, means of production, or laws of communication, are different. Hence I do firmly believe in the existence of material fluids, severally producing the pheno- mena of heat, light, and electricity. Substances, endowed with attraction, make themselves known to us, by that species of this power, which we call gravitation, by which they are.drawn to- wards the earth, and are therefore heavy and ponderable; by their resistance to our bodies, producing the sensation of feeling or touch ; and by the vibrations or movements in other matter, affecting On the breeding of Eels. 109 affecting the ear with sounds, and the eye by a modified reflee- tion of light. Where we perceive none of these usnal concomi- tants of matter, we are prone to infer its absence. Hence igno- rant people have no idea of air, except in the state of wind; and when even in a quiescent state designate it by this word. Bat that the principles, the existence of which has been demon- strated, should not be thus perceived, 1s far from being a reason for doubting their existence. Altitudes of Mountains, ta’c. visible from the angle on the other side of zero, the indices being first pro~— perly levelled. Eight readings were thus obtained, and the errors of collimation, dividing, &c. reduced to a mere trifle. By this method it was also discovered that the instrument being adjusted at 52°, the zenith distances would be 10” in defect so soon as the thermometer had fallen to 32°, Hence the necessity of noting the temperature of the sector at the time of adjusting it, and also after every pair of observations. The adjustments, which did not require altering more than three or four times in the course of the year, are best made at 40° in winter and‘at €0° in summer. When placed upon a distant object, the cross wires seemed ab- solutely to efface it, and to render great accuracy unattainable. A filament scarcely visible even in its magnified state, and acci- dentally found adhering to the cross wires in the manner exhi- bited in Plate II. was successfully substituted, and the point (a) considered as the line of vision. Before any remarks are made as to the result of the experi- ments on terrestrial refraction, it will be proper to state that _ twelve observations were made at the observatory in January ; thirty-two in February; sixty-one in March; and eighty-six from the Ist to the 18th of April; and that the instrument was after- wards taken to the following stations: Rumbles Moor. 182]. h. m. h. m. Ther.inshade.Wind. Bar. April 23, 7 obs. from 10 20 to 11 30—48 to50 N.E. 24, 6Go.. ee 17252, 18: 10O—48.. 52 S.S.W. 25, 24... .. 1045..17 45—60'0. 65 "Es 28, 6 oe PEO. 22°35 —5 1. 156° W- N N G0 j:38 ool dice! -B0H, 18454 Dosa NG and N.N.W. June 2, 42... .. 11 5..19380—48 to 63 E.N.E. 119,281) boon'd. ooo Spy 19 20447..)50°N IN Auge FAO agiid 26 M20 pel? 04867959 9S Oct. 155 11 we ose 13°15.. 14 20248..50° W. Beamsley Rock. May 2,33 .. .. 1015..18 0—55to67 S.S.E. . June 14, 30 .. .. 1130..18 30—51.. 64 E.S.E. 26-925 27, 12... .. 1630..19 50—46..56 N Oct. 30, 9... .. 13 5.,.16 25—42..44 WSS. Chevin. Aug. 13, 37...) .. 11:30to 18 40—57..65 S.S.W. the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. 133 Great Almias Cliff. 1821. h. m. h. m. Therm. Wind. Bar. Aug. 15, 15 obs. from 12 30 to 16 30—62to64 W. Jack Hill. Aug.17, 8 .. .. 16 Oto 17 0—57 S.W. Symon Seat. Aug. 29, 8 .. «. 15 20.,16 40—52..53 S.E. 28-417 Sept. 3, 9 ee ee 14 0.. 15 30—56.5.07 S.W. : Great Whernside. Sept. 1, 9 .. «. 1210..18 45—52..56 N.W. Pendle Hill. Sept. 24,12 .. .. 1050..14 20—48..51 W.N.W.28-050 1822. Alfred Castle. Jan. 26, 17... «2 11 0..13 15—40..41 W.N.W. The first fact elicited by these numerous observations was the existence of a species of diurnal variation of refraction not exceed- ing 60" to 70” within the limits of the survey, and dependent on the locale of the station, the time of the day, and in some degree _ (if it may be so termed) on the constitution of the day itself. It was first noticed at the observatory, Jan. 25, 1821, and might be said to be at its maximum in March, at which period it ex- ceeded 60”. At Rumbles Moor it was still more marked up to the 3d of June, when it totally ceased. No observations ulteriot to those just mentioned, were made at the observatory in 1821 ; but such angles as have been taken in January last, give no indi- cations of its return. It is also worthy of note (and a comforta- ble discovery it is for the surveyor) that the mean of the diurnal extremes differs but very slightly from the constant angle; gene- rally speaking, the variation is greatest when the mornings are frosty, and the sun acquires great power during the middle of the day. This led me to suspect, that in spite of the sector being reversed after every observation, the variation might be wholly attributed to the change of temperature as affecting the instrument. Observations made on frosty mornings with the sector at 30°, and afterwards heated to 60°, proved by their near agreement that the cause of the variation could not be looked for there. Asa further and irrefutable confirmation, the refraction was constant at Beamsley Rock, May 2, (on’ which day the thermometer had an extensive range,) although the va- riation continued to be observable at Rumbles Moor, It is to be 134 ~° ° Altitudes of Mountains, Sc. visible from be remarked that the nearer the ray passes to the ground, the greater the variation. In general, the refraction when vari- able is greatest near sun-rise and sun-set, and least during the heat of the day. Even when the diurnal variation is scarcely perceptible, a very sudden increase of refraction of 10" or 20” will be remarked on an evening within a short time of sun-set. I have had no opportunities of determining whether the refrac- tion remains at its maximum or not during the night. At none. of the other stations could any certain proofs of the existence of this diurnal refraction be established; but then it must be recollected, that its effects had already ceased at Rum- bles Moor, and most probably at the observatory. .It might not have heen witnessed at Beamsley Rock on account of the sides of the mountain being excessively steep in almost every direction, and perhaps from the extreme dryness of the surface. In attempting to account for this peculiar refraction, it was in the first place conjectured that the superior strata of the at- mosphere might be heated at sun-rise and sun-set in a greater degree than the inferior ones. Many observations made with the thermometer ‘at the base ard summit of Rumbles Moor, tended rather to refute than to confirm this hypothesis. It could scarcely be occasioned by the morning and evening frosts, or its effects would have been again perceptible in the autumn. There is little doubt, however, that the stratum of air immediately in contact with the surface of the ground is hotter about noon, and undoubtedly colder at morning and evening than the succeeding one; but why this irregularity should be confined to five months in the year is not quite so ex- plicable. It serves however to account for the non-existence of the variation on a steep craggy mountain, such as Beamsley Rock. Observers have generally remarked, at one time or other, cases of sudden and extraordinary refraction ; but the following is the only marked one that has come under my notice :—February 9, 1821, the moor appeared under an angle ‘of elevation of 42’ 30” at 175 15™; yet in the course of a quarter of an hour it was found iedncaced to 43’ 18”, The thermometer, which was then at 41°, fell very rapidly, and shortly after rose as abruptly. The sun’s vertical diameter was unusually contracted, and its contour curiously indented; at 10° of the same day the ther- mometer was at 41 on the moor (then invisible) and only at 35 at the observatory, The following observations will (with one exception) serve to verify the theory of the refraction being affected by an wnusual difference of temperature at the two stations, and will also ren- ier the diurnal variation more intelligible. They point out, moreover, the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. 135 moreover, the advantage of noting the thermometer at the base as well as at the summit of the mountain where the observations are made, and of rudely determining their difference of altitude by the barometer. (Height of Eye, 44 feet.) At Rumbles Moor, April 30th, h m. Therm, 14 30 observatory depr... 53 37 34 15 20 ae ae 53 25 53! 15 40 + 56 53 10 535 16 30 ays ats Ba! a 51 1770 ae wee Be 'S 504 17 30 Se ave 52 54 49 1s 0 2% ee 52 35 47 18 30 BA 3% yas 45 At Rumbles Moor, June \9th. 13 20 observatory depr. 53 14 48t 14 30 a ge 53 13 4gt 17 20 ee ie 58.13. 492 18 40 a su 53. 4 474 The mean of the observations in 1821 was 53.0, At the Observatory, March 30, 1821. Rumbles Moor elevated. Hour. Barometer. Wind. Angle of Elevation. Therm. Therm. at eich../ m0. eet) Moor. 10 29°52 S.W. 42 6 44 39 10 30 ee oe 42 5 43 4] 1.0 an es 42 4 46 40 11 30 2 ee 42 4 47 413 12 0 29°33 42 3 48 41 12 30 °° “0 42 3 47 39 13. 0 oe ee 42 1 47 43 13 30 os oe 42 2 49 Al 14 0 29°32 oe 42 2 50 4 15 .0 ee oe 42 4 50 43 15 30 oe ee 42 4 49 41t 16 0 os oe 42 1] 49 Al 17 0 ee oe 42 9 49 41 17 30 ee Seiad 42 10 48 , 39 18 0 29:26 S.W. ee 46 36 The mean of the extremes is about 42’ 6” and the mean dif- ference of the temperature of the stations 7°, that of the Moor being the lowest. The temperature of the vapour by Daniell’s hygrometer was 8° minus that of the atmosphere, , . be L 136 Altitudes of Mountains, &c, visible from At the Observatory, April 5, 1821. Rumbles Moor elevated. Hour. Barometer. Wind. sii of Elevation. Therm. Therm. at h x Moor. 54 29°19 W.S.W. 42 30 35 6 ar Ww. 42 44 35 62 -» W.N.W. 42 30 354 ait ve do. 42 27 tremulous. 38 334 74 29:25 do. 42 21 39 344 8 ae do. peal 391 35 81 cenit a. 42 16 4l 36 9 oe 45 42 14 43 364 91 vs oe 42 l6trem. 43 38 10 29°33 oe 42 l5 trem. 43 39 102 oe .e 42 li trem. 43 39 11 4 Sy 42 Strem. 45 39} 1lz me 42 6trem. 441 40 12 29°40 se 42 12trem. 442 421 122 Be as 42 12trem. 44 40 13 are aia 42 12 45 41 132 Se WP. 42 12 44t 40 14 ae 4 42 13 44 422 142 ek oer 2h 42 12 A5 40 15 ~“ sf 42 1) 44 40 T5z 29°45 N.W. 42 14 44 392 16 we do, 42 14 44 394 ~ 162 40 os 42 14 dd 39 mf ee os 42 ll dA 40 174 Ss od 42 19 42 364, 18 s aye 42 24 Al ' 36 182 29°52 N.W. 42 28 40 35 The morning and evening mean extremes are 42°25 and 42°17 hygr. respectively. Hence the mean angle is 42:2], and the —7° difference of temperature only 43°. N.B. The mean angle of all the observations in 1821 and 1822 is 42°11. Observations made at Rumbles Moor, June 2, 1821. Wind E.N.E. Bolton Abbey. Pendle Hill. Ingle- | Gt.Whernside. Therm. at Time. Patan borough. Sum.Base. 11 5 101 50depr. .. oe ee 60 634 11 30 bs ag i 25 40 elev. 60! 64 11 40 - 8 45clev. .. kts 61 12 0 101 42 an oe oe 62. 65. 12 10 oe oe . 25 57 59 12 25 ° 8 50 ee ee 61 Time. | the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. 137 Bolton Abbey. Pendle Hill. Ingleborough. Gt.Whernside. Therm. at Time. 12 35 138 0 13 10 13 20 13 30 14 30 14 35 14 40 14 45 15 50 16 0 16 5 16 15 IP ET 17 10 17 20 17 25 18 5 18 10 18 15 18 25 19 0 19 10 19 15 19 20 Le Bh Sum. Base. ath og 11 18 elev. = 62 644 101 43 a ae 59 Be 2 a 26 0 61 67 a2 st 11 21 60 Te 8 54 raw 60. 644 101 46 hie ai 59 631 ‘ ee Ar 25 56 591 sd ll 38 59 8 50 od a. 59 64 101 52 ey sis 592 632 5 7 ah 26 0 59 63 e a re al 56 j 8 58 tt 56): 612 101 34 «2 itd é 56 61 shia oy 26 9 55 fi ll 36 a 54 ad 9 12 A 54 592 100 44 A Si at 514 572 ée of Es 26 9 51 : Sis 12 0 ait 501 a 9 24 ae are 501 57 100 42 dep. 49 551% a ; 26 35 49 ‘is : 12 12 elev. .. 49 say 9 20 elev. ts 48 541 Mean 10117 Mean9 5 Mean 11 45 Mee 26 7 Const. anglel01 14 C.an.8 56 C.an. 11 33 C.an.25 58 Rumbles Moor, June 19. ri 30 Pendle Hill elev. 8 54 12 20 ole | 15 15 ee 8 56 15 40 oe 8 55 17 0 ta 8 53 17 45 ee 8 55 18 0 bp 8 54 18 45 ee 8 55 19 20 8 58 Hygr. at 17. 30 —9t ' Pendle 48% 544 48i° 531 48 49 49t 49 50i 48 49 462 48% 47 47, 46 46446 Pendle is 500 fect higher than Rumbles Moor, and nearly west of it. An east wind produced fine weather at the former place, and the reverse at the latter ; which’ may account for the Vol. 59. No, 286. Feb. 1822, S thermometer 138 Altitudes of Mountains, &c. visible from thermometer being on an average of 29 observations from 105 0™ to 19% 20"; 14° highest at Pendle Hill. Barometer at 10- 0 28-911 Hygr. —5° Do. 13: 0 28°856 —4° Do. 18:20 28-830 —6° Beamsley Rock, June 14. h. m. a a Therm. Do, at Bolton. 12 © © Pendle Hill elev. 9 31 59 58 12 40 ee 9 26 62 59, 14:10 e 9 27 582 58 15 15 ae 9 8 o4t 574 17 10 =. 9 10 53 562 18 10 9 15 522 554 The Hiermnigeten. at Bolton was 913 feet lovee than on the Rock, at 14°35 the hygrometer was —14°. The barometer reatiaiell stationary at 28-925. Beamsley Rock, June 27. Dy is Therm. 16 35 Pendle Hill elev. 8 56 Hye 17 20 ete 92°0 55: 18 15 “he ae ai, 52 19 35 aie 8 54 AT 19 50 ar 8 54 ~ 46 At 17 20 the hygrometer was —10°, Barometer about 28:80. 9’ 3” will be the apparent angle which will best agree - with other observations. Symon Seat, agust 29. h. m. Therm. 15 45 Gt.Almias Cliff, depr. 46 58 WindS.E. 53 16 40 Do. ae AN violent 52 September 8. 14 10 Gt. Almias Cliff, 47 29 S.W. 56 Observations of other stations made on both days agreed within a few seconds. The mean of the above three angles is the nearest to the true one. The mean refraction in terms of the are is ascertainéd by re- ciprocal observations of the angles of elevation and depression. The observations should however be made at the same instants of absolute time, and during the existence of the diurnal varia- tion, it is almost superfluous to add that they must include the extremes, otherwise the greatest errors may be committed. The instruments should moreover be free from any constant error (such as those of collimation, &c.) or the refraction will be no longer correctly obtained in terms of the arc. When the tear rica the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. 139 drical rings of the telescope are not alike, and the one near the object glass proves to be of the largest diameter, the zenith di- stances will be all in excess, and the mean refraction (granting +t to be one twelfth) will appear negative until the are becomes of such extent that one-twelfth thereof equals the error of the instrument. Still with numerous observations on ares of various lengths the refraction (and of course the error of the instrument) may be discovered by ascertaining what constant correction must be applied to best reconcile the discordancies, and give the most uniform. result. When corresponding observations are made at both stations, the error of the instrument, although it vitiates the true value of the refraction, does not prevent the determination of the proper angle for calculation as accurately as could have been done witha perfect instrument. The refraction will come out too small, but then it will be applied to angles of elevation as much in defect*. From the following statement it would appear that the Sector gave the elevations too little by 23". ; , Are j, Corrected Jack Hill and Great Almias .. .. 3 li + neg. ay Beamsley rock and Rumbles Moor 4 3. yy neg. ar Beamsley rock and Symon hut .. 4 Dog BES.) Ur Rumbles Moor and Chevin .. -- 4 36. fy Neg. rar Beamsley rock and Jack Hill .. 6 4 xe neg: qs Rumbles Moor and Jack Hill .. 6 18. ay pos- ws Beamsley rock and Chevin .- «+ 6 58 gs — 105 Rumbles Moor and Symon Seat... 8 6 wo — Te Rumbles Moor and Great Almias 8 30 ser — ae Symon Seat and Jack ey ye ene a. ao ee rhs Symon Seat and Great Whernside 8 40 35 — st Great Almias and Beamsley rock 9 8 sr a0 Rumbles Moor and Observatory .. 11 la— «3s Symon Seat and Great Almias .. Il 44 2 —™ is Great Whernside and Beamsleyrock 12 40 345 — 5 Great Whernside and Rumbles Moor NG VO. oy ne a> Pendle and Rumbles Moor .. .«- 16° 40. 25 °— aly = Pendle and Symon Seat... «- 17 48° gs Pendle and Great Whernside .. 20 26 xe — 135 By placing a delicate spirit level upon the cylindrical rings of the telescope, the Sector being well adjusted, and supposed to be level, it was found that the one near the object glass was higher by 35”, With this datum, together with the angular opening of the Ys and the diameter of the rings, the error of the instrument was calculated to be 28”. . * When the power of the telescope is but small, will not the depressions be observed in excess? $2 A spirit 140 Altitudes of Mountains, Sc. visible from A spirit level firmly fastened to the upper, and another to the under surface of a firm brass bar being substituted for the former level of the large Sector, the mean of the readings gave 30” as the error of the lesser instrument. A plane piece of glass with a very delicate mark in the middle superseded the cioss wires, and being fixed upon the object with the index at zero, the bubble of the upper glass tube was adjusted to its mark. ‘Phe telescope was next inverted, replaced upon the object, and the index levelled by the other glass tube, now uppermost. The double of the angle was thus obtained, and the whole operation repeated, with the bar carrying the levels reversed. One fourth of the two double angles is of course the correct one. Finally, the eye tube and the one containing the object glass were taken out of the smaller Sector, and reversed. ‘Ihe eleva- tions were in conseyuence increased 52”, half of which, or 26”, is the error thereof. This is perhaps the most satisfactory test of the three, the other methods not being perfectly unobjectionable. With this correction the mean refraction will be found to be about 45. The following remarks may render the more marked deyiations from this quantity more intelligible. Ist. When the are is but small, an error of a few seconds in the observations, or in the reduction of the height of the instru- ment to the ground, will cause a material alteration in the de- termined value of the refraction. 2nd. Some few of the arigles at Rumbles Moor were only taken at the time of the diurnal variation, and the extremes were not always observed. Rumbles Moor and Jack Hill come under this class. od. The refractions at Great Almias are unusually small, but the station is on a group of huge rocks, which were probably heated to such an excess at the time of the observations by the previous intolerable heat of the sun’s rays, as to render the lower strata of the air rarer than those immediately above. Athly. Stations on isothermal curves will have refractious dif- fering from those at right angles to them. Excluding the journal kept at the Observatory, the mean of the heights of the barometer at the different stations would be 28°50, and the temperature 54. According to the below obser- vations, the thermometer falls one degree tor everv ascent of 224 feet. With these data, the computed will not be found to exceed the observed refraction very materially. Remarks. The greatest difference of temperature was observed when the thermometer was 10 degrees lower at the Moor than at the Observatory, It was but very rarely that the air proved warmer at the more elevated station, rT ne the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. 14\ ~ The thermometer on the mountain, however carefully shaded, is more suddenly and materially affected by the sun than the one at its base. On the approach of a shower, it will, for instance, suddenly fall several degrees. When the thermometers differ but trivially, rain is generally the consequence. Rumbles Moor and the Observatory are not upon the same isothermal curve; the mean temperatures of the latter will cons sequently require a small reduction. M. temp. of Near Ilkley. at Cowper Cross. 3 obs. at 10" in Dec. 1820... 31-3 5:0 low 26 Jan. 1821 P 38:6 3°8 20 se Feb. af 37°1 37 23 ae Mar. ¥: 41:7 4-4 15 Lid April bis 50:2 AD 17 aa May ¢2 51-1 3°3 13 ae June aie 55°6 34 7 ie July ve 5Y-4 4:4 7 - Aug. ee 62°7 4-4 2 oe Sep. as 65°5 4°5 4 4 Dec. 47.0 4:6 11 obs. at 14" O™ to 185 45™ Apr. 9 53:6 51 7 9 30—12 30 Apr. 17 49:4 37 13 10 30—12 30 July 25 60-5 (rain) 2.4 Cowper Cross is about three quarters of a mile W.N.W. of the station on Rumbles Moor, and is 1250 feet high. likley is two miles north of the Moor, and 296 feet high. If we exclude the last set of observations, the mean difference of the temperz- tures will be about 4°, and that of the altitudes 954 feet, which is equal to an ascent of 240 feet for a diminution of tempera- ture of 1°. Mean temp. of 1821. Near Ilkley At Rumbles Moor. 10 obs. 10°45 to 13°0 Apr. 25 66°9 ee 3-2 low" 12 845 —140 — 30 52°5 oe 18 11-0 —19:30June 2 62-0 ee 7 11-15 — 12°45 July 13 66°9 ee y 10°15 — 12°15 — 21 62.6 oe 10 10:30 — 12:0 — 27 61:9 “i 13 110 —13-0 — 28 60:3 2 57 15 11°30— 15-0 Aug. 7 63°0 oe 6°2 The station at Rumbles Moor being 1029 feet higher than the one near Ilkley, the ascent appears to be about 210 feet for a fall of 1° of the thermometer. Mean 142 Altitudes of Mountains, &c. Mean temp. of At the Obs. At Cowper Cross. 4 obs. at 10‘0 in Dec.1820' 32-0 » 4°8 low" 26 Jan. 1821 39-4 rs 46 20 a Feb. 36:9 w 355 20 a Mar. 44:3 i 4°7 5 i April 453 3 4:2 _ The observatory is 851 feet lower than the Cross, and bears E. S.E. from it with a distance of 132 miles. The ascent for the degree of the thermometer is equal to 198 feet. M. temp. of 1821. At the Obs. At Rumbles Moor. 5 obs. at 11.45 to 13.15 Mar.13 525 6°5 low" 15 10. 0 to 18. 0 — 30 47-5 7:0 22 7.30 to 18.30 Apr. 5 45°0 4°6 6 7.30 to 10.0 — 12 43:8 48 9 6. Oto 10. 0 — 19 386 (mist & rain) 2: The observatory is 67,082 feet E.S.E of Rumbles Moor, and 926 feet lower. Hence 185 feet for every fall of | ° of temperature. Mean temp. of 13 obs. at 10°30 to 12:30, July 30; at Ilkley Wells 57:2; at Rumbles Moor 2-8 lower. Rumbles Moor is 637 feet above the Wells.—Ascent required 224 feet. Mean temp. of 4 obs, at 13.15 to 14.0, Oct. 29, near Ilkley, 58.6; Beamsley Rock, 3.0 lower. Difference of altitude 1021 feet. Mean temp. of 12 obs. at 12.30 to 15.0, June 14, near Bol- ton, 57.5; Beamsley Rock, 1.7 lower. Difference of altitude 913 feet. Mean temp. of 2 obs. Aug. 20 and Aug. 31, at Kettlewell, 59 ; at Great Whernside, 7.5 lower. Difference of altitude 1573 feet (by barometer). Mean temp. of 4 obs. Sept. 11, 13.22 and 24, at Downham, 58.53 at Pendle 9.7 lower. Difference of altitude 1852 feet (by barometer). Comparison of the Angles given by Ramsden’s gr eat Theodolite, and the Horizon Sector. The angles are reduced to the ground at Rumbles Moor. Boulsworth, elev... .. 13.29 Theod. 18.29 Sector. Pendle Hill, b". elev. .. 9.16 9.18 Great Whernside, elev. 25.45 26. 8 As all the angles by the Sector include its error of 26”, it would appear that the Theodolite was affected by a similar defect, or that the observations were made during the heat of the day, when the variation of refraction was in force. That the elevation of Great Whernside was incorrectly observed will be clearly proved in its proper place. XXXVII, Pro- f) -o438 09 XXXVII. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. Dee. 6, is21.—A PAPER communicated by the Society for the Improvement of Animal Chemistry was read, entitled ‘‘ On some Alvine Concretions found in the Colon of a young man in Lan- cashire after death.’’ By John George Children, esq. F.R.S. Dec. 13. A paper was read * On the Concentric Adjustment of a triple Object Glass.” By W.H. Wollaston, M.D.and V.P.R.S. Also a paper entitled, ‘*‘ On a new Species of Rhinoceros, found " in the Interior of Africa ; the skull of which bears a close resem- blance to that found in a fossil state in Siberia and other coun- tries.”” By Sir Everard Home, bart. V.P.R.S. Dec. 20. There was read a paper on the Electrical Pheno- mena exhibited in vacuo, by Sir Humphry Davy, bart. P.R.S. Jan. 10, 1822. An extract of a letter from Capt. Basil Hall, R.N. to Dr. W. H. Wollaston, containing Observations on a Comet seen at Valparaiso, was read.—Also Elements of Capt. Hall’s Comet, in a letter from Dr, Brinkley to Dr. Wollaston. Jan. 17. A paper on the Ultimate Atoms of the Atmosphere, by Dr. W. H. Wollaston, was read.—Also A paper on the Expansion in a Series of the Attraction of a Spheroid, by James Ivory, esq. Jan. 24. Two papers were read. 1. On the late Depression of the Barometer, by Luke Howard, esq. 2. On the Anomalous Magnetic Attraction of Hot Iron, by P. Barlow, esq. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. Feb. 8.—The second annual general meeting of this Society was held this day; when a Report was read on the State of the Society and its finances, which appeared to be in a very flourishing con- dition. The first volume of their Memoirs is in the press, and will shortly be published. The following is a list of the Officers, which were chosen for the ensuing year: viz. President. Sir William Herschel, LL.D. F.R.S. Vice-Presidents. Major T. Colby, Roy. Eng. LL.D. F.R.S. L. & E. Sir H. C. Englefield, Bart. F.R.S. L. & E. F.S.A. & LS, Davies Gilbert, Esy. V.P.R.S. & F.L.S. D. Moore, Esq. F.R.S. S.A. & L.S. Treasurer. Rey. W, Pearson, LL.D. F.R.S. Secre- 144 Learned Societies. Secretaries. C. Babbage, Esq. M.A. F.R.S. L. & E. F. Baily, Esq. F.R.S. & L.S. J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. M.A. F.R.S. L. & E. ( Foreign.) Council. G. Birkbeck, M.D. Maj. Gen, John Rowley, Roy. B. Gompertz, Esq. F.R.S. Eng. F.RS. O. G. Gregory, LL.D. J. South, Esq. F.R.S. & LS. S. Groombridge, Esq. F.R.S. | E. Troughton, Esq. F.R.S. J. Horsburgh, Esq. F.R.S. L. & E. The Names, under each Office, are arranged alphabetically. ACADEMICAL SOCIETY OF THE LOWER LOIRE. This society has proposed a prize consisting of a gold medal value 300 francs, for the best answer to questions respecting the yellow fever. [It is required to trace its origin, to specify its causes and nature; to describe the state of the atmosphere and local circumstances where it prevails; to notify its identity or otherwise with similar fevers in Europe, &c.; to distinguish whether it be complicated with any other malady. There’is also a second subject relating to the means for preventing its spread- ing, the proper modes of quarantine, &c. The memoirs to be sent, post free, to the secretary of the society before the Ist of May 1822. Each to bear a motto with a tepetition in a sealed paper, containing, as usual, the author’s name and address. ROYAL SOCIETY OF MEDICINE AT MARSEILLES. This society has proposed the following questions: 1. To de- termine the structure and functions of the spinal marrow. 2. To describe the nature, causes, symptoms, and treatment of the diseases by which the spinal marrow is affected. It is desired that clinical observations and pathological anatomy should be made the principal objects of the memoirs. They may be written in Latin or French. The extent of time allowed is till July 1822, and the prize a gold medal. , SOCIETY OF SCIENCES AND ARTS AT METZ. When the nozzle of a blowing machine is placed at a certain distance from that of the tuyére, a stronger current of air is ob- tained than when both are placed together, as is frequently done. This effect is produced by various causes dependent on the elastic nature of the fluid in motion, and of the surrounding atmosphere. The Society of Sciences and Arts at. Meta have founded the following prize question on this experiment: ‘ What are the changes necessary to be made iu the tuyére of blowing machines, to A new Green Colour. 145 to introduce, in the most advantageous manner, the good effect indicated above, or any other improvement for the rapid trans- mission of air to greater or smaller distances.” The prize is 300 frances, and is to be adjudged in April 1822. ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF TOULOUSE. This Academy has proposed as the subject of prize essays, ‘a physico-mathematical theory of drawing and_ forcing pumps, stating the ratio between the moving power and the quantity of water elevated; attention being given to all the obstacles which the force has to overcome.” Among these obstacles are enu- merated, the weight and inertia of the column of water, its fric- tion against the tubes, its contraction at the apertures of the valves, the weight and friction of the pistons, the weight of the valves, the inequality between the upper and lower surface at the moment the pressure opens them, &c. The papers are to be written in French or Latin, and sent in before May 1823, The prize is a gold medal of 500 francs value. { XXXVILI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. . A NEW GREEN COLOUR. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir,— Tur discovery of a new green colour by M. Bizio, which was announced in your last Number, has induced me to make some experiments with other vegetable substances; and I beg to state that I have succeeded in producing a green colour brighter than what I could procure by using coffee, and possessing che- mical properties somewhat different. 1 formed a strong decoc- tion of tobacco by boiling it for some time in pure water ; then added solution of sulphate of copper, and precipitated with sub- carbonate of pvtassa. The precipitate when dry is of a light green colour. Mixed with linseed oil it became darker and brighter, and very like a rich grass green. Dissolved in nitric acid it forms a green solution. It also tinges sulphuric acid of a green colour. I do not find that it is acted upon either by water, alcohol or ether, I am, sir, your obedient servant, No. 6, Dartmouth-street, Westminster, Cuarves M. WILtICH. Feb. 18, 1822, Mr. Willich with the above communication favoured me with specimens of his new green, both dry and mixed up with linseed oil. It is a most beautiful colour, and will probably prove highly useful in the arts.—A. I’. Vol. 59. No. 286. Feb, 1822. hk: CAR- 146 Carbonate of Lime.— Analysis of Tea. CARBONATE OF LIME. Mr. Dalton, in a paper on the analysis of spring and mineral waters, states, ‘‘ that all spring water containing carbonate or super-carbonate of lime is essentially limy or alkaline, by the colour tests, And this alkalinity is not destroyed till some more powerful acid, such as the sulphuric or muriatic, is added, suffi- cient to saturate the whole of the lime. Indeed, these acids may be considered as sutficient for tests of the quantity of lime in such waters ; and nothing more is required than to mark the quantity of acid necessary to neutralize the lime. It does not signify whe- ther the water is boiled or unboiled, nor whether it contains sul- phate of lime along with the carbonate; it is still limy in propor- tion to the quantity of carbonate of lime it contains. Agreeably to this idea, too, I find that the metallic oxides, as those of iron or copper, are thrown down by common spring water, just the same as by free lime. Notwithstanding, this carbonate of lime, in solution in water, contains twice the acid that chalk or lime- stone does. 1 fully expected the super-carbonate of lime in so- lution to be acid; but it is strongly alkaline, and scarcely any quantity of carbonic acid water put to it, will overcome this al- kalinity. Pure carbonic acid water is, however, acid to the tests. I could not be convinced of the remarkable fact stated in this pa- ragraph, till I actually formed super-carbonate of lime, by super- saturating lime water in the usual way, till the liquid from heing milky became clear. It still continued limy, and was even doubt- fully so when two or three times the quantity of acid was added, It should seem, then, to be as impossible to obtain a neutral car- bonate of lime, as it is to obtain a neutral carbonate of ammo- nia, in the sense here attached to the word neutral.’’—Memoirs of the Manchester Society. ANALYSIS OF TEA. In the 24th number of the Quarterly Journal of Science, Mr. Brande has published analyses of black and of green tea, from which he finds that “ the quantity of astringent matter precipi- table by gelatine is somewhat greater in green than in black tea, though the excess is by uo means so great as the comparative flavours of the two would lead one to expect. It also appears that the entire quantity of soluble matter is greater in green than in black tea, and that the proportion of extractive matter not precipitable by gelatine is greatest in the latter.” *¢ Sulphuric, muriatic, and acetic acids, but especially the first, oceasion precipitates in infusions both of black and green tea, which have the properties of combinations of those acids with tan. Both infusions also yield, as might be expected, abundant black pregipitates, with solutions of iron; and when mixed with acetate, Preparation of Quinine. 147 acetate, or more especially with subacetate of lead, a bulky buff- eoloured matter is separated, leaving the remaining fluid entirely tasteless and colourless. This precipitate was diffused through water, and decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen; it afforded a solution of tan and extract, but not any traces of any peculiar principle to which certain medical effects of tea, especially of green tea, could be attributed.” Mr. Brande observes, that there is one property of strong in- fusions of tea, belonging especially to black and green, which seems to announce the presence of a distinct vegetable principle ; namely, that they deposit, as they cool; a brown pulverulent precipitate, which passes through ordinary filters, and can only he collected by deposition and decantation ; this precipitate is very slightly soluble in cold water of the temperature of from 50° downwards, but it dissolves with the utmost facility in water of 100° and upwards, forming a pale-brown transparent liquid, which furnished abundant precipitate in solutions of isinglass; of sul- phate of iron, of muriate of tin, and of acetate of lead; whence it may be inferred to consist of tannin, gallic acid, and extrac- tive matter. bs 3 The following table is given by Mr. Brande as showing the respective quantities of soluble matter in water and alcohol, the weight of the precipitate by isinglass, and the proportion of inert woody fibre on green and black tea of various prices : Soluble in/Soluble in} Precipitate |Inert re- ie en tethigeey pee water. | alcohol. | with jelly. | sidue. Green hyson, 14s. perlb...| 41 44 31 56 Ditto, 12s. wecccccesse 34 43 29 57 Dit0, 108. . cons ncseesiel. oO 43 26 57 a MABSABE ARB G Mie i 42° 25 58 DUO; 782s cecerscocces| OF 4l 24 59 Black souchong, 12s. ....) 35 36 28 64 BE TOS sess ce apeeast OC 37 28 63 MILD, 7S: ,cccssoesccscs| OO 35 24 64 SON, so sadn ss.p's,p esl, 200) 31 23 65 PREPARATION OF QUININE. M. J. Voreton, of Grenoble, employs the following method in preparing Quinine, by which he says he is enabled to procure about two ounces and a half of Quinine from eleven pounds of Cinchona, instead of an ounce and a half, or an ounce and three quarters procured by the common process, The Cinchona re- duced to a coarse powder is to be digested in water, agit ae T2 with 148 Explosion of Chlorine and Hydrogen.—Linen Trade. with about one hundredth of its weight of muriatic acid. At the expiration of 24 hours, the Cinchona is to be strongly pressed, to be again treated with dilute muriatic acid, and the processes are to be repeated till the Cinchona loses its bitterness. The filtered infusions are to be mixed and treated with excess of pure magnesia, the mixture to be boiled for a short time and then suffered to coo]. The magnesian precipitate is to be washed with cold water, dried, and digested in alcohol : by distilling this so- lution the Quinine is obtained.—(Annales de Chimie.) ). EXPLOSION OF CHLORINE AND HYDROGEN. It has been long known that a mixture of chlorine and hy- drogen explodes when exposed to the direct action of the sun’s rays. In order to try if this effect could be produced by the ra- diation of a common culinary fire, Professor Silliman filled -a common Florence oil-flask (well cleaned) half full of chlorine gas, atid was in the act of introducing the hydrogen in the pneu- matic cistern. ‘* There was not only no direct emanation from the sun, but even the diffuse light was rendered much feebler than common by a thick snow-storm, which had covered the skylight above with a thick mantle, and veiled the heavens in a singular degree for such a storm. Under these circumstances, the hydrogen was scarcely all introduced before the flask exploded with a distinct flame; portions of the glass stuck in the wood work of the ceiling of the room, and the face and eyes escaped by being cut of the direction of the explosion; nothing but the neck of the flask remained in hand. This occurrence then proves, that a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen gas may explode spon- taneously in a diffuse light, and even in a very dim light. —Ame- rican Journal of Science, Vol. 3. No. 2. p. 343.) LINEN TRADE. We understand that a very great improvement in the method of bleaching linen and yarn has lately been made by Mr. Crook- shank of Dublin.—As far as we have been able to ascertain, its chief merit consists in the disengaging the chlorine from the oxy- muriate of liine—by which ingenious process it is enabled to act with full force upon the cloth and yarn. Independently of a considerable saving in the quantity of bleaching liquor, by which the possibility of injuring the linen is prevented, this process combines some other very important advantages. It has already been tried on a considerable scale, and has met with the full ap- probation of a gentleman of chemical celebrity.—We are in- formed that Mr. Crookshank har submitted his discovery to the Linen Board, and proposed to exhibit its advantages by a course of experiments. We hope, therefore, that the process will shortly be inade public, for the benefit of the trade.—Dublin, Newspaper, 4th Feb. [ 149 ] “ Example of ‘PERSONAL ApusE,’ in a late Discussion.” From a Correspondent. 1. “ The computations have been conducted by the assist- ance of Mr.Ivory’s most masterly investigations of the attractions ofspheroids. 2 Jan. 1820.”—Journ. R.I. 2. ‘* Entertaining, as I unfeignedly do, the profoundest respect for the analytical talents of Mr. Ivory, and admitting most readily, that he has contributed, more than any person now living, to ad- vance the reputation of this country among our contemporaries abroad, with regard to abstract mathematics. 31 Dec. 1820.”— Journ. R. I. 3. “1 have some concessions to make to Mr. Ivory, and the computations of such a mathematician as he is, are not to be hastily or lightly examined. 3 Nov. 1821.’’— Phil. Mag. 4. “A mathematician of Mr. Ivory’s acknowledged celebrity and transcendent attainments. Dec. 1821.”—Journ. R. I. : 5. To these passages may be added a fifth quotation, not wholly inapplicable to the merits of the present case. ‘‘ It seems, indeed, as if mathematical learning were the ewthanasia of phy- sical talent; and unless Great Britain can succeed in stemming the torrent, and checking the useless accumulation of weighty materials, the fabric of science will sink, in a few ages, under its own insupportable bulk. A sPLENDID EXAMPLE has already been displayed by the Author of the article Attraction in this Supplement: and, to do justice to our neighbours, it must be allowed that they have received the boon with due gratitude, and acknowledged it by merited applause: “all the analytical diffi- culties of the problem,” say Legendre and Delambre (Mém. Inst. 1812) “ vanish at once before this method: and a theory, which before required the most abstruse analysis, may now be explained, in its whole extent, by considerations perfectly elementary.”’ It is, in fact, only when a subject is so simplified, that the investi- gation can be considered as complete, since we are never so sure that we understand the process of nature, as when we can trace at once in our minds all the steps by which that process is con- ducted.”’— Biography of Lagrange, Apr. 1821. ‘Suppl. Enc. Brit. 1822. V. 199. These passages, which, there is reason to think, are the pro- duction of the same pen, are the only personalities that I have been able to discover, relating to Mr. Ivory, in the writings of their author: the mentioning his opinions with levity, so far only as they are asserted to be unfounded, does not appear to me to _ constitute a personality; much less to deserve the epithet of personal abuse. London, 5 Jan. 1822. A.B. C.D. 150 Oil for dalicate Machinery. PRESERVING OBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY. M. Drapier, Professor of Chemistry and Natural History,and one of the Editors of the Annales Generales des Sciences Physiques,’”” has substituted with success, in lieu of the poisonous matters employed in preserving objects of natural history, a soap com- posed of potash and fish oil. He dissolves one part of caustic potash in water, and adds to the solution one part of fish oil: he rubs the mixture till it acquires a pretty firm consistence. When it is completely dry, he reduces it to powder with a rasp. One part of this powder is employed in forming a soft paste or liquid soap, by means of an equal quantity of a solution of camphor in musked alcohol. This liquid soap is well rubbed upon the skin of the bird, previously cleared of its fat, and the other part of the soap and powder is plentifully scattered hetween the feathers. Thus prepared, the bird is placed in a moist situation, in order that the particles of soap may soften and attach themselves per- fectly to the feathers, the down, and the skin. It afterwards is put in adry place. By this means it completely resists the at- tacks of larve, and has neither the danger nor the inconvenience of arsenical preparations, which, as is well known, stain and spoil the extremities of the feathers and down. TO PREPARE OIL PROPER TO BE APPLIED TO WATCH-WORK AND OTHER DELICATE MACHINERY. The oil best adapted for diminishing friction in delicate ma- chinery should be free from all acid and mucilage, and be capa- ble of enduring intense cold without freezing. The oil, in one word, should be pure ea/in free from even a trace of slearin. It is by no means difficult to extract the ealin from any of the fine oils and even from fats, by following M. Chevreul’s process, which consists in treating the oil in a matrass, with seven or eight times its weight of alcohol nearly boiling, decanting the liquid and suffering it to cool. ‘The stearin separates in the form of a crystalline precipitate. The alcoholic solution is then to be evaporated to one-fifth of its volume, and the ealin will be obtained ; which should be colourless and tasteless, almost free from smell, without action on mfusion of litmus, having the con- sistence of white olive oil, and not easily congealable. VACCINATION. Dr. Thompson, of Edinburgh, has started a new theory of vac- cination, viz. that it is not a certain preventive of small-pox, but that it is a better preservative than the small-pox itself. The Doctor is of opinion, that what is denominated chicken-pox is a true variolous disease, modified by previous small-pox or cow- pox, and that the chicken-pox is the mildest after vaccination . has been undergone, cnife found in the Heart of a Tree.—Astronomy. 151 A KNIFE FOUND IN THE HEART OF A TREE. Some sawyers of the name of Short were employed to saw a fir-tree raised from a turf bog, or peat moss, as it is elsewhere called. The tree was dug up six feet below the surface, in the Rev. Mr. Steward’s property, in Tyrone, and brought to his residence at Grange, near Armagh, where the Shorts were em- ployed to saw it. They proceeded in their task, but having ad- vanced about half way through the log, the saw was arrested. They then turned the log, and continued to saw it in the oppo- site direction, when they discovered the blade of a knife, in a hole in which a man’s fist could lie. The conjecture of the saw- yers was, that the knife had been stuck into the bark, and that the hole was occasioned by the rotting of the handle, as it was enveloped by the annual coating of the growing tree. ASTRONOMY. Mr. Schumacher, the Danish astronomer, has recently esta- blished an astronomical journal, which promises to be exceedingly interesting to the lovers of astronomy. It is printed in quarto, in separate sheets (like some of our Sunday newspapers); and is published as often as the matter accumulates to a sufficient quantity for a number. The first number appeared towards the latter end of last year; and already six numbers have been pub- lished: the seventh is now in the press. It is written in Ger- man, which will prevent its being much circulated in this coun- try: but many of the articles are worthy of being translated, and distributed here. The eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, as given in the Nautical Al- manac for this year, are almost all of them erroneous. There is sometimes as much as 2’.10” difference between the values given in that work, and the correct value. The North polar distances of the principal stars, as given in the Nautical Almanac for 1824, are also erroneous, in conse- quence of a derangement in the mural circle at Greenwich. The particulars of the circumstances, attending this derangement, were communicated by Mr. Pond in a letter to the Royal Society as far back as November last: but none of the public journals have yet alluded to the subject, nor has any thing further tran- spired relative thereto: except that we are informed that a Committee of the Royal Society has been appointed to inspect the state of the instrument. Major General Sir Thomas Brisbane, in his recent voyage to New South Wales, observed an occultation of Regulus, at sea. And, what is a remarkable circumstance, the star appeared on the disc of the moon (at its emersion) for two minutes: a longer time than has ever yet been recorded. M Ie 152 List of Patents for New Inventions. Mr. Schumacher’s Astronomische Hiilfstafeln’ will not be ready for publication these two months: this work has been, in some measure, superseded by a similar publication of Mr. Baily’s, in this country; we regret however that this latter work is printed for private circulation only, and not for general use, The observers of double stars will be pleased to hear that there is a list of several which have been observed by Dr. Struve, at the new Observatory at Dorpat, in Mr. Bode’s Astronomische Jahrbuch for 1824. The Russians are about to measure an arc of the meridian in their country: Dr. Struve and M. Walbeck are to have the di- rection of the business. LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS. To John Hague, of Great Pearl-street, Spitalfields, Middle- sex, engineer, for his improved method of making metallic pipes, tubes, or cylinders, by the application and arrangement in appa- ratus of certain machinery and mechanical powers.—Dated the 29th Jan. 1S22.—6 months allowed to enrol specification. To Sir William Congreve, of Cecil-street, Strand, Middlesex, baronet, for certain improved methods of multiplying fac-simile impressions to any extent.—29th Jan.—6 months. To Peter Ewart, of Manchester, Lancashire, civil engineer, for his method of making coffer dams.—29th Jan.—2 months. To Robert Bill, of Newman-street, in the parish of St. Mary- le-bone, Middlesex, gentleman, for his improved method of manufacturing metallic tubes, cylinders, cones, or of other forms, adapted to the construction, and for the construction of the masts, yards, booms, bowsprits, or casks, or for any other pur- poses to which they may be applicable.-—5th Feb.—6 months.” To Frederick Louis Tatton, of New Bond-street, Middlesex, watcli-maker, who, in consequence of discoveries by himself and communications made to him by a certain foreigner residing abroad, is in possession of an astronomical! instrument or watch by which the time of the day, the progress of the celestial bodies, as well as carriages, horses, or animals, may be correctly ascer= tained.—9th Feb.—2 months. To George Holworthy Palmer, of the Royal Mint, engineer, for certain improvements in the production of heat by the appli- cation of weil-known principles not hitherto made use of in the construction of furnaces of steam-engines and of air furnaces in general, whereby a considerable saving in the expenditure of fuel is obtained, and the total consumption of smoke may be ef- fected.— 12th Feb.—6 months. To John Frederick Smith, of Dunston Hall, in the parish of Chesterfield, Derbyshire, esq., for his improvements in ico . to) Meteorology. 153 of piece goods made from silk or worsted, or of both these ma- terials. — 12th Feb,—4 nionths. To Sampson Davis, of Upper East Smithfield, Middlesex, gun-lock maker, for his improvement upon the lock for guns and other fire-arms, which enables the same lock to be used upon the percussion principle, or with gunpowder without charging the lock or hammer.—12th Feb.—2 months. To Thomas Brunton, of the Commercial Road, Middlesex, chain cable and anchor manufacturer, for his improvement upon the anchor which he conceives will be of publfe utilitv.—12th Feb.—6 months. To Elisha Peck, of Liverpool, Lancashire, merchant, who in consequence of a communication made to him by Ralph Bulkley, a foreigner resident in the city of New-York, and a citizen of the United States of America, is in possession of an invention of a certain machinery to be worked by water applicable to the moving of mills and other machinery of various descriptions for the forcing or pumping of water.—Feb.— 6 months. METEOROLOGY. To Dr. Tilloch. Hartwell, February 19, 1822, Sir,—There are some circumstances so remarkable in the pre- sent season, that I have deemed them worthy of being noted down in your magazine, with a view that they may be compared with the observations of meteorologists in different parts of the coun- try. That the winter has been very unusually mild, and that there has been a considerable proportion of wet and blowing weather, must have struck every body ; but on a minute inspec- tion of the instruments of meteorology, I find peculiarities which are less obvious to common observation. In four days out of seven (on an average ) in every week since the Ist of last December, the temperature has risen more than three degrees between nine o’clock at night and midnight ; there has been a constant fluc- tuation of temperature, as well as of barometrical pressure, all the winter, with the exception of a few weeks of late; but the above circumstance seems to show that the changes from a lower to a higher temperature have usually taken place between nine o’clock and midnight ; for if the weather had not changed at that time, the heat would have gone on declining through the night, as usual. Should any of your correspondeuts be desirous of it, I can sénd you minutes of the observations taken from my journal. Of the cause of the above phenomena I am ignorant ; but if elec- tricity be principally concerned in producing atmospherical changes, its irregular distribution this season (which several other circumstances indicate ) may perhaps account for the unusual Vol, 59, No, 286. el, 1822, U periods 154 M eteorology. periods of the changes of temperature. The perpetual changes of the weather, accompanied with showers of rain in December and January, have induced a false belief that a real greater quantity of rain has fallen this season than is usual, which some astrologers have not been backward hastily to attribute to the conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn. . In faet, there has been no very great in- crease in the quantity of rain fallen this winter. The extraordi- nary depression of the quicksilver in the barometer is another re- markable circumstance, as it has occurred more than once during the present season. On the night of the 24th December at eight o’clock it was as low as 27:97°, the thermometer being 46° of Fahrenheit. By twelve o’clock the barometer had risen aboutt> of an inch, and the thermometer had risen to 48° ; and the wind, which was high, became stormy, and blew in violent gales inter- cepted by calms, and accompanied by torrents of rain. The most violent gale we have had this year, took place at five in the morning of the 23d December ; it blew tremendously for above an hour, and was followed by a dead calm ; but the wind , got up again and blew very cold. After sun-rise on the 25th, I have noticed that previously to all the heavy gales that have blown of late, there has been an elevation of temperature. We have had but three frosty nights this year ; but my house stands half way up a hill which rises from one of the valleys of the Medway, and the upper half of the hill shelters it from the north. The contracted range of temperature in each day is another remarkable circumstance, the difference between the maximum and minimum being very inconsiderable during the unseasonably mild weather of the winter solstice ; and it is curious, that a si- milar approximation of the maximum and minimum of tempera- ture was observed during the very cool weather which happened about the last. summer solstice. I merely hint at these peculia- rities at present, without comment; as the grand cause of these phenomena of the weather is as yet unexplained, and requires the accurate observation of ages to develop it. For the present we must cortent ourselves with observations, and avoid as much as possible entangling them with hypothesis.—I have prepared for some future number, a copious list of plants which have flowered prematurely this winter, and which I hope to send you in a few weeks, At present the Scilla Peruviana flowers in the open ground :—this is the most remarkable of the premature produc- tions of this warm winter, as this plant is in general very con- stant to its period, which is the beginning of May. T remain, in haste, yours, J. FORSTER. Manchester, 7; 1822. losed you my annual results of the weather February Manchester, azine r valuable mag Aud am, sir, your most obedient servant, To Dr. Tilloch. sertion in you Sir,—I have inc for the past year, for in PLO se PBOT-S6GP Ss (1038 Ls "x w hues 083-6 J L6-7 [LL 6 got ¢ L8a-6 9F-G 319-6 ST G 3oV.1 P6I-¢ P36-6 GPL-S P98. Vol sel =e] ™ 91.06 91-06 vL-og 80-0& jsusuy SI-0¢ | Ajoye 83-06 |L6- auny )L.08 | Sey 10-06 pad CL-08 |OP-62/ qouely 6¢-0E | Gag £9 OS “ue ~~~ | oS Ce ane an Tuomas HANSON. x Boo) Ot - ore OnMmoOroan™ cy QeNnaan wvonoow « DA — 9 = IY Gs aaa + a >» a DAD ORAARDAAHDOO = OD ~< GP re rH Er SOnVTTomMnyoco ~OGars Or ON s> | U2 aA "YBoOd “Le aouey ur AjGeBA *sAR(T OAL SNOLI1SiOF “yoy Ayy 6 193A, YMON 383.44 430g ssegq yon *Samunyo jo'on *sayour ur saovdg “say sip *UBO I S44 h sda Fruru’yT -yp1v “roqsoyouey “pul Ad Ue raanqriadtta f ‘odUSSAlg jeALoWeseg *HOPUOTT JO ISIAA OT o& PPAUSUOT—"yUION (CZ pee epurneyz ‘uoading Suosuvpy semuoyy ‘yy Aq ST ZQy svat ay ut Sdaysoyouepy av aprat snonva -1asqQ [euNIg Woy peonpep ‘ory ‘purgy Sarey Saanqusiadmay par sinssoig jeouiaydsouny om JO SLINSAU TVOISOTOUOHLAN 156 Meteorological Results. The annual mean temperature of the past vear is fifty-one ae. grees ; being about two degrees above the average : the mean of the first three months, 40°9 ; second 54°1; third, 61°9; fourth, 48°; of the six winter paiaiibdig 44°4 5 six cave te months, 57° 9. The maximum, or hottest state of the year was 81°, which oc- curred on the memorable 19th of July, the Coronation of King George the Fourth ; the minimum or coldest state was 23°, which is only 9 below freezing; this happened on the 4th January, making an annual variation of 58°. From the above, the reporter is enabled to draw the following comparison between the past and preceding year, viz. the average heat of the six summer months of 1821 was nearly one degree more than that of 1820, and the heat of the six winter months three degrees above the corresponding ones of the preceding year; so that the temperature of 1821 has been more mild than usual, and not marked by any very great extremes. The annual mean elevation of the barometer is nearly twenty- nine inches and seven-tenths; highest 36°65, which was on the 23rd of January; lowest 28-16, which happened on the 28th of December : the difference of these extremes makes 2°49 inches : mean of the six summer months 29-75 ; of the six winter months 29°63. The mean daily movements of the barometrical surface measure nearly forty-eight inches: total number of changes oue hundred and five. The barometer throughout the month of February was remarkably high and desultory in its movements : on the contrary, in the mouth of December it oscillated most éx- traordinarily ; and towards the close of the year very low; the utmost depression was the minimum of the year. Much has heen said about the wetness of the past year. My annual account scarcely amounts to 32 inches in depth, which is certainly under the average for Manchester. Mr. John Blackwall of Crumpsall, makes his ‘anual fall three inches more ; and Mr. John Dalton, for Ardwick, nearly eight inches more than mine. On the contrary, Mr. Edward Steifox of Lymm near Warrington, has only registered a fall of twenty-eight inches. The differences in our annual statements of rain [rom places so near together are singular, and certainly require an attentive inquiry. The only difference in eur apparatus is, that Mr. Dalton’s rain funnel is larger ; mine, Mr. Blackwall'’s, and Mr. Stelfox’s are made alike, the same size, and of one material, which is that of copper. Pro- vided our calculations of the method of measuring the rain col- lected in these funnel-areas be correct, and which I have every reason to conclude is the case ; and provided their surfaces are parallel with the horizon, and at sufficient distances from trees, buildings, or any object that might obstruct a free access, it must fullow that there can be no error in our results, I have — own eee Brilliant Pheenomenon. 157 down 180 days on which rain fell more or less, which number is one less than last year. In the last five months of 1820 there were 85 wet days ; the number in the corresponding ones of 1821 is 101. February was the dryest, and September and Novem- ber the wettest. _ The south, south-west, and west winds have been the most prevalent: those winds were noticed to blow on 224 days, On the 18th, 19th, and 20th of March, (about the vernal equinox) the wind blew hurricanes from the north-west, attended with rain, snow, and sleet. On the night of the 30th of November and following morning, the wind blew a most violent gale from the south-west accompanied with hail and rain; the damage done in consequence, by the falling of chimneys, unroofing of houses, &c. was great; several lives were lost in Liverpool and other places, and a large number of vessels suffered in the harbours and on the neighbouring coasts. Bridge-street, 28th January, 1822. BRILLIANT PHENOMENON. [A brief notice of the following brilliant phenomenon appeared in several of the journals not long after its occurrence. We have been favoured with the following more particular account, written by an eye-witness. ] *¢ On the night of the 2d of August 1819, in‘ north latitude 5°, and west longitude 20°, a most astonishing degree of bril- liancy was exhibited by the ocean, under circumstances which added in a very remarkable manner to the magnificence of the spectacle. , ‘¢ Every appearance of an. approaching storm was indicated ; black clouds traversed the firmament in hurried confusion ; the wind, veering from point to point, rushed by in short heavy blasts—suddenly it lulled, darkness became intense, and the most profound silence ensued. Anxiety was now excited to its ut- most height ; in breathless suspense we awaited the result of an impending storm, which threatened almost sure destruction to the stoutest vessel, should she encounter the first discharge of its fury. From this region of gloom, and horrors anticipated, our trusty bark emerged ; and instantly, as by magic, we were ush- ered into an element flaming with resplendence, The ocean presented one continued sheet of illumination; the phosphorescent blaze, radiated from the blue-tinted wave, produced a variety of beautifully coloured light, which at intervals shone with the clearness of noon-day. ‘The reflection falling on the sails and white masts gave a rich metallic cast: the bowsprit and yard, from their favourable situation and the fresh coat of paint re- cently put on them, attracted the highest degree of admiration ; the silvery lustre which they displayed could scarcely have been surpassed 158 brilliant Pheenomenon. surpassed by the original metal in its most polished state. So rapid and unexpected a transition from darkness impenetrable to a scene dazzling with splendour, produced an effect truly electric. Exclamations burst from the wondering spectators, and rung tn echoes loud throughout the ship. Usurped by the novel and im- posing character of the phenomenon, the mind seemed inacces- sible to every other impression, and, for the moment, lost all re- collection even of the storm itself. The sparkling of sea-water, although common, is a subject not satisfactorily explained. At the present day, naturalists maintain two theories :-one goes to ascribe it to phosphorescent animalcula, of which myriads are detected, by the aid of the microscope, in every part of the ocean, though most abundantly in the vicinity of the equator. The other refers it to putrefaction: during this process, luminous sparks are copiously evolved when the water is briskly agitated. Thus the phosphorescent principle is brought forward by both parties—the former believing the light to proceed from living, the latter from dead animal matter. The luminous appearance of the ocean, in the present instance, differed materially from that which it usu- ally presents: in addition to those small points of light which are observed to flash from sea-water when ruffled, others were readily distinguishable by the very vivid and copious rays they emitted. * To ascertain the nature of the substance from whence so much light issued, a bucket was prepared, by means of which we were so fortunate as to dip up three. The description is as fol- lows: they are composed of a cartilaginous-like substance, from two to three inches long, aud covered with transparent eminences, each containmg a drop of water: the shape slightly conical, having an opening through the base, which terminated in the op- posite extremity. The internal structure proved equally simple with the external ; in the place of vesicles this surface was stud- ded with minute grains of a brownish complexion. No signs of sensibility were discoverable, and the only indication of animation was the power of ascending and descending in water; during these motions a state of contraction and dilatation were alter- nately perceived. Viewed in a glass of sea-water, a scene beau- tifully brilliant was displayed; the delicacy of verulean, mingled with the splendour of phosphorescence, whilst numerous inter- mediate shades served to vary and enrich the showy prospect. This pleasing illumination was only visible whilst the substance was in motion, which might readily be induced by a gentle degree of agitation given occasionally to the water. ‘* To preserve one of these extraordinary dazzlers it was im- mersed in spirits; in a short space of time the sole relics of its late splendour consisted of an unmeaning cylinder of colourless cartilage,” : METEORO= Meteorology. 159 METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL KEPT AT BOSTON, LINCOLNSHIRE, BY MR. 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GkG|ES-66 EP. GEZIGL-OF 93 9FZ|E9- 9G OB) apNnzisuo] $,Uooy] G¢-09 LP 9FG) 10-87 LP QbG) GP-EL GF 9¥2| 88-01 oF QhS|SGE Sh QE 61-0 SF 9h th eeeeesereess Qpngisuoy 6,UNg €-69 11 0 [9669 019 |ESl 69 16 |r $9 iz lee-0: 9 €2 [ee-0. ¢ €o | °"s* °°" * poutaeseisiaeseuy if) es | i (1 BRR “" u U “Y Uj Y " / y U3) ana! Y “pus ay} 10g *Suruuisaq oy} 10,4 ‘uoyjounluoa ‘andde oy3 10,7 “younuaaiey sof Hurjojnajvs wt porin770 syynsay yogiourad ayy fo 21907, On the Combination of Silicium with Platina, 8c. 185 - The results in one view are as follow: Apparent time. “ D 4H. _ Beginning of the eclipse at Greenwich, Nov. 28 21 58 57°77 Greatest obscuration .. ws = 23 4 15°06 Apparent conjunction ., oe ae 23 5 30-74 End of the eclipse my ae -- 29 O11 30-46 Digits eclipsed at greatest obscuration, on as e the north part of the sun’s disc, ao Wee The moon will make the first impression on the sun’s west limb at 35° 22’ 29” from his zenith. In your Magazine for April last, I observed a remark respect- ing the probability of an error of 6’ in the place of the. moon’s node as given in the Nautical Almanack for 1821, 1822, and 1823. This induced me to make a calculation of the lunar eclipse of the 6th instant; and in comparing the elements as obtained by interpolation from the Naut. Alm. with those found by calculation from the tables, I found the results differed very little. But on further consideration, it occurs to me that the error alluded to mast be in the longitude of the node, as given for every 6th day, page 3, of each month: and it would appear that the computers of this part of the work have neglected a certain quantity which is applied to the supplement of the node in Burckhardt’s tables, to make the equations additive. I am, sir, yours respectfully, Aberdeen, Feb. 15, 1822. GEo. INNEs. XLIII. On the Combination of Silicium with Platina; and on its Presence in Steel. By J. B. BousstncauLt*, I, was lately announced by M. Prechtel of Vienna, that he had succeeded in melting platina, in refractory crucibles, with an in- tense fire; and | therefore hoped (having access to the wind- furnace of the laboratory of the School of Mines, in which coke is used for fuel) to be able to accomplish the fusion of this metal; but the results were different from what I expected. Of the Fusion of Platina. One gramme of platina was placed in a plain earthen cruci- ble ; and alike quantity was put into a crucible lined with char- coal, and was covered with charcoal powder. _ The two crucibles were set in a wind-furnance, and exposed for three hours to a very violent heat. (Under the same cireum- stances M. Leboulanger succeeded in fusing a perfect button of manganese, ) * From the Annales de Chimie et de Physique. Vol. 59. No, 287, March 1822. Aa The 186 —§ On the Combination of Silicium with Platina, The platina in the plain crucible did not melt; it only ac- quired a greater lustre. That in the charcoal crucible was com- pletely melted into a button. These experiments. were repeated several times, and always with similar results ; and the metal was fused much more readily when covered with charcoal powder. | ' It was perceived, that the melted platina gained a small in- crease of weight in the process, showing its combination with some substance, which was naturally concluded to be charcoal, since it was every where in. contact with this body. The melted platina exhibits the following properties: Its aspect is greyish-white ; it is with difficulty cut with a knife, does not easily yield to the file; its specific gravity is 20°5. In the cold it flattens a little under the hammer, but it soon cracks and presents a granulated fracture. When hammered at a cherry- red heat it becomes grained; at a very low red it slightly flat- tens, and then cracks. — It does not in any degree alter its tem- per by heating and gradual cooling. Exposed to the blast of a forge-furnace, it was not even softened. As this method was not sufficient to drive off the supposed carbon in its composition, it was cemented for an hour with oxide of manganese ; but the button of platina lost none of its properties, and remained equally refractory; and I then began to doubt of the presence of carbon, which I had taken for granted. It was, therefore, important to examine whether platina would, like iron, combine with char- coal by cementation. For this purpose I stratified slips of platina with powder of wood-charcoal in a crucible, which was heated very strongly for four hours, but to a degree short of the melting point of platina thus circumstanced. On examination, the platina was found to have lost part of its lustre, and its surface presented small inequalities, like blistered steel. Its specific gravity was from 17:5 to 18. It acquired in the process a considerable hardness, so as easily to scratch pure platina, and even iron, but not steel. Its hardness was not increased by quenching in cold water. It had gained by cementation, as well as by fusion, a small increase of weight. Perhaps this process might be of some use in the arts, either in cutlery, or particularly in gun- making, where the softness of common platina is complained of. Examination of the melted and cemented Platina, Eighty grammes of this platina were treated with aqua-regia, The solution was more difficult than with pure platina. No trace of carbonaceous residue appeared during solution; but, as it pro- ceeded, there was observed a transparent jelly, which covered. the bits of platina, and rendered the solution more difficult. By long digestion and much shaking, the whole, or nearly so, was dissolved ; and. on its Presence in Steel. 187 dissolved: this was evaporated, and the dry salt redissolved in water, leaving a white powder behind. This powder was then heated in a silver crucible with three parts of potash, in which it readily melted, and the alkaline mass easily and totally dissolved‘in water, with the exception of some minute fragments of platina separable by the filter. Sulphuric acid poured into the filtered fluid gave a white gelatinous preci- pitate, which was evidently silex. It is probable, therefore, that the wood-charcoal (which yields by combustion 2 or 3 per cent. of ash, chiefly siliceous) furnishes the silex that unites with the platina during the cementation, probably in the form of silicium, every circumstance being, favourable for the reduction of the si- lex into its metallic basis. The silicium is not furnished by the crucible, for the cementation of the platina takes place equally well when a pretty large crucible is employed, and stuffed full of charcoal, with only a small cavity in the middle of it, to re- ceive platina. The increase of weight thus acquired by the pla- tina is very trifling. It is necessary not to use too much platina relatively to the quantity of charcoal, otherwise the fusion goes on very imperfectly, or not at all. To ascertain further, whether the wood-charcoal furnished the silex, I repeated the experiment, using Jamp-black instead of common charcoal; but the platina returned. from the crucible unchanged, and quite ductile. To judge of the quantity of silicium absorbed by the platina in the above-mentioned process, 1 took in one experiment ex- actly five grammes of platina, and after fusion the button weighed 5-025. One gramme of this button gave on analysis ‘O10 of silex. If the silex were in the state of earth in the metallic but- ton, one gramme should have yielded only 005, and therefore we must admit that it alloys wit the platina in the state of silicium, and that it absorbs -005 (or its own weight) of oxygen by so- lution in aqua-regia, whereby it passes into the state of silex. These are the proportions which I have assumed in calculating that of silicium as it enters into the composition of steel. On Silicium in Steel. ‘The conversion of iron into steel is attributed to carbon alone ; and this opinion, supported by the experiments of Monge, Ber- -thollet, and Vandermonde, has been generally adopted by all chemists who have turned their attention to this subject. It is true that carbon is always found in steel ; but another product, silex, which is as constantly obtained in the analysis of steel, and sometimes in as large a quantity as the carbon, has been usually considered as accidental. . I have, therefore, expressly sought Ne Aa2 the 188 On the Combination of Silicium with Platina, the silex in the analysis which I have made of several of the pro- ducts of the foundry of La Berardiere. | I dissolved the steel in sulphuric acid, diluted with six times its weight of water. The insoluble residue was then dried, weighed, and burned, and the proportion of carbon was inferred by the loss in burning. It deserves to be noticed that this car- bonaceous residue takes fire long before the platina erucible is red-hot ; sometimes even when it is no hotter than the hand can bear. The residue after combustion was then digested with di- lute muriatic acid, which dissolved the metallic oxides, leaving the silex pure, which last was then calcined and weighed when ~ warm. In this procedure the estimate of carbon is far from being ri-. gorously accurate, but my principal object was directed to that of the silex. Experiments were made with four different sam- ples, namely, Ist. Iron (derive) ; 2d. Cemented steel; 3d. Cast- steel; 4th. Steel from Monkland near Glasgow, made with Dan- nemora Swedish iron. The products were as follow: Iron. Carbon. Silicium. Mang. & Copper.: Nos 15:)/99°825 cossiadiactrace sade) OAT. cue eatrace 2, 99325. 6..4...0°490 2.244. 0225 2.205. ditto By 9O442 08 fais) OP3BBis ci;.04.6. OF225) i. oa oe ditto 4, 99°375. .. 0006 0:500 2. vi 10125) oe ais ov ditto It appears, therefore, that during the cementation of iron into steel, it absorbs a small quantity of silicium as well as carbon ; but I state this with some doubt, as it requires a greater num- ber of analyses with the same iron both before and after cemen- tation. The combination of iron with silicium was long ago hinted at by Clouet. He says expressly that iron combines with glass 5 and of all the experiments that could be imagined to prove the property possessed by silicium to convert iron into steel, none would be more conclusive than that of this eminent chemist 5 but such is the force of preconceived opinion, that he interpreted his result in favour of carbon,—His process was, to melt soft iron with a mixture of clay and chalk, and it turned out good cast- steel: and being satisfied that steel must contain carbon, he in- ferred that his product contained it, and explained its presence from the decomposition of the carbonic acid of the chalk by the iron at a high temperature, without ever ascertaining by analysis whether carbon was really present in his steel. To be satisfied of this fact, I repeated Clouet’s process, fol- lowing with scrupulous accuracy the description which he has given in his report to the Institute. (Jowrnal des Mines ee ne and on its Presence in Steel. - 189 The iron which I emploved was first assayed by digestion in di- lute sulphuric acid, in which it dissolved without leaving any sensible quantity of residue. The crucible was put into the forge at seven o’clock. At eight, the fusion being complete, I cast the metallic contents ; the crucible having stood so well that it might have served a se- cond time. Having thus obtained a quantity of Clouet’s steel, 1 proceeded to examine its properties. It yields to the file, and is forged with more difficulty than the steel of La Berardiere. It shows no spot after nitric acid has stood on its polished surface. It dissolved with difficulty in di- lute sulphuric acid, preserving its metallic brightness all the time. The residue was very bulky, and proved to be silex quite pure and white, being in the proportion of 1-6 per cent. of the iron em- ployed, 0:8 of silicium. This steel, therefore, consists simply of 99*2 of iron, and 0-8 of silicium, without a particle of carbon: nevertheless the name of steel can hardly be denied to it, since it has the characteristic property of having its temper hardened by heating and sudden quenching in water. It may, therefore, be maintained that, for ‘the conversion of iron into steel, silicium appears at least as es- sential as carbon, since we have none without the former; but we have one species without the carbon. Our knowledge on the subject, however, is too limited to enable us to deny the utility of carbon in steel, which perhaps is necessary to make it more easily wrought; and in fact all the kinds of steel that are employed contain carbon, whilst no use is made of that of Clouet. Of Cast-Iron. The fusibility of iron is shown by melting the metal in a Hes- sian crucible in a forge-heat. It may be questioned, however, whether the metal is pure iron. Ten grammes of small nails were cut in pieces, half of them were dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid without leaving the smallest residue: the other half were melted in a Hessian crucible, yield- ing a well-fused and very brilliant button. This was more dif- ficult to file and to forge than the iron which furnished it; like Clouet’s steel, it preserved its metallic brilliancy during its solu- tion in dilute acid; and it left behind a very white bulky residue of pure silex. The melted button was, therefore, composed of ' 99-46 per cent. of iron, and the silex obtained by solution was 1-08, being equal to 0°54 of silicium., This melted iron, there- fore, has the greatest analogy with the cast-steel of Clouet: but in the latter case the clay and the chalk with which the iron is covered, form a siliceous envelope, in which the metal is kept immersed, 190 Account of the Levelling taken from immersed, and which easily dissolves the oxide of iron formed by the decomposition of the silex, thereby facilitating the reduc- tion. Whereas, when the iron is fused by itself, the silex can only be furnished by the crucible, to which it coheres with con- siderable force; and the oxide of iron, as it forms, soaks into the crucible, and serves to protect the earth from the contact of the metal ; which is doubtless the cause why the conversion into steel cannot be completed without the presence of a glass. We cannot, therefore, judge of the degree of heat required for the fusion of iron in a Hessian crucible, since it appears demon- strated that at a very high heat iron reduces silex, and combines with the silicium thus produced into a compound more fusible than iron perse. On the other hand, when platina is heated with silicium already formed, it unites with it into a more fusible compound; but if this metal does not melt by itself in a Hessian crucible, it is because it has so littie affinity for oxygen, that it has not, like iron, the property of decomposing silex. Though we cannot fix the degree of fusion of pure iron, any more than that of platina or of manganese, we may at least determine their relative fusibilities when in contact with charcoal or silicium, or both together ; which, in a crucible lined with charcoal, is in the following order; namely, iron, platina, and manganese: and if we admit it to be probable that this is the real order of fusibi- lity when they are pure, it will follow that manganese is a more refractory metal than platina. XLIV. Account of the Levelling taken from the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor and the Observatory, to the Canal, _,and. ultimately to the Irish Sea; being a Continuation of the Article given in our last Number, p. 130. By A Corre- _ SPONDENT. To: Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — Tue usual method of measuring the fall of a declivity is by means of a telescopic level placed between two staves marked with feet and inches, with a little additional apparatus to en- able the observer to raise or depress the cross wires to the nearest inch on the first erected staff, and also to alter the height of the one in advance until a particular inch is covered by the telescope (by which means the fractional parts of inches and the use of the sliding vanes may be avoided) :—a more accurate method could not be devised. It must, however, be found extremely tedious in practice, and the more so in proportion to the abruptuess of the descent. Wishing if possible to avoid any errors of an optical natule, the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, &¥c. 191 nature, the following instrument was prepared ; but, from the marshy nature of the summit of Rumbles Moor, could not be rendered serviceable. An inflexible deal rod, carrying at each end a thin steel plate about six inches square, and exactly ten feet asunder, being placed upon a perfectly horizontal plane, the brass plate of the large sector was attached to the rod in a vertical position, and the bubble of the index-level (at zero) adjusted to its mark. The instrument being placed upon two stands erected upon the de- clivity of the moor, with their upper surfaces truly horizontal, the index when levelled would mark the angle of inclination, which with the constant radius of ten feet, and a table of natural sines, would give the fall from one stand to the other, from the sum- mit to the base of the mountain. The brass plate with the di- visions being perpendicular to the steel ends, and the stands on which they rest perfectly level, it follows that the former would be always in a vertical position, and that the bubble when once at its mark could not be displaced, however the position of the instrument might be varied. To avoid the expense of a levelling instrument, the fall from Rumbles Moor to the canal at its base was determined with a four-inch theodolite, two staves about twenty inches in length, and a 100-feet tape. When the reaches of the road would admit of it, the staves, commencing at the station, were placed nearly 200 feet asunder, and the theodolite erected and adjusted at the middle distance. The cross wires being fixed upon the centre of the white circles in the upper part of the dark-coloured staves (which to avoid parallax were described on thin paper, and had one common cen- tre), the angles of elevation and depression were carefully read off to half minutes on the two-inch semicircle. The distances from the centres of the circles to the axis of the divided arch were next measured with the tape, and affixed to their respective angles.—With these data and a table of logarithmic ses, the difference of altitude of the staves is easily calculated. . A base trigonometrically determined (with favourable angles) to be 6719 feet, being measured with the tape, served to ascer- tain its error, as well as the trifling one of the scale with which in future it was from time to time compared. This novel method of levelling is, 1 firmly believe, little in- ferior to the usual one in point of accuracy, and evidently pre- ferable as far as regards convenience and dispatch, The staves may be placed (as is frequently required) in an oblique position, and the steeper the descent the greater the accuracy of the operation. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the constant error of the instrument, the refraction, and the allowance for curvature, 192 “Account of the Levelling taken from curvaturé, being opposed to each other in quantities nearly equal, need not enter into the calculation. In a second attempt to find the fall, the distances when even slopes presented themselves were sometimes as much as 2000 feet, and little attention was paid to the placing of the theodo- lite precisely at the medium distance. : The route adopted is upwards of four miles ; yet the aggregate fall to various places, as determined by the two methods, rarely differed more than a foot. The mean gave 976 feet for the total perpendicular descent. Finally, A third or verification levelling was effected in nearly a direct line to the canal. The distances were repeatedly mea- sured with tapes of different lengths, and the angles were taken with the horizon-sector. ‘The last distance was found trigono- metrically from two bases, all the three angles being observed. The sector was moreover taken to both stations, and the zenith distances reciprocally observed. The result is one foot less than the mean of the preceding essays. 420:5 ft. 0 57 20 clev. 7:01 fall 646-0 3 11 50 dep. 36°00 1362°5 2 34 50 elev. 61-34 1361°8 3 18 15 dep. 78°49 1576°4 4 48 32 elev. 1382°15 1577°6 = 3:17 «47 dep. 90°83 7841-0 4°6 4 dep. 562-00 Height of instrum. oe 7'20 Fall to canal at E. Morton 975°02 Do. to basin at Liverpool 289-00 Do. to low-water mark 54:00 Height of Rumbles Moor \ 1318 above the Irish sea The last distance is horizontal; the others hypothenusal. The altitude of the observatory was ascertained by a different and perhaps more satisfactory method. The elevations of three well defined (but inaccessible) objects, situated between the ob- servatory and the canal, were carefully determined at a station on the banks of the latter. The depressions observed at the first-mentioned place gave the corresponding fall, and their sum the elevation of the observatory above the canal*. .The distances were found trigonometrically, from stations linked to the Ord- nance survey, and were of course of accurate origin. * When the intermediate object is equi-distant from the two stations, the refraction may be disregarded. . In 4 } x ~ eye: ean / Phil. Mag Vol. UR PLA. Specimens taken trom the middle of the Wood merely pieces of the Foot. a Kot No] e y 9 “| - a ah fo . bh iy . 7 3 y a wy \« de «| ; ¥ ‘ af Rar aire r if at <' eee 1. ee i, f a . of ¥ 4 re ne a ie fa Ate or x \N NV SS oe KK - mM ig 2 UCU MG Md Ra <2 Sas SS paicten an ne RR eR a Hy ry * 3 pee REAR ony 999999999904 2 ay = = 2 IS £27407 "S as : > os . | NS 8 dd aN the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, &c. 193 In a third attempt an intermediate accessible station was se- lected, and ald the angles reciprocally observed. The mean of the several methods, as appears from the subjoined statement, is 275°3 feet. Sum of the two distances. By reciprocal observations (12430 feet).......++, 275°6 By object No. 1 o% /oG17 922 feet), .. «eisai Shard | re Qh eosin) GRGSD Meet) ) «5,5 sesid-e 27950 Dos.» : 3 pe (15457 feet) vevecine +s 274°8 Mean i a “, Me ae 275°3 Canal above basin at Liverpool ait ee 63:0 Basin above low water ae ee ee 54:0 Height of observatory above the Irish sea... 392°3 Difference of altitude of Rumbles Msor 926 feet and the Observatory by levelling .. Do. by reciprocal observations with the 927 feet horizon sector be HA os ; As the measurements of the locks do not exactly correspond with the statement in Dr. Rees’s Cyclopedia, I must, in candour, furnish the comparison. Dr. Rees. Measured. Feet. Ft. In. 30 29 5 279. i ieson VA RAL 54 5 67 68 4 se at the tunnel near Colne above the 431 432 1 asin at Liverpool .. as Fall to E. Morton aA a 150 142 11 281 289 2 Fall to the river Aire as Af ~- 260 269 2 21 20 Mr. Priestley, in his plan of the canal, states the altitude at 22: feet, and that of the basin at Liverpool at 56 feet 13 inch ‘ above low water, or four feet more than it is given in the Cyclo- edia. , At Pendle Hill, September 24, 1821 (half an hour after the sun had passed the meridian) the sea in the direction of a wind- mill east of Lytham (or W.S.W.) was observed to be depressed 53’ 54”. The instrument was 10 feet high, and the distance (by the map, corrected by the trigonometrical station at North Meals near the windmill) will be found to be 145,970 feet. Hence the ground at Pendle Hill was 1823 feet above the sea, to which add the fall to low water (?) for the correct altitude. It is stated at 1824 feet in the present list. Vol. 59, No. 287. March 1822, Bb In 194 Account of the Levelling taken from In caleulating the heights of the stations the refraction was determined by the reciprocal observations, but in computing the altitudes of the other places in the list the zenith distances were INVARIABLY increased |-15th of the arc, minus 25”, the error of the instrument. When an object was observed only during the existence of the diurnal refraction, and the extremes were not marked, the only © resource consisted in comparing it with a nearly contemporary observation of another object, of which the constant angle had been subsequently noted. The correction is nevertheless some- what arbitrary:; for the variation does not affect the whole of the observations either at the same time, or in the same degree. To ensure greater accuracy to the altitudes of the statzons, the following method was resorted to. Rumbles Moor, as has been already demonstrated, is about 1315 feet high, and the altitude of any other object in its vicinity might be obtained by using the sector at a third station equi- distant from the other two, without making any correction for refraction, or trival constant error of the instrument. When the distances are not precisely equal, allowance, it is true, must be made for refraction, &c. but great precision as to their value is net absolutely requisite to produce a correct result. It would however be possible to quote a solitary yet very marked excep- tion, occasioned no doubt by an extraordinary state of the at- mosphere i in the direction of the object. A few of the observations made on Pendle Beacon are ad- duced by way of ilfustration. (It is unnecessary to reduce the angles to the ground.) Sep. 24, 1822. Left Index. Rt.Ind. Therm. Dist. in Are. he my i" feet. Feet. 10 50 AT Rum. Moor dep.24 53 25 10 48 2 102506 East 16 46 517°8 lower. 13° (0 Do. 24 53 Une (ASH 11 20... Ingleboro. elev. 812 $12 492 110820 N. 1813 529-7 13 45 .. Pennigent elev. 6 40 643 49 105492N.N.E.17 18 446-0 N.B. The sector reversed accurately at 60°. The refraction used is 1-15th—25”. With these data and 1318 feet the altitude of Rumbles Moor we have 2310-6 for the elevation of Great Whernside, 2365°6 for that of Ingleborongh; and 2281-8 for that of Pennigent, In determining the distances in the survey the bases used were Rumbles Moor to Boulsworth Hill 68370 S.W. Ditto ¢ Pendle Hill 102506 W. Dive. °". § Gt. Whernside 101114 N.N.W. Ditto “sr Wakefield Spire 107386 S.E. ' See Trig. Survey, 3d volume. higher. 11 45 .. Gt.Wherns. elev. 353 355 483 124750 N.E. 20 27 re At the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, &c. 195 At Rumbles Moor and at the Observatory the principal angles were measured with a twelve-inch repeating circle of a peculiar construction, but not calculated to take vertical angles. The telescope, two feet in length, and furnished with cylindrical rings of equal diameter, and an excellent spirit-level, rests {in a pair of Ys) exactly over the upper part of the axis of the instrument, and serves to render the line of vision parallel to the plane of the divided circle. By fitting the telescope into an axis working in the Ys the angles can also be taken in azimuth, but what is gained in expedition and exemption from subsequent calculations is lost in point of accuracy. Frequent use of the instrument produces a shake in the centre, which renders the repeating pro- perty nearly worthless. At Alfred Castle an eight-inch circle reading off to 15”, and fitted up as a transit with a low axis, and a fifteen-inch telescope, was made use of. One wire with a mark in the middle was found preferable to two. . At the other stations, viz. Symon Seat, Beamsley Rock, Carn- cliffe, Ilkley Wells, Chevin Beacon, the Bow, Eccles-hill Wind- mill, East Ardsley Church, Whitchurch, Jack-hill and Great Almias Cliff, the angles were measured by the four-inch theodo- lite. The divisions on silver read off tol’. . A plate.and screw under the circle enable the observer to repeat the angles either in azimuth or in the plane of the three objects. A box sextant reading off to 1’, was sometimes used in places difficult of access to take the third or verification angle. To find the bearings of the different places the theodolite was fixed at the station on Rumbles Moor about the time of the summer solstice, and very carefully adjusted. The vernier being fixed to different degrees on the limb successively, the instants of the passage of the first and second limbs of the sun (then in the W.N.West) were carefully noted by the watch well regulated. The telescope was subsequently pointed at a distant well defined station over which the sun had passed during the preceding ob- servations, and the angle repeatedly read off. The dednced azimuth differed so slightly from the one ‘furnished by calcula- tion from data in the Trigonometrical Survey, that either the one or the other might be used in computing the latitudes and longitudes without materially affecting the result. The error of the watch was ascertained as well by sets of ob- servations made with a ten-inch reflecting circle and an artificial horizon, as by the theodolite itself. To find the altitude of any place contained in the anuexed list as determined at any particular station where the sector was used, add to or subtract from the tabulated heights the feet and tenths affixed to their initials. Bb2 The 196 Account of the Levelling taken from The altitudes of the church towers (unless otherwise men- tioned) are exclusive of the pinnacles and spires. Lat. N. Long. W.. Altitude. 4 “ Penpre Hun (PH)! «= 5535211 217 21 1824 feet. Boulsworth Hill?, .. 5349 5 2 5 58 1697 (upright stone.) Ingleborough 3 Ag 5410 4 .2 18 18 2368 Pennigent 4 ee 94.1056 2.14 22 2281 Great WhHeERNSIDE(G.W.)554 9 44 1 59 24 2309 Symon Srat (West)(S.8.)° 54.2.8 1.52 28 1593 ut. Symon Seat (East)7 .. 54 210 1.51 54 1585 Poxstones Moor® Oe Ad D. 270 iy ple 5024 jubilee Carncliffe (?)9 “it 54.122. 152.59. 1471 Roggan Hall 1° wa o4. 1 5 149 30 1318 (Ridge S. end.) Beamscry Rock (B.R.)" 53 58 16 15015 1810 Beamsley Beacon’? .. 53.58 10 1 50 34 ‘1286 ( Ground.) Gaisegill .. is 53 58 44 48 40 1332 1 A well known hill in Lancashire, near Clithero. The Beacon hillock is about eight feet higher. (By R.M. —1-6 foot. By S.S.—3-0. By G.W. +7:4. By B.R. —0°5. * Near Colne in Lancashire. (By R.M. —5'8. By P.H. +1-8. By B.T. +37. By C.B. +03.) 3 A majestic mountain three miles N.E. of Ingleton, near Settle. The old building on the west side is several feet higher. (By R.M.+2-4. By P.H.—5:-2. By G.W. +655 * A steep mountain six miles N. of Settle. (By P.H.) ° Highest rock on the S.W. side of a huge shapeless mountain at the head of Netherdale, and three miles N.E. of Kettlewell in Craven. (Its altitude above the sea, as determined by the barometer, is stated in Dr. Whittaker’s Hist. of Craven to be 17104 feet!) A nameless mountain to the N.N.W. is still higher. (By R.M. —1-3. By B.R. —1°3. By 8.8. +1:3.) § A pile of rocks eight miles N.E. of Skipton, on East Barden Fell. The hut is about six feet higher than the rock on which it stands. (By B.R. —O6. By R.M. +02. By A.C. +3:7.) , 7 A larger pile of rocks to the East. (By R.M. +2:2. By S.S. —2:3. By BR. +01. By C.B. —0:1.) 8 A rocky eminence 7378 feet to the East of SS. (By B.R.) ® Some low rocks on East Barden Fell, and one mile S,W. of Symon Seat Hut. (By B.R.+2:1. By S.S. —2 1.) ‘0 A white building for the accommodation of shooters, three miles N.E. of Bolton Abbey. (By R.M. 41-2. By I.H. +23. By B.R. —0-7. By C.B. —2:-4. By G.A.C. —0.4.) 1 On Blaeber Fell two miles S.E. of Bolton Abbey. (By R.M.) 12 427 yards W.S.W. ofthe rock. (By R.M.+0°8. By B.R. —0°8.) ‘3 About Lj mile E.N.E. of the rock, and is the highest ground on Blae- ber Fell (or Gawk-hill Ridge). A Roman road to Isurium passes over it. (By R.M. —0°3. By B.R. +0:3.) — Denton ee - the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbtes Moor, ts'c. 197 Lat. N. Long. W. Altitude. ° of U7] / “4 af Denton Churché' .. 535617 1 4621 402 feet. (excl. of Cupola.) JACR HieL (J7H:)* - 2% ja wy ao 1 40 O° ome (highest rock.) Little Almias Cliff? .. 5m 00, ke Ge aan. Ook ~ Gr. Acmias Curr (G.A.C.)4+53 56 16 #135 10 716 Harley Hill 5 53 58 59 **1 33 25 © 596 (E.S-E. of Plantation. ) Harewood Castle® .. 53.56. 1)’ Ps0°s0' 351 (S.W. Tower.) Inn on the Chevin? .. 53 53 34 (S. W. Chimney.) CuEvin Beacon (C.B.)® 53 53 42 1 41 24 = «921 (Ground.) Otley Church 9 Cow Rock '® Ilkley Church"! Ilkley Baths '* (Ground N.E.) Draughton Moor’? .. 53 57 30 Shode Bank Hill" _.. 53 57 20 — 39 37 795 ° fo no. OC. 1 A020 ele ° 5355 6 1.47 42 860 53 55 41 149 0 343 ° 53.55°°6 . 1°48 50°) “682 — 55 21 1074 58 20 1223 — 1 Two miles E. of Ilkley. (By B.T ) ? Four miles North of Otley, on the Washburn. (By RM. +0°9. By BR. —18. ByS.S.+1:7. By A.C.+0-°8. By P.B. ?)—12°0.) 3 A pile of rocks 14 mile N.E. of Jack Hill. (By R.M. —01. ByB.R. —1l4. By LH. +0-6. By G.A.C. —0-4. By C.B. +1:4.) - 4 A picturesque group of immense rocks 44 miles E.N.E. of Otley. By R.M. —0l.. By B.R. —1°6. By SS. 43-4, BylLH,+bl. By GW. —9°8.) . 5 $.W. of Harrogate. (By B.R. +58. By G.A.C. —5°8.) ae miles N. of Leeds. (By R.M. +1:4. By C.B. —0°8. By G.A.C. —0°6.) 7 One mile and a quarter S.E. of Otley on the road to Leeds. (By B.R. and by A.C. the same.) § One mile S. of Otley on the highest part of the hill, (By R.M. +12. By B.R. —0:7._ By G.A.C. —1°5.) 9 Ten miles N.W. of Leeds. (By B:R. +1:0. By G.A.C. —1-0.) 10 One mile S.E. of Ilkley; a picturesque rock on Rumbles Moor 4 feet long, 58 feet high, and 42 broad. (By C.B.) '! Six miles W. of Otley. (By B.R.) *2 One mile 8. of Ilkley, on Rumbles Moor. The temperature of the spring is invariably 48° in summer. (By B.R.; the angles were recipro- cally ohserved.) 3 Two miles W. of Addingham, to the left of the. now disused road to Skipton. (By R.M.+0-1. By C.B. —0:1 ‘4 Nearly two miles E.S.E. of Skipton, to the right of the old road to one It is the highest of several similarly shaped hills around it. y ) Bolton. 198 .» Aecount of the Levelling taken from Lat. N. Long. W. Altitude. U] °o Bolton Abbey ' ne he ey en wa ee ee (leaded ridge, E. end.) fal, Barden Fell, West side? 54.135 2 010 1663 (highest rock.) Burnsall. Fell? -» o 84 92 12. 14840); 1508 (Shooters- house, Ridge.) Flasby Fell + 53.59 41 2 3 16 1170 York Minster * 53 57 48.1 434 258 (Great square Tower.) Brimham Crags°® : 54.459 1 43.1 . 990 (Guide’s house, Ridge. ) Michael Howe? a 04.559 134 21 622 (Spire.) Whitchurch? ey 53 47 55 «1 26:35 ~——-384 Braim Farm®.. .. - on as sid 685 461 (highest part.) Trinity Church (Fleece) 53 47 50 132.11 271 St. John’s do. (Vane) ms - Bhs #s pte St. Paul’s do. (Cross) a re ie is eee Potternewton Windmill"! 53 49 30 1 32 28 420 (Roof) ALFRED CasTLE (A.C.)'*_ 53 50 33-11 32:53 489 (highest part.) Cookridge-hill on 53 51 22. 138616 645 (Guide post.) 1 Five miles anda half E.N.E. of Skipton. (By R.M. +0:1. By B.T.—0:1.) 2 A lofty range of mountains, extending in a N. Easterly direction from Skipton nearly to Grassington. (ByS8.S.—1:2. ByP.H.—1:6. ByC.B. —l-l. By R.M. +20. By B.R. +0.1. By G.W. +1-6.) 3 The northern termination of Barden Fell. (By R.M. +0°2. By B.T. —l-l. By S.S. +0°9.) 4 A conical hill, three miles N.W. of Skipton. (By R.M. +1-0. By B.R. —46. By C.B. +3°7 7.) S(A single observation from Rumbles Moor. Distance 1619-24 feet. The altitude is probably in defect.) © Two miles N.E. of Paiteley Br. (By R.M.) 7 One mile 8. of Fountain’s Abbey. (By R.M. —0°8, By G.A.C. +0: 8.) ‘ A conspicuous Church Tower, four miles 4. of Leeds, on the road to Selby. (ByR.M. +0-7. By A.C. —0°3. By Observatory —0-4.) 9 At Roundhay, four miles N.N.E. of Leeds. (By A.C. distance from Map.) rg At Leeds. (By Tis eedatcoy?) N.B. The solar Eclipse, Sept. 7, 1820, commenced at 12" 11/30’ M.T, The calculated time is 12" 10 48%”. "1 Two miles N.N.W. of Leeds. By A.C.+0°5. By Observatory —0°5.) 12 A building 26 feet high, on Tunnilaw-hill, three miles N. of Leeds. (By Observatory.) 'S Four miles and a half from Leeds, on the road to Otley. (By A.C. +07. By C.B. —0-7,) - Billing the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, &c. 199 Lat. N. Long. W. Altitude. Billing? .. 585120 13951 769 feet. Sutton Crag? io oe aa ise LAG Eccleshill Windmill? .. 52 A922) «14301 7Al (Roof.) | Calverley Church*+ .. 53 49 55 ] .40 Alby. 221 Wortley Windmill’ .. 53 47 82. I 35.37 426 (Roof.) Armley Chapel® ate 53 A747 9-1 D447 5, 312 ( Belfry.) Wortley Chapel’ ae 53.47 20... 1:34 S36 ( Belfry.) Rothwell-haigh ® ig 53.45 30 1 29 25 309 ( Engine- House, Ridge.) East Ardsley Church? 538 43 29 13215 489. A vast number of observations with the horizon sector are at present useless for want of the distances. Comparison of Altitudes determined trigonometrically and by the Barometer. Rumbles Moor and Ilkley Baths .. 635 611 —25 Do. and Canal ‘i otek at Tes O45 a7 Shode Bankhill and do. fh -.- 880 848 —32 Pendle-hill and do. ai .. 1396 ._ 13862. —34 Observatory and Alfred Castle (ground) 72. 72 “0 The heights of the thermometer and of the barometer (a very ordinary portable one) were noted at short intervals, an hour or two before descending the mountain; and similar observations were repeated on reaching the inferior station. The fall or rise of the mercury during the half-hour elapsed in making the de- scent was thus ascertained, and the observations reduced to one ? Seven miles N.W of Leeds near Rawdon, commanding a beautiful and extensive prospect. By Observatory —1-4. (By A.C. +0°8. By C.B. —0:1. By B.T +1:1. By R.M. —0°6.) * Six miles W.N.W. of Keighley, on the road to Colne. (By R.M. ; di- stance from Map.) 2 Two miles N.E. of Bradford. (By A.C. +1-0. By C.B. +0:3. By R.M. —14. By Observatory +2:0.) 4 Six miles N.W. of Leeds, near the Canal. (By R.M. —4°4. By Ob- servatory —0°7.. By C.B. +2:3. By A.C. +1:°5.) 5 Near Leeds. (By Observatory +14, By A.C. +11. By C.B. +01. By R.M. —2-7.) © Near Leeds. (By A.C. —0:6. By Observatory +0°6.) i Near Leeds. (By A.C. +0:7. By Observatory —0-7.) , Lhree miles 8.S.E, of Leeds. (By A.C. —1-]. By Observatory + Lh) N.W. of Wakefield. (By R.M.; an indifferent observation.) particular 200 On Refraction. particular time. As the scale of the barometer bears examina- tion, and as the formula (Dr. Maskelyne’s) will scarcely be ques- tioned, it is only in the specific gravity of the mercury, or in an erroneous estimate of the proportion of the area of the tube to that of the cistern (};), that we can louk for the uniform disere- pancies. Comparison of the Altitudes given in the Trigonometrical Sur- vey and in the present List (reduced ta the ground). Table. Trig. Survey. Diff. Ingleborough es »» + 2368~ 2361 (walsh? Pennigent av a 2281 2270. wn sihl Great Whernside , ti 2309 2263 .. 46 Rumbles Moor oe ee 1318 1308... 10 Pendle oe : ee 1824 1796....- 28 Bodlaworth «. Q& Bie Gt 1692 ° s AGS9,ofaiene ss The differences are in general very trivial; and may we not assign as a reason for the two marked exceptions, that the great theodolite was not used either at Pendle Hill or at Great Whern- side, and that the refractions made use of in the calculations were greater than the reciprocal observations in the vicinity could warrant ? .. All the angular instruments employed in these operations were made and divided by the late Mr. James Allan. { The author is respectfully informed, should the Journal of the Thermometric Indications at the summit and base of. Rumbles Moor, which he states has been kept from the beginning of February, and will be discontinued on the Ist of April, present any interesting results, that I shall be happy to make room for it in the pages of the Phil. Mag. and Journal.—A. T. _XLY. On Refraction. By Josrpa Reapr, M.D. [Continued from yol. lviii. p. 254.] Is my last communication J mentioned a simple, and I hope, in the opinion of men of science, a conclusive experiment against the commonly received doctrines of refraction. I shall now men- tion the following variation. Having procured a very clean cy- lindrical tumbler (fig. 7, Plate III.) with a flat bottom, about three inches diameter, I placed half-a-crown at the bottom, and holding it near a well lighted window, I poured in water by very small quantities at a time, my eye. being on a plane: as soon as the object was entirely covered, a reflected image formed imme- diately over it, which rose with every addition of water: having poured On Refraction. 201 poured in to the height of about one inch, the image floated at the surface. I now covered the tumbler up to this surface with black cloth, and desired an assistant to throw in different coins, while I kept my eyes shut, each of which I described on again opening my eyes, by looking at their images floating on the sur- face of the water an inch above the coins, my eye being ona line with that surface, as thus represented: ad a tumbler filled to the height of one inch with clear water, and covered with black cloth; ¢ a half-crown placed at the bottom; d the reflected image immediately over the coin, and seen by an eye at e. Now, sir, I would beg leave to ask any person, not entirely blinded by prejudice, Is there not a reflected image formed perpen- dicularly over the piece of money, capable of being seen by an eye above, below, and on a line with the surface ?- Query,—Does this reflected image send rays, or rather, an image, to the spectator’s eye? To see is to believe *. — But, sir, in your last Journal there is something about the analogy between reflection and refraction : however, as no particular objections are brought against my opi- nions, I must think it a waste of time to answer vague and angry generalities. I am weil aware, that my opinions on vision, light, and colours, are diametrically opposite to.those of the schools, and entertain too high a respect for their professors not to believe that they will undergo a liberal and unprejudiced examination. If the gentleman be really serious in denying the evidence of his . senses, he must come to particulars. Now let us examine this experiment according to the received laws laid down in every elementary treatise on optics; and I con- tend that no refraction or bending of the rays can possibly take place at d, for the rays cd enter the air perpendicular to the plane surface of the water; consequently they must pass on without any refraction. Mr. Harris has a figure (see fig. 8.) illustrating refraction at plane surfaces. Suppose the vessel empty, B K its side, and Q the object at the bottom; if the eye be at e, the ob- ject will be hid by the side BK; but by filling the vessel with water, it will become visible, and be seen at g. The ray QB being refracted into Be. Mr. Harris speaks as if an image were formed in the body of the water at g. For the purpose of making the rays of light euter the air in an oblique direction, mathema- ticians have made them to diverge from the point Q. On the contrary, we find by direct experiment, that an image of the half-crown is formed over the piece of money, which could not be the case were the rays diverged: that it is a reflected and not * If the rays cd are refracted in the direction e, the rays e should be re-~ fracted in the contrary direction dc; and an eyeunder the water at ¢ should perceive an object at e, which is impossible ; for then the sine of incidence would be equal to a radius. Vol. 59. No. 287. March 1822, Cc are- 202. On Refraction. a refracted image we see, is evident from our being able to see it in every direction floating on the surface of the water: if re« fracted, we could only see it in the direction of the refracted rays. When the eye is placed immediately over the half-crown, looking down into the water, we see the image, not the piece of money, one-fourth nearer to the eye: here there can be no refraction, as the rays coming to the eye must be at right angles to the surface of the water: here there is no angle of incidence; no angle of refraction; no ratio of 3 to4. In fact, this simple experiment rebels against almost all the laws of optics. Snellius was the first who supposed he discovered a constant ratio in refraction; he used the secants of the complements instead of the sines used by the celebrated Des Cartes. As his doctrines are founded on this experiment, [ think it necessary to make a few observations. Supposing the surface of the water to be A B (fig. 9), and an object under it at D, which to the eye at F appeared as it were in the line TC. He produced T C till it met in G with the per- pendicular D A to the surface AB. Then he argued, that the image of the object D appeared at G, and that C D was toC G in a certain given ratio as 4 to 3 in water. The following objections may be made: 1. The images can be seen by an eye at B on a plane with the surface of the water. 2. This image can be perceived in every direction above, below, and on a plane with the surface of the water, which could not be the case with a refractedimage. 3. There is no reason whatso- ever that the ray D C should be refracted in the diagonal at plane surfaces, except for the purpose of supporting the theory. On the contrary, there is every reason to prove that the rays move parallel, for the image is perceived at A immediately over the piece of coin, An eye at A looking down into the tumbler sees the piece of money one-fourth nearer. Here, according to opti- cians, the rays are not refracted; yet they cannot deny that the piece of money appears nearer the eye, and somewhat magnified. If it were the object and not an image they saw, it would appear at the same distance as in air. It is agreed on all hands, that every refracting surface forms a reflected image; why resort to any other means? I shall now proceed to extend this experi- ment toa medium terminated by two plane surfaces inclined to one another, such as an equilateral prism. Having placed a sovereign under the plane of a prism (fig. 10.) resting on the table, I found that two reflected and not refracted images were formed in each plane, as represented in the follow- ing figure. a The Ssvereign placed under the plane dc of an equilateral prism, forms an image at a; which image sends images to b and f. That these are reflected and not refracted images, is so evident as scarcely to require remark. According ‘ to On Refraction. 203 to the present theory, two images could not possibly be formed by refraction at b and f; for a being at right angles to the plane dc, the rays should suffer no refraction, but proceed on to the vertex, The very same mistake which induced optical writers to suppose from analogy that rays converged in the body of a convex lens, made them also suppose that rays were turned in the body of a prism to the thickest part as well within as without the medium. Let us now examine this experiment according to the present Jaws of optics. . . Let the angle CAI (fig. 11) bea right angle; then the whole refraction is at C; and in this‘ease, DC A:ACD:: m:m—n. Also, since the right angle D C | is equal to the’sum of the two ACI, AIC, take away the common angle ACI, and the re- ‘maining angles DC A, AIC are équal. Consequently AIC “:ACI::m:m—n, Now I would beg leave to ask, Does any light in this experiment pass through the plane YZ? The ray Q A is undoubtedly turned to the thickest part of the prism 5 not, as Newton and his followers suppose, from any principle of at- traction, but simply because it strikes the plane I Z obliquely, and there forms at: image, which moves downwards. Let us vary this experiment. I placed the plane of the prism on a small hole, cut in a large sheet of pasteboard, and perceived two images of the hole formed in the planes, as already described with the sovereign. I now removed this sheet of pasteboard with the prism into the sun-beams, as represented (see fig. 12), and found that the rays passed through both planes 8. The sun passes through a hole in the pasteboard, and, striking the plane AB perpendicularly, forms an image at d, which image sends rays to form other images at f and g. Here we have two spec- tra at f and g, the one ascending the other descending in conse- quence of striking the planes obliquely. In this experiment op- ticians are necessarily obliged to relinquish one of their favourite laws, “ that rays striking at right angles to plane surfaces suffer no refraction; for it cannot possibly be denied, Ist, that the rays strike the plane AB at right angles; and 2dly, that the rays di- verge: otherwise they could not come through the planes A C and BC. Are the rays refracted in opposite directions? or are they attracted and repelled in opposite directions? But if we admit that an image is formed at d, we can easily account for the two reflections at f and g. Had Sir Isaac Newton been acquainted with the formation of two spectra {and I cannot but express sur- prise that he was not), he never could haye maintained the doc- trines he did. Here I cannot but notice a curious fact in regard to the prism, although not immediately connected with the doc- trine of refraction, When the sun-beams are passed through the lower refracting angle, as it is called, on emergence they ascend c2 and 204 On Refraction. and form a beautiful spectrum on the opposite wall, orange at the bottom, violet at the top, with intermediate colours :’ but on looking through the same refracting angle at the hole in the pasteboard or window-shutter, the experimenter is surprised to find all the colours reversed, violet at the bottom, orange at the top. Newton must have had very defective eyes, or must have been very inattentive, entirely to have overlooked this interesting fact; for we often find him in the Optics looking at the hole through the prism, yet never mentioning it. I shall explain this phenomenon in my treatise on Vision, with which it is intimately connected ; and shall merely remark, that the rays forming the spectrum have nothing to dowith vision-making images. ‘*Then,” says Newton, ‘I looked through the prism upon the hole. In this situation, viewing through the said hole, I observed the length of its refracted image to be many times greater than its breadth, and that the most refracted part thereof appeared vio- let, the least refracted red, the middle parts blue, green and yellow in order. The same thing happened when I removed the prism out of the sun’s light, and looked through it upon the hole shining by the light of the clouds beyond it; and yet, if the re- fractions were done regularly, according to one certain proportion of the sines of incidence and refraction, as is vulgarly supposed, the refracted image ought to have appeared round.” Here Newton’s attention seems to have been so completely absorbed’ with preconceived opinions, that he never noticed the colours being reversed ; and consequently, that the image he saw on the plane of the prism and that on the opposite wall were distinct and different, bearing no analogy whatever. On looking at the hole in the window-shutter through the lower refracting angle, we are obliged to direct the optic axis on a line with the ground, and then see a reflected and not a refracted image painted on the prismatic plane. As I have shown in the first volume of the Experimental Out- lines for a new Theory of Vision, Light, and Colours, p. 48, that Newton never separated what he calls white light into seven co- loured rays, I think it perfectly unnecessary to speak of their dif- ferent refrangibilities: any fluid passing through a resisting me- dium obliquely must be lengthened; and I have shown that a straight stick, when viewed through the prism, is curved ; there- fore it is not surprising that the image of the hole should be ob- long, not circular, and bounded by two semicircular ends. Here I think it necessary to mention, that when writing the Outlines I had not made the first experiment mentioned in this paper, and therefore believed in the theory of refractions. The next experiment on which the theory of refraction seems to rest, is the following: “ Take an empty vessel, such as a basin, and all along On Refraction. 205 along the diameter of its bottom fix little marks at a small di- - stance from one another; then, through a small hole in the win- dow-shutter of a dark chamber, let in a beam of the sun’s light : where the beam falls upon the floor, place your basin so that its marked diameter may point towards the window, and that the beam of light may fall on the mark that is most distant from the window: this done, fill the basin with water, and you will observe. that the beam which before fell upon the most distant mark, will now, by the refractive power of the water, he turned out of its straight course, and fall two, three, or more inches nearer the centre of the basin.”’ The fallacy of this experiment can easily be explained on the same principle as the first. I shall merely remark, that when the water is thrown in, we do not see the marks at the bottom of the basin, but reflected images of those marks floating on the water; and also the beam of light, when falling obliquely on the surface of the water, must cause a re- flected image, such as an oar would. Therefore, any conclusions drawn from such an experiment must prove erroneous. A very simple experiment may be made in the following man- ner: Cut a square piece of white paper about the size of a half- crown, and let it be dipped in a tumbler of clear water: on looking at it, it appears as if split into two papers, giving a sim- ple but conclusive illustration of these reflected images. I shall now say a few words on refraction through concave and convex lenses; nor do I see much occasion to enlarge on this part of my subject, having already in my paper on Vision, pub- lished in one of your former Journals, shown that the cornea and not the retina is the true and only seat of vision, and that the mind receives its ideas from minute images painted thereon, and not from any crooked refractions forming imaginary images in the air. Indeed, a person consulting optical writers, and re- ferring to their figures explanatory of telescopes with four lenses, must suppose !Nature, instead of being simple and uniform in her operations, to be fond of all manner of twistings and turnings. At the object-glass the rays get the first twist; two more at the medium-glasses ; a fourth at the eye-glass; a fifth at the cornea; a sixth at the crystalline lens ; aseventh at the vitreous humour ; and, if it were necessary, a dexterous optician may twist it round his finger. Newton and De Domenis have done nearly as much with their two reflections and two refractions in the rainbow. For the experiments with lenses, it is necessary to procure a glass globe about three inches in diameter, the bull’s eye of a magic-lantern, and a concavo-concave lens. Having pasted a piece of black cloth in the shape of the letter T on a pane of glass at the window, I requested an assistant, when seated opposite, to look steadfastly at it; on now looking into his pupil, I per- ceived 206 On Refraction. ceived a beautiful reflected image of the letter T. I now placed the bull’s eve immediately in front, and then perceived this image to be ‘considerably magnified i in-all its dimensions and sur- rounded with colours: he éaid he saw exactly similar to the re- flection on his cornea. | would now beg leave to ask, Did this gentleman perceive the letter T by a reflected or refracted image? On removing the bull’s eye to yet a greater distance from the pupil, I distinctly perceived two reflected i images, the one erect, the other inverted. Again I would ask, Is it possible by refrac: tion to produce in the focus of a lens both an erect and an inverted image at one and the same time? That we see by means of re- flected and not refracted images, is therefore evident. This expe- riment is easily repeated with the glass globe instead of an as- sistant’s eye. On a sheet of white paper write the letter T, and hold over it the bull’s eye : when close to the paper, the letter i is considerably magnified s on bringing it somewhat nearer to the eye, two iwverted and coloured images are perceived to float on the posterior surface. On now giving a circular motion to the lens, these reflected images, in revolving round the erect one, become inverted or erect; when at the top and bottom they are inverted; when at the sides erect; for which phenomenon I am as yet unable to account. At yet a greater distance these two images form a circular appearance, margined on the inside by orange rays, and at length coalescing form one inverted image, which floats around the erect image with each revolution, with- out charge. When we look at an object, its picture is painted on the cornea, and thence converges to the sensorium in the same manner as with the other senses. By placing a concave lens be- fore the eye, this reflected image is diminished; by placing a convex one it is magnified. A short-sighted person sees objects large and confused when at a distance ; a concave lens obviates this defect, by painting a small and well-defined imaye close to the eyes; for a near-sighted person can read small print when near without glasses. In old age the humours become decayed and turbid, and the corneal image is not sufficiently strong to make an impression on the retina, the principal nerve of the eye. Therefore a convex lens is necessary for the purpose of forming a magnified image closer to the eye, and also for the purpose of illuminating that image and throwing a greater quantity of light into the eye. Any person may make himself near-sighted either by constantly examining near and small objects, or by the wear- Ing concave glasses; for by these means the eye becomes accus- tomed to the strong stimulus of rays from near objects, or from the images near the eyes. In a similar manner, a person may make himself deaf, by constantly accustoming the ear to intense noises, such as the roar of cannon, &c, + Ir. On Refraction. 207 Mr. Ware. has written an excellent paper.on the use and abuse of glasses. Perhaps it may be objected to the first experiment of this paper, that the piece of money radiated light as if from a centre or focus. To obviate which, I varied the experiment in the following manner: I first placed the piece of money at the bottom of the tumbler, and then placed immediately on it a con- cavo-concave lens; on filling in the water, I found the image formed, as already represented. I now placed a plano-convex jens over it, with the same results: here the rays were reflected toa focus, and consequently they could not answer for a refracted image. The theory of refraction and the retinal theory of vision are so intimately and inseparably united, that the one cannot exist with- eut the other. I therefore would request Mr. Stark to read my paper on Vision, published in a former Journal. If [I have ex- pressed myself with too much confidence, I must express my re- gret, and hope the learned and candid reader (for learning and candour generally go hand in hand) may attribute it to haste, perhaps not unaccompanied by a feeling of resentment at preju- dice and critical neglect. But, sir, Iam now happy to see that my opinions are daily gaining ground, and sanctioned by men of the first-rate abilities. I am certain both Mr. Stark and myself have one and the same object in view, the discovery of truth. I therefore shall endeavour, as far as lies in my power, to answer any particular objections, but must decline a metaphysical con- troversy on the nature of light; especially as the theory of New- ton or that of Des Cartes would equally answer for experimental inguiry. Disputatio torquet homines, says Cicero; and impressed with a high respect for that great orator, I would wish to avoid it. Epicurus thought that vision was produced by a continual suc- cession of material images sent to the eye, which at their first emission from the object are large, decreasing continually the further they go, till they arrive at such a smallness as will permit them to enter the eye. That images are sent off from bodies, ean easily be shown. And if I have shown that the rays of light coming from all points of an object, and meeting again at the focus, do not make a picture of the object on any white body in- terposed, then we have no other alternative than to go back to Democritus and Lucretius. I remain, sir, your obedient servant, - Cork, Feb. 26, 1822. Joserpa Reaper, M.D. XLVI. An f 208 | XLVI. An Account of some Experiments on the Action of Iodine on volatile and fixed Oils, &c. By EpMunpD Davy, Esq. Professor of Chemistry and Secretary to the Royal Cork Institution. To Dr. Tilloch. DEAR Sir,—L BEG to send you for insertion in your very use- ful Journal, an Account of some Experiments I have made on the Action of lodine on volatile and fixed Oils, &c. With sincere good wishes for your health and happiness, } remain, dear Sir, With great respect, yours very truly, EpMuND Davy. Being lately engaged in making some experiments with iodine, I was led to try its action on different volatile and fixed oils, &c. The results I obtained are, I presume, novel; and a brief account of them will make some addition to our present knowledge of the agencies of this singular substance. Action of Iodine on Oil of Turpentine. When a small portion of iodine is brought in contact with a few drops of turpentine, a violent action takes place, considerable heat is generated, and part of the iodine rises invapour. In one instance, when I put less than a grain of iodine into a small curved tube, and poured a little turpentine on it, the heat pro- duced was very sensible to the hand. In another case, when I added about ten drops of turpentine te about a grain and. half of iodine, in a small phial, the action was very violent ; a portion of the turpentine appeared to be decomposed, it became tena- cious, adhered to the glass, and was of a dark olive-brown co- lour. Turpentine is a very good solvent of iodine, and dissolves a considerable quantity of it with much greater facility than al- cohol does. When iodine is put into turpentine, a hissing noise is produced, the iodine quickly dissolves, and forms a solution of a reddish yellow colour, which, when very concentrated, is dark yellowish-brown. This solution is not affected by water, or by the mineral acids when diluted, or by the greater number of metallic salts. The nitrates of silver and mercury, however, de- compose it, and the iodes of silver and mercury are formed. By dissolving iodine, turpentine, to a certain extent, loses its cha- racteristic odour and volatility ; the solution, when weak, does not affect vegetable colours, or tarnish polished silver; but when strong, it gives a reddish-brown tint to litmus, and a dull yellow to silver and tin. It stains linen yellow, and gives to starch a slight yellowish tint. Rectified sulphuric ether and alcohol ; combine On the Action of Iodine on volatile and fixed Oils. 209 combine with the solution of iodine in turpentine, and form ho- ‘mogeneous fluids. Phosphorus soon destroys the colour of the ‘solution of iodine in turpentine, the fluid acquires the odour of phosphorus, and reddens litmus paper; probably in this case the hydroiodic acid is formed. Alkalies also readily change the colour of solution of iodine in turpentine, and form yellowish sa- ponaceous substances. When heat is applied to the solution of iodine in turpentine, a portion of the oil distills over unaltered ; but as the solution becomes more concentrated, @ dense yellowish- -brown oil rises, which holds the iodine in solution. The affinity of turpentine for iodine is much greater than that of water ; hence turpentine readily separates iodine from its so- lution in water. This effect is immediately produced by merely ‘agitating an aqueous solution of iodine in contact with turpen- tine ; the water becomes colourless, and.the turpentine assumes a reddish colour. In this way, an aqueous solution of iodine ‘made above twelve months since, was immediately decomposed by turpentine. A piece of cork, also, after being acted upon by iodine for several months, so as to become soft and of a dark- brown colour, yielded in water a solution of iodine of a brownish yellow colour, which by agitation with turpentine became co- lourless, and at the same time the oil acquired’a fine red colour. Turpentine, also, separates iodine from its aqueous solution, in cases when the mineral acids and a number of metallic salts are present ; as the sulphuric, nitric and muriatic acids, the sulphate of zine, muriate of platinum, nitrate of nickel, &c. The property of separating iodine from its solution in water, ether possesses in common with turpentine. When chlorine is ‘passed through a solution of iodine in turpentine, the colour of the solution gradually disappears. ‘The iode of chlorine acts ‘strongly on turpentine, and readily dissolves in it.. I put about ‘half a grain of iodine into a platinum spoon, and introduced it into a bottle of chlorine ; the iodine melted, and readily formed the yellow iode of chlorine. I then poured a little turpentine into the spoon, when a violent action took place ; the iode was par- tially decomposed, and a portion of its iodine rose in vapour ; the remainder of the iode dissolved easily in turpentine, and formed a solution of a red colour, which, on being exposed to the action of the solar rays for a short time, became colourless, but did not affect litmus paper. I witnessed an interesting result on submit- ‘ting the red solution of the iode of chlorine in turpentine to the action of chlorine. A platinum spoon. being filled with this so- lution, was put into a bottle of chlorine ; it presently began to boil, its colour disappeared, and the fluid burst into flame; a ‘black carbonaceous matter, arising from the decomposition of ‘thé turpentine, deposited itself on the sides of the bottle. Being * Vol. 59. No. 287, March 1822, Dd desirous 210 Experiments on the Action of Iodine desirous of ascertaining how far the iodine in the compound was connected with those effects, I filled the spoon with turpentine and put it into a fresh bottle of chlorine, when ebullition immne- diately took place, and was succeeded by the inflammation and decomposition of the oil. 2. Action of Iodine on other volatile and fixed Oils, Sc. The effects of iodine on oil of lavender are similar to those already noticed respecting turpentine. When iodine is brought in contact with the oil of lavender, a strong action takes place, heat is evolved, and a dark reddish-yellow solution is formed. Analogous results are afforded with iodine and the oils of cara- way, peppermint, and origanum ; but the action of iodine on these oils is more feeble than on those of turpentine and laven- der, and it is stronger on the oil of caraway, than on the oils of peppermint and origanum. Oil of amber acts very feebly on iodine, anda solution of a reddish-yellow colour is slowly formed. Iodine is soluble.in naphtha, and to a certain extent in olive oil and oil of ivy. Fixed vegetable oils and animal oils have very little action ou iodine. When put into rape oil, iodine does not dissolve ; it be- comes brown by a gentle heat, and acts slightly on the oil. The effects of hemp, linseed, olive, and castor oils, are very similar to those of rape oil. Those oils in general separate iodine from its solution in water, but the action of iodine upon them, and also upon spermaceti and pilchard oils, is very slight. Iodine readily combines with camphor by a gentle heat, and a dark-brown soft solid compound is formed, which is deliques- cent, soluble in water, but more soluble in alcohol or turpentine. When turpentine is added to the aqueous solution of iodine and camphor, it separates the compound and leaves the water colour- less. On adding alcohol, the camphor is separated, whilst the iodine remains dissolved in the turpentine. ¢ Resin unites with iodine by a gentle heat, and a dark brown compound is formed, which is soluble in alcohol. | Turpentine separates the iodine, and water the resin. 3. Observations, ec. From the foregoing experiments, &c. it seems that iodine ex- erts a strong action on volatile oils, and especially upon turpen- tine and lavender; but on fixed oils its effects are much less considerable. In general, both the volatile and fixed oils se- parate iodine from its solution in water.. The action of iodine on volatile and fixed oils resembles that of chlorine on these bo- dies, a circumstance which serves to extend the analogies which Sir Humphry Davy has traced between iodine and chlorine in their on the volatile and fixed Oils, 211 their chemical agencies *. As oil of turpentine separates iodine from its solution in water, and in cases when acids anda num- ber of metallic salts are present, it may, in many instances, af- ford a useful test to detect the presence of iodine, or be employed as a means of separating it in a fluid form from other substances with which it may exist in solution. The nitrates of silver and mercury seem to offer the best means of detecting and separating iodine from its solution in turpentine ; the iode of silver is of a paler and duller yellow colour than that of mercury. Polished silver, which Sir H. Davy found to be one of the best tests of the presence of iodine in compounds dissolved in water t, does not furnish satisfactory indications of its presence in turpentine, especially when it exists only in minute quantity. Except in cases when the fixed alkalies and ammonia are present in excess, starch seems in general to be a very delicate and unexceptionable test of the presence of iodine ; but when added to a solution of iodine in turpentine, it merely acquires a yellow tint. The addition of starch to a solution of iodine in water, alcohol, &c. occasions, as is well known, the immediate formation of the purple compound of starch and iodine. But if starch in its common state of dry- ness be pulverized and mixed with iodine in sinall’ proportion, a very peculiar effect will take place, which I have not seen any where noticed. The mixture, at first, is of a grayish colour; but in a little time it acquires a faint purple tint, which gradually be- comes deeper and deeper, till it appears almost black. These changes are probably connected with the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere ; for if water be added to the above mixture, the purple compound will be directly produced. The agency of water or moisture seems to be necessary to the formation of the purple compound of iodine and starch, as may, I think, be de- duced from the following experiments : I put some iodine into a small tube, and nearly filled it with starch in powder, which had been well dried: no apparent effect took place; the tube was gently heated so as to raise the iodine in vapour, and the starch was agitated. The same process was again repeated, but the starch merely assumed a light-brown colour. On exposing it to the atmosphere it slowly acquired a purple tint, and when moist- ened with water, or placed on wet paper, it immediately became of a bright purple colour. Royal Cork Institution, March 11, 1822. * Phil. Trans. 1814, T Abide { Dd2 XLVII. On fF iaiaeg XLVII. On the early Blowing of Plants during the present Winter. By Dr. Tuomas Forster, F.L.S, &e. &'e. To Dr. Tilloch. SR, pls | PROCEED to send you au account of the unseasonable florescence of many plants this winter and spring, as I promised in my last paper on the Peculiarities of the Weather. On the first of December a considerable number of plants be- longing to the estival and autumnal Floras remained in blow; among others may be reckoned the Chrysanthemum coronarium, Scabiosa atropurpurea, Papaver Rheas, P. somniferum, and many varieties of Stocks, The following plants, however, came into flower after the first of December, and they opened their blossoms according to the dates subjoined. December 2. Helleborus hyemalis. 4, Papaver Cambricum. 4. Adonis autumnalis, 4. Tussilago fragrans. 9, Primula Veris. 9. Primula elatior. 15. Vinca major. 16. Viburnum Tinus. 24. Bellis perennis. 1822. January 4. Primu/e Polyanthi varii. 19. Lamium purpureum. 28. Primula vulgaris. 29. Galanthus nivalis. February 6. Anemone hepatica. 6. Tussilago alba. 8. Crocus vernus. 19. Scilla Peruviana, 24. Anemone hortensis. . 24, Daphne Mexereon. 24. Narcissus Romanus. 24. Narcissus papyraceus. 24, Viola tricolor. 25. Hyacinthus orientalis. 25. Narcissus Tazetta flava. March 1. Leontodon Taraxacum. Ficaria verna. 4, Tussilago Farfara. 5. Hyacinthus Botryoides. 5. Scilla amena. 5. Narcissus Pseudonarcissus. \ 9. Narcissus letus. 9. Calendula Bouvard’s Tables Astronomiques. 213 March 9, Calendula officinalis. 9. Tussilago hybrida. 10.. Viola Tunbrigiensis. I shall like to see the calendars of Flora kept by any of your correspondents in other parts of England, if they will be so obliging as to communicate them, I remain, &c. T. ForsTER.* * In our-last Number, p. 154, last line, for J. Forster read T. Forster.— Eprr. ; XLVIII. Notices respecting New Books. Recent Publications. Tables Astronomiques, publiées par le Bureau des Longitudes de France, contenant les Tables de Jupiter, de Saturne, ef d’Uranus, construites d’aprés la Theorie de la Mécanique Céleste; par M.A. Bouvarpb. 4to. pp. 138. Paris, 182i. Is the year 1808, M. Bouvard, who is well known as an indefa- tigable observer and calculator, constructed tables of Jupiter and Saturn, founded on the system of gravity, and on the several ob- served oppositions, from 1747 to 1804. Not long after the im- pression of these tables, M. de Laplace discovered an error in the analytical part of the process used in the construction, which influenced the values of the elliptic elements, and consequently the tables would not Jong continue to accord with observation. Undaunted by this vexatious occurrence, M. Bouvard recom- menced his labours, and in the Connaissance des Tems of the year 1816 published corrected elements of Jupiter; in the for- mation of which were employed all the observed oppositions and © quadratures down to 1814. The elements of Saturn, in like manner corrected, appeared in the volume for 1818; and those of Uranus were promised. | In the present volume are comprised tables of the three planets constructed according to the decimal division of the circle (as were those of 1808); with an introduction detailing the formula as numerically expounded, and a comparison of the tables with the places determined by observation. With regard to the tables of Uranus, two distinct sets of ob- servations were to be regarded; the one comprising those made by accident, while its existence as a planet was unknown; and the other comprehending the observations from 1781 to the pre- sent time. Much industry had been employed by Bouvard, as also by Delambre, Burckhardt and others, to detect observations of this planet, as a fixed star, and the number hitherto ascertained amounts 214 Notices respecting New Books. amounts to twenty; viz. six by Flamsteed, one by Bradley, one by Mayer, and twelve by Lemonnier. It was very natural for M. Bouvard to combine the ancient and modern series, in de- ducing the planetary elements. Having done so, and compared: his new tables with the observations, he found the ancient ones agreed but indifferently, while amnong the modern ones there-was a regularly varying difference alternately positive and negative. These differences were so great, that it was impossible to attri- bute them either to the modern observations, or to the theory; and the care with which the calculations had been made, pre- cluded the idea of assigning as the cause of the errors the omis- sion of any important term. M. Bouvard was therefore obliged to reject the ancient observations, and to construct his tables anew, according to the modern determinations solely; which now extend to nearly one half of the planetary period. The present tables correspond very exactly with the last-mentioned places, none of the comparisons giving a difference of 10”; but the an- cient observations are represented with much less exactness. Flamsteed’s exhibit errors of from +41” to +62”, and those of the other observers give from —14” to —70”. M. Bouvard leaves it to be ascertained hereafter, whether the above discordances are to be assigned to a want of exactness in the old observers and their instruments, as he himself believes ; or whether they depend on some unknown cause of planetary perturbation. To show the progress of modern science, we will call the at- tention of our readers to the tables published by Professor Vince in 1808, comprising the most exact ones then extant of the sun, moon, planete s, and satellites. Since that period there have ap- peared the tables of Venus, by Reboul; of the Moon, by Burck- hardt; of Jupiter’s satellites, by Delambre ; and of the three great planets, by Bouvard. Besides which, the tables of the Sun have been revised by Burckhardt, although, from the smallness of the corrections discovered by him, it has not been considered necessary to reconstruct the tables, So that Professor Vince’s work is become obsolete, in the short space of 13 years, except as to Mercury and Mars, of which planets new tables may be expected from the hand of M. Burckhardt, according to an in timation given in the Coun. des Tems for 1816, The First Volume of the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London, has appeared too late in the month to allow us to do more than merely notice its contents. In addition to the Address, Regulations and First Report of the Council of the So- ciety, it contains the following interesting papers: I, An _— of the Repeating Circle, and of the Wee all Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London, 215 and Azimuth Instrument; describing their different Construc- tions, the Manner of performing their principal Adjustments, and how to make Observations with them; together. with a Comparison of their respective Advantages. By Edward Trough- ton, Esq., F.R.S., and Member of the American Philosophical Society.—II. The Description of a Repeating Instrument upon a new Construction. By G. Dollond, Esq. F.R.S.—III. On a Method of fixing a Transit Instrument exactly in the Meridian. By F. Baily, Esq. F.R.S. and L.S.—IV. On the doubly-refract- ing Property of Rock Crystal, considered as a Principle of Mi- crometrical Measurements, when applied to a Telescope. By the Rev. W. Pearson, LL.D. F.R.S. and Treasurer of this So- ciety ——V. On the Construction and Use of a Micrometrical Eye- piece of a Telescope. By the Rev. W. Pearson, LL.D. F.R.S. and Treasurer of this Society.—VI. On the Construction of a new Position-Micrometer, depending on the doubly-refractive Power of Rock Crystal. By the Rev. W. Pearson, LL.D. F.R.S. and Treasurer of this Society.—VII. Observations on the best Mode of examining the double or compound Stars ; together with a Catalogue of those whose Places have been identified. By James South, Esq. F.R.S. and L.S. Honorary Member of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, &c.—VIII. On the new Me- ridian Circle at Gottingen. Communicated by Professor Gauss, in a Letter to the Foreign Secretary.—IX. On the Solar Eclipse which took Place on September 7, 1820. By F. Baily, Esq. F.R.S. and L.S.—X. On the Solar Eclipse which took Place on September 7, 1820. Communicated in a Letter to J. F. W. Her- schel, Esq., Foreign Sebretary, from Professor Moll of Utrecht. —XI. On the Comet discovered in the Constellation Pegasus in 1821. Communicated in a Letter to J. F. W. Herschel, Esy., Foreign Secretary, from M. Nicollet of Paris —XI11. On the Comet discovered in the Constellation Pegasus in 1821: and on the luminous Appearance observed on the dark Side of the Moon on February 5, 1821. Communicated in a Letter to J. F. W. Her- schel, Esq., Foreign Secretary, from Dr. Olbers of Bremen.— XII. On a luminous Appearance seen on the dark Part of the Moon in May 1821. Communicated in a Letter to the Rev, Dr. Pearson, from the Rev. M. Ward.—XIV. On the Occulta- tions of Fixed Stars by the Moon: on the Repeating Circle: on the Perturbations, &c. of the new Planets: and Observations of the late Comet and of the Planet Vesta. Communicated in a Letter to the Rev. T. Catton, F.R.S., from Professor Littrow of Vienna.x—XV. On the Places of 145 new Double Stars. By Sir William Herschel, President of this Society—XVI. Universal Tables for the Reduction of the Fixed Stars. By S, Groom- bridge, Esq., F.R.S, and 8.R.A, Nap,—XVIII. Observation of the 216 Notices respecting New Books. the Solar Eclipse which took Place on September 7, 1820. Communicated in a Letter from M. Piazzi to the Foreign Se- eretary. + ; Practical Rules for the Restoration and Preservation of Health, and the best Means for invigorating and prolonging Life, by the ‘late celebrated George Cheyne, M.D.F.R.S. The. Quarterly Journal of Foreign Medicine and Surgery, and of the Sciences connected with them; with Reviews (now added) of British Medical Science and original Cases and Communica- tions. No. XIII. 4s. 6d. Elements of Astronomy. By A. Picquot. 12mo. 7s. 6d. Botanical Rambles; designed as an easy and familiar Intro- duction to the elegant and pleasing Study of Botany. By the Author of the Indian Cabinet. A Monograph on the Genus Camellia. By Samuel Curtis, F.L.S. Illustrated by five Plates, exhibiting eleven Varieties of the Camellia, accurately drawn from Nature by Clara Maria ‘Pope. Large folio. 3/. 3s. plain; 6/. 15s. 6d. beautifully co- loured. A Description of the Island of St. Michael; with Remarks on the other Azores or Western Islands; originally communi- eated to the Linnean Society of England. By John Webster, M.D., &c. 8vo. 13s. Illustrations of the History, Manners, Customs, Arts, Sciences, and Literature of Japan. Selected from Japanese MSS. by M. Titsingh ; with coloured Engravings. Royal quarto. 2d. 18s. Chart of Van Diemen’s Land, from the best Authorities, and from Surveys by G. W. Evans, Surveyor-General of the Colony. 7s. 6d. coloured, in a case. History of Cultivated Vegetables. By Henry Phillips. 2-vols. 8vo. 1d. ls. 6d. A Letter to Charles Henry Parry, M.D. &c. on the Influence of Artificial Eruptions in certain Diseases incidental to the Human Body. By Edward Jenner, Esq. M.D. &c. Quarto. The Principles of Medicine, on the Plan of the Baconian Phi- losophy. Vol. I. on Febrile and Inflammatory Diseases. By R.D. Hamilton. 8vo, 9s. A Treatise on Dyspepsia, or Indigestion: with Observations on Hypochondriasis and Hysteria. By James Woodforde, M.D. Svo. 9S. Preparing for Publication. Mr. Farmer has in the press a Second Edition of his popular Work on Head Aches and Indigestion, with considerable addi- tions and improvements. A new and very improved Edition of the Phar macopecia Chi- rurgica, » Royal Society. 217 rurgica, under the title of ‘* The Modern Medico-chirurgical Pharmacopeeia,” containing formule for: topical and constitu- tional Remedies, from the private and Hospital Practice of the Most eminent Surgeons of London, Edinburgh, Dublin, and the . pweial Infirmaries, as well as those of France, Germany, and taly. A System of Mechanical Philosophy. By the late John Ro- bison, LL.D., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University, and Secretary to the Royal Society, of Edinburgh. Edited by David Brewster,LL.D., F.R.S .E.—A copious article on the His- tory and Operations of the Steam Engine has been completely revised by the late James Watt, Esq. and his Son; of Soho. A System of analytical Geometry. By the Rev. Dionysius Lardner, A.M. of the University of Dublin, and M.R.I.A. Practical Observations on Paralytic Affections, St. Vitus’s Dance, Deformities of the Chest and Limbs. _ Illustrative of the beneficial Effects of Muscular Action. By W. Ward. Conversations on Mineralogy. With Plates by Lowry. Since Cast-Iron has been found to be so valuable a material for various parts of buildings and machines, an easy tnode of computing its strength has been a desideratum among mechanics and others, A small Work on this subject is now in the press, being a Practical and Experimental Essay on the Strength of Cast-Iron, with Rules, Examples, and Tables. Illustrated by Four Engravings. By Thomas Tredgold, Author of the Article Jomery in the Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica, and of a Treatise on Carpentry, Timber, and the Dry-rot, &c. XLIX. Proceedings of Learned Societies, ROYAL SOCIETY. Jan. 31, A PAPER by John Goldingham, Esq. F.R.S, was read, containing Observations on the Length of the Seconds Pendulum at Madras. Feb. 7, 14 and 21. The Meetings on these evenings were: occupied in reading a Paper by the Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S., giving an Account of an assemblage of Fossil Teeth and Bones belonging to extinct Species of Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippo- potamus, and Hyena, and some’ other Animals discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, near Kirby Moorside, Yorkshire. This paper gives a detailed account of an antediluvian den of hyanas discovered last summer at Kirkdale, near Kirby Moor- side, in Yorkshire, about 25 miles north-east of York. Vol, 59, No, 287. March 1822, Ee The 218 Royal Socicty. The den is a natural fissure or cavern in oolitic limestone ex- tending 300 feet into the body of the solid rock, and varying from two to five feet in height and breadth. Its nouth was closed with rubbish, and overgrown with grass and bushes, and was accidentally intersected by the working of a stone quarry. It is on the slope of a hill, about 100 feet above the level of a small river, which, during great part of the year, is engulfed. The bottom of the cavern is nearly horizontal, and is entirely covered to the depth of about a foot, with a sediment of mud deposited by the diluvian waters. The surface of this mud was in some parts entirely covered with a crust of stalagmite; on the greater part of it there was no stalagmite. At the bottom of this mud, the floor of the cave was covered from one end to the other with teeth and fragments of bone of the following animals : hyena, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, horse, ox, two or three species of deer, bear, fox, water-rat, and birds. ; The bones are for the most part broken, and gnawed to pieces, and the teeth lie loose among the fragments of the bones ; a very few teeth remain still fixed in broken fragments of the jaws. The hvena bones are broken to pieces as much as those of the other animals. No bone or tooth has been rolled, or in the least acted on by water, nor are there any pebbles mixed with them. The bones are not at all mineralized, and retain nearly the whole of their animal gelatin, and owe their high state of preservation to the mud in which they have been imbedded. The teeth of hyznas are most abundant; and of these, the greater part are worn down almost to the stumps, as if by the operation of gnaw- ing bones. Some of the bones have marks of the teeth on them ; and portions of the fecal matter of the hyenas are found also in the den. These have been analysed by Dr. Wollaston, and found to be composed of the same ingredients as the allum graecum, or white feces of dogs that are fed on bones, viz. car- bonate of lime, phosphate of lime, and triple phosphate of am- monia and magnesia; and, on being shown to the keeper of the beasts at Exeter Change, were immediately recognised by him as the dung of the hyena. The new and curious fact of the preservation of this substance is explained by its affinity to bone. The animals found in the cave agree in species with those that occur in the diluvian gravel of England, and of great part of the northern hemisphere; four of them, the hyzna, elephant, rhino- ceros, and hippopotamus, belong to species that are now extinct, and to genera that live exclusively in warm climates, and which are found associated together only in the southern portions of Africa near the Cape. It is certain from the evidence afforded by the interior of the den (which is of the same kind with that afforded by the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii) that all oe animals ; Royal Society. 219 animals lived and died in Yorkshire, in the period immediately preceding the deluge; and a similar conclusion may be drawn with respect to England generally, and to those other extensive regions of the northern hemisphere where the diluvian gravel contains the remains of similar species of animals. The extinct fossil hyena most nearly resembles that species which now in- habits the Cape, whose teeth are adapted beyond those of any other animal to the purpose of cracking bones, and whose habit it is to carry home parts of its prey to devour them in the caves of rocks which it inhabits. ‘This analogy explains the accumu- lation of the bones in the den at Kirkdale: They were carried in for food by the hyenas; the smaller animals, perhaps, entire ; the larger ones piecemeal; for by no other means could the bones of such large animals as the elephant and rhinoceros have arrived at the inmost recesses of so.small a hole, unless rolled thither by water; in which case, the angles would have been worn off by attrition, but they are not. Judging from the proportions of the remains now found in the den, the ordinary food of the hyzenas seems to have been oxen, deer, and water-rats ; the bones of the larger animals are more rare; and the fact of the bones of the hyenas being broken up equally with the rest, added to the known preference they have for putrid flesh and bones, renders it probable that they devoured the dead carcases of their own species. Some of the bones and teeth appear to have undergone various stages of decay by lying at the bottom of the den while it was inhabited, but little or none since the introduction of the diluvian sediment in which they have been imbedded. The circumstances of the cave and its contents are altogether inconsistent with the hypothesis, of all the various animals of such dissimilar habits having entered it spontaneously, or having fallen in, or been drifted in by water, or with any other than that of their having been dragged in, either entire or piecemeal, by the beasts of prey whose den it was. Five examples are adduced of bones of the same animals dis- covered in similar caverns in other parts of this country, viz. at Crawley Rocks near Swansea, in the Mendip Hills at Clifton, at Wirksworth in Derbyshire, and at Oreston near Plymouth, In some of these, there is evidence of the bones having been in- troduced by beasts of prev; but in that of Hutton Hill, in the Mendips, which contains rolled pebbles, it is probable they were washed in. Jn the case of opeu fissures, some may have fallen in. , A comparison is then instituted between these caverns in Eng- Jand, and those in Germany described by Rosenmuller, . Esper and Leibnitz, as extending over a tract of 200 leagues, and con- Ee2 taining 220 Royal Society. taining analogous deposits of the bones of two extinct species of bear, and the same extinct species of hyzna that occurs at Kirk- dale. In the German caves, the bones are in nearly the same state of preservation as in the English, and are not in entire skeletons, ‘but dispersed as in a charnel house. They are scattered all over the caves, sometimes loose, sometimes adhering together by stalagmite, and forming beds of many feet in thickness. They are of all parts of the body, and of animals of all ages; but are never rolled. With them is found a quantity of black earth de- rived from the decay of animal flesh; and also in the newly dis- covered caverns, we find descriptions of a bed of mud. The latter is probably the same diluvial sediment which we find at Kirkdale. The unbroken condition of the bones, and presence of black animal earth, are consistent with the habit of bears, as being rather addicted to vegetable than animal food, and in this case, not devouring the dead individuals of their own species. In the hyzna’s cave, on the other hand, where both flesh and bones were devoured, we have no black earth; but instead of it we find in the album grecum, evidence of the fate that has attended the carcases and lost portions of the bones whose fragments still remain. Three-fourths of the total number of bones in the German eaves belong to two extinct species of bear, and two-thirds of the remainder to the extinct hyena of Kirkdale. There are also hones of an animal of the cat kind (resembling the jaguar or spotted panther of South America) and of the wolf, fox, and polecat, and rarely of elephant and rhinoceros*. The bears and hyzna of all these caverns, as well as the ele- phant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, belong to the same extinct species that occur also fossil in the diluvian gravel, whence it follows ‘that the period in which they inhabited these regions was that immediately preceding the formation of this gravel by that transient and universal inundation which has left traces of its ravages committed at no very distant period over the surface of the whole globle, and since which, no important or general physical changes appear to have affected it. A Both in the case of the English and German eaverns, the bones under consideration are never included in the solid rock ; they occur in cavities of limestone rocks of various ages and formations, but have no further connexion with the rocks them- * M. Rosenmuller shows that the bears not only lived and died, but were also born, in the same caverns in which their bones have been thus accumulated, and the same conclusion follows from the facts observed in the cave in Yorkshire. selves, Astronomical Society. 221 selves, than that arising from the accident of their being lodged in cavities produced in them, by causes wholly unconnected with the animals, that appear for a certain time to have taken pos- session of them as their habitation. Feb. 28. Communication of a curious Appearance lately ob- served upon the Moon, by the Rey. Fearon Fallows, in a Letter addressed to John Barrow, Esy. On the difference in the Appearance of the Teeth and the Shape of the Skull in different Species of Seals. By Sir Everard Home, Bart. March 7. Experiments and Observations on the Dev aopaitae of magnetical Properties in Steel and Iron by Percussion. By William Scoresby, Jun. Esq. Communicated by the Presntete ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, March 8. A letter was read from M. Gauss, respecting a very simple contrivance for a signal, in geodetical operations, which may be seen at an immense distance. This contrivance is nothing more than the common reflecting speculum of a sex- tant; being about two inches long, and an inch and a half broad; and mounted in such a manner that it may always reflect the solar rays to the given distant point, notwithstanding the motion of the sun. The instrument, thus mounted, he calls a heliotrope: and the reflected light was so powerful that, at 10 miles distant, it was too bright for the telescope of the theodolite, and it was requisite to cover a part of the mirror. At 25 miles distant, the light appeared like a beautiful star, even when one of the stations was enveloped in fog and rain: and at 66 miles distant, it was still sufficiently powerful as a signal. In fact, the only limit which appears to the use of this beautiful instrument, is that which arises from the curvature of the earth. This Society has just announced the publication of the first volume of their Memorrs: which must be highly interesting to every lover of Astronomy. With a true zeal for the science, they have resolved to present copies to all their AssociareEs, and to most of the scientific Societies and Academies in Europe, Asia, and America: whereby their labours will be more genpeally known, and duly appreciated. L. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles, EXPLOSION OF A GASOMETER, Ox the 15th of March, about fonr o’clock P. M., one of the gasometers in Friar-street burst with a dreadful explosion. : this 222 Explosion of a Gasometer. this place is the reservoir of gas for supplying Blackfriars-road and the adjacent streets, The gasometer was quite new, and at the time of the accident contained about 160 tons of water. John Morgan, an engineer, was thrown from the gasometer full ten yards over the wall of Mr. Andrews’s premises in Green-street, and killed on the spot. The damage done to the neighbourhood was very considerable, and a great many persons were severely hurt. Mr. Roper’s (a bone-boiler) premises were completely de- stroyed, and he narrowly escaped with his life. Several houses and other manufactories have been much injured. But the most afflicting scene of all, is the calamity suffered by Mrs. Clarke, whose husband was on Wednesday last scalded to death, by losing his hold, and falling into a cauldron of boiling water in Green- street. The power of the water was such on the bursting of the gasometer, that it completely washed away Mrs. Clarke’s house, and alittle girl in arms was dreadfully hurt, and carried away by the force of the water nearly fifty yards from whence the house stood. On Monday the 18th of March, a coroner’s inquest was held on the body of Morgan, when the following evidence on the sub- ject was given: Thomas Mees, a smith, stated, that he was sent up to London in the beginning of June, and was employed to put up the tanks : two of them were put up before Christmas, and that which burst since. A month since a crack appeared in one of the plates of the tank, which enlarged, and broke out above, where a new patch was put. Witness and the deceased were employed to repair it, and caused another plate to be made to cover the fissure. On this being done, they found that the first patch must be taken off, to have holes drilled for the screws ; a piece of pasteboard and then the new plates were placed over the crack, and supported by a piece of wood, which rested on the adjoining wall, aud made every thing water-tight. While they were putting in the screws, the iron hoop, which was the main support of the tank, burst, and dropped off. Witness then said to the deceased, ‘* The tank is sure to burst,” and they both ran down some distance from it; but as it held together, they agreed to endeavour to mend the hoop, and returned for that purpose, when the deceased pro- ceeded to climb up the side of the tank to throw down some dust to stop the cracks, as the water was running out fast. Witness again called out, ‘*Come away, it’s sure to burst,” and stooped down to pick up the fallen hoop, when the tank gave way, and the water carried witness away about eighteen yards. On reco- vering himself, he found the deceased in a timber-yard, about thirty yards distant, where he had been washed over a shed by the impetuosity of the water; he groaned when witness picked him up, and the blood flowed freely from his ears: he continued groaning Cure of Hydrophobia. 223 groaning and bleeding till he was taken to a public-house, where he died in a few minutes. The tank was forty-three feet eight in diameter, eighteen feet deep ; it was nearly full of water. Witness could not tell what caused the fissure; he did not think there was any flaw in the iron plates ; he never observed the foundation give way. The remaining tanks were fourteen inches only less than the one which had burst. Several of the J ury commented on the dangerous situation of the premises, and said they ought not to be placed so near the habitations of the surrounding neighbour- hood. Mr. Percival (a Juror) said but few of the plates exceeded half an inch in thickness in the centre, and contended they were not sufficiently strong; he spoke from his own knowledge, for he knew the plates for vats were generally an inch and an inch and a half in thickness.—Another Juror said, that if it was only made of tin, and the hoops were sufficiently strong, it would not break, Mr, Percival resumed, and said, the hoop was not stronger than that which he had round a vat that contained only two tons of water.—Robert Monro, Esq. a Director of the Gas Company, said the tank contained 752 tons of water. The plates were three-quarters of an inch in thickness; some were stouter. The works were furnished by contract; the ironmasters engaging to make them water-tight. The contractors had put up eleven tanks in London, which were all standing. The whole loss (the tank cost between 7002. and S002.) would fall on the contractors. It was one foot longer than the others, but he did not know whether the iron was made proportionally stronger. Of course the build- ing was left to the contractors, and it was their interest to make the tanks of sufficient strength. SUCCESSFUL METHOD FOLLOWED IN THE UKRAINE FOR THE CURE OF HYDROPHOBIA%,. When Mr. Marochetti, an operator in the Hospital at Mos- cow, was in the Ukraine in 1813, in one day fifteen persons ap- plied to him for cure, haying been bitten bya mad dog. Whilst he was preparing the remedies, a deputation of several old men Made its appearance to request him to allow a peasant to treat them ; a man who for some years past enjoyed a great reputation for his cures of hydrophobia, and of whose success Mr. Maro- chetti had heard much. He consented to their request under these conditions : Ist, that he, Mr. Marochetti, should be present at every thing done by the peasant ; 2dly, in order that he might be more fully convinced that the dog was really mad, he (Mr. M.) should select one of the patients, who should be treated accord- * From the Beilin State Gazette of the 14th February 1822. ing 224 Cure of Hydropholia. ing to the medical course usually held in estimation. A girl of six years old was chosen for this purpose. The peasant gave to his fourteen patients a strong ‘*decoction” of the ‘* Summit,” and ‘© Fl, Genista lutee tinctorie,” (about 12lb. daily,) and exa- mined twice a day under the tongues, where, as he stated, smal! knots, containing the poison of the madness, must form them- selves. As soon as these small knots actually appeared, and which Mr. Marochetti himself saw, they were opened, and cauterised with a red-hot needle; after which the patient gargled with the decoction of the ‘* Genista.’”’—The result of this treatment was, that all the fourteen (of whom only two, the last bitten, did not show these knots) were dismissed cured at the end of six weeks; during which time they drank this decoction. But the little girl, who had been treated according to the usual methods, was seized with hydrophobic symptoms on the seventh day, and was dead in eight hours after they first took place. The persons dismissed as cured were seen three years afterwards by Mr. Marochetti, and they were all sound and well. Five years after this circumstance (in 1818) Mr. Marochetti had a new opportunity in Podolia of confirming this important discovery. The treatment of twenty- six persons, who had there been bitten by a mad dog, was con= fided to him; nine were men, eleven women, and six children. He gave them at once a decoction of the ‘* Genista,” and a diligent examination of their tongues gave the following result : Five men, all the women, and three children, had the small knots already. mentioned; those bitten worst, on the third day, others on the fifth, seventh, and ninth ;. and one woman, who had been bitten but very superficially in the leg only, on the twenty-first day. The other seven also, who showed no small knots, drank the “decoctum Genist@”’ six weeks, and all the patients were cured. In consequence of these observations, Mr. Marochetti believes that the hydrophobic poison, after remaining a short time in the wound, fixes itself for a certain time under the tongue, at the openings of the ducts of the ‘‘ glandular sub-maxiller,” which, are at each side of the tongue-string, and there forms those small knots, in which one may feel with a probe a fluctuating fluid, which is that hydrophobic. poison. The usual time of their ap- pearance seems to be between the third and ninth day after the bite ; and if they are not opened within the first twenty-four, hours after their formation, the poison is re-absorbed into the body, and the patient is lost beyond the power of cure. For this reason, Mr. Marochetti recommends that such patients. should be immediately examined under the tongue, which should. be continued for six weeks, during which time they should take. daily 13lb. of the ‘ decoct. Genist.” (or four times a day the powder, one drachm pro dosi). If the knots do not appear in the Statue of Isis in the British Museum. 225 the day-time, no madness is to be apprehended ;, but, as soon as they show themselves, they should be opened with a lancet, and then cauterised, and the patient should gargle assiduously with the above-mentioned ‘‘decoct.”’ We hasten to convey to our readers this important discovery, (which we borrow from the Petersburgh Miscellaneous Treatises in the Realm of Medical Science for 1821), which certainly de- serves the full attention of all medical practitioners; and which, if confirmed by experience, may have the most beneficial results, STATUE OF ISIS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM™. Among the beautiful specimens of Egyptian sculpture, which at once annihilates every argument of Winkelman’s, and other learned antiquaries, who would condemn its principles as meagre, hard, and unfaithful to nature, may be cited the most exquisite, fragment of a female statue, probably of Isis, now lying in the vestibule of the Britis Museum. This figure is perfect from the waist, and measures about five feet. It is formed of one block of white marble, and is executed with a softness and symmetrical beauty that vie with any statues of antiquity. The face appears to be the goddess Isis, and while it presents the Nubian cast of features, it is so delicately formed, that it breathes a most peculiar and winning softness of expression. The cheeks are high and prominent, but finely rounded and full; the eyes so sharply sculptured, that they seem finished but yester- day. The mouth is all but breathing; the lips having the marked breadth of expression, so perfectly the Egyptian style, with the small but highly important edge that marks their curve in speak- ing, which might appear on the eve of taking place, from the masterly delineation of the mouth. This fine head was crowned by an asp diadem, with the usual folds or lappets falling down on the chest, as appears in all the figures of Isis, with the Nubian features represented on the sycamore sarcophagi which inclose the mummies. She has also the collar (the Rabid of the initia- tion), which is most delicately sculptured. Indeed, the impres- sions which the contemplation of this figure excite, are those of wonder and astonishment, that a form of such beauty could have been the workmanship of an Egyptian artist. It has excellencies that will not fade by a comparison with any Grecian or Roman form that adorns the Museum, and the Egyptian goddess possesses the charm of attracting and riveting the imagination, and filling up a beau idéal of character equally with any of the chef-d’ auvres of the collection, and which arises from the extraordinary indi- viduality which its expressive contour, and inviting smile, pecu- * Gentleman's Magazine, Jan, 1822. Vol. 59. No. 287. March 1822. Ff liarly 226 Canal Bouts. liarly associate with it; as is also the case with the celebrated Memnon’s head, and all the higher class of Egyptian sculpture, Those, therefore, who contemplate these features and form, will acquire far higher notions of the excellence of Egyptian art than hitherto has been ascribed to it. The classic writers of Greece and of Rome have always declared Egypt to be the fountain and source of knowledge. These coun- tries haye borrowed their rules of art, and transported their obe- lisks to adorn their colonnades and forums; and Rome and the whole world, unto our own era, have done full justice to the vast conceptions, the colossal and gigantic proportions of their temples, their statues and their obelisks, and above all, to the indestructible material they selected with such boldness and hardi- hood for their extraordinary labours, which defies all competition of modern skill, being of the basalts and oriental granite, hard and impenetrable to the edge of all modern tools. ‘To these genuine principles of grandeur and sublimity, developed in their vastness and eternal duration, this pleasing and delicately formed statue, as well as many of the busts and precious relicks collected for the last ten years from this ancient land, now lay claim also to the majestic and the beautiful. They differ indeed in many striking essentials from the celebrated statues of Greece and of Rome, but they combine in themselves such excellencies, as to render a disquisition into their first principles of composition very desirable; and placed as they now are in the vestibule even of the Elgin marbles, the works of Phidias, in the face almost of those forms of matchless excellence, it would be highly pleasing to trace how, in such a fearful collision, they still maintain their attraction, and by what charm they thus fascinate their beholder to linger around their austere and smiling forms, which appear ‘ breathing forth through lips all but animated, the astonishing and mystic secrets of their venerable forms. CANAL BOATS. The following account of Mr. T. M. Van Heythuysen’s patent for propelling barges or boats through canals, has been sent us by a correspondent. ** The object of this invention is to substitute manual labour instead of equestrian in transporting barges through canals, and is simply thus: A tread-wheel is fixed either to the fore-, or both to the fore- and after-part of a barge, which is trod round. The axle passes through the tread-wheel and projects from the sides of the barge about 20 inches: to this is fixed a paddle- wheel similar to those used by vessels propelled by steam ; each of these wheels contains six paddles. Supposing the man who treads to weigh 135Ibs, and deduct 35 lbs. for friction, he will then Identity of Calc-sinter and calcareous Spar. 227 then tread the axle round at a force of 100 lbs. The superiority over the common method is this :—A man when he pulls sculls or oars, pulls them through the water twenty-four times in a minute, and the strength of his pulling is computed at about 30 Ibs. each time. By Mr. Van H.’s method the paddles pass through the water 136 times in a minute ; and as only two paddles are in the water at the same time, each paddle is passed through the water by a force of 50 lbs. ‘There is not sutficient space on a canal to allow of the use of oars, This newly invented machinery is very simple and can be taken off the vessel in a moment, and so light that a man can walk away with it with as much ease as he can with a pair of oars. Two men can propell a canal barge with this contrivance at the rate of five miles an hour. The expense of keeping track roads for horses to draw the barges, and the ex- pense of keeping the horses themselves, seem to make this a great desideratum to all canal property.” (<= We suspect that the patentee will meet with objections not easy to be overcome respecting the application of such ma- chinery to canal navigation. Even in the present method of moving the barges, when the horses go beyond a certain rate, the motion given to the water tends to wash down the banks ;—but what is this compared to the moving tide that would be pro- duced hy the working of paddles ? IDENTITY OF CALC-SINTER AND CALCAREOUS SPAR, The Rev. Dr. Fleming, of Flisk, transmitted to me lately two specimens of this substance, with the following remark: “ La- mellar cale-sinter from Macalister’s Cave in Sky. I procured these crystals in shallow pools in the cave filled with the calea- reous water. The indications of crystallization are distinct, but the crystals seem to be but in progress. The summits of the crystals of the smallest piece are smooth aud flat, and indicate ’ the prisms below to be five-sided, and sometimes four-sided. I regard these specimens as exceedingly curious, as they are ge- nuine examples of Neptunian calcareous spar. 2. Acicalarly crystallized fibrous Calc-sinter.— This substance is from the Isle of Man; the specimen from which these fragments were se- parated was given me by Mr. Stevenson several years ago, and is interesting as being a recent aqueous formation.” Dr. Fleming adds, “ that all the caleareous matter in Macalister’s Cave, what- ever be its external form, stalactitic, stalagmitic, or encrusting, is all more or less in the state of calcareous spar, with the usually foliated structure ; that which lies in the pools or hollows of the caves has its crystalline forms like those in the specimens sent.” Upon examining these interesting specimens, I succeeded in ex- tracting from them regular rhombs of ‘calcareous spar, having Ff2 their 228 New Metal.—Smut in Wheat. ‘their angles of the same value as the finest specimens of carbo- nate of lime. Their double refraction and their polarising force, were of the same character and the same intensity as the purest Iceland spar. D. B.—( Edin. Phil. Jour.) NEW METAL, Counsellor Giesse of Dorpat has communicated to the world the discovery of what he at present thinks to be a new metal, ex- tracted from the residue of English sulphuric acid, on distilling it to dryness. One variety left, out of 16 ounces, 91 grains of a white residuum, in which there was nosulphate of lead. It changed colour several times during the experiments made upon it, and he thinks it was formed of the sulphur employed in ma- nufacturing the acid. It is susceptible of oxidation, and its al- kaline combinations form double salts with acids. _ Still the pro- fessor’s details are judged, on the whole, to be inconclusive. SMUT IN WHEAT. “Take a double handful of good clean wheat, wash it well in clear water in a hand-bason or other utensil, rub the seed well between the hands zm ¢he water, and change the water several times until it comes from the seed quite clear ; then sow half of the washed seed in a corner of the farm garden, or on some other convenient spot, but be careful not to use a rake for covering the seed, that had been recently used in the barn or elsewhere amongst smutted wheat, or even amongst the straw of that wheat. The first part of the wheat being disposed.of, procure some smut balls, having no kernels of wheat amongst thein ; break the balls in a sample-bag, and put the other half of the washed wheat into the same bag ; shake the wheat and the smut powder well together, and allow the wheat to remain in the bag one or two days, when it will have become dry, and the smut powder have effected the inoculation ; then sow that seed upon a spot of ground conti- guous, but not immediately adjoining to where the former hand- ful of seed had been sown. The reason for not depositing one par- cel of seed immediately adjoining to the other is, to guard against the probability of the two parcels of seed becoming intermixed, through the agency of birds, mice, &c. as an accident of that na- ture would render the experiment incomplete ; whereas, if it is properly conducted, the result will assuredly be satisfactory : so much so, that the produce of the first sample will be without smut, and that of the second will be smutted, more or less (pro- bably half smut balls) according to the state of the smut powder at the time the inoculation was effected. Smut balls taken from old wheat are not so liable to communicate the disease, as those taken from new wheat: this phenomenon is owing to the S89. o The Golden Pippin. 229 ‘of the smut insect becoming addled, or rendered effete, when kept beyond the season assigned by nature for their procreation or re- ‘production : hence old wheat seed is less liable to produce smut than new wheat; but this depends in some measure upon the manner in which the old wheat had been kept ; if in stacks, the insects’ eggs will not have been entirely destroyed, because of the air having been excluded from those situated in the middle of “the stack ; but in the event of the wheat being thrashed out a considerable time previously, the eggs will have become addled, ‘from exposure to the air. The same position holds good in regard ‘to the eggs of other insects, reptiles, or birds : one law of Nature rules the whole; and it even extends to the germ of vegetables, for we see that old wheat seed kept in stacks vegetates better than when kept in granaries. ‘This explanation will sufficiently ‘account for the contrariety of opinion respecting the eligibility of ‘using old wheat for seed, whether for producing a full crop of wheat, or as a prevention “of smut.”’—Baker’s Treatise. THE GOLDEN PIPPIN. Mr. Phillips of Bayswater, who has lately written an historical -account of Fruits, has furnished us with some further account of that elegant and excellent little English apple the Golden Pippin, -and which we hope will so satisfactorily prove the error of this variety’s being lost through sympathy with the parent tree, that -it may induce the planters of orchards to return to a cultivation of this favourite apple that produces a cider, which Mr. Phillips -tells us surpasses in richness of flavour even ‘ the gay Cham- _ -paigne.” Mr. Phillips seems not to have confined his inquiries to this ‘country alone as to the correctness of the theory, which had so far gained credit as nearly to banish this favourite apple from our ‘gardens. He tells us that there are at this time a considerable number of the. true golden pippin trees growing on the mountains in Madeira, about 14 miles from the capital of that island, and at an elevation of about 3000 feet above the sea, which regularly ‘produce abundance of fruit, notwithstanding the trunks and ‘branches are covered with a white lichen or moss. Grafts which were sent from these trees by ‘Thomas Harrison, Esq. about three ‘years ago, produced fruit at Cheshunt in Hertfordshire the second ‘year, and proved to be the original golden pippin. In several parts of America these trees are in a thriving state, which has been proved by the excellent quality of the fr uit lately ‘sent to this country. In addition to which he tells us he saw, ‘notwithstanding the late unfavourable season, many trees of this variety in Sussex, as healthy in appearance as most other kinds of apples, particularly in the garden of Messrs. Humphreys, at Chichester. 230 Botany.—The Bod. Constrictor. Chichester, where the fruit was of a size and perfection that he -had never seen surpassed. Mr. Phillips admits that the golden pippin is a more delicate tree than many other varieties, but by no means so much soas is generally supposed, and it only requires, as it deserves, the most genial situation of the orchard to render it as prolife as formerly. About the year 1685 Lord Clarendon had, at his seat at Swal- lowfield, Berks, an orchard of 1000 golden and other cider pip- pins. Pippins are said to take their names from the small spots or pips that usually appear on the sides of ose kinds of apples, and -which is no indication of decay. BOTANY. ; On Christmas-day the following plants, selected from many others, were in flower in the open ground at the Botanic Gar- den of Oxford, viz.:—1. Polycarpon tetraphyllum.—2. Scabi- osa atropurpurea.—3. Cerinthe minor.—4. Symphytum Orien- tale-—5. Borago officinalis.—6. Echium violaceum, —7. Pri- mula vulgaris,—8. Primula Auricula.—9. Campanula patula. — 10. Campanula Rapunculoides.—11. Lonicera implexa.—12. ‘Solanum tomentosum,.—13. Solanum nigrum.—14. Vinea major. —15. Sanseviera sessilifioran—16. Hydrangea hortensis.—17. Dianthus Deltoides.—18. Dianthus Carthusianorum.—l9. Re- seda odorata.— 20). Reseda alba.—21. Papaver Cambricum.—22. ‘Delphinium Consolida.—23. Anemone Hepatica.—24. Anemone coronaria. —25, Alyssum maritimum.—26. Mathiola incana.— 27. Erodium moschatum.—28. Erodium Hymenodes.—29. Pe- largonium Grossularioides.—30. Fumaria luteax—31. Fumaria spicata —32, Arnopogon Dalechampii—d33. Cnicus Eristhales. —34. Gnaphalium feetidum.—30. Elichrysum bracteatum.—36. Erigeron acre.—37. Tussilago fragrans.—38. Senecio elegans. — 39. Mercutialis annua,—40. Parietaria officinalis. THE BOA CONSTRICTOR SEEN IN THE ISLAND OF ST. VINCENT. A most singular circumstance occurred last week in the Cha- ‘raib country, when some negroes, who were working near Sandy Bay, discovered an immense serpent, hitherto wholly unknown ‘in any of these islands, and which was shot through the head by one of the party. It is supposed to be a species of Boa so com- ‘mon on the neighbouring continent, but in what way it reached — the shores of St. Vincent is quite unknown. Its entire length was between fourteen and fifteen feet, the circumference of the body between three and four feet. When first seen it was lying in a coil, but rdised itself on being roused.— Royal Gazelle and Ba- hama Advertizer, August 1821.. ais EARTHQUAKES. Earthquakes. 231 EARTHQUAKES. big weeds of one hundred acres of the land of Letterbrocken, part of the property of the Provost of Trinity College in Joyce County, and consisting of prime pasture and mountain, on which a number of tenants resided, commenced moving and carrying with it huge rocks, immense masses of earth, the entire crop: of wheat, oats, potatoes, &c., precipitated the whole into the sea and disappeared. Previous to its movement, a great noise was heard for some time, and the ground was convulsed. It is sup- posed that the previous drought which had occurred, prepared the way for this phenomenon, Two days after, a large tract of land thickly inhabited, the property of R. Martin, Esq. M.P., in the same neighbourhood, was visited by a like phenomenon, but even of a more destructive nature ; the loss of the sufferers not being confined to their land and crops, but their entire stock and - property being swallowed up by the earthquake. These occur- rences are mentioned in the Gent. Mag. for November, from the Tuam Gazette, and their date given as ten days previous. _ The Batavian Journals of April give an account of an earth- quake very destructive in its effects which took place on the 29th of December 1820, on the south coast of Celebes. It did im- mense damage, particularly at Boelekomba, where the sea rose several times a prodigious height, and then falling again with great rapidity, alternately deluged and left the shores, destroying all the plantations from Bontain to Boelekomba. Many hundred persons lost their lives. The forts of Boelekomba and Bontain were much damaged. On the 4th of January this year, another shock of an earth- quake occurred in the same neighbourhood. On the 17th February, at half-past five in the afternoon, se- veral smart shocks of an earthquake were felt at Comorn, in Hun- gary. The first, which lasted full three seconds, was SO severe, that the church of St..Andrew was cracked in several places, and many chimneys of the barracks were thrown down. But the ef- fects of this awful phenomenon were much more sensibly felt at the village of Izso, about two leagues from Comorn, where not only the Catholic and the Protestant church were greatly da- maged, but six houses wholly thrown down, and a quantity of eattle buried under their ruins. - Some slight shocks of an earthquake were experienced at Pres- burg on the 18th of February, at five in the afternoon. _ On the 19th of February, au earthquake occurred which was felt at places very distant from each other. It was felt at Paris, at Lyons, and still more violently in Switzerland. At Bourg, three distinct but immediate shocks were felt. The first was attended with a loud detonation ; the third was longer and more smart, 232 Earthquakes. smart. In the eastern communes, at the entrance of the moun- tains which branch out of the Jura, the shocks were still more violent, and were accompanied with detonations like discharges: of artillery. Many houses were damaged. The Journal of Savoy presents the following particulars re- specting this earthquake :—“ At Aix they experienced two suc-: ceeding shocks, which lasted about seven seconds. The noise was like that we heard here. A number of chimneys fell. The waters, impregnated with sulphur, were of a whitish grey colour, and they continued in a state of agitation near two hours. Their tempera- ture did not vary. _ All the phenomena were the same as those observed at the earthquake which happened at Lisbon in 1755. At Yenne, where a religious ceremony had called many persons to chureh, at the moment the preacher had uttered his exordium, ‘We are suspended between heaven and hell,’ a frightful noise was heard. The vaulted roof of the church opened, and a shower of stones and mortar descended on all sides. It is impossible to describe the scene of desolation which struck the terrified con- gregation. Their agitation in the dust, and the dreadful screams uttered in their rush to get to the doors, were awful in the ex- _ treme; several were trampled under feet, whilst others got into holes and corners to escape death. Many persons are suffering under. the effect of this event, but only two persons have received serious wounds, a circumstance almost incredible. It is a re- markable circumstance, that the earthquake was felt in three other churches, at the very moment when the preachers were pronouncing the words uttered by the preacher at Yenne. At La Motte Servolex, the Curate announced to his parishioners, that if they did not make haste to do penance, immediate pu- nishment would follow their sins. At the same instant the earth- quake was felt, and all the congregation fell upon their knees to implore forgiveness of their sins. At the College of Chambery, in. one of the lectures upon Death, it was urged that death might strike any one of the pupils in a month, in a day, perhaps that instant. At these words the church shook, and the roof seemed falling on the students, who ran precipitately to the door, utter- ing a cry of terror.”’ A letter from Chambery, speaking of the earthquake of 19th February, says, —‘* The roof of the church of Rumilly opened in several parts, and separated from the lateral walls. The belfry was rent to the extent of one hundred feet ; all the springs were - disturbed.: There were three shocks. One quarter of the town seemed from the neighbouring height to disappear for a moment _ behind the other, and the trees seemed to cross each other. Du- ring the shock many persons experienced in different parts of the hedyane same effects that are produced by a strong electric shock.”’ A violent Method of kindling Fire in the Sandwich Islands. 238 A violent shock of an earthquake was also felt at Belley (Ait) om the 23d of February at 35 minutes after 3 o’clock P.M. EARTHQUAKES AND MAGNETISM. M. Arago has transmitted to the French Academy of Sciences, au account of au observation he had made which proves that the recent earthquake, the shocks of which were felt at Lyons and its neighbourhood, also extended its action to Paris. M. Arago has an observatory in Paris for the purpose of observing the va- riations of the magnetic needle. On the 19th of February the needle remained perfectly steady until half past eight o’clock ; at a quarter before nine it became agitated in a very extraordinary manner with an oscillatory motion strongly inclining towards the magnetic meridian. On observing this truly singular phzno- menon, M. Arago was of opinion that it was occasioned by an earthquake. At the same day and hour M. Biot remarked an oscillatory movement produced by the same earthquake, at his own resi- dence in the College de France. METHODS OF KINDLING FIRE IN THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. There are various methods of producing fire. In the Caroline Islands, a piece of wood being held fast on the ground, another short piece, about a foot and a half long, of the thickness of a thumb, even as if turned, and with the end bluntly rounded off, is held perpendicularly over it, and put in motion between the - palin of the hand, like the mill used for making chocolate. The motion is at first slow, but is accumulated, and the pressure in- creased, when the dust produced by the friction collects round the bores, and begins to be ignited. This dust is the tinder which takes fire. The women of Eap are said to be uncommonly clever at this process. {n Radack and the Sandwich. Islands, they hold on the under piece of wood another piece a span long, with a blunt point, at an angle of about 30 degrees, the point of the angle being turned from the person employed. They hold the piece of wood with both hands, the thumbs below, the fingers above, so that it may press firmly and equally, and thus move it backwards and forwards in a straight line, about two or three inches long. When the dust that collects in the groove, pro- duced by the point of the stick, begins to be heated, the pressure and the rapidity of the motion are increased. It is to be observed, that in both methods two pieces of the same kind of wood are used; for which purpose, some of equally fine grains, not too hard, and not too soft, are the best. Both methods require prac- tice, dexterity, and patience. The process of the Aleutians 1s the first of these methods, improved by mechanism. ‘They ma- Vol. 59, No. 287. March 1822, Gg nage 234 American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb. nage the upright stick in the same manner as the gimlet or borer which they employ in their work. They hold and draw the string, which is twice wound round it with both hands, the upper end turning in a piece of wood, which they hold with their mouth. In this way, I have seen a piece of fir turned on another piece of fir; produce fire in a few seconds; whereas, in general, a much longer time is required. The Aleutians also make fire by taking two stones with sulphur rubbed on them, which they strike to- gether over dry moss strewed with sulphur.—(Kotzelue’s Voy- age, 3. 259.) ee AMERICAN ASYLUM FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB. An examination of the pupils of the New York Institution, for the instruction of the deaf and dumb, took place at that city, on the 25th of October 1821. The number of unfortunates were sixty, who excited much interest by the manner in which they went through their exercises. A Miss Barnard from Utica ex- pressed in signs the Lord’s prayer, and no one could fail to under- stand her. Her attitude was devotional, her gestures graceful and significant, her countenance expressive, and her whole per- formance indicated a knowledge of what her signs expressed : she had only been under instruction fourteen months. The exercise which followed was one of memory, and in this several took part. Among the rest Miss Barnard reduced to writing the Lord’s prayer, which she had previously rendered by signs.. Another pupil wrote the history of the creation—a third, the food—a fourth, the ten commandments—while another wrote from memory the character of Christ—and a sixth, the miracle of Christ curing the deaf and the blind. Next followed two small girls, not more than nine or ten years old, who conjugated, by writing on the black board, two verbs through several of the tenses, in connexion with the personal pronouns, and a noun, forming a complete sentence; as, I curl my hair—I curled my hair—I wash my hands, &c. This was explained by Mr. Loofborrow, the principal teacher, as the me- thod practised in the New York school for the deaf and dumb, and as involving a principle not adopted in common schools, and which might be beneficially introduced. Children generally learn grammar by rote; but as the object of grammar is to teach them the structure of language, it would be better, in going through the moods and tenses of the verbs, to prefix the pronouns and add a noun as in the instances above. The exercise which followed was the fable of the Bear and the Bees, froin AXsop, told in signs by Richard Sip, the son of an able farmer in New Jersey. This went to show that the deaf and dumb understand the nature of a fable and its application. MEASURE- Meridian.— Aerolites.—Hail Storm. 235 MEASUREMENT OF THE MERIDIAN IN RUSSIA. A series of operations for anew measure of the meridian in the Russian provinces of the Baltic, will take place during the sum- mer. M. Struve, professor of Astronomy, and rector of the uni- versity of Dorpat, will commence his labours at the 56th degree of north latitude, on the meridian of the observatory of the uni- versity of Dorpat. The expenses will be defrayed by the univer- sity. The emperor has given 2000 ducats to procure the neces- sary instruments, and Dr. Walbeck of the Swedish university of Abo will act in concert with professor Struve to render the mea- sure more complete. AEROLITES. A large aérolite fell on the 15th June last at Juvinas, a village in the arrondissement of l’Argentiére, department de l’Ardéche, respecting which some very accurate details have heen preserved. It fell about four o’clock P.M., the sky being clear, and the sun shining bright ; a continued rolling noise was heard for above three minutes, during which time four distinct detonations took place. The noise was heard at Tarascon, at Nismes, and still further off. A brilliant fire was seen in the air by persons at Nismes, St. Thome, (a league to the west of Viviers,) and Aps, a league further off. All agree in saying it resembled a fire burn- ing like a star, and descending slowly in the N.W., and which on disappearing left a train of smoke. Search was made in the ground where the fire descended ; and at the depth of five feet a large stone was discovered weighing 220|bs., or 91 kilogrammes. In a further account of this aérolite given by M. L. A. D. Fir- man, it is stated that another meteoric stone a kilogramme in weight was found a little distance off, and several small ones at Mayras near Juvinas. M.de Malbos, who happened to be at Barias when the stone fell, was looking towards the place at the time when it first appeared. He saw a globe of fire descend per- pendicularly from the heavens. He showed it to his workmen, and counting his pulse estimated the time between its appearance and the explosion that followed, at five seconds. He observed also the obscure vapoury trace left by the meteorolite in the air. It was not continued to the earth, but ceased to be emitted before the stone reached the ground, and remained seven or eight mi- nutes undissipated.—Journ. de Phys. xciii. page’71. EXTRAORDINARY HAIL STORM. On the 27th of June last, at Usnaw in the government of Riew, in Russia, there fell a shower of hailstones solarge and hard that they killed a flock of 200 sheep, and cruelly mutilated the shep- herd and his dogs, Gg 2 LIST C236 S LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS. To William Erskine Cochrane, esq. of Somerset-street, Port- man-square, for certain improvements in the construction of lamps, whereby they are rendered capable of burning concrete oils, animal fat, and other siinilar inflammable substances.— Dated 23d February 1822.—6 months allowed to enroll specifi- cation. TeJohn William Buckle, of Mark-lane, London, merchant, who in consequence of a communication made to him by John Parker Boyd, of Boston in the United States, is In possession of cer- tain improvements in machinery for shaping or cutting out irre- gular forms in wood or any other materials or substances, which admit of being cut by cutters or tools revolving with a circular motion, whether such motion be continuous or ‘reciprocating. —= 2d March.—2 months. To John Higgins, of Fulham, Middlesex, esq. for certain im- provements upon the construction of carriages, which he con- ceives will be of great public utility —2d Mareh.—6 months. To Charles Yardley, of Camberwell, glue-manufacturer, for a method of manufacturing glue from bones hy means of steam, which invention he believes will be of general benefit. and advan- tage.— 2d March.—2 months. To John Thompson, of Regent- street, Westminster, for cer- tain improvements in the method of forming or preparing steel for the manufacture of springs for carriages, but principally ap- plicable to all those usually denominated coach springs.—2d March.—2 months. ‘To John Ruthven, of Edinburgh, printer, for a method of procuring a mechanical power.—2d March.—4 months. To George Stratton, of Hampstead Road, Middlesex, engineer, for an improved process of consuming smoke.—2d March.— 6 months. To James Gladstone, of Liverpool, Lancashire, iron monger, for a chain of an improved construction, which he conceives will be of great public utility.—12th March.—6 months. To Bartlett Bate, of the Poultry, London, optician, for certain improvements upon hydrometers and sacchrometers, which in- vention he believes will be of much benefit and utility.—2Ist March.—2 months. To William Eugene Edward Gace of Madras, but now residing at Ratcliff Highway, Middlesex, surgeon, for his dis- covered improvement in the preparation and application of a certain purgative oil.—2Ist March.—6 months. To Samuel Robinson, of Leeds, cloth-dresser, for certain im- provements on a machine for shearing and cropping woollen cloth,—2Ist March.—6 months. POrUs 1 fanart gy - POPULATION. Comparative Statement of the Population of the several Counties of Great Britain and Ireland ; the former for the Years 1501, 1811, and 1821; and the latter for 1813 and 1821. ENGLAND. WALES. COUNTIES. 1801. 1811. COUNTIES, | 1801. 1811. 1821. Bedford...... 63,393} 70,213 83,7164}Anglesea.....| 33,806} 37,045} 45,063 Berks .......| 109,215} 118,277| 131,977KBrecon...... $1,633] $7,735} 43,613 Buckingham. . .| 107,444] 117,650) 134,068{Cardigan..... 42,956) 50,260} 57,311 Cambridge... .} 89,346] 101,109 Chester .....-| 191,751| 227,031 121,909}Carmay*hon...| 67,317} 77,217} 90,239 270,098\Carna',.. .| 41,521] 49,336] 57,958 Cornwall .....| 188,269} 216,667| 257,447{Denbigh.....) 60,352} 64,240} 76,511 Cumberland .. .| 117,230] 133,744| 156,124]Flint .......| 99,622| 46,518] 53,784 Merby.....-> 161,142} 185,487) 213,333{Glamorgan ...| 71,525) 85,067) 101,737 ‘Devon.......| 343,001} 83,308} 439,040!Merioneth....| 29,506] 30,924} 33,911 MJOrset . ..0-0-« 115,319] - 124,693 144,499jMontgomery .. 47,978} 51,931) 59,899 ‘Durham .....| 160,361] 177,625} 207,673j;Pembroke ....| 56,280} 60,615] 74,009 Essex .......| 226,437] 252,473] 289,494/Radnor......| 19,050] 20,900] 23,073 ‘Gloucester ... -| 250,809} 285,514} 335,843 ‘Hereford .....| 89,191] 94,073} - 103,231 ar SA 97,577| 111,654) 129,714 Huntingdon. . 37,568} 42,208} 48,771 SCOTLAND. Kent .......| 307,624) 375,095} 426,0161 Aberdeen ....| 123,082) 135,075] 155,141 -| 672,781) 828,309) 1,052,859 Aroyil ......| 71,859] 85,585] 96,165 130,081) 150,419) 174,57layy. .. 2... .|. 84,306] 103,954] 127,299 Totals 541,546! 611,788} 717,108 208,557| 237,891) 283,058ipanf....... 35,807| 36,668} 43,561 B18, 129(958,276) 1,1 FOS Bet wick oro! 30,621 30,779| 33,388 40,582) 62,127) 71,833)Bute ..... ..{| 11,791| 12,033] 13,797 273,371) 291,999) | 344,368iCaithness ....| 22,809] 23,419] 30,288 131,757) 141,353) 162,485'C}ackmannan..| 10,858} 12,010] 13,263 157,101) 172,161) 198,965)Dumbarton ...} 20,710| 24,189} 27,317 140,350} 162,900) 186,873} Dumfries ....| 54,597} 62,960] 70,878 109,620) 119,191) 134,327iedinburgh... .| 122,954] 148,607} 191,514 16,356] . 16,380) —_18,487Imigin. ......| 26,705] 28,108] 31,162 167,039) 194,298) °* 200,266 Rife... +... .+|, 99,749) 101,272| 114,556 278, 7504) 903,180) \\ S551 iierkw 3), 5:2 99,127} 107,264] 113,430 a1 98e8 ela ah ae Haddington... .| 29,986] 31,164) 35,127 239,153} 295,153 ideality Inverness ....-| 74,292] 78,336] 90,157 210,431) 254,211) 270,542} Kincardine ...| 26,349] 27,439] 29,118 269,043! 323,851) 398,658lKinvoss....../ 6,725 7,245 7,762 159,311 190,083 252,921 Kirkcudbright .| 29,211] 33,684] $8,903 208,190) 228,735) 274,392IT anark ......| 146,699|* 191,752| 244,387 ta 41,617; 45,922) 51,3591, inlithgow....| 17,844] 19,451] 22,685 ; 185,107) 193,828) 222,157Naim .......| 8,257|. 8,251} 9,006 Worcester... .| 139,383] 160,546] _ 184,424 Orkney & Shetl.| 46.824] 46,153) 53,194 York, E. Riding 139,433] 167,353 190,709 Peebles... .- 8,735 9,935 10,046 —- N. Riding 155,506 152,445 183,694 Perth A 126,366] 135 093] 189,050 ——-W. Riding} 563,953) 653,315) 800,848) Renfrew ‘| 78,056] 92,596} 112,175 Ross & Cromarty} 55,343} 60,853} 68,828 oxburgh ... 33,682) 37,23 40,892 Ikirk ....--| 5,070) 5,889] 6,697 Stirling ee ene 50,825) 58,174 65,331 Sutherland ....| 23,117| 23,629) 23,840 Wigtown.... 22,918] 26,891} 33,240 Totals |8,331,434]9,538,82 711,260,555 —_———e | — Totals |1,599,068|1,805,688/2,092,014 IRELAND, 238 Population of Great Britain, Ireland, &c. IRELAND. LEINSTER: 1813. 182}. MUNSTER : 1813. 1821. GaPlow....cacese0e0 69,566 81,287 | Clare .......| 160,603 209,595 Drogheda, Town| 16,123 18,118] Cork .......| 523,936 702,000 Dublin............] 110,437 160,274 | Cork, City. ...| 64,394 100,535 Dublin, City....| 176,610 | 186,276} Kerry ...... 178,622 | 205,087 Kildare ..........] 85,183 | 101,715} Limerick ....| 102,865 | 214,286 Kilkenny.........] 194,664 | 157,096 | Limerick, City .Jno return.| 66,042 Kilkenny, City |no return.| 23,230} Tipperary ....| 290,531 | 353,402 King’s County | 113,226 132,319 | Waterford . 119,457 127,679 Longford.........] 95,917 107,702 | Waterford, City | 25,467 26,787 Louth ............|no return.| 101,070 ——_—__ | ——_—— Meath .....0.. «| 142,479 |. 174,716 — {2,005,363 Queen’s County} 113,857 129,391 Westmeath ....../no return.| 128,042 Wexford ........|no return.} 169,304 Wicklow .........| 83,109 115,162 = _ ,|1,785;702 ULSTER : CONNAUGHT: | Antrim......| 231,548 | 261,601 {Galway ..... 140,995 | 286,921 Armagh ... ..] 121,449 196,577 }Galway Town .| 24,684 27,827 Carrickfergus T. 6,136 8,255 |Leitrim......! 94,095 | 105,976 Cavan ......|noreturn.| 194,330 }Mayo....... 237,371. | 297,538 Donegal. ....|no return.| 249,483 }Roscommon. . .| 158,110 | 207,777 Down ......| 287,290 | 329,248 {Sligo ....... noreturn.| 127,879 Fermanagh ...| 111,250 130,399 — | ———- Londonderry. .| 186,181 | 194,099 — 1,053,918 Monaghan . ..| 140,433 | 178,183 Tyrone .. ...-| 250,746°| 259,691 — |2,001,966 Summary tes 2500),966 Connaught ..... + 1,055,918 Total in Ireland .. . 6,846,949 Summary of Great Britain and Ireland. 1801. 1811. 1821. England. .... 8,931,434 9,538,827 11,260,555 Wales evans vets 541,546 611,788 717,108 Scotland. .... 1,599,068 1,805,688 2,092,014 4 10,472,048 | ° 11,956,303 14,069,677 Army and Navy . 470,598 640,500 310,000 Total of Gt. Britain 10,942,646| 12,596,803 14,379,677 Fred said cacy ia

——+ 1 d c SoP—+ 1 5} —+ 1 b a N For otherwise it would be impossible to explain the phenomena which I have observed, and which I have determined by a great number of incontestable experiments; namely, that the mag- netic cylinder oscillates more quickly towards the North in a, and more slowly towards the South in 2. And, on the contrary, it oscillates more slowly towards the North in c, and faster to- wards the South in d. I have found this law constantly con- firmed by my experiments near the walls and partitions of houses, whether of wood or stone, and even near large trees in the gar- dens. This action must necessarily exert. its influence, indeed considerably, on, the direction of the compass-needle on ship- board. ‘The whole mass of wood in a ship has, in this way, a maguetical axis, and the observed variation of the compass ought rather to be attributed to this influence than to that of the iron, guns, and ballast, carried by the vessel. Hence it results, that all observations on the magnetic intensities made within doors are uncertain. A Table of the actual Intensity of the Magnetic Force in dif- ferent Parts of the World, calculated from a great Number of Observations, by the ingenious and laborious Professor HANSTEEN. (ZACH.) ° Places. Dip. Intensity. PeUsacacetivee ns: O°. 20) waisiesine a L°COMD EERACU ssipia'sias-b:e's.0 42° WO. caseses L'olan Paris 249 8IS00- “UR § 2 is oy S —) TSOTO-T > “Ue9sTN im) ZIGTO-1 “HBO TAT o oC ohh =" BI 110-0 = ** ** souargig S 86: 118 “T]!9so Jo au GeQg., °° ** Sutusow ay3 ut FQ] 3 *¢ judy ‘aos0] qseo] OUT, ES-n208 “[[!980 jo awn jcjg., *° °° Suluaaa oy} ul / 32 *L1 [dy ‘ao104 ysazeai9 ouLL I £06001 99600-1 62800-1 £6900: L1L00-1 Aytsuaquy ueayy "UdAT OT ‘uaa J “IWV P “ULOWW FOT “MIO g *SINOFT 0681 [dy = ee a eS Oe ei ag | FOI0-0 = ** ** aduarayig FL. O18 “[[!9s0 jo omy 1000-1 ** °° Sarusour oy} UL OT 3 “GZ Yyourpy Sao104 yseal ay, 89.908 “111980 jo aun SE/1Q.7 ** °° Surusow ay} ut OL 38 *g¢ Yyouepy fa0407 ysa3e013 auL . x f9010-1 GFLTO-T ST110-T ZFI 10-1 9E1I0-T €Z0T0- O10I0-1 S6010:1 Aysuajuy uvayy % "UAT QI ‘UOATT “uaAT 9 IV fF “IDV G “u0ONy “WOW OL “WoW g *SINOFT ~ ‘OZST Yorepy = ee oe RS PD ee GT 0910-0 = ** ** aouasayiq 2 1€- O18 “[[!980 Jo oun ZoQQ.] sree eres Sumuada ayy ur p] 3e *9] taquiadaq “ao10y qseay ayy, ° 06,808 *[[!9so Jo aun ZEZO.T ++ °* Woouaye ayy ul g 4B Sp] Joquiadaqy ‘ao107 4sa3vaI3 ayy, a GELTO-T 626101 99610-1 ST610-1 CO6TO+T 1610-1 Aqsuoanty Uva “OMITOL "YV'8L99 YY She yy sg GL WOW TT OT — -wroyy ur g mage as 3 > “6181 42quio09q 250 On Magnetism. Hence it results that the intensity in Dec. 1819 = 1-01912 Mar. 1820 = 1°01081 Apr. 1820 = 1:00818 In the month of May, in which I have not yet completed the observations, the force has a little diminished: { suspect that it will increase when the earth shall have passed the aphelion. My second magnetic discovery is the following: I have found that every vertical body S N, whatever it be, and of any kind of matter, has a North-pole at bottom and a South-pole at top, as in all vertical bars of iron. S S 0} ———4— 72 § 9} ——-+- 7 d c $ »}—+- 2 5 1} —+ 2 b a N For otherwise it would be impossible to explain the phenomena which I have observed, and which I have determined by a great number of incontestable experiments; namely, that the mag- netic cylinder oscillates more quickly towards the North in a, and more slowly towards the South in 2. And, on the contrary, it oscillates more slowly towards the North in c, and faster to- wards the South ind. I have found this law constantly con- firmed by my experiments near the walls and partitions of houses, whether of wood or stone, and even near large trees in the gar- dens. This action must necessarily exert its influence, indeed considerably, on the direction of the compass-needle on ship- board. ‘The whole mass of wood in a ship has, in this way, a magnetical axis, and the observed variation of the compass ought rather to be attributed to this influence than to that of the iron, guns, and ballast, carried by the vessel. Hence it results, that all observations on the magnetic intensities made within doors are uncertain. — . A Table of the actual Intensity of the Magnetic Force in dif- ferent Parts of the World, calculated from a great Number of Observations, by the ingenious and laborious Professor HansTEEN. (ZACH.) Places. Dip. Intensity. FEisscbeveatess O° OV Shale'a's faery 1-0000 THGRICO's goede spe 42 10 eveveece 13155 Paris Reply to Mr. H. B. Leeson. 251 Places. - Dip. Intensity. FE cis oncnplewan a ae 2,9) 0. 6s ong eae BOAO, sso gone es ZOU aa fe 1°4142 Christiana ........ 72 30 eoseecce 1°4959 Arendahl. ..4.. see wo as covecres 1°4756 Braise se cace! Pe ainiateipelts. JPA Hare Island ..3.... 82 49 eoccceee 1°6939 Davis’s Straits ..... 83 08 sccocces 1°6900 Baffin’s Bay....... 84 25 ........ 16685 = Nas | Fe ane ig flop 84 44 .,...... 1°6943 85 592. ......6 17383 ID oo ancewmee 7h F006 Se LV. Reply to Mr. H.B. Lesson. By J. Murray, F.L.S. M.W.S, Se. Be. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — T save neither time nor inclination for any thing con- troversial, and least of all do I wish to disturb Mr, Leeson’s tranquillity, in reference to his « Safety Appendages” to Toft’s Hydrostatic Blowpipe. My remarks therefore on his last para- graph, which includes notice of me, shall be succinct. The use of mercury is conceded to me as recommended on the plan of Marquis Ridolfi; but it should seem either that I had omitted to state the necessity of a cell to contain it, or was ig- norant that iron alone was proof against the action of quick- silver —Credat Judeeus apella. 'The following are the words used by Mr. L. in a letter to me, dated 18th January last : ** You told me that mercury had been adopted (employed?) by the Marquis Ridolfi, and that you thought it preferable to oil or water ; on which I observed that the cylinder must in that case be made of iron!” When at Florence, this interesting young nobleman was good enough to sketch with his own hand, though labouring under a Severe accident, the consequence of chemical experiment, the attachment to the gas blowpipe, to which the preceding refers. You had the kindness to insert. in your pages a copy of this sketch and its description, Mr, Leeson might have there seen this described as of iron, Mr. Toft’s blowpipe was constructed at Nottingham, under Mr. Leeson’s directions; when finished, the instrument was charged with an explosive atmosphere, and at the orifice of Dr. Hope's Safety Box of Wire-gauze (certainly proof against all ex- plosion, nor can I too warily recommend its use) the gaseous 112 mixture 252 Reply to Mr. H. B. Leeson. mixture burnt tranquilly. It was unscrewed, and the gas ignited at the extremity ofa capillary tube; the flame receded, an ex- plosion ensued, and the instrument was destroyed. Mr, Lee- son’s ‘ valve therein” was a common button valve. This is the circumstance which Mr. L. would inform us of at page 403 of your December Number. Having said thus much for the safety cistern, 1 shall now ad- vert to the “ valve therein.” From the explosion adverted to, which Mr. L. ascribed to the valve being rudely made, I concluded that some other plan of the valve was advisable, though Mr. Leeson thought the same valve repaired would do. The plan I proposed is now intro- duced in Mr. Leeson’s own words, quoted also from his letter of 18th January. It was submitted before Mr. L. to one Andayna for such alteration and improvement as he saw necessary. “Your plan of two button valves, to be connected together by a solid spindle up the sides of which the gas was to pass, and which were to be rendered air- tight by two pieces of leather attached to their under surfaces, and the buttons were to be prevented from rising too high by two small bits of wire inserted above the upper valve.” This may perchance be pronounced not a ‘ modification”? of that to which we find «* H. B. Leeson invt. et del.” attached. But there is no doubt of its being equally safe—by this provision of a double guard both valves closing simultaneously. Allow me to ask, sir, why this anxietv to entertain us with different arrangements of the ** Safety cistern and valve therein?” The bundle of wires deposited in the cell serves all the purposes of the wire-gauze with which Mr. L. mow crams the cistern; and under such circumstances, which is merely placing Dr. Hope’s wire-gauze box within the cistern, instead of exterior to it, the instrument would be safe without any valve at all; aye, or even © Mercury. I own that T was much amused with * experiment” and “ ex- plosion,”’ nay, ‘repetitions’ of them, so loudly vaunted in Mr. Leeson’s ** new observations ;”’ being sadly sceptical, whether coming from this young gentleman, I am to regard them vor et preterea nihil, Mr. Leeson in a letter to me (13th Novem- ber) advised “ a good way of trying the Safety Appendages,”’ —‘ to connect them with a bladder containing the explosive mixture, set a candle before the jet and open the cock of the jet-pipe by a long string!’’? Are we to understand that his ** experiments,” * explosions,” and ‘‘ repetitions,” were made in this manner ? } honestly confess that I am sorry for having written the note annexed Reply to Mr. H. B. Leeson. 251 Places. Dip. Intensity. are 6. gee BARS ae - 13482 Cond Oity see's CU RERE POMS: OF) Wve, as Christiana ........ F230 i. od bE 124959 Arendahl ........ Pe BGs ety el A756 Brassa |. sitcenecs £2. 2) ey, eaowe Hare Island i33'5..54°82') 49 o..0.66. 16989 Davis’s Straits..... 83 08 ........ 1°6900 Baffin’s Bayete Jcseu 88 Dias iia 6685 84 39 ........ 17349 845 44 wei ccc d. 16943 85. 592) eee 1°7383 SOs OOU ae 3 ree 17606 —o LV. Reply to Mr. H.B.Lerson. By J, Murray, F.L,S. M.W.S. &c. Ge. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — T nave neither time nor inclination for any thing con- troversial, and least of all do I wish to disturb Mr. Leeson’s tranquillity, in reference to his « Safety Appendages”’ to Toft’s Hydrostatic Blowpipe. My remarks therefore on his last para- graph, which includes notice of me, shall be succinct. The use of mercury is conceded to me as recommended on the plan of Marquis Ridolfi; but it should seem either that I had omitted to state the necessity of a cell to contain it, or was ig- norant that zron alone was proof against the action of quick- silver —Credat Judcus apella. 'The following are the words used by Mr. L. ina letter to me, dated 18th January last : ** You told me that mercury had been adopted (employed?) by the Marquis Ridolfi, and that you thought it preferable to oil or . water; on which I observed that the cylinder must in that case be made of iron!” When at Florence, this interesting young nobleman was good enough to sketch with his own hand, though labouring under a severe accident, the consequence of chemical experiment, the attachment to the gas blowpipe, to which the preceding refers. You had the kindness to insert in your pages a copy of this sketch and its description. Mr. Leeson might have there seen this described as of iron. Mr. Toft’s blowpipe was constructed at Nottingham, under Mr. Leeson’s directions; when finished, the instrument was charged with an explosive atmosphere, and at the orifice of Dr. Hope’s Safety Box of Wire-gauze (certainly proof against all ex- plosion, nor can I too Warinly recommend its use) the gaseous i2 mixture 252 Reply to Mr. H. B. Leeson. mixture burnt tranquilly. It was unscrewed, and the gas ignited at the extremity of a capillary tube; the flame receded, an ex- plosion ensued, and the instrument was destroyed. Mr, Lee- son’s *¢ valve therein” was @ common button valve. This is the circumstance which Mr. L. would inform us of at page 403 of your December Number, ; Having said thus much for the safety cistern, I shall now ad- vert to the “ valve therein.” From the explosion adverted to, which Mr. L. ascribed to the valve being rudely made, I concluded that some other plan of the valve was advisable, though Mr. Leeson thought the same valve repaired would do. The plan I proposed is now intro- duced in Mr. Leeson’s own words, quoted also from his letter of 18th January. It was submitted before Mr. L. to one Andayna for such alteration and improvement as he saw necessary. ** Your plan of two button valves, to be connected together by a solid spindle up the sides of which the gas was to pass, and which were to be rendered air- tight by two pieces of leather attached to their under surfaces, and the buttons were to be prevented from rising too high by two small bits of wire inserted above the upper valve.” This may perchance be pronounced not a ** modification”? of that to which we find ** H. B. Leeson invt, et del.” attached. But thereis [=] no doubt of its being equally safe—by this provision a of a double’ guard both valves closing simultaneously. i: Allow me to ask, sir, why this anxiety to entertain us with different arrangements of the “ Safety cistern and valve therein?” The bundle of wires deposited in the cell serves all the purposes of the wire-gauze with which Mr. L. mow crams the cistern; and under such circumstances, which is merely placing Dr. Hope’s wire-gauze box within the cistern, instead of exterior to it, the instrument would be safe without any valve at all; aye, or even mercury. I own that T was much amused with * experiment” and “ ex plosion,” nay, “repetitions” of them, so loudly vaunted in Mr. Leeson’s ** new observations ;”” being sadly sceptical, whether coming from this young gentleman, I am to regard them vor et preterea nihil. Mr, Leeson in aletter to me (138th Novem- ber) advised “a good way of trying the Safety Appendages,” -——“ to connect them with a bladder containing the explosive mixture, set a candle before the jet and open the cock of the jet-pipe by a long string!’’ Are we to understand that his *“ experiments,” ‘¢ explosions,” and ‘‘ repetitions,’’ were made in this manner ? I honestly confess that I am sorry for having written the note annexed On English and Scotch. Husbandry. 253 annexed to Mr. Leeson’s paper, and thus to ruffle his quiet. It must however be obvious that I had no interest in doing so. The iron cistern and mercury belong to Marquis Ridolfi; the cane and fasces of wires belong to Dr. Clarke and yourself; the multiplied folds of wire-gauze to Dr. Hope, and the valve say to Mr. H. B. Leeson. I have the honour to be, sir, Your obedient humble servant, J. Murray. —_—_—_ ee te LVI. Comparison of the Expense attending the English and Scotch Systems of Husbandry. By Mr. AxpRrEw Scort, of Ryden’s Farm, Walton-upon-Thames *. I HAVE the honour of presenting to the Board of Agriculture some statements on the ceconomy of the Scotch system of farm- ing, which I practise, and proceed to state the difference of ex- pense between the English and Scotch modes of farming. The first circumstance which I have to notice, is, that my ploughing is performed with two horses, instead of three. ‘'T his, besides saving the keep of a horse, also saves the expense of a boy, an appendage always required when three horses are put toa plough. The keep of a horse cannot be stated at less than 45/. per an- num; and a boy at 5s. a week, is 13/, But from the boy being sometimes employed in harrowing, driving dung, &c. in which cases a boy is also required upon the other system, it would be unfair to charge the full amount of his wages; &/, however, out of the 132. I think, ought to be calculated upon, which, with the sum charged for the keep of a horse, makes 53/.; and as on the rotation | follow, a plough cannot manage more than fifty acres, a saving is thereby gained of a trifle more than 21s, per acre. It may be added, that my lands, as well as most of those in this neighbourhood, consist of a sandy or hazel loam, and such as two horses, at all seasons, are abundantly able to lough; but there are clays in this county, where four and six — are put toa plough, and where two would be altogether insufficient, particularly in the summer season, when they are baked with the drought. I however think, that, by adopting the use of another plough, the number of horses may be reduced pi lees one-third, and during a greater part of the year one- alf, A measure very properly connected with the two-horse plough is the using of one-horse carts, instead of those in general use requiring three horses, With the latter a greater weight than * From Communications to the Board of Agriculture, ' 30 254 Comparison of the Expense atiending 30 ewt. is seldom taken; whereas 15 cwt. is a moderate load for the former, thereby making two horses do the work of three. Though in journeys this is the proportion, yet in the work upon a farm, such as manuring land, Wc. it is still more; as from the greater facility the one-horse carts afford in filling and emptying, three horses in this way will often, when roads are good, do as much work as six in the other way, that is to say, with three to a cart. One advantage, however, which the English system possesses over the Scotch is, that by the additional horse more work can be done in harrowing; but that advantage is fully counterbalanced by what has just been stated regarding the one- horse carts. Besides, it has been invariably found that two horses, placed abreast in the plough, will get over more ground than three put inaline. This arises from their turning quicker, and being more free and disencumbered in walking. . The using of machinery for thrashing and dressing corn, is what I have next to notice. ‘The one I use is of too small a size, but one a little larger, and of a proper construction, will thrash 12 quarters of wheat, and 1S of barley and oats, per day. The wages of the people employed in doing this, amount to 12s.; four horses at 3s. each, 12s.; dressing with hand-machine 9s. ; and imterest at 10 per cent. on cost of machinery, 7s.; making a total of 36s. or 3s. per quarter for wheat, and 2s. for barley and oats. The money given for wheat hand-thrashed, is about Gs. per quarter, and barley and oats 3s. If 8[ quarters per acre of the former grain, and 6 of the two latter, are stated to be average crops, on land worth 50s. per acre, there will then be a saving of 10s. 6d. an acre on the first, and 6s. on the latter ; and as I calculate upon having one-third of my lands in wheat, and one-sixth in barley and oats, the saving on these crops by machine-thrashing will be 9s. per acre, or 4s. 6d. on the whole farm. Perhaps the charge for horse labour may be thought too low; but when it is recollected that thrashing is generally done in wet and frosty weather, when horses often cannot be employed in other work, it seems fair only to charge a trifle more than their keep. Another advantage attending machine-thrashing is, that grain can be brought to market at any time, thus enabling the farmer to avail himself of any sudden advance in price. Be- sides, it has been pretty satisfactorily ascertained in Scotland, that a twentieth part more grain will be got when thrashed with a proper machine, than when done with the hand. Though in many cases, particularly when wheat. is blighted, I am satisfied there will be fully that difference here, yet when grain is well ri- pened, it certainly is not so much ; though it might be observed, that when grain is to be hand-thrashed, it requires to stand longer on the ground than is necessary for machine-thrashing, and On English and Scotch Husbandry. 253 annexed to Mr. Leeson’s paper, and thus to ruffle his quiet. It must however be obvious that I had no interest in doing so, The iron cistern and mercury belong to Marquis Ridolfi; the cane and fasces of wires belong to Dr. Clarke and yourself ; the multiplied folds of wire-gauze to Dr. Hope, and the valve say to Mr. H. B. Leeson. I have the honour to be, sir, Your obedient humble servant, J. Murray. LVI. Comparison of the Expense attending the English and Scotch Systems of Husbandry. By Mr. AxpREw Scott, of Ryden’s Farm, Walton-upon-Thames*, I HAVE the honour of presenting to the Board of Agriculture some statements on the ceconomy of the Scotch system of farm- ing, which I practise, and proceed to state the difference of ex- pense between the English and Scotch modes of farming. The first circumstance which I have to notice, is, that my ploughing is performed with two horses, instead of three. ‘This, besides saving the keep of a horse, also saves the expense of a boy, an appendage always required when three horses are put to a plough. The keep of a horse cannot be stated at less than 45/. per an- num; and a boy at 5s. a week, is 13/. But from the boy being sometimes employed in harrowing, driving dung, &c. in which cases a boy is also required upon the other system, it would be unfair to charge the full amount of his wages; 8/. however, out of the 13/. I think, ought to be calculated upon, which, with the sum charged for the keep of a horse, makes 53/.; and as on the rotation | follow, a plough cannot manage more than fifty acres, a saving is thereby gained of a trifle more than 2ls. per acre. It may be added, that my lands, as well as most of those in this neighbourhood, consist of a sandy or hazel loam, and such as two horses, at all seasons, are abundantly able to plough; but there are clays in this county, where four and six horses are put to a plough, and where two would be altogether insufficient, particularly in the summer season, when they are baked with the drought. I however think, that, by adopting the use of another plough, the number of horses may be reduced at least one-third, and during a greater part of the year one- half. A measure very properly connected with the two-horse plough is the using of one-horse carts, instead of those in general use requiring three horses, With the latter a greater weight than * From Communications to the Board of Agriculture. 30 254 Comparison of the Expense attending 30 ewt. is seldom taken; whereas 15 ewt. is a moderate load for the former, thereby making two horses do the work of three. Though in journeys this is the proportion, yet in the work upon a farm, such as manuring land, &e. it is still more; as from the greater facility the one-horse carts afford in filling and emptying, three horses in this way will often, when roads are good, do as much work as six in the other way, that is to say, with three to a cart. One advantage, however, which the English system possesses over the Scotch is, that by the additional horse more work can be done in harrowing; but that advantage is fully counterbalanced by what has just been stated regarding the one- horse carts, Besides, it has been invariably found that two horses, placed abreast in the plough, will get over more ground than three put ina line. This arises from their turning quicker, and being more free and disencumbered in walking. The using of machinery for thrashing and dressing corn, is what I have next to notice. The one I use is of too small a size, but one a little larger, and of a proper construction, will thrash 12 quarters of wheat, and 18 of barley and oats, per day. The wages of the people employed in doing this, amount to 12s.; four horses at 3s. each, 125.3; dressing with hand-machine 5s. 5 and interest at 10 per cent. on cost of machinery, 7s.; making a total of 36s. or 3s. per quarter for wheat, and 2s, for barley and oats. The money given for wheat hand-thrashed, is about Gs. per quarter, and barley and oats 3s. If 3} quarters per acre of the former grain, and 6 of the two latter, are stated to be average crops, on land worth 50s. per acre, there will then bea saving of 10s. 6d. an acre on the first, and 6s. on the latter ; and as I calculate upon having one-third of my lands in wheat, and one-sixth in barley and oats, the saving on these crops by machine-thrashing will be 9s. per acre, or 4s. 6d. on the whole farm. Perhaps the charge for horse labour may be thought too low; but when it is recollected that thrashing is generally done in wet “and frosty weather, when horses often cannot be employed in other work, it seems fair only to charge a trifle more than their keep. Another advantage attending machine- thrashing is, that grain can be brought to ‘market at any time, thus enabling the farmer to avail himself of any sudden advance in price. Be- sides, it has been pretty satisfactorily ascertained in Scotland, that a twentieth part more grain will be got when thrashed with a proper machine, than when done with the hand. Though in many cases, particularly when wheat is blighted, I am satisfied there will be fully that difference here, yet when grain is well ri- pened, it certainly is not so much ; though it might be observed, that when grain is to be hand-thrashed, it requires to stand longer on the ground than*is necessary for machine-thrashing, and the English and Scotch Systems of Husbandry. 255 and consequently a greater loss is sustained from shaking by wind, as well as in the process of reaping. ‘This circumstance, together with what has been stated respecting the thrashing, I have little doubt will make a difference of five per cent. in the produce. A further advantage attending the thrashing-machine is, that it prevents pilfering by labourers; a circumstance of no small importance, as it is generally believed in this quarter, that farmers are injured a good deal in that way when corn is hand- thrashed. After having stated so much in favour of the thrash- ing-machine, I have now only one objection to state against it. In this situation, straw is an article of some profit, and by ma- chine-thrashing, its price is reduced, but that disadvantage of course would cease, were they to get into general use. That the difference betwixt the system of cropping, which I have laid down for my lands, and the rotation most common in this neighbourhood, may also be shown, I shall now add an esti- mate of the annual expense and produce of a farm of 210 acres, tithe free, under each rotation. My rotation is, Ist, turnips (drilled); 2d, barley, or oats; 3d, clover ; 4th, wheat, after which, autumn or stubble turnips; 5th, potatoes ; 6th, wheat ; after which, part rye and part tares, to be fed on the ground, or cut for soiling. The other, or the common rotation in the neigh- bourhood, is, Ist, turnips (broadcast; 2d, barley; 3d, clover ; 4th, wheat, after which, part stubble turnips; 5th, oats, after which, part rye for sheep-fed, say one-half. Before proceeding further, it may be necessary to premise, that in this situation, at least 10 per cent. of the ground is occupied with hedges, ditches, roads, farm-buildings, &c.; but from 5 per cent. being sufficient for these purposes, when fields are a suitable size, with hedges and ditches of a proper description, I have only deducted ten acres, thereby leaving 200 for crops. This divided by six, the number of years in the first rotation, gives 334 acres for each crop, and divided by five, gives 40 in the second. From the larger proportion of green or fallow crops in the former, a team, that is, a man and two horses, are charged more than in the latter, it being assumed the difference of horse labour in the two rotations is equal to one-fourth. Cost of Horses, Implements, Fc. and Annual Expense of the First, or Six Years’ Rotation, fits, hk Fight horses, at 401. .. .. «2 3820 0 0 Harness for ditto .. «2 «. « 42 0 0 Eight carts (with frames), at 162. 128 0 0 Five ploughs, at 4/. 10s. .. .. 2210 O Carried forward £512 10 0 256. - Comparison of the Expense attending Brought forward pte 10 0 Drills and drill-ploughs Sata 18 0 0 Rollers, harrows, drags de tive pipeBO5 Oed Thrashing and dressing machines 120 0 O Sacks, sieves, bushel, ladders, shovels, spades, prongs, pails, mattock, axe, wheel-barrow, &c. .. .. 25 0 0 £711 10 O 210 acres, at 50s. per acre wellterel rice Bae Poor-rate 2s, church-rate 6d. (per pound) oe, ) Go 12 Property-tax 74 per cent. a the ee Assessed-tax on eight horses, at ‘7s. 6d. ‘is é Keep of eight horses, at 452. per annum .. .. 360 Diminution of value, at 10 per cent. A os?) TA 6 Ditto taking up, at40s. .. .. 66 13 Extra hands for storing and measuring ditto for sale 8 0 33% acres drilled turnips, hoeing, at 10s. dy Torte Ditto, barley and oats, reaping, at lds. .. .. 21 13 Ditto, clover, twice mowing, at §s.6d. .. .. 14 3 Ditto, making and stacking, at lls. 6d... .. 19 3 66% acres wheat, reaping, atl5s. .. 2. .. 80 0 Extra hands for dung, filling and spreading, ditch- ing, corn harvesting; &. .. .. ee «» 24 0 Ditto for working, thrashing, and dressing-machine 8 M Incidental expense 0.6 e = v0, oe lee oe Seed for 331 acres turnips, at ls. 6d. we as ee Ditto ditto barley and oats, at 20s. .. «. 33 6 Ditto ditto‘cloyer,,at 145... oe Gms ms oe 0 Ditto for 662 ditto wheat, at 30s. «> ge) SOUL Ditto for 334 ditto potatoes, at 40s. .. .. «. 66 13 Ditto ditto stubble turnips, at 2s, «©. «. «. 3 6 Carried forward £1841 12 AlOROX*MOSSS SChAHAALORDOROO DM COCCSCOSOIRSAS ao a the English and Scatch Systems of Husbandry, — 257 Brought forward £1841 12 Seed for 163 stubble rye, at 5s... 2.) ou. we 12-10 Ditto ditto tares) 308. £2)! «2. 0h ott Iyyue oy0 B50 Manure for 60 acres, at 5/. 5s. per acre .. .. 315. 0 a ooon Annual expense .. .. .. £2184 2 6 £2184 2 Add the first cost of horses, im- plements, &e) 5. 049... 711/10 0 Total capital and ann. expense £2895 12 6 The interest on this sum, at 5 per cent. is 144 15.7% Which, added to the annual expense, amounts to 2328 18 1z This divided by 210, the number of acres, gives the | _ annual expense per acreat .. .. .. .. £IL 1 gt ee Ges Annual Produce, £. s. 33; acres turnips, at 4/, per acre (fed on the ground) 133 6 Ditto ditto barley and oats (five quarters per acre of former, at 40s. and 62 of latter, at 325.) 102. 333 6 Ditto ditto clover (two crops, making 2! loads, at 52.) 122. 10s. Sayer eee cw TES. At 663. ditto wheat (3! quarters per acre,at 80s.) 14/7. 933 6 33; ditto potatoes (six tons of 23! ewt. at 41.) 242. 800 0 Ditto ditto stubble turnips, at 20s... ws... 38" G Bato tyefab 17. 10s, 2 VON SOEHT eseols ae 0 Ditto ditto tares, af Sl, “Lf ee eure igs 6 80 loads of wheat straw sold, at 22, 5s. |, ".,. 180 0 Divide by 210... wo... £2988 6 8 re rns pgs SCDODSCOA co oR Average annual produce per acre ..°., ,, 13 19 10, TTT TSM NL eesti aren Dose A 1 9£ Annual profit peracre .. .. .. .. ., £2 18 O2 —E Cost of Horses, Implements, €8c. and Annual Expense of the Second, or Five Years’ Rotation. fs 5d. Nine horses, at 401. .. .. ., 360 0 0 Harness for ditto... .. .. 4, 45 0 O Four ploughs, at5l. .. 4... 20.0 0 Carried forward, £425 0 0 Vol, 59. No. 288, April 1822, Kk 258 Comparison of the Expense attending Brought forward eit TS eRe Sam Awaggon. .. .. aie ate 50 0 0 Three carts, one small ditto «so, 105 ae Rollers, harrows, drags .. .. 36 0 0 Sacks, sieves, screen, fan, bushel, shovels, spades, prongs, axe, pail, ladders, wheel-barrows, &c. .. 30 0 O £646 0 0 210 acres, at 50s. per acre .. -. 929 0 Poor-rate 2s. church ditto 6d. (per pound) .. 65 12 Property tax 7} percent. .. .. Cee eae Assessed tax on nine horses, at 17s. 6d. oat. wie ghee Keep of nine horses, at 457. Cn ee ee ee Diminution of value, at 10 percent. .. «2 »«. 36 O Blacksmiths’ work... Raa Wak Tonk bie) Carpenters’ or wheel- wrights? ditto se) wel "SOD Sadlers’ or collar-makers’ ditto .. .. .. .- 10 0 Three ploughmen, at 16s. perweek .. .. .. 124 16 Ditto ploughboys, at 5s. per week ... oe) ene One boy, at 3s. 6d. (to keep rooks off enone. ‘&e. ) OMIM bat Extra man for hay-binding, rick-thatching, har- vest-work, ditching, &c. AeA NE ws, Ae Forty acres ground cleaning with hand, at 4s. om te Ditto ditto turnips-hoeing, at 13s. .. .. .. 26 O Ditto ditto barley-mowing, at4s. .. .. .. 8 O Cocking, raking, and stacking ditto, at 5s. os. Pour Forty acres clover, twice mowing, at 8s.6d. .. 17 0 Making and stacking ditto, at lls.6d. .. .. 23 O Forty acres wheat, reaping, at 15s. .. .. .. 30 0 Ditto ditto oats, mowing, at 4s... .. .. .. 8 O Cocking, raking, and stacking ditto, atds... .. §& O Extra hands for dung, filling, and beets fen- cing, ditching, &c. .. . : 16 140 quarters wheat, hand- thrashing, at 6s. 200 ditto barley, ditto, 3 ee Ditto ditto oats, ditto, at3s, .. . Incidental-eepenses °*.. °°... Seed for 40 acres turnips, at Qs. wal Ditto ditto barley, at 20s, .. .. . Ditto ditto clover, at 14s. .. : Ditto ditto wheat, at 30s. .. .. . Ditto ditto oats, at 20s. .. .. on wes eee Ditto for 20 acres stubble turnips, at B50. ee Ditto ditto rye, at 15s. RTM bent Ra Ba eS Manure for 30 acres, at 5/, 5s. per acre .. «.. 157 10 ° = ro) scooococoocoecsoso Carried forward £1962 18 d. eocooceoceoco coo ooo oo agcse So se'oooceceooococesoc:s the English and Scotch Systems of Husbandry. — 259 Zz. sist Brought forward 1962 18 0 Annual expense aig vie 0962 185.0 Add the first cost of horses, im- plements, &c. ode! Mery 646,,0 70 Total capital and annual expense £2608 18 0 The interest on which, at5 per cent.is .. .. 130 8 Il Which, added to the annual expense, amounts to 2093 6 11 This divided by 210, the number of acres, gives the annual expense per acreat .. « ». £919 4% Annual Produce. ee Ss. d. Forty acres turnips, at 3/. per acre (fed on the ground) pd boswtie.cashe. tliat pase 2b. 4p Ditto ditto barley (five quarters at 40s.) 102... 400 0 0 Ditto ditto cloyer (two crops making 2! loads, Bt 5h) M2/ 10s.» sah? wa pitas rewind gan ter). 4500c 2000p Ditto ditto wheat (32 quarters, at 80s.) 141... 560 0 0 Ditto ditto oats (5 quarters, at 32s.) 8/. ae. 320in OO Twenty acres stubble turnips, at 20s. .. .. 20 0 0 Ditto ditto rye, at 30s... oe oe +s «oe 300 0 Eighty loads wheat straw, sold at 45s. per load 1380 0 0 Bde Wy 240 jie, Laee Saas peste. .5fer , ZAID QD Average annual produce per acre .. .. 10 2 10: Pedopi expenses i) sisv: od avin ce: Poin 919 43 Annual profit per acre .. .. «2 of ef £0 83 6 _ From the preceding calculations, it appears then, that upon the rotation first noticed, under the Scotch system of labour, there is a profit of 58s. per acre, while upon the second, under the English system, there is not more than 3s. 6d. per acre, be- ing a difference of 54s. 6d.; and if to this be added 4s. 6d. as gained by the advantages attending the thrashing-machine, this will form the sum of 59s. per acre of profit, which the manage- ment that I have adopted affords more than that of this neigh- bourhood. As the profit, however, of 3s, 6d. per acre, addi- tional to common interest on capital, is certainly smaller than farmers are known to get, it is necessary to notice some circum- stances which contribute to their profits, that the estimate has Kk 2 not 260 Comparison of the Expense attending not included. In this situation, most farms contain a conside- rable proportion of meadow or old grass Jand, and which, at the rent stated, produces a much larger profit than the tillage ground, under the management detailed. Besides, the minutize of a farm, here, are not inconsiderable ; pigs, poultry, &c. all pro- ducing a profit. But what has contributed most to the farmers’ profits of late years, has been the very high price of grain, the value of the corn crops, at present, being more than one-third higher than charged in the estimate; so that under all cireum- stances, I have no reason to doubt the accuracy of the calcula- tions. At any rate, from the statements in both estimates being founded upon the same data, the result in both ought to be alike accurate. It is, however, to be observed, that owing to the pro- fits of farmers being influenced by so many circumstances, it is impossible, by any calculations, to ascertain them exactly. A larger or smaller degree of skill and attention will make a con- siderable difference in the profit: besides, it is to be noticed, that in this quarter, farms when entered upon are generally in a very foul and impoverished state, and in consequence of this, crops are defective for somie years; which, together with the improvements that may be necessary at that period, often occa- sions a loss of very considerable magnitude: interest, therefore, on the amount, must be deducted from the annual profits. In forming the foregoing estimates, the greatest difficulty I have experienced, has been to ascertain the quantity of straw sold, and the amount of money paid for dung. In the first ro- tation, one-half of the ground is proposed to be dunged mode- rately every year, viz. turnips, clover seeds, and potatoes. It is supposed the 335 acres of barley and cat-straw, together with 263 wheat-straw consumed on the premises, in foddering cattle, littering horses, thatching of ricks, &c. will, with the profits on the stock foddered, produce dung for forty acres. ‘This leaves sixty to be provided for, and which, at 5/. 5s. (the money at which the proposed allowance for an acre can be brought from London by water) will cost 3152. as charged in the estimate. But from forty acres, wheat-straw being sold at 4/. 10s., 1804. are received towards the above sum, thereby leaving 135/. to be advanced yearly for this article. In the second rotation two-fifths of the ground are dunged yearly, viz. forty acres turnips, and forty clover seeds, Again, in this case, the straw of the eighty acres of barley and oats is supposed to produce, in the above way, dung for fifty acres, thereby leaving thirty to be supplied otherwise, and which, at 5/. 5s. per acre, amounts to 1572. 10s.; forty acres of wheat-straw, however, being sold at 4/. 10s. pro- duce 180/, thus leaving a profit of 22/. 10s. on straw. It will be noticed, that in the first estimate, drilled turnips are charged . 20s. the English and Scotch Systems of Husbandry. 261 20s. per acre higher than the broadeast in the second ;- and this difference in favour of drilling, it is presumed, any one acquainted with the greater produce that is got in that way, will admit to be fair. To one not acquainted with the climate of this country, it may appear, that the obtaining of a crop of turnips after tares or rye cut for soiling, is impracticable; but when it is known, that the time most approved for sowing turnips here, is from the middle to the end of July, and that in this case, the ground is supposed to be perfectly clean, there will then no longer appear any difficulty. April 24, 1813. isbeteail Explanatory Letter from the same. Sir,—Of the 60 acres of straw stated to be consumed at home, the 262 acres of wheat are estimated at 3 loads of 11 ewt. 2 quarters Slbs. or 34 cwt. 2 quarters 24 lbs. per acre; and the 334 acres of barley and oats, at 24 loads, or 28 ewt. 3 quarters 20 lbs. This makes 163 loads, or 94 tons 6 cwt. 16lbs. Be- sides, it was omitted to be noticed, that of the 40 acres of wheat-straw, sold at 4/, 10s. an acre, two loads only of the most marketable were supposed to produce that sum, so that 40 loads from this source are to be added to the above, thereby making 203 loads, or 117 tons Y'ewt. The quantity of dung applied to an acre, ov an average, is 12 tons nearly, say 10 for turnips, 10 for clover seeds, and 15 for potatoes. Upon this calculation 40 acres will require 466% tons, and which the above 203 loads of straw are supposed to produce in the follow- ing way: first, eight horses will require for litter two trusses per day, or about 20 loads per annum. ‘This with the hay, clover, corn, &c. used by*the horses, is estimated to produce 69 tons, or dung for five acres. Of the remaining 183 loads, it is sipposed about 53 may be required for thatching of ricks, cows, pigs, &c. littering, and that the other 130 shall he used in foddering stock. The 153 loads used in this way, it is assumed, will produce at least 253 tons, or dung for twenty acres; and the profits on the stock foddered will procure the quantity re- quired for the remaining fifteen acres. A load of straw will pay at least 12s, 6d. by taking cattle in to fodder, and this sum on 130 produces 812. 5s, being fifty shillings more than is to pur- chase dung for fifteen acres at 5/. 5s. Having given this ex- planation of the first calculations on the above subject, I think it unnecessary to state any thing regarding the second, as the same observations are applicable to both. It may be proper to observe, that though I have reason to believe that the above esti- mate of 60 acres of straw, producing dung for 40 in the way stated, to be correct, yet as I have not had sufficient practice to prove it by the test of experiencé, I cannot pledge myself for its accuracy. 262 On English and Scotch Husbandry. accuracy. However, from the calculations in both systems being founded upon the same data, it does not affect the comparative result. Yours, &c. ANDREW ScortrT. Though the present communication was written so far back as the year 1813, we have no reason to believe that the system which it condemns has been at all improved. In fact, the Eng- lish agriculturists were at that time rolling in wealth, from the extravagant prices then procured for their produce ; so much so that any thing in the shape of an ceconomical saving in the ex- penses of their business was beneath their notice. Or shall we speak plain truth, and say that they are, generally speaking, so ignorant, so wedded to prejudices, that hardly any thing will drive them from the system of their forefathers, however waste- ful and stupid? In their present circumstances, however, it may be thought, when ruin stares many of them in the face, that they will be inclined to profit by the experience of others. It is a circumstance deserving of particular notice at the pre- sent moment, when the distress of the English farmers is so ge- neral as to be avowed in loud complaints to parliament, from every county aud almost every parish, that no complaints of this kind have been received from the Scotch farmers. ‘This speaks volumes; and here it may not be out of place to notice a fact, stated in the County Herald of the 8th of March, which serves to prove that the practice of our farmers (at least of a great majority of them) continues the same as in the year 1813, when the above communication was made to the Board of Agri- culture. In the paper alluded to of the 8th of March, it is stated, that an experiment ‘¢ was lately tried, in order to ascer- tain the difference between the working of the long mould- boarded plough (used within 25 miles of London), with four horses, a man and a driver, and a common Scotch plough, with a pair of carriage horses, and reins. The result turned out, that the pair of horses ploughed, in six hours, ove acre, nine inches deep by twenty, walking at the rate of three miles an hour; the four horses ploughed half an acre seven inches deep by nine, stepping ¢wo miles in an hour.”’—That is, where this wasteful system is pursued, eight horses are required to perform the same work that the Scotch farmer executes with two. Our land-holders, who are fond enough of money, should turn their attention to facts such as this in granting their new leases. It is just as reasonable that the farmers should be tied to an ceconomical mode of culture as to a regular rotation of crops. They have no right to subject the public to the extra expense of | a wasteful made of culture, when a more ceconomical is not only recommended, but its advantages demonstrated in real practice. EDITOR. [ 263 ] LVII. On dilating Caoutchouc Bottles by Inflation. By B. M. Forster, Esq. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — Tur great expansibility of the Caoutchouc or India- rubber is well known: but I am not aware that. any endeavours have heretofore been made to inflate the bottles made of that substance, with air, with a view to enlarge their capacity. On Tuesday the 19th instant, I threw some air into a small bottle of it, with a condensing syringe, which caused a small blister (if so I may call it) on the lower part of the bottle; since which, by proceeding in the same way, the bottle was enlarged from about two inches and a half (diameter) to about six and a half. Ido not know exactly the dimensions. The mode of the ex- pansion is to me rather surprising: the globe did not expand in an uniform manner, but a blister was formed which increased from what may be called the bottom (if the term bottle is used) towards the neck, where the syringe was connected. I have this evening blown it up without a condensing syringe to very nearly six inches diameter. For some way below the neck the India-rubber retains its usual appearance, not being stretched out like the other part; which part has the look of an animal’s bladder, full blown; or a globe of thin horn. I am of opinion that globes of this kind will in many respects be found prefer- able to bladders for philosophical and other purposes. If the ex- pansion can be continued to a very considerable extent, I am in hopes that air balloons may be made with these globes. In two trials I have burst the bottles before the expansion was arrived at nearly the degree to what it was in the instance above men- tioned. It has appeared to me remarkable, when (warmed) paper has been’ excited with a piece of India-rubber, that the rubber showed very little signs of being electric, although the paper was strongly electrified. This caowtchouc globe when rubbed on pa- per (warmed) becomes strongly electric, and produces sparks attended with snappings. Walthamstow, Essex, March 26, 1822. B. M, Forster, LVIII. On [ 264, ;,] LVIII. On melting Caoutchouc, or India-Rubber, and pre- serving Iron and Steel from Rust. By Artnur Arxry, Esq. Secretary to the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce*, 19, John-street, Adelphi, Dec. 24, 1821. DEAR StR,—- You well know the many attempts that have been made to preserve iron and steel from rust, and the small success with which they have been in general attended. Greasy and oily, or resinous, substances have formed the basis of the different preparations proposed and employed for this purpose: but in the former, when raneidity comes on, an acid is produced which corrodes the iron; and the latter, when dry, are apt to crack, and thus afford an inlet to moisture, which, as soon as it has insinuated itself, begins to act on the iron, and to throw off the varnish in scales, on account of the enlargement of bulk which the particles of irou undergo when converted into oxide, Some time ago the thought occurred to me, that melted caoutchouc would be found to possess peculiar advantages in preserving the surface of iron from being acted on by the atmo- sphere; arising from its little susceptibility of chemical change when exposed to the air; from its treacly consistence under all ordinary temperatures; from its strong adhesion to the surface of iron or steel; and at the same time from the facility with which it is removed by a soft rag and a piece of stale bread. I accordingly made the trial, by procuring smail plates of iron and of steel, and smearing one half of their surface lightly over with the caoutchouc, and exposing them on a table in a labora- tory during the last five or six weeks. The result has been, that the portions of the plates covered by the caoutchouc have been preserved unchanged, while the unprotected. portions have been almost entirely corruded. The finger or a soft brush are the most convenient implements for applying the caoutchouc ; and, as soon as the article has been covered, it ought to be set up on end, in order that the excess may drain from it, which will take place in a day or two. The temperature for melting caoutchouc is nearly equal to that required for the fusion of lead; but if this is attempted to be performed in 2 pipkin, or any other open vessel, a copious emission of vapour will take place, the mass will become more or less charred, and is very likely to take fire. J therefore re- quested my friend Mr. P. Taylor, of Bury court, St. Mary Axe, to melt some for me in a close vessel; and this plan succeeded perfectly. The vessel employed on this occasion, was a kind of * From the Technical Repository, No. I. coppet On the Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites. 265 copper flask containing a horizontal stirrer or agitator, which being kept in motion by means of a handle rising above the flask, prevented the caoutchouc from burning to the bottom. I am, dear sir, yours, A. AIKIN. P.S.—In the preceding notice I have stated the method of applying the caoutchouc precisely as I have myself practised it, and as I communicated it to Mr. Perkins*. To him is owing the suggestion of incorporating the caoutchouc with oil of tur- pentine; which makes it more easy in its application; and has the further advantage of causing the caoutchouc to dry into a firm tough varnish, impenetrable to moisture, and capable at any time of being removed by means of a soft brush charged with warm oil of turpentine. T. Gill, Esq. * Mr. Perkins employs the caoutchouc in preserving his engraved steel blocks, plates, rolls, dies, &c. from oxidation. LIX. On the Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites during the pre- sent Year*, Tu 1s Table contains a list of all the Eclipses of Jupiter’s sa- tellites, marked as visible at Greenwich, deduced from the Con- naissance des Tems for 1822, by deducting the difference of the meridians, or, 9’ 21”. The times of the eclipses, in that work, have been computed from M. Delambre’s mew tables published in 1817+. I have calculated several of them, and find them correct. I know not from what tables those in the Nautical Almanac have been computed (the laudable custom of informing the public on these points having been for some years omitted), but there is so striking a difference between the results in the two works, that I thought it might be acceptable to the practical astronomer to have them presented at one view. The differences amount, in some cases, to 2’ 10”. If the computations in the Nautical Almanac have been made (as formerly) by to separate ersons, and should prove incorrect, it is singular they should both have fallen into precisely the same errors. The list con- tains only those eclipses which are recorded in both works. The _last column may be useful to the observer when looking out for * From Mr. F. Baily’s “ Astronomical Tables and Remarks for the year 1822 :” a work printed for private circulation only. + The Commissioners of the Board of Longitude have deferred the use of these tables till the year 1824; a period of seven years from the date of their publication. This is nearly fulfilling the injunction of Horace : nonumque prematur in annum. It certainly gives ample time for the detec- tion of any errors. Vol, 59, No, 288, April 1822. L 1 an 266 On the Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites. an emersion*, It denotes the distance of the satellite from Ju- piter’s limb, at the moment of its re-appearance; the diameter of Jupiter being taken for unity. This distance is to be mea- sured either in a line with Jupiter’s equator (or longer axis), or in a line parallel thereto. Or, which is the same thing, in a line with the belts: for the satellites generally appear a little above or below the centre. Before I dismiss this subject of the eclipses of Jupiter’s satel- lites, I would call the attention of the practical astronomer to that of the shadows of the satellites passing over the face of Jupiter. On the importance of such observations M. Laplace has the following remark: ‘ Les observations de |’entrée et de la sortie de leurs ombres sur le disque de Jupiter, répandraient beaucoup de lumiére sur plusieurs élémens de cette théorie. Ce genre d’observations, jusqu’ict trop négligé par les astro- nomes, me parait devoir fixer leur attention, car il me semble que les contacts intérieurs des ombres doivent déterminer )’in- stant de la conjonction, avec plus d’exactitude encore que les éclipses. La théorie des satellites est maintenant assez avancée pour que ce qui lui manque ne puisse étre déterminé que par des observations trés-précises. I] devient, donc, nécessaire d’essayer de nouveaux moyens d’obser vation, ou du moins, de s’assurer que ceux dont on fait usage, méritent la préférence t.” I am not aware of any recorded observations of this nature: and a new and interesting field is thus opened to those practical astronomers who are fortunately possessed of powerful tele- scopes. * « The telescopes, proper for observing the eclipses of Jupiter's satel- lites, are common refracting telescopes from fifteen to twenty feet.” So says the Nautical Almanac: but I much doubt whether any one of the Com- missioners of the Board of Longitude ever saw a telescope of this kind ; nor do I think there is such a thing in existence. How absurd then it appears to recommend the use of them; and thus mislead (as I know it has done) those entering the career of science! A great part of the utility and im- portance of observations of these eclipses arises from the use of telescopes of nearly the same form and power: by which means the times of the phe- nomena are more readily compared. Telescopes with three object glasses are now rarely made: and those with two object glasses, of 46 inch focal length and 32 inches aperture, will perhaps, in the present state of the art, be found the most proper for observations of this kind. If the observation of occultations of the fixed stars by the moon should be introduced into the Navy, a much smaller oat TE a will answer for such purposes. t Systéme du monde, page 252, 4th edition. ' 1822. On the Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites. 267 : : Mean time Diff. of | |Distance 1822. Satellite. at Greenwich. |Naut. Alm. | from » e h i “l ’ “ July 6]im. —J]15 18 46] +0 10 16} — III} 13 28 21 | +1 50 - —|{ 15 33 40] +1 6] 1:16 22 | im. Ij 13 34 54] +0 16 — | 15 28 37 | +0 16 Il F139 21 238 | —0.' 8 — | 15 58 22} —0O 6 I} 13 44 19 | +0 18 Aug. 5 | — im 21;j.em. [HI } 1b 34 51 | +0 57.) 1-36 im 21 1,15 37 51 | +013 28 AT e193, 27 Bl} +146 28 |} em. — | 15 34 59 | +0 57 1:37 30 | im I} 11 59 43 | +0 16 Sept. 6/— 1/13 730] 40 1 oS Lids 53 15°) --40118 13: | — H deli44 88) | 4.0) 4 13, | — I} 15 46 46 | +0 11 1I5}/— —|]1015 10} +0 9 22h ie —|12 8 89 | +0 12 29;— —1!14 215] +0 9 Oct. do}. — Hjd0:18 11-440) 6 3)/— II} 925 44/4111 3 {em —]11 35 58! +019] 1-16 6 | im. 1 a5 55 52°) 0) 8 8};— —] 10 2418} +0 5 8|— H ppeb2'55' 19>} 2:0) 18 10}— MHI} 1325 7} +1 22 10 | em. —} 15 35 52] +0531] 1°05 13 | im. I| 17 49 34] +0 6 1I5|}— —]1218 2] +0 8 ee ge JI }.15 32 34} +0 12 17 | — Ill | 17 24 53 | +41 42 7 Ltel4e1 2-50 |} Di 2 22 | — Il{ 18 948] +011 BA) So 1 fee ans 18/4 oats A omits 1S Wee’ 7 faa on 29 Ae me I] 16 5 45 0 0 3lj}— —1]10 34 14 +0 3 ey. a It Ap S414 14018 Bilian I 147.50 47 0 0 7{/— —1]12 2817] +0 8 268 On the Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites. 1892. - Mean time Diff. of | =|Distance es at Greenwich. |‘Naut. Alm. | feom 2. —— h ' i : “ Nov. im. 5 24.57 | +2 10 738 15| 41171. -41 65651| —0 1 12 42 30 | +0 13 14 22 32 | —0 .1 9 25 +1. 34 11 39 +0 42 51 m1 | a 19 +0 14 —0 25 30 40 22 25 48 Dec. 16 28 42 ll 40 23 LX. On [ 269 ] LX. On the Culture of the Pear Tree. By Tuomas ANDREW Knicut, Esq. F.R.S. @&c.* Tue pear-tree exercises the patience of the planter during a longer period, before it affords fruit, than any other grafted tree which finds a place in our gardens ; and though it is subsequently very long-lived, it generally, when trained to a wall, becomes in a few years unproductive of fruit, except at the extremities of its lateral branclies. Both these defects are, however, I have good reason to believe, the result of improper management ; for I have lately succeeded most perfectly in rendering my o/d trees very productive in every part, and my young trees have almost always afforded fruit the second year after being grafted, and none have remained barren beyond the third year. In detailing the mode of pruning and culture I have adopted, I shall probably more easily render myself intelligible, by de- scribing, accurately, the management of a single tree of each. An old St. Germain pear-tree, of the spurious kind, had been trained, in the fan form, against a North-west wall in my gar- den, and the central branches, as usually happens in old trees thus trained, had long reached the top of the wall, and had be- come wholly unproductive. ‘The other branches afforded but very little fruit, and that never acquiring maturity, was conse- _ quently of no value ; so that it was necessary to change the va- riety, as well as to render the tree productive. To attain these purposes, every branch which did not want at least twenty degrees of being perpendicular, was taken out at its base; and the spurs upon every other branch, which I in- tended to retain, were taken off closely with the saw and chisel. Into these branches, at their subdivisions, grafts were inserted at different distances from the root, and some so near the extre- miities of the branches, that the tree extended as widely in the autumn, after it was grafted, as it didin the preceding year. The grafts were also so disposed, that every part of the space the tree previously covered was equally well supplied with young wood. As soon in the succeeding summer as the young shoots had attained sufficient length, they were trained almost perpendicu- larly downwards, between the larger branches and the wall to which they were nailed. The most perpendicular remaining branch upon each side was grafted about four fect below the top of the wall, which is twelve feet high; and the young shoots, which the grafts upon these afforded, were trained inwards, and bent down to occupy the space from which the old central branches had been taken away, and therefore very little vacant space any where remained in the end of the first autumn. A * From the Transactions of the London Horticultural Society. ; ew 270 Results of a Meteorological Journal for the Year 1821. few blossoms, but not any fruit, were produced by several of the grafts in the succeeding spring; but in the following year, and subsequently, I have had abundant crops, equally dispersed over every part of the tree; and’ I have scarcely ever seen such an exuberance of blossom as this tree presents in the present spring (1813). Grafts of eight different kinds of pears had been inserted, and all afforded fruit, and almost in equal abundance. By this mode of training, the bearing-branches, being small and short, mav be changed every three or four years, till the tree is a century old, without the loss ofa single crop; and the ceutral part, which is unproductive in every other mode of training, be- comes the most fruitful. When a tree, thus trained, has per- fectly covered the wall, it will have taken very nearly the form recommended by me in the Horticultural Transactions of 1808, - except that the small branches necessarily pass down behind the large. I proceed to the management of young trees. A young pear-stock, which had two lateral branches upon each side, and was about six feet high, was planted against a wall early in the spring of 1510; and it was grafted in each of its la- teral branches, two of which sprang out of the stem about four feet from the ground, and the others at its summit, in the fol- lowing year. The shoots these grafts produced, when about a foot long, were trained downwards, as in the preceding experi- ment, the undermost nearly perpendicularly, and the uppermost just below the horizontal line, placing them at such distances, that the leaves of one shoot did not at all shade those of another. In the next year, the same mode of training was continued; and in the following, that is the last year, I obtained an abundant crop of fruit, and the tree is again heavily loaded with blossoms. This mode of training was first applied to the Aston Town Pear, which rarely produces fruit till six or seven years after the trees have been grafted ; and from this variety, and the Colmar, I have not obtained fruit till the grafts have been three years old. LXI. Results of a Meteorological Journal for the Year 1821, kept at the Observatory of the Academy, Gosport. By WixtuiaM Burney, LL.D. Gosport, March 15, 1822. Sir, — if HEREWITH forward you the results of my last year’s Meteorological Journal for the Philosophical Magazine, if you should deem them worth inserting. They are on a more exten- sive scale than the results of registers in general, and therefore will afford more information. I should have sent them early in February, had I not been unavoidably prevented; and am, Sir, your very obedient servant, To Dr. Tilloch. WILLIAM BuRNEY. 6°99} L°1L) 6-19] #85] SPS|SE|OOT] *****'| LL-8b| 0O-6F| 19-99] OF | O-FEHST-OS|FT/L9| 88-64] 88-6a/88-66 | 96.0 | ¢9.14]} TLg|LL-F1 S | “OGSI 40$ saseioay 8-OL] +91) SL] $-S9| 9«8F/FS|OOT] O9- LS] TO- 1S} L1-1S| 19-29] 9B | 1-1} 99-4S|Fsl08 18-66 | 21-1 | 18.08] 9L6/66-ST ; "ISI 305 SIDVIBAy 8.18] 6-F8] $-F8] 1-92 TL LE/98]89 8F-63| LIT PGE-65 Jaquissa(y 3-08] 6-88] 3-88] #- Sz SL TS|1S|¢9 #863] §9-0 $F 8-66 TOQMIIAON 1-68] 0-88] 3-98] 6- SZ 5) SE-FS166|89 #6-62| 8.0 GE6-63 *** 12q0790 0-08] 6-88] g-08| 6-0 : : 90-89/SF|LL.1 86. 36.66] 9F.0 666-66 Jaquiaydag G.6L] [+64] 1-92] 99 08-99/68|08 96-68] SF-0 996-66 “ts gsndny 6-88] L-#9 GS- 19|PE|9L, 96-62| 8s.0 996-66 see see AIDE 1-6] 6-0 | LS|PSIEL 96+ 8S|SFlEL -66| 66-66| 39.0 886-66 Sem 0:9] 8-09 o9|ss|s6 1B. GG\GE|694 OL. 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Il 2 a| 2 Be wm) & | 3 E18 isi¢|8 is 4 =| ot o> & = aie (els | B-| & a | iti f= PR = a & | = P P ‘spno[g Jo suoijvoyIpoyT 698/29 £09] 69|95/¥sF/6a|rSF ire Too “OG8T A0J SODvIDAY “IGS8T 405 sosvIOAY Tg | | 2 | OL F| F Ir |x os |S ¥¢ | otlfs] ¢ | I Ig |§ |b] 6] 6] F] SLT os (6 }¢/ 111s] | Is |/¢|/21/¢] 1g] 9) 6 16 |8 | § | OT} I] § | as os |6|¢)|6 Fe PI Is |Z | ¢ l¥¢ | 1] § | 8] & os |¢ |[€, |p | ta | a Is |h | 9 | 6 | alee |_1Et 83 |o-\ta |. 3 | | s IFS] 9 Is |6| § | ¢ |e] | 9] 2 e ES] | S| |e] | 2 token te e S ic) SAS Se /P7 Slel a Pell Bl E/E) clei e al a ee a * 2 $ C ‘SPULAA OU} Jo aTeag T mI ato e mick Woe "ION Jaquia.aq JOquIdAO NT **29G019O raquiaydag *- ysnsny eee eee Ayne sooo oune? eee eee Avy eeneee quid Vv see) YOARTAT Areniqa yy es ivnuese? *stUOT J < =) Z a a Results of a Meteorological Journal for 1821. ANNUAL RESULTS FOR 1821. Barometer. Greatest pressure of the atmosphere, Feb. 6th. Wind S. Least do. of do. - Dec. 24th. Do: S.E. Range of the mercury ar oe ee ee Annual mean pressure of the atmosphere .. Mean pressure for 170 days with the Moon in North declination : oe Mean pressure for 183 days with the Moon in South declination ni oe es oe Annual mean pressure at 8 ) *dlock A ae oe ————- at 20’clock P.M. .. ee rs — at So'clock P.M. .. ee Greatest range of the mercury, in December ve Least range of do. in August Greatest annual variation in 24 hours, in Devethber Least of the greatest variations in 24 hours, in July Spaces described by the alternate rising and falling of the mercury ve es Number of changes caused by the variations in the weight of atmospheric column .. ee oe Seif-registering Day and Night Thermometer. 273 Inches. 30°88 28°10 2:78 29°823 29-905 29°784 29-818 29-824 29-826 2-200 0-670 1-170 0380 80°510 276. Greatest thermometrical heat, August 23d. Wind S.E. 80° Range of the thermometer between the extremes , Annual mean temperature of the atmosphere ae of do. at 8 A.M. of do. at 8 P.M. ° of do. at 2 P.M. Greatest range in April : as a oe Least of the monthly ranges in December’ .. > os t Annual mean range .. ee oe Greatest annual vafiation in 24 hours i in July ee Least of the greatest variations in 24 hours in January aud December or ef oo! Mean temperature of spring water at 8 A.M. ee De Lue’s Whalebone Hygrometer, Greatest humidity of the atmosphere, 32 times ee Greatest dryness of the atmosphere on the 29th of June Range of the hygrometer between the extremes oe Annual mean of do. at 8 A.M. a °° oe ——— at 8 P.M. «se oe oe at 2 lr M. oe ee ——— at 8, 2, and 80 flock . ¢e Vol. 59, No. 288. April 1822, Mi m cold, January 2d. Wind E,. 24 56 52°56 pv 51-01 57°61 41:00 22:00 51:08 26:00 17:00 51:60 Degrees. 100 34 66 73°4 75°3 63°5 708 Greatest 274 Results of a Meteorological Journal Greatest monthly mean humidity of the atmosphere in January «+ ia “ - ‘ - 83-6 Greatest monthly mean dryness of the atmosphere in _June ae nt ste pe RY = 49°1 Position of the Winds. Days. From North to North-East .+ aie pos 224 North-East to East .- oe an 437 —_— East to South-East .- eid ait 29 South-East to South .. ys ME Bid 12! South to South-West .. . a 26 —— South-West to West .- ae be 83 West to North-West .- ats Ke 605 —— North-West to North.. fs Ee 57 ——365 Clouds, agreeably to the Nomenclature ; or the Number of Days: on which each Modification has prevailed. ‘ ays. Cirrus freee = ay ie ae 233 Cirro-cumulus sin aes Ni a 208 Cirro-stratus ahs si a ce. y BOO Stratus eae ties ay es ai 43 | Cumulus. ee 3 sy > 226 Cumulo-stratus ay “ed % Oy 240 Nimbus ee ee ee ee ee 208 ‘ General State of the Weather. Days. A transparent atmosphere, without clouds .. 27 : Fair, with various modifications of clouds .- 144 | An overcast sky, without rain es e. 88 Fog .- aig she 4 wa it 3 Rain, hail, sleet, and snow ++ Ae ~ 985 Pads | Atmospheric Phenomena. ; No. Anthelia, or mock-suns diametrically opposite to ’ the true sun ee ee oe oe Parhelia, or mock-suns “4 he avoids Paraselenz, or mock-moons «+ a» oe 9 Solar halos .. af ne cp +s 38 Lunar halos .. Ale A Ae abit 34 Rainbows, perfect ++ ey ue 2 ya ee Meteors of various sizes a Als so * ZOE Aurora borealis in the night of the 25th of March 1 Lightning, days on which it occurred a 18 Thunder do. do. i rs 7 Evapo- ale - for the Year 1821. _ 275 Evaporation. Inches. Greatest monthly quantity in June sgn, Saeed Least monthly quantity in January 16 0:41 Total amount for. the year .. an oe. 21°86 Rain, &c. Inches. Greatest monthly quantity in December .. 7°61 Least monthly quantity in February »» O18 Total amount for the year oe ee 43-4] N. B.—The barometer is hung up in the Observatory fifty feet above low-water mark ; and the self-registering horizontal day and night thermometer, and De Luc’s whalebone hygro- meter, are placed in open-worked cases, in a northern aspeet, out of the rays of the sun, ten feet above the garden ground. The pluviameter and evaporator have respectively the same square area: the former is emptied every morning at 8 A.M., after rain, into a cylindrical glass gauge accurately graduated to 1-100dth of an inch; and the quantity lost by evaporation from the lat- ter, is ascertained at least every third day, and sometimes oftener, when great evaporations happen .by means of a high tempera- ture, and dry northerly or easterly winds. BaRoMETRICAL PressuRE.—lIn the course of the year the mercurial column has met with an unprecedented range, having risen higher and sunk lower than we ever saw it before. Its greatest elevation occurred in February, which was characterized by fair and frosty weather, and was the coldest month in the year; and its greatest depression happened at midnight of the 24th of December, a remarkably wet and windy month. (See rain column in the table, and the London Magazine for February _ 1822 for the remarks made at the time.) The range between the annual extremes is 2°72 inches. The year having been wet, particularly the last four months, and the elasticity of the at- mosphere much disturbed by prevailing gales of wind, the an- nual mean pressure, therefore, is also unprecedented, being 1-20th of an inch lower than that of last year, and rather more than 1-20th of an inch lower than the mean for the last seven years. ' The aggregate of the spaces described by the mercury in its alternate rising and falling is 8-86 inches more than that of the preceding year, and the number of changes five more. ‘ For 170 days of this year while the moon was in North de- clination, the mean pressure was 1-8th of an inch higher than that in the 153 days in which she ranged in South declination. Last year the mean pressure was greatest while she was in South declination, and vice versé the year before. M m 2 TEM- 276. Results of a Meteorological Journal TEMPERATURE.—The mean temperature of the air, consider- ing its wet and windy state, and the decrease in the average, of May, June, and July, are strikingly great, heing more than 24° higher than that of last year, and equal to the warm year 1815 within 1-8th of a degree. ‘This arises chiefly from the more uniform temperature of the days and nights during the last five months, Contrary to the course of the season, the mean tem- perature of February was three degrees lower than that of January, and the mean of April nearly equal to that of May. September was more than 14° warmer than July; and November within 11-20tks of a degree of the meanof May. The mean tempera- tures at 8 A.M. and 8 P.M. without doors, coincide with each other within about 1-6th of a degree; but they deviate from the annual mean 21°, which is more than usual. The mean temperature at S A.M. and 8 P.M. within doors, is 21° higher than that without at the same hours, and only 3-5ths of a degree higher than the annual mean. The annual mean temperature of spring water, as ascertained by about eight observations every month at 8 A.M., is rather more than one degree under the annual mean temperature of the air without doors. By these observations it appears that the ground did not arrive at its evaximum heat till the autumnal equinox, which was one month after the maximum heat of the air; and that the greatest monthly mean temperature of spring water was in October. How far this will agree with the usual ~ time of the greatest mean monthly heat of the ground, subse- quent years’ observations will determine, as we have no com- parison to make by a reference to former years, but suspect that that was very late. The mean state of the air by De Luc’s whalebone hygrome- ter, is severa} degrees more towards the moisture point, than in the preceding years when a less quantity of rain fell. Winp.—The wind has been very prevalent, and it blew longer from the S.W. this year than from any other point of the com- pass. From the preceding seven years’ observations on the po- sition of the wind, it appears that its longest duration is from the South-West. Its duration from the North this year, is about - 2-3ds of the mean for the last seven years from that point. From S.E. and S.W. it has prevailed one-third more than the average of the former years, and from these points we had most of the late heavy rains. The winds from the East, South, and West points, have respectively fallen short of their average duration of former years ; but those from N.W. and N.E. are nearly equal, By particular attention to the direct course of the modi- fications of clouds, we have this year been enabled to furnish ad- ditional proofs of the simultaneous existence of several currents of —_—- for the Year 1821. 277 of wind, more especially at or near the changes from wet to dry, as pointed out in our daily remarks on the weather in the Lon- don Magazine; that the upper currents generally prevail over, and ultimately descend into the region of the lower ones; and that the wet or dry state of the weather here, very much de- pends cu the position of the winds: those from the South-West seldom fail to bring up rain before they have subsided, perhaps from their crossing the Atlantic Ocean, where a greater abund- ance of vapours must undoubtedly exist by means of a more powerful evaporation, and be wafted hither by their influence, and which are condensed and precipitated in rain on arriving in colder regions over the soils of the land. ‘The following is the number of strong gales, or days on which they have prevailed this year: Days. N. INE, E. S.E,| S. [s-w,| W. IN.W. 102 s|4|6 |10] 9 | 51] 12 7 Hence it appears that the South-West and West winds are not only most prevalent in hard gales, but also in steady breezes and light airs, which is further corroborated by former years’ observations, CrLoups.—All, the modifications of clouds, or the days on which they have prevailed, appear by the table to be higher in numbers thaa in former years, except the stratus, which is nearly equal, or rather more than its average; yet this modification is generally a prognostic of fair weather. ~ It is natural that the cirrus, ctrrostralus, and the compound cumutostratus (modifications that have a tendeney by inoscula- tion with others to produce rain), should exceed their average appearances of former years, as well as the nimlus, on account of the late heavy rains. The prevalence of the others shows that we have been favoured with intervals of fine weather, parti- cularly as it respects the cirrocumulus, whose frequent appear- ance in great measure (it being an index to increasing heat near the earth’s surface) accounts for the high annual mean tempera- ture of the atmosphere. Under peculiar states of the atmo- sphere, we have recently seen this cloud evaporate while within 20° or 30° of the sun; and at other times we have seen it de- scend and transform itself into linear cirrostratus. The ap- pearance of the cumulus, which is also a fair-weather cloud, has been more frequent by almost one-fourth of the average timés of its appearance in former years, ~ ArmospHertc PueNnoMENA.— Anthelia have appeared oft- ener this year than in others. The great number of parhe/ia in ; April 278 Results of a Meteorelogical Journal. April and May, and of paraselene in September, was remarkable.. The number of solar and lunar halos is nearly equal ; the greatest portion appeared in April and December, two wet months, a proof of their being prognostics of approaching rain, as is almost every other meteoric phenomenon. ‘The frequent appearance of rainbows, both single and double, has enabled us to disprove Dr. Watt’s new theory of their formation, as published by him in the Annals of Philosophy, vol. xiii. p. 131. Mereors, both small and large, have also appeared frequently. Their connexion with, or appearance before, wind and rain, we have fully shown in the last volume of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal, from attentive and punctual observations. Besides these, we have observed other atmospheric phznomena, but not registered them, such as yellow lunar corone from 1° to 2° in diameter ; lunar discus halos, and lunar burrs, which though inferior to others, prognosticate approaching wet; for at the time of their appearance a partial condensation of the atmo- sphere at a considerable height, and to a great extent, is not only evidently going on by means of additional vapours brought up by a current or currents of wind, but also frequently corro- borated by the recession or sinking bf the mercurial column, and a slight mist or haze near the horizon. By such observations as these, any one may determine for his own convenience the approach of rain some hours before its actual contact with the ground, without troubling himself about ascertaining the elec- trical state of the respirable air at thetime. Should these pro- gnostics fail at any time, which is seldom the case, it is caysed by the combined influence of a superior wind, an increasing tem- perature, &c. that either dry up the descending vapours before their gravity is much augmented, or disperse them to some di- stant region. The appearance of the large solar and lunar halos determines the wet weather to be still nearer to us; and it is very rare that the vesicular vapours in which they are formed, are dispersed before their condensation and precipitation. The Evaporation is less this year than in any of the pre- ceding six years, on account of the frequent and heavy irriga- tions, and the low diurnal temperature of May, June, and July. Rain has fallen, more or less, on 208 days Ke year, of which 98 whole days and nights is the real time it has rained. From the 26th of August to the end of the year, there were only 37 dry days; of these a great portion were completely overcast and windy; and on the other 90 days, 23 inches of rain fell, which exceed the quantity for the preceding eight months, This cer- tainly was the wettest period we have hitherto registered, and the distribution of the rain seems, from the various Meteorolo- gical Journals already published, to have been very unequal in different On the Distillation of Spirits from Grain. 279 different places, the greatest depth by far, after making every proper allowance for situation, being near the western coast. This wet period having been attended with a mean tempera- ture of 4°61 higher than the mean of the same months (Sep- tember, October, November and December) for the last seven years, it has therefore forwarded vegetation in a surprising man- ner. In the variable climate of Britain, scarcely a year passes but is productive of some anomalies in the state of the weather in one or other of the seasons; but the present year has pro- duced many, as in the extremes of pressure, retrograde tempe- rature, prevailing high winds, numerous atmospheric and me- teoric phenomena, and rain exceeding in duration and quantity that of any former annual pericd. SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SS LXII. On the Distillation of Spirits from Grain, and on the Water most conducive to Fermentation. By M. Dusrun- FauT of Lille*. if is an opinion generally admitted in theory and in practice, that rain or river water is the most proper to produce a good fermentation. ‘Those who have broached a different theory have contended that all sorts of waters, provided they are potable, are fit for the purpose. The first of these two opinions, although perhaps more unreasonable than the other, yet being founded on the greater purity which rain and river waters seem to the eye to possess, has prevailed for a long time unquestioned in many distilleries, where well or spring water would not be used without scruple. This predilection, which I shall immediately show to be erro- neous, has its origin in a false application of chemical theory. Indeed, when the delicate operations of analysis, and when the scrupulous manipulations of colours, require a water quite pure, and quite disengaged from every calcareous salt foreign to the results required, this may be readily conceived; but to extend this precaution to other operations of art, upon a simple pro- bability and without examination, would be to fall into a similar error of prejudice to that which we have just been condemning. The distillation of spirits from grain, which appears to have reached its greatest perfection in Germany, and particularly in Holland, is become now an important auxiliary to our agriculture, especially in the departments on the north and east sides of France. French Flanders, which inherits in this branch of industry the long practice of the Dutch, possesses distilleries where they ¢x- * From Annales de Chimie for January 1822. tract 280 On the Distillation of Spirits from Grain. tract regularly 55-60, and even 65 litres of spirits at 19° from a quintal of barley. This statement may seem exaggerated to the distillers of the east and the interior, who do not obtain on an average more than from 40 to 44 litres from the same quan- tity of grain, and some scarcely from 30 to 35; but it is con- firmed by the experience of a great many distilleries. Perhaps there is no art which presents anomalies more remarkable. It would be curious to trace minutely the causes of these dif- ferences; but practice has got so much the advance of theory in this species of manufacture, that we are still forced to reason about it with much timidity. The fact which I am going to mention as explanatory of these differences, appears to me how- ever sufficiently conclusive, and without pretending that it is the only cause, I believe it will be found at least the principal one. Filled with chemical doctrines, | was surprised, on frequenting the premises of our distillers, to see them sinking at a great exe pense vast pits to procure water, when they might have sup- plied themselves cheaply from the river, which flowed close by. I asked them the cause of their preference; but without being able to explain it to me, they'all agreed in answering that they still remembered too well the loss they had suffered from the employment of river-water ever to try it again. One person more observant whom I interrogated upon the quality of water best adapted for fermentation, answered, that it was that which flowed over rugged or unhewn fragments of stone. I had here a ray of light. I recollected the means which Higgins had already pointed out to the planters of Jamaica, to prevent the acid fermentation, and I had no doubt that our well- water charged with carbonate of lime, held in solution with the aid of an excess of carbonic acid, might have the same effect on the processes of our distillers, as calcareous stones have less etficaciously on the fermenting processes of the Jamaica planters. In fact, this carbonate being dissolved, is desseminated equally through the whole vat, and it is thereby the readier to act on the molecules of the acid, which develop themselves so easily in a very dilute fernientation, and may prevent more completely the progress of that acetous fermentation so much dreaded by distillers. I do not hesitate a moment in indicating this cireumstance as an important cause of the great superiority of our distillers ; and tothis lam the more induced, since experience proves that they have never drawn more than from 40 to 44 litres, and often less, from a guintal of barley, where they have persisted in employing Tiver-water for fermentation. LXIJI. On Bi [ 28) ] LXIII. On a Method of fixing a Transit Instrument exactly in the Meridian. By F. Baty, Esq. F.R.S. @ L.S.* Tu E transit instrument is so essential a part of the apparatus of the practical astronomer, that every attempt to facilitate the use of it will doubtless be received with indulgence. When this instrument has been brought early in the plane of the me- ridian (which may be done by any of the methods pointed out in the several works on practical astronomy), it may be adjusted accurately by either of the following modes: 1°. by observation of the pole-star, at the time of its upper or lower culmination : 2°. by observing any of the circumpolar stars at the time of their upper and lower culmination; and 3°. by observing the culrni- nation of any two stars differing from each other considerably in declination. The two former methods (independently of their requiring a building peculiarly constructed so as to command an uninterrupted view of the meridian, from the northern to the southern horizon) are liable to some objections, to which it is not my intention at present to advert: but the latter method may be practised in every situation in which a transit instrument may be placed, and as the results are extremely correct, I shall confine my remarks to this mode only of adjusting the instru- ment. Moreover, there are many persons, fond of practical astronomy, who have not the convenience, or who do not wish to incur the expense, of constructing a building of the kind above mentioned ; and who are therefore compelled to fix their transit instruments on the sill of one of their windows, or in some other similar situation: many, again, who are travelling, with a view to improve the connected sciences of astronomy and geography, are obliged to fix their transit instruments in the most convenient and safe situation, where their prospect may be confined toa _ southern aspect :—to all such persons the method here alluded to, is the only one which can be adopted. Portable transit in- struments, adapted to such purposes, are now made with great neatuess and accuracy, and of various sizes; and are a valuable addition to every ceconomical observatory, and to every person travelling for the purposes above mentioned. When placed on the inner sill of a window, they have a range of above 70° in al- titude ; and when placed on the outer sill, they may be pointed even to the zenith. I shall therefore suppose that an instrument of this sort has been brought nearly in the plane of the meridian, by any of the known methods for that purpose: after which it may be accu- rately adjusted by determining its deviation from the meridian * From the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London. Vol, 59, No. 288, April 1822, 1g by 282 Ona Method of fixing @ Transit Instrument by the method, above mentioned, of observing the transit of twa stars, differing cousiderably from each other in declination, and whose right ascensions are wel] ascertained. The principles of this method have been treated on by M. Lalande in his Astro- nomie, vol. ii. page 715; by M. Delambre in his Astronomie, vol. i. page 421; and by M. Biot in his Traité d’ Astronomie, vol. ili, Additions, p. 130: with one or other of which I shall presume the reader to be previously acquainted. The stars which should be chosen for the purpose, are those which differ at least 50 degrees from each other in declination : but the nearer that difference approaches to 90 degrees, the more correct will be the results. Their right ascensions, on the contrary, must be as near as possible to each other; a circum- stance which will moreover prevent the possibility of any error arising from a variation in the rate of the clock during the in- terval of the observations. And here it may be proper to remark that the time, used in these computations, is sidereal time: if therefore a clock or watch, which marks solar time, be made use of, it must be corrected in the manner hereafter mentioned. This being premised, it will be readily seen that, in this pa- rallel of latitude, one of the stars will have north declination, and the other sou¢h declination: and, in order to avoid repetition, 1 shall call the former the northern star, and the latter the southern star. Their declinations I shall denote by N and S re- spectively : and it may be useful to know that they may be taken out to the nearest minute only, as great accuracy is not required in this respect. The right ascensions, however, of the two stars (which must be expressed in ¢ime) should be taken out from the most approved tables, and corrected for aberration and nutation® ; in order that their apparent positions in right ascension may be exactly stated: on which indeed the accuracy of the method de- pends. ‘The apparent right ascension of the northern star I shall denote by At", and the time of its observed passage, as shown by the clock, I shall denote by T*: the apparent right ascension of the southern star I shall denote by As, and the time of its observed passage by 1s. The latitude of the place I shall denote by L; and the quantity sought (or the deviation of the instru- ment in azimuth) by A. Now, in order to determine A, we must first take the differ- ence of ‘the apparent right ascensions of the two stars, and also the difference of the time of their observed transits; that is, we * When the two stars are at equal distances from the equator, and differing but little fron each other in right ascension, their mean places on the given day may be taken; as they will be nearly equally affected by aberration and , nutation.” Many pairs of stars, situated in this manner, may be mentioned: such as 8 Geminorum and + Navis, » Corone Borealis and « Regule, &c. must exactly in the Meridian. — 283 must make (R"—R) = dR and (T"—Ts) =dT; and the formula for finding A will, agreeably to the principles laid down by MM. Delambre and Biot, be rf = ; cos N. cos S : A= (7 —d®) * sin (N+5S) cos L * If the quantity (dT —d®) be positive, the deviation of the tran- sit instrument will be to the east of the meridian: on the con- trary, if it be negative, the deviation will be to the west. When it is = 0, the instrument is exactly in the plane of the meridian, and consequently does not require any correction. By the help of a table expressing, for any given latitude, the cos N. cos § sin (N+S) cos L declinations (or the difference of the polar distances) of the two stars observed, we may, almost by inspection, obtain, in every case, the value of A, or the deviation of the transit instrument required; and consequently bring it afterwards exactly in the me- ridian, so as to be enabled to adjust it at any time to a meridian mark. The table, which I have here given, is calculated for the latitude of Greenwich (= 51°. 28’. 40”): but since it is not necessary to be very exact in the declination of the star, it will suit any other place not very distant from that parallel of latitude. I might have constructed the table so as to have been general, for all latitudes, by merely taking the value of cos N. cos § sin (N-+S) cosine of the latitude of the place where the observer might be situated. But, I have preferred, in the present instance, con- fining the table to. the latitude of Greenwich; subjoining, how- ever, a correction for the use of it in any other part of England. The first perpendicular column of the table denotes the sum of the declinations (or the difference of the polar distances) * of the two stars, for every degree from 42° to 72°: and op- posite thereto is set down, in separate columns, the value for finding the deviation of the instrument in azimuth, ac~ cording to the value of N, or the northern star, from 24° to 40°; those limits being sufficient for the purposes alluded to in the preceding part of this paper. The proportional part for any intermediate difference may be readily seen, on inspection. These values, multiplied by (dT — dR) or the difference between the ° difference of the apparent right ascensions of the two stars, and the difference of their observed transits, will show the value of A, or the total deviation of the instrument in ¢ime; which, mul- tiplied by 15, will give the deviation in arc: and when the de- viation of the instrument has been thus determined, it may be eorrected in the usual manner. An example or two will best Nn2 explain in numbers, according to the sum of the value of 3 which value must then have been divided by the 284 On a Method of fixing a Transit Instrument explain the use and application of the table, and the mode of operating in such cases. On July 1, 1819, I placed my transit instrument nearly in the meridian; and in order to ascertain how much it deviated from the true meridian I observed the two stars y Lyr@ and + Sagit- tarii. The passage of the former was observed at 18>. 52’, 37”,3, and of the latter at 18". 56’. 4”,5 sidereal time. The apparent right ascensions of those stars, on that day, were 18%. 52’. 9”,8 and 18>. 55’, 39”,7 respectively: and their declinations were 32°. 27’ north, and 27°, 55’ south. Consequently the operation will stand. thus An's 18")'52., 9°58 T°=18), 52/.37",3 A218, 55. 39,7 T= 18, 56. 959 adR=-— 3. 29,9 aT =—: 3.932,6 whence (dT—d R)=—2",7. This value, being negative, shows that the deviation is to the west: and in order to determine the quantity of the deviation, we must take the sum of the declina- tions (or the difference of the polar distances) of the two stars ; ‘which in this case is equal to 60°. 22’; or, for the sake of round numbers, equal to 60° : and the declination of N (or the northern star) is about 32°. Consequently against the number 60 and under the column headed 32° we shall find 1:39; which being multiplied by —2",7 will give —3”’,75 for the deviation of the instrument in ¢ime: and this multiplied by 15 will give —56’,3 for the deviation in arc westerly. - Again, on Jan. 1, 1820, having reason to suspect that the transit instrument (from some motion which had been given to it) deviated from the plane of the meridian, J observed the passage of « Canis majoris, and of Castor: the former at 6, 52’. 45”,6, and the latter at 7°. 24’. 28’,4. The apparent right ascension of those stars on that day was 6°. 51’. 34”,3 and 7", 23’. 7",3 respectively; and their declinations were 28°. 44’ south and 32°. 16’ north. Consequently the operation will stand thus ARP ss PB. 28.0 7" 5a T= 7», 24’. 28",4 AM= 6. 51. 34,3 T?= 6. 52, 45,6 os | d@R=+ 31. 33,0 dT= + 31. 42,8 whence (d T—dR) = + 9,8. The sum of the declinations (or difference of polar distances) being in this case 61°, we shall find that the value to be adopted is 1°36; which being multi- plied by +9",8 will give + 13”,33 for the value of A in time, or (multiplying this by 15) 4-3’. 20” for the value of A in are. And this quantity being positive shows that the deviation was to the east. te exactly in the Meridian. 285 If observations of this kind be made about sunrise or sunset, and after the passage of the stars, the telescope be pointed to the horizon and compared with some object there, a meridian mark may be set up, which may be corrected from time to time by subsequent observations on various stars similarly situated. I have already stated that in all cases of this kind, the time em- ployed is supposed to be sidereal time, and that if a clock or watch be used which marks mean solar time, the interval between the observations must be corrected accordingly. This correction is made by converting the value of dT (which is expressed in side- real time) into mean solar time, in the usual manner, by adding the acceleration of the fixed stars for that interval. Thus, in the case last stated, suppose that the passage of < Canis majoris had been observed at 12". 10’. 31”,6, and the passage of Castor at 12", 42’, 9”,2 mean solar time: the difference between these two (or dT) would be 31’. 37",6, to which the acceleration of the fixed stars for that interval (=5”,2) must be added; whence the difference will be, as before, =31’. 42’,8. So that, by means of this correction, it will be indifferent whether the clock shows sidereal or mean solar time. _ Before I close this paper I shall point out another important use to which these observations may be applied ; namely to cor- recting the error of the clock at the time of observation. For after the quantity of the deviation is found, as above explained, the error of the clock may be determined by means of the transit of either of the stars employed ; that is, of either N or S; but, for the sake of uniformity in the investigations, I shall confine my remarks to N, or the northern star. Let the observed time of the passage of N he denoted as before by T"; and the ap- parent right ascension of N by AR®, and let the error of the clock at the time of observation be denoted by E. ‘Then, from the principles laid down by M. Biot, we shall have dh is s sin (L—N) The value of ac») for the latitude of Greenwich I have thrown into numbers, and placed in the last line of the table at the end of this paper, so as to be ready for immediate use when required. It is denoted by c, since it serves to denote the cor - rection of the clock. The application of the formula is very simple: the rule being as follows. From the observed time of the transit of the northern star deduct the apparent right ascen- sion of the same star; to the difference add the product Ac: the sum is the error of the clock; which, when it is negative, shows that the clock is too slow. For example; in the first case mentioned in this paper, the difference 286 On a Method of fixing a Transit Instrument difference between the observed and apparent time of the transit of y Lyr@ is (18°. 52’. 37%,3—18". 52’. 9”,8) = +27",5: the deviation of the transit instrument has been found to he —38”,75 in time, and the number in the table, against N (=32°) is ‘39: the product of these two is —1",5: so that 27”,5 —1”,5=26",0 is the error of the clock at the time of observa- tion, which being positive shows that the clock was too fast. I shall here repeat that the observed dzme, here alluded to, is sup- posed to be sidereal time: and therefore if mean solar time be employed i in the observation, it must be converted into sidereal time, by any of the methods laid down for that purpose. It may be useful to remark that, in all observations of this kind, it is presuined that the proper adjustments of the transit instru- ment are made previously to observation: and particularly that the axis of the telescope is rendered perfectly level: otlierwise the observation will partake of the error arising from this source, and render a further correction necessary. I shall conclude by observing that M. Delambre prefers this mode of adjusting a transit instrument to that of observing the passage of the circumpolar stars, which requires an interval of at least 12 hours, during which time considerable alteration may have taken place in the rate of the clock ; and therefore cannot be conveniently practised except when the days are very short, and in a building constructed peculiarly for meridional observa- tions. Whereas the observations, here alluded to, may fre- quently be completed in a few minutes; at all times of the year ; and often by daylight. ‘The tables are very easily computed, and therefore every practical astronomer who requires greater accuracy should calculate them for the latitude of his own ob- servatory. In which case, the labour will be very considerably abridged if he confines the table to the declination of those stars which are most frequently used by him for such comparisons, It may be proper to state, that the values in this table (except those in the last line) must be multiplied by the following num- bers, for any other parallel of latitude to the southward or north- worth of Greenwich: viz. if south 1°, by .979 north 3°, by 1.072 north 1°, by 1.023 4°, by 1.099 2°, by 1.047 so that in no part of England will the correction amount to asth, nor if within 2 degrees of the latitude of Greenwich, will it amount to zth of the whole value. ‘The last line, for the correction of the clock, is adapted to the latitude of Greenwich : only. Sum _ exactly in the Meridian. 287 Declination of the Northern Star N 24° ase 26°| 27°] 28°! 29°) 30°] 31°} 32°} 33°) 34°! 35° 364 37°} 38°F 39°! 40° 2.08]2.08|2.07]2.06]2.06]2.04}2.03]2.02!2.00|1.99]1.97|1.95/1.93|1.91|1.89|1.86]1.84 2.03}2.03'2,02/2.02}2.01]2,00/1.99]1.97|1.96]1.94]1.93]1.91/1.89|1.87/1.85]1.821 1.80 1.98} 1.98/1.981.97|1.96|1.95/1.94|1.93]1.92)1.90|1.89|1.87] 1.85|1.83)1.81|1. 1,93|1.92|1.92]1.91/1.90|1.89|1.88)1.86 1,88|1.88|1.87]1.871.86]1.85|1.84)1.8211. 1.84/1.84|1.83/1.83]1.82]1.81|1.80|1.79]1. Babi eh ‘T8)1-T7}.76)1-75). 1.71 1.68 1.65). 2\1.61 1.58)1. 1.55 Vealnealrsiliee } 1.49|1.49|1.48}1.47/1. 1.47|1.46]1.45]1.45|1. 1.44|1.43}1.43}1.42)1. 1.41|1.41]1.40|1,39)1.3 1.38|1.38]1.37)1.37/1. 1.36/1.36]1,35]1.35/1. 1.33}1.33}1.33}1.32)1. 1.31}1.30)1.30)1. }1,.28]1.28)1, 1,26|1.26] 1. 1.24]1.23}1. 21)1,21]1.21)1, 1.19]1.19]1. 1.17]1.17|1, 1.15{1.15|1. .19/1,1211, 1.10]1,10)1, ms | | | ee | ee | a | | ee | | "50 *49|-48 | 46] -45 | 44} -42| 41] 59 | 38) -36) 35] °33 31 ; | Sum of Dec. ed en es as once bao aire ‘ 1.74)1.7: 1.711. 1.68)1. 1:65)1. 1.62/1. 1.59)1. 1.56}1. 1.531. [ol cell cel coed cel cell coll oll ce cD ol AADADOUTIYHE wt OV Oe eT O Re OO 1 1, 1, sf 1, 1s 1 i 1, i nun a> oot: Bm HDOW DON DO QW RR Riniin Ses ISSUESIER BUSS! Sep oe ee ee eee el VYNYNYOWKWHKHWEER EON OD ~I ~I $2 ABE SSSSE SEEN SSE aAeSs 1. 1. 1 iB 1. if is as Ls 1. 1 1.4 IIe 1, Le I UF D 1, L; iI ily 1, iw pto YDowWwookhR RON ODO. DBewWwaOre BROHONM Oe S~10 81 - LXIV. On the Cure of a Case of Paralysis by by Lightning *. Since the period (1744) when Kratzenstein attempted for the first time to make electricity of service in the cure of several dis- eases, a great many works on this subject have been published. Some of them have announced cures almost miraculous ; para- lysis, tetanus, deafness, and various sorts of blindness, have all yielded to the application of this stimulant. Others have main- tained, on the contrary, that electricity does not produce any use- ful effect. Perhaps it would be well in this state of incertitude to submit the question to a new examination. The contrariety which has been remarked in the results obtained by different phy- * From the Annales de Chimie for 1822. sicians 288 On Matting made from the Typha latifolia. sicians equally worthy of credit, may be owing in a great measure to different manners of operating ; some in fact contenting them- selves with isolating the patient, and placing him in communica- tion with the conductor of the machine, while others have regu- larly introduced the fluid into the suffering part by means of dis- charges more or less violent. But without saying more on this point at present, let us attend to the following fact, which we extract from one of the scientific journals published in America. M. Samuel Leffers, of Carteret County, in North Carolina, had been seized with a paralytic affection which fixed itself on the face, and principally on the eyes. As he was walking in his chamber, a flash of lightning struck him down senseless ; he came to himself at the end of twenty minutes, but he did not recover perfectly the use of his legs for the rest of the day and night. The next day he found himself quite recovered, and he sat down to write to one of his friends an account of what had happened to him; his letter was very long, and he wrote it without the help of glasses. Since then his paralysis has never returned. M. Leffers thinks that the same shock which restored his sight, has on the other hand injured the delicacy of his hearing. The article from which we have extracted this case, is from the pen of M. Olmsted, professor of chemistry in the college of North Carolina. LXV. On Matting made from the Typha latifolia, or Greater Cat’s-Tail. By Mr. Witi1aM Saispury*. Tax praiseworthy and successful endeavours of Mr. Salisbury, to open a new source of industry, peculiarly within the reach of the labouring poor, and of parochial workhouses, have received the approbation of the Society; both on their own account, and in the hope, that, by being recorded in their volume, they may excite others to similar exertions. A material hitherto unem- ployed, the spontaneous produce of pools and irreclaimable swamps in every part of the kingdom, peculiarly fitted to serve as the basis of domestic manufacture in the cottages of the poor, and the produce of which, whether sold or employed by the mak- ers, will contribute essentially to the increase of their comforts, is not to be lightly passed over. One of the most serious priva- tions to which cottagers in the agricultural districts are exposed, is that of cold during winter, arising in part from the inadequate shelter afforded by the hovels in which they live, and from the * From the Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, p. viii. and p. 52. The Society's Ceres Medal was.voted to Mr. Salisbury for this communication. want On a Matting made from the Typlia latifolia. 289. want of bedding. Their own pecuniary resources are but too often insufficient to supply the more imperious demands for food and clothing ; so that, in ordinary circumstances, their sufferings from cold, during the hours intended by nature for repose and restoration, are excessively severe; as those well know, who have seen, with satisfaction not unmingled with sorrow, the joy which the donation of a single blanket invariably produces. If those who have the opportunity, would instruct and encourage the in- dustrious poor in the manufacture of matting from the Typha, they would thus be enabled to supply themselves with an article, which, when employed as a cover to their damp floors, as cur- tains to their couches, and as an auxiliary to their scanty stock of bedding, would most materially contribute both to their com- fort and to their health. The material of which matting, and the rush-bottoms (as they are called) of chairs, are usually made, is the Scirpus lacustris, known in some parts of England by the name bull-rush, and in Durham and Northumberland by that of pelecive. It grows na- turally in deep slow streams, and is particularly abundant in the neighbourhood of Newport Pagnel in Buckinghamshire. The demand for this article, however, in the Newport Pagnol manufactories is considerably greater than that district can supply ; and, in consequence, large importations of the Scirpus are made from Holland. Hence, in time of war, the article is often scarce, and at an exorbitant price. ; . Prior to the winter of 1817, Mr. Salisbury, induced by a lau- dable desire of opening new sources of industry to the unem- ployed poor, attempted, in various ways, to. apply the leaves of the Typha latifolia (flag, or greater cat’s-tail) to the same pur- poses as the Scirpus. For this purpose he was allowed, by the overseers of the parish of St. George, Hanover-square, to em- ploy some of their paupers in collecting about 23 tons of the 7'y- pha from the marshy grounds about Little Chelsea and Clapham; and afterwards in manufacturing a part of it into mats, baskets, hassocks, chair-bottoms, &c. Samples of these various articles were laid before the Society in December 1817; and it appeared, that with equal skill in manipulation, equally neat work might be produced from the Scirpus and from the Typha. It being, however,'a matter of con- siderable importance to ascertain the relative durability’of the two articles under similar circumstances of ordinary wear, the following experiment was made :—A piece of the best Dutch matting, at 2s. Gd. a yard, and a similar one of Mr. Salisbury’s manufactyre, were laid down side by side in the Society’s pre- mises on the 13th of December 1817. Their relative situations were occasionally changed, in order to equalize, as nearly as pos- Vol. 59, No. 288, April 1822, Oo sible, 290 On a luminous Appearance sible, the wear to which they are exposed; and on 27th March 1821 they were taken up and examined by the Committee of Manufactures. On minute inspection, they appeared to be about half worn out, and there was no very perceptible difference in the condition of each. With regard to the relative expense of procuring and preparing the two articles for manufacture, the Society possess no very cer- tain data; as the use of the Typha was at first set on foot chiefly in order to employ those parish poor who would otherwise have been idle. Two guineas were paid by Mr. S. for liberty to cut as much of the Typha as he pleased from about ten acres of swampy land near Hammersmith. The matting has been sold at from 9d. to 15d. per yard, and between 1000 and 1500 yards have been disposed of during the last three years. The Typha abounds in all marsh ditches and uncultivated swampy ground in every part of the kingdom ; whereas the Scér- pus is found in quantity sufficient for manufacture only in cer- tain districts: hence the former must be much more accessible and cheaper than even the Scirpus of home growth; and the So- ciety indulge the hope, that, by giving this notice a place in their antiual volume, the knowledge and the use of so abundant and cheap a material may be extended throughout the kingdom, and may form a means of domestic employment to the younger mem- bers of poor families. LXVI. On a luminous Appearance seen on the dark Part of the Moon in May 1821. Communicated in a Letter to the Rev. Dr. Pearson, from the Rev. M. Warp *. Dear Sir,— HAVE this moment laid aside my telescope from an examination of the moon. The atmosphere was more fa- vourable for the purpose than I have observed it to be for many weeks; and as it so happened, that at about the same age of the last moon, I had carefully examined the part in obscurity to look for a voleano, and had not in any part observed a remarka- ble appearance, I was greatly surprised to find a paragraph in the public papers, giving a detailed account of a volcano near Aristarchus, seen on the very night I had satisfied myself that there was not even an appearance which could be mistaken for a volcano. I resumed the attempt this evening; and having passed the enlightened part of the moon from the field, and care- fully avoided looking at it, to Have my eye in the best state to discover any more conspicuously illuminated spot in the unen- lightened part, I soon saw Aristarchus very clearly, having very * From the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London. much seen on the dark Part of the Moon in May 1821. 291 much the appearance of a small comet, on the meon’s surface*, It was then half-past nine: the moon 15° high, and 40° 16 west of the sun, I could perceive the shape to be extended towards Grimaldus, appearing in diameter equal to one of Jupiter’s moons. I continued observing it till the moon was about 11° ~ only high; when it extended itself to right and left horizontally, and became so very faint for the last degree as to be scarcely distinguishable: and having observed the occultation of a fixed star very near to it, at three minutes before ten I discontinued all further attention to it. The star at the instant before its oc- cultation, from the then state of the atmosphere, appeared of about equal magnitude to, but far better defined than .dristar- chus did at its most perfect appearance. My telescope mag- nifies about 80 times. The star which was occulted was 136 Tauri: and came in contact with the limb of the moon, as nearly as [ could ascertain, at the advancing pole of libration ; and the instant of occultation was at 10" 5’ 55’,9 P.M., Green- wich time, estimating Tamworth 6’ 40,8 in time west of Green- wich. I had written thus far, when I recollected that, as the fol- Jowing day was not a post-day, I could not call your attention to it, and that I should lose nothing in point of time by observ- ing the moon on the Saturday night; but it proved cloudy. Sunday night, a quarter before ten.—I have again examined * Would it not be possible for the makers of telescopic eye-pieces to in- troduce a half-inch mother-of pearl micrometer (such as are usually divided into 100 equal parts) across the focus and field of the eye-glass, when the planets are the objects under examination? This would answer two valua- ble purposes. An observer might arrange that the planet should traverse the field entirely within the mother-of-pearl, and thus be enabled to prepare his eye by keeping it in darkness: perhaps he might thus observe a satellite of Saturn which he had never before seen; or by using this method with Venus (whose light is far too brilliant-to allow a satellite to be seen), a more certain opinion would be obtained on the subject of her having or not having one. It may be applied even to the light which Mars diffuses over the field. But this method of viewing the planets is, I am aware, in direct contradiction to an assertion I have lately heard, that a very faint light is rendered visible by being near to, and perhaps within the diffusion of a su- perior one. I have not seen the arguments by which this opinion is sup- ported, or I should not perhaps have suggested this mode of searching for satellites. The other use of the micrometer alluded to is that, as Saturn moves five seconds in an hour, the micrometer would measure any separa- tion of a planet, from every star supposed to be a satellite; and thus, after afew hours’ motion of Saturn, put the inquiry beyond doubt.—M. W. + Note by one of the Secretaries.--On the night here alluded to, when this phenomenon was invisisible at Tamworth, on account of the clouds, it was distinctly seen by me in the neighbourhood of London, through a 3} feet refracting telescope. Its appearance was nearly similar to that described by Mr. Ward.—F. Baily. : 002 the 292 On a luminous Appearance in the Moon. the appeasance, and find it about as distinct as it was about ten -minutes before I discontinued observing on the night of the 4th. The spot is certainly Aristarchus; but it is now much more difficult to observe on account of the moon throwing much more light down the tube of the telescope, and the luminous advancing edge being much nearer the spot, and my telescope having a large aperture: but I should imagine, if my 42-inch tube were in- closed in one which projected five or six feet beyond the object- glass, that the spot might be seen one night at least longer. When I first examined on the 4th the proportion of light thrown on the moon by the earth, and consequently on Aristarchus, was 1-777 out of 2000 ; to-night it was only 1-422, a diminution of *355 5 consequently exactly one-fifth less light is reflected by the spot, to say nothing of the inconvenience arising from the addition of one-fifth to the light of the moon. Hevelius de- scribes Aristarchus under the name Mons Porphyrites, as aut ex rupe rubra, aut sabulo (this, by the by, is impossible; for the moon’s attraction of gravity to its centre would not admit of a cavity of sand (loose sand) similar to Aristarchus) sive ¢errd ru- bicunda constare, aut prorsus ardere, sive perpetuo igne exun- dare. Its colour must therefore have greatly changed since 1644, for it is singularly white when illustrated by the sun; and when the other parts of the moon are yellow, or faintly red, this preserves its predominant whiteness; and its appearance on the 4th and 6th instants was similar to the light of the glow-worm. Could any light, such as we read is occasionally seen on the mountains of Asia Minor, or the phosphoric fire near Derbend, be peculiar to this cavity of the moon ? and if so, has it changed, and does it change the colour of its flame ? Your polite attention to me when in town has occasioned my taking the liberty of troubling you with these hasty observations, which I would have put into a more regular form, but I am go- ing to the philosophical lectures.at Birmingham this evening ; and, in order to save this day’s post, I must now conclude with begging you to accept my esteem and thanks. I am, dear sir, Yours very sincerely, Tamworth, May 4, 1821. Micuarnt Warp, LXVIIL. No- [dose yve LXVII. Notices respecting New Books, A Geologicul Survey of the Yorkshire Coast; describing the Strataand Fossils occurring between the Humber and the Tees, from the German Ocean to the Plain of York. Illustrated with numerous Engravings. By the Rev. GkorGE Youne, A.M. and Joun Birv, Artist. 4to, pp. 328. Whitby, 1822. I, is not a little remarkable, that while philosophers have for ages been employed in contemplating those bright orbs which bespangle the sky, soaring on the wings of science through the regions of immeasurable space, surveying the magnitudes, sta- tions and motions of the heavenly bodies, and in studying the laws which govern the remotest planets, little attention has been devoted to the planet we inhabit. It is true, that viewing the features and exploring the depths of the earth on which we tread, is not so attractive as the pursuits of astronomy ; but the study is neither uninteresting nor unimportant, and has an equal claim on our attention. That a study of such importance as geology should hitherto have had so small a share among scientific pursuits, is the more remarkable, since at a very remote period men began to penetrate into the bowels of the earth in quest of the shining metals, and other valuable products‘of the mineral kingdom; and the attention of the learned, both in ancient and modern times, has often been directed to the nature and classification of minerals. To these objects their pursuits were limited until within the last twenty or thirty years, few philosophers attempting to investigate the structure of the earth itself; or, if they did, they rather indulged — in wild conjectures than entered into a sober and patient exami- nation of the facts. Geology has now, however, begun to assume its proper rank among the sciences, and, desisting in a great mea- sure from the flights of fancy, has been proceeding in the more legitimate track of Jaborious research. But although the collec- tion of geological facts has been rapidly accumulating, yet, if we may judge from the jarring opinions held on the subject, we have not obtained sufficient data for establishing a general theory of the earth, or satisfactorily explaining the natural causes em- ployed by the Creator to bring our globe into its present state ; which, as all agree, is widely different from its original. Much has however already been achieved by the labours of geologists. They have examined the character and form of large and in- teresting portions of the crust of the earth in various regions of Europe, and particularly in the British Isles; and from a re- view of existing facts, they have arrived at some important con- clusions, now generally admitted. The chief thing therefore to 294 Notices respecting New Books. to be done in the present stage of the science is to enrich it with ample stores derived from actual observation ; to collect informa- tion concerning the eharacter and relative positiens of the sub- stances composing the solid part of the globe; to specify their arrangement, extent and localities, and to notice such hints as they may furnish for elucidating the history of our planet. Every addition to these stores will serve to enlarge and consolidate the basis on which a true theory of the earth, if such can be found, must necessarily rest. Although the British Isles have been very attentively surveyed, and every thing relating to the geological features of some di- stricts examined and made known, yet there are considerable por- tions of the country, and these very interesting, to which the researches of the geologist have not yet extended. To fill up one of these blanks is the object of the volume before us: the district it embraces is extensive and important; and such has been the labour of the two gentlemen who have undertaken the task, that they have with unremitting ardour explored the whole line of the Yorkshire coast, from the Humber to the Tees, visit- ing every part of the interior likely to throw light on the objects of their research. Scarcely a hill or a valley, a cliff or a chasm, remains unexamined; scarcely an alum rock, a coal pit or a quarry, or any other remarkable opening in the strata, has been left unvisited, and the result of their labours is now laid before the public in a well-written memoir, illustrated by such engrav- ings as fully explain the subjects referred to in the text. The work is divided into three parts. The first consists of a minute description of the strata; the second part is devoted to an account of the organi¢ remains discovered ; and the third part consists of general observations, with such facts and inferences, hints and conjectures, as their labours have suggested. The limits of a Magazine are much too narrow to do justice to a work of this nature, either in the way of analysis or extract: we shall therefore content ourselves with quoting from the facts and inferences some observations of the authors on the hypothesis of successive creations or formations of strata, contended for by some geologists, but to which they are opposed. ‘They say, ‘* Of our fossil organized substances, some correspond with recent animals and vegetables, others have no recent analogues hitherto known; and these two classes are so intermixed, that we cannot regard the latter as more ancient than the former.— It is a fashionable opinion among geologists, that the animals and vegetables imbedded in rocks, are more or less ancient, and differ more or less from the present animals and vegetables, ac- cording as they are lower or higher in the series of strata. Such authors speak of different races being successively created, and destroyed 5 Geological Survcy of the Yorkshire Coast. 295 destroyed; each succeeding race approaching nearer to the pre- sent genera and species. According to them, there was first a world of zoophytes ; and this being destroyed was followed by a world of cockles, or such like bivalves; which cockle world being also ruined, was succeeded by a world of crocodiles or huge li- zards, destined to perish in their turn, to make way for other creations; a few stragglers from each lower world being allowed, however, to ascend and hold a station in the world next above: but all the inhabitants of these numerous worlds became extinct, before the creation of man, and his present fellow-tenants of the globe. Some go so far as to assert, that not one fossil species agrees exactly with any living species; except a few species found in the alluvium, which by peculiar favour have obtained a kind of apotheosis, having ascended from the world last destroyed, to figure in the present.—These notions, yyhich seem to have gained eurrency chiefly through their novelty and their wildness, it is impossible to reconcile with facts. No such gradation exists ; but we see in all the beds, whether high or low, organized sub- stances that have recent analogues, and others that have not; and find as large a proportion of the latter in the oolite and the chalk, as in the aluminous strata. Zoophytes abound most in the chalk and the oolite, while in the lowest shale we see oysters and other shells, corresponding in every respect with living spe- cies. Indeed, there are some shells, particularly ostracites, am- monites, and belemnites, that exist in almost all the strata con- taining organic remains. They occur in the chalk and the oolite, and in the lowest shale: nay, they occur in much dower, or, to use the common phrase, older strata; for Dr. Macculloch dis- covered belemnites in Garvh island, in limestone alternating with gneiss and quartz rock*. The idea, that none of our fossil ani- mals or vegetables can be assigned to any recent species, cannot be adinitted, without shutting our eyes against the clearest evi- dence ; and several genera and species now regarded as extinct, may yet be found recent. Many countries, rivers, and creeks, remain to be explored ; and doubtless the ocean contains living treasures hitherto unseen. Brown in his Travels in Egypt, &c. (p. 70), observes, that, with the exception of some eels, none of the fishes which he found in the Nile correspond with the Euro- _ pean fishes: and every scientific traveller discovers in distant parts of the world, new species, and even new genera, of animals * Description of the Western Islands, ii. p. 512. It is worthy of notice, that Dr. M. observed in Rasay and Sky, a series of strata, reposing on gray wacké schist, conglomerate, and gneiss, beaving a strong analogy to part of our strata; consisting of white sandstone, dark blue shale with thin seams of coarse limestone, and below that, red sandstone. The shale contains am- monites, ostracites, gryphites, belemnites, &c. Ibid. i. p, 250, &e. and 296 ’ Notices respecting New Books. and plants. Within these few years, the trigonia, which was deemed an extinct genus, has been found recent ; and the same remark is applicable to a few other genera. After the recent :ac- cessions which natural history has acquired, particularly the dis- covery of the ornithorhynchus and of the animal of Stronsay, we need not despair of seeing the lizard-fish in a living state. ‘< The authors of the hypothesis of successive creations, or for- mations as they are more frequently termed, have not told us what we are to make of the extensive strata containing no or- ganic remains, or next to none, intervening between strata that abound with them. Was the creative power suspended or con- tracted for some ages? Did worlds of barren sand alternate with worlds replete with life ? ** We have other objections to produce against this theory, but they will appear with more advantage under the next observation. “ We have reason to believe, from the facts before us, that no considerable interval occurred between the deposition of the se- veral members of our strata; but that they were all deposited nearly about the same period.—The doctrine of successive forma- tions is connected with the opinion, that ages intervened between one formation and another; and that the lowest strata are of very high antiquity, while the upper strata, such as the chalk beds, are comparatively quite modern. To the same system be- long the notions, which we have already exploded, that the ani- mals petrified in the several formations are peculiar to these for- mations, and that they have lived and died on the spots where we find them. ** As the formation system has many learned and zealous advo- cates, it is the more necessary to set forth the leading facts, from which we draw the conclusion, That the different members of our strata have been all deposited nearly about the same period. ‘¢(1.) The breaks in the strata are not limited by the boundaries of any particular member of the series, but affect the whole mass of the strata at the places where they occur. Had the strata been deposited in successive formations, separated by ages, or long periods of time, we ought to find in the lower formations their own peculiar breaks and irregularities ; and might expect to see, in numerous instances, breaks leaving off at the limits of the se- veral formations ; and to observe the materials of the higher for- mations descending into the fissures of the lower. Now, when | we perceive, on the contrary, the same breaks passing directly through the aluminous beds, the coal measures, the oolite, and all the intermediate strata, without any regard to supposed for- mations, it is natural to conclude, that the division of the strata into such formations is the work of fancy. We do not, indeed,’ find any one break crossing the whole series; but we see a suc- cession - = Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coast. 297 cession of breaks connecting the different members, and showing the whole to be, not a series of formations, but one grand for- mation.—The effects of the denudations of the strata lead to the same conclusion; for the chalk, the upper shale and the oolite, have been swept away together between Speeton and Filey; and the aluminous beds and red sandstone have been involved in the same destruction towards the Tees. ‘¢ (2.) Most of the breaks or dislocations have taken place when the strata were but half consolidated; so hard as to break, yet so soft as also to bend. ‘his fact deserves particular notice, as being, in our opinion, the most decisive evidence of the point in dispute ; especially when viewed in connection with the fact last stated, and with the remarks made above (§ 12) on the indura- tion of the strata. Had the strata been of different ages, we should have found at the breaks that pass through several mem- bers of the series, indications of the greater hardness of the lower beds, and softness of the upper, at the time when these breaks occurred, But, instead of this, we see in the bends, undulations, and contortions, accompanying the breaks, indubitable proofs, that the beds which are now the hardest were capable of being bent at the era of these dislocations, and the lowest as much as the highest. The undulations in the ironstone and hard sandstone on both sides of Scarborough ; those in the sandstone at Haiburn wyke; those in the hard bands of the aluminous strata at Peak and Robin Hood’s Bay; and those in the dogger near Saltwick, on the east side of Whitby harbour, and in the sandstone on the west side, may be quoted as examples. ‘They show, that as the great breaks on the coast run through the entire mass of the _ Strata, wherever they occur, so they must have taken place when every part of the mass was somewhat flexible. In some instances, indeed, the curvature of a bed is partly owing to small cracks or rents; but independent of such cracks, there is a real bending of the mass of the stratum.—Even the denudations present ap- pearances, indicating that they must have occurred when the strata were but half consolidated ; for it is dificult to explain, on any other principle, the extent to which the hard strata have thus been demolished.—These facts it is impossible to reconcile with the formation, system. *< (3.) The conformity and close succession of the strata, viewed in connection with their contents, also furnish insurmountable difficulties in the way of the system.—The members of the strata succeed each other so closely, and with so little appearance of interruptions, or long intervals, between their deposition, that the abettors of this theory must find it difficult, if not impossible, to determine where one formation ends, and another begins. The members of the series often run into one another. The chalk Vol, 59, No, 288, April 1822, P p might 298 Notices respecting New Books. might be deemed one of the most distinct formations ; and yet we have seen that at its junction with the upper shale, there is a gradual transition of the one into the other, the clay growing chalky, and the chalk clayey. Similar appearances occur at the junction of other members of the series ; and even where there isa distinct line of separation, the evenness of that line is a proof, that the inferior member has not lain so long uncovered by its successor, as to allow the hand of time, or accidental causes, to produce inequalities in its surface. —Besides, the contents of the strata do not accord with the formation system. If each member of the series was formed so leisurely, and if its animals expired on the spots which they occupy, why are almost all the larger petrifactions, particularly the large marine animals, so mangled and broken; often parted into a thousand pieces, and their frag- ments scattered in all directions?—Again, if the strata were formed in the way supposed, why do we find in so many of them, both low and high, masses or fragments of petrified wood? Why is there wood in the alum shale, the ironstone, and the oolite, as well as in the coal’ and sandstone strata? Had each world its own trees, as well as its own animals? Where are the soils in which the successive races of vegetables grew? And why are the plants and the shells, the trees and the fishes, of these numerous creations, blended together ?—On the whole, the formation sy- stem may please the imagination, and give scope to the fancy, but it will not stand the test of an appeal to facts. «The basaltic dyke bears such strong marks of having been composed of fused matter, thrust upwards through a fissure in the strata, by volcanic agency, or something akin to it, that we may reasonably presume, that such agency may have been employed in raising the strata out of the ocean in which they were depo- sited.—Some may think, that we should have placed this obser- vation among our conjectures, rather than among facts and in- ferences: but the appearances of igneous origin presented by our whinstone dyke, and other similar dykes, are so strong, as nearly to reduce the matter to absolute certainty *. Had the fissure oc- cupied by the whin dyke been filled from above, as some suppose, whence were the materials derived? There are no strata above * The Rev. A. Sedgwick, Woodwardian Professor, Trinity College, Cam- bridge, examined the rocks of this coast a few months ago, and having paid particular attention to our basaltic dyke, and to some trap dykes near New- castle, andin High Teesdale, was fully convinced, that the evidence for their igneous origin appears quite complete. Near Caldron Snout, he found the limestone, where it comes in contact with the trap, converted into a gra- nular mass, in which you lose all trace of organic remains; but gradually recovering its usual texture at the distance of a few feet. The coal shale, under the same circumstances, is so indurated as to resemble a piece of Lydian stone. ~ i capable Geological Survey of the Yorkshire: Coast. 289 capable of filling it; and if we could suppose that all the higher members of the series once extended over the space through which the dyke runs, which of these strata could supply the re- quisite materials ? Why are the numerous cracks and fissures, in the oolite and other strata, not filled with the same substance ? And, since so many of the upper beds consist of limestone, why does the dyke contain so small a portion of calcareous matter ? If the fissure was filled from above, by secretions from beds that have been washed away, why does it not every where reach the surface? Or rather, as it is harder than the strata washed away from it, why does it not every where stand up above the surface like a wall, as it does at Langbargh and some other places? Be- sides, why are its contents disposed in large oblong blocks, lying across the fissure; and not rather arranged in a stratified forin, or suspended in stalactitic masses? Above all,’ why is the dyke throughout its whole length composed of crystallized matter, and that matter not at all affected by the nature of the various strata through which it passes? In its progress from Maybecks to Cockfield, it crosses the blue limestone and the sandstone strata above it, the coal measures of our hills, the aluminous strata, the red sandstone of Cleveland, the magnesian limestone, and the Durham coal measures, arriving at, or approaching, the metalliferous limestone; yet the diversified nature of the beds through which it runs has no effect on it. Now, as the substance and structure of the dyke are nearly uniform, and have no con- nection with the nature or composition of the beds which it tra- verses, we are compelled to think, that it is all derived from one common source, and that source not above but below. And when we also see along its course, effects produced by it, exactly corresponding with the effects of ignited matter, what are we to believe, but that its substance has been forced upwards ina state of igneous fusion ?—Hence, as we have seen that this dyke is connected with slips or breaks of the strata, it is natural to con- clude, that the same kind of agency which forced up ignited matter into fissures of the strata, may have been employed in raising the strata themselves, out of the ocean in which they were formed,” This work is embellished with a geological map, a section of the strata, and seventeen lithographic plates, coloured. Those who are fond of a fine plate, would probably have preferred that they should have been engraved on copper; but these, which are executed by one of the artists, give an excellent idea of the va- rious subjects they are meant to illustrate, aud perhaps more na- tural than finer engravings. Pp2 An 300 Notices respecting New Books. An. Illustration of the Genus Cinchona; comprising Descrip- tions of all the Officinal Peruvian Barks, including several New Species, @c. Fo. By AYLMER BourKE Lampert, Esq. F.R.S. A.S. and G.S. Vice President of the Linnean Society, &c. &c. 4to. pp. 180. London, 1821. If, as will scarcely be doubted, the Bark is one of the most im- portant plants in the whole vegetable kingdom, then every infor- mation respecting the varieties of its species, the places where it is to be met with, and the medicinal qualities it possesses, must be considered as a valuable addition to the knowledge hitherto attained on the subject. Since the first discovery of this va- luable plant to the present moment, no one has devoted so much attention to itas Mr. Lambert. In 1797 he published a De- scription of the Genus Cinchona; but since that time so many additions have been made by the illustrious travellers Humboldt and Bonpland, as well as by the authors of the Flora Peruviana, that he has been induced to give some additional illustrations on the subject. Mr. Lambert entirely confines himself to the botanical defini- tions of the species, and gives more correct diagnoses of the spe- cies than has hitherto been done. To these he has added an account of the Cinchona Forests of South America, from the German of Humboldt; a Memoir on the different species of Quinguina, by Mr, Laubert, translated from the French; and four dissertations on various plants of South America, These documents afford every information relative to the history and various qualities of Barks, and contain much that is valuable and interesting, not onlv to medical men, but to the general reader. It would be foreign to our purpose to quote Mr. Lambert’s syn- opsis and description of the various species of Cinchona, which are given with that care, minuteness, and scientific detail, which a skilful botanist alone could appreciate. Recent Publications. Tracts on Vaults and Bridges; containing Observations on the various Forms of Vaults, on the taking down and rebuilding London Bridge, and on the Principles of Arches ; illustrated by - extensive Tables of Bridges. Also containing the Principles of Pendent Bridges, with reference to the Catenary applied to the Menai Bridge, and a theoretical Investigation of the Catenary. With 30 engravings, 8vo. 20s. The Use of the Blow-Pipe in Chemical Analyses, and in the Examination of Minerals. By J. J. Berzelius, Member of the Academy of Stockholm, &c. &c. and translated from the French of M. Fresnel, by J. G, Children, F.R.S. London and Edin- burgh, Royal Society. 301 burgh, F.L.S. &c. &c. With a Sketch of Berzelius’s System of Mineralogy ; a Synoptic Table of the principal Characters of the Pure Earths and Metallic Oxides, before the Blow-pipe; and numerous Notes and Additions by the Translator. Observations on Leonardo da Vinci’s celebrated Picture of the Last Supper. By J. W. De Goethe, Author of Werther, &c. With an Introduction and Notes. By G. H. Noehden, LL.D. 4to. Journal of an Expedition 1,400 Miles up the Orinoco, and 300 up the Arauca; with an Account of the Country, the Manners of the People, Military Operations, &c. By J. H. Robinson, late Surgeon in the Patriotic Army. Svo. 15s. A Letter to Daniel K. Sandford, Esq. Professor of Greek in the University of Glasgow, in answer to the Strictures of the Edinburgh Review on the Open Colleges of Oxford.—By a Mem- ber of a Close College. 2s. 6d. A Comparative Estimate of the Mineral and Mosaical Geo- logies. By Granville Penn, Esq. ~ An Inquiry into the Opinions, Ancient and Modern, concern- ing Life and Organization. By John Barclay, M.D. Lecturer of Anatomy and Surgery, Fellow of the Royal College of Physi- cians. Svo. 14s. The Inverted Scheme of Copernicus, with the pretended Ex- periments upon which his Followers have founded their Hypo- thesis of Matter and Motion, compared with Facts ; the Doctrine of the Formation of Worlds out of Atoms by the power of Gra- vity and Attraetion, exposed as foolish, and completely refuted as false ; the Divine System of the Universe proved by Astronomi- cal Tables to be true. To which is prefixed, a Letter to Sir Humphry Davy, Bart., President of the Royal Society. By B. Prescot, Esq. 8vo. 7s. A Universal Technological Dictionary; or, Familiar Explana- tion of the Terms used in all Arts and Sciences; containing De- finitions drawn from Original Writers. By George Crabb, A.M. Parts I. and II. 4to. 9s. each. LXVIII. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY, March 14 and 21.0% these evenings a paper on the Alloys of Steel, by J. Stodart, Esq. F.R.S. and Mr. Faraday, Chemical Assistant to the Royal Institution, was read. Satisfactory experiments on these alloys having been previ- ously made on a small scale in the laboratory of the Royal Insti- tution, they were extended for the purpose of manufacture, on tne 302 Astronom. Society.— Royal: Geolog. Society of Cornwall. the products proved equal, if not superior, to the smaller products of the laboratory. , f The most valuable alloys formed with steel, were those formed with silver, platinum, rhodium, iridium, osmium and palladium, in the proportion of one hundredth of these metals, except silver, with which steel will combine only one five hundredth part ; when more is fused, the metals form only a mechanical mixture. The alloys are applicable to every purpose for which good steet is employed, but the cost must ever prevent their general appli- cation. . a Platinum and rhodium combine with steel in every proportion, forming with some of the higher proportions beautiful compounds, the colour favourable for metallic mirrors, and not subject to tarnish in the air, ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. April 12,—Various papers were read at this meeting. The first was a communication from Mr. Lambert, giving au account of the result of his calculations relative to the longitude and latitude of the Capitol, in the City of Washington. The second was a list of observations of the planets, during the period of their respective oppositions, in the preceding year: with com- putations of their longitudes and latitudes, with a view to cor- rect the errors of the tables, from Mr. Groombridge. The third consisted of a variety of communications from Major-General Sir Thomas Brisbane: some relating to the determination of the position of several places, others detailing some observations on the magnetic needle; and all of them of considerable interest : but the most remarkable (because the most singular) was his ae- count of an occultation of the planet Mercury by the Moon, which was observed aé sea; and he adds that, at the emersion, the planet appeared to have retrograded 2’ on the disc of the Moon. The fourth was a communication from M. Littrow re- specting the practicability of making use of the pole star, at any time that it is visible, for the purpose of determining the latitude of the place of observation: with a collection of useful tables. The next meeting of the Society will be on Friday, May 10th. ROYAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF CORNWALL. Since the last Report the following papers have been read : On the Mineral Productions and Geology of the Parish of St. Just. By Joseph Care, Esq. F.R.S. M.R.I.A. Member of the Society. On some Adyantages which Cornwall possesses for the Sin o Institute of France. 393 of Geology, and on the Use which may be made of them. By John Hawkins, Esq. F.R.S. Honorary Member of the Society. On Stratification, and on the external Configuration of the Granite of Cornwall. By John Forbes, M.D. Secretary of the Society. . On the Gwithian Sands. By Henry Boase, Esq. Treasurer of the Society. On the Slaty Rocks of Cornwall, more particularly on those usually denominated Killas. By Dr. Forbes. Additional Observations on the Temperature of Mines. By R. W. Fox, Esq. Member of the Society. Notice on the Geology of Nice. By G. C. Fox, Esq. Member of the Society. Some Account of the South American Mines. By the Rev. John Trevenen. Some Account of the Mines of Pasco, in South America. By Mr. Richard Hodge. Communicated, with additional Obser- vations, by Sir Christopher Hawkins, Bart. M.P. F.R.S. Member of the Society. Some Account of the external Features (natural and artificial) of a Country, from which its Geological Structure may be in- ferred. By Dr. Forbes. Notice of the Quantity of Copper raised in Great Britain and Ireland in the Year ending June, 1821. By Mr. Alfred Jenkyn, Member of the Society. Notice of the Quantity of Tin raised in Cornwall in the Year ending June, 1821. By Joseph Carne, Esq. F.R.S. INSTITUTE OF FRANCE. SYNOPSIS OF GEOGRAPHICAL RESERCHES RESPECTING THE IN- TERIOR OF NORTHERN AFRICA, BY M. WALCKENAER,. The task assigned to the author by the Academy was to ex- amine an itinerary from Tripoli to Timbuctou, translated by a French Morocco consul from the Arabic of the Cheyk-Hagg- Cassem ; this was an aged agent that served as a guide to the caravans in their journeys to Timbuctou. M. Silvestre de Sacy being in possession of another itinerary from Tripoli to Timbuctou, written in the vulgar Arabic, trans- lated it at my request. ‘The annexed words by the author, ter- minate his itinerary: “ Composed by me, Mohammed, the son of Ali, the son of Foul; my father was afree citizen, my mother a black slave; my country is Teraoubez and Tomboctou.” These two itineraries are of considerable importance for the geography of Africa, and J intend to publish them *, accompanied * It has not yet appeared, but is araunced as on the eve of publication. with 304 Institute of France. with a map or chart; this last differs in many essential points from all that have hitherto appeared. The regions in the interior of Africa, known by the name of Soudan, are rich and abundant in gold and ivory, and fertilized by large rivers and considerable lakes, interspersed with an im- mense population. . Mahometanism, which has overthrown and founded so many states, kingdoms, and empires, has effected important revolutions in the centre of Africa. The northern parts of the continent bordering on the Mediterranean were from very ancient times inhabited by civilized nations: and the Phoenicians, Carthagi- nians, Greeks, and Romans, flourished there in commerce and the arts, while the tribes of the interior, separated by vast barren spaces, remained barbarous. Mahometanism, in subjecting all the north of Africa to a na- tion accustomed to traverse immense deserts, has proved a potent cause of civilization. The Arabs transported the camel with them into Africa, and the Moors that led a wandering life and had is- sued originally from Arabia, hailed their conquerors, whose lan- guage and customs were similar, as compatriots and not as usurp- ers. Till then, obstacles almost insurmountable were opposed to any civilized nation that would penetrate into the Soudan. The Arabs without difficulty commenced a direct intercourse with the rich regions beyond the great Desert, and from which gold had long been departed. They sent regular caravans, which appear to have passed at first through the Fezzan and Agadez, as in that direction the Desert is intersected by a considerable number of oases, or fertile spots insulated in the midst of sands. But afterwards, when the empire of the Khaliphs had extended to the western extremities of Africa, and even into Spain, other caravans took a direction through the valleys of Sus, Darah, and Tafilet, which lie to the south of the kingdom of Morocco. Colonies of Moors and Arabs were speedily established in va- rious regions, and zealous missionaries penetrated into them. Human sacrifices were abolished, and the religion of Mahomet was a commencement of civilization among the Negroes. This horrid superstition, however, is still practised in countries more to the south, approximating to the Gold Coast, to Guinea, and to Congo. The empire of the Khaliphs had its revolutions, and these, to- gether with tke wars between the Spanish Khaliphs and the Afri- can of the dynasty of Zeirites produced more frequent transmi- grations to the countries beyond the great Desert. LXIX, Jn- LXIX. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. THE SOUTH-SEA ISLANDERS. Crrram THomas Mansy, who has been a voyage round the world, states, that he is enabled to prove that all the islands in the South Seas are peopled from the same stock; the language much resembles, and the same hieroglyphical characters are un- derstood from one extreme of the Pacific Ocean to the other. As a proof of it, Capt. Manby submitted to be tatooed at Ota- hieta, and received from the king and queen the investiture of the highest honours they could bestow; which is, a circle or garter below the knee of the left leg, and a star nearly resem- bling a Maltese cross, beautifully executed on the skin, with other devices, which hieroglyphically related a curious adventure never to be effaced or forgotten. On leaving Otahieta, Captain Manby proceeded toOwhyhee, the largest of the Sandwich Islands, a distance of near three thousand miles, where every hierogly- phical character, tatooed on him, was deciphered most accurately by an old priest belonging to the Morai of King Tomahamaha, who related every circumstance with wonderful exactness, which greatly amused the king and all his queens, who made the Cap- tain many valuable presents, and all showed him the most marked attention during the time he remained at the island. At all the other islands, the same true and exact translation was always given, and created the greatest mirth wherever the characters were read; and such was the amusement it afforded, that the islanders would often watch for the Captain bathing to read an adventure which afforded many good-humoured jokes. Captain Manby having obtained the interpretation of several hundred characters of an hieroglyphical nature, he intends speedily to publish them, which must prove of the utmost utility to future navigators, and throw a new light on the history of the innumerable islands that lie scattered over the immense surface of the great Pacific Ocean. ON RESPIRATION. On Tuesday the 16th instant, Dr. Roget gave his eighth lec- . ture on Comparative Physiology, at the Royal Institution. In this lecture he took a comprehensive view of the subject of Re- spiration. The necessity of this function, he remarked, would scarcely have been anticipated, from our previous notions of the wants of an animal, founded on the known properties of or- ganized matter; and yet observation shows, that the continuance of life is more immediately dependent on respiration, than even on the circulation itself. Insects, for example, that live without Vol. 59. No, 288, April 1822, Q q any 306 On Respiration. any vascular circulation of their juices, require the free introduc- tion of air into every part of their bodies. The necessity for air appears, also, to be more urgent than for food ; since animals may subsist a considerable time without nourishment, but all will speedily perish if deprived of air, The results of Spallanzani’s numerous experiments were stated in illustration of this prin- ciple. . Aquatic animals being precluded from the benebh of the direct action of the air in its gaseous state, or as it exists in the atmo- sphere, receive its influence through the medium of the sur- rounding water, by which it is absorbed in large quantities, and applied to the organs of respiration. In the lower Zoophytes, this influence appears to be exerted by the intervention of the surface of the body: so that in the Polypus, for example, while the interior surface digests the food, and performs the office of a stomach, the external surface probably acts as an organ of re- spiration. Many of the Vermes appear, in like mamer, to have an external respiration: this is the case with the leech and the earth-worm, in which a superficial net-work of vessels receives the influence of the surrounding fluid. In some genera of this class, it was stated, this. structure is confined to particular parts of the surface ; and in others, again, the respiratory organs shoot out from the body in the form of bushy fibrils. The different situations of these arborescent gills, which are frequently kept in incessant motion, were pointed out in several orders of mol- luseous and crustaceous animals. Dr. Roget then proceeded to examine the extensive series of animals in whom respiration takes place in the interior of the body: beginning with the Aolothuria, the ramified tubes of which exhibit the first trace of a structure adapted to this ob- ject; the asteria, and the echinus, in which the arrangement. is somewhat more complicated ; aud the larger Crustacea, as the lobster and crab, in which the filaments are collected into a num- ber of pyramidal organs on each side of the body, protected by the shell, and terminating with the more regular structure of gills proper to the ordinary Mollusca, and Fishes. The disposi- tion of these organs, with reference to the shell, and to the aper- tures in the mantle, by which the water is admitted to them ; and the provision of tubes, capable of being extended and re- tracted, in those shell-fish that burrow in the sand; were se- verally pointed out and described. The two auxiliary hearts of the cuttle-fish, at the origin of the branchial arteries, by which the blood of that animal is propelled with force to the respira- tory organs, while the principal heart carries on the aortic or greater circulation, were particularly noticed. The importance of the respiratory functions increases as we rise On Respiralion. 207 rise in the scale of animals. In Fishes, the gills form a conside- rable portion of the system, and their office appears to be more essential to life than in the Mollusca. The situation and struc- ture of these organs were minutely described, together with the mechanism by which their action is maintained. The air -con- tained in the water is equally vitiated by the respiration of fishes, and requires an equally constant renewal as in terrestrial animals. Fishes are, therefore, killed in a short time, if confined in a li- mited portion of water which has no access to fresh air. When many fish are iuclosed in a narrow vessel, they all struggle for the uppermost place, where the atmospheric air is first absorbed, like the unfortunate men imprisoned in the black hole at Cal- eutta. In Humboldt and Provencal’s experiments, a tench was found to be able to breathe when the quantity of oxygen in the water was reduced to the five-thousandth part of its bulk, though it is in this way brought into a state of extreme debility: but the fact itself shows the great perfection of the organs in this fish, that can extract so minute a quantity of air from water, to which the last portions always adhere with great tenacity. The respiration of air in its gaseousstate is performed by breath- ing terrestrial animals in two ways: first, by means of trachee, a mode peculiar to insects; and secondly, by pulmanary cavities, which constitute the essential structure of lungs. The trachee of insects are tubes which take their rise by open orifices, called spiracles or stigmata, from the surface of the body, and are dis- tributed by extensive ramifications to every part. They extend even to the wings, to the sudden expansion of which they appear to contribute. In the higher classes of articulated animals, as soon as blood-vessels are met with, the whole® apparatus of trachez is found to disappear; their necessity being superseded by the power, derived from the possession of circulating vessels, of transmitting the juices to particular organs, where their expo- sure to the influence of the air may be conveniently effected. The pulmonary cavities of spiders, and of some gasteropodous Mollusca, such as the snail and slug, which breathe atmospheric air, are of this description. The structure of the pulmonary organs becomes more refined and complex as we proceed to the higher classes of animals, Dr. Roget entered into a description of these various structures, and of the diversified modes in which the air was received, and made to act upon them, and afterwards expelled, in the different or- ders of reptiles, of mammalia, and of birds. The singular mode in which the frog swallows its air, and inflates its lungs at pleasure, was pointed out. The dilatation of the chest ia man, and the other mammalia, by the muscular action of the diaphragm, and Q 4 2 by 308 Antidote for Vegetable Potsons.—Preparation of Coal. by the movements of the ribs, during inspiration, and its con- traction during exspiration, were fully explained, and partly il- lustrated by a machine, which exemplified the effects of the mo- tion of the diaphragm. This part of the subject was concluded by an account of the peculiar mechanism of respiration in birds, by which the same air is made to pass twice through the lungs, before it is finally ejected from the system; being received into large cells, which inclose all the principal organs, and even per- vade the muscles, and subcutaneous membrane. Dr. Roget next gave a brief account of the chemical changes effected in the blood, which is exposed to the action of the air during respiration. Our knowledge of these changes, he re- marked, was not so much derived from the direct analysis of that fluid in its different states of venous and arterial, as from the inferences necessarily to be drawn from the changes found to have occurred in the air by its passage through the lungs. These changes consist in the disappearance of a quantity of oxy- gen, and the addition of a corresponding quantity of carbonic acid, and of watery vapour. The redundant carbonaceous prin- ciple which accumulates in venous blood in the course of the cir- culation, is thus discharged in the lungs by its combination with oxygen, and the blood is restored to the ‘vivifying arterial qua- lities. The analogies between this process, and that of slow com- bustion, were pointed out, and extended to the phenomena of the high temperature which so many animals maintain above the surrounding media, and which establishes so striking a di- stinction between warm- and cold-blooded animals, more espe- cially remarkable among the larger inhabitants of the ocean. ANTIDOTE FOR VEGETABLE POISONS. M. Drapiez has ascertained by numerous experiments, that the fruit of Feuillea cordifolia is a powerful antidote against vegetable poisons. He poisoned dogs by the Rhus Toxicoden- dron (Swamp Sumac), Hemlock, and Nux Vomica. All those that were left to the poison died; but those to which the Feu- illea was administered recovered completely, after a short illness. — American Paper. IMPROVED PREPARATION OF COAL FOR FUEL. Mr. Peter Davey, of Old Swan Wharf, Chelsea, has obtained a patent for an improved preparation of coal for fuel. It is called ‘* gaseous coke,” and consists of ‘¢ very small coal mixed with coal tar, either in a pure state, which is the best, or combined with naphtha, and those other ingredients with which it is gene- rally Worm-proof Timber.—To restore old Apple Trees, 309 rally found impregnated.’”’ These materials are made to coagu- late and cement together by the application of heat, so as to form large cakes, capable of being broken into lumps of such sizes as may be found convenient for the purpose of fuel. WORM-PROOF TIMBER. . What has been so long and so ardently sought for by ship- builders, we believe to be now nearly if not wholly attained. We allude to the discovery of timber which will secure a ship’s bot- tom against the terrible invasion of the worm, so universally de- structive. This discovery was accidentally made by Captain Thomas Shields, during his residence at the bay of St. Louis. He found that a particular stake, used for fastening a boat, had remained perfectly good and staunch for a year; whereas others had to be replaced every two or three months, being destroyed by the worm. Onexamination, this stake proved to be of Sweet Guin, a timber usually considered of no value. Captain S, deciding to make a full and fair experiment, procured a small tree of the sweet gum, hewed it down until it squared nine inches, and then had it staked in three feet water, affording every opportunity to the worm. ‘This sweet gum stick remained thus exposed for four years ; when on examination it was found perfectly free from moss, barnacle, and all other excrescence; and on hewing it down again an inch or more, no traces of the worm were to be seen, except three or four very small punctures of inconsiderable depth. Captain Shields communicated these facts to Commodore Pat- terson some years ago. The Commodore declared his intention of making a further experiment in the Lake Barataria. Whether this was done, or what was the result, we know not; but we hope the experiment, if made, was as satisfactory as that at Bay St. Louis. The Sweet Gum [Liquidambar styraciflua Linn.] is in great abundance on the Alabama, and the lakes and bays between Pen- sacola and New-Orleans—it is of prodigious girth and towering tallness—frequently exhibiting a smooth stem of 50 or 60 feet, and remarkably straight. It can be sawed into planks of al- most any size, but it will not split—on which account it is uni- versally rejected as useless. Is it not worth the experiment? Cut this timber into sheath- ing plank, of half inch or less, and try it on some of our lake craft, Its flexibility is such, that a thin plank may be bent and shaped almost as one pleases.—The Floridian, March 10. TO RESTORE OLD APPLE TREES. A gentleman at Littlebury in Essex, having in his orchard many old supposed worn-out apple trees, which produced fruit scarcely 310 Printing Press for the Blind.—Mount Vesuvius. scarcely larger than a walnut, last winter took fresh made lime from the kiln, slacked it with water, and (without allowing time for its caustic quality being injured by imbibing fixed air) well dressed the trees, applying the lime with a brush. The result was, that the insects and moss were completely destroyed, the outer rind fel! off, and a new, smooth, clear, healthy one formed ; and the trees, although some twenty years old, have now a most healthy appearance. It will readily occur to the reader, that the same treatment may be extended to other fruit-bearing trees, and probably with a similar beneficial result. PRINTING PRESS FOR THE BLIND. A Journal printed at Geneva thus announces a very interest~ ing invention:—A Press For THE BLinp.—A lady deprived of sight from her birth, but distinguished for her wit, her talents, and good temper, conceived that it might be possible to com- municate her thoughts to her family and friends by means of printing, if some skilful mechanic would invent for her a press, and give her the necessary instruction to make use of it—the ap- plication and patience for its accomplishment becoming after- wards entirely her own. She addressed herself to our country- man Mons. Francois Huber, the celebrated historian of Bees, to whom she had the advantage of being related; in addition to which, @ community of misfortune {for he also is blind) increased the interest he had in gratifying her request. ‘Thereupon his own genius, and that of his servant Claude Lechet, a man endowed with the highest degree of natural talent for mechanics, were strongly excited. ‘They went to work, and the press was in- vented ; and being finished by Claude, who sent with it a col- lection of types to the amiable suggester of the plan, she soon made herself mistress most completely of this invaluable means of communicating her ideas. We have seen a letter of 33 lines addressed to her happy benefactor, composed, and printed by herself with common ink, without a literal error, or a single ty- pographical irregularity.” —Courier de Londres, April 5, 1822. ERUPTION OF MOUNT VESUVIUS. Naples, Feb. 25.—On the 13th of this mouth two loud subter- rancous detonations were heard in the neighbouring communes of Vesuvius ; these phenomena usually precede each eruption, From the night of the 16th to the 17th the detonations were renewed with violence, and were heard from hence. On the following day it emitted a thick smokes on the 19th it began to throw up a shower of cinders and stones, and soon after fragments of inflamed lava. This eruption again covered the whele extent of the crater, a width Ble nk al ' width of about twenty toises, forming a crown of fire. Encroachment of the Sea. 311 For the two following days the eruption became more violent, and the boiling lava, which was filling the crater and threatening at every moment to break over its sides, was seen distinctly during the night. At length, on the 21st, the lava forced its way into the southern part of the mountain by a new opening, from which it flowed in great abundance. The flowing took its direction slowly (it ran a toise a minute) towards the hermitage of Saint Salvator. During the two following days the same phenomena succeeded, without interruption, but without any increase of force. Yester- day, towards ten o’clock in the morning, the violence of the erup- tion was suddenly redoubled. The lava, which continued flowing in the same direction, when it reached the territory of the Can- troni, turned its course towards the west, and precipitated itself into a valley.‘ In the evening Vesuvius presented to the inhabi- tants of Naples the superb spectacle of a river of fire, rolling down the skirts of the mountain, through clouds of smoke. A brilliant flame arose from the crater, and nothing. troubled this splendid evening, not even the fears and disasters which too often accom- pany this terrible phenomenon. This time the lava took its direc- tion through lands already burned and entirely desert, and no property appeared threatened with desolation. Vesuvius seems calm to-day, but a brilliant sun prevents us from discovering what is passing on the mountain.—Paris Paper. ENCROACHMEDT OF THE SEA. On the east coast of America the sea appears to encroach upon the land more and more from north to south. At Cape May, where the Delaware falls into the Atlantic Ocean, a house is built on the wall of which are inscribed the following important ob- servations :—= Distance of the sea from the house. Feet. Feet. bOOA is cn: Sat pgd HBB APIS 12) hry oo ae NBDE 943404 deter 266 H8RSPISLE cgi ayy). 4 285 BOOT sntein ok rote DOA PSDP eye Of DS BGOB id; gail 2aod hr O7S4BISs ogga du ca. 204 1GOO+: 1.3 view MatsenvckaFMslD’ . geery ys! 6. >oRss BBEL io aeindiged sult BEGH1B20! fey ong; 4880 The inhabitants of the coast of Brazil say that they have made similar observations, but we have no particulars of them. There is a building at Ilheos, which was formerly at a good distance from the sea shore, but is now scarcely a hundred steps from the breakers, AFRICA, 312 Africa. —W inter mn the North. AFRICA. Accounts from Sierra Leone to the middle of January state, that a deputation had arrived there from Almamy Abdal Kader, king of the Toulahas, at the head of which was a prince, and a Mahomedan priest accompanied by his wife. The priest came all the way from Egypt to the Mandingo nation, and had pro- cured important information of the geography of Oriental Africa; he had passed through Timbuctoo, and is of opinion that the Niger and the Nile are the same river. The kingdom of Tou- Jaha, with which an intercourse has thus been opened, is only a few days journey from the Niger. WINTER IN THE NORTH. Christiana, Feb. 20. We have had a most extraordinary winter; no snow, seldom frost at night, and generally several degrees of heat. In our country, where so much depends on winter, this may be consi- dered as a national calamity; in fact, we hear complaints on all sides. The inhabitants of the town suffer greatly, because they can receive no provisions, the prices of which daily rise. St. Petersburg, Feb. 20. We have the mildest spring weather. The ice mountains, the favourite amusement of the Russians in Lent, could not be erected as usual on the Neva, because the ice was not strong enough to bear the weight. A heavy rain fell at Beseroso on the 16th of December, a cir- cumstance unparalleled at that time of the year in so high a la- titude. St. Petersburg, March 20. Winter, which has this year formed one of the most extraor- dinary phenomena in the northern countries known in the phy- sical world, and of which modern history does not afford a pa- rallel instance, ought in consequence to be noticed in its annals. Our winters are generally very severe during four successive months, and they are, though more moderate, yet still severe two other months. ‘The total duration of our winter is about six months more or less; but that of the present year. has been but one month and a few days, The first snow fell on Christmas day, and it had generally disappeared in the beginning of February. Since then we have had a mild temperature, with some days rain, and on others snow. The general serenity of the atmosphere was however disturbed by violent tempests, and a wind from the south- west, which swelled the canals, and by the inundations threatened the lower part of the city with great danger. Winter corn has been much injured on the coasts of the Baltic and in White Russia, on account of the humidity of the soil, and the Winter in South America.—-Volcano.— Currents inthe Ocean.313 the cultivator has no: hopes of a good crop. The news from the interior of the empire of the effects of the winter, are equally un- favourable. In the southern provinces there, it had been colder than here, but it was unaccompanied with snow; and the thaw commenced in the middle of January. The Duna was clear of ice on the 2nd of March, and, what is unusual, the breaking up of the frost did no damage. The navigation is open at Riga, and an English vessel has already arrived in that port from Hull. In Siberia, where winter is constantly severe, the weather has been comparatively temperate ; warm winds have been prevalent at Tobolsk, and to the north-east. Above all, the snow is al- ready gone. At Bereson, one of the most northern cities in this country, it rained heavily on the 2Sth of December, a circumstance never before known by the oldest inhabitant. WINTER IN SOUTH AMERICA. Letters from Buenos Ayres, dated the 20th February, state that in the month of December last there fell such a quantity of snow, that the communication between that city and Lima was entirely interrupted. The cold that had been felt in the several countries of Southern America, is a most extraordinary pheno- menon, and the inhabitants of Peru and Chili consider it as an awful calamity. VOLCANO IN ICELAND. While the winter in the east of Europe has been remarkably mild, it set in early in Iceland with great rigour. Vast quanti- ties of snow fell, aud the northern and eastern coasts were wholly blocked up with floating ice. In the night of the 20th Decem- ber, the mountain Oefields Joke], to the south-east of Hecla, which has been at rest ever since 1612, began to emit fire, so that the ice with which it was covered suddenly burst with a dreadful crash, the earth trembled, and immense masses cf snow rolled from the summit of the mountain, a height of 5500 feet. Ever since, a large column of fire has been rising from the moun- tain, which threw out vast quantities of ashes and stones, some of the latter weighing from 50 to 80 pounds, being cast to the distance of a German mile (five English miles). The mountain continued to burn till the Ist of February, and smoked till the 28d, but at that time the ice had again collected round the cra~ ter. The weather was very stormy during the eruptions, CURRENTS IN THE OCEAN. On the 6th of April, Mr. Hall, who occupies a farm situated on the south side of Milford Haven, picked up a bottle inclosing a paper, of which the following is a copy: No. 310.—The bottle which contains this card was thrown into the sea in lat. 49.54. north; long. 12, 20. west, at noon, Vol. 59, No. 288. April 1822, Rr on 314 Eazards of Cashau.—Almospheric Phenomena. on the Ist of March 1822, from the ship Ospray, of Glasgow, which sailed from Greenock on the 20th day of February 1820, on a trading voyage round the world. Whoever finds this is re- quested to insert a notice of the time and place in some literary or political publication, with the view of establishing facts re- lative to the currents of the ocean: 130 days from Calcutta, re- turning towards Greenock—* All well.’ ‘© ALEXANDER M‘GILL, Master.” LIZARDS OF CASHAU. “¢T observed numbers of lizards and tortoises crawling along the sides of the road. Some of the former were of strange shapes, and others of unusual length; one that we found dead, was above two feet from the nose to the tip of the tail. I remarked that these animals invariably took the colour of the ground on which each particular kind existed. If verdant, the lizard was green ; if sandy, she was yellowish white; if red earth, or reddish moulder- ing stones, she was pink; and if found among fragments of rock, and other dusky hued relics, she would appear of a varied brown. I leave this fact to naturalists to explain, confessing myself to- tally ignorant of its secret.”—Sir Robert Ker Porter. Travels, vol. i. p. 390. oe ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA. To the Editor. Sir,—The large halo so frequently seen in particular states of the atmosphere, at the distance of about 22 degrees from the ap- parent disk of the sun or moon, has been very properly called the opprobrium philosophorum. Newton himself, who so satisfac- torily solved the phenomena of the rainbow by the principle of ordinary aqueous refraction, and those of the smaller haloes or corone by that of refraction through thin strata, acknowledges that the great halo is of a distinct kind. He could only explain it by falling in with the idea then prevalent, that it was produced by refraction through a horizontal stratum of hail or snow; a notion which has been regarded as very doubtful, from consider- ing both the great variety of atmospheric temperature at which this appearance occurs, and the very peculiar structure which, on calculation, it has been found necessary to attribute to the floating icy particles. A late writer has advanced as an hypothesis, that the refrac- tive power of particles of vapour sufficiently small for permanent floatage in the atmosphere is’ diminished by the attraction of the air; an hypothesis by no means improbable, since the efficacy of the attraction in question follows the inverse ratio. of the dia- meter of the particle, Poss ibly Atmospherié Phenomena. 315 Possibly some light may be thrown upon the subject by the so- lutions, which may this year be expected, of a problem regarding: corone, which was proposed two years ago by a distinguished institution on the continent; supported as the arguments pro- bably will be, by the recent improvements in the theory of light. The inquiry ts doubtless rendered still more perplexing on ac- count of the great halo being accompanied, much more frequently (according to the observations of Dr. Burney) than is generally supposed, by the appearance of parhelia or mock-suns. These are most usually situated in the circumference of the great halo, at the same height above the horizon as the real sun, and are connected with a horizontal beam of white light extending to a greater or smaller distance in a direction opposite to the sun. In fact, two classes of coincident phenomena are to be accounted. for; viz. corone having the sun, or moon, for their common centre, and luminous circles or arches parallel to the horizon. The former, when observed by reflection from still water, appear sometimes very numerous. ‘The latter are of rare occurrence, if we may judge from the small number of recorded observations. These reflections were elicited by the appearance of a very in- teresting combination of such phenomena, which I had the plea- sure of witnessing yesterday in the vicinity of this city. The halo was very perfect, increasing in brightness towards the summit. The sun shone with dazzling brightness through a light stratum of vapours. Both parhelia were very bright, coloured on the side next the sun, and attended by horizonal trains of ten degrees or more in length. But the most beautiful object was a brilliant reverted rainbow, about a quarter of a circle in extent, whose centre seemed to coincide with the zenith, and its vertex was on the sun’s azimuth. ‘The time was about 4 p. m. the barometer standing at 304, and the thermometer in a north room at 57°. A similar rainbow, in the same position with regard to the zenith and the sun, | happened to see at sun-set about eighteen months ago, I am Sir, &e. Grosvenor-Place, Bath; March 30. W. G. H. April \.—Last evening, a little before nine o’clock, I had an -opportunity of observing a similar combination of circles about the moon, viz. the great halo and a complete horizontal circle of white light passing through the apparent place of the moon. Both this and the former phenomenon occurred in strata of va- pour rapidly passing into the cirrostratus form; and taken in connection with the change of weather, from S.W. winds and mildness, to N.E, stormy and frost, certainly seem to favour the notion alluded to above, which ascribes these appearances to the refleeting and refracting powers of frozen vapour. Rr2 BIOGRAPHY, 316 Biography BIOGRAPHY.—EDWARD DANIEL CLARKE, LL.D. There are few names better or more extensively known than Edward Daniel Clarke, who by his travels has rendered himself celebrated not only in Europe but in every quarter of the civi- lized world. Dr. Clarke was of a literary family; his maternal grandfather was the very eminent Dr. William Wotton, well known in the literary world by his proficiency when an infant in a great variety of languages; and his grandfather and grandmo- ther were happily designated by the poet Hayley, in an affec- tionate epitaph, as < Auld William Clarke, and Anne his wife.” Mr. Clarke, among other works, published “ The Connexion -of the Roman, Saxon, and English Coins.” His son, the father of the subject of the present memoir, the Rev. Edward Clarke, was like his father a man of genius and a scholar. Edward Daniel Clarke was born in the year 1769, and was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge; in 1790 he took the de- gree of B.A.; in 1794 M.A., and became senior fellow of that College. Soon after taking his degree, Dr. Clarke accompanied the present Lord Berwick abroad, and remained for some time in Italy. ‘The classic scenes he there met with, and his own in- quisitive genius;'stimulated him to enter into a wider field of re-” search ; and shortly after his return to England, he embarked on those travels which have rendered his name so distinguished. To enter into any description of them is needless—they are be- fore the public. They have been, and will continue to be, the delight and solace of those who have been unable to visit other countries ; and they have excited the dormant spirit of curiosity in many a resident of the University, who has followed eagerly the steps of Dr. Clarke, and has invariably borne testimony to the accuracy and fidelity of his narrative. Dr. Clarke has some- where mentioned all the excellencies which must unite to forma perfect traveller—he must have the pencil of Norden, the pen of Volney, the learning of Pococke, the perseverance of Bruce, the enthusiasm of Savary. Of all these Dr. Clarke united in his own person by far the greater share. No difficulties in his pro-° gress were ever allowed to be insuperable; and upon all occa- sions he imparted to others a portion of his own enthusiasm. It was upon the return from this extensive tour, during which he had visited nearly the whole of Europe, and parts of Asia and Africa, that Dr. Clarke presented to thie University those memo- rials of his travels, which now decorate the , vestibule of the li- brary; and as some return for the splendour which his name had reflected upon the University, he was complimented in full Senate with the degree of LL.D. Among the contributions to the Uni- versity, Edward Daniel Clarke, LL.D. 317 versity, the most distinguished are the celebrated MS. of the works of Plato, with nearly 100 other volumes of manuscripts, and the colossal statue of the Eleusinian, respecting which Dr. Clarke published a very learned treatise, upon its being placed in the vestibule of the University library; but that which added most to his literary reputation, was a “ Dissertation on the fa- mous Sarcophagus in the British Museum,” which Dr. Clarke caused to be surrendered to the British army in Egypt, and which he has-proved from accumulated evidence to have been the tomb of Alexander. During his travels Dr. Clarke made a very large and valuable collection of minerals, which it is thought will be purchased by the University. A rare and valuable assortment of plants, like- wise, several of which were procured from the celebrated Professor Pallas in the Crimea, distinguished the industry and taste of this gentleman. Greek medals also engaged his attention when he was abroad ; and many which adorned his cabinet are of singular rarity. Lord Berwick has in his possession a curious model of Mount Vesuvius, formed on the spot by Dr. Clarke, with the assistance of an Italian artist, of the very materials of the mountain. In 1806 Dr. Clarke commenced lectures on mineralogy in the University of Cambridge ; and when in 1808 a _ professorship was founded for the encouragement of that science, he was ap- pointed to the chair. ‘These lectures have, if possible, made his name more known and honoured, both in this and in foreign countries, than even his long and interesting travels. Natural history was his earliest and most favourite study ; and that pecu- liar branch of it, which refers to the mineral kingdom, soon en- grossed the whole of his attention. In the delivery of his cele- brated lectures, Clarke was without a rival—his eloquence was inferior to none; (in native eloquence, perhaps, few have ever equalled him in this country;) his knowledge of his subject was extensive ; his elucidation clear and simple ; and in the illustra- tions which were practically afforded by the various and beau- tiful specimens of his minerals, he was peculiarly happy. Most of those specimens he had himself collected, and they seldom failed to give rise to the most pleasing associations by their indi- vidual locality. We may justly apply to him in the delivery of his lectures, what is engraven on the monument of Goldsmith, © Ninil, quod letigil, non ornavit,”—Of the higher qualities of his mind, of his force and energy as a Christian preacher, of the sublinity and excellence of his discourses, we might tell in any other place than Cambridge; but there all mention of them is unnecessary, his crowded congregations were testimony sufli- cient. For the estimation in which Dr. Clarke was held by fo- reigners, 318 Biography. reigners, we may in the same manner refer our readers to the various honorary societies in which his name stands enrolled; and we may safely say, that to no one person has the University of Cambridge been more indebted for celebrity abroad during the last twenty years, than to her late librarian, Dr. Clarke. He has fallen a victim indeed to his generous ardour in the pursuit of science—he looked only to the fame of the University; and in his honest endeavours to exalt her reputation, he unhappily neg- lected his own invaluable health. Perhaps no person ever possessed in a more eminent degree than Dr. Clarke, the delightful faculty of winning the hearts and riveting the affections of those into whose society he entered. From the first moment his conversation excited an interest that never abated. Those who knew him once, felt that they must love him always. The kindness of his mamer, the anxiety he expressed for the welfare of others, his eagerness to make them feel happy and pleased with themselves, when united to the charms of his language, were irresistible. Such was Dr. Clarke in his private life—within the circle of his more immediate friends. In the midst of his family, there he might be seen as the indulgent parent, the affectionate husband, the warm, zealous, and sincere friend. Of his public life the present limits will only admit of an outline, _ This much respected individual, whose health had long been in a declining state, died at the house of his father-in-law, Sir William Beaumaris Rush, Bart. in Pall Mall, on the 9th of March. In addition to his University offices, he was rector of Harlton in Cambridgeshire, and of Great Yeldham in Essex. The remains of Dr. Clarke were interred in Jesus College, Cambridge, on the 18th of March, preceded by the Master (the Vice Chancellor) and the Dean, and followed by his private friends, the fellows of the College, and many members of the Senate. The works of Dr. Clarke were, 1. Testimony of different Authors respecting the Colossal Sta- tue of Ceres, placed in the Vestibule of the Public Library at Cambridge, with an account of its removal from Eleusis. 1803. 2. The Tomb of Alexander, a dissertation on the Sarcophagus brought from Alexandria, and now in the British Museum. 1805. 3. A Methodical Distribution of the Mineral Kingdom. 1807. 4, A Letter to the Gentlemen of the British Museum. 1807. 5. Description of the Greek Marbles brought from the Shores of the Euxine, Archipelago and Mediterranean, and deposited in the Vestibule of the University Library, Cambridge. 1309. 6. Travels in Europe, Asia and Africa, 1510—1814. 7. A Letter to Herbert Marsh, D.D. in reply to Observations in his pamphlet on the British and Foreign Bible Society. 1511. The List of Patents for New Inventions. 319 The last part of his Travels is now in the press, and the Doc- tor had nearly concluded it when his valuable life closed. The little that was left unfinished, it is said, can be completed from the ample memoranda left by the indefatigable and enterprising traveller. LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS. To George Stephenson, of Long Benton, Northumberland, engineer, for certain improvements in steam-engines.—Dated 21st March 1822.—2 months allowed to inroll specification. To Richard Summers Harford, of Ebbw Vale Iron Works, in the parish of Aberystwith, Monmouth, iron-master (being one of the people called Quakers), for improvements in the heating pro- cesses in the manufacture of bar, rod, sheet, aud other descrip- tions of malleable iron, whether the same may have been pre- viously prepared by the pudling or other modes of refining.— 21st March.—4 months. To William Church, of Nelson-square, Surry, gentleman, for an improved apparatus for printing.—21st March.—6 months. To Alexander Clark, of Dron, in the parish of Louchars, Fifeshire, esq. for an improvement in the boilers and condensers of steam-engines.—21st March.—6 months. To William Pride, of Uley, Gloucestershire, engineer, for his self-regulating apparatus for spooling and warping woollen or other warps or chains, which invention he believes will be of much benefit and utility. —16th April—2 months. To William Daniel, of Abercarne, Monmouthshire, manufac- turer of iron, for certain improvements in the rolling of iron into bars used for making or manufacturing tin plates.—16th April. —2 months. To Benjamin Cook, of Birmingham, patent tube manufacturer, for a certain mixture or preparation, which may be used with advantage in preventing the danger of accidents from fire.— 16th April.—6 months. To John Grimshaw, of Bishopwearmouth, Durham, rope- maker (being one of the people called Quakers), for his method of stitching, lacing, or manufacturing of flat ropes, by means of certain rotative machinery connected with or worked by a steam- engine, or other rotative power, whereby the said stitching, lacing, or manufacturing of flat ropes is better executed than the same can be done or performed by any other method now in use, and which invention he apprehends will be of general be- nefit and of great public utility.—16th April.—2 months. METEORO- 320 Days of Month. 1822. Mar. April 27 28 29 30 3) COON AGA WOLD KE Meteorology. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE, Thermometer. 18 o’Clock Morning Height of the Barom. Inches, By Mr. Cary, OF THE STRAND. Weather. Fair Fair Fair Showery Sleet Fair Fair Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Fair Hail-storm Ditto Ditto Ditto Fair Rain Fair Cloudy Cloudy Rain Showery Cloudy Showery Fair Rain Showery Showery Fair Fair Fair N.B, The Barometer’s height is taken at one o’clock. ——— te eS oe i i a eed ee a a LXX. An alphatetical Arrangement of the Piaces from whence Fossi. SHELLS have been obtained by Mr. James Sowrrsy, and drawn and described in Volume Ill. of his “ Mineral Conchology,” with the geographical and strati- graphical Situations of those Places, and the Species of Fossil Shells, Gc. By Mr. Joun Farry, Mineral Surveyor. To Dr. Tilloch, Sir, — ie your 46th volume, p. 211, and in your 52d volume, p- 55 are inserted, alphabetical Lists of the Places, mentioned as localities of the Fossil Shells figured and described by Mr. Sowerby, in the two first volumes of his ‘© Mineral Conchology;” and his third volume having now been completed, I beg the fa- vour of you to insert, a similar List of the Localities in this third * volume: in which volume, 45 Genera, embracing 195 species or varieties of Shells, are described belonging, each to some one particular Stratum ; and besides these, 19 other species or vari- eties* belonging to some other Stratum, and which Species are on that account distinguished, by adding the Greek Letters , y or 6, for the purposes of stratigraphical discrimination. I feel a satisfaction in observing, that almost every succeeding Number of Mr. Sowerby’s Work (which now appear Monthly), contains increasing evidence, in favour of those Principles re- garding Fossil Shells and their connexion with the Strata, which I am somewhat proud of having developed and given to the world, in your 53d volume, p. 115, and in others of your pages. My stratigraphical Index to Mr. Sowerby’s 3d volume, has been sent to him for publication, corresponding to the List now sent to you: I beg to request of your Geological Readers to ex- amine these, and to send corrections of the same to you, to Mr. Sowerby or myself, wherever they may be able to detect errors therein, truth alone being my aim. In the List now sent, several errors recently discovered in the former Lists inserted in your Work, will be found corrected; but some others yet remain, in the List in vol. 52, which it may be proper to correct, as follows, viz,: p.353, 1. 9, for Blue Lias read Portland Rock: p. 355, 1. 10 and 11, for Portland Rock read Coral Rag, and 1, 22, for W read E: p. 356, 1.2, * Thee of these are already included in the List in vol. 53, p. 120, and the othér 16 are as follows, viz. Ammonites annulatus 2 Species, A. Bechei 2, A. Koenigi 2, Avicula echinata 2, A. inequivalvis 3, Cardita margaritacea 2, Conularia quadrisulcata 2, Hippopodium ponderosum 2, Inoceramus sulcatus 2, Lutraria ovalis 2, Mya? literata2, M. V-scripta 3, Terebellum fusiforme 2, and Terebratula inconstans 2 Species: at a future time I intend to particularize these, in the manner of the List in vol. 53. Vol.59, No, 289, May 1822, Ss for 322 Localities of Fossil Shells for under Oolite read Lias?; p. 358, 1.27, for Portland Rock read Coral Rag; p. 359, dele 1. 11, 12 and 18; dele 1. 13 and 14; p. 362, 1. 18, for under Oolite read Lias?, and 1. 19, for a, read y; and p. 363, |. 4, before t insert a. I am, sir, your obedient servant, _ 37, Howland-street, Fitzroy-square, JoHN FAREY. 15 April, 1821. Wane — An alphabetical List of the Places from whence Foss. SHELLS have been obtained ly Mr. James Sowrrsy, and described and figured in Vol. Il. of Min. Concu.: each referred to its proper Srratum in Mr. Smirn’s Series, and in his Maps, Sections, and Geological Tables. Alderton, 6£ m SE of Woodbridge, Suff., in Crag Marl. Cardium angustatum, t 283, f 2. Alldown, see Haddon. Alum Bay, at W extremity of Isle of Wight, in London Clay. Cardita margaritacea B, t 297, f 2. Ancliff (Avoncliff ?) of Bath, Somerset., in Fullers’ Earth Strata. - Modiola gibbosa t 211, f 2. Axton Quarry (or Acton) 54 m NW of Holywell, Flints., in Der- byshire-peak Limestone. Spirifer oblatus, t 268. Bagley-wood Pit, 2m NE of Abingdon, Berks, in Coral Rag. _ Turbo muricatus a, t 240, f 4. Bajary Quarry, 4 m Sof Thornhill, Dumfries-shire, in Derby- shire-peak Limestone. Orthocera gigantea, t 246. Bakewell W, Derby., see vol. 46, p. 213, 2 species, in Derby- shire-peak (1st) Limestone. Spirifer striatus, t 270. Banners-Ash, 1 m N of Wooton-Basset, Wilts, in Coral Rag. Turbo muricatus a, t 240, f 4. {Chalk. Barrow, 5 m W of Bury St. Emunds, Suff., in alluvial Clay, on Ammonites biplex, t 293, f 1 and 2. Barton, Cliff, Hants, see vol. 46, p. 213, and vol. 52, p. 351, 43 species, in London Clay. Ampullaria acuta, t 284, wp. | Corbula pisum, t 209, f 4. patula, t 284, mid. revoluta a & 6, t 209, sigaretina, t 284, do. f 8to 13. Arca appendiculata, t 276, f 3.] Fusus? bifasciatus t 228. Branderi, t 276, f 1&2. bulbiformis a to 8, ¢ Conus concinnus, t 302, f 2. Aaast ? p. 174. Grignon in France, see vol. 52, 2 species, in London Clay, (coarse Limestone). Fusus ficulneus « to y, t 291, | Ostrea flabellula, t 253. a Magid Seraphs convolutus, t 286. Murex minax, t 229, f 2. Gunton, Suffolk, see vol. 46, p. 218, 2 species, in Crag Marl. Astarte planata, t 257. | Terebratula inconstans 6, t 277, f3. Haldon-Hills, Devonshire, see vol. 46, p. 218, and 52, p. 356, 6 species, in Green Sand. Terebratula dimidiata, t 277, f 5. Trigonia affinis, t 208, f 3. Harwich, SE, in Essex, see vol. 46, p. 218, and 52, p. 356, 3 species, in Crag Marl. Venericardia senilis, t 258. Havre de Grace, mouth of the Seine, in France, in London * deep-well Strata. Ammonites biarmatus, p. 122. Hembury-Fort, 5 m NW of Honiton, Devon., in Green Sand. Trigonia eccentrica, t 208, f 1 and 2. Highgate Archway, Middlesex, see vol, 46, p. 218, and 52, p- 356, 30 species, in London Clay. Ammonites decipiens, t 294, | Conus concinnus major? t Conus conciunus, t 302, f 2, 302, fl. Corbula recently ilescribed by Mr. Sowerby. 329 . Corbula globosa, t 209, £3. | Murex Minax, t 229, f 2, Fusus bifasciatus, t 22S. — tuberosus, t 229, f 1. Modiola subcarinata? ‘t 210, | Rostellaria niacroptera a, t 30, ae 298, and 300, Murex coronatus, t 230, £3. | Trochus extensus, t 278, f 3, — cristatus, t 230,f 1 & 2. | Hinton, see Charterhouse H. Holywells, near Ipswich, Suff., see vol. 46, p. 219, and vol, 52, Pp. 397, 29 species, in Crag Marl. Mytilus aliformis, t 275, f 4. Hordwell Cliff (or Hordle), Hants, see vol. 46, p.219, and vol. 52, p. 3857, 9 species, in London Clay. Corbula pisum, t 209, f 4. Fusus rugosus, t 274, f § Fusus acuminatus, t 274, f 1 and 9, to 3. Melanea costata, t 241, f 2. —— asper, t 274,f4to7. | Ostrea flabellula, t 253, f 1. bulbiformis «to3,t291, | Rostellaria macroptera 6, t 299, f 1 to6. Terebellum fusiforme a, t 287. —— ficulneus « to y, t 291, | Venericardia globosa a & , : t 289, up. and mid. Hot-Wells, m-W of Bristol, Glouc., in Derbyshire-peak Lime- stone. Conularia quadrisulcata a, t 260, f 4 and 5. [Clay. {Iminster, S, Somerset., see vol. 52, p. 357, 1 species, in Clunch Ditto, see vol. 46, p. 220, and vol. 52, p. 397, 9 species, in under Oolite. Ammonites annulatus B, t 222, f3to 5. Swe ay Malener. G 254) £2. — Strangewaysi, t 254, f 1 and 3. Inver-Brora Colliery, 10 m NE of Dornoch, Sutherland, in Coal- measures. Ammonites ? p. 176. | Cardita ? t 297,'f 4, Ipswich, 11 m SE of Stowmarket, Suff., in Crag Marl, Cardium edulinum, t 283, f 3. Mytilus antiquorum, t 275, f 1 to 3. Ireland, Isle, in Derbyshire-peak Limestone. Spirifer glaber, t 269, mid. | Terebratula Mantie, t 277, f 1. Islington, G. J. Canal; Middlesex, see vol. 46, p. 221, 1 species, in London Clay. Isocardia sulcata, t 295, f) 4. Kelloways-Bridge, Wilts, see vol. 46, p- 220, and vol. 52, p. 357, 5 species, in Kelloways stone, Ammonites Koenigi «, t 263, | Isocardia tener, ¢ 295, f.2. fl and 2, Mya V-seripta 2, 224, £3. Avicula inequivalvis a,t 244, {3 Vol, 59. No, 289, Muy 1822, Kel- 330 Localities of Fossil Shells Kelweston (or Kelston) SW, 34m W by N of Bath, Somerset., in Blue Lias. Avicula inequivalvis B, t 244, f 2. Langston-Herring, 5 m NW of Weymouth, Dorset., in Corn- brash Limestone. Avicula echinata a, t 248, f 1. [Lias. Leonard-Stanley, 4 m NE of Dursley, Glouc., in Blue Marl on Plicatula spinosa, t 245. Lewes, E, Sussex, see vol. 46, p. 220, and vol. 52, p. 358, 2 species, in upper Chalk ? Ditto, NW, see vol. 46, p. 220, 2 species, in lower Chalk ? Ditto, N, in Chalk Marl. Inoceramus concentricus, t 305. —__ sulcatus a, t 306, f 5. Little-Sudbury, Gloucestershire, see vol, 46, p. 220, and vol. 52, p. 358, 5 species, in under Oolite. Cucullea oblonga, t 206, f 1 and 2? Trigonia duplicata, t 237, f 4 and 5. [Stone. Little-Somerford, 5$ m W of Cricklade, Wilts., in Kelloways Mya V-scripta a, t 224, f3. Llantrissent, 5, Glamorganshire, see vol. 52, p. 358, 1 species, in Derbyshire-peak Limestone. Modiola bipartita 6, t 210, f 4. Longleat Park, E, Wiltshire, see vol. 46, p. 220 (and Pecten quadricostata, t 56, f 1 and 2), 3 species, in Green Sand. Ditto W, in Coral Rag. Turbo (muricatus 8 and y)? t 240,f4. [Limestone. Lullington, 24 m NNE of Frome, Somerset., in Cornbrash Avicula echinata «, t 243, f J. Lyme-Regis, Dorset., see vol. 46, p. 222, 2 species, in Marlstone. Ditto NE, — see vol. 52, p. 355, 6 species, in Blue Marl _ on Lias. Ammonites Bechei a, t 280. | Helicina expansa, t 273, f 1 to3. Birchi, t 267. - solarioides, t 273, f 4. Lyndhurst (Brick-kiln), 64 m N of Lymington, Hants, in Lon- don Clay. Ostrea flabellula, t 253, f 2 Venericardia deltoidea, t 259, to 7 and 9, \ iA. [stone. Madagascar Isle, in Indian Ocean, in Cornbrash ? Lime- Isocardia minima, t 295, f 1. Malling, 5 m W of Maidstone, Kent, in Chalk Marl. Inoceramus concentricus, t 305. —— _ sulcatus a, t 306. Marcham (Field) Berkshire, see vol. 52, p.358, 3 species, in Coral Rag (not Portland R.) . Trochus bicarinatus, t 221, f 2. Milton- recently described by Mr. Sowerby. 331 Milton-Ernest, 4 m NNW of Bedford, in Cornbrash Limestone. Modiola imbricata, t 212, f 1. {1st Limestone. Monyash, 4m WSW of Bakewell, Derbyshire, in Derbyshire-peak Spirifer trigonalis, t 265, f 2 and 3. {don Clay. Muddyford, Hampshire, see vol. 46, p. 221, | species, in Lon- Conus dormitor, t 301. Narford, 4 m NW of Swaffham, Norf., in alluvial Marl. Lutraria ambigua, t 227. New-Malton, 17 m NE of York, in Coral Rag Rock. Ammonites trifidus, t 292, and 293, f 4. Mya ? literata 6, t 224, f 1. Normandy Province (Dept. of Calvados, Channel, Eure and lower Seine) in France. in under Oolite. Ostrea (fibrosa) ? p.66. | Turbo ornatus, t 240, f 1 & 2. North-Sands on the Shore near Scarborough, Yorkshire, in Coral Rag, lower part. Mya? literata 6, t 244, f 1. Norton, 3 m SW of Malmsbury, Wilts, in Cornbrash Limestone. Avicula echinata a, t 243, f 1. Norton Under-Hamdon ?, see Wvoton-Underedge. Osmington, 5, Dorsetshire, see vol. 46, p. 221, 1 species, in Brick-Earth (not Blue Marl). . Modiola bipartita «, t 210, f3; see vol. 53, p. 125. Overton, m SSW of Ashover, Derbyshire, in Derbyshire-peak Spirifer trigonalis, t 265, f 1. [1st Limestone. Oxford, SE, in Portlaud Rock, lower Marl, Terebratula inconstans a, t 277, f 4. Ditto see vol. 46, p. 221, and vol. 52, p. 359, 2 species, in Oak-tree Clay. Oxfordshire (Stonesfield ?) in Forest Marble. Pecten Lens, t 205, f 2 and 3. Pakefield Gravel-Pit, Suffolk, see vol. 46, p, 221, and vol, 52, p. 359, 3 species, in alluvial Stones. Ammonites decipiens, t 294. Parham-Park, S, 54m NNE of Arundel, Sussex, in Green Sand. Trigonia aliformis, t 215, f 2. Ditto in Brick-Earth, Modiola equalis, t 210, f 2. bipartita a, t 210, f 35 see vol. 53, p. 125. Paris, near, in France, see vol. 52, p. 359, 5 species, in London Clay (coarse Limestone ?). Ampullaria acuta, t 284, wp. | Fusus rugosus, t 247, f 8 & 9. patula, ¢284, md. | Modiola subcarinata? t 210,f 1. ———— - sigaretina, t 284, /o.| Rostellaria macroptera a, t Fusus bulbiformis a to 4, t 291, 298, fl to6, Terebellum fusiforme «, t 287. T 12 Paris, 532 Localities of Fossil Shells Paris, near, in France, see vol. 52, p. 360, 2 species, in Lon- don deep-well Strata. Pavingham, 5 m NW of Bedford, in Cornbrash Limestone. Avicula echinata a, t 243, f 1. Pegwell-Bay, 2} m WSW of Ramsgate, Kent, in London deep- well Strata. Cardita margaritacea «, t 297, f 1. Pickeridge- Hill, Somersetshire, see vol, 46, p. 221, and vol. 52, p- 360, 5 species, in Blue Lias. Modiola Hillana, t 212, f 2. Plaistow, 3 m SW of Ilford, Essex, in London deep-well Strata. Ostrea pulchra, t 279. Portland Island (or Ferry), Dorsetshire, see vol. 46, p. 221, and vol. 52, p. 361, 4 species, in Portland Rock. Lutraria ovalis «, t 226, f 2. | ‘Terebratula inconstans a, t 277, Pecten lamellosus, t 239. f 4, . Trochus reticulatus, t 272,f 2. Ditto NE Coast, in Clunch Clay ? Ammonites Lamberti, t 242, f 1] to 3. omphaloides, t 242, f 5. Purbeck Peninsula, Dorsetshire, see vol. 52, p. 360, 1 species, in Portland Rock. Ditto 8S, in Oak-tree Clay. Ammonites rotundus, t 293, f 3. ane 41 m SSE of Margate, Kent, in upper Chalk. Terebratula obliqua, t 277, f 2. Ramshalt, 43 m SSE of Woodbridge, Suff., in Crag Marl. Venus turgida, t 256, f 1. Richmond-Park Well, see vol. 46, p. 222, and vol. 52, p. 360, 4 species, in London Clay. Ditto (near bottom) in London deep-well Strata. Cardita margaritacea a, t 297, f 1 to 3. Ringmer, Sussex, see vol. 46, p. 222, and vol. 52, p. 360, 3 species, in Chalk Marl. Venericardia ? ?t259,f3.: > i Gis? m NE of Weymouth, Dorset. ., in Portland R. Terebratula inconstans «, t 277, f 4. Trochus reticulatus, t 272, f 2. Roydon-Green, Norfolk, see vol. 52, p. 361, 3 sp.in Crag Marl. Astarte planata, t 257. | Venus turgida, t 256, f 2. Sandfoot-Castle, near Weymouth, Dorset., see vol, 52, p. 561, 2 species, in Clunch Clay? Ammonites Lamberti, t 242, f 1 to 3. Leachi, t 242, fe 4. omphaloides, ' 242,75. Lima proboscidea, t 264. a Mytilus pectinatus, t 282, Sand- —— recently described by Mr. Sowerby. 333 Sandown, 6} m SE of Newport Isle of Wight, Hants, in Port- land Rock, Sand. Modiola aliformis, t 251. Bectebar, Hill?, Yorkshire, see vol. 46, p, 222, 2 species, in Der- byshire- -peak Limestone. Spirifer obtusus, t 269, Jo. Scarborough, NNE, Yorkshire, see Min. Conch. Il. p. 123, 1 - species in Alum Shale. Ditto (Castle), in Coral Rag Rock. Mya? literata B, t224,f 1. | Pinna lanceolata, t 281. Scarlet-Head, 10 m SW of Douglas, Isle of Man, in Derbyshire- peak Limestone. Ammonites Henslowi, t 262. | Nautilus complanatus, t 261. Sheldon, 14 m W of Chippenham, Wilts, in Cornbrash Lime- stone. Avicula echinata «, t 243, f 1. Sheppy Island, N Cliff, 15 m ENE of Rochester, Kent; in London Clay. Trochus extensus, t 278, f 2. [Brick-Earth. Shotover Hill, Oxfordshire, see vol. 46, p. 222, 1-species, in Ditto see vol. 46, p. 222, and vol. 52, p. S61 (omitting Am. exca, and inserting Troe: ang. B, p. 95), _ 2 species, in Portland Rock. Ditto see vol. 52, p. 361, 1 species, in Oak-tree Clay. Ditto see vol. 52, p. 361 (and Am. exca. above) 2 species, in Coral Rag. Ammonites trifidus, t 292, and 293, f 4. Pecten similis, t 205, f 6. Smallcomb, of Bath, Somerset., in Fullers’-Earth Strata. Mya angulifera, t 224, f 6 and 7. Somersetshire, in Portland Rock, Sand. Ostrea Meadei, t 252, f 1 and 4. Ditto in under Oolite. Modiola cuneata, t 211, f 1. Southill, 2m NNE of Shefford, Beds., in Oak-tree Clay. Inoceramus sulcatus 6, t 306, f 6. Steeple-Ashton, 24 m E of Trowbridge, Wilts, in Coral Rag. Turbo muricatus a, t 240, f 4. { Marble. Stonesfield (or Stunsfield) 3m W of Woodstock, Oxf., in Forest Pecten obscurus, t 205, f 1. [stone. Stoney-Stratford, 7 m ENE of Buckingham, in Cornbrash Lime- Avicula costata y, t 244, f 1; see vol. 53, p. 122. echinata a, t 243, f 1. Stubbington-Cliff, Hampshire, see vol. 46, p. 223, and vol. 52, p- 361, 18 species, in London Clay. Pecten corneus, t 204, | Venericardia carinata, t 259, f 2. Suffolk, 334 Localities of Fossil Shells Suffolk, County, see vol. 52, p. 362, 6 species, in Crag Marl. Trochus concavus, t 272, f 1. ( Venericardia similis, t 258. Ditto see vol. 52, p. 362, 1 species, in London deep- well Strata. Ditto, NW, _ see vol. 46, p. 223, 1 species, in lower Chalk. Swindon, 63 m SSE of Cricklade, Wilts, in Portland Rock. Pecten lamellosus, t 239. Taunton, Somerset, see vol. 52, p. 362, 2 species, in Lias? (not Oolite ; L. gibbosa y). Modiola minima, t 210, f 5. Teignmouth (Little) Devon, see vol. 46, p- 223, 1 species, in Green Sand. Trigonia pennata, t 237, f 6. Tellesford, SW, 44 m NNE of Frome, Somerset, i in Cornbrash Limestone. Avicula echinata a, t 243, f 1. Thame, 4 m SE, 124 m E of Oxford, in Portland Rock. Pecten lamellosus, t 239. Thornlie-Bank Quarry, 5 m ESE of Paisley, Renfrewshire, Scot., in Derbyshire-peak Limestone. Orthocera cordiformis, t 247. Tideswell, Derbyshire, see vol. 46, p. 223, 1 species, in Derby- shire-peak 3d Limestone. Melanea constricta, t 218, f 2. | Spirifer glaber, t 269, up. Ditto see vol. 46,-p. 223, 1 species, in Derbyshire- peak 4th Limestone. Tisbury, 2} m SE of Hindon, Wilts, in Portland Rock. Ostrea expansa, t 238, f 1. Trigonia gibbosa a & 6, t 235 and 2386. Toddenham, 4 m SE of Moreton in the Marsh, Glouc., in Blue Lias. Hippopodium ponderosum «, t 250, up. Tronlie-Bank, oF Glasgow, Scotland, in Coal- measures. Conularia quadsisulénta B, t 260, f 6. ? teres, t 260, f 1 and 2. Trowle, 1 m W of Trowbridge, Wilts, in Corbrash Limestone, Avicula echinata «, t 243, f 1. [on Lias. Uley, near, 2 m W of Dursley, Gloucestershire; in Bie Marl Plicatula spinosa, t 245, f 4. Valognes, 11 m SE of Cherbourg, Dept. of Channel, in ween in (see Colomby, and Golleville). Terebellum fusiforme 6, t 287. Westmoreland County (near Kendal?), in Derbyshire-peak Limestone. Conu- ee ete et 4 1 f f recently described by Mr. Sowerby. 335 Conularia quadrisulcata a, t 260, f 3. Spirifer oblatus, t 268. Weymouth, see Sandfoot-Castle. Whetstone-Pits, in Devonshire, see Haldon Hills: in Dorset- shire, see Blackdown Hills. Whitby (Cliffs) Yorkshire, see vol. 46, p. 224, and vol. 52, p.363, 7 species, in Alum Shale. Ammonites annulatus a, t 222, f 2. ——_ heterophyllus, t 266. Wight, Isle of, Hants, in Cowes Rock, f. w. ? Melanea fasciata, t 241, f 1. Ditto see vol. 52, p. 363, 1 species, in London deep- well Strata. Ditto in Chalk Marl, . Hamites armatus (see t 168), t 234, f.2. Wiltshire County, see vol. 52, p. 363, 1 species, in Chalk Marl. Ditto see vol. 46, p. 224, and vol. 52, p. 363, 1 species, in Clunch Clay. Ditto in Cornbrash Limestone. Isocardia minima, t 295, f 1. Wincanton, NW and SW, 14 m SSW of Frome, Somerset., in Cornbrash Limestone. Avicula echinata a, t 243, f I. Winsley, 1 m W of Bradford, Wilts, in Clay on upper Oolite. Avicula costata 0, t 244, f 1; see vol. 53, p. 122. Woodbridge, Suffolk, see vol. 46, p. 224, and vol. 52, p. 363, 5 species, in Crag Marl. Cardium edulinum, t 283, f 3. Mytilus antiquorum, t 275, f 1 and 3. Venus turgida, t 256, f 2. Wooton-Basset, 5 m W of Swindon, Wilts, in Coral Rag. Turbo muricatus a, t 240, f 4. Wooton Under-Edge? (query, Norton Under-Hamdon) 51 m SE of Berkley, Gloucest., in under Oolite. Lutraria lirata, t 225. Yeovil, Somersetshire, see vol.52, p. 363; Cirrus nodosus, vol. ii. p- 94, is redrawn and more fully described in the present volume, p. 35. LX X I . Some [ 0336] LXXI. Some Memoranda respecting Caoutchouc. By B. M. Forster, Esq. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — Sixce I mentioned to you, in my letter of 26th March, that I had expanded a small bottle of Caoutchouc (India-Rubber) by means of a condensing syringe, I have been informed of several instances of such bottles haying been stretched in a like or nearly like manner some years ago, so that what ] communi- cated to you as new, was not so. I have some notion, that in one of the periodical publications a few years ago, there was an account of a bottle of this sub- stance having been considerably enlarged by letting in coal gas, the bottle being attached to the end of a gas-light pipe: probably the caoutchouc might have been softened first. An ingenious artist, well known by his excellent paintings for magic-lantern slides, named Matthias More, has informed me that he has stretched bottles of caoutchouc with a common pair of bellows, after they were become soft by having been soaked for many hours in warm (not boiling) water. Mr. More also has stretched pieces of this substance to a very great length, until they became exceedingly thin and transpa- rent. I have seen some small pieces or leaves of it, which ap- peared not unlike gold-beaters’ skin, and were of a ‘beautiful- looking substance. With such power, Mr. More says he has made air-balloons the size of a common hen’s egg, which when filled with gas ascended. He had a plan for making long pieces of this substance, to use instead of glass slides for magic-lanterns, on which the figures were, I understand, to be printed, and after- wards coloured; but not succeeding in some part of the process, he gave up the scheme altogether. The pieces on which the figures were, he intended should be wound on, and off, an axis, in the manner that tapes for measuring are; so that, had the scheme succeeded, long processions might have been exhibited without the interruption occasioned by using several glass slides in frames, as usual, May 4, 1822. B. M. Forster. LXXI, On { 337 J LXXII. On two new Compounds of Chlorine and Carbon, and on a new Compound of Iodine, Carbon, and Hydrogen. By Mr. Farapay, Chemical Assistant in the Royal Institution*. Oxs of the first circumstances that induced Sir H. Davy to doubt the compound nature of what was formerly called oxymu- riatic acid gas, was the want of action of heated charcoal upon it; and considerable use of the same agent, and of the pheno- mena exhibited by it in different circumstances with chlorine, was afterwards made in establishing the simple nature of that body. The true nature of chlorine being ascertained, it became of importance to form all the possible compounds of it with other elementary substances, and to examine them in the new view had of their nature. This investigation has been pursued with such success at different times, that very few elements remain uncombined with it; but with respect to carbon, the very cir- cumstance which first tended to correct the erroneous opinions which, after Scheele’s time, and before the year 1810, had gone abroad respecting its nature, proved an obstacle to the formation of its compounds; and up to the present time, the chlorides of carbon have escaped the researches of chemists. That the difficulty met with in forming a compound of chlo- rine and carbon was probably not owing to any want or weakness of affinity between the two bodies, was pointed out by Sir H. Davy; who, reasoning on the triple compound of chlorine, car- bon, and hydrogen, concluded that the attraction of the two bodies for each other was by no means feeble ; and the discovery of phosgene gas by Dr. Davy, in which chlorine and carbon are combined with oxygen, was another circumstance strongly in favour of this opinion. I was induced last summer to take up this subject, and have been so fortunate as to discover two chlorides of carbon, and a compound of iodine, carbon, and hydrogen, analogous in its na- ture to the triple compound of chlorine, carbon, and hydrogen, sometimes called chloric ether. I shall endeayour in the follow- ing pages to describe these substances, and give the experimental proofs of their nature, If chlorine and olefiant gas be mixed together, it is well known that condensation takes place, and a colourless limpid volatile fluid is produced, containing chlorine, carbon, and hydrogen. If the volumes of the two gases are equal, the condensation is per- fect. If the olefiant gas is in excess, that excess is left un- * From the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1821. Read 21st of December 1820. Vol. 59, No, 289, May 1822. Uu changed, 338 On two new Compounds changed. But if the chlorine is in excess, the fluid becomes of a yellow tint, and acid fumes are produced. This circumstance alone proves that chlorine can take hydrogen from the fluid; and, on examination, I found it was without the liberation of any car- bon or chlorine. That the action thus begun, might be carried to its utmost ex- tent, some of the pure fluid (chloric ether) was put into a retort with chlorine, and exposed to sunshine. At the first instant of contact between the chlorine and the fluid, the latter became yellow ; but when in the sun’s rays, a few moments sufficed to destroy the colour both of the fluid and the chlorine, heat being at the same time evolved. On opening the retort, there was no absorption, but it was found full of muriatic acid gas. This was expelled, and more chlorine introduced, and the whole again exposed to sun light: the colour again disappeared, and a few moist crystals were formed round the edge of the fluid. Chlorine being a third time introduced, and treated as before, it still re- moved more hydrogen ; aad now a sublimate of crystals lined the retort. Proceeding in this way until the chlorine exerted no further action, the fluid entirely disappeared, and the results were, the dry crystalline substance, and muriatic acid gas. A portion of olefiant gas was then mixed in a retort with eight or nine times its bulk of chlorine, and exposed to sun light. At first the fluid formed; but this instantly disappeared ; the retort became lined with crystals, and the colour of the chlorine very much diminished. On examining these crystals, I found they were the compound I was in search of; but before } give the proofs of their nature, I will describe the process by which this chloride of carbon can be obtained pure. : Perchloride of Carbon. A glass vessel was made in the form of an alembic head, but without the beak; the neck was considerably contracted, and had a brass cap with a stop-cock cemented on; at the top was a small aperture, into which a ground stopper fitted air tight. The capacity of the vessel was about 200 cubic inches. Being exhausted by the air-pump, it was nearly filled with chlorine ; and being then placed over olefiant gas, and as much as could enter having passed in, the stop-cocks were shut, and the whole left for a short time. When the fluid compound of chlorine and olefiant gas had formed and condensed on the sides of the vessel, it was again placed over olefiant gas, and, in consequence of the condensation of a large portion of the gases, a considerable quan- tity more entered. This was left, as before, to combine with part of the remaining chlorine, to ‘condense, and to form a So tla of Chlorine and Carbon, &c. 339 tial vacuum; which was again filled with olefiant gas, and the process repeated until all the chlorine had united to form the fluid, and the vessel remained full of olefiant gas. Chlorine was then admitted in repeated portions as before; consequently more of the fluid formed ; and ultimately a large portion was obtained in the bottom of the vessel, and an atmosphere of chlorine above it. It was now exposed to sun light. The chlorine immediately disappeared, and the vessel became filled with muriatic acid gas. Having ascertained that water did not interfere with the action of the substances, a small portion was admitted into the vessel, which absorbed the muriatic acid gas, and then another atmo- sphere of chlorine was introduced. Again exposed to the light, this was partly combined with the carbon, and partly converted into muriatic acid gas; which being, as before, absorbed by the water, left space for more chlorine. Repeating this action, the fluid gradually became thick and opaque from the formation of crystals in it, which at last adhered ta the sides of the glass as it was turned round; and ultimately the vessel only contained chlorine with the accumulated gaseous impurities of the succes- sive portions, a strong solution of muriatic acid coloured blue from the solution of a little brass, and the solid substance. I have frequently carried the process thus far in retorts; and it is evident that any conveniently formed glass vessel will an- swer the purpose. The admission of water during the process prevents the necessity of repeated exhaustion by the air-pump, which cannot be done without injury to the latter; but to have _ the full advantage of this part of the process, the gases should be as pure as possible, that no atmosphere foreign to the experiment may collect in the vessel. In order to cleanse the substance, the remaining chlorine and ‘muriatic acid were blown out of the vessel by a pair of bellows, introduced at the stoppered aperture, and the vessel aftetwards filled with water, to wash away the muriatic acid and other solu- ble matters. Considerable care is then requisite in the further purification of the chloride. It retains water, muriatic acid, and a substance, which I find to be a triple compound of chlorine, carbon, and hydrogen, formed from the cement of the cap; and as all these contain hydrogen, a sinall quantity of any one re- maining with the chloride would, in analysis, give erroneous re= sults. Various methods of purification may be devised, founded on the properties of the substance, but | have found the following the most convenient:—The substance is to be washed from off the glass, and poured with the water into a jar; a litile alcohol will remove the last portions which adhere to the glass; and this, when poured into the water, will precipitate the chloride, and the whole will fall to the bottom of the vessel. Then having Uu2 decanted 340 On two new Compounds decanted the water, the chloride is to be collected on a filter, and dried as much as may be by pressure between folds of bi- bulous paper. It should next be introduced into a glass tube, and sublimed by a spirit-lamp: the pure substance with water will rise at first, but the last portions will be partially decom- posed, muriatic acid will be liberated, and charcoal left. The sublimed portion is then to be dissolved in alcohol, and poured into a weak solution of potash, by which the substance is thrown down, and the muriatic acid neutralized and separated; then wash away the potash and muriate by repeated affusions of wa- ter, until the substance remains pure; collect it on a filter, and dry it, first between folds of paper, and afterwards by sulphuric acid in the exhausted receiver of the air-pump. It will now appear as a white pulverulent substance; and if perfectly pure will not, when a little of it is sublimed in a tube, leave the slightest trace of carbon, or liberate any muriatic acid. A small portion of it dissolved in ether, should give no precipi- tate with nitrate of silver. If it be not quite pure, it must be resublimed, washed, and dried until it is pure. This substance does not require the direct rays of the sun for its formation. Several tubes were filled with a mixture of one part of olefiant gas with five or six parts of chlorine, and placed over water in the light of a dull day; in two or three hours there was very considerable absorption, and crystals of the substance were deposited on the inside of the tubes. I have also often ob- served the formation of the crystals in retorts in common day light. A retort being exhausted had 12 cubic inches of olefiant gas introduced, and 24-75 cubic inches of chlorine: as soon as the condensation occasioned by the formation of the fluid had taken place, 21:5 cubie inches more of chlorine were passed in, and the retort set aside ina dark place for two days. At the end of that time muriatic acid gas and the solid chloride had formed, but the greater part of the fluid remained unchanged. Hence it will form eyen in the dark by length of time. I tried to produce the chloride by exposure of the two gases in tubes over water to strong lamp light for two or three hours, but could not succeed. The perchloride of carbon, when pure, is immediately after fusion, or sublimation, a transparent colourless substance. It has scarcely any taste. Its odour is aromatic, and approaching to that of camphor. Its specific gravity is as nearly as possible 2. Its refractive power is high, being above that of flint glass (15767). It is very friable, easily breaking down under pres- sure ; and when scratched has much of the feel and appearance of white sugar. It does not conduet electricity. The of Chlorine and Carbon, Bc.» 341 The crystals obtained by sublimation and from solutions of the substance in alcohol and ether, are dendritical, prismatic, or in plates; the varieties of form, which are very interesting, are easily ascertained, and result from a primitive octohedron. It volatilizes slowly at common temperatures, and passes, in the manner of camphor, towards the light. If warmed, it rises more rapidly, and then forms fine crystals: when the tempera- ture is further raised, it fuses at 320° Fahr. and boils at, 360° un- der atmospheric pressure. When condensed again from these rapid sublimations, it concretes in the upper part of the tube or vessel containing it, in so transparent and colourless a state, that it is difficult, except from its high refractive power, to perceive where it is lodged, As the crust it forms becomes thicker, it splits, and cracks like sublimed camphor; and in a few minutes after it is cold, is white, and nearly opaque. If the heat be raised still higher, as when the substance is passed through a red hot tube, it is decomposed, chlorine is evolved, and another chloride of carbon, which condenses into a fluid, is obtained. This shall be described presently. It is not readily combustible; when held in the flame of a spirit lamp, it burns with a red flame, emitting much smoke and acid fumes; but when removed from the lamp, combustion ceases. _ In the comt: istion that dees take place in the lamp, the hydro- gen of the alcohol, by combining with the chlorine of the com- pound, performs the most important part; nevertheless, when the substance is heated red in an atmosphere of pure oxygen, it sometimes burns with a brilliant light. It is not soluble in water at common temperatures; or only in very small quantity. When a drop or two of the alcoholic solu- tion is poured into a large quantity of water, it renders it turbid from the deposition of the substance. It does not appear that hot water dissolves more of it than cold water. It dissolves in alcoho] with facility, and in much greater quan- tity with heat than without. A saturated hot solution crystal- lizes as it cools, and the cold solution also gives crystals by spon- taneous evaporation. When poured into water, the chloride is precipitated, and falls to the bottom in flakes. If burnt, the flame of the alcohol is brightened by the presence of the sub- stance, and fumes of muriatic acid ave liberated. Solution of nitrate of silver does not produce any turbidness in it, unless it be in such quantity that the water throws down the substance ; but no chloride of silver is formed. It is much more soluble in ether than in alcoho], and more so in hot than in cold ether. The hot solution deposits crystals as it cools ; aud the crystallization of a cold solution, when evaporated on a glass plate, is very beautiful. This solution is not a tate 342 On iwo new Compounds tated by water, unless the ether has previously been dried, and then water occasions a turbidness. Nitrate of silver does not precipitate it. When burned, muriatic acid fumes are liberated, but the greater part of the chloride remains in the capsule. It is soluble in the volatile oils, and on evaporation is again obtained in crystals. It is also readily soluble in fixed oils. The solutions when heated liberate muriatic acid gas, and the oil be- comes of a dark colour, as if charred. Solutions of the acids and alkalies do not act with any energy on the substance. When boiled with solutions of pure potash aud soda, it rises and condenses in the upper part of the vessel ; and though it be brought down to the alkali many times, and reboiled, still the alkali, when examined, is not found to contain any chlorine, nor is any change produced. Ammonia in solu- tion is also without action upon it. These solutions do not ap- pear to dissolve more of it than pure water. Muriatic acid in solution does not act at all upon it. Strong nitric acid boiled upon it dissolves a portion, but does not de- compose it: as it cools, part of the chloride is deposited unal- tered, and the concentrated acid, when diluted, lets more fall down. The diluted portion being filtered, and tested with nitrate of silver, gives no precipitate. It does not appear to be either soluble in, or acted upon by, concentrated sulphrrie acid. It sinks slowly in the acid, and, when heated, is converted into va- pour, which, rising through the acid, condenses in the upper part of the tube. It is not acted upon by oxygen at temperatures under a red heat. A mixture of oxygen and the vapour of the substance would not inflame by a strong electric spark, though the tem- perature was raised by a spirit-lamp to about 400°. When oxy- gen mixed with the vapour of the substance is passed through a red-hot tube, there is decomposition ; and mixtures of chlorine, carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, and phosgene gases are produced. A portion of the chloride was heated with peroxide of mercury in a glass tube over mercury; as soon as the oxide had given off oxygen, and the heat had risen so high as to soften the glass con- siderably, the vapour suddenly detonated with the oxygen with bright inflammation. The substances remaining were oxygen, carbonic acid, and calomel; and I believe there was no decom- position or action, until so much mercury had risen in vapour as to aid the oxygen by a kind of double affinity in decomposing the chloride of carbon. Chlorine produces no change on the substance, either by ex- posure to light or heat. When iodine is heated with it at low temperatures, the two substances melt and unite, and there is no further action. ven heate of Chlorine and Carbon, fc. 343 heated more strongly in vapour, the iodine separates chlorine, reducing the perchloride to the fluid protochloride of carbon, and chloriodine is produced, This dissolves, and if no excess of iodine be present, the whole remains fluid at common tempera- tures. When water is added, it generally liberates a little iodine ; and on heating the solution, so as to drive off all free iodine, and testing by nitrate of silver, chloride and iodide of silver are obtained. Hydrogen and the vapour of the substance would not inflame at the temperature of 400° Fahr. by strong electrical sparks ; but when the mixture was sent through a red-hot tube, the chloride was decomposed, and muriatic acid gas and charcoal produced. The vapour of the perchloride of carbon readily detonates by the electric spark with a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases; but the gaseous results are very mixed and uncertain, from the near equipoise of affinities that exist among the elements. Sulphur readily unites to it when melted with it, and the mix- ture crystallizes on cooling into a yellowish mass. When heated more strongly, the substance rises unchanged, and leaves the sulphur unaltered; but when the mixed vapours are raised toa still higher temperature, chloride of sulphur and protochloride of carbon are formed. Sometimes there are appearances as if a carburet of sulphur were formed, but of this I have not satisfied myself, Phosphorus at low temperatures melts and unites with the substance, without any decomposition. If heated in the vapour of the substance, but not too highly, it takes away chlorine, and forms the protochlorides of phosphorus and carbon. If heated more highly, it frequently inflames in the vapour with a brilliant combustion, and abundance of charcoal is deposited. Some- times I have had the charcoal left in films stretching across the tubes, and occupying the space where the flame passed. The appearance is then very beautiful. When phosphorus is heated with the vapour of the substance over mercury, so as not to inflame in it, there is generally a small portion of muriatic acid gas formed. If great care be taken, this is in very minute quantity; and its variable propor- tion sufficiently shows, that the hydrogen which forms it does not come from the substance. Iam induced to believe that it is derived from moisture adhering to the phosphorus. The ac+ tion of iodine on phosphorus shows, that it is very difficult to dry the latter substance perfectly. A stick of phosphorus put into the alcoholic or ethereal solu- tion of the perchloride did not exert any action upon it. Charcoal heated in the vapour of the substance appears to have no action upon it. Most 344 On two new Compounds Most of the metals decompose it at high temperatures. Potas- sium burns brilliantly in the vapour, depositing charcoal, and forming chloride of potassium. Iron, zinc, tin, copper, and mercury, act on it at a red heat, forming chlorides of those me- tals, and depositing charcoal; and when the experiments are made with pure substances, and very carefully, no other results are obtained. Some of the substance was passed over iron turn- ings heated in a glass tube. At the commencement of the sub- limation of the chloride through the hot iron, the common air of the vessels was expelled, and received in different tubes; but before one-third of the substance had been passed, all liberation of gas ceased, and the remainder was decomposed by the iron, without the production of any gaseous matters. The different portions of air that were thrown out being examined, the first proved to be common air, and the last carbonic oxide. This had resulted, probably, from the action of the chlorine on the lead of the glass tube. An evident action had taken place, and the oxygen evolved, meeting with the liberated carbon, would produce the carboni¢ oxide. This experiment has been repeated several times with the same results. When the perchloride of carbon is heated with metallic oxides, different results are produced according to the proportions of oxygen in the oxides. The peroxides, as of mercury, copper, lead, and tin, produce chlorides of those metals, and carbonic acid; and the protoxides, as those of zinc, lead, &c. produce also chlorides; but the gaseous products are mixtures of car- bonic acid and carbonic oxide. I have frequently perceived the smell of phosgene gas on passing the chloride over oxide of zinc; and as the substance easily liberates chlorine at high tempera- tures, it will be readily seen how a small portion of that gas may be formed. It also happens, sometimes, that the protoxides be- come blackened from the deposition of charcoal. When the vapour of the chloride is passed over lime, baryta, or strontia, heated red hot, a very vivid’ combustion is produced. The oxygen and the chlorine change places, and both the me- tals and the carbon are burnt. Chlorides are produced, carbonic acid is formed and absorbed by the undecomposed parts of the earths, and carbon is deposited. In these experiments no car- bonic oxide is produced. When passed over magnesia, there is no action on the earth, but the perchloride of carbon is con- verted by the heat into protochloride. In these experiments with the oxides no trace of water could be perceived. Having thus far described the properties of the substance, I shall now give the reasons which induce me to consider it a true chloride of carbon, and shall endeavour to-assign its composition. My of Chlorine and Carbon, Sc. 345 My first object was to ascertain whether hydrogen existed in it or not. When phosphorus is heated in it, a small quantity of muriatic acid is generally formed; but doubt arises as to the cause of its production, from the circumstance that the phos- phorus, as already mentioned, may be the source of the hydrogen. When potassium is heated in the vapour of the substance, there is generally a small expansion of volume, and inflammable gas produced ; but it is very difficult to cleanse potassium both from naphtha and an adhering crust of moist potash; and either of these, though in extremely minute quantities, would give falla- cious results. A more unexceptionable experiment made with iron has been already described; and the inferences from it are against the presence of hydrogen in the compound. Some of the substance in vapour was electrized over mercury by having many hundred sparks passed through it. Calomel was formed, and carbon deposited. A very minute bubble of gas was produced, but it was much too small to interfere with the conclusions drawn respecting the binary nature of the com- pound; and was probably caused by air that had adhered to the sides of the tube when the mercury was poured in. The most perfect demonstration that the body contains no hydrogen, and indeed of its nature altogether, is obtained from the circumstances which attend its formation. When the fluid compound of chlorine and olefiant gas is acted on by chlorine and solar light in close vessels, although the whole of the chlo- rine disappears, yet there is no change of volume, its place being occupied by muriatic acid gas. Hence, as muriatic acid gas is known to consist of equal volumes of chlorine and hydrogen, combined without condensation, it is evident that half the chlo- rine introduced into the vessel has combined with the elements of the fluid, and liberated an equal volume of hydrogen; and as, when the chloride is perfectly formed, it condenses no muriatic acid gas, a method, apparently free from all fallacy, is thus af- forded of ascertaining its nature, I have made many experiments on given volumes of chlorine and olefiant gases. A clean dry retort was fitted with a cap and stop-cock. Its capacity was 25°25 cubic inches. Being ex- hausted by the air-pump, it was filled with nitrogen (24°25 cubic inches being required), and being again exhausted, 5 cubie inches of olefiant gas, and 10 cubic inches of chlorine, were in- troduced. It was then set aside for half an hour, that the fluid compound might form, and afterwards being placed again over a jar of chlorine, 19-25 cubic inches entered; so that the con- densation had been as nearly as possible 10 cubic inches, or twice the volume of the olefiant gas (barometer 29:1 inches). Vol. 59, No, 289, May 1822. X x It 346 On two new Compounds It was now placed for the day (Oct. 18) in the rays of the sun; but the weather was not very fine. In the evening the solid crystalline substance had formed in abundance, and very little fluid remained. When placed over chlorine, not the slightest change in volume had been produced. The stop-cock was now opened under mercury, and a small portion of the metal having entered, it was agitated in the retort, to absorb the chlorine; the neck of the retort was left open under the mercury all night, and the whole agitated from time to time. Next morning (ba- rometer 29-6) the mercury which had entered, being passed into the neck of the retort, stood at a certain mark six inches above the level. of the mercury in the trough, occupying 1°25 cubic inch, and leaving 24 cubic inches filled by the expanded muriatic acid gas and nitrogen. These volumes corrected to the pres- sure of 291 inches give 578 cubic inches for the chlorine ab- sorbed, and 19°47 cubic inches for the muriatic acid gas, &c. These absorbed by water left 1-2 cubic inch of nitrogen; so that the gases in the retort, after the action of solar light, were, Cubic inches. Muriatic acid gas) 4. we we (1827 Chlorine ee ee ee ee 5°78 Nitrogens QC. aig, °.\.0:00- \/sin8'y, fa 1:2 and before that action, Chlorine él GROAN eh) & antl eae OLSANE 08 | .6.0 Abe's i.) cad abl tard BEO Nitrogen Pah bell tittec hihi wtp nee Hence 23°47 cubic inches of chlorine had disappeared, and 9-13 of these had entered into combination with an equal volume of 9:13 cubic inches of hydrogen liberated from the five cubic inches of olefiaut gas, to form muriatic acid ; and, consequently, 14-34 cubic inches of chlorine remained combined with the car- bon of the five cubic inches of olefiant gas. Here, the volume of chlorine actually employed is not quite five times that of the olefiant gas, nor the volume of muriatic acid gas produced, equal to four times that of the olefiant gas; but they approximate ; and when it is remembered that the conversion was not quite perfect, and that the gases used would inevitably contain a slight portion of impurity, the causes of the deficiency can easily be understood, In other experiments made in the same way, but with smaller quantities, more accurate results were obtained: one cubic inch of olefiant gas with 12°25 cubic inches of chlorine, produced by the action of light 3:67 cubic inches of muriatic acid gas, 4-963 of the chlorine having been used. 1°4 cubic inch of olefiant gas with 12°5 cubic inches of chlorine produced 5°06 cubic inches of muriatic acid gas, 6-7 cubic inches of chlorine having been used. of Chlorine and Carbon, &c. 347 used. . Other experiments gave very nearly the same results ; and I have deduced from them, that one volume of olefiant gas re- quires five volumes of chlorine for its conversion into muriatic acid and chloride of carbon; that four volumes of muriatic acid gas are formed; that three volumes of chlorine combine with the two volumes of carbon in the olefiant gas to form the solid crystalline chloride; and that, when chlorine acts on the fluid compound of chlorine and olefiant gas, for every volume of chlo- rine that combines, an equal volume of hydrogen is separated. I have endeavoured to verify these proportions by analytical experiments. The mode I adopted was, to send the substance in vapour over metals and metallic oxides at high temperatures. Considerable care is requisite in such experiments; for if the process be carried on quickly, a portion of fluid chloride of car- bon is formed, and escapes decomposition. The following are two results from a number of experiments agreeing well with each other. Five grains were passed over peroxide of copper in an iron tube, and the gas collected over mercury; it amounted to 3:9 cubic inches, barometer 29°85; thermometer 54° Fahr. Of these nearly 3:8 cubic inches were carbonic acid, and rather more than 1 of a cubic inch was carbonic oxide. These are nearly equal to +5004 of a grain of carbon. Hence, 100 of the chloride would give 10 of carbon nearly, but by calculation 100 should give 10:19. The difference is so small as to come within the limits of errors in experiment. Five grains were passed over peroxide of copper in a tube made of green phial glass, and the chlorine estimated in the same manner as before. 17°7 grains of chloride of silver were obtained equal to 4°36 grs. of chlorine. This result approaches much nearer to the calculated result than the former ; but there had still been action on the tube, and a minute portion of the sub- stance had passed undecomposed, and condensed at the opposite end of the tube in crystals. Experiments made by passing the perchloride over hot lime or barytes, promise to be more accurate and easy of performance. In the mean time, the above analytical results will, perhaps, be considered as strong corroboration of the opinion of the nature of the compound, deduced from the synthetical experiments 5 and the composition of the perchloride of carbon will be Three proportions of chlorine «+ «2 = 100°5 Two dittocarbon .«. «+ ee oe =II'4 ' 111-9 Protochloride of Carbon. Having said so much on the nature of the perchloride of car- Xx 2 bon, 348 On two new Compounds bon, I shall have less occasion to dwell on the proofs that the compound I am about to describe, is also a binary combination of carbon and chlorine. When the vapour of the perchloride of carbon is heated to dull redness, chlorine is liberated, and a new compound of that ele- ment and carbon is produced. This is readily shown by heating the bottom of a small glass tube, containing some of the per- chloride in a spirit lamp. The substance at first-sublimes ; but as the vapour becomes heated below, it is gradually converted into protochloride, and chlorine is evolved. It is not without considerable precaution that the protochlo- ride of carbon can be obtained pure; for though passed through a great length of heated tube, part of the perchloride frequently escapes decomposition. The process I have adopted is the fol- lowing : Some of the perchloride is introduced into the closed end of a tube, and the space above it, for 10 or 12 inches, filled with small fragments of rock crystal; the part of the tube beyond this is then bent up and down two or three times, so that the angles may form receivers for the new compound ; then heating the tube and crystal to bright redness, and dipping the angles in water, the perchloride is slowly sublimed by a spirit lamp, and, on passing into the hot part of the tube, is decomposed; a fluid passes over, which is condensed in the angles of the tube, and chlorine is evolved; part of the gas escapes, but the greater - portion is retained in solution by the fluid, and renders it yellow. Having proceeded thus far, by the careful application of a lamp and blow- pipe, the bent part of the tube may be separated from that within the furnace, and the end closed, so as to form a small retort; and on distilling the fluid four or five times from one angle to the other, all the chlorine may be driven off without any loss of the substance, and it becomes limpid and colour- less. It still, however, always contains some perchloride, which has escaped decomposition ; and, to separate this, | have boiled the fluid until the tube was nearly full of its vapour, and then closing the end that still remained open, by a lamp and blow- pipe, have afterwards left the whole to cool. It is then easy, by collecting all the fluid into one end of the tube, and introdu- cing that end through a cork into a receiver, under which a very small flame is burning, to distil the whole of the fluid at a tem- perature very little above that of the atmosphere. The solid chloride being less volatile does not rise so soon, and the pure protochloride collects at the external end of the tube. ‘To as- certain its purity, a drop may be placed ona glass plate; it will immediately evaporate, and if it contains perchloride, that sub- stance will be left behind; otherwise, no trace will remain on the glass. ‘The presence or absence of free chlorine may be as- certained of Chlorine and Carbon, &c. 349 certained by dissolving a little of the fluid in alcohol or ether, and testing by nitrate of silver. The pure protochloride of carbon is a highly limpid fluid, and perfectly colourless. Its specific gravity is 1-5526. It is a non- conductor of electricity. I am indebted to Dr. Wollaston for the determination of the refractive power of this chloride, and for the approximation to the refractive power given of the perchlo- ride. In the present case it is 14875, being very nearly that of camphor. It is not combustible except when held in a flame, as of a spirit lamp, and then it burns with a bright yellow light, much smoke, and fumes of muriatic acid. It does not become solid at the zero of Fahrenheit’s scale. When its temperature is raised under the surface of water to be- tween 160° and 170°, it is converted into vapour, and remains in that state until the temperature is lowered. When heated more highly, as by being passed over red-hot rock crystal in a _glass tube, a small portion is always decomposed ; nearly all the fluid may, however, be condensed again ; but it passes slightly coloured, and the tube and crystal are blackened on the surface by charcoal. 1 am uncertain whether this decomposition ought not to be attributed rather to the action of the glass at this high temperature than to the heat alone. It is not soluble in water, but remains at the bottom of it in drops, for many weeks, without any action. It is soluble in alcohol and ether, and the solutions burn with a greenish flame, evolving fumes of muriatic acid. It is soluble in the volatile and fixed oils. The volatile oils containing it burn with the emission of fumes of muriatic acid. When the solutions of it in the fixed oils are heated, they do not blacken or evolve fumes of muriatic acid. It is therefore pro- bable, that when this happens with the solution of the perchlo- ride in fixed oils, it is from its conversion by the heat into proto- chloride and the liberation of chlorine. It is not soluble in alkaline solutions, nor do they act on it in some days. Neither is it at all soluble in, or affected by, strong nitric, muriatic, or sulphuric acids. Solutions of silver do not act on it. Oxygen decomposes it at high temperatures, forming carbonic oxide, or.acid, and liberating chlorine. Chlorine dissolves in it in considerable quantity, but has no further action, or only a very slow one, in common day light; on exposure to solar light, a different result takes place. I have only had two days, and those in the middle of November, on which I could expose the protochloride of carbon in atmospheres of chlorine to solar light ; and hence the conversion of the whole of the protochloride was not perfect; but at the end of those two 350 On two new Compounds two days the retorts containing the substances were lined with crystals, which, on examination under the microscope, proved to be quadrangular plates, resembling those of the perchloride of carbon. There were also some rhomboidal crystals here and there. After the formation of these crystals, there was conside- rable absorption in the retort; hence chlorine had combined; and the gas which remained was chlorine unmixed with any thing else, except a slight impurity. The solid body, on ex- amination, was found to he volatile, soluble in alcohol, precipi- table by water, and had the smell and other properties of per- chloride of carbon. Hence, though heat in separating chlorine from the perchloride of carbon produces its decomposition, light occasions its reproduction, Jt dissolves iodine very readily, and forms a brilliant red solu- tion, similar in colour to that made by putting iodine into sul- phuret of carbon, or chloric ether. It does not exert any further action on iodine at common temperatures. ' An electric spark passed through a mixture of the vapour of the chloride with hydrogen, does not cause any detonation ; but when a number are passed, the decomposition is gradually ef- fected, and muriatic acid is formed. When hydrogen and the vapour of the protochloride are passed through a red-hot tube, there is a complete decomposition effected, muriatic acid gas being formed, and charcoal deposited. The mixed vapour and gas burn with flame as they arrive in the hot part of the tube. The vapour of the protochloride detonates readily by the electric spark with a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases, and a com- plete decomposition is effected, It will not detonate with the vapour of water. Sulphur and phosphorus both dissolve in it, but exert no de- composing action at temperatures at, or below, the boiling point of the chloride. The hot solution of sulphur becomes a solid crystalline mass by cooling. Phosphorus decomposes it at a red heat. Its action on metals is very similar to that of the perchloride. When passed over them at a red head, it forms chlorides, and liberates charcoal. Potassium does not act on it immediately at common temperatures; but, when heated in its vapour, burns brilliantly, and deposits charcoal. When passed over heated metallic oxides, chlorides of the metals are formed, and carbonic oxide, or carbonic acid, ac- cording to the state of oxidation of the metal. When its vapour is transmitted over heated lime, baryta, or strontia, the same brilliant combustion is produced as with the perchloride. While engaged in analysing this chloride of carbon, for the purpose of ascertaining the proportions of its elements, | endea- voured, of Chlorine and Carbon, &'c. 351 voured, at first, to find how much chlorine was liberated from a certain weight of perchloride during its conversion into proto- chloride, and for this purpose distilled the perchloride through red-hot tubes into solution of nitrate of silver, receiving the gas into tubes filled with and immersed in the same solution; but I could never get accurate results in this way, from the difficulty of producing a complete decomposition, and also from the form- ation of chloric acid. Five grains of perchloride distilled in this manner gave 4:3 grains of chloride of silver, which are equiva- lent to 1:06 grain of chlorine; but some of the chloride evidently passed undecomposed, and crystallized in the tube. 2°7 grains of the pure protochloride were passed over red-hot pure baryta in a glass tube: a very brilliant combustion with flame took place, chloride of barium and carbonic acid were pro- duced, and a little charcoal deposited. When the tube was cold, the barytes was dissolved in nitric acid, and the chlorine preci- pitated by nitrate of silver. 9:4 grains of dry chloride of silver were obtained = 2°32 grains of chlorine. Other experiments were made with lime, which gave results very near to this, the quantity of chloride being rather less. Three grains of pure protochloride were passed over peroxide of copper heated red-hot in an iron tube, and the gas received over mercury. 3°5 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas came over mixed with +1 of a cubic inch of common air. These 3°5 cubic inches are nearly equal to *449 of a grain of carbon. These experiments indicate the composition of the fluid chlo- ride of carbon to be one proportion of chlorine and one of car- bon, or 33°5 of the former, and 5:7 of the latter. The difference between these theoretical numbers, and the results of the experi- ments, is not too great to have arisen from errors in working on such small quantities of the substance. A mixture of equal volumes of oxygen and hydrogen was made, and two volumes of it detonated with the vapour of the proto- chloride in excess over mercury by the electric spark. The ex- pansion was very nearly to four volumes; of these, two were muriatic acid, and the rest pure carbonic oxide: and calomel had been formed, its presence being ascertained by potash. Hence it appears, that one volume of hydrogen and half a volume of oxygen had decomposed one proportion of the protochloride, forming the two volumes of muriatic acid gas and one volume of carbonic oxide; and that at the intense temperature produced within the tube by the inflammation, the rest of the oxygen and the mercury had decomposed a further portion of the substance, giving rise to the second volume of the carbonic oxide, and to the calomel. A mixture of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen 352 On two new Compounds oxygen was made, and three volumes of it detonated with the vapour, as before. After cooling, the expansion was to six volumes, four of which were muriatic acid, and two carbonic oxide. There was no action on the mercury in this experiment. Again, five volumes of the same mixture being detonated with the vapour of the substance, expanded to 9°75 volumes, of which 6:25 were absorbed by water and were muriatic acid, and 3°5 were carbonic oxide mixed with a very smail portion of air in- troduced along with the fluid chloride. These experiments, I think, establish the composition of the protochloride of carbon, and prove that it contains one proportion of each of its ele- ments. From a consideration of the proportions of these two chlorides of carbon, it seems extremely probable that another may exist, ‘composed of two proportions of chlorine combined with one of carbon. I have searched assiduously for such a compound, but am undecided respecting its production. When the fluid proto- chloride was exposed with chlorine to solar light, crystals were formed, as before described. The greater number of these were certainly the perchloride first mentioned in this paper ; but when the retort was examined by a microscope, some rhomboidal ery- stals were observed here and there among those of the usual dendritic and square forms. These may, perhaps, be the real perchloride; but I had not time, before the season of bright sunshine passed away, to examine minutely what happens in these circumstances; and must defer this, with many other points, till the next year brings more favourable weather. Compound of Iodine, Carbon, and Hijdroen The analogy which exists between chlorine and iodine natu- rally suggested the possible existence of an iodide of carbon, and the means which had succeeded with the one element offered the best promise. of success with the other. Iodine and olefiant gas were put in various proportions into _ retorts, and exposed to the sun’s rays. After a while, colourless crystals formed in the vessels, and a partial vacuum was pro- duced. The gas in the vessels being then examined, was found to contain no hydriodic acid, but only pure olefiant gas. Hence, the effect had been simply to produce a compound of the iodine with the olefiant gas. The new body formed was obtained pure by introducing a so- lution of potash into the retort, which dissolved all the free io- dine; the substance was then collected together and dried. It is a solid white crystalline body, having a sweet taste and aro- matic smell. It sinks readily in sulphuric acid of specific gra- vity 1°85, It is friable; is not a conductor of electricity. When heated, of Chlorine and Carbon, &c. 353 heated, it first fuses, and then sublimes without any change. Its vapour condenses into crystals, which are either prismatic, or in plates. On becoming solid after fusion, it also crystallizes in needles. The crystals are transparent. When highly heated it is decomposed, and iodine evolved, It is not readily combus- tible; but when held in the flame of a spirit lamp, burns, dimi- nishing the flame, and giving off abundance of iodine, and some fumes of hydriodic acid. It is insoluble in water, or in acid and alkaline solutions. It is soluble in alcohol and ether, and may be obtained in crystals from these solutions, The alcoholic so- lution is of a very sweet taste, but leaves a peculiarly sharp biting sensation on the tongue. Sulphuric acid does not dissolve it. When heated in the acid to between 300° and 400°, the compound is decomposed, appa- rently by the heat alone ; and iodine anda gas, probably olefant gas, are liberated. Solution of potash acts on it very slowly, even at the boiling point, but does gradually decompose it. This substance is evidently analogous to the compound of olefiant gas and chlorine, and remarkably resembles it in the sweetness of its taste, though it differs from it in form, &c. It will with that body form a new class of compounds, and they - will require names to distinguish them. The term chloric ether, applied to the compound of olefiant gas and chlorine, did not at any time convey a very definite idea, and the analogous name of iodic ether would evidently be very improper for a solid crystal- line body heavier than sulphuric acid. Mr. Brande has sug- gested the names of bydriodide of ‘carbon, and hydrochloride of carbon, for these two bodies. Perhaps, as their general pro- perties range with those of the combustibles, while the specific nature of the compound is decided by the supporter of combus- tion which is in combination, the terms of hydrocarburet of chlorine, and hydrocarburet of iodine, may be considered as ap- propriate for thein. , As yet I have not succeeded in procuring an iodide of carbon, but I intend to pursue these experiments in a brighter season of the year, and expect to obtain this compound. LXXIII. An Analysis of Mr. Barty’s Astronomical Tables and Remarks for the Year 1822. By Grorc& Harvey, Mem- ber of the London Astronomical Society. To Dr. Tilloch. Sin,— Lux celebrated astronomer SCHUMACHER lately pub- lished at Copenhagen certain Astronomical Tables for the years Vol. 59, No. 289: May 1822, Yy 1820 354 An Analysis of Mr. Baily’s Astronomical Tables 1820 and 1821, and entitled Astronomische Hilfstafeln; and which have been considered by many astronomers as of the highest importance and value. In consequence however of their not reaching this country until more than half the current year for which they were intended had expired, Mr. Baity, witha generous and disinterested zeal which merits the highest praise, resolved to prepare a set of similar tables, prior to the com- mencement of the present year, at his own expense, and to pre- sent copies of the same to his scientific friends. Mr. Batty, it appears, only formed this resolution in September last, so that three months only remained, to collect, arrange, compute, and print such tables as appeared to him the best adapted to the general purposes of the practical astronomer. And with what success he has completed this important undertaking, every astronomer who possesses a copy, must have ample and satisfac- tory means of judging ; and if I might be allowed to express my individual feelings on the subject, it would be that Mr. B. de- serves the warmest and best thanks of the astronomical world. It may however be possible, that some of the readers of your valuable Journal may not yet have had an opportunity of seeing Mr. Baity’s Fables; and I may, therefore, not be rendering an unacceptable service to them, if I endeavour to give a brief ana- lysis of their contents, The volume consists of three parts, the first of which presents a preface detailing the objects of the publication ; the second contains explanations of the nature and uses of the tables; and the third is devoted to the tables themselves. It is an analysis of the two latter, which I intend to offer to your readers. The first table contains a list of the principal occultations of fixed stars by the moon, visible at Florence, distinguishing the day, the name or number of the star, its magnitude, the cata- logue from which it is taken, its right ascension and declination, and the time of its iinmersion and emersion. This table Mr. Baity obtained from Baron Zacn’s Correspondance Astronomique ; and although, from its being calculated for the meridian and pa- rallel of Florence, it is not adapted to Greenwich, it will be found, even in its present form, of much service to the practical astro- nomer, and will moreover convince him of the information he would derive from a table calculated for the latter place. It contains nearly 250 occultations, and all the small stars have been rejected, excepting such as take place within a few days of anew moon. The table occupies nine pages. The second table is.more general in its nature than the for- mer, and may be regarded as a kind of supplement to it. It contains a list ofall the stars, from the Catalogue of Prazzi, near which the moon will pass, in her several lunations, during the a lo ‘ and Remarks for the Year 1822. 305 the present year; and which of course may exhibit an oeculta- tion in some part of the world. It contains the same number of pages as the preceding. Daring the present and several of the following years, the cluster of stars called the Pleiades will present some singular facilities to the practical astronomer, on account of the moon’s nodes being so situated, that she will pass over this beautiful cluster every lunation; and hence Mr. Barty has introduced Jeaurut’s Catalogue of the 64 stars which compose it, into his third table, reduced to the first day of the present year. This catalogue contains the synonyms, the last. mentioned astrono- mer’s number and magnitudes of the different stars, their right ascensions in time and degrees, and their deelinations, The phenomenon above alluded to, will afford a very favourable op- portunity for enabling astronomers to illustrate the method pro- posed by Cacnont, for determining the figure of the Earth, by means of occultations of the fixed stars by the Moon*. This table is accompanied by a chart, exhibiting the several positions of the stars, with their comparative magnitudes. This beauti- ful cluster has at all times attracted the attention of astronomers, KepLer gave a chart of them in 1653; La Hire in 1693 ; Cassini and Miratpt in 1708, and Ouruirr in 1770. The fourth table occupies 17 pages, and will be found very useful, It contains the mean places of all the stars visible in this latitude, above the 5th magnitude, with their annual ¥aria- tions, deduced from the observations of Brapiey and Pazar, agreeably to the formula given by Besse in his Fundamenta Astronomia. The fifth table contains all those stars inserted in the preced- ing table, within 30° of*the equator, arranged in the order of their declinations. It occupies 3ix pages. The sixth table is devoted to the mean places of 36 principal "stars for January 1, 1822, being those which are more particu- larly recorded in observatories. Their right ascensions are re- corded, both according to M. Brssrx and Mr. Ponp. The seventh table contains the apparent places of the stars recorded in the preceding table, for every 10th day of the year; and from the differences being annexed, the value for any inter- mediate day may he readily deduced. This table has been * In the year 1819 Mr. Batty, with the same liberal spirit as led to the publication of the present tables, printed for gratuitous circulation, the able aid interesting Memoir of CaGnou on the Figure of the Earth. This Memoir appeared originally in the Transactions of the Italian Society (Memorie di Matematica e di Fisica della Societa Italiana, Tom. vi. V erona, 1792). Although printed so many years ago, it does not appear to have attracted much attention, until the appearance of Mr. Bagxy's translation. Yy2 computed 356 An Analysis of Mr. Baily’s Astronomical Tables computed from the tables recently published by M. Besse in. the fifth part of his Asfronomische Beobachtungen, published at Konigsberg in 1820. Mr. Barty properly observes with respect to this table, * that it is difficult to account for the general con- - sent which seems to have existed amongst astronomers, to ob- serve more particularly those 36 stars, and which have thus ac- quired the name of fundamental stars; because they by no means furnish the best arrangement that might be made; some others might have been selected, more generally distributed over the heavens.”” Both M. Besser, and our own AsTRONOMER Roya, now make daily observations on every star above the fifth magnitude, a practice which immortalized the names of BraD_ey and Pazzi. Table the eighth contains four pages devoted to the apparent place of the pole star, for every day of the year, at the time of its upper culmination. This table was computed by Dr. Struve, the director of the Observatory at Dorpat in Livonia, from the tables of M. Besse before alluded to. The ninth table contains a comparison of the mean right ascensions of the 36 principal stars given in the sixth table. Of the five columns which compose this table, the first contains the latest observations of Dr. MasKELYNE, with the old transit in- strument, and the remaining columns contain the results of Mr. Ponp’s observations, with the new transit instrument. Dr. MaskELYNE’s observations correspond with those of Mr. Ponp, for the year 1816, with singular accuracy ; but those for 1817, 1818, and 1819 present some remarkable variations. The tenth table contains a comparison of the mean north polar distances of 34, principal stars, on January 1, 1822, as deduced from the observations of the ASTRONOMER RoyaL, with the mural circle, during the years 1812, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, and 20. Columns are also added, to exhibit the differences Le- tween these different years. In the eleventh table will be found a list of all the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites visible at Greenwich. This table has been deduced by Mr. Batty, from the Connaissance des Tems for _ 1822, by, allowing for the difference of the meridians. The computers of the latter work deduced the same from the tables of DELAMBRE, published in 1817, There is a column also in this table, to denote the distance of the satellite from Juprrer’s limb, at the moment of its reappearance, in terms of the planet’s diameter, which is regarded as unity; the distance bemg mea- sured, either in a line with the planet’s equator, or ina line pa- rallel thereto, In the twelfth table, the apparent obliquity of the ecliptic and the equation of the equinoxes are given, for the first day of every month and Remarks for the Year 1822. 357 month, and deduced from the observations of M. BEssEL: a noble proof of the unceasing Jabour of the Konigsberg astronomer. The thirteenth table will be regarded as of a novel but useful kind. It contains an ephemeris of the comet which is. expected to return in the present year, calculated by M. Encke. It is calculated on two different hypotheses. According to the first, the passage of the perihelion will be on the 24th of May; and the second, the 25th. One part of the table is devoted to the positions of the comet, lefore the passage of the perihelion, and the other to its positions after. Mr. Baity, when speaking in his preface of the activity of the continental astronomers, makes an eloquent remark, which may not be improperly introduced in this place. If the ap- pearance of a comet,” says he, ‘* is announced on the continent, not only is its course diligently watched, but in a few days its elements are computed, perhaps by several persons; and its or- bit determined, and reserved for future comparisons. © Whilst in this country, it is viewed with silent admiration; and its path vanishes equally from our sight, and our remembrance.” The fourteenth table contains an ephemeris of Venus for se- veral days before and after her inferior conjunction, on the 10th of March; and has been adopted by Mr. Baty, from Scuu- MACHER’S Ephemeris for 1821. The remaining five tables contain similar ephemerides for the oppositions of Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Ceres. Some idea may now be formed of the nature of the tables un- der consideration. Mr. Batty has set an example, which, I de- voutly hope, will not (to adopt the concluding but expressive words of his preface) “ silently expire.”” It would be difficult to estimate the debt of gratitude which the practical astronomers of this country owe to this excellent astronomer, for his un- ceasing efforts to promote the advancement of the noblest of the sciences. In this country, there aremany men of sterling genius, with minds well adapted to astronomical pursuits, who allow their fine and noble powers ro run wild amidst trivial and unimportant pursuits, unconscious that they possess the means of cultivating the practical departments of this science with ability and success. On the other hand, in the lonely solitude of a village, it some- times happens, that there exists a mind gifted with the energies necessary for the prosecution of those lofty pursuits, and who languishes with regret, conscioug of his “ power,”’ but without the means of developing its force. But when such individuals read in the preface to these tables, the account which Mr. Batty has given of the observatory, if it may be so called, of the cele- brated O.seRs, of the MAN who has added two'planets to the glittering triumphs of modern science;—they will no longer me ow 358 An Analysis of Mr. Baily’s Astronomical Tables low their powers to waste their efforts on the toys of science, or consume them with unavailing regrets. ‘ An ordinary room,” says Mr. B. “ is the observatory of this illustrious astronomer.” In this room, ‘he has no instrument fixed in the meridian ;” and what is more remarkable, “ it is impossible from its nature to do so.” * Four instruments constitute the whole of his appa- ratus ; namely, a telescope by DoLLoND, an equatorial telescope by REICHENBAGH, a clock made at Bremen, and a small sextant with artificial horizon.” The eclipse of a star by the cross of a neighbouring tower enables him to obtain his time, and which he corrects, by taking altitudes of some known star with his lit- tle sextant.” In his observatory, the traveller from whose work Mr. B. extracted these facts, saw the sMALL telescope by which this illustrious man | discovered Ceres and Pallas ;—** yet with such slender means,” continues Mr, Batty, “ how vahiaiile have been the services which OLBERs has rendered to astronomy !” Lord Bacon has well delineated in his Novwm Organum, in strong and figurative language, the influence which ‘‘ Idols” have exercised on the progress and improvement of mankind. And in no science, perhaps, has this baneful and improper influence been more powerfully displayed than in Astronomy,—both in its earlier history and in its riper fruits. How many of our popular errors may not be traced to an astronomical source! And even in the present day, is there not a feeling sometimes entertained, ‘‘ that in order to make any observations that can be essentially serviceable to the science, a large and splendid establishment is necessary?” ‘* Nothing however,” continues Mr. Batty, “ is more contrary to the fact.” The fundamental points of astro- nomy do indeed more properly belong to the public observa- tories, where the best instruments and best observers are gene- rally to be found. But there are many other points of a com- parative ature (an attention to which would only distract the public observer) which may be safely left to those private per- sons who have instruments adapted to such particular pur- poses,” Dr. Kircuier, in a little book which onght to be in the hands of every young astronomer, most truly observes, that ‘¢ all arts and sciences are more or less encumbered with errors and pre- judices; and that astronomy is not free from these.” The prin- cipal prejudice, or, to adopt the expressive term of Lord Bacon, the ‘‘idol,” which has confined the study of the minutize of astronomy to the observatories of the State, and of a few opulent individuals, is (the belief) that an immense apparatus of un- wieldy magnitude, extremely costly to purchase, difficult to pro- cure, and troublesome to use, is indispensably necessary to dis- cern what has been described by various astronomers.” I hope,” , and Remarks for the Year 1822. 359 hope,” continues Dr. K. “1 shall succeed in my endeavours to extinguish this vulgar error, and be able to prove, that neither such enormous instruments, nor monstrous magnifying powers, are either necessarily required, or commonly used, and thereby the contemplation of the wonderful and beautiful celestial bodies may Become more general, the science simplified and made easy, and the study of it rendered universally attractive, and no longer confined to the happy few, whose good fortunes will furnish them with such expensive instruments ; and I hope I shall clearly convince the amateurs of astronomy, that all the principal and most interesting phenomena are visible with glasses which are easy to procure, and handy to use; aud that the rationale of telescopes has this in common with other sciences, that what is most worth learning is easiest learned, and is, like all other sciences, reduced to a few clear points.” ** Most of the modern discoveries in astronomy,” continues Dr. K. “ have been made by Dr. HERscHEL; these have not arisen from the wonderful magnitude of his optical machines, but from his indefatigable and matchless perseverance as an observer. Dr. H.’s first catalogue of double stars was made with a New- tonian telescope, of not quite seven feet focus, and with only four inches and a half aperture, charged with a power of 222.” Nothing that I can add, could increase the evidence which these unquestionable facts so decisively establish, That astro- nomy should be more generally, and at the same time more practically cultivated by the humble labourers in science, in this country, no one, however lofty may be his scientific pretensions, will for a moment venture to deny. The true method however to encourage the development of talent of this kind, is to de- stroy the “ idols’ which now cling to the roots and branches of the science ;—to prove, that even the most eminent observers haye not employed instruments and means much beyond the ef- forts of those who move in lower spheres; and that there re- mains a wide and fertile field for diligent research, open to the ardent labours and inquiries of those whose still feebler means prevent them from attempting those observations which form the ground-work and key-stones of the science. > LXXIV. On the best Kind of Steel and Form for a Compass- Needle. By Captuin Henry Katzr, F.R.S.* Ox the return of the first expedition which sailed for the dis- covery of a North-west passage, it appeared, that from the near approach to the magnetic pole, and the consequent diminution of * From the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1821, Part I. the 360 On the best Kind of Steel and Form | the directive force, the compasses on board had become nearly useless. Some of the azimuth compasses employed on that oc- casion were of my own invention; I was therefore anxious that the next expedition, which was about to sail under the command of Lieut. Parry, and which has happily returned with so much honour to those engaged in it, should be furnished with instru- ments of this description, combining as much power and sensibi- lity as possible. It was with this intention alone that I commenced the expe- riments which form the subject of the present paper ; but which I should -not have deemed sufficiently important to be made public, had I not lately, on resuming the inquiry, been led to some results which appeared of sufficient interest, as well as prac- tical utility, to induce me to lay them before the Royal Society. My immediate object was to ascertain the kind of steel and form of needle best calculated to receive the greatest directive energy with the least weight. Two needles were prepared of that kind of steel which is called hlister-steel, and two of spur-steel, the weight of each being sixty-six grains. They were of the form of a long ellipse, in length five inches, and in width halfan inch. One of each kind was pierced, as in the figure below, the weight being made up by additional thickness, This needle, therefore, had much less extent of surface than the solid ellipse. Recollecting to have had in my possession, many years since, a compass of extraordinary power, the needle of which was com- posed of pieces of steel-wire put together in the shape of a rhombus, I caused two needles to be made of this form of a piece of clock-spring, which I understand is of that kind of steel which is called shear-steel. They were shaped as below; in one, the cross piece was of brass, and in the other formed of part of the clock- spring. These needles were, by mistake, made to weigh only 45 grains, In ascertaining the directive force, the balance of torsion of M. Coulomb Pe. for a Compass- Needle. ; 361 M. Coulomb was employed. This instrument, as is well known, consists of a fine wire, attached to an index, moveable round a circle divided into degrees. To the other end of the wire is fixed a cradle, to receive the needle which is the subject of ex- periment. The needle being in the magnetic meridian when the wire has no torsion, is afterwards forced to deviate from it to a. mark distant about 60°, by turning the index, and consequently twisting the wire. The number of degrees passed over by the index will be as the directive force of the needle. The needles which I have described were first made soft, and then hardened merely at their ends; they were not polished, and were magnetised to saturation. Experiment 1. Needles soft, and then hardened at the ends. Nakheel sa capes needle, force. Blister-steel, solid ellipse siephe. ies «ila: oi 909 ————— openellipse .. .. .. 66 520 Spur-steel, solid ellipse .. .. .. .. 66 540 — Open ellipses if. iim retain vey 2060 500 Shear-steel, rhombus .. .. .. «» 49 433 ——— rhombus,with cross pieces of brass 45 435 By the experiments on magnetism mae by M. Coulomb, it appears, that the directive forces of needles of similar form are to each other as their masses; the directive force, therefore, of a needle of the form of a pierced rhombus of 66 grains wouid be expressed, according to the preceding experiments, by 633, From many other experiments, which | regret were not re- gistered at the time, it appeared that shear-steel was capable of receiving the greater magnetic force, and that the pierced rhombus was the best form for a compass-needle. 1 may add, that needles of cast-steel were tried, but were found so very in- ferior as to be at once rejected. My next object was to determine the effect of polish, and of various modes of hardening and tempering the needles. In addition to the former needles, two were made of céock-spring of the pierced rhombus form five inches long, two inches wice, aud weighing 66 grains. One of these was first softened, then hardened at the ends, and left unpolished; the other, as well «s the solid elliptical needle of spur-steel, was hardened through- out, aud polished. The needles were then magnetised to satu- ration. Experiment 2. Directive force Unpolished rhombus, hard at the ends... www, SOD) Polished rhombus, hard throughout .. .. .. .. 3867 Polished elliptical-needle, hard throughout ‘e-iun@ e Vol. 59. No. 289. May 1822. Zz Polished 362 On the best Kind of Steel and Form Polished elliptical-needle, softened in the mid- _Divective force- dle by laying it on ared-hot poker .. .. .. .. 610 Polished rhombus, softened in the middle in the same MIAUHET! em ise}. siti eh wee fe td eee alee Sens The needles were now laid aside till the following day, when the directive force was again examined. j Unpolished rhombus, hard at the ends {Pita io Polished elliptical-needle, softened in the middle .. 625 Polished rhombus, softened in the middle .. .. .. 580 The polished rhombus was now softened throughout ; and the extremities being hardened at a red-heat, the directive force was found to be S00). it is scarcely necessary to say, that the needles were re-magnetised to saturation previous to each experiment. From these experiments I drew the following conclusions : That of the steel I émployed, shear-steel is the best kind for compass-needles. That the best form for a compass-needle is that of a pierced rhombus. That polish has no influence on the directive force. That hardening the needle throughout, considerably dimi- nishes its capacity for magnetism. That a needle soft in the middle, and its extremities hardened at a red-heat, appears to be susceptible of the greatest directive force. That the directive force does not depend on the extent of surface, but on the mass. " _ I might also have inferred, that the needle was capable of a greater directive force when wholly softened and hardened at the extremities, than when entirely hardened and softened in the middle; but it will appear by subsequent experiments, to be detailed, that the difference is probably to be attributed to a dif- ference in the degree of heat to which the needle is exposed in softening it in the middle. My next experiments were made with three needles, two of which were rectangular parallelogranis of equal length and weight, but the one only half the width of the other. ‘The third needle was a pierced rhombus; the whole were made of clock-spring. ~ These needles were made perfectly hard, and magnetised, as was always the case, to saturation. Experiment 3. Needles perfectly hard. eb: orce. Wide parallelogram 1h ee es en Narrow parallelopbram .. .. .. .. 400 Prexced shonibiis ©"... ugha st ser. s , Oae , for a Compass- Needle. 363 An accident happened to these needles, which rendered them unfit for further experiment. It, however, appears from that above stated, that the directive force i is nearly as the mass, and not as the surface; and that the pierced rhombus is supertor to the parallelogram. M, Coulomb having found that a needle of the rhombus form not pierced, and which he calls une lame taillée en fiéche, was susceptible of a greater directive force than a parallelogram, I was/desirous of repeating this experiment, as well as of com- paring this form with the pierced rhombus. For this purpose four needles were made four inches and a half Jong, each weigh- ing 63 grains; one was a parallelogram, 0-44 inch wide; an- other a rhombus, which I shall call the large rhombus, 0-9 wide; the third a pierced rhombus, 1:4 wide in the middle, having its sides 0:2 wide: these were made of clock-spring. The fourth needle a rhombus, which may be called the small rhombus, 0-4 wide, was made of that kind of steel which is used for saw-blades, and which I believe is shear-steel. This last needle was much thicker than the others. The steel of which these needles were made had heen exposed toa sufficient degree of heat to render it soft enough to be worked, and in this state the needles were magnetised. Experiment 4. Steel soft as worked. Directive foree, PMMAUCIOP TAN toe pce sw. Ahead fae say, ov 2U Small rhombus niu hice ce. h visto RILAMR Toe, Large rhombus aie! Ba a Seateta Olea Brerced rhombuser e's ea cc Ps aii retsuly doe uieo Experiment 5. The ends of the needles hardened at an Directive obscure red-heat. force. Parattelogram'?,, (tise 9 237 02.90 .oroy. es PAB Small rhombus HEAT SHVAs, LAST eat) beeeye Large rhombus ale 25 1A GED aK tL Pierced rhombus Bhh dio: JASIb Badd oh 840 Experiment 6. The ends hardened at a red-heat. Directive force. Parallelogram /s9 (0 M0 i ee edd dy 9 P42 Small rhombus DS Mala As ees et eee BO Large rhombus POR ade ret si bik oie tts TAD Pierced rhombus Ln seh OY MEE TI ESP EAET Zz2 Experi- 364 On the best Kind of Steel and Form Experiment 7. Hardened with a bright red-heat, and then softened by a red-heat from the middle toward the ends, the extremities for about an incb remaining hard. Paralleloprand) oss fk oe A ee Small shombus dea Qe hig. legen Large rhombus weliilesdifttot vite er ead Fierebed shombuss au ilow 4. lode: tee | GBS Experiment 8. Softened at a red-heat between two plates of steel, the whole being allowed to cool gradually, and then the extremities of the needles hardened at a red-heat. Rargllelogpain ) sericea sia a saber eatits afte Small rhombus dhe) Carls deipyibanyls yee Large rhombus ve {oe apiiismid tei ele, OE Riercedshombuss 5.95 pirwisove desis: Hew te As it appeared from the above experiments that the needles had suffered a gradual deterioration, I imagined that this might have occurred in consequence of their having been exposed to the heat of a coal fire, by which some portion of the carbon of the steel might have been destroyed: I therefore re-carbonised the needles, by surrounding them with shreds of leather, and ex- posing them for several hours, in a close vessel, to a consider- able heat. After they had gradually cooled, the ends were hard- ened at ared heat. Directive force. Directive force. Experiment 9. ‘ Needles soft, and then the ends hardened at a Directive red heat. force. Small rhombus dap letel, pie, Polk h, coer iargeshombus:<* 64

. [0e os Sarasa Pierced rhombus. .. «- «- ++ + 1080 The needles softened by laying them on a red-hot poker till they passed beyond the blue to a greyish white. This was car- ried to within an inch of their extremities, which remained hard. Experi- 368 On the lest Kind of Steel and Form Experiment 20. Softened from the middle to a greyish white; . Directive ends hard. force. Parallelogram PM Pa ee ee ie oe Rhombus eee ew) ale Tite StS akon Pierced Thomuus: “5s 0. (Si ee The tempering was carried throughout the needles, the paral- lelogram was reserved for another purpose. Experiment 21, Softened throughout to a greyish white. . Directive force. Rhombus EPR R RIA PRPS: BICRPED THPMDUS is ee ne isn, pe ae Experiment 22. Softened throughout to a greyish white, the Directive ends hardened at a red-heat force. Rhombus co Soe as ee SSS ty SR Piereed:rhombus, -s.. -<..°-+..° 7 2ePeSs Experiment 23. Hardened throughout, and then softened to a Directive greyish white, as in Experiment 21]. force. POMS: ..4) ow f,0 \5.0.07-.ben towel aw setae Pierced rhombus... ...- 62 se, «+ 1180 This last series of experiments presents a curious circum- stance. From the experiments made by Coulomb, as well as from the general tenor of my own, the rhombus is found capable of receiving a greater directive energy than the parallelogram; yet here we perceive that the parallelogram, though formed of the very same plate of steel as the other needles, is not only un- der every circumstance superior to the rhombus, but also to the pierced rhombus. It is difficult to form any plausible conjecture as to the cause of this difference. The weight of the rhombus in Experiment 10, made of cleck- spring, was 63 grains; that made of saw- blade weighed 120 grains, or very nearly double. The directive energy of the for- mer, after having suffered great deterioration, and when not tempered in the most favourable manner, compared with the greatest directive energy of the latter, was as 600 to 1210; but if we refer to Experiment 6, it may be seen that the greatest directive energy of the clock-spring rhombus was S44, which gives it an advantage of about one-third in directive energy over a needle of equal weight made of saw-blade. From Experimeut 20, it should seem that a needle is suscep- tible of the greatest directive power, other circumstances being similar, when it is hardened throughout at a red-heat, and theu softened from the middle to within an inch of the extremities, till the blue celour which arises has again disappeared. : —— ] next for a Compass-Needle. 369 I next proceeded to try, in a more regular manner, the effect of different methods of magnetising, and at the same time to ascer- tain whether the directive force was influenced by extent of sur- face, independent of mass. Two needles were made of the same kind of steel, in the form of right angled parallelograms, five inches long, the one 0°7 inch wide, and the other half this width. The widest was reduced in thickness until it was of the same weight as the other, viz. 142 grains. They were in the same state of softness as was necessary to work them. The magnets were placed together perpendicularly on the centre of the needle, their opposite poles being joined; their lower extremities were then separated and kept asunder, by placing a piece of wood,-a quarter of an inch thick, between them, their upper extremities remaining in contact. The magnets were then slid along the needle, backwards and forwards, from end to end: this was re- peated on both sides, till it was conceived the needle must be sa- turated. ee Experiment 24. Directive force. Small parallelogram .. .. 2 655 Large parallelogram .. .. «. 674 The needles were again magnetised in the same manner as he- fore, excepting that the magnets were sepirated at the top by a piece of wood of the same thickness as that at the bottom, Experiment 25. Directive force. Small parallelogram .. «2. «2 595 Large parallelogram .. .. 4. 580 The magnets were placed perpendicularly together on the centre of the needle, and then their lower extremities separated by a piece of wood, to the distance of half the length of the needle, the upper extremities remaining in contact. They were then slid on the needle backwards and forwards, from end to end, as before. Experiment 26. Directive force. Small parallelogram .. .. «2. 760 Large parallelogram .. «.. «2 780 The magnets joined, placed perpendicularly on the centre of the needle, as before, then moved in opposite directions from the centre to the extremities, keeping each magnet perpendicular to the needle; afterwards joined at a distance from the seedle, placed again on its centre, and the operation thus continued, Experiment 27. Directive force. Small parallelogram... .. .. 998 Large parallelogram ,, bod 4 hlbd Remarking that the surface of the small parallelogiam was Vol. 59, No. 289, May 1822, 3A unequal, 370 On the best Kind of Steel und Form unequal, so as to be touched hy the magnet in very few places, I filed it flat, and having reduced the large parallelogram to, the same weizlit, they were magnetised by joining the magnets, placing them perpendicularly on the centre of the needle, se- parating their lower extremities, and carrying them to each end of the needle, the upper ends remaining in contact. Experiment 28. Direc. ive force. Small parallelogram .. 0... 21025 Large parallelogram... .. « L150 The needles were next magnetised, according to the method of Du Hamel, the magnets being inclined at an angle of about 45 degrees, and carried, as before, from the centre to the ends of the needle. Experiment 29. Directive force. Small parallelogram .. .. .. 1070 Large parallelogram .. «2 «. 1170 The magnets forming with the needle an angle of about 20 degrees. Experiment 30. Directive force. Small parallelogram .. «. ws ~—-:1085 _ Large parallelogram ... «2». 1195 Magnets forming an angle with the needle of about two or three degrees. Experiment 31. Directive force. Small parallelogram .. ., «. 1160 Large parallelogram ..) .. = «.-—:1:275 Magnets laid flat on the surface of the needle, and drawn from the centre to the ends. _ Experiment 32. Directive force. Small parallelogram... 4. ee = 1108 Large parallelogram .. 22 «+ ~=—«1261 Magnets forming with the needle an ‘angle of two or three de- grees, their other extremities being connected by a very soft iron wire. Experiment 33. Directive force. Smalliparallelogram 2.0 6.) ee 1145 Large parallelogram ., = .. ..«1263 The iron wire was now removed and the needle magnetised, as before, at an angle of about two or three degrees. Experiment 34. Directive force. Small parallelogram ., «2 «. 1160 Large parallelogram .... = «. 1278 I now hardened both needles throughout at a bright red, and Pn emer Soars ich for a Compass- Needle. 57 then softened them from the middle to within three-quarters of an inch of the ends till the blue had disappeared. This was done by laying the large parallelogram on a red-hot poker, but _ from the thickness of the small parallelogram this heat was found insufficient, and that of a lamp was employed. The needles were then magnetised as in the last experiment. Experiment 35. Directive force. Small parallelogram .. «2... 1815 Large parallelogram .. .. «- 1660 It occurred to me that the heat employed in tempering the large parallelogram might not have been sufficient, it was there- fore exposed to the flame of the lamp, but in doing this, 2 small piece which weighed 10 grains was broken off from its end. It was, however, re-magnetised, and ,the directive force was now found to be increased to 1720. From these last experiments, it appears that the greatest di- rective force was given to the needle when the magnets were in- clined to it in an angle not exceeding two or three degrees, and that this force is little, if at all, influenced by extent of surface ; as I conceive the small difference in favour of the greater surface may be attributed to some difference in the quality of the steel, or its temper, both of which appear to have very considerable influence on the directive force. Two needles, the one five, and the other eight inches long, were cut out of the same plate of steel; they were of equal weight, the short one being of greater width than the other. Being magnetised to saturation, their directive forces were as follow : Experiment 36. Directive force. Long parallelogram .. «2 oe 2275 Short parallelogram .. «. «+ 1198 They were now hardened at a red-heat, and tempered beyond the blue from the middle to within an inch of the extreinities. Experiment 37 Directive force. Long parallelogram .. .. 42 2277 Short parallelogram .. =... =. 1865 If the mean of these two experiments be taken, it will be found, as was observed by Coulomb, that the directive force of a needle of a greater length than five ‘inches is probably as its length. My next object was to repeat the very interesting experiments recently published by Mr. Barlow, proving the attraction of iron on a ship’s compass to be dependent wholly on extent of sur- 3A 2 face, 372 On the best Kind of Steel and Form face. For this purpose I had three cylinders made of soft iron, about two inches and a half in diameter, and nearly the same in height. One of the cylinders was of sheet-iron less than the 20th of an inch in thickness; the second of that kind called chest plate, 0-185 inch thick ; and the third was of solid wrought iron. The first weighed 2760, the second 9376, and the solid cylinder 22929 grains. Previous to the experiments they were all made red-hot, to destroy any accidental magnetism. The compass employed was of a very delicate construction, and the cylinder was so placed that its centre was in the direc- tion of a tangent to the zero of the compass, and at the distance of 4°85 from the southern extremity of the needle. The posi- tion of the cylinder was varied six times, and the following were the deviations of the needle: Sheet iron Chest plate Solid cylinder. cylinder. cylinder. 215’ 2° 50’ Jai 215 3.4 3 15 2 45 3 20 2 57 2’ 3 45 2:50 2.5 3 10 2 oo 2 10 3 30 2 30 Mean .. 2 16 3 16 2 54 Suspecting an error in the experiments with the solid cylinder from an accident which occurred, I repeated the whole with the utmost attention. The position of each cylinder was now varied eight times. Sheet iron Chest plate Solid cylinder. cylinder. cylinder. 2° 3 2°55 3°15 2 22 2 50 rf ak ee 2 32 3 20 3.15 2 20 3 40 — 3 0 1 50 3 40 315 2 45 3 28 2 50 2 45 3 10 2 45 1 55 35 2 58 Mean .. 2 19 3 16 3.4 The surfaces of the cylinders determined by very careful mea- surement were, the sheet iron, 28°54; the chest plate, 30°77 ; and the solid cylinder, 28-94 inches, Reducing the deviations to the same extent of surface, viz. that of the solid cylinder, they become respectively 141, 184, and 184 minutes,. These for a Compass- Needle. | 373 These last results perfectly coincide with the deductions of Mr. Barlow, that the effect of iron on a ship’s compass is as the surface, and is wholly independent of the mass; but that a cer-. tain degree of thickness of the iron (about two-tentis of an inch) is necessary to the complete development of this effect. The following are the principal inferences which may be drawn from the experiments 1 have detailed : That the best material for compass-needles is clock-spring ; but care must be taken in forming the needle to expose it as seldom as possible to heat, otherwise its capability of receiving magnetism will be much diminished. _ That the best form for a compass. needle is the pierced rhombus, in the proportion of about five inches in length to two inches in width, this form being susceptibie of the greatest directive force. That the best mode of tempering a compass-needle is, first to harden it at red-heat, and then to soften it from the middle to about an inch from each extremity, by exposing it to a heat suf- ficient to cause the blue colour which arises again to disappear. That in the same plate of steel of the size of a few square inches only, portions are found varying considerably in their ca- pability of receiving magnetism, though not apparently differing in any other respect. That polishing the needle has no effect on its magnetism. That the best mode of communicating magnetism to a needle, appears to be by placing it in the magnetic meridian, joining the opposite poles of a pair of bar magnets {the magnets being in the same line) and laying the magnets so joined, flat upon the needle with their poles upon its centre ; then having elevated the distant extremities of the magnets, so that they may form an angle of about two or three degrees with the needle, they are to be drawu from che centre of the needle to the extremities, care- fully preserving the same inclination ; and having joined the poles of the magnets at a distance from the needle, the operation is to be repeated ten or twelve times on each surface. That in needles from five to eight inches in length, their weights being equal, the directive forces are nearly as the lengths. That the directive force does not depend upon extent of sur- face, but, in needles of nearly the same length and form, is as the mass, That the deviation of a compass-needle occasioned by the at- traction of soft iron, depends, as Mr. Barlow has advanced, on extent of surface, and is wholly independent of the mass, except a certain thickness of the iron, amounting to about two-tenths of an inch, which is requisite for the complete development of its attractive energy. LXXY. On Oe BY LXXV. On the Apparatus for restoring the Acton of the Lungs in apparent Death. By Joun Murray, F.L.S.M.W.S. @e. To Dr. Tilloch. f Sir, —- I conFEss that I am not a little surprised at a com- munication by ‘Mr. John Moore junior,” in your Number for March last. With saffeient self-complacency this correspondent considers the plan he proposes for restoring the action of the Jungs as ‘* more complete’ than my invention. Mr. John Moore junior is pleased to adopt the form of the syringe which I had done Jong before; aye, and constructed and published too; and he ever condescends to add, that ** it might be well to enclose one of them (t.¢. of the syringes) with a case to contain hot water similar to the description given by Mr. J. Murray.” I never believed myself infallible, or that my invention was ineapable of improvement. [ hope] am not so absurd or unrea- sonable ; but I do fearlessly assert, that his tmprovement, as he insinuates it to be, is one which adds to the complexity of the mechanism without subserving its utility; nay, rather injures the cause it is meant to serve Various plans presented themselves to my mind, before | completed my improved apparatus. A struc- ture somewhat similar to the one now set forth and vaunted by your correspondent Mr. John Moore junior, was immediately rejected, from its complete uselessness. Because, until -natural respiration returns, the air impelled into the lungs and with- drawn, by the propulsion and retrogression of the piston, un- dergoes no change whatever,—ergo, the idea for the necessity of a renewal of the air that is not contaminated is absurd. It was also abandoned on two other conditions ;—the necessity of valves, liable to injury, unequal action, and occasional suspen- sion ;—and, that the instrument with these unnecessary incum- brances was more ponderous, complex, and heavy and difficult in operation. There is no necessity whatever for once turning the stop-cock during the enfire action of the machine, except to free the bronchi@ in the first instance, of the stagnant air reposing on their surface; or, in ordinary cases, to deposit a drop of ether in the lateral cell to be diffused into the included atmosphere, as an eXcitant to rouse the dormant resilience of the lungs; or, again, to receive a drop or two of hot water to impart additional elasticity to the atmospheric air in the cylinder, when the air is too dry. I have said that the oxygenous part of the atmosphere cannot be contaminated until the flux and reflux of the blood are re- stored Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs. 375 stored by the return of the natural movements of the lungs aud diaphragm ; and then the plugs being removed from the nostrils, the mechanism of the apparatus is simply confined 10 aiD- the ° incipient play of the lungs. Thus an inlet for pure air is in- stantly provided, when it is wanted,—and lefore this period there is no necessity whatever for new air. I think your correspondent should have weighed these cir- cumstances before he endeavoured to detract from the merits of the invention; and he should moreover have made himself ac- quainted with the structure of the instrument in its last and im- proved form. As tu the application of the instrument to the purposes of & «« gas blowpipe,” and the exhibition of ‘* nitrous oxide ;” I car have no ambition to claim an interest in such an association. The transition from the resuscitation of human beings, to @ ‘¢gas blowpipe,’’ &c, is so entirely ludicrous, that ] am asto- nished such an erratic fancy should be indulged in, Ihave little to add to my former observations. 1 continue to receive complimentary testimonials of the value of ny inven- tion; and it is cheering to add, that the apparatus, from its ac- knowledged utility, and superiority over the ‘ bellows’’ recom- mended by the Royal Humane Society, is about to be introduced into several infirmaries, &c. It is singular, that all with whom I have conversed, unite in condemning the common apparatus as inefficient, to use the mildest term. [have not found oze its advocate. It stands a rude and barbarous machine ; a disgrace to the scientific genius of our country. The subject of restoring suspended animation | has too long slept in inglorious repose ; aud it is one of the most important and commanding description. In soliciting the aid of Science to a topic pregnant with such interesting results, | can be biassed by by no sinister motive, be- cause Ihave no pecuniary interest to subserye. 1 desire, in re- turn for my bumbje tributary aid in the cause of humanity, ouly a fibre of that feeling which vibrates in the breast of him, who is conscious of having done that which philanthropy approves,— what good men only know, Surely the very numerous cases that have been unsuccessful, and where the appearances and circumstances were so flattering to the presages of hope, should have long ago convinced the Royal Humane Society of the inutility of the common means employed in resuscitation, and operated as a stimulus lor the exertions of intellect, to improve the plan, and eulist Science into the cause. When we see an obstinate adherence to the “ bellows,’’ not- withstanding its rudeness and imperfection, and even the et bability 376 Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs. bability of its being injurious and destructive ;—we may be in- clined to adopt a severe, perhaps, but still a just reproof, ** They are wedded to their idols, let them alone.” The appli- cation of /obacco smoke in the mode recommended, is of a piece with the rest. 1 certainly have reason to complain of the cold reception which my invention received from that quarter, —where it should have been dispassionately considered and cherished ; and I boldly ask, Was it fair that three or four individuals in conclave should have pronounced such a hasty and inconsiderate opinion, before the merits of the invention were calmly weighed and discussed, when twenty times that number of gentlemen eminent in medical ‘skill and scientific talent had on former occasions, without a single dissentient, pronounced it at once “ ingenious” and “ va~ luable ?”’—This sentiment of the Royal Humane Society has been certainly too inconsiderately promulgated.— These individuals were assuredly bound to state the grounds on which their opi- nion was formed and founded; viz. that the “ bellows” were pre- ferable for general purposes. The expense and complemity of the machine were stated as difficulties to its ** general” adoption. Now, as to the former, the bellows and its appendages complete cost 5/. 5s. My ap- paratUs complete in all its parts may be supplied for little more than ONE THIRD of this sum. And as for complexity, I have said, it is simplicity itself. Whereis the difficulty of operating the piston? A child need not be taught it; it is not at all com- parable with the bellows, even in this respect, and in its advan- tages mfiniiely superior, and armed at all points for every case of asphyxia. If the explanatory remarks accompanying the pre- sentation of the instrument to the Royal Humane Society were imperfeet or insufficient, 1 was ready to re- -explain: and re-ex- tend.—1 have no doubt that the valuable Society i in question will see the necessity of reconsidering their opinion, which other- wise might tend most materially to injure their own glorious cause, and prevent useful communications connected with the important question of life. Be it remembered, mine are not. theoretic speculations, but that the instrument was the offspring of rigorous induction, I have never succeeded in a solitary instance in restoring the action of the lungs in inferior animals, by propelling the air through a tube encased with ice. But with air heated to the animal tem- perature my success has been such as to enable me, on just and proper grounds, most heartily to recommend the plan now pro- posed. In four out of five cases it has been successful. My experiments inform me, that there is little probability of the air being forced down the Csophague instead of raising the Epiglottis, On Spade Husbandry. 377 Epiglottis, and passing through that channel. At any rate, a ribbon of tape tied lightly round the neck will prevent it. The stop-cock when required in action is managed as quick as thought. I am sorry that my avocations prevent an extension of these observations. I shall for some time take leave of the subject of respiration and suspended animation, and content myself with recommending in my prelections the invention I have proposed, stating always the yrounds of that recommendation. I have the honour to be, sir, Your obliged and most obedient, May 10, 1822. J. Murray. . . LXXVI. On Spade Husbandry. By Mr. Wm. Fatra. {The following letter from Mr. Falla, detailing the experiments of four suc- cessive years in the cultivation of wheat by the spade, was addressed to Mr. Owen, of Lanark, and is published by him in an appendix to ‘* A Re- port to the county of Lanark of a plan for relieving public distress, and removing discontent, by giving permanent productive employment to the poor and working classes.” We republish it, because the state of agri- culture is such at this moment, that it is of the utmost importance to give every possible publicity to all plans calculated to lighten the burdens, or in any respect alleviate the sufferings of the large portion of the popula- tion engaged in agricultural pursuits; and none can add so much to the stock of knowledge on this subject, as men like Mr. Falla, who take truth and experience for their guides, and who never cease to prefer facts to theories—and a little practical good, to a great deal of hypothetical ad- vantage. | Gateshead, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Nov. 13; 1820. DEAR Sir, —DeEINe persuaded that it is a subject of the very first importance, I readily obey your request to furnish you with the particulars and results of my experiments in the cultivation of land, for the production of wheat, by the spade. {t may not be without its use, previously to detail to you the circumstances that brought my attention to this subject. 1 therefore take the liberty to state, that my principal occupation, for between thirty and forty years past, has been the cultivation of land, chiefly for the raising of trees and seeds for sale ; and finding, as | was ex- tending my concerns in that way, about sixteen or eighteen years ago, a difficulty in procuring a sufficient number of men to work the land with the spade, I substituted the plough in working those parts where a considerable quantity of vacant ground hap- ° pened to lie together, and fancied, that, besides getting through the work with more facility and convenience, which I certainly did, I was doing the work in a manner equal to work done with the spade. The effect of the first use of the plough was not of so much bad consequence as when repeated ; the beating of the Vol, 59, No, 289, May 1822. 3B subsoil 378 On Spade Husbandry. subsoil by the horses’ feet, together with the action of the irom bottom of the plough, not having at first the miserable effect of making the bottom of the worked ground hard and firm, like a turnpike road; the continued successive use of the plough, how- ever, soon showed the bad effect, in the diminished health and vigour of the trees, &c. Fortunately this observation was made when men for spade work were easier to be obtained, than at the period when the use of the plough was adopted, and in part then, but entirely since, I have laid it aside in all my nursery operations. In the use of the spade J produce a depth of well-worked earth of nine to ten inches, which is more than twice that of the plough, as used in the counties of Durham and Northumberland; and instead of the hardened level bottom, not easily, if at all, pene- trable, in our strong clayey subsoils, by either superfluous mois- ture, or the roots of plants, I obtain a loose broken bottom, conceived to be a particularly favourable cireumstance in such soils. Soon after, or rather during the time that my practice was changing from the use of the plough to that of the spade, I re- ceived a letter from a gentleman of great respectability, and ae- eurate observation, in Yorkshire, expressing himself strongly im- pressed with an opinion, that if garden culture with the spade were introduced into farming, very great addition might be made to the produce of the said land as worked by the plough ; and that the full energies of the land will never be called forth till the spade is made to supersede the plough; asking for my opinion and any observations I might have made on the subject, detailing, at the same time, the particulars of an experiment in wheat with spade culture, which had been made a good many years before, at Nottingham, the produce of which was beyond all example. This information, so strongly corroborating my own observations, confirmed me in my practice of the use of the spade for nursery purposes, and stimulated me to the extension of it, and to the making of experiments of the same kind. The Nottingham experiment having been made with plants of wheat raised upon garden beds, and from thence transplanted into lines, [ began with an adoption of the same mode; I sowed the wheat in beds in the month of August, and transplanted the same in September and October,—the distance of the lines from each other was, in one experiment, nine, and in another twelve _ inches—placing, in both cases, twelve plants per yard in the lines. These experiments I made two successive years, and the least _ produce was fifty-two bushels, and the greatest sixtv bushels, Winchester, peracre. ‘The quantity of ground under these expe- riments was half an acre each year, which I think may be con- sidered On Spade Husbandry. 379 sidered a pretty fair quantity for an experiment; perhaps a much smaller one would not be so. The digging, as at my common nursery price, costs fourpence per rood, of forty-nine square yards (the rood of this country) or thirty-three shillings per acre; the transplanting, fourpence half- penny per thousand ; but there is a great saving of seed, from one to two pecks of wheat producing as many plants as are suffi-’ cient to plant an acre, whereas the usual quantity for plough cultivation, sown broadcast, is eight pecks, or two bushels per acre. The following, on these daéa, is a calculation of the ex- pense of cultivating one acre in this way, supposing the lines nine inches asunder : Digging sat gee re: Transplanting 232, 323 plants at 43d, Pe 1000 4 7 12 Two pecks of seed wheat .. . ale 0 4.6. Total «0G SA RE During the time of making these experiments, it occurred to me, that probably the increased quantity of wheat, produced in this way, arose more from the deep working of the land by the spade, than. from the circumstance of transplantation; and I added to the transplanting experiments, for the two past seasons, others, in which the wheat was sown both in drills and broad- cast, the land in all the cases worked in the same manner by the spade, and the following are the results : Crop 1819. bushels p. acre. No. 1 transpl. from the seed-bed into 6 in. lines, produced 624 —2 do. 9 do. do. 56; 3 —3 do. 12 do. do. 61” — 4 sown in drills 9 do. do. 65 — 5 sown broadcast do. 583 Crop 1820. No. | transpl. from the seed-bed into 6 in. lines, produced 68! —2 do. 9 do. do. 68: —3 do. 12 do. do. 602 —-~ 4 sown in drills 9 do, do. 734 —- 5 sown broadcast do. 76} I must here state, that a portion of No. 4, in the last detailed set of experiments, was laid down by wet, when in flower, and proved very abortive, otherwise I have little doubt that No, 4 (as in the former year) would have exceeded No. 5 in quantity 5 and a considerable part of the wheat of Nos. 1, 2, and 3, was shaken out by the wind, and destroyed by birds, to the amount probably of five or six bushels per acre. With relation to denominations of Winchester measure, com- 3B 2 pared 380 On Spade Husbandry. pared with those of Scotland, I have to observe, that the Win- chester bushel contains thirty-two quarts, and the quarter eight bushels, also that a boll Linlithgow, or Edinburgh measure, con~ tains, within quite a small fraction, four bushels Winchester. I have already stated the expense of cultivating by spade work, and transplanting from a seed-bed, in lines nine inches asunder, one acre of wheat; I will now state the expense of one acre in drill, and also broadcast : Digging om Ae og 40 ee Seed wheat, two bushels per acre ., ve. ae “Q £211 0 If sown broadcast, and the seed is harrowed in by a horse, say 2s. per acre; if raked in with a garden rake, it will cost .. is 0 4 0 £2 15 0 If sown in drills, and the drills made with a garden hoe, it will cost 4s. per acre more, but a larger saving than that expense will be made iu the quantity of seed, compared with the broad- cast method, . I now take the liberty to state, what I conceive is the com- parative expense of cultivating an acre of land by the plough, and in the first place I have no difficulty in asserting, that one digging, as [ have it done (leaving the extra depth out of the question at present) is equal to three ploughings and harrowings; 1 believe I may also state, that the ploughing each time of an acre is calculated to cost 8s. and the harrowing 2s.—Jf this is allowed, an acre in this way costs Three ploughings and harrowings, at 10s, £1 10 O° Seed wheat, two bushels per acre ¥— OTe Harrowing the seed in .. une a O-2Fa0 £210 0 Thus it appears that the cultivation of an acre of wheat by the spade, costs only 5s. more than by the plough. In respect to the comparison of expense between wheat transplanted and sown on land worked by the spade; from the two last years’ ex- periments (the expense of transplanting being of course taken into the question) there can be no doubt that sowing is the better system, and that the advantage over the plough, is from the deep and otherwise superior working of the land by the spade. The comparative advantage of produce is now to be stated ; the average produce of wheat of the whole island, taking an average of seyen years, is said to be twenty bushels per oe ie On Spade Husbandry. 381 The average of my neighbourhood, I believe, is about twenty- four bushels, but instead of making that a criterion by which to make the comparison, I have to state, that in the autumn of 1819 a good deal of pains was taken to ascertain the quantity of wheat upon a field immediately adjoining my land, and which was what is considered a remarkably fine crep, by which it ap- peared to be thirty-eight bushels per acre; this was on land, although adjoining, yet of a naturally better quality than mine, and quite as highly manured, worked, in the usual manner of this country, with a two-horse plough, and sown broadcast. By inspection it will be seen, that the average quantity of my drilled and broadcast experiments in 1819 and 1820, is 68} bushels per acre : the value of seed wheat has been assumed to be 9s. per bushel, I will however for a whole crop take it lower, say 8s. per bushel; the comparison in respect to value will then stand thus per acre: By the spade, 684 bushels per acre at 8s. £27 8 0 By the plough, 38 bushels per acre at 8s. 15 4 0 The difference is 12). 45.0 being an advantage gained by the extra expense of 5s. It is of much importance, on this very interesting subject, that every circumstance connected with the experiments should be known; I therefore state, that the quality of my land on’ which they were made, although naturally poor, is of that mid- dle texture that will grow the two extremes of turnips and beans; that, at the distance of 10 or {2 miles from Newcastle, it would be let for, at most, 30s. per acre; that when | got possession of it, there were not above 4 to 6 inches of earth, upon a subsoil of clay; that every year it has been worked, I have brought up to the surface a small quantity, say one inch of the said subsoil, and that I have now a depth of earth of one foot, the whole equal, or more than equal, to the quality of the 4 to 6 inches upon it, when I first had it;—further, that my experiments for crop 1519 were made after a crop of turnip seed, the land pre- viously manured for the turnips, before the seed was sown, after the rate of 20 tons of stable dung per acre, no additional dung used for the turnips, when transplanted, nor for the wheat crop, the plants and seeds respectively, for the different experiments of which wheat crop, were planted and sown at the same time in September. The land upon which the experiments for crop 1820 were made, had previously upon it a three years’ crop of trans- planted larches, which of course not ,a little exhausted it; the larches were followed by turnips for seed, a two years’ crop, as in the former case, and, as will be allowed, a very exhausting one ; this land had an allowance of 20 tons of stable manure per acre, applied 382 On Spade Husbandry. applied when the turnip seed was sown, and no more added when they were transplanted: but, considering the state of the Jand, from the effect of the larches and the turnip seed, it. was thought that justice would not be done to the wheat without an application of a smaller portion of the same sort of manure, and I gave it 10 tons per acre. I have not yet made any experiments, by spade culture, on oats and barley, but I am intending to make one or more upon each of those grains, and perhaps on beans, the ensuing spring : I am at present digging part of one of my fields for that purpose, the results of which shall be detailed to you. Being desirous of ascertaining how far, and at what expense, it may be practicable to work land by the spade, by women, boys, girls, and feeble old men, in order, among cther reasons, to the employment of paupeis of that description, in which, alas! this country, south of the Tweed, superabounds; I-have this autumn made an experiment on a piece of Jand containing 1728 square yards, by digging or rather trenching by two short spits with girls, and I have the pleasure of saying tnat the work is better done by two such short spits, each about five to six inches deep, the one following the other, than digging is done by men at one full spit or spade full, about nine to ten inches deep. The com- mon wages I pay to these girls is 10d. per day, and they did the work in nineteen days, for one girl, which cost 15s. 10d. : —an acre at the same rate, containing 4840 square yards, would cost 2/. 4s. 4d., this is lls. 4d. per acre more than by men at one spit, but I am satisfied that the superiority of the girls’ work is well worth the difference: I may add, that this being the girls’ first attempt with spades, I am persuaded that by further practice they would in a short time do it for the men’s price, 33s. The girls work with quite light spades made for the purpose, the best size for which I think to.be 93 inches long, S inches broad, and weighing, with the light handle, about 47 Ibs. " avoirdupois. tr. A few months ago I took the liberty of stating to you, that as a parochial concern, for the employmeut of the poor, at pre- sent dependent on their respective parishes for relief, your sys- tem might be adopted with very great effect ; and one principal object, as I have already said, in making the last detailed experi- ment, was to ascertain how far it is practicable to employ, in the cultivation of the soil, persons who are so dependent on parish relief, of the descriptions of women, boys, girls, and feeble old men, at present doing little more than sitting over the poor- house fire; the greatest part of whom miay, as it is now ascer- tained, be employed to great effect in the heaviest manual la- bour, in the cultivation of the soil; and of course in the easier operations On Spade Husbandry. 383 operations of hoeing, weeding, &c. I think I may venture to add, that there need be little doubt entertained that there are few even of such, at present, miserable objects, who would not be able in that way to earn a maintenance, and, were such a measure generally adopted, the poor’s rates in England, at pre- sent said to amount to eight millions, reduced to perhaps one fourth of that sum. A better arrangement might probably be thought of than what has occurred to me, which is, that the pa- rish, according to the extent of its wants, shall purchase, say from twenty to fifty or more acres of land, build upon it cottages to the necessary extent, employ a proper person to lay out the ground in the best manner for the purpose, see the poor set to work, and that they do the same in a proper manner through all its operations; also that each does a day’s work, according to individual! ability; and that such as are not able to dig, rake, &c. be employed in other more easy operations, as the weather and their ability may permit. Before I conclude, there is one more strong argument in fa- vour of spade husbandry which must be noticed. As far as that mode may be adopted, there will of course be a saving of land for the production of food for man, which is now appropriated to the keeping of horses; and I believe that few persons are aware, that the quantity of land necessary for the keening of a horse is, as may be very easily made to appear, 44 acres; [am meaning a quality of land similar to mine, as already described ; which quantity, it may be very clearly made to appear, will afford subsistence for nine persons, on the supposition of a common proportion of men, women, and children, and this under the husbandry of the plough: but on the supposition of spade cul- ture, that quantity of land will produce sufficient subsistence for more than twelve persons. Should it be objected that a serious inconvenience may arise from the want of the present supply of manure from horses, the difficulty will be easily obviated by keeping more horned cattle, and by means of an almost-religious attention (as in China) to the preservation of perhaps the best and most powerful of all manures, human urine, which at present is, in this island, almost entirely lost. I am, with sentiments of the greatest respect, dear sir, very sincerely yours, WIvutAM Facua, To Robert Owen, Esq. LXXVII, No- { 384 4 LXXVII. Notices respecting New Books. Recently published. Tue Fossils of the South Downs; or Illustrations of the Geo- logy of Sussex. By Gideon Mantell, F.L.S. G.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. Royal 4to, with 42 Plates. 3/, 3s. in Boards. A New and Classical Arrangement of the Bivalve Shells of the British Islands. By W. Turton, M.D. 4to, with 20 Plates, drawn and coloured from Original Specimens in the Author’s Cabinet. Price 4/. Remarks on the present Defective State of the Nautical Al- manack. By Francis Baily, F.R.S. and L.S. 8vo, 2s. Practical Observations on the Nautical Almanack and Astro- nomical Ephemeris, with Arguments proving that it was not originally designed for the sole Improvement of Nautical Astro- nomy. By James South, F.R.S. 8vo. 4s. First Elements of the Theory of Series and Differences, being an Attempt to combine into one harmonious Whole, resting upon the simple Basis of Addition and Subtraction, the several Theo- rems taught in this important Branch of Mathematical Science by Pascal, Newton, Taylor, De Moivre, Lagrange, and others. 4to. 1s. Observations on a General Iron Rail-way: with a Geogra- phical Map of the Plan, showing its great superiority, by the general Introduction of Mechanic Power, over all the present Methods of Conveyance by Turnpike Roads and Canals, and claiming the particular attention of Merchants, Manufacturers, Farmers, and indeed every Class of Society. Svo. 6s. 6d. _ A Treatise on the Diseases of Arteries and Veins ; containing the Pathology and Treatment of Aneurisms and Wounded Ar- teries. By Joseph Hodson, Member of the Royal College of Surgeons in London. 8vo. 15s. An Experimental Inquiry into the Laws of the Vital Functions ; with some Observatious on the Nature and Treatment of Internal Diseases. By A. P. Wilson Philip, M.D. F.R.S.E. Svo. 10s. 6d. , A Celestial Atlas, comprising. a Systematic Display of the Heavens, in a series of Thirty Maps; illustrated by scientific Descriptions of their Contents, and accompanied by Catalogues of the Stars, and Astronomical Exercises. By Alexander Jamie- son. Royal 4to, 1/. 5s. A Journey from Merut, in India, to London, through Arabia, Persia, &c. in 1819, 1820. by Lieutenant T. Lumsden, of the Bengal Horse Artillery, Svo, 10s, 6d, : Iilus- » Royal and Astronomical Societies. 385 Illustrations of the Universal Efficacy of Compression and Pereussion in the Cure of Rheumatism, Sprains, &c. By Wm. Balfour, M.D. 8vo. 2s. A New System of National and Practical Agriculture. By R. Donald. 2s.'6d. ; Tracts on Vaults and Bridges. Bsbis. id. A Description of the Topography of the Plain of Troy. By Charles Maclaren. Qs. In the Préss. An Introduction to the Study of Fossils, in a Compilation of - such Information as may assist the Student in obtaining the necessary Knowledge respecting these Substances, and their Connexion with the Formation of the Earth. By James Parkin- son, Author of the Organic Remains of a former World. The First Part of Dr. Hooker’s Exotic Flora will be published on the Ist of June. Legendre’s Elements of Geometry, and of Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. Edited by Dr. Brewster, of Edinburgh. LXXVIII. Proceedings of Learned Societies. March 285. Ox ‘the Anatomy of Whales. By W. Scoresby, Esq. April 18.—On the Changes that have taken Place in the De- clination of some of the principal Fixed Stars. By John Pond, Esq. Extract of a Letter from Capt. Sabine to the President. Some Observations on the buffy Coat of the Blood. April 25,—On the Nerves. By Charles Bell, Esq. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. May 10. A communication was read from Capt. Everest, on the subject of the geodetical operations carried on by M, Lacaille, at the Cape of Good Hope, in the middle of the last century: These inguiries were suggested by Col. Lambton; and Capt. Everest has examined the subject with that accuracy and res search, which give promise of much valuable information from the same quarter. Capt. Everest has identified the principal stations which Lacaille occupied in the course of his operations; _ and has clearly ascertained the house in Cape Town where his observatory was fixed. This latter point, as well as the one at the northern extremity, were, from their proximity to very high mountains, very unfit for such nice operations : and Capt. Everest conceives that those immense masses of rock must have had a Vol. 59. No. 289. May 1822, 3 Ce a Sel 386 Ceylon Literary Society. sensible effect on the plumb line of the instrument. Added to which, the whole plain, in which the measurement was effected, was also unfit for such a purpose, except with instruments which have been employed at much later periods. From these and other causes Capt. Everest thinks that this celebrated measure- ment ought not be considered (without a more recent corrobo- ration) as sufficient evidence of an inequality in the two hemi- spheres of our globe. We have no doubt this subject will en- gage the attention of our astronomer at the new observatory in that country. Some new instruments, of a peculiar mechanism, were exhi- bited to the members present. The next meeting of the Society (which will be the last of the present sessions) will take place on Friday, June 14, at 8 o’clock in the evening. \ {In our last account of the proceedings of this Society, we re- marked that Sir ‘Thomas Brisbane had observed, at sea, an oc- cultation of Mercury by the Moon. We apprehend this must have been a mistake in the paper transmitted to the Society, as Mercury was not (at the period alluded to) in such a situation as to adinit of his being occulted, It was probably Regulus that was occulted: and that the transcriber had inadvertently written the name of the planet, instead of the star. ] CEYLON LITERARY SOCIETY. At the ‘monthly meeting of this Society, which was held on the 17th of September 1821, His Excellency the Lieutenant Go- vernor in the chair, the following paper by Lieut. Col. Wright was read: Observations on the Barometer as applicable to the Island of Ceylon. The seale of variation in the Barometer being of a very limited nature between the tropics, compared with that of latitudes at a greater distance from the equator, makes that valuable instru- ment, in general, be considered, especially by superficial ob- servers, as of little service in the former case; yet there is no doubt but by an attentive and careful observation it may be made subservient to many useful purposes, and become in the hands of the agriculturist and navigator an equally valuable instrument even in low latitudes. It is only necessary to know its scale and its language. A sudden fall of two or three tenths of an inch of the mercury in the tube is probably the prognostic of as great a change in the atmosphere as the fall of as many inches in some other parts of the world; and as the observation is as readily made in one case as the other, it becomes of importance to be noted. . The Ceylon Literary Society. 387 The following remarks and observations, made during q period: of several years in Ceylon, are offered, not with a view of esta- blishing any fixed priuciple with regard to the above instrument, and of the laws by which its movements are regulated, but more to serve as general hints in any future observations that may be ade, and to afford the opportunity of forming comparisons: therein with any observations made in other parts of India and between the tropics. At Colombo, which lies in latitude 6° 56’ North, and close on the sea shore, the Barometer appears decidedly to undergo four periodical changes or revolutions in the course of twenty-four hours, amounting in general to about one-tenth of an inch, being highest about nine o’clock in the morning, sinking towards three in the afternoon, rising again towards nine at night, and sinking again towards three in the morning —There does not appear to be any sensible difference between the position of the mercury in the tube in the morning and at night—the point at which it stands in the morning being generally the same as at night. Heavy rains do not affect the Barometer in an equal degree proportionally with that in bigh latitudes,:nor do hard squalls of a sudden nature’ or short duration affect it any more than in other parts of the world; but a smart gale ofwind of any strength and continuance will sink the mercury to the extent of about three tenths of an inch; and though that change may not take place so great a period of time previous to the gale commencing as in other latitudes, yet still, by a careful and attentive observation it will give a sufficient warning of the approach of a gale, so as to prove of very great utility to ships at anchor in the roads of Colombo, or off the coast. Inthe month of November 1819, previous to the commencement of a smart gale of wind from the north- west, the mercury, which had been at 29.9 inches, fell to 29.7, with the Thermometer at 76° of Fahrenheit, and remained low during the continuance of the gale, and gradually continued rising previous to the gale abating, and in several similar instances it has never been known to fail. The variations in the rise and fall of the mercury do not appear to be affected in any remarkable manner, or inflaenced by heat or cold, or to undergo any changes with the Thermometer in si- milar cases, but it appears to stand highest in steady, fixed, settled weather. ‘The different monsoons do not appear to affect it, though at the changes thereof a variation takes place in its rise and fall. The average height of the mercury throughout the year may be considered as about 29.9 inches; the highest range 30.1 nearly, and the lowest about 29.7, making the greatest range somewhat near half an inch; and this observation may be consi- 3 C2 dered 388 Ceylon Literary Society. dered as applying to Barometers on board the ships in the roads and off the coast, as the difference probably is very trifling be- tween those and Barometers on shore and near the sea coast on a low elevation. No sensible difference bas hitherto been observed in the Ba- rometer on the western and eastern sides of the island; for, at the time of a gale of wind on the western side, during the south- west monsoon, the same changes occur in thie’ rise and fall of the mercury on the eastern side, and vice rersd. In the city of Kandy situated at the distance of about eighty miles inland, and at a computed elevation of about 2500 feet above the lavel of the sea, during the month of October, the maximum of the Barometer, Suhiles the Thermometer was at 76° of Fahrenheit, was 25.452 inches, and .the minimum while the Thermometer was 70° was 28.272. Sufficient observations have not as yet been made to determine with accuracy the ge- neral average height, but it may be considered as about 28.3 inches ; and ‘similar: to what occurs at Colombo, it is always higher in the morning about nine o’clock, and at night, than at the hour of three. In fact, this periodical rise and fall of the mercury appears of so fixed and established a nature, that, there is no doubt, an attentive observer of the Barometer may thereby mark the above hours and intervals of time with very tolerable accuracy, where the state of the atmosphere and the weather has not during the time of observation undergone any very material change. The following additional remarks and observations on the Barometer, though not applicable to this island, may notwith- standing be deemed not unworthy of a place in the Transactions of the Ceylon Literary Society. At the Mauritius or Isle of France, in the month of January 1819} the mercury in the Barometer falling to 29.10 inches, was followed bya very violent hurricane, and as the gale abated, the mercury again gradually rose and continued rising till it reached 29.80 inches, the Thermometer of Fahrenheit during the time of the gale varying from 75 to 81 degrees. At the town of Port Louis in the month of February, being the middle of summer, while the average height of Fahrenheit’s Thermometer was 86°, that of the Barometer was 27.72 in French inches and lines 5 the English foot being to the French as 12 is to 12.816. At Madras in the month of October 1818, the mercury in the Barometer fell to 28.78 inches, which was considered as unpre- cedented at that place, and was followed by a very violent gale of wind, which gradually abated as the mercury continued to rise until it reached the height of 29.8 inches, which it had been at On Motion in vertebrated Animals. 389 at the previous part of the day. The Thermometer during the time of the gale was in general about 74 degrees: and at the same place in the month of May 1520, the mercury fell eight- tenths of an inch below the height which usually indicated a gale of wind, and was accompanied by a very heavy gale and an unusual fall of rain. Off the Cape of Good Hope, the mercury in the Barometer falling down to 29.60 inches is almost invariably the prognostic of a storm—the usual average height is that of about 30 inches, and to which height it again gradually rises as the gale abates, and continues at that elevation while the weather is serene and fair. A good Marine Barometer is there of absolute and essen- tial service, as these gales often come on suddenly without any remarkable change in the appearance of the heavens or atmo- sphere, but are invartably foretold by the Barometer. It is how- ever to be observed, that the steady strong breezes almost ap- proaching to a gale, and which blow there from the! south-east in the summer season, havea tendency to raise instead of sinking the mercury. In that latitude it is not ascertained if the periodical changes already alluded to take place the same as at Ceylon, though probably not, as that very extraordinary and unaccount- able circumstance appears to be confined to the tropies and equatorial region. The mercury there has been observed during the month of May to rise to the height of 30.4 inches nearly, but the average height may he considered, as above stated, 30 inches in general. “LXXIX. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. ON THE FUNCTIONS OF PROGRESSIVE MOTION IN VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. Is one of the lectures on Comparative Physiology delivered this season at the Royal Institution by Dr. Roget, he gave an account of the functions of progressive motion in vertebrated animals, a division that includes the classes of fish, reptiles, birds, and quadrupeds ; all of which, he observed, however dif- ferent their external form, or the nature of the element they in- habit, exhibit nevertheless a remarkable analogy in their internal conformation. He took a general view of their mechanical struc. ture, more especially wich reference to the osseous frame work, or skeleton, which characterizes this division of the animal king- dom, . That part of the skeleton which exists in all these ani- mals, and appears to be essential to it, is the spine, or that con- nected series of bones called vertebra, extending from the head along . 390 On the Functions of progressive Motion along the whole length of the back. The peculiar mechanisnt by which the spine is rendered capable of answering a variety of Important purposes in the animal system, was fully explained ; and the several modifications of structure pointed out, which it receives in different tribes, in order to adapt it to the circum- stances in which they are placed, and to the various intentions of theirformation: ‘The system of organs by which the locometion of the body is effected, was next considered, in the relation which they bear to the element on which they are exerted. As aquatic animals present the simplest mechanical conditions with reference to locomotion, Dr. Roget began with the ex- amination of this function in fishes. He observed.that the buoy- ant force of the Suid which surrounded them, by counteracting nearly the whole of the force of gravjiy, superseded the necessity of limbs for the support of the body, which land animals require; and that the progress of a fish in the water is effected principally. by the muscular action of the tail, which, giving powerful lateral strokes, impels the animal forward on the same principle that a boat is moved in sculling. The modifying and regulating pow- ers of the fins were next explained, and elucidated by diagrams and drawings. The hydrostatic principles on which fishes are assisted in their ascent or descent in the water, by the dilatation or compression of the air-bladder, were stated, aud illustrated by some experlinents, in which similar effects were produced in glass vessels immerysed in water, but containing sufficient air to enable them to rise to the surface, or sink to the bottom, acecord- ing as the included air was made to expand or contract. The air bladder in fishes may be regarded as a refined apparatus in the body of these animals, expressly accommodated to the laws of hydrostatic pressure ; and as furnishing one out of the many instances that, exist, where philosophical principles have been applied, with manifest art and intention, for effecting a particu- lar purpose in the ceconomy. Those fishes which have no air- bladder, as flat fish, have this, want compensated by the great size and power of motion in the pectoral fins, which enable them to strike the water from above downwards with cousidera- bleforce. In the whale, and other animals of the cetaceous tribe, the body is rendered specifically lighter by the large quantity of oil which it contains, and which is especially accumulated about the head, as this part of the body is continually required to be raised above the surface, for the purpose of respiration. The various modes of progressive motion employed, by other aquatic tribes, both of reptiles and of mammalia, were also noticed. Dr. Roget next proceeded to consider the mechanism of land animals, beginning with serpents, and reptiles having short and imperfect feet. He showed the means by-which the former are. enabled ee ee in verlébraled Animals, 301 enabled to advarice with various degrees of rapidity, and the ad- vantages they derive from the position of their scales, and their connexion with the ribs. The tortoise, the frog, the lizard, and various other animals of the same. class, were noticed as forming links in the chain of gradation leading to the more perfect con- formation, with reference to rapid progressive motion, which ob- tains in warm-blooded quadrupeds. In these, the body being raised higher on the limbs enjoys a greater range of motion, and requires a less frequent repetition of steps in traversing an equal space, The different proportions in which the weight of the body is sustained by the fore and hind extremities, the uum- ber of levers of which they are composed, their relative oblijnity, the mode in which the muscular force is disposed, aud the com- binations of action which result, were severally explained. A particular acccunt was given of the paces of quadrupeds, such as walking, the trot, the gallop, the amble; the bounding of deer, the springing of beasts of prey, the undulating pace of the camelopard, and the peculiarities in the progression of animals formed for leaping, as the hare, the jerboa, and the kangaroo. A gradation was pointed out in the structure of the hind foot, which, in monkeys, makes the nearest approach to. the human structure. Dr. Roget observed, that the great features of di- stinction between the mechanism of the human frame and that of quadrupeds, are derived from the former being adapted to the maintenance of the erect posture. 1n man, the attitude of stand- ing is a position of less security than it is in quadrupeds, and is | maintained by a succession of actions by which the centre of gravity is perpetually shifted from side to side; its tendency to fall in any one direction being immediately counteracted by small and insensible movements in the contrary direction. On this principle he also explained the security of the rope-dancer.. The human arm, being exempted from the office of supporting any part of the weight of the trunk, may be employed exclusively as an organ of apprehension; and the circumstances in the struc- ture of the several joints of the limb, and more especially of the hand, which render it so admirable a mechanical instrument, were fully pointed out. The passage of the tendons by which the last joints of the fingers are bent, through a perforation in those which are employed to bend the middle joints, was parti- cularly selected as an example of artificial contrivance. The progressive motion of birds was the next object of inquiry. In order that an animal may, possess the faculty of flying, two principal conditions, it was observed, are required; first, great strength of muscle to produce sufficient velocity of motion in the wing; and, secondly, great extent of surface in that part of the wiug destined to act upon the air, None of the nammalia, ex- cept 392 Russian Discoveries, Se. cept the bat, has sufficient muscular power in its limbs, however assisted by an expansion of surface, to strike the air with the ve- locity requisite for flight. Some quadrupeds, reptiles, and even fish, possess the power of adv ancing through the air, but always in a very limited degree. It is in the bird alone that we find the most perfect adaptation of structure to the purposes of flight. The frame of their skeleton, the position and figure of the wings, the situation of the muscles, and the mechanism of their action, were severally pointed out as having an express relation to the element in which nature intended them to move; and the various modi- fications which these circumstances present in the different or-. ders of birds were particularly specified. The minute structure of the feathers, when investigated by the help of the microscope, appeers highly curious, and exhibits a singular refinement of art in the means by which their fibres are mechanically locked into each other, so as to preserve a continuity of surface. The sin- gular mechanism by which birds sustain ‘themselves by means of one foot on their perch, when they roost, was also detailed. Several skeletons of birds and quadrupeds were exhibited in il- lustration of the leading points considered in these lectures, which close the subject of the progressive motion of animals. RUSSIAN DISCOVERIES,—COCHRANE THE TRAVELLER.— IMPERIAL UKASE. Since the general peace of Europe, and more particularly within the last three years, the Russian Government has been an- xiously and eagerly employed in prosecuting discoveries in every part of the globe. In the Southern Ocean, her ships have pene- trated the fields of ice as far as the seventieth parallel of latitude, and discovered, it is said, islands which had escaped the search- ing eye of Cook: they boast of having rounded the Sandwich land of that celebrated navigator ; and of having ascertained that the Southern Shetland, which was supposed to be a con- tinent connected with it, consists ouly of numerous groups of small islands. They have sent land expeditions into the un- known regions of Tartary, behind Thibet, and into the interior of the north-western ade of North Arena Men of science have been commissioned to explore the northern boundaries of Siberia, and to determine points, on that extensive coast, hitherto of doubtful position. In February 1821, Baron Wrangel, an officer of great merit, and of considerable science, left his head- quarters on the Nishney Kolyma, to settle, by astronomical ob- servations, the position of Shalatzkoi-Noss, or the north-east cape of Asia, which he found to lie in lat. 70° 05’ N. consider- ably lower than it is usually placed on the maps. Having ar- ranged this point, he undertook the hazardous enterprise of crossing - Cochrane the Traveller.— Imperial Ukase. 393 crossing the ice of the polar sea on sledges drawn by dogs, in search of the land said to have been discovered, in 1762, to the northward of the Kolyma. He travelled directly north, eighty miles, without perceiving any thing but a field of interminable ice, the surface of which had now become so broken and un- even, as to prevent a further prosecution of his journey. ~ He had gone far enough, however, to ascertain that no such land could ever have been discovered. The idle speculation, therefore, of the junction of Asia with North America, which we always re- jected as chimerical, may now be considered as finally set at rest. Indeed, the simple narrative of the voyage performed by Desh- new in the year 1648, from the mouth of the Kolyma to the gulf of Anadyr, never, for a moment, left a doubt on our minds of its authenticity. Information was recently received that the enterprising pe- destrian Captain Cochrane had reached the Altai mountains, on the frontier of China. Further accounts from this extraordinary traveller have since reached us; they are dated from the mouth of the Kolyma, and from Okotsk, the former in March, the lat- ter in June 182]. He had proceeded to the neighbourhood of the North-east cape of Asia, which he places half a degree more to the northward than Baron Wrangel; but either he had no in- strument sufficiently accurate to ascertain its latitude with preci- sion, or, as we have some reason to believe, he states it only from computation ; for it does not clearly appear from his letter to us that he was actually on that part of the coast, though, from another letter addressed to the President of the Royal Society of London, it might be conjectured that his information was ob- tained from observation on the spot. ‘ No land,’ he says, ¢ is considered to exist to the northward of it. The east side of the Noss is composed of bold and perpendicular bluffs, while the west side exhibits gradual declivities ; the whole most sterile, but presenting an awfully magnificent appearance.’ From the Koly- ma to Okotsk, he had, he says, a ‘ dangerous, difficult, and fa- tiguing journey of three thousand versts,’ a great part of which he performed, on foot, in seventy days. After such an adven- turous expedition from Petersburgh, to the north-eastern ex- tremity of Siberia, we regret to find that the shores of Kams~ chatka are likely to be the boundary of his arduous and perilous enterprise. After gratefully noticing the generosity and conside- ration which he every where experienced at the hands of the Russian Government and of individuals, he adds—‘ that Govern- ment has an expedition in Behring’s Straits, whose object is to trace the continent of America to the northward and eastward, I had the same thing previously in view: but it would be vanity and presumption in me to attempt a task of the kind, while their Vol. 59. No, 289, Alay 1822. 5D means 394 Russian Discoveries: . means are so much superior, and those who are employed on it, authorized travellers. ‘Thus circumstanced, it can create no sur- prise that an humble individual, like myself, should submit to make a sacrifice of private gratification, and every prospect of success, to a sense of the impropriety of proceeding further at present, and of the indelicacy which would result from such a step; but, should the commander of the expedition, from any circumstances, desist from the further prosecution of his disco- veries, I shall, in that case, continue my journey eastward ’’— the meaning of all which will, we think, be perfectly intelligible, from what we are about to state. The expedition noticed by Captain Cochrane consisted of two ship corvettes which left Spithead in the year 1819, at the same time that the expedition alluded to in our first paragraph pro- ceeded to the southern hemisphere. In July 1820, they reached Behring’s Strait, and were supposed to have passed it in that year; they returned, however, in the winter to some of the Russian settlements on the coast of America; and, as now appears from Captain Cochrane’s letter to us, were again in that neighbour- hood in June 1821: of their ulterior proceedings no intelligence had reached Petersburgh at the period of the latest accounts from that capital. If they should have succeeded in doubling Icy Cape, it is just possible that they may fall in with Captain Parry, pro- vided they are lucky enough to escape the fate of Sir Hugh Wil- Joughby and his unfortunate associates: of such a catastrophe, we are by no means sure that they do not run a very considerable risk, from the slight and insufficient manner in which they were fitted out; being, in fact, destitute of every necessary for passing a winter in the Frozen Ocean, and, as we happen to know, in want even of the common implements for encountering the ice : with some of the latter, however, they were supplied from the dock-yard of Portsmouth, on application to the British Govern- ment. We should not be disposed to detract from the merit. which, in this instance, would be justly due to the Russian government, if we could persuade ourselves that the extension of geographical knowledge, for its own sake and the benefit of mankind, was the prime object of this expedition; but when we couple it with the cautious language of Captain Cochrane, and the sudden and un- expected check thrown in the way of his further progress, after teaching the shores of Behring’s Strait, and also with a contem- poraneous ukase of a most extraordinary nature (if we may cre- dit what appears in the public journals), we cannot but entertain some suspicion, that His Imperial Majesty, in his northern ex~ peditions, has been governed by other motives than those of merely advancing the cause of science and discovery, Tn Russian Discoveries. 395 In this curious manifesto (for such in effect it is) the mari- time powers of Europe and America are given to understand that His Imperial Majesty of Russia has assumed possession of all that portion of the north-west coast of America, which lies between the fifty-first degree of latitude and the Icy Cape, or extreme north; and moreover, that he interdicts the approach of ships of every other nation to any part of this line nearer than one hundred miles. Whether this wholesale usurpation of 2000 miles of sea-coast, to the greater part of which Russia can have no possible claim, will be tacitly passed over by England, Spain, and the United States, the three powers most interested in it, we pretend not to know; but we can scarcely be mistaken in predicting that His Imperial Majesty will discover, at no distant period, that he has assumed an authority, and asserted a princi- ple, which he will hardly be permitted to exercise ; and that there is an ancient common law of nations which will not, and cannot, be abrogated by the * sic volo’ of a power of yesterday. It has apparently escaped the recollection of His Imperial Majesty’s advisers, that if his example were to be followed by the maritime - nations of Europe, his own ports would be hermetically sealed, and an end put at once to the assumption of long appropriated coasts by Russia. With respect to the legality of taking possession of an unoc- cupied territory, to the exclusion of the original discoverer, some doubts, we understand, are still entertained among jurists. It is time, we think, to come to a decision one way or another, on a point of so much importance. Let us examine, however, what claim Russia can reasonably set up to the territory in question. To the two shores of Behring’s Strait, we admit, she would have an undoubted claim, on the score of priority of discovery; that on the side of Asia having been coasted by Deshnew in 1648, and that of America visited by Behring in 1741, as far down as the latitude 59°, and the peaked mountain, since generally known by the name of Cape Fairweather : to the southward of this point, however, Russia has not the slightest claim. The Spaniards vi- sited the northern parts of this coast in 1774, when Don Juan Perez, in the corvette Santiago, traced it from latitude 53° 53’ to a promontory in latitude 55°, to which he gave the name of Santa Margarita, being the north-west extremity of Queen Char- lotte’s Island of our charts; and on his return, touched at Nootka, ahout which we were once on the point of going to war. In the following year, the Santiago and Felicidad, under the orders of Don Juan Bruno Heceta, and Don Juan de la Bodega y Qua- dra, proceeded along the north-west coast, and described, in la- titude 56° 8’, high mountains covered with snow, which the named Jacinto; and also a lofty cape, in latitude 57° 2’, to whieh 3D2 they 396 2 Russian Discoveries. they gave the name of Engafio. Holding a northerly course, they reached lat. 57° 58’, and then returned. Three vears after these Spanish voyages, Cook reconnoitred this coast more closely, and proceeded as. high up as the Icy Cape; it was subsequently visited by several English ships for the purposes of trade; and though every portion of it was ex- plored with the greatest accuracy by that most excellent and persevering navigator, Vancouver, as far as the head of Cook’s Inlet, in lat. 61° 15’; yet, on the ground of priority of discovery, it is sufficiently clear that England has no claim to territorial possession. On this principle, it would jointly belong to Russia and Spain; but, on the same principle, Russia would be com- pletely excluded from any portion of it to the southward of 59°. She has, however, been tacitly permitted to form an establish- ment, named Sitka, at the head of Norfolk Sound, in lat. 57°; and this, apparently, must have tempted her to presume, that no opposition would be offered to an extension of territory down to the fifty-first degree of latitude, which includes all the detailed discoveries of Cook and Vancouver, z. e. New Hanover, New Cornwall, New Norfolk on the main, and the Islands of. King George, Queen Charlotte, and Prince of Wales upon the coast. There is, however, one trifling circumstance, of which we are persuaded His Imperial Majesty was ignorant when he issued his sweeping ukase, namely—that the whole country, from lat. 56° 30’ to the boundary of the United States in lat. 48°, or there- abouts, is now, and has long been, in the actual possession of the British North-west Company. The communication with this vast territory is by the Peace River, which, crossing the Rocky Mountains from the westward, in lat. N. 56°, and long. 121° W., falls into the Polar Sea by the Mackenzie River. ‘The country behind them, to the westward, has been named bythe settlers New Caledonia, and is in extent, from north to south, about 500 miles, and from east to west 300 miles. It is described as very beautiful, abounding in fine forests, rivers, and magnificent lakes, one of which is not less than 300 miles in circumference, sur- rounded by picturesque mountains, clothed to their very summits with timber trees of the largest dimensions. From this lake, a river falls to the westward into the Pacific, either into Port Es- sington, or Observatory Inlet, where Vancouver discovered the mouths of two rivers, one in lat. 54° 15’, the other in 54° 59’, In the summer season, it swarms with salmon, from which the natives derive a considerable part of their subsistence. The North-west Company have a post on its borders, in Jat. 54° 30’ N., long.125° W., distant about 180 miles from the ‘ Observatory Inlet? of Vancouver, the head of which lies in lat. 35° 15'.N, long. Arctic Expedition.—Discoveries in Egypt. 397 long. 129° 44’ W., where, by this time, the United Company of the North-west and Hudson’s Bay have, in all probability, formed an establishment, and thus opened a direct communication be- tween the Atlantic and the Pacific, the whole way by water, with the exception of a very few miles across the high lands, which divide the sources of the rivers, and give them opposite direc- tions, Thus then it is obvious, that, as we have actual possession of the six degrees of coast usurped by Russia. in her recent mani- festo, her claim to this part is perfectly nugatory. Indeed, as we before observed, the assumption must have been made in utter ignorance of. the fact; which is the less surprising, as this part of the world remains, as yet, a complete blank on our best and latest charts.— Quarterly Rev. No. 52. ARCTIC EXPEDITION. On the 9th of March last, at six o’clock a.M., a countryman who was employed gathering sea-weed on the Irish shore, in the parish of Clonmauny, county of Donegal, found a bottle which had been thrown out by His Majesty’s ship Fury, Captain Parry, in lat. 62. 8. N., long. 62.27. W. The countryman, anxious to ascertain the contents of the bottle, conceiving it con- tained something which might be valuable to him, instantly broke it, and found a paper, on which was inserted the following in seven languages :— . ‘¢ His Majesty’s ship Fury.—Set off July, 1821, lat. 62. 8, N. long. 62. 27. W. At one, P.M. moderate breezes, from the Northward, dull misty weather. Hecla in company. «6 W. Parry, Commander.” This paper he gave to Mr. Chichester, who immediately transmitted it to the Admiralty. The shore where the bottle was found is in lat. 55, 15. N., long. 7. 28 W. DISCOVERIES IN EGYPT. M. Acerbi, the Editor of the Biblioteca Italiana, in the number for March, gives an extract of a letter from M. Zuccoli, dated Sennaar, Nov. 3, 1821. M. Z. accompanies the army of Ibrahim Pacha, son of the Viceroy of Egypt, as officer of engineers, and is charged with the geographical survey of the countries through which it passes. When the letter was dispatched the army was in 13° north lati- tude, and was to advance to the 7th degree. In that variable climate a heat from 31 to 35 degrees of Reaumur by day, with a coolness of 15° by night, causes frequent diseases. M. Zuccoli has made a survey of the Nile from Alexandria to Sennaar. He counted 180 more or less considerable cataracts . in 398 Earthquakes. in the Nile, which were all passed, however, with very small loss either of vessels or people, He remarks an error in Bruce’s map. Bruce makes the Dender fall into the Rahb, and the latter into the Nile ; whereas both these rivers fall mto the Nile, the Den- der fifteen miles above the Rahb. Where Bruce wrote accord- ing to the information of the inhabitants, and did not see with his own-eyes, no confidence can be placed in him ; for the people, says M, Zuccoli, are so ignorant that they hardly know where the sun rises and sets. They cannot distinguish north from south. He thinks he has found the island of Meroe in the slip of land between the Dender and the Rahb, where he discovered 45 py- ramids covered with hieroglyphics. He met here with M, Cail- laud and his companion, who followed another army under Ismail Pacha, another son of the Viceroy’s. He waited for the armed vessels, to proceed as far as possible up the White River, and see whether it comes, as is said, from a great inland lake, and is connected with the Niger, or at least is in its neighbourhood.— Allgemeine Zeitung, May 8. EARTHQUAKES, The shock of an earthquake was very distinctly felt at Crieff and neighbourhood, betwixt 9 and 10 o’clock on the morning of the 18th inst. The shoek was so severe at Ferntower, the seat of Sir David Baird, as to set the bells of the house a-ringing.— — Stirling Journal. Extract of a Letter, dated Comrie, 15th of April :—** About half past nine on Saturday (the 13th inst.), while at break- fast, we were visited with the smartest shock of an earthquake that has been felt in this neighbourhood for the last fifteen or ‘ twenty years. It was accompanied by two very loud reports, one apparently above our heads, and the other, which followed immediately afterwards, under our feet. The noise of these, which were much more terrific than thunder, lasted, I should think, fully thirty seconds. It set our kitchen utensils a-ringing, and brought down some of the covers of the pots and pans. I have felt much severer shocks in the West Indies, but not ac- companied with such a noise. The sensation it created in me was exactly like that I have felt on the deck of a vessel on her guns being discharged.” - The Neapolitan Journals announce, that on the 22d of March two immense openings of the earth took place on the sea-shore of Marsala, in Sicily. The same day a vessel was thrown “amongst rocks by an extraordinary motion of the waves, though the sea, only a few moments before, was perfectly tranquil. — It was Supposed that these phenomena were produced by a. sub- marine yoleanic eruption. ME- Meleors.— Patents. 399 METEORS. On the 16th of March, about five minutes after ten o’clock P.M. a meteor of a most extraordinary size and brilliancy passed over the city of Richmend (Virginia), in a direction from the north-east to south-west. It is represented by persons who saw it, as nearly the size of a barrel ; that sparks were emitted from it in every direction ; and that.it left behind it a trail of light of great length ; and it was thought by some that they heard a hissing noise as it passed over them. By persons who saw it, it is described as emitting a silver light, more bright, if possible, than the ‘sun. It exploded with a loud noise, leaving behind it a wide stream of fire, which was visible for some minutes. A letter from Rodez, in Aveynon, says, ‘‘ That on the 9th of April, about nine o’clock in the evening, a grand and beautiful meteor was observed in that town. It appeared in the form of a pillar of fire, sending forth a dazzling light like that of the sun. From this’ luminous body there issued, as from artificial fire-works, an infinite number of sparks of fire. After some se- conds the meteor disappeared, and at the sane moment a loud explosion was heard.” LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS. To Pierre Erard, of Great Marlborough-street, musical-in- strument maker, who, in consequence of communications made to him by a certain foreigner residing abroad and discoveries by himself, is in possession of an invention of certain improve- ments on harps.—Dated 24th April 1822.—6 months allowed to enrol specification. To Edward Dodd, of St. Martin’s lane, Middlesex, musical- instrument maker, for certain improvements in pedal harps.— 24th April.—6 months. To James Delvean, of Wardour-street, Middlesex, musical-in- strument maker, for certain improvements on harps.—24th April. —2 months. . To Robert Ford, of Abingdon-row, Middlesex, chemist, for his discovered liquid or solution of annotto.—24th April.—2 months. To Robert Knight, of Foster-lane, Cheapside, London, iron- monger ; and Rupert Kirk, of Osborne-place, Whitechapel, Mid- dlesex, dyer, for their process for the more rapid crystallization and for the evaporation of fluids at comparative low tempera- tures. —9th May.—2 months. METEORO- 400 Days of Mouth. 1622. April 27 28 29 30 May 1 COMONAL AW? Metcorology. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE, By Mr. Cary, OF THE STRAND. ‘Thermometer. Noon. Height of the Barom. Inches. Weather, Rain Cloudy Fair Fair Fair Fair Fair Cloudy _ Thunder Cloudy Rain Fair Cloudy Rain Fair Cloudy Cloudy Fair Fair Fair Fair Fair Fair Fair » Fair Fair Fair N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o'clock. rr f 401 j LXXX. On the Graduation of the Puntograph. By J. W. Woottear, Esq. Lewes. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — Tue instrument called the Pantograph is so well known, that a minute description of it may here be dispensed with. The principle of its operation depends upon the geometrical doctrine of similar triangles; but the mechanical construction has under- gone several modifications. In its early form, the fulcrum, pen- cil, and tracing point, occupied fixed positions on the bars, and the ratio of reduction, that is, the proportion of the original draught to the copy, was determined by varying the situation of the pivots. It was afterwards found that greater mechanical accuracy could he attained by causing the fulcrum and pencil to shift their positions on two of the bars, while the pivots remained invariable. To this latter construction, as it is represented on Plate 31 of Adams’s Geometrical and Graphical Essays, and as it is to be met with in the shops of the Londen makers, the pre- sent remarks are intended to apply. On the two left-hand bars, which carry the sliding tubes ap- propriated to the fulerum and pencil, are usually engraved eleven transverse lines, marked 4, 4,4, and soonto " By adjusting the sliding tubes to the corresponding marks on each bar, the pencil being attached to the short bar, the instrument will pro- duce a copy whose scale will be an aliquot part of the original, as indicated by the engraved fractional number. And if the pencil be attached to the lowermost division (marked 4) on the long bar, and the fulcrum occupy a corresponding place on the short bar, a copy will be traced of the same size with the ofi- ginal. So far, and no further, are we instructed in the uses of this important instrument, by Mr. Adams’s work above quoted, and by the other books which I have consulted. But there is an indefinite number of other proportions, which a copy may be required to bear to its original, between the ratio of equality and that of 1: 2, and between this last and that of 1: 12; and in fact, by far the greater number of cases occur, in which the required scale of the copy is mot an aliquot part of the original. How then is the instrument in these instances to be adjusted so as to produce the desired effect? ‘¢ There are sometimes,’”’ says Mr. Adams, ** divisions of 100 unequal parts laid down on the bars, to give any intermediate proportion, not shown by the fractional numbers commonly placed.”” This is exactly what is wanted; but then such divi- sions must be actually laid down on the instrument, and they Vol. 59, No, 290. June 1822, 3 E must 402 On the Graduation must be properly done. I have not seen a sufficient number of the larger instruments to be able to speak positively on this point, but [ believe that in general the above requisites are not com- plied with. In a two-foot instrument of excellent workmanship, which now lies before me, there is a scale of 100 parts on oc bar; that is, the space between the extreme marks 4 and +1, is divided into 100 equal parts, zero’ being against the upper end. The want of principle manifested by this arrangement is obvious; for it may be demonstrated that, whether the pencil be attached to the long or to the short bar, that scale only which is adapted to it ought to contain equal divisions; and ‘the other, or scale for the fulerum, must be unequally graduated. The scales, there- fore, on the instrument alluded to, are worse than useless, for they may mislead the practitioner, in case he should forget the fundamental rule, that in all cases the three operative points must be ina right line. , When the ratio of reduction is greater than 4, the pencil must be attached to the long bar, and the fulcrum to the short one. Again, when the ratio is not greater than 2, it will be proper that the pencil and fulcrum should change places. Each of these cases requires a distinct scale for each ‘bsr. The scales applicable to the first case, [ shall call A, and their divisions will be numbered in each bar from 100 to 50. Those applicable to the second case, | shall call B, and they will be numbered from 50 down to 8, or lower, if the mechanism will admit of it, though a less ratio than 100 to 8 will rarely be wanted in practice. Let the ratio of the original to the copy be represented by 1:7, and let 2 d= the working length of the instrument, that is, the distance from the ver tical pivot to the centre of the tube that carries the tracer, or to the Jowest mark on the left-hand dar: consequently d= the distance between the two pivots on the last-mentioned bar, and equal to the distance from the pivot at the upper end of the short graduated bar to the lowest mark on it. Then the distances of the several divisions, to be laid off feom the pivot connecting the graduated bars, will be as fol- lows: dr on the long bar. For the scale A < 2dr 7 on the short bar. dr 1 ‘ pitas ciate net {= on the long bar. 2dr on the short bar. According to the above formule the subjoined table’ is con- structed, assuming 2d = 1; consequently, to apply the table Lo" . of the Pantograph. 403 to any particular instrument, the number on it must be multi- plied by the actual value of 2d. Such is the facility and extension given to a pantograph when graduated as above described, that I would recommend the pos- sessors of well-made instruments which are defective in this re- spect, to have the scales properly Jaid down upon them. But if they do not choose to he at that expense, they may avail them- selves of the formule and table here given, to lay down marks on their bars as occasion may require ; and in such case it would be a preferable mode, instead of the tabular value, to take their complements to 0-5, and to set off the distances from the lower- most division on the instrument, which is marked 1. ar.) 7 is applicable to pteae It may be remarked, that the expression a the graduation of the proportional compasses, 2d being the en- tire length of the instrument. The distance between the centre of the joint and the index mark is to be added, as a constant quantity‘to all the values. lam, &c. Lewes, April 16, 1822. J. W. WooLLear. Scale A. Scale A. Scale B. Div. Long B. Short B.{ Div. Long B./Short B.i Div. Long B.|Short B. mak ical ia fd i 100 | 0°50 | 0:5000 } 67 | 0°335 | 0°4012 | 40 |0°3333 | 0-40 99 ‘495 | 4975 | 66 | <°33 3976 4 39 | °3197 ‘é 98 “49 "A949 | 65 | +325 3939 | 38 | *3065 |] -38 97 | ‘A85 | 4924} 64 -32 3902.1 37 | -2937 | -37 96 "48 4898 | 63! °315 3805 § 36 | ‘2812 | -36 95 ‘475 | ‘4872 1 62 | -31 | -3827 135 | -2692 35 94) “47 | 4845161 | -305 | -3780 | 34] -2576] -34 93 | 465 | -4819 | 60) -30 | -3750 | 33 | +2463) -33 92 “46 4792 5 59 | +295 “3711 32) °2353 G2 91 | *455 | 4764458 | -29 3671 f Sl | 2246] -31 90° °45 | 4737157, -285 | +3631 | 30 | -2143 |- -30 89 | -445 | -4709 | 56) -28 3590 | 29 | 2042 | -29 88 | 44 | 4681155 -275 | 3548] 28 | “1944 | -28 87 | -435 | 4652154] -2 "3506 | 27 | °1849 | -27 86 | 43 | 4624} 53| -265 | -3464[ 26 | -1756| -26 85 | 425 | 4595452 | -20 | -3421 | 25 | 1607} -25 84 | -42 | 4505) 51) -255 | 3377) 24 | “1579 | 2 83 | 415 | 4536450] -25 | -3333 4 23 | 1494] -23 82] -41 “4505 22} +1410 | +22 81 | “405 | +4475 Scale B. 21] +1329 2) 80} -40 | 4444 | —--————-———] 20 | 1250 | -20 79 | -395 | -4413 |Div.|LongB.|Short B| 19 | -1173 | -19 78 | -39 | -4382 } -—- ~ -{ 18 | -1098 | +18 77| °385 | *4350 | 50 | 0-500 | 0:50 17 | -1024 | 17 76 | °38 ‘4318 | 49 | -4804 | +49 16 | ‘0952 | +16 75 | °375 | ‘4286 | 48 | °4615 | °48 15 | 0882 | -15 74 1, "4253 | 47 | *4434 | °47 i 14 } -0814 “14 73 | *365 | 4220 | 46 259 | °46 3:1) 0747) 313 72 | +36 “4186 } 45 | -4091 | °45 | 12 | 0682 | <12 71 | 355 | °4152 | 44 3929 | *44 11} 0618 | *11 70 | +35 ‘4118 } 43 | 3772 | +43. $10] -0556]>-10 69 | ‘345 | +4083 } 42] °3621 “42 | 9 | 0495 | +09 63 34. «| +4048 4 4) | +3475 | -Al 8 | 0935 | -08 { 404] LXXXI. On the Porcelain Clay and Buhr-stone of Halkin Mountain, Flintshire. By W. Bisuor and Co., of Nant y Moch, near Holywell in that County*. Tar qualities which fit a stone for grinding corn, especially wheat, are hardness, to prevent it as much as possible from wearing down by the constant friction to which it is exposed, a certain degree of tenacity, to prevent the grinding surface from scaling or chipping off, and a cellular structure, in order to in- crease the quantity of cutting surface, the walls of the cells being at the same time thick enough to resist the strain upon them. The advantages hence resulting are, that the flour is in no material degree contaminated by the mixture of earthy particles abraded from the stones, the grinding is expeditiously performed, the bran is completely disengaged from the flour, and the flour itself is very little heated by passing through the mill. This latter circumstance is of great importance, it being found, by experience, that flour over-heated, or killed, as the technical phrase is, will never produce bread so light as that which is greund cool. In some parts of the valley of the Seine and of the adjoining districts in which the fresh-water limestone occurs, is found a siliceous rock, in detached masses or blocks, of various size, known on the spot and in commerce by the name of buAr, It is a substance intermediate between hornstone and calcedony, and possesses, in an eminent degree, the qualities which pecu- liarly fit it for grinding wheat. All the fine flour required for the supply of the metropolis and of the other large towns in this island is prepared by means of millstones of French buhr, a cir- cumstance which, beside rendering us dependent on foreigners for so essential an article, is the occasion in time of war of enor- mously enhancing the price, and subjecting our millers to great inconvenience. The northern shore of the Isle of Wight is the only district in this country in which the fresh-water limestone has hitherta been found, but it does not appear to contain any buhr-stone. The entrochital chert or hornstone (vulgarly called screwstone) which occurs interstratified with the mountain limestone in Der- byshire, as it resembles bubr-stone in quality and texture, has occasionally been made trial of for a grinding-stone, but always unsuccessfully on account of its fragility and softness.— Sec. In the year 1816 Mr. Thomas Hooson, of Flint, observed on * From the Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, for 1821. The Society's Isis gold medal was voted for this communication, Halkin oe On the Porcelain Clay, €s'c. 405 Halkin mountain a bed of remarkably fine porcelain clay, which, on exposure to the potters’ fires, was found to assume a more delicate whiteness than any substance of a similar nature hitherto found in this kingdom; and seeing also other substances which he thought likely to be useful to the potters, he obtained from Ear] Grosvenor a lease of all clays, rocks, and stones (except limestone) within his lordship’s liberties; and subsequently, with a view to an extended trade, formed his present partner- ship with Mr. Richard Fynney, Mr. William Bishop, and Mr, James Whitehead, established under the firm of the ‘*-Welsh Company at Nant y Moch, near Holywell,’? where they have erected works for preparing the clay, which is called ‘* Cambria,” for sale, by separating it from a white siliceous sand and rock, with which the bed is found mixed to a depth at present un- known, but which has been proved as deep as 26 yards. The sand, when separated, is used for glass-making; and the white siliceous rock, now called ‘‘ Rock Cambria,” is ground down and used in the composition of china and earthenware, instead of ground flint, or is mixed with it. For this process of grind- ing, several thousand tons of chert are annually consumed in the Staffordshire potteries, and much is supplied from Halkin moun. tain. In quarrying this chert, some of it in the state of vesicu- lar entrochital horn-stone was raised, which, when used together with common chert, indicated such a superiority by its expedi- tious grinding and its little wear, and showed such a proximity in appearance (after having been worked) to the French buhr, that its use for grinding wheat was considered probable ; and this led to the first application of the vesicular Halkin rock as a buhr-stone. Halkin Mountain (called *¢ Alchene” at the Conquest, accord~ ing to Pennant) is a range of high uncultivated land in Flint- shire, the mineral property of the right honourable Earl Grosve~ nor. On the inland side it runs parallel to the boundary hills of the vale of Clwyd; and on the north-east stretches from Holywell for about four miles till nearly opposite Northop, in an angle of about twelve degrees with the river Dee, and aver- ages about a mile in breadth, It is composed of mountain lime- stone, with the usually accompanying rocks, and abounds with large veins containing lead ore, blende, and calamine, with some appearances of copper; it also affords a rock of a whitish quartz, well adapted for certain kinds of mill-stones, for which (accord- jng to all our old historians) Flintshire has been famous. But these quarries had been neglected for many years, till lately re- opened by the discoverers of the still more valuable buhrs, and promise to regain their celebrity as gray stones for grinding oats, &c, The 406 On the Porcelain Clay and Buhr-stone The buhr-stone itself, or entrochital horn-stone, is found near the middle of the eastern ridge of Halkin mountain, and on the west side of the ridge, into which it penetrates with a dip of about one yard in six. Its present appearance presents a bed of about four yards thick, between two layers of a compact siliceous slaty chert, covered with a shivery siliceous shale. It dips east- wardly, like all the other strata on the mountain, which con- sist of limestone rock aud chert. The buhr-stratum is princi- pally of the same quality as the small mill-stone sent herewith, and attested by Dr, Traill (Certificate, No. 1); but rotten masses sometimes occur, and blocks are occasionally found of too close a texture for the miller; and some few are quite solid. Still the corallite structure pervades the whole: the entrochites being perfect and entire in some instances, while in the chief parts of the bed the casts alone remain; thus leaving the rock vesicular, and in this respect differing from the nature of the pores in the French buhr, which appear to have been caused by corrosion, their edges being rusty and impure, whereas those in the Halkin buhrs are of pure flint, and exceedingly sharp and hard. The quarry from which all the buhrs hitherto used have been procured, now presents a fore-breast of forty yards, and is of the same quality and thickness as at first, but has a thicker cover- ing of shale as it dips into the hill. At the distance of a mile to “the north- west, a second quarry is now opening, and appears similar in every respect to the former; and from fragments of buhr here and there found, with pieces of shale and “of chert, half concealed in the mountain turf, traces of the same stratum may be observed from the one quarry to the other. About half a mile to the south-east of the main quarry, in the same chert- formation, the buhr-stone is also seen to crop out; and in the valley at the foot of the ridge, where a thick bed of limestone forms the upper stratum, with a sub-stratum of chert, the miners, in their search for lead-ore, have met with the buhr-stone at the depth of 160 yards from the surface. In order to prove the Halkin buhrs, the discoverers had some made into mill-stones, which they set ‘up in a neighbouring mill in the borough of Flint} ; some were had by a mill-wright, and afterwards sent to a mill at Dunham-o’-th’ -Hill, mixed with French buhrs; and one Jarge buhr was shaped into a mill-stone, and put up at a mill at Ysceifiog. They considered it would require much time to prove the real character of the buhrs, and that it would be useless to endea- vour to make sales till this proof could be satisfactorily made, and therefore they took but little trouble in circulating the ob- ject of their discovery for nearly two years, when finding that the of Halkin Mountain, Flintshire. 407 the stones at Flint mill were highly approved, and found to be a substitute for the French buhrs, they turned their attention to the subject. Thev were advised to lay speciinens of the buhrs before the Society of Arts, &c. immediately, lest they might be anticipated by some other person in their pretensions to the premium offered, and they accordingly ventured to do so, in February 1820 ‘un- der the name of Flint Buhrs); but not having then had sufficient trial made cf them, they were not in possession of certificates sufficiently extensive on which to rest their claims to the notice of the Society. As, however, they are now able to adduce proofs that the Halkin buhrs are fully equal to the French, and in some cases are declared to be actually superior to them, they trust that the Society, in looking to the national importance of the: discovery, will pass over the trouble that was last year so unintentionally occasioned, and again take the matter into their consideration. They request permission to lay before the Society the accom- panying certificates and letters on the subject ; and in order to show that they have not been selecting a few, and withholding any less favourable to their hapes, they heg to state the result of every sale made by them up to the end of the last year, and to add a short review of the particular certificate connected with each case, observing at the same.time that not one unfavourable or unsatisfactory trial has yet occurred. Some of the buhrs got on the discovery of the quarry were (as before stated) converted into mill-stones, and put up about three years ago at Mr. Evans’s mill, in the borough of Flint, who cer- tifies that “he used them nearly two years occasionally for wheat, but chiefly as gray-stones, in which they excelled; that at first he used them seldom for wheat, but afterwards more and more frequently, as he found them answer the purpose; and, by way of comparing them with the French stones, he took six measures of wheat, and ground one-half on the Halkin stones, and one- half on the French stones; there was some very slight difference in the flour, which was in favour of the French; but he did not consider it as a fair trial, as the Halkin stones were not at the time properly faced for wheat grinding, and if the French stones had been faced as rough, the flour from them wouid not have been better than the other. Bread was made from the two kinds of flour, but no one could distinguish between the two. He then had the -Halkin stones regularly faced and cracked as French, and has found them ever since equal to the French stones in every respect whatever.” Others of the buhrs, got about the same time, were used more cautiously by a millwright, who made a large pair of millstones of 408 On the Porcelain Clay, and Buhr-stone of Halkin and French buhrs, fixed in alternately, and these were set up more than three years ago at the Hornmills, near Dun- ham-o’-th’- Hill, in Cheshire. Mr. John Peers, the present tenant of this mill, entered on it nearly three years ago, and he states that ‘* the stones were in a rough state, and required six months to get them to a proper face, when they ground wheat as well as the best French stones, and have ever since continued todo so; that he prefers the Halkin and French stones (mixed) to those of French buhrs entirely, as they grind faster, and as well, and full as cool as the French; that he uses them for all purposes, and considers them equal in every respect, and superior in some respects to the French bubhrs.”’ A large buhr got about the same time, was sold to Mr. John Edwards, the occupier of a small mill at Ysceifiog, in Flintshire; he states ‘* that from various causes the buhr was not used till about twelve montlis ago, when he shaped it into a millstone of three feet six inches diameter; that he has no French stones, but used this as a runner over a blue stone for grinding wheat, and found the flour of good colour, and the bran broad and light; that the stone would bear the finest cracking, and continued to improve and harden till he left the mill in November last.” The next sale was to John Dumbell, Esq., of the Mersey Mills, Warrington (said to be the largest establishment in the kingdom, and containing twenty-two pair of mill-stones), and he certifies that “in March 1820 he received a quantity of Halkin buhrs, which he had forthwith made into mill-stones, and these were so much approved, that in May 1820 he had buhrs for a second pair ; that the two pair of Halkin millstones had been regularly at work ever since, and continue to give great satisfaction to the bakers and flour-dealers; that he conceives they are precisely the same kind of stone as the French buhrs, and cut the grain like them, and are like them in respect to oatmeal, in which neither French nor Halkin stones are used to advantage; and he considers the dis- covery of great national importance.” Messrs. Hurstfeld and Passand (now the occupiers of some large mills at Lymm, near Warrington, but who were lately foremen to Mr. Dumbell, and have been practical millers nearly thirty years) state “¢ that they made the Halkin stones which were set up at the Mersey Mills, where there are nine pair of French stones at work ; that they made an experiment with some wheat, by grinding some on the best French pair, and some on the Halkin stones, in order to compare the flour, in which there was scarcely any perceptible difference, though the preference was given in favour of the Halkin stones by a corn- and flour- dealer to whom the samples were shown ; that bread was made from each, but no difference could be per- ceived; that at first they thought the Halkin stones not quite so of Halkin Mountain, Flintshire. 409 so hard and tough as the French, but they found them continue to improve, and to become as good as French; that they have seen all varieties of millstones, and made all sorts of millstones, but never saw any buhrs to come in competition with the French, except the Halkins, which they are satisfied will answer every ' purpose.” In eorroboration of these statements, a sample of the bran (sifted in its rough state out of the flour) is respectfully sub- mitted to the Society. In May 1820 a Halkin millstone was sent to Mr, Pratt, of Saredon Mill (a large concern near Walsall, in Staffordshire), and set to work in his mill at Dudley. Mr. Pratt has had a very extensive practical experience for more than thirty years, and in October last he wrote that “it had been applied for several weeks in grinding wheat, and that it ground equal to French stones, and better than some of them; but he had it for grinding bar- ley, &c., and was so using it, and found it answer remarkably well for that purpose; that the face and dress keep good, and for a great length of time; and that in the spring he would have a pair of Halkin stones to grind wheat.’ Upon application to Mr. Pratt for the result of his further experience, he writes again on the 26th February, that “ he gave a just report of the good qualities of our Halkiu millstone in October last, and entertains the same opinion to the present day; but that it had been grind- ing barley, &c. ever since, and he never before met with any stones to bear hard grinding so well, and continue the dress so long.” In June 1820, Mr. Stephens, the owner and occupier of a steam mill in Harrington, Liverpool, having a desire to try the Halkin buhrs, obtained a buhr, which he broke into several pieces, and fixed them into different parts of a pair of French buhr millstones; and he certifies, that ‘¢ they have since worked to a good face, and crack as well as the rest of the stones; and as far as his opi- nion can be formed by such a circumstance, he considers the Halkin equal to the French buhrs.” He states also, ‘ that he has, at the request of the discoverers, taken out one of the pieces of Halkin buhr,from his millstones,” which they beg to offer to the attention of the Society as a convincing proof of the tough- ness and hardness they manifest after a few months’ wear, being in this respect also like the French bulirs. In August 1820, a pair of Halkin millstones, of five feet dia- meter, were sent ta Messrs. Pilling and Co,’s large mills, at Mir- field, near Leeds, who have not yet given“any written report of the stones; but Mr. Goodwin of Liverpool (a mutual friend of Mr. Pilling, and of the proprietors of the quarry,) states, that he lately had a conversation on the subject at Mirfield with Mr. Vol. 59. No. 290, June 1822, 3F Pilling, 410 On the Porcelain Clay and Buhr-stone Pilling, who stated “ that the stones were not quite so uniformly: porous as the sample buhr, and had rather chipped in faeing ; that they meuded of this every time they were faced, and were evidently tougher the longer they worked.” [N. B. It is intended to send up Mr. Pilling’s own report, by way of supplement, as soon as it can be procured.] In September 1820, a pair of Halkin milistones was put up at the Aughton water- ‘mill, near Ormskirk, Lancashire, occupied by Mr. Richard Rawsthorn, sen,, who has been a practical miller all his life, and is 74 years old, and he states, that ‘‘ they an- swer better than French, for they ‘grind cool, and make fine flour, cut bran thin and broad, ‘and crack as fine as any French stone.’ In September 1820, a Halkin millstone was also put up at a new windmill at Knotty Ash, near Liverpool, and Messrs. Marr, the tenants, declare that « they laid down a pair of French buhrs, and a short time after laid down a French and Halkin; that the latter work equally well as the French; stand cracking as well, have been dressed four times, and still improve; soften the wheat as well or better than French do, and cut very broad bran, and preserve the colour as well as any French stone.” In October 1820, a pair of Halkin millstones were sent to Messrs. Hudson and Co., of the King’s Mills, Leeds. By a let- ter from them it appears the stones are not yet in use, so that no positive proof can be had of their grinding ; but they say “‘ that their millers who have prepared the stones for work (from which they can form a good opinion of their qualities in com- parison with French buhrs) give them a favourable opinion that they are likely to answer.” In November 1820, a pair of Halkin millstones were consigned to Richard Robinson, Esq. of the Phoenix Iron Works, Dublin ; but they were delaved for along while by stress of weather, and have not yet heen put to work. Mr. Robinson, however, says that “¢ they have undergone a very close examination by some of the first miilwrights and millers, who all agree that they ap- pear equal to the French buhrs, and in some instances superior,” alluding (it is supposed) to the equability of the pores. In December last, Richard Sankey, Esq. .» banker in Holy- well, Flintshire, and owner of a large windmill there, having a pair ‘of French milistones which did not give entire satisfaction, .removed the runner, and put up a Halkin millstone in liet of it, and he certifies, that ‘* his tenants like the work done by these better than by the other pair of French stones in the mill; that they clean the bran better, that the flour is soft and of good co- lour, and the stone keeps its face well, and gives satisfaction in all respects.” The discoverers beg permission to declare further (and are ready of Halkin Mountain, Flintshire. 411 ready to do so on their oath if desired), that the several ~certifi- cates above mentioned have been given voluntarily and gratui- tously, and that the several persons giving them have no concern or interest in the quarry; and that up to the end of the last year, no Halkin bulrs or millstones have been disposed of in any in- | stance except those before mentioned ; namely, Mr. Edward Evans, Flint Mill, Flintshire. > (Cheshire. Mr. Peers, Horn Mills, Dunham-o’-th’-Hill, near Overton, Mr. John Edwards, Ysceifoig, Flintshire. John Dumbell, Esq., Mersey Mills, Warrington, Lancashire. Mr. Pratt, Saredon Mill, near Walsall, Staffordshire. Mr. Stephens, Steam Mill, Hill-street, Harrington, Liverpool. Messrs. Pilling and Co., Mirfield Mills, near Dewsbury, York- shire. Messrs. Hudson and Co., King’s Mills, near Leeds, Yorkshire. Mr. Rawsthorn, Aughton Water-Mill, near Ormskirk, Lan- cashire. Mr. Marr, Knotty Ash Windmill, near Liverpool. Richard Robinson, Esq., Phoenix Iron Works, Dublin. Richard Sankey, Esq., Banker, Holywell, Flintshire. They have therefore offered to the Society all the evidence . which it is possible to produce, and trust that when the various . testimonials (collected from different sources and from persons who have had no communication with each other, though all agreeing in approbation) shall have been compared, the Society will be pleased to honour the Halkin Buhrs with their sanction. W. Bisnop & Co. The several samples alluded to in the preceding Report are placed in the Repository of the Society. CERTIFICATES from all the persons named in the preceding statement accom- panied the communication of Messrs. Bishop and Co.; of which the following, as being the most important, are subjoined : No, I. Liverpool, March 3, 1821. I have this day examined the small millstone, of Flint buhrstone, measuring 114 inches in diameter, which is about to be sent to London for the inspection of the Society of Arts, and hereby certify, that it is a fair specimen of the rock in the quarry on Halkin Mountain, which I visited last year; a vast quantity of stone, of a quality equally excellent with this specimen, may be procured from Mr. Bishop’s quarry on Halkin, in Flintshire. Tuomas Stuart Trait, M.D, 3 F'2 No. Il. 412 On the Buhr-stone of Halkin Mountain. No. II. Mirfield Low Mills, March 7, 1821. Sir,—After having tried your Halkin buhr-stones, for a fair and sufficient time, we are now enabled to lay before you a can- did and faithful report of their quality; and this we shall endea- vour to do, with as much brevity as is consistent with the im- portance of the subject. 3 3 The perfection of grinding consists, in reducing grain to a re- quisite degree of fineness, with the least pressure; or, in other words, to make the best and the greatest quantity of flour, out of a given quantity of wheat, with the least pressure. But, the mere good quality of a stone cannot effect this; for we must now call in the aid of art. And here it is that the great art of a miller.consists, the putting of work into stones, or the obliquity and disposition of the furrows, every thing else compared with this being only trifles. And, indeed, when we consider that an accurate knowledge of this is grounded upon the doctrine of cen- tral forces, which constitutes an important branch of the New- tonian philosophy, we need not wonder that so few understand the real principles of corn grinding. We have, however, rea- sons to believe that we have considerably improved it. From these observations it appears, that though the quality of the stones may be equally good, the effects produced will be different, according as the work is scientifically put in or other- wise; but, if the work and velocity of the stones be the same, we can clearly ascertain the quality of them by the effects pro- duced. We will now apply these observations to the stones in ques- tion. After twice or thrice taking them up, we were afraid that they would not stand the crack well; but this fear was soon dispelled, as we now find that they wear exceedingly little, and that the crack stands as fine as a hair. We now proceeded to ascertain the quality of the bran compared with our French stones, and for this purpose, we sifted the meal from every pair of stones as it came from the mill-eye; the bran thus retained in the sieve, we placed by itself, and by this means we had an opportunity of comparing the whole together. This we have repeated no less than forty times, and the result has always been, obviously from the very first glance, that the bran produced from the Halkin buhrs was not only cleaner, but of a more uniform cut; and this has not been perceived by millers alone, but by every person that has accidentally come into the mill. This we think is quite sufficient to prove the superiority of the Halkin buhrs; but, that every possible doubt might be re- moved, we had recourse to the following experiment : We Description of the Petrifaction Ponds at Shirameen. 413 We selected the best French stones in the mill, made by the late Mr. Gardiner, of Liverpool, who was very famous for his knowledge of French buhrs; and, that the experiment might be the more accurate, we did not grind a quarter of wheat on each pair of stones, as it is impossible to part it from the wheat that precedes and succeeds with that degree of nicety that is required, without running the stones empty and thereby injuring them very considerably. But we weighed 480 pounds of meal, ground by each pair of stones, from the same wheat, weighing 57 pounds the bushel. These two parcels, after remaining a week, were weighed again, to see if any accession or diminution of weight had taken place; but the weights were precisely the same as before. The two parcels of 480 pounds each were then dressed, and the result was as follows: Flour from the Halkin buhrs ... .. =... 390 pounds, Flour from the French buhrs .. .. .. 384 Difference in favour of the Halkin buhrs 6 Now, in this experiment, the velocity and work of the stones being the same, the quality of the buhrs may be as justly in- ferred from the effects, or quantity of flour produced, as any other cause in philosophy from its effects. We remain, sir, &c. &c. J. & W. Pituine. LXXXII. Description of the Petrifaction Ponds at Shirameen, (a Village near the Lake of Ourmia, in Persia,) which pro- duce the transparent Stone known by the Name of Tabriz Marble*. yee natural curiosity consists of certain extraordinary ponds, or plashes, whose indolent waters, by a slow and regular process, stagnate, concrete and petrify, and produce that beautiful trans- parent stone, commonly called Tabriz marble, which is so re- markable in most of the burial-places in Persia, and which forms a chief ornament in all the buildings of note throughout the country. These ponds, which are situated close to one another, are contained in a circumference of about half a mile, and their position is marked by confused heaps and mounds of the stone, which have accumulated as the excavations have increased. We had seen nothing in Persia yet which was more worthy of the at- tention of the naturalist than this, and I never so much regretted my ignorance of subjects of this nature, because I felt that it is of * From Motvier's Travels in Georgia, Persia, &c. ; consequence 414 Description of the Petrifaction Ponds at Shirameen. consequence they should be brought into notice by scientific ob- servation. However, rather than omit all description of a spot which, perhaps, no Europeans but ourselves have had the oppor- tunity of examining, and ou which therefore we are bound (in justice to those opportunities) not to withhold the information which we obtained, | will venture to give the following notes of our visit, relying upon the candour and the science of my readers to fill up my imperfect outline :—On approaching the spot the ground has a hollow sound, with a particularly dreary and cal- cined appearance, and when upon it a strong mineral smell arises from the ponds. The process of petrifaction is to be traced from its first beginning to its termination. In one part the wa- ter is clear; in a second it appears thicker and stagnant; in a third quite black, and in its last stage is white, like a hoar frost. Indeed a petrified pond looks like frozen water, and before the operation is quite finished, a stone slightly thrown upon it breaks the outer coating, and causes the black water underneath to exude. Where the operation is complete a stone makes no im- pression, and a man may walk upon it without wetting his shoes. ‘Wherever the petrifaction has been hewn into, the curious pro- gress of the concretion is clearly seen, and shows itself like sheets of rough paper placed one over the other in accumulated layers. Such is the constant tendency of this water to become stone, that where it exudes from the ground in bubbles, the petrifaction assumes a globular shape, as if the bubbles of a spring, bya stroke of magic, had been arrested in their play, and metamor- phosed into marble. The substance thus produced is brittle, transparent, and sometimes most richly streaked with green, red and copper-coloured veins. It admits of being cut into immense slabs, and takes a good polish. The present royal family of Persia, whose princes do not spend large sums in the construc- tion of public buildings, have not carried away much of the stone; but some immense slabs which were cut by Nadir Shah, and now lie neglected amongst innumerable fragments, show the ob- jects which he had in view. So much is this stone looked upon as an article of luxury, that none but the king, his sons, and persons privileged by special firman, are permitted to excavate ; and such is the ascendency of pride over avarice, that the scheme of farming it to the highest bidder does not seem to have ever come within the calculations of its present possessors. LXXNIII. Pro- f 41> j LXXXHI. Process of prepuring Saltpetre, and Mode of ma-- nufacluring Gunpowder, in Ceylon*. Tue preparing of saltpetre, and the manufacture of gunpow- der, are arts which the Singalese, for many years, have constantly. practised. The process of preparing the salt in different parts of the country was very similar. When the salt occurred im- pregnating the surface of the rock, as in the cave near Memoora, . the surface was chipped off with small strong axes, and the chippings by pounding were reduced to a state of powder. This powder, or the loose fine earth, which, in most of the caves, contained the saline impregnation, was well mixed with an equal, quantity of wood-ash. The mixture was thrown on a filter formed of matting, and washed with cold water. The washings of the earth were collected in an earthen vessel, and evaporated at a boiling temperature, till concentrated to that degree that a drop fet fall on a leaf became a soft solid. The concentrated solution was set aside, aud when it had erystallized, the whole was put on a filter of mat. ‘The mother-lye that passed through, still rich in saltpetre, was added to a fresh weak solution, to be evaporated again; and the crystals, after having been examined, and freed from any other crystals of a different form, were either immediately dried, or, if not sufficiently pure, redissolved and crystallized afresh. ‘The operations Just described, were generally carried on at the nitre caves. In the province of the Seven Korles, besides extracting the salt at the caves, the workmen. brought a quantity of the earth to their houses, where keeping it under a shed protected from the wind and rain, without any addition excepting a little wood-ash, they obtain from it every third year a fresh quantity of salt. In their mode of manufacturing gunpowder, which is very generally - understood, there is not the least refinement. To proportion the constituent parts, scales are used, but not weights. The proportions commonly ensployed are five parts of saltpetre, and one of each of the other ingredients of sulphur and charcoal. The charcoal preferred is made of the wood of the parwatta tree. The ingredients moistened with very weak lime-water, and a. little of the acrid juice of the wild yam, are ground together between two flat stones, or pounded inarice mortar. | After the . grinding or pounding is completed, the most seminated is col- lected, and carried in baskets to an adjoining stream, where it . is well washed; the lighter particles are got rid of by a rotary motion given to the basket in the operation; and the residue, still wet, is transferred to shallow baskets for careful examina- tion, * From Dr. Davy’s Ceylon, LXXXIV. On f 416 j LXXXIV. On Embanking 166 Acres of Marsh Land from the Sea. By Epwarp Dawson, Esq. of Aldcliffe Hall, near Lancaster *. Aldcliffe Hall, near Lancaster, Nov. 10, 1820. Sir, — I BEG leave to present a claim to the Society for the En- couragement of Arts, &c., for the premium offered in No, 34 of their List of rewards published this year. I transmit the cer- tificates required by the Society, and hope they will be deemed satisfactory. The inclosure, the consideration of which I have the honour to submit to the Committee, consists of 166 acres, three roods, eight perches of Jand, known by the name of Aldcliffe Marsh, about two miles distant from the mouth of the river Lune, and one mile from Lancaster. It was, with the exception of about three acres, swarded over, and has heretofore been attached as a sheep pasture to the different farms on the manor of Aldcliffe; it was estimated ut a low rent, as it was in a great measure over- flowed by the spring tides, and being intersected by a deep pool, the sheep were frequently surrounded by the water, and conse- quently lost. My first operation was, to convey the land waters from this pool into the Lune, which was done by opening for them a new channel through part of the old inclosures, from nine to twelve feet deep, and 246 yards in length. This cut was walled and covered with stone, and terminates with a hewn culvert of the same material, four yards in length, and two feet square. On the 8th of May last, the embankment wat commenced. It runs parallel with the Lune, which is in that part about a mile and a half in breadth at high water. The highest tides are with a south-west wind, which causes them to set in with considera- ble violence. The length of the embankment is 2010 yards ; for the first 200 yards at the north (or higher) end, I satisfied myself with a slope of five horizontal to one perpendicular; in the next 1,400 yards, the slope is 6 to 1, and where the pool formerly discharged itself, it is for 300 yards 7 to ]; the re- mainder being on high ground, is 5 to 1; its height averages about § feet 6 inches; the greatest perpendicular height being 14 feet 6 inches; the whole of the inside slope is 2 to J. It is entirely composed of sand, with the exception of the deep part, which is formed of clay, the sand being there worn away by the violent reflux of the tide. Its contents are as follows :—69,456 cubic yards of sand, covered by 53,078 superficial yards of sods * From the Transactions of the Society for the Encouregement of Arts, Manufuctures, and Commerce, for the year 182]. The Society's large Cold Medal was voted to Mr. Dawson for this communication. or On the Smelting of Tin Ores in Cornwall and Devonshire. 417 or turf four inches thick, employing 3,824 horses, and 5,843 men, supposing it had been completed in one day. In order to give employment to the poor of this neighbour- hood, I contracted with five different persons; the whole was completed in August, many difficulties retarding it, from the un- usual quantity of rain during the summer months. On the 29th of May, a violent storm of wind raised the tide, and swept away 1800 yards of material, which would have totally discouraged the contractors, who had no property, and could not have sus- tained the loss, had I not reimbursed them. I am thankful to say, the high tides in September and October have not made the slightest impression, and the whole of the work carries with it every appearance of stability. I apologize, sir, for the length of this communication ; the desire expressed in the rules of the So- ciety, that a detailed account should be given of works of this kind, must plead my excuse. Iam, sir, &c. &c. EpwarpD Dawson. The equinoctial tides in September were the highest in the | last twenty-four years, CERTIFICATES. . November 10, 1820. This is to certify, that Edward Dawson, of Aldcliffe Hall, has, during the summer of the present year, effectually inclosed and secured from the overflow of the tide, all that tract of land, near Lancaster, called Aldcliffe Marsh. R. ATKINSON, One of His Majesty’s Justices of the Peace for the County Palatine of Lancaster. November 10, 1820. I do hereby certify, that Edward Dawson, of Aldcliffe Hall, has, during the summer of the present year, inclosed and effec- tually secured from the overflow of the sea, all that tract of land, near Lancaster, known by the name of Aldcliffe Marsh. Tuomas BowEs, Deputy Lieutenant for the County of Lancaster. ’ LXXXV. On the Smelting of Tin Ores in Cornwall and De- vonshire. By Joun Taytor, Esq. Treasurer of the Geo- logical Society*. As ‘I am not aware that the treatment of tin ores, or the mode of smelting them, has been recently described, and as the prac- tice is confined to a certain district, it may be acceptable to the Society to have some account of the processes now used in Corn- wall and Devon. * From the Transactions of the Geological Society. Vol. 59, No, 290, June 1822, Cat Tin 418 On the Smelting of Tin Ones Tin ores are found in two kinds of deposits; first in veins ac- companied by various other minerals ; and, secondly, in alluvial matter in detached fragments. It is usual in Cornwall not to apply the word ore to the oxide of tin, but to distinguish it, when in that state, by the term black tin, in contradistinction to white tin, which appellation is applied to it when smelted and in the metallic. state. The two kinds of tin ore above mentioned are, therefore, ge- nerally known, by the names of mine tin and stream tin; and as ’ they are for the,most part smelted separately, and by different means, and as the metal produced from them is different as to its purity, it may be essential to point out the causes fromm which this diversity seems to arise. Mine tin is, as I have mentioned, the produce of veins, and is raised with a mixture of all the substances which unusually accompany it. There are, not unfrequently, copper ores, py- rites, wolfram, micaceous iron, &c. and the separation of these, as also of the earthy matrix, is the object of various processes. of dressing, which are conducted with the greatest care, and require a considerable portion of labour. Whether, in a country where fuel for smelting is on the whole very cheap, it might not be economical to diminish the labour of dressing, and, by leaving more to be done in the furnace, re- duce the expense of the former operations, is a question that I have never submitted to a direct experiment, though I conceive it to be one worthy of trial. ‘The various earths may be quickly separated by fusion, as in the case of copper ores, which are now always smelted with a large mixture of the different kinds of spar in which they are found, all of which is easily run off by the fire, and the scoria or slag separated from the metallic part. The fusibility of tin offers a mode by which it may be separated from an alloy of most other metals with which it is found to exist in veins, as lead and zine ores are seldom mixed with it. _ This property is now made use of to a certain extent in refining tin, and might probably be taken advantage of still further, so as to avoid some of the charges incurred in dressing the ore. The metal produced from mine tin is always of inferior quality, owing to the mixture of other metals, and which it is probable could not by any mode be entirely got rid of; it is known in commerce by the name of common or block tin, and the quan- tity forms a large proportion of the whole that is brought to market. ' Stream tin is found in the lowest stratum of alluvial matter, in the bottoms of deep valleys, or places where a considerable de- posit of mud, sand, and gravel, has been made by the action of water ; it is often discovered occupying a thin bed incumbent on * the in Cornwall and’ Devonshire. 419 the rock, and-covered’ by an overburden, as the streamers call it, which is sometimes:from 20 to 70 feet thick. The tin is in rounded fragments, sometimes as large as walnuts, but more ge- nerally in the state of sinall gravel, and even of fine sand ; it is imbedded in loose matter, composed of the detritus of the rocks from which it may be supposed to have been separated. The principal peculiarity of stream tin is the: absence of any other metallic mixtures, except nodules of hematitic iron ore, which sometimes accompany it. This circumstance fits it for producing a very pure metal. This is not the place to speculate on the causes which have so completely freed these ores from substances with which they were. in all probability originally combined, or to inquire whether it is to be attributed to mecha- nical action, or whether it has been effected by decomposition ; but it may be remarked that, besides the hematite already men- tioned, only the indestructible metals, and the oxide of tin, are now discovered existing in deposits of this nature. The operations of dressing stream tin are simpler than those for mine tin. It is smelted also in a different manner, and pro- duces a superior metal known by the name of grain tin, which is principally used by the dyers, and for the finer purposes. The processes for dressing mine tin are in many respects the same as are used for all other ores, but are subject to some varia- tions, which are attributable to the following peculiarities. 1. Being for the most part found intimately dispersed through- out the matrix, the whole is necessarily pounded down to a very fine state, to admit of the perfect separation of the ores. 2. That heing unalterable by moderate degrees of heat, it ad- mits of calcination, by which the specific gravity of the sulphu- rets or arseniats with which it is mixed, may be lessened, and a mode obtained of rendering them more separable. _ 3. That the weight of tin ore being greater than most others, it is less liable to waste in the processes of washing, and, there- fore, may be dressed so as to be nearly clean from all substances not actually adhering to it. From the first of these peculiarities it follows, that all tin mines must be furnished with stamping-mulls of sufficient power to bruise down the ores raised, which is generally done so as to produce a minute division of the whole, and on this account, formerly, the quantity and fall of water that could be applied ‘to this purpose usually limited the quantity of ore that could be re- turned from a mine, or the whole was frequently carried to some spot favourable to the erection of water-wheels to be applied to this purpose. Within a few years steam-power has been applied to stamping-mills, and has tended to increase the supply of tin ores, Engines for this purpose, of considerable power, are 3G2 working 420 On the Smelting of Tin Ores . working with great effect at two of the largest tin mines, in Cornwall, Wheal Vor and Great Huas; from which are now arising abundant returns of the metal, and where formerly it would have been impossible to have produced it. The state of division, or the size, as the tin dressers call it, is regulated by a plate of iron pierced with small holes, through which the whole passes from the stamping-mill, being washed through by a rapid stream of water conducted upon it for the purpose. This is a point of great importance, and is regulated by the state of dissemination in which every ore is found. It is not the intention of this memoir to detail the processes of dressing which are common to most ores, and, therefore, it may be sufficient to remark that, after being stamped, the tin ores are washed according to the usual mode, so as to separate the earthy mixture and as much of that of a metallic nature as is possible. All these operations are conducted with more than common care and accuracy; for, as tin ore holds such a large proportion of yaluable metal, it is of course treated with every precaution to guard against waste. Some metallic substances will be found, however, which, from their specific gravity approaching nearly to that of tin ore, or rather exceeding it, cannot be removed by any process of wash- ing; these are mostly decomposable by a red heat, which the oxide of tia will bear without alteration, Therefore, after as much has been done as possible to render the ores clean on the dressing-floors, they are taken to the lurning-house, which is furnished with small reverberatory furnaces, on the floor of which the ores are spread, and submitted to the action of a moderate and regular fire: they are frequently turned over by an iron rake to expose fresh surfaces, and a considerable volatilization of sul- phur and arsenic takes place; the former seems principally to be consumed, and the latter is condensed by long horizontal flues constructed for this purpose. After the ores come from the burning-house, the process of dressing is completed by further washing, which is rendered easy by the alteration which has been produced in the relative weight of the substances. Copper ore is not unfrequently present in these cases, and, as it is in part converted into sulphate of copper, the water which is first used is preserved, and a portion of copper obtained from it by means of iron, The great specific gravity of the tin ore, as I have before re- _ marked, renders it possible with care to subject it to many ope- rations in dressing without much waste; and they are, therefore, applied until the whole is generally so clean, as to yield a pro- duce of metal equal to from 50 to 75 per cent, In this state they are sold by the miner to the smelter, who determines their yalue in Cornwall and Devonshire. 421 value by assaying a sample, carefully taken from the whole quan- tity. The furnaces for smelting mine tin are all of the common re- verberating kind, and are of sufficient size to hold twelve to six- teen hundred weight of ore. The charge is prepared by mixing it with a proportion of stone coal, or Welch culm, to which is added a moderate quantity of slaked lime; these are turned over together and moistened with water, which prevents the too rapid action of the heated furnace, and which would otherwise volatilize some of the metal before fusion commenced. The heat employed is a very strong one, and such as to bring the whole into perfect fusion; it is continued seven or eight hours, when the charge is ready to draw. For this purpose, the furnace is furnished with a tap-hole leading from the lowest part ot the bottom, which, during the process, is stopped with clay or mortar, and under which is placed an iron kettle to receive the metal. The furnace has also a door at the end opposite the fire-place, through which the slag or scoria may be raked out from the surface, while the tin is flowing out, by unstopping the tap-hole. They are thus divided, and the tin is laded into moulds, so as to form plates of a moderate size, and put by for a further re- fining. The slag, which rapidly hardens into a mass, is re- moved to a dressing-floor, where, being broken up and stamped, it is washed, and a quantity of tin taken from it, which is called Prillion, and which is afterwards smelted again. No operation in smelting is more easy than that practised for tin ores, nor is there any one in which the reasons for the mode of treatment are so obvious. There are but two things to accom- plish in this first process ; to obtain perfect fusion of the earths so as to suffer the metal to separate easily from them, and to decompose the oxide of which the ore uniformly consists, The addition of lime contributes to effect the former, and that of carbonaceous matter or coal completes the reduction of the ore. ‘The separation of the metal from the earths then takes place in the usual way during fusion, by the difference in their specific gravities, the one precipitating to the bottom of the furnace, from whence it is drawn off by the tap-hole, and the other, floating on the surface, is removed in the manner I have described. The plates of tin, which are the produce of this smelting, are ‘somewhat impure, and are more or less so according to the qua- lity of the ore which has been used; they are reserved until a sufficient quantity of them is obtained to proceed with the re- fining, which is performed either in the same furnace, after ore- ' smelting 422 On the Smelting of Tin Ores y smelting is finished, or in a similar one, which may be reserved for the purpose. : All the processes for refining metals in the fire must be per- formed by taking advantage of some property in which the metal operated on may differ from those with which it is alloyed, and which it is intended to separate from it. These differences may consist in the facility or difficulty of oxidation, in their tendeney to volatilize, in the temperature required for fusion, or in their relative specific gravities. Upon an attention to the two latter circumstances is founded the operation for refining tin, The substances which are most ‘to be suspected in the produce of the first melting, and which it is desirable to separate, will probably be iron, copper, arsenic, tungsten from the wolfram, which the miners call mock-lead, and a portion of undecomposed oxides, sulphurets, or arseniates, and of some earthy matter or slag. The furnace for refining is raised but to a very moderate de- gree of heat, and the plates of tin being placed in it are suffered to melt very gradually, and the metal flows from the furnace at once into the kettle, which is now kept hot by a small fire placed beneath it. The more infusible substances will now be left in the furnace, and a further purification of the tin is obtained by agitating it in the kettle for some time by an operation which they call ¢ossimg: this is performed by a man with a ladle, who continues for some time to take up some of the melted metal, and pour it back into the kettle from such a height as to stir up the whole mass and put every part into motion. When this is discontinued, the surface is carefully skimmed, and the impurities thrown up are removed ; these consist of such matters as are lighter than the tin, but which are suspended in it, and, being disengaged by the motion, find their way to the top. In general, the metal is at once laded into the moulds, after the tossing and skimming are completed; but the produce of impure and irony ores may yet require that the tin be divided as much as possible from the mixture which may yet remain. This may be effected in a great degree by keeping the mass in the kettle in a melted state, by which the parts which are heavier than the tin will sink to the bottom, and by leaving a proper portion behind, the tin will be materially improved. The last operation is that of pouring the metal into moulds, which are usually formed of granite, and which are of such a size as to make it into pieces of somewhat more than three hundred weight each. These are called blocks, and are sent, according to the provisions of the Stannary laws, to be coined by the Duchy Officers ; and it then comes to market under the name of Block Tin, or acertain part which has been treated with more than common care is called Refined Tin. The in Cornwall and Devonshire. 423 The making of grain tin from the ores from stream works is conducted in a manner altogether different, and remains to be described. I have pointed out the purity of these ores, as regards their freedom from a mixture of other metals, and I do not think it important here to describe the mode of separating them by wash- ing from the sand and gravel in which they are found, because the processes are very similar to those in use for dressing other ores. The stream tin is generally made very clean, and is car- tied in this state, to be sold for smelting, to establishments which are called blowing-houses, being thus distinguished from smelting- houses in which mine tin is reduced, and the term is also de- scriptive of the process employed. The reduction of the ores for grain tin is performed by blast furnaces, and the only fuel used is charcoal. This mode of smelt- ing is exceedingly simple, and is probably the most ancient one, as would appear from relics sometimes met with of furnaces of rude construction, and in some of which the wind alone seems to have been depended on for urging the fire. The furnaces now in use are similar to those met with for smelting iron in foundries where the blast is used, and are formed by a cylinder of iron standing upon one end and lined with clay orloam. ‘The upper end is open for receiving the fuel and ore, which are thrown alternately, and a hole at some distance from the bottom, at the back of the cylinder, is provided to admit the blast, and another, lower down and opposite to it, suffers the metal to flow out regularly as it is reduced. A strong blast is kept up by bellows, or, in more improved works, by pistons working in cylinders, and the air is conducted by a proper pipe so as to blow into the orifice in the furnace. The only purification it seems to require is to separate from it such substances as are mechanically suspended in it, and for this purpose it is laded into an iron pan or kettle, where the fusion is kept up by a gentle fire underneath, and a complete agitation of the mass is effected by plunging into the melted metal pieces of charcoal, which have been soaked in water, and, by means of an iron tool, keeping them at thie bottom of the kettle. The water . in the charcoal is rapidly converted into vapour, which rushing through the metal, gives it the appearance of rapid ebullition. ' After this is over, and the whole has rested some little time, the scum, which is thrown up to the surface, is taken off, and the tin, which is peculiarly brilliant in appearance, is removed by ladles into proper moulds, to form the blocks in which it is ge- nerally sold. Grain tin is, however, sometimes put into a different form by breaking it: for this purpose, the. blocks are heated to such a degree 424 Successful Result degree as is known to render the metal brittle; they are ther raised a considerable height from the ground, and, being suffered to fall, the whole divides into fragments, which assume a very peculiar appearance. The smelting by a strong blast is injurious to metals that are volatilizable by heat, as they have in this mode no protection from the slag, which in reverberating furnaces floats on their surface, and protects them from oxidation and evaporation, The old practice of melting lead in what are called ore earths, is, on this account, giving way, and reverberating furnaces are coming into general use, by which the produce of metal from the ore is considerably increased. Tin, though volatile to a certain de- gree, is not affected by the process in any important manner; but, as some flies off in white fumes, it is usual to construct a long horizontal flue, which is made to communicate with and pass through a kind of chamber, in which a considerable part of these fumes is condensed and collected. LXXXVI. Successful Result of an Experiment on Draining of Land. By Joun Curistian Curwen, Esq. M.P.* London, Jan. 28, 1821. DEar Sir, _ Trevosen I have the honour to transmit for the Society a paper on Draining; if it should be considered as worthy of the attention of the Society, I shall be greatly flattered. I have left the country in great distress, and numbers of poor people out ofemployment. 1 hope to have the honour of paying my respects to you soon. I disposed of the rice you sent me into various hands. I have planted the wheat in. my own gar- den. Ian, sir, &c. &c. 4A. Aikin, Esq. J.C. CuRwEn. Secretary, &c. Se. Workington Hall, Jan. 17, 1821. The encouragement given by the Society of Arts, for the im- provement of agriculture, and every useful undertaking, em- boldens me to submit to them the details of a work recently exe- cuted. In the present state of the country, more important: service cannot be rendered it, than suggestions for the profitable appli- cation of capital to labour. Draining has universally been allowed to be the first and most essential step towards the permanent improvement of land. Fully as all writers are agreed upon this point, the cost that may * From the Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, for 1821. ‘The Thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Curwen for this communication. profitably of an Experwment on Draining of Land. 425 profitably be expended in accomplishing this desirable object, is by no means ascertained; nor till a few months ago, should I have ventured to have estimated its advantages, as I feel myself now justified in doing. Arecent occurrence brought this point strongly under my observation. It may appear strange, that after twenty years assiduous at- tention to agriculture, I should not have formed a pretty correct estimate of the injury sustained from the want of a proper drain- age of spring and surface water on any one crop; but so in truth was the case. A field of 40 acres on the Schoose farm was last year cropped with Swedish turnips; the land was winter fallowed, and in the highest state of tillage, so as to admit of the turnips being sown in the latter end of April, previous to the long-continued wet, which proved so destructive to the turnip crop in the North of England: it had 30 tons of good dung per acre. The crop averaged on 38 acres, 32 tons and a quarter per acre, that is, twenty-six of bulbs, and six and a quarter of tops; the produce of two other acres scarcely reached twenty tons. The soil and management were the same throughout. It is a strong clay, by no means applicable to the growth of turnips; but the farm af- forded no other soil more proper for the purpose. These two acres had by some means been overlooked when the rest of the field had been drained. The injury arose partly from springs, and partly from the surface-wet resting upon the land. The value of Swedes in common years is 10s. a ton for the bulbs ; in the present year they would‘ have sold at i5s. The loss, therefore, on 12 ton of bulbs, was eighteen pounds, besides the tops, which at 2s. 6d. a ton, would have amounted to 1/. 10s., making a total of 19/. 10s. Seventy-two roods of drains (seven yards to the rood) were immediately cut, the cost of which was 5s. a rood, or 18/. Had the drainage been executed previous to putting in the crop, it would have been more than paid for by the produce of the present year. That good often results out of evil, was never more fully ex- emplified; and with such a striking instance before me of the advantages resulting from completely freeing the land from wa- ter, I was powerfully stimulated to undertake the re-drainage of a field of eighty acres, adjoining the Schoose, Farm-buildings, and within less than half a mile of the town of Workington. I was still further excited by the daily and hourly applications for labour, arising, I fear, from the decreased and decreasing capital of the farmer. The scale of labour has annually been declining, which cannot but be a matter of deep regret to every friend to the country. Vol. 59, No, 290, June 1822. . 3H The 426 Successful. Result The nation has witnessed scenes of great distress during the year's of scarcity; but these bore no comparison to the present times. The hope of the privations being temporary, gave courage to bear up against them: but now'the future has nothing to invi- gorate exertion, or inspire fortitude. Numbers are daily forced into the ranks of pauperism against their will. Industrious ha- bits are destroyed, and with them that providence and fore-_ thought which is the basis of the happiness and respectability of the working classes. In order not only to continue’ in employ- ment the usual hands, but to extend it to the employing of others, at a season when the active labours of the year are nearly closed, I determined on undertaking the re-drainage of Walriggs, a field of eighty acres, which had been drained about 18 years before, in a manner then considered to be effectual. The main-drains, as far as they go, were well done, and these have been made available in many instances in the present drainage. They all run into the ditches which surround the whole, from which there is.a considerable fall on every side of the field. The collateral drains were only twenty inches deep, set with three stones, in the form of a triangle, having about eight inches of cover upon the top. A drain of 20 inches was then thought to be sufficient, and all that was aimed at, was to cut off the springs, no regard being paid to carry off the rain- water, which is so injurious to clay land. Subsequent experience has shown that, in most instances, the stratum which helds the water is at so great a depth, as to be below the bottom of such shallow eee ae that to do the work effectually, the drain must reach the stratum where the wet rests. The importance of deep ploughing was not heretofore known, or provided for. Five years ago this field was deep ploughed; it had been fore- seen, that in. many instances the plough was likely to come in contact with the head of the drains: this did happen, and the consequence has been to render the land as wet, or nearly so, as it was before any thing was done to it. Fifty out of the eighty acres were greatly injured by water. The annexed plan will point out the manner in which the work has been exeeuted. It was commenced in November, and was finished the second week in January. The cutting was let, as it requires practice to keep the drain the exact width. Bad hands are apt to increase the dimensions, and thereby greatly augment the expense of filling, which is the expensive part of draining. . Gathering and getting stones was done by the day, and employ ed a number of women and children, besides the persons occupied in the quarries, which were for- tunately near at hand. The depth of the. drains is from 3} feet to of an Experiment on Draining of Land. 427 to four feet; the breadth, twenty inches at the top and twelve inches at the bottom. The drains have a cavity at the bottom of six inches, being set with two side stones, and a cover, and then filled with stones to the top, the six inches next the top being filled with small stones, that in case the plough should strike into them, no injury is done to the drain. The drains are thus filled to within ten inches of the surface. It required a solid yard of stone to fill a rood of seven yards; in weight above two tons. To furnish such an enormous quantity of stones as eight hun- dred and fifty-nine roods required, was an undertaking of no small difficulty, and couldenot have been executed in the time, had not other substitutes been found. In coal countries there are strata known by the name of sill or schistus, and rattler, which is a mixture of coal and schistus. Sill is a substance that will not bear exposure to the atmosphere, but rattler does not fall, and is very light in comparison to its bulk. Recourse was had to these substances, and many hundred cart- loads of both were collected from the coal-banks, the remainder was gathered from the ground, and obtained from the quarries. 8. d. The cutting, filling, and setting was’ 1 3 a rood Collecting stones, supposing two gathered toeach rood .. .. O 8 Two carts from the quarries .. | 0 ending ten ge yok Janek Kym ey Jal ggry Cutting the drains by the plough Oi 7 U The distance the sill and rattler had to be led, so increased the cost of cartage, as to make their cost equal to that of stones. ; ee Bae OF Cutting and filling 859 roods of 7 yards, at 1s.3d. 53 138 9 3,436 cart-loads of stones for filling, at 10d. a cart 143 3 4 Carting the'above, at 6d2.. 0... oN. oe BR 1S. 0 Bemeyrat VA, Sis 12.8 alpina gonyrn qa mI 29h ‘3 7 Fifty acres of the field have been benefited by this drainage. The general quality of land deciding the value at which it would be estimated to let, it was considered as worth 40 shillings an acre; from its locality, | conceive 1 am within bounds, when I rate it as worth from 50 to 55 shillings. » The expenditure of two hundred and ninety-seven pounds, has added sixty pounds to the value of the field, which is obtained at five years purchase, or a little less for interest. It is to be observed, the horse-work is valued as if it had been hired; the real cost of that part, done at such a season, is not, to a farmer, one-half. “My object was 3 Tl 2 to 428 Account of a Volcantc Eruption in Iceland. to put the cost at the highest point, more strongly to enforce the advantage resulting from the practice, as it thus leaves nothing to object to. This field had in the last course 30 tons of manure; it is strong clay. First crop, potatoes, product 26 hundred stone per acre: sown with wheat and clover; both these crops were admirable. The oats this last year are calculated to produce 60 Winchester bushels per acre; it is now preparing for green crop again, and to have 50 tons of manure per acre. Admitting the green crop to profit three pounds per acre by the drainage, which is only half what was lost at average prices this year on the Swede crop, this on the 50 acres would be one hundred and fifty pounds: calculating it to yield three Winchester bushels per acre more of wheat, at 7s. per bushel, this would be fifty-two pounds ten shillings and ten-pence per acre; for the clover for two years 50/. more, making a probable increase of produce, without any extra expense, of 2521, 10s. Thus, in a five years course the whole expense will, in all probability, be repaid, and an annual permanent increase of rent to the amount of 60 per cent. gained. Wet is more destructive to pasture than it is to grain and green crops; and as pasture is the mest material object near to towns, draining, in such situations, is a more profitable improvement than in any other situation, and will consequently justify a greater expense. When once dry land is well laid down to pasture, the improve- ment is permanent. If flooded with water, it cannot remain for any length of time in pasture, but must be again brought under, tillage. On wet soils, improvement is almost labour in vain— costly at all times, but now ruinous. Should the Society deem this undertaking as meriting their attention, it will be highly gratifying to me, who owe them many and great obligations. The ambition of meriting the honour of their rewards, first directed my attention to agriculture, and I trust the result has not altogether been without its advantages to the public. I am, sir, &c. &c. JoHn Curistian CURWEN. LXXXVII. Account of a Volcanic Eruption in Iceland. By Dr. ForcHHAMMER*, Tu E very low state of the barometer throughout a great part of Europe in the months of December and January, although not * From Annals of Philosophy, No, 18. immediately Account of a Volcanic Eruption in Iceland. 429 immediately followed by any eruption of the volcanoes in Italy, excited apprehensions of violent voleanic phenomena in Iceland; and in the month of March, letters were received in Copenhagen from which the following account is drawn up. In the beginning of the month of September, the frost began on the east coast, and on the east part of the north const of Iceland, with a violence that was quite unexpected after the ex- perience of the preceding years. An amazing quantity of snow fell, and the Greenland ice surrounded the whole east and north coast, accompanied as usual by continual snow and frost. It was ‘remarkable that the fine weather continued on the south coast of the island till the beginning of November, the lowest state of the thermometer at, Ness, near Reikiavig, being on the 23d and 24th of September =41° Fahr. On the 19th of October it sud- denly fell to 23° Fahr., which lasted, however, only for one day, and before and after that time the temperature of the atmosphere was constantly above the freezing point, until on the first of November, when constant frost began. The island, though frequently alarmed by earthquakes, had experienced no volcanic eruption since that famous one of 1783 and 1784 fiom the Skaptaa-Jokkul, which destroyed such a great part of the cultivated lands, except some small eruptions which were said to have taken place in the interior, far from the inha- bited part of the island, and which passed away without attract- ing further notice, when in December 1821, a new crater was suddenly formed on the Eyafjeld-Jokkul, a mountain of which, among the numerous volcanic eruptions, only a single one is mentioned, in the year 1612, when a great part of the ice of the mountain burst, and was thrown into the sea. The Eyafjeld-Jokkul (known among sailors under the name of Cape Hekla) is the highest of all the mountains in Iceland ; and, according to the last measurements, is 5666 feet high. It is the southernmost of the chain of mountains in which the dread- ful eruptions in the middle of the last century took place, and at about equal distances from the Kolla and Hekla. From 1024 to 1766, twenty-four eruptions are recorded to have occurred. That part of the mountain where the crater was formed borders two sides the cultivated land, which belongs to the hundred (Syssel) of Rangarvalla, in the south part of the island. The following account is an extract of a letter from M. Bry- niulo Sivertsen, Minister at Holt, in Eiafields-boigden, to the Bishop of Iceland, M. Vidalin:—* The real crater is about five miles from my house at Holt. ‘The fire made its way suddenly by throwing off the thick mass of ice which scarcely ever melts, and of which, one mass, 18 feet high, and 20 fathoms in circum- ference, 430 Account of a Volcanic Eruption in Iceland. ference, fell towards the north, and, therefore, fortunately not over the village. At the same time, a number of stones of dif- ferent sizes slipped down the mountain, accompanied by a noise like thunder; no real earthquake, however, was felt. After this, a prodigiously high column of flame rose from the crater, which illumined the whole country round so completely, that the people in the house at Holt could see as perfectly at night as in the day time. At the same time much ashes, stones, gravel, and large half-melted pieces of the rock, were thrown about, some of which amounted to the weight of 50 pounds. In the following days, and until the new year commenced, a great quantity of fine powder of pumice fell in the surrounding country according to the direction of the wind, so that a thick bed of it covered the fields. It resembled the falling of snow, and pene- trated through all openings into the houses, where it exhaled an unpleasant smell of sulphur. The eyes suffered extremely by this dust. At Christmas, a violent storm from the south raged; it rained hard, which produced the good effect of blow- ing and washing away the ashes from the fields, so that they will do but little harm, We think ourselves extremely fortunate that so frightful a revolution in our immediate neighbourhood has | produced no bad effects either on men or animals.” Another extract of a letter from M.Terve Johansen, the Provost at Breidebolstad, about 181 miles to the west of the volcanoes, dated the first of February 1822, gives the following additions: “ We ‘still see the column of fire of the volcano shining with the same clearness as in the beginning, without, however, throw- ing lava into the inhabited part of the island. The ashes are greyish-white, have a sulphurous taste, and it is reported that they burn with fame when thrown into the fire. The ice of the Jokkul was twice broken, and an eye-witness has assured me that some of the pieces were three times as high as himself, and of many fathoms in circumference. Among the numerous half-melted stones, one has been found thrown to the distance of about five miles from the crater. We have had no accounts of the bad effects of this eruption either on men or animals. The thick mass of ashes spread over the laud of Vester Eyafield and Oster Landoe, which began to occasion diseases among the sheep, has been blown away by a heavy storm, and since that time the wind has carried the ashes from the volcano into the uninhabited mountains; the diseases among the sheep soon disappeared.” The third account is from M. Steingrim Johnson, Provost at~ Rangarvalla and Vestmamoesyssel, andgvritten from Odde, about 30 to 35 miles to'the W. of the voleago, dated December 19, 1821, “On Account of a Volcanic Eruption in Iceland. 431 “On Wednesday, December 19, at twilight, and later in the evening, a reddish ‘light-appeared on the E., which was the more Surprising, as it was clear. - Bec. 20.—At one o’clock in the afternoon, a number of rather shining clouds*was seen collected about the top of the mountain above Eyafjeld-Jokkul, E.S.E. from Odde ; the clouds scon changed into a high column of smoke increasing in thickness and darkness. Though the weather was clear and calm, the smoke was carried to the south; at sunset, the eruption seemed to cease, but the smoke soon rose aeniny and even more violently than before. When it was dark, we clearly saw the moying and the sparkling flame; from which we concluded that the eruption must be violent. Afterwards we heard that it was on the east or south side of the Vesterjokkul, near Hudnasten, and opposite to the. farm-house of Skaale, in the parish of Holt. Dec. 21.—There was a violent storm, and the fire was ob- served varying in intensity; clouds of smoke rose with great vio- lence. They remained on the mountain, and to the west of the Jokkul, whose white brilliant colour was now destroyed by the shower. of ashes. Dec. 22.—The same phenomena; the clouds increased, and spread all over the sky, principally towards the south. Dec. 23.—The same smoke. In Hvols-Reppen, and in this parish, the people believed that they saw the falling of ashes which came from the north-east. Afterwards we were told that a great quantity of them had fallen that night, and before, in _ the villages that were nearest to the volcano. ‘Dec. 24, 25.—The clouds of smoke remained on the same place, and in the same direction, as before; now and then the fire was observed on the place of the first eruption. Dec. 26, 27.—Heavy storm from north-east; the clouds of smoke on the same place. Dec, 28.—The weather began to get more calm; it seemed as if the column of clouds was divided into two, whieh took dif- ferent directions by different currents of wind. Dec. 29.—Weather calm and pleasant. The.clouds of smoke moved towards the north and east over the ice mountains. Late in the evening a mild rain. During this whole time, the cold was moderate, not exceeding 25° Fahrenheit, and sometimes it was 4° above the freezing point. It is reported that the water of the river which falls into the , and in the other rivers that come from the Jokkul and the surrounding mountains, had increased considerably du- ring the first days of the eruption, In the vicinity of the vol- cano a constant rumbling noise was heard, now and then accom- panied 432 Account of a Volcanic Eruption in Iceland. panied by a dreadful crash, as if the whole immense masses of stone and ice were going to fall together. The greater part of the ashes was fortunately carried towards the north, into unin- habited mountains and heaths, where also a great quantity of pumice has fallen.” In another letter from the same Provost, dated Feb. 23, it is said, ‘* The clouds of smoke have not yet disappeared, and to- day they are increased. No ashes, however, have been observed during a long time, and the Jokkul has resumed its shining white colour, so that the rain and wind must have removed the ashes. The smoke greatly resembles the steam rising from boiling water, and certainly owes its origin to the fire below. Some imagine they have observed that the Jokkul has decreased, and is now lower near the crater, which certainly must now be larger than before, the column of clouds increasing in circumference. So it appears at least from this side from N.to S.; but whether the same has taken place in the other direction, from E. to W,, Iam not able to say. It has been reported that to the E. two other volcanoes have had eruptions, the mountains Katla and Oraefa Jokkul, but nothing is known about it. Since the eruption, the weather has become worse, owing to its unparalleled variable- ness, storms, and afterwards cold, and a great quantity of snow.” Dr. Thorsteinson, in a letter to Prof. Oersted, gives the fol- lowing additions: —‘ Since the first of January, the violence of the eruption has been decreasing. Though the town of Reikiavig is about 74 miles from the volcano, the flame was observed there several times at night, when the weather was clear. People that recollect the eruptions of 1766 and 1783 think this trifling, but principally because it has done no harm. Though distant about 74 miles. from the volcano, I thought that the weather became much milder after the eruption. Though the barome- ter was pretty low during the eruption, yet it was lowest on Feb. 8, when it was only 27°25 inches; but the fire did not in- crease, nor did we feel any thing like an earthquake; but near the volcano, they had constantly small shocks.”’ The vessel which brought this news had left Iceland on the 7th of March, and it is reported that the sailors when at sea again saw a violent fire. State On M. Ampere’s Rotating Cylinder. A423 State of the Barometer and Thermometer from the Beginning ’ of December to the End of February, at Ness, near Reikiavig, in Iceland. By Dr. THorsrEinson. (Reduced to English Measures and Fahrenheit’s Thermometer.) | 1821.|Barom | Ther. | 1822. |Barom.| Ther. | 1822. |Barom.| Ther. Dec. $ 29-75 | 3S , 29-34 y 4 | 2e 29-84 | 2.1.29 35 29-90, : 3 | 29-23 1, 30°15 | 23: 29-07 30°18 29 05 30°18 > | 27:99 30°12) 3: 27:88 30-08 27 25 29-32 | 2: 28-70 29-62 | 2¢ 29-05 29-68 29-42 29-63 | 2¢ 2 | 29:32 29 49 3 | 29-16 29-438 | 237 29-05 29-25 | 3: 28-99 29-23 | 232 29-57 29:60} 2 28-56 99-52 | 2: 27-72 99-05 28-25 29-15 28-33 29°34 28-49 29°78 | 232 23-63 29°84] : 23 | 2845 30°05 | 3% 29-66 30-06 | 2: 29-68 30-02 | ¢ 26 | 29-60 30-00 28-76 29-40 29-1) 29:13 28-96 29-06 LXXXVIII. On a particular Construction of M. AmMpernr’s Rotating Cylinder. By Mr. Jamus Marsn, of /¥oolwich. Communicated by P. Bartow, Esq. Royal Military Aca- demy. ; To Dr. Tilloch. Dear Sir,— Tue inclosed communication from Mr. Marsh relates to one of the most pleasing experiments in Electro-mag- netism. In its original form it is due to M. Ampere; but it is Vol. 59. No. 290, June 1822. 31 much 434 On M. Ampere s Rotaling Cylinder. much. improved by the construction explained in the letter, As it has not yet, | believe, been given in avy English work, it will, I am sure, be interesting to many of your readers. l remain, dear sir, Yours very truly, Royal Military Academy, June11, 1822. Perer BaRLow. ‘ May 31, 1822. Sir, — Havine been lately employed in constructing for M:r.Barlow one of M. Ampere’s rotating cylinders, a new form of suspension suggested itself to my mind, which, upon trial, suc- ceeded admirably; and as it seems to add much to the interesting nature of the experiment, J have been induced, by the advice of the above gentleman, to give you the following description of it, under the hope that you may be disposed to give it a place in your valuable publication. I remain, sir, To Dr. Tilloch. Your obedient servant, James Marsa. The instrument alluded to is represented in Plate V. fig. 1 being a perspective, and fig. 2 a section of it. ABCDisa cylinder of very thin copper, about one inch and a half high, and two inches in diameter; abcd is another copper cylinder of less diameter, soldered to the bottom of the former at dc, where there is a circnlar hole to receive it; so that within the space Aa, Dd, Bl, Cc, a quantity of diluted nitric or sulphuric acid may be introduced; ef gh is a very light hoop or cylinder of rolled zinc. ‘To the copper vessel acd is soldered a thin copper wire ai, having a small socket at its upper part 7, to receive the point proceeding from the other copper wire ekf, soldered at ef to the zinc cylinder. NS is a cylindrical mag- net, which is represented as broken in the figure, but which (when the instrument is used) has its lower end inserted in a foot or stand; at its upper end is a small agate cap to receive the point proceeding downwards from i. If now (the magnet being first placed vertical) the cylinders be suspended, as shown in the figure, and the copper cell ABCD be nearly filled with diluted acid, the two cylinders will begin to revolve; the one from left toright, and the other from right to left; the rotations under fa- vourab!e circumstances amountiug to 120 in a minute with the zine cylinder; but the motion of the copper cell, from its greater weight, is not so rapid.) With the north end of the magnet up- wards, the zinc cylinder revolves to the left, and the copper vessel to the right ; and if the magnet be inverted, the motions of the ‘two cylinders will be inverted also. It is proper to observe, that M. Ampere’s construction is the same. Description of the Gooseberry Caterpillar, fc. 435 same as the above, with the exception of the lower descending point and agate ; and corfsequently in his machine only one mo~ tion can be produced ; 3; whereas, by the second suspension, we exhibit at once the compound motion, and show the opposite ef- fects of the connecting wire proceeding from the opposite sides of the galvanic apparatus. It will, of course, be understood that the magnet is of such diameter as to admit a perfect freedoin of rotation about it. LXXXIX. Description of the Gooseberry Caterpillur; and practical Means for preventing its Ravages. r '¥ To the Editor. As the season has now arrived when that voracious little ani- mal, called the gooseberry caterpillar, commits such universal devastation in our gardens, I have taken the liberty to send you a particular description of the fly from whence it proceeds, to- gether with a remedy for preventing its ravages; and, if you think that so much said about so diminutive a creature is worthy of a place in your Magazine, it is at your service for publication. The caterpillar is too well known to need any description, but it does not seem that the fly from which the caterpillar proceeds is: I am sure that it is not; and that many people imagine that it comes from.a moth or butterfly, which I know it does not; and I am quite sure that the following account is correct. Nor has there been, that I have ever seen, any published account how its depredations may be prevented ;. and, from the obser- vations which will be presently made, if the suggested remedy should not prove effectual, it may open the subject to the minds of those who may discover something that will. In the first place, I will give the description from Sturt’s «* Natural History of Insects,”’ 2. b. 166: “93. Phalena wavaria, Gooseberry M.—Wings cinereous *; the upper ones with four abbreviated unequal black fascief. Inhabits Europe. B. The caterpillar feeds on the currant and gooseberry: it issomewhat hairy, green, and dotted with black ; having a yellow line along the back, and two on the sides. About the middie. of May it goes into the ground, to change into a naked brown-pointed pupa}. About the middle of June the moth appears, which is very common.” Now the above description is extremely imperfect, as well as * Cinereous—having the appearance of being covered with ashes. + Fascia—a broad transverse line, I Pupathe aurelia......,. 31.2 materially 436 Description of the Gooseberry Caterpillar, materially incorrect ; at least for the southern and:warm part of Devonshire, where the fly from which’ this destructive little ani- mals proceeds first appears about the latter end of March, or the beginning and throughout the month of April, just as the goose= berry leaves have attained a sufficient size for them to deposit their eggs on, and to supply their young with food ; which eggs are invariably placed on the inside rib of the leaf, and the flies always first select those leaves nearest the ground, which ‘pro+ ceed from the rank water-shoots in the middle of the bush (this is very material to be known, as will hereafter appear); and, when these interior leaves are consumed, the caterpillars then gradually ascend, until the whole bush is denuded, and, conse- quently, the fruit spoiled. To those who are unacquainted with the fly itself, a particular description of it may not be uninteresting. "The flies, if atten- tively observed, may be first seen in the latter énd of March and the beginning of April, as before remarked ; but the first notice that we have of the destroying caterpillar is the skeleton leaves, and, when it has done most of its mischief, then people set about picking them off; but this, though it.is a temporary relief, is a troublesome task, and an endless and ineffectual remedy; be- cause, though many adult caterpillars are removed, there are thou- sands still left behind in the egg, on the inside of the leaves, which cannot be discovered without turning every leaf upside down? the eggs are then easily discovered, like as many little pearls, from a dozen to twenty in number, about the size of pin’s heads, not round but oval, and whitish. It is seldom that the first stock of flies do much mischief; the leaves grow too rapidly for the caterpillars to destroy, and they are supplied with sufficient food until they drop into the ground; they are then formed into the pupa; from whence, after a short time, a second generation of flies are produced, who perform the same operativus of increase and mischief as their parents, and so on toa third, a fourth; and fifth, when the season is favourable, until the approach of wintet puts an end to their devastations. The last or autummal cater- pillars fall into the ground, where they remain in aureliw state until the succeeding spring. I have some now by me in a box, that I put aside in October last, which are not yet changed into the fly. In an unfavourable season, we seldom see any after the first appearance. DUpon the season, then, and other causes, de= pend all the first and successive operations of this pernicious little reptile, the name of which it is necessary to know before any remedy can be applied. Mr. Sturt seems to understand that the caterpillar first ap- pears; the fact is, that the fly first appears; as is agreeable to the nature of all insects which undergo the cominon transforma- tion and practical Means for preventing its Ravages. 437 tion of the butterfly tribe. 1 will endeavour to give an exact description of the female fly. In the first place, it is avery dull, stupid, little animal, that will allow itself to be caught without the least difficulty: it has two horns or feelers; a head very dark, with two large eyes; four transparent wings; the body or car- case a light orange colour, when full of eggs not so large as a grain of wheat; the shoulders dark, to which are affixed six legs, three on a side, also orange colour, having three joints, five black spots on the last joint of each leg. It is a fly in every respect, having no resemblance whatever to a moth or butterfly; and, with the exception of the horns or feelers, and yellow body, it is very much like the small house-fly, the wings being quite smooth and transparent, resembling fine isinglass, of a snuff-colour tint, and free of all that down or feather which covers the wings of butter- flies and moths. Still it must be admitted to be among the genus of the moth or butterfly; as they do not appear to take any food, and undergo the common transformation from the egg to the caterpillar, the awrelia, aud the fly*. There is a black stripe on the outer part of the two largest wings. The whole inseet is not above the third of an inch in length, which seems the more surprising, as it produces such a pernicious race of destructive caterpillars, at their full size nearly an inch long. Their habit is to perch on the outside of a gooseberry or currant leaf, and then immediately to creep on the inside, when they di- rectly begin to drop their eggs on the ribs of the leaf. Thus, to a person who does not know the fly, and watch her motions, the the parent of these millions of insects is unknown; and people wonder, as the cause is unseen, from whence and from what these caterpillars proceed: but something cannot come out of ‘nothing. It is generally imagined that they proceed from a moth or butterfly; yet it is admitted that no moth or butterfly is ever seen about these bushes; but the fact is, that the mother _ of all this mischief is the little fly which I have described. The above description is that of the female fly I accidentally saw perch on a leaf. A gentleman who was with me, and my- self, watched her operations, and she did not seem at all mo- lested at our moving the leaf, to see what she was about: we noted the time, and in eight days the eggs then deposited were hatched into caterpillars: Thus, all the mischief is done in se- cret and quiet; and, whilst hundreds of these flies are in a gar- den, the cause is not known, and the injury is not seen, until it becomes irremediable. When first hatched, they giiaw only the inside of the leaf; but, as they get older and larger, they feed * = 7 sin p. cost — j sin’ p. sin’ ¢. cot z + isin} p. cos ¢. (1+ sin? ¢) whence, by a very simple transformation, we have the correction, x= p.cost — 3 p*. sin® é, cot z + 4p}. sin* ¢. cos ¢ which is the expression required: and which, for all observa- tions of the pole-star, is correct as far as p4, This formula is very , easy to calculate: and still more easy to reduce into tables.” M. Littrow then goes on to state that, fora fixed observatory, we may put into one table the last two terms of this expression, for all the values of ¢; viz. by making A = sin* ¢. cot % — ca sin? £. cos £. Whence we shall have ) = x + p. cost—A. But, he seems to have forgotten that z also is variable; which would render a table of this kind (even for a fixed observatory) more extensive than is necessary. The most convenient mode of arranging such tables appears to be as follows : 3 B= + sin’ ¢ 1 nelle C= - sint ¢ whence we shall have b= 2+(p +C) cost — B cot z. In order to render this method more conveuient in practice, I have computed the values of B and C for every ten minutes ; which are inserted in the two small tables annexed: and which will be found to be somewhat different from those given by M. Littrow. I have assumed the north polar distance of the star to be 1° 38’: but, as the mean north polar distance of this star is constantly decreasing, 1 have subjoined the decimal, by which the quantities in the tables must be multiplied, when the star’s apparent north polar distance is at any of the points there stated. The observer will adopt or reject these corrections ac- cording to the degree of accuracy required, , For a of a Phace by Observations of the Pole-Star. 449 For nautical purposes, the correction has heen sometimes assumed equal to p.cos / only: and in this manner it has been inserted in several books of navigation. But it would be more proper to add M. Littrow’s second term i. sin*¢. cot z. His last term is wholly insensible at sea. The time denoted by ¢ is the horary angle of the star, or the sidereal time elapsed since the star passed the meridian.. If S denote the correct sidereal time at which the observation was made, and A denote the apparent right ascension of the star on ‘the day of observation; then will ¢ = (S—AR): noting always to increase S by 24°, if it should be less than A. The appa- rent right ascension and north polar distance of the pole-star, for every tenth day of the year, may be obtained from the Nau- tical Almanac. I shall now subjoin an example of the use and application of these tables. Let p = 1°. 38’; z = 39°. 12’. 16",4; and ¢= 4b = 60°. ; r Bye o » » . Logarithm. p= 1.388. 0,00 B=~9: 1. 2,86= 1.7983052 = 1519 cot 39.12.16,40=10.0884646 ——— Logarithm. - — 1.38. 1,19=3.7694653 , 1.17,05= 1.8867698 cos 60. 0. 0,00=9.6989700 0.49. 0,59=3.4684353 z = 39.12.16,40 40. 1.16,99 | P17,05 Y = 39.59.59,94 Which is the same as the value deduced from the rigorous formula, tan uw = tan p. cos ¢ cos (¥—w) oh COS U. cos z cos 7p) M. Littrow has stated that the value of M, which he has deduced from the term + sin? /, must be multiplied by 1-02 for every increase of one minute in the north polar distance of the star. This is true, within certain limits; but he has neglected to state that his value of N ought, for the same rea- son, to be multiplied by 1°03, in order to obtain the correct values. The trifling difference which exists between our results in the preceding example, is principally owing to this slight cor- rection, Vol. 59, No, 290. June 1822. 3L TABLE 450 Ona new Method of determining the Latitude TaB_e I. Argument =? B Cc Argument = ¢ 6 | 6,000 | 0,000 | 667 0} 0,159 | 0,003 | 50 , 201 0,637 | 0,012 | 40 0%. and 12°.< 39 | 12428 | 0,027 | 30 S114, and 23%, 40 | 22527 | 0,048 | 20 50 | 3,926 | 0,075 | 10 fo} 5614 | 0,107 | 0 }10 | 73575 | 0,144 | 50 . , J 201 9,804 | O.186 | 40 IY. and 13". 4 39 | 19,274 | 0,233 wl | 40 | 14,969 | 0,284 | 20 (50 | 17,869 | 0,340 | 10 0 | 20,953 | 0,398 | OJ 10 | 24,195 0,460 | 50) 25, and 14! . and 22), J 20 | 277573 | 03524 | 40 | 130 | 31,059 | 0,590 | 30 $ 9% and 21%, 40 | 34,628 | 0,658 | 20 50 | 38,233 | 0.727 | 10 ro} 41,904 | 0-796 | OJ | 10 | 45,557 | 0,866 | 50> $20 | 49,182 | 02935 | 40 | 3®. and 15% 39 | 59'751 | 1,003 | 30° 8%, and 20%, 40 | 56,237 | 1,069 | 20 59,615 | 1,133 | 10 62,857 | 1,195 | OJ 65,941 | 13253 | 509 68,841 | 1,308 | 40]... 71,536 1,360 | 30 + 7°. and 19%. 74,006 76,23) 78,196 79,883 $1,282 §2,382 $3,173 §3,650 | 1, §3.810 | 1, core OO nh ¢ oooco oo > | aad Tt a L ISsssseSso . TABLE of a Place by Observations of the Pole-Star, 45] Tas_e II, Corrections of B and C. Argument = Multiplier of N.P.D. of the Pole-Star. B Cc 1.37.50" | 997 40 | +993 30 ‘990 20 “O86 10 “983 137.19 “980 1.36, 50 ‘976 40 ‘973 30 “970 20 966 10 963 1.36. 0 “960 1.35. 50 957 40 953 30 *950 20 “946 10 943 1.35. 0 *940 XCII. Experiments on the Combination of Acetic Acid and Al- cohol with volatile Oils. By M. Vauaug.in*, | Exp. 1.—Eicury parts of volatile oil of lavender were mixed with 80 parts of acetic acid; the areometer at 10°. After shaking the mixture smartly for a considerable time to perfect the union of the two liquids, it was left to settle. » When again examined and separated, the oil was found to occupy 125 parts, and the acid only occupied 35; the latter had therefore lost 45 parts, and the oil had acquired 45 parts. Exp. 2.—Eighty parts of the same oil were joined to the 35 parts of acetic acid remaining, and after mixing and sepa- rating as in the preceding experiment, the oil was found to oc-. eupy 115 parts, and the acid was reduced to 5: so that this time the 80 parts of oil absorbed only 30 parts of acid. * From the Annales de Chimie for March 1822, ok 2 I think 452 Experiments on the Combination of Acetic Acid 1 think that if the oil has only absorbed this time 30 parts of aci‘] in place of 45, it is owing probably to the acid having be- come more aqueous, and therefore less fit for mixing with the oil. Of the 100 parts of acetic acid employed for this experi- ment, there were six parts which could not combine with the oil. This remnant of the acid had acquired a yellow colour: its taste was still very acid, and its odour indicated that it contained much oil. In fact, when a drop of this acid was put in water, it fell to the bottom, and the oil separated and mounted to the sur- face. In this experiment, the acetic acid and oil formed two com- pounds of unequal proportions; one in which there was an ex- cess of oil, the other in which there was more acid than oil. It appears from this experiment, that 100 parts of oil of lavender can absorb 56 parts of acetic acid ; but as the portion of vinegar which remains, holds in solution a certain quantity of oil not easy to be estimated, it may be concluded that 50 parts of vine- gar will saturate 100 of oil, that is to say, one portion of acid for two portions of oil. Exp. 3.—To know if water could separate acetic acid from oil, 50 parts of the compound richest in oil, and 55 parts of water, were well shaken together for a long time. It was then found that the bulk of the oil was reduced to 35, while that of the water had been augmented 15: the oil however was still acid ; in fact, it contained three parts of acetic acid. Twenty parts of the same compound were shaken with S80 parts of water; the oil on settling had lost eight, and the water was augmented in the same proportion. In this experiment, the water had abstracted from the oil the whole of the acid which it contained, and had absorbed also a little oil, since the 20 parts of the compound contained but 7°2 of acid, and there was a loss of 8. When the acetic acid is pure, the oil can absorb it entirely ; but if it contains a portion of water, were it only 5 per cent., a part will remain which the oil cannot seize upon ; so that the part of the acetic acid which does not combine with the oil, contains necessarily a greater quantity of water than vinegar previous to the operation. This property which vinegar possesses, of combining with vo- latile oil, ought, not to cause any surprise, for it is well known with what facility this acid imbibes the odours of plants. Effects nearly similar are,produced when camphor is dissolved in nitric acid, and also in acetic acid ; that is to say, the cam- phor seizes on the pure part of the acids, and leaves another watery portion which was previously combined with the whole of — and Alcohol with volatile Oils. 453 of the acid. The greater the quantity of camphor, the less is the portion of acid remaining with the water; the latter con- tains also a small quantity of camphor, but that which water cannot separate: this quantity of camphor ought to be nearly the same as that which remains in the acidulated water, when oil of camphor is decomposed by water. ) These effects are not confined to greasy bodies and to acids ;. they occur equally between alcohol and these same greasy bo- dies. Having long ago been applied to by the Regie des Octrois de Paris, to know whether it be possible to introduce under colour of essences, turpentine for example, a certain quantity of alco- hol (a fraud which can only be effected by the manufacturers of varnishes), 1 made on this subject some experiments, which proved to me that a certain quantity of alcohol can be mixed: with essences, withcut our being able to detect it by the ordinary means, because, as long as the bulk of alcohol does not exceed that of oil, the mixture or combination will not be disturbed by water, and the odour will be masked by that of the essence which is strongest. I have repeated lately some of these experiments; the fol- lowing are the results: Exp. 1.—100 parts of volatile oil of turpentine and 20 parts of alcohol mixed together, did not separate on being left to set- tle, and formed a homogeneous body : this effect is produced by the solution of the alcohol in the oil ; for one portion of alcohol cannot dissolve five parts of oil. Exp. 2.—The above mixture, shaken for a long time, and at intervals with water added, was reduced to 108. The water had therefore abstracted 12 parts of alcohol from the oil, and the oil had preserved 8. Oil of turpentine may therefore contain a twelfth of its bulk of alcohol without its being liable to be perceived, unless it be through the specific gravity, which is a little diminished: how- ever, if the lotions are repeated enough, the whole of the alcohol may be at last separated from the oil. The mixture or combination of 100 parts of oil of turpentine, and 20 parts of alcohol, is not disturbed by water; but when poured upon water and slightly agitated, a portion of the alcohol will be seen to detach itself,and to form, in uniting with the water, some very marked streaks. 7 XCIII, No- [ 454 J XCIII. Notices respecting New Books. Recently published. Travers in Syria and Mount Sinai. By the late John Lewis Burckhardt; viz.— I. A Journey from Aleppo to Damascus. —2. A Tour in the District of Mount Libanus and Antilibanus. —3. A Tour in the Hauran.—4. A Second Tour in the Hauran. —5. A Journey from Damascus, through Arabia Petra, and the Desert of El Ty, to Cairo.—6. A Tour in the Peninsula of Mount Sinai, with a Map. 4to. 2/. 8s. Remarks touching Geography, especially that of the British Isles. By Mela Britannicus. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Travels along the Mediterranean, and Parts adjacent, extend- ing as far as the second Cataract of the Nile, Jerusalem, Damas- cus, Balbec, Constantinople, Athens, Joannina, the Ionian Isles, Sicily, Malta, and Naples, in the years 1816, 1817, and 1818, in company with the Earl of Belmore. By Robert Richardson. 2 vols, 8vo. 17. 4s. The British Gallery of Pictures, selected from the most ad- mired productions of the Old Masters in Great Britain: with de-. scriptions,&c. By the late Henry ‘Tresham, R.A. and W. Y.Ott- ley, Esq. F.S.A. 4to. 12. 12s. extra boards; proofs India paper, 25/.4s.; coloured in imitation of the original pictures, 1510. 4s. in Russia. 1 Engravings of the Marquis of Stafford’s Collection of Pictures. With Remarks, &c. 4 vols, 4to. 35/. 14s. bds.; proofs, 712. 85. ; finely coloured, &c. ‘1782. 10s. An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Archi- tecture; with an Historical View of the Rise and Progress of the Art in Greece. By George, Earl of Aberdeen, K.T. &c. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d. A System of Mechanical Philosophy. By the late John Ro- bison, LL.D., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University, and Secretary to the Royal Society, of Edinburgh. By David Brewster, LL.D.,F.R.S.E. Four exceedingly large and closely- printed volumes, 8vo. with Notes and 50 Plates. 4d. A new Theory of the Tides; showing what is the immediate Cause of the Phenomenon ; and which has hitherto been over- looked by Philosophers. By Captain Forman, R.N. 8vo. A Monograph on the British Grasses. By George Graves, F.L.S. No. II. 4s. 6d. and 6s. Lectures on the Elements of Botany. Part I. By Anthony Tedd Thomson, F.L.S. 8vo. We have been dilatory in noticing the appearance of a THIRD VOLUME, as an APPENDIX (in ¢wo Parts) to Mr.’Purton’s We ‘ able — Royal and Asironomical Societies. 455 able Mipianp Frora. We cannot withhold our acknowledge- ment of the faithful industry and botanical accuracy displayed by its respectable Author. ‘This third volume, Price 12. 10s., is embellished with thirty coloured Engravings. Preparing for Publication. A History of a severe Case of Neuralgia, commonly called Tic Douloureux, occupying the Nerves of the Right Thigh, Leg and Foot, successfully treated ; with some Observations on that Com- plaint, and on its Causes as they vary in different Individuals. By G.D. Yeats, M.D. F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, &c. &c. A Treatise on the Morbid Respiration of Domestic Animals, illustrative of the Diseases of the Organs of Respiration in Horses, Cows, Sheep, and Dogs, with the most approved Methods of Treatment, including a variety of Cases and Dissections. By Edward Causer, Surgeon, late Veterinary Surgeon to His Ma- Jesty’s 4th Regiment of Dragoons. XCIV. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. April 25.—Orx the Mechanism of the Spine, by Mr. Earle. Observations on the Eclipse of August 1821, by Mr. Dawes. May 2.,—On the Nerves which associate the Muscles of the Chest in the Actions of Breathing, Speaking, and Expression, by Charles Bell, Esq. _ A short Account of some Appearances in the Moon on the 24th of April, by Mr. Lawson. May 9.—Experiments and Observations on the Newry Pitch- stone, and on the artificial Formation of Pumice, by the Right Hon. J. Knox. May 16.—On the Changes which the Egg undergoes during Incubation, by Sir E. Home, Bart. May 23.—On the Mathematical Laws of Electro-magnetism, by P. Barlow, Esq. ; On the Heights of Places in the Trigonometrical Survey, by B. Bevan, Esq. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. Friday, June 14.—T'wo papers were read from Mr. Gompertz : one on a new methed of investigating the formule for ex- pressing the Aberration of Light: the other being a continuation of a former paper on the means of correcting the errors of astro- nomical instruments by certain mathematical expressions. A paper 456 Astronomical Society. A paper was also read from Mr. Bevan on the practicability of determjning the difference of longitude hetween two places not far distant from each other, by observing flashes of lightning. It seems to us, however, that the mode adopted on the Con- tinent, by firing loose gunpowder at certain intervals, is much preferable. A paper was likewise read from M. Littrow of Vienna, point- ing out certain anomalies in the north polar distance of the” principal fixed stars. It appears that the instruments recently made by Reichenbach, for the observatories of Konigsberg, Vienna, Gottingen, &c. give the north polar distances of those stars greater, by 4 or 5 seconds, than the larger instruments at Greenwich, Dublin, Palermo, &c. This subject is one of great interest at the present moment: and we wait, with much im- patience, the publication of this memoir. The next and last paper was’ by Mr. Babbage, relative to a new invention in machinery, by which not only the usual Jo- garithms, but also various other mathematical and astronomical tables might be formed, and the types thereof set up without the possibility of an error throughout the whole process. This discovery we consider as one of the finest in modern times; and (like the invention of the steam-engine in its application to the arts) it bids fair to open a new erain science. The object, which Mr. Babbage had first in view, was to form an engine which should express any series of numbers whose first, second, third, &c. differences were equal to 0: and which he has completely effected. ‘To those who are acquainted with the method of dif- ferences, it will be evident that such series would embrace not only the common logarithms of numbers, the logarithms of sines, tangents, &c.; but likewise the natural sines, tangents, &c. whence its application to the formation of astronomical tables may he readily conceived. But, in the pursuit of this inquiry, Mr. Babbage found that many new views of the subject arose ; and that the engine was not confined to the expression of series whose ultimate differences were constant: but that it would form tables, not dépendent on that law; and whose differences ~ could not be denoted by any analytical expression. | Since the meeting of the Society we have been favoured with a sight of this engine: which is very simple in its construction, and may be put in motion by a child. Mr. Babbage composed in our presence a long series of square numbers ; and likewise the first forty terms of the series of numbers depending on the formula (“*-++ 2 +41); all of which are primes, and which were forméd as expeditiously as a person could write them down. When we consider the numerous errors to which all tables are liable, not ouly in their original computation, but also in composing them Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. 457 them for the press, as well as the various accidents to which the type is exposed in passing through the hands of the various workmen (aéd of which sources of error are completely obviated by the present contrivance); we cannot sufficiently congratulate our readers on so valuable an acquisition, which we trust will be secured to this country by the liberal protection and support of our own Government to the ingenious inventor. Mr. Hardy exhibited a time-piece for determining very small portions of time, It showed the =1,th part of a sévond of time. M. Fatton (nephew of the celebrated Breguet) exhibited also a new Species of chronometer, which, by means of a mechanical contrivance annexed to the setlonds hand, marked on the dial- plate the fractional part of a second: thereby affording to ob- servers an opportunity of registering, during an observation, the precise moment at which any phznomenon may occur.—Mr, Ro- binson- likewise exhibited -his micrometer with two fixed spider lines, and one moveable line: which for economy and sila is worthy the attention of every practical astronomer, The Society adjourned, for the summer recess, till Friday, November 8th. ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS, At the sitting of this Academy on the 7th of January, M. G. St. Hilaire read a paper entitled ** Observations on dif- ferent encephalic parts found in human monsters reputed to be without the brain, and named after this hypothesis Anecephales.” M. Desmarets ‘read ‘a memoir “On ‘the Crustaceous Fossils.” M. Ampere, one “ On the rotation of a Magnet, which only turns upon its axis by the action of a metallic wire joining the two extremities of a Voltaic pile,” a phenomenon which Mr. Faraday had in vain attempted to produce. On the l4th of January My Fourier read a memoir ‘ On the general principles of Alge- braic Analysis.” . M. Brongniart the younger read a paper upon “ the classification and the distribution of vegetable Fossils in general.” . M. G. St. Hilaire, a Memoir * sur les voies. diges- tives des monstres acephales.”” On the 22d, M. Gaetano Rosina read a paper “ On azote, carbon, and hydrogen, rendered solid by the means of oxide of iron; with a bottle containing a speci- men of the substance.” M. G, St. Hilaire read a memoir ‘f On the intestinal nutrition of the foetus, and on its great conformity with the intestinal nutrition in adult animals.” M. Cauchy, one On development i in series, and on the integration of differential equations.” On the 25th M. Laugier presented a paper on the acrolithe of Juvenas, and an extract was read from a work of M.Reboul ou the Pyrenees. ._M. Delambre gave a verbal ac- count of the new part of the translations of M. Halma. Vol. 59. No. 290, June 1822, 3M Pls 458 Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. Prizes proposed by the French Royal Academy of Sciences for 1823. In Physics.—The origin of animal heat is not established in an incontestable manner, and philosophers are stilt divided in opinion on the subject, notwithstanding its great importance to the progress of physiology. The Academy offers a gold medal of the value of 3000 francs, to be awarded in the Public Sitting of the year 1823, for the best Treatise founded: on actual experiments, On the causes, whether chemical or physiological, of Animal Heat? It is par- ticularly desired to know exactly the degree of heat emitted by a healthy animal in a given time, and the carbonic acid which it produces in respiration; and what proportion such heat bears to that produced by the combustion of carbon in the formation of the same quantity of carbonic acid. The Essays to be trans- mitted to the Secretariat of the Institute before the Ist of Janu- ary 1823. 7 In Mathematics.—The Academy, persuaded that the theory of Heat is one of the most interesting objects to which mathe- matics can be applied, propose the following question for a Prize to be awarded in March 1824, 1. What is the density, as proved by experiments, which li- quids, especially mercury, water, alcohol, and sulphuric ether, acquire, by degrees of compression equivalent to the weight of so many atmospheres ? 2. How to measure the effects of the heat produced by these compressions ? The Prize to be a gold medal of the value of 3000 francs. - The Essays to be transmitted before the Ist of January 1824. Prizes founded by M. ALHUMBERT. The late M. Alhumbert having bequeathed an annuity of 300 francs to be employed in promoting the sciences and arts, the King has authorized the Academies of Sciences and Fine Arts to distribute alternatively every year a Prize of that value. The Academy proposes the following subject for the competi- tion of this year— To compare anatomically the structure of a fish and that of a reptile; the two species to be chosen by the competitors. Prize of Experimental Physiology founded by M. de Montryon. The Prize a gold medal of the value of 895 francs, for the work, printed or in MS., which shall appear to have contributed most to the progress of experimental physiology.—To be sent to the Secretariat of the Institution before the Ist. of January 1823. Prize Society of Medicine at Paris.— Asiatic Museum. 459 Prize in Mechanics founded by M. de Montyon. To the person who shall have shown the greatest merit in in- venting or in improving instruments useful to the progress of agriculture, mechanical arts, and sciences, a gold medal of the value of 1500 francs. The prize will only be given to machines the description and the plans or models of which, sufficiently detailed, shall have been submitted to the Academy, either separately, or in some printed work transmitted to the Academy. SOCIETY OF MEDICINE AT PARIS. This Society has offered two prizes for 1822 and 1823, for the best paper on the following subjects :—-On the symptoms, the causes, and the treatment of the malady known by the name of the cerebral or hydrocephalic fever. 2. The morbid alterations of which traces are found in the abdominal viscera, are they the cause or effect, or the complication of these dis- eases ? ASIAT{C MUSEUM AT ST. PETERSBURG. His Excellency the President of the Imperial’ Academy of Sciences at Petersburg, has ordered all the researches and re- sources of Eastern learning, that can be obtained, to be collected together, and placed in one of the rooms of the Academical Mu- seum. He has by these means formed an Asiatic Museum, which has been enriched by Imperial liberality with a uew collection of Oriental MSS., and, in other branches, by presents from indi- viduals, forming now one of the most useful and remarkable col- Jections in the Academical Museum. It has been arranged in three newly-erected rooms, and contains : I. Oriental monuments and antiquities: 1. A large collection of Mohammedan coins, divided into 28 classes; a complete ca= talogue of which is now in the press, and of which a particular account will shortly be given. 2. A collection of other Oriental coins, such as Chinese, Japanese, Hebrew, Sassanide, and Indian, 3. Other Orieutal antiquities, as stones (bricks) with Persepoli- tan inscriptions ; and vessels with Arabic inscriptions. II. A very fine collection of Arabian, Persian, and Turkish MSS., arranged according to their different departments and languages: as poems; grammars ; mathematical, historical, phi- losophical, physical, and theological MSS. IIL. A rich collection of Chinese, Manshurian, and Japanese MSS., likewise arranged according to languages and subjects ; to which are added Chinese sketches and drawings. IV. A very rare collection of Mongol, Calmuck, and Tibetian : 3M 2 MSS. ; ‘ 460 Ethiops Mineral.— Saltpetre.—Gas from Coal Tar. MSS.; also many Mongol prints, a detailed catalogue of which will be published, to satisfy the curiosity of the public. V. An Oriental library, or a collection of Oriental MSS. relative to literature and information, which may furnish the learned with sufficient means to obtain a knowledge of the coun- tries of the East.— New ipl et Mag. ; XCV. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. ETHIOPS MINERAL» Dx. TADDEI recommends the following process for the prepa- ration of ethiops mineral,:as being one which effects the com- bination immediately, and in a, more perfect manner than that generally employed. Put, one part, of sulphuret of potash. into a-mortar, with three or four parts of running mercury 3; triturate together, adding a little water by degrees, until the whole is re- duced to a homogeneous black paste; then add flowers of sul- phur in equal quantity to.the mercury employed, and mix the whole by a short trituration.. Then wash the w ‘hole ; and filter with repeated, portions of water, till all the alkaline sulphuret is removed, . Ethiops thus. repared is not of the black colour of that obtained by simple trituration, but it is a more perfect, com- bination. Dr. Taddei says, that the addition of a little sulphu- ret of potassa to,the mixture of sulphur and mercury does not do away with a long trituration, but that, proceeding as above, the substance is prepared instantiy.— Giornale di Fisica. NEW METHOD OF MANUFACTURING G SALTPETRE. M. Baffi, the celebrated chemist, a native of Pergola, has re- ceived from the Viceroy of Egypt a present of 100,000 crowns and the title of Bey,. for,having discovered a method of pro- ducing saltpetre without the assistance of fire, by mere heat of the sun. « Previous to this, every hundred weight of saltpetre cost the Viceroy ten crowns, which is reduced to one crown by ~ the new method. The manufactory erected by M. Bafli_ in the great square of Memphis, has furnished within the last year 3580 ewt. of saltpetre. An Egyptian cwt. is the same as the English. GAS FROM COAL ‘TAR. It has been found, by experiment, that the coal-tar liquor, which is sometimes considered as waste by those who make gas, if mixed with dry saw-dust, exhausted logwood, or fustic, to the consistence of paste, and allowed to remain till the water gs drainec Capacity of the Gases for Caloric.—On Water-cements. 461 drained off,—2 ewt. of the mass being put into the retort instead ef coal will produce more gas, and be less offensive than the same quantity of canal coal. This process will probably be found very convenient in. some cireumstanées for the consmnption of the tar prodneed by the distillation of coal in gas-works.— Journal of Science. CAPACITY OF THE GASES FOR CALORIC. J. H. Mallet, secretary to the Academy of Lyons, announces, as the result’ of soine well contrived experiments, which be has pub- lished, that At the same temperature the particles of different gases are at equal distances 5 that their molecules have different volumes; and that the quantity of calorie which a gas can ad- init deperids on the space which separates the molecules. ON WATER-CEMENTS, MORTAR, AND LIME, Tlie following particulars ate extracted from the work of M. L. J. Vicat on this subject. . Limestones vary greatly in quality. Those which approach to marble in purity, or consist almost entirely of carbonate of lime, are called rich ; those on the contrary are called meagre; which contain otable portions of sarid Or silex, alumine and iron, The former when burned, slacked, and miade into paste, will re- fain their softness for ages under water, or excluded from the air; but exposed to the air, they contract a remarkable hardness by the double effect of desiccation, atid union with the earbonic acid of the atmosphere. They even become susceptible of a beautiful polish. But the meagre limestones, it geiteral, tredted in the same manner, if kept under water, harden ina few days, and at length form a kind of freestone which could be acted upon or broken only by the pickaxe. Exposed to the air, it acquires a crumbly consistence, aud will never adinit of polish. From this circum stance, the linie which possesses the quality last mentioned is called hydraulic lime. But some of the meagre limestones are unfit for hydraulic purposes, especially those which contain large particles of siléx. Puzzolanas are either natural or artificial. The natural is found in situations which have been acted upon by subterraneous ficat. ‘They all consist of silex, alumine, oxide of iron, and a little lime, the properties of which vary greatly. Silex is always tlie predominating ingredient 5 the lime and iron are sometimes, though rarely, wanting. The scoria of forges and furnaces, bro- ken pottery, and pulverized brick or tile, are artificial substances analogous to puzzolanas. There is one class of puzzolanas which dissolve readily in sul phurie 462 Electro-magnetic Experiment. phuric acid, and abandon the silex, which immediately subsides. Others resist the action of this acid. If we mix in various proportions, very rich lime slacked in the usual way, with sand alone, or with puzzolana which resists the action of sulphuric acid, we obtain a mortar, which, placed under pure water, remains always soft, or acquires, after a long time, only a feeble consistence. The same mortar exposed to the air, soon hardens by drying, but is always easily broken or pulverized. But if the same experiment is made with a puzzolana readily affected and decomposed by sulphuric acid, a mortar is obtained, which soon ‘sets under water, and becomes gradually harder, but in air it does not acquire any great resistance in consequence of its drying too rapidly. Hydraulic lime presents phenomena nearly the reverse. That is to say, it furnishes good mortar when combined with sand alone, or with puzzolana unaffected by acids, whilst very unsa- tisfactory results are obtained by employing it with substances which unite well with rich or pure lime. Since the quality of natural hydraulic lime depends only on the presence of a certain quantity of clay or argill combined by heat with calcareous matter, it is natural to suppose that in mixing clay in suitable proportions with a rich slacked lime, and submitting the mixture to heat, the same result might: be ob- tained. Experiments made upon a large scale, and in various laces, have confirmed this opinion so fully, that it is now possible to fabricate almost every where, and at a very moderate price, artificial lime superior to the natural. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC EXPERIMENT. The discovery of M. Zamboni concerning the electricity pro- duced by the contact of a single solid canductor with a single fluid conductor has been confirmed by Professor Oersted of Copenha- gen, who thus expresses himself in a letter on the subject : < You know that such experiments are extremely delicate ; they seem to have been repeated only by Mr. Erman, and this celebrated and ingenious philosopher complains much of the ir- regularities which the experiments present. 1 have found in the electro-magnetic multiplier, invented by Schweigger, a mode of making these experiments with the greatest ease. I take two plates of zinc, of different breadths, one for example 3 lines broad, the other 143 I place them in a diluted acid, and I make = commnnication between each of them and one of the extre- iuities of the metallic wire of the multiplier. The action is thus rendered very sensible. The wider plate assumes in this galvanic are the place of the copper, the narrower that of the zinc. When we take two plates which are perfectly equal, and attach thetn to Russian Embassy. — Antiquities. 463 to the extremities of the multiplying wire, we obtain no effect, if we plunge both plates at once into the liquid ; but if we im- merse one before the other, that which has come the last into contact acts as a less oxidable metal.—Journal of Science, No. 25. a , RUSSIAN EMBASSY TO BUCHARIA. The Russsian embassy sent in 1820 to Bucharia, after crossing, in 72 days, the Kirgese Desert (Steppe), where it suffered many — hardships, especially for want of water, reached Bucharia on the 20th of December 1820. They found Bucharia to be a very fruitful and well cultivated country, with two millions and a half of inhabitants. The trade with Russia amounts to twenty mil- ions of rubles. —The embassy set out on its return to Orenburgh on the 23d of March 1821, and arrived there safely in fifty-five days.— Astatic Journal. ANTIQUITIES, A monastic seal, in perfect preservation, was found last No- vember in a potatoe field called Low Garth, near Langrick on the Ouse. It is of mixed or bell-metal, 24 inches long, of an oval shape, pointed at the ends, and pierced through the shaft: the inscription is “ SIGILLUM FRATERNITATIS MONASTERIE BEATE MARIE DE Hayrzs,” In the centre, on a ground of flowers, is the figure of a man, clothed in a monkish stole, bare-headed and shorn, standing on an elevation of three steps; holding in his right hand a globe surmounted by a cross, and in his left a staff or sceptre spreading into three rods or branches at the top. Although found within a short distance of Drax Abbey, which was sometimes called also Heilham, and possessed a neigh- bouring estate named Hales, it cannot be referred to that foun- dation, which was a Priory dedicated to St. Nicholas ; neither does it appear to belong to Hales Owen Abbey, but to the mi- tred Cistercian Abbey of Hayles in Gloucestershire, which was founded by Richard Earl of Cornwall and King of the Romans, in 1246, at the expense of 10,000 marks, and dedicated to the Virgin. How it came into Yorkshire must be mere conjecture, as there was no connexion between the two establishments. Rome.—On the 7th of February, a Columbarium, in perfect preservation, with beautiful paintings and 200 inscriptions, was discovered in the Vigna Ruffini on the Via Nomentana, Among the inscriptions, one only belongs to a person of the age of eighty. (Virit Annos Lxxx.) Friends have scratched their names on the monument, which therefore furnish a remarkable addition to the specimens of Roman running hand, The proprietor means to leave the whole as it was found, and to build a shed over it. PUFF 464 Puff Adder,— Curious Instinet of the common Hog. PUFF ADDER. The venom, of.this. reptile is said to be very fatal, taking effect so rapidly as, to leaye the, person who has the mistor tune to be bitten, no chance of saving his life but by instantly cutting out the flesh surrounding, the wound. ¢¢ Although,” says Mr. Bur- chell, “I have often. met with this serpent, yet, happily, no op- portunity occurred of witnessing the consequences of its bite; but from the universal dread i in which it is held, I have no doubt of. its being one of the most vénomous of Southern Africa. ‘There is a peculiarity. which renders it more dangerous, and which ought to be known by every person liable to fall in with it. Un- like the generality of snakes, which make a spring, or dart for- ward, . when irritated, the Puff Adder, it is said, throws itself backward; so that those who should be ignorant of ‘this fact would place themselves in the very direction of death, while imagining that by so doing they were escaping the danger. The natives, by keeping always in front, are enabled to destroy it without much risk.” One taken by Mr. B,. measured) in ‘the thickest part seven inches in circumference, and three feet seven inches in length; and, by its disproportionate thickness, may easily be distinguished from all the others of. this country. « T have,” says he, ‘seen one about four feet and a half long, which, probably, i is the greatest size’ it ever attains, \'The general co- lour is,a dusky brown, but varied with black and cream-coloured transverse stripes, in shapes of which it is not easy to. convey an idea by mere description.” CURIOUS INSTINCT OF THE COMMON HoG (Sus Scrofa, Linn.). It is. customary. with farmers who reside in the thinly settled tracts of the United, States, to suffer their hogs to run at large. These animals feed, “Upgn. acorns, which are very abundant in our extensive forests, and in this situation they often become wild and ferocious. A gentleman of my acquaintance, while travel- ling some years ago, through the wilds of Vermont, perceived at a little distance for him a herd. of swine, aut his attention was arrested by the agitation they exhibited. He quickly per- ceived a number of young pigs in the centre of the herd, and that the hogs. were arranged about them in a conical figure, having their heads all turned outwards. At the apex of ‘this singular cone, a huge. boar, had placed himself, who, from his size, seemed to be the master of the herd. The traveller now observed that a famished.wolf was attempting by various manoenvres to seize one of the pigs inthe middle; but wherever he made an attack, the ,huge boar at the apex of the cone presented himself—the hogs dexterously arranging themselves on each side of him, so as Lusus Nature.—Natural Curiosity.— Ornithology. 465 as to preserve the position of defence just mentioned. ‘The at- tention of the traveller was for a moment withdrawn, and, upon turning to view the combatants, he was surprised to find the herd of swine dispersed, and the wolf no longer to be seen. On riding up to the spot, the wolf was discovered dead on the ground, a rent being made in his side, more than a foot in'length ;—the boar having, no doubt, seized a favourable opportunity, and with a sudden plunge dispatched his adversary with his formidable -tusks. It is a little remarkable that the ancient Romans, among the various methods they devised for drawing tp their armies in bat- tle, had one exactly resembling the position assumed by the swine above mentioned. The mode of attack they called the Cuneus, or Caput porcinum.—Silliman’s Journal, Jan. 1822. LUSUS NATUR. At a place called Keene, in the United: States of America, in April last a remarkable calf was taken from a heifer owned by a Mr. D. Clark, having no less than eight legs, two bodies, one head, three tails, and a large trunk (as the account states) mea- suring three feet! Its skin is undergoing a partial dressing, when it is to be stuffed in its true and perfect shape, and exhibited for the gratification of the public. Mr. Ambidge, of Stowell Park, near Northleach, has now athongst his fine flock of sheep, a lamb with three shoulders and five legs; itis, though of so extraordinary a form, now doing well, and likely to live. NATURAL CURIOSITY. At Fawley,near Stanswood Mill, in the New Forest, is a floating island, upwards of two acres in extent, covered with trees of alder and willow, situate in a large piece of water called Pondhead, which was detached from the land during a high wind which oc- curred on Shrove Tuesday in 1781; it has continued floating since that time, and being shifted by the wind in its various di- rections, it is sometimes close to the road, and at other times 4 distance from it. ORNITHOLOGY, Shrewsbury, May 12, 1822. Among the many interesting subjects which still remain open for research, is that of the natural history of Birds, Amongst others the Siskin (the Fringilla Spinus, of Linneus; Le Taun, of Buffon) is peculiarly worthy of our remark. This little bird was seen in the early part of April, hopping from twig to twig in the gardens of Dr. Butler and Mr. Johuson, of the Flash. Its length is nearly five inches ; bill white; eyes black ; top of the Vol. 59, No, 290. June 1822. 3N head 466 New Comets, head and throat black ; over each eye a pale yellow streak ; back of the neck and the back yellowish olive, faintly marked with dusky streaks down the midddle of each feather ; rump yellow ; under parts of a pale green; palest on the breast; thighs gray, marked with dusky streaks ; greater wing coverts of a pale yel- lowish green, and tipped with black ; quills dusky, faintly edged with yellow ; the outer web of each at the base is of a fine pale yellow, forming, when the wing is closed, an irregular bar of that colour across it; the tail is forked, the middle feathers black, with faint edges, the outer ones of a bright yellow, with black tip; the legs pale brown; claws nearly white. Buffon observes that flights of these birds are only seen once in five or six years. They are not known to breed in this island, nor is it said from whence they come over to us. They are called Aberdeomes in the neighbourhood of London. Yarmouth, May 26. The nidification in this country of the Parus Plarmicus has long been a subject of doubt with ornithologists: this season has brought the hidden subject to light through the exertions and perseverance of that indefatigable naturalist and bird- preserver, Mr. W. D. Ayers: the nest was placed about eighteen inches from the surface of the water, and composed principally of de- eayed summits of Arundo Phragmitis, and other aquatic plants ; it was supported by a number of plants, curiously entwined, forming a very permanent support. NEW COMET. A new comet was seen by M. Pons (of Marlia) on the 14th of May, in the constellation Auriga. Its course was northerly, and when last seen was near $ Aurig@. » [t was equal to a star of the 4th magnitude: and it is somewhat singular that it has not yet been seen in this country. In fact, we cannot learn that it has yet been seen by any one except the original discoverer. It may be proper to add that this comet is not the one which was expected to appear this year, as it is going in a contrary di- rection. The Journal des Debats of the 20th May gives the following : — M. Gambort jun., Adjunct Astronomer at Marseilles, disco- vered on the 12th inst. a new comet in the vicinity of the Second Star of Taurus. ‘This comet was perceived yesterday at the Royal Observatory in this city (Paris), and the result of the observations which were made, showed that at forty minutes past ten o’clock it had about 871 degrees of right ascension, and 36 degrees of boreal declension. ‘The comet is at present in- visible to the naked eye ; its nucleus is small and brilliant ; its atmosphere of little extent, and its tail scarcely perceptible.” NEW New Compass.—Newly-invented Muskets. 467 NEW COMPASS. Mr. William Clark, a messenger in Chatham Dock-yard, has invented a mariner’s compass on an entirely new principle. The needle consists of four arms or poles, placed at right angles, and uniting in one common centre. The two northern poles are secured to the N.W. and N.E. and the two southern poles to the S.E. and S.W. points of the card, which places the four cardinal points right between the angles of the needle, and allows the card to point north and south as heretofore, the cards now in use answering the purpose. This compass has been tried under different circumstances, and, as far as can be ascertained by the experiments already made, is allowed to pos- sess the principles of polarity and stability beyond that of any compass now in use. NEWLY INVENTED MUSKETS. [From the New York Evening Post of April 10.} A curious invention in fire-arms has lately been accomplished by an ingenious mechanic of this place, by the name of Isaiah Jennings ; and in point of importance, both for public and private use, it is probably not equalled by any invention of the present age. It is a single barrel and lock, stocked in the usual manner, and is perfectly simple, safe, and convenient. The number of charges may be extended to fifteen or even twenty—each charge being under as complete controul as a single charge in an ordinary gun; and may be fired in the space of two seconds to a charge, or at longer intervals, at the option of the possessor, with the same accuracy and force as any other gun. The principle can be applied to any musket, rifle, fowling piece, or pistol, and can be made to fire from two to twelve times, without adding any thing to the incumbrance of the piece, except five or six ounces to its weight. Thus the soldier is put in possession of a gun, out of which he can throw twelve or fifteen charges at his enemy, at the commencement of an engagement, as fast as he can cock and pull trigger, and be left in possession of a simple gun, to load and fire single charges like any otier gun, with the advantage of its priming itself. The cavalry may be furnished with bolster pistols containing five or six charges, whichcan be used on horse- back, with the same convenience as ordinary pistols. The navy can be furnished with muskets for marines in close engagements, and boarding pistols, unequalled by any thing in naval warfare. In defending a breach, the power of ten men is concentrated in one; and in arming our small garrisons on the Indian frontiers, their power might be increased fourfold at an inconsiderable ex- pense. And as a defence against the pirates that now throng our neighbouring waters, two or three of these guns, on board a 5N2 merchant 468 Lightning,—Egyptian Antiquities. merchant vessel, in the hands of skilful marksmen, would be able to cut off a whole boat’s crew before they could succeed in board- ing a vessel. As a sporting or hunting gun, its advantages are not less im- portant. It enables the sportsman to meet a flock with twice the advantage of a dauble barrel gun, without any of its incum- brances, and it enables the hunter to meet his game in any emer- gency. This gun has been shown to many officers of our army and navy, and has been highly approved of, and indeed no one who has seen a fair trial of its powers has ever been able to find an objection to it. PRESERVATION FROM LIGHTNING, Sir H. Davy, in his fourth lecture at the Royal Institution, recommends the following means of escaping the electric fluid during a thunder-storm. He observed that in countries where thunder-storms are frequent and violent, a walking-cane might be fitted with a steel or iron rod to‘draw out at each end, one of which might be stuck into the ground, and the other end elevated eight or nine feet above the surfgce. The person who appre- hends danger should fix the cane and lie down a few yards from it. By this simple apparatus, the lightning descends down the wire into the earth, and secures him from injury. EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. A considerable addition has lately been made to the Antiquities deposited in the British Museum from Thebes, Memphis, and other parts of Egypt. They are dispersed for the present in dif- ferent parts of the Museum till provision can be made for their proper arrangement. ‘There are in a room below the building, a Typhonic statue imperfect, in as much as the right elbow and both the feet are wanting, holding the Zofus stem in full blossom : remains of an elliptical globe crown the head.—A piece of rough Egyptian or Ethiopian marble, apparently part of a frieze, co- vered over on one surface with hieroglyphics in the running-hand of that character.—A portion of a frieze of a temple (red gra- nite), its interior or projecting underside with figures in high re- lief, among which a vessel brim full of water, dropping its con- tents, being super-charged with abundance; exterior surface co- vered with linear symbols.—Remains of a colossal female statue, in white lime-stone or marble, including the bust to middle of waist. A leaf of Jotus ornaments her forehead ; beautiful work- mavship, and finely expressive of Ethiopian beauty.—A figure in Egyptian lime-stone, or white coarse marble, representing a body swathed for rest, or for a funeral.—A lower portion, con- taining the legs, of a red granite statue.—A piece of yellow marble, Egyptian Antiquities. 469 marble, apparently from age, which seems to have constituted one of the sides of a votive altar, witha portion of three diminu- tive naked figures, in basso relievo, carved in a square on its surface, imperfect from being broken. Some Coptic characters inscribed. —Remains of a male colossal statue from the head to the bottom of the thorax. The root of Jotus ornaments the fore- head.—A remnant of pedestal of a statue, with remains of left foot, finely executed in red marble, or a very fine silicious stone: border inscribed with hieroglyphics.—A head of a finely carved female statue of large proportion.—The trunk of a fe- male figure, delicately proportioned, apparently the produce of a Greek chisel. In a small court behind the chief building, and by the side of the Athenian Gallery, there are fifteen remnants of female Ty- phonic statues, all charged with stems of the blowing lotus in the one hand, and having in the other hand the Taw or Nilo- meter, of nearly as many different proportions, and quite dissi- milar as to remaining portions of the figure.— Two Egyptian or Ethiopie Graces (Charities), with either of them alternately having thrown their hands and arms behind the shoulders of its fellow (in red granite).—A red granite head of an Egyptian youth.—Remnant of a very large colossal head, perhaps a por- tion of a statue : the face is about four feet long by three broad, and its members proportionate, and delicately beautiful—An- other colossal head of same material.—Four remnants of clustered columns, each formed of eight smaller ditto, like the pipes of an organ, ensculptured with hieroglyphics. And various other rem- nants too numerous to describe. In the Entrance Hall there are two statues of male Typhons, sitting on thrones, with Taw in left hand, which their knees sup- port; heads crowned with elliptical globes (black granite).—An immense colossal kead of nearly the same proportion with that already described, of singular beauty (red granite).—A female statue of ordinary proportion, with the head of a Jupiter Ammon upon her knees ; her throne has many hieroglyphics (lime-stone apparently is the material of which it is made.)—An Ethiopian head of large proportion, beautiful countenance (white marble). An Egyptian sorceress, in a crouching attitude, sitting upon her heels ; her mantle covered with symbols, or hieroglyphical figures (basalt).—A_ considerable circular vessel, about three inches deep, border inscribed with symbolical characters. —A considerable sized Egyptian (red granite) coffin, with its usual Jid, having a carved resemblance of the person whoin jt contained, covered with hieroglyphics, very imperfect from the effect of weather, EARTH- 470 Earthquake.—Canal Steam Navigation.—Iron Steam Boats. EARTHQUAKE AT ZANTE. At the time when the desolating earthquake, that oceurred in Zante in the end of 1820 took place, a remarkable cireum- stance Was observed just preceding the shock. Three or four minutes before, there was seen at the distance of two miles from the point or promontory of Geraca, which is to the S.E. of the island, a kind of meteor burning and almost swimming on the sea, and which continued luminous five or six minutes. At the distance from which it was seen, it seemed to be five or six feet in diameter. Could this he hydrogen gas emanating from some voleanic submarine cavern, and which issuing out of the water in. an aériform column, sought to come in contact with the elec- tricity of the atmosphere? This gas taking fire, continued to burn till the inflammable matter was consumed d.— Edin. Phil. Journ, vi. 22. CANAL STEAM NAVIGATION, With a view to the introduction of steam vesscls on canals, a very interesting experiment was made in the Union Canal at Edinburgh, on June 22, at two o’clock, with a large hoat 28 feet long, constructed with an infernal movement upon the prineiple of a model invented by Mr. Wight, and exhibited to a General Meeting of the Highland Society of Scotland in the month of January last. A Committee appointed for the purpose by the Directors of the Highland Society attended to witness the experiment, and the Chairman and most of the members of the Union Canal Company were also present. ‘The boat had twenty- six persous on board; and although drawing fifteen inches of water, she was propelled by only four men at the rate of between four and five miles an hour, while the agitation of the water, being confined entirely to the centre of the canal, was observed to subside long before it reached the banks, and consequently. ob- viating its hitherto destructive tendency in washing them inte the canal.— NUMBER 287. XXXVI. On the Theory of parallel Lines in = Sa Ni \By James Ivory, M.A. F.R.S, | BES ard | Page 161. isa) SOEKVIL Lenreg tease o on Me inesees 's bapa ip - é = F fy ois i] ip ie @: Platinum. By M. 5 Ferns ‘Chemical t Operator in. * School of Medicine at Paris. Epi rtontnt XL. Observations on Mr. Newron’ S “Articles on 1 Al; e. BPAY bra, published in our danvary. and Repay alkeea N A CorresPONDENTs __ : XLI.. Remarks on'the Apparatus: for: restoring: the Kes tion of the Lungs. By Joun Murray, F.L.S, M.W.S., &e. XLII. On the Solar Eclipse which will happen on ‘the - AS 28th and 29th of November 1826; being the principal Re- sults. of a Calculation for Greenwich. BE Mr. Gsorce : if Innes of Aberdeen. . * XLIII. On the. Gembiiadas off Silica Sack Platina 5 Sy and on its Presence in Steel. By J.B. Boussincautrt, = 185) XLIV. Account of the Levelling taken from the Txigo- : \ S nomeitical Station on Rumbles Moor.and the Observatory, so j to the Canal, and ultimately to the Irish Sea ; being a Cor oa tinuation of the Article given in our last Ninibers” p» 130. . XLV. On Refraction... By Jostru Reave,M.D. ~~ - XLVI. An Account of some Experiments | on the Action _ NN of Iodine on~volatile and fixed Oils, &c. By Epmunp- } Davy, Esq. Professor of vue oe and gibi to the S Royal Cork Institution. —- ; ig XLVIL. On the early Blowing of Plants during the pre- @ sent Winter. By Dr. THomas Forster, iG, S. ‘&e. & -XLVIII. Notices respecting New Books, XLIX; Proceedings. of Learned Societies. ~ ¥ _L. Intelligence and Miscellaneous peeere of a: Gasometer.—Successful ‘Method follow raine. me the she of - iad Dae aoe BA Gis: tapas 2 vferhiods "OE Pinallag Fie in ‘the: We Islands.—American Asylum for the De eS \\ Measurement of the Meridian i in Russ iM traordinary Hail | pager ‘Tables ie ENGRAVINGS. wa Vol.LIV. A Plate illustrative of the Menar Baince.—A Plate illus- ative of Mr. Lowe’s Description of a Mercurial Pendulum.—A Plate MMustrative of Mr. Hare’s Calorimotor, a new Galvanic Instrument.—A ate illustrative of Captain Sasrne’s Paper on Irregularities observed in e Direction of the Compass Needles of the Isabella and Alexander in fe late Voyage of Discovery ; and Mr. Scorzssy’s Anomaly in the Va- wsation of the Magnetic Needle as observed on Ship-board, Vol. LV. A Plate exhibiting Sketch of the Comet’s Path of July 1819. M-A Plate i ive of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun onthe 7th of A Plate illustrative of Mr. Lane’s Instrument for Mr. Younc’s Mode of preparing Opium from the 3 and of Captain Forman’s Essay on a’ Property in o has been unobserved by Philosophers,—A Plate de- THBERT’s improved Hydro-pneumatic Apparatus, &c. ve of Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, Refrac- n of Light, &c.; and Mr, Cuarres Bonnycast it’s respecting the Influence of Masses of Iron on the Mari-- Md Fe is : Q Plate illustrative of Mrs. Iaserson’s Paper on the Phy- y-—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Hatv’s Percussion Gun- ircuiner’s Pancratic’Eye-Tube; and of Mr. Pagx’s » by Mr. Apparatus,byMr.Tarum,. = i LVIII. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Geo, Innes’s Calculations of ular Eclipse of the Sun, which will happen on the 15th of May Plate descriptive of the Hydrostatic Balances of Isatax -and Dr. Coares.—A Plate illustrative of “ An Introduction te nowledge of Funguses.”—A Plate illustrative of Professor Davy’s — tometer, and of ‘Mr. Joun Murray’s portable Apparatus for restor= ction of the Lungs.—A Plate by Porrer, illustrative of Mr. ’s Account of the Native Copper on the Southern Shore of , and of Dr, Mitvar’s Observations and Experiments on of Jericho.—With a Portrait of the Epiror, engraved by ; ig by Frazer ;—and a Plate by Porrsr, illus- “Appendage to Torrr’s Blowpipe. Appendages; Mr. Moore’s new Apparatus for restoring the the Lungs in Cases of suspended Respiration ; and Dr. Reape’s cation on Refraction. ~ oN . Yor. 59. _ Philosophical Magazine, : Oa A curious sae ee esl af i} Low, -Esq. Royal: Military Heaney In TIT On the Combination of Chrome with S Iphuri i Avs By Gay- Luvsac’. 2 LIL On the Perspivation alleged to take fs ce \\ By Mrs. Acnes Ippetrson, - ~ LIV. Observations on Magnetis Letter to Mr. C, Runxer, of Hamb : Hansteen, of Christiana, = ~~ LV. Reply to Mr, H. 3 Lisson. RF.LS., M.W.S:; &ev&e. es . “LVE ‘Comparison of the Expense att AY and Scotch Systems of Husbandry, He Scort, of Ryden’s Farm, Walton-upon-Th w@ LVIL. Ondilating Caoutchoue uae by eats |B. M.:Forsrer, Esq. > % = y LVIIL. On melting Caoutchouc, or India Rub’ # preserving Iron and Steel from Rust. By A @™ Esq. Secretary to the Society for the En Rai Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. - j . LIX. On the elipes a laeber s Sate \ present Year.’ ~ @ 1521, ie at the ise a of the Acad my, G BSN By GRA ve Burney, LL.D. tt . y LXIT. On the Distillation. cf Soar fonak ‘the Water most conducive to Fermentation. “BRUNFAUT Of Lille. © 2) s) Scones » LXIIL Ona Method of. fixing aTransit nstrument ex actly in the Meridian. By F. Bairy, Esq: ; LXIV, On the Cure of a Case of Para LXV: On Matting made from the Typha a Gr eater Cat’s-Tail. By Mr. Wiruram Satissu ‘LXV. On a luminous Appearance se ~ Part cf the Moon in May 1821. Communic ter to the Rev, Dr. Pearson from the Re Me -LXVII. Notices respecting New Books, _ LXVIII. Proceedings of Learned Societi ntelli ence and: MiscellaneousArt ¢ ENGRAVINGS. LIV. .A.-Plate illustrative of the Mewar Baswcr:=A Plate illus.” e of Mr. Lowe’s Description’ of a Mercurial Pendulum.—A Plate str: tive of Mr. Hare’s Calorimotor, a new Galvanic Tnstrument.—A of Captain Sapine’s Paper on Irregularities observed in’ : of the Compass Needles of the Isabella and Alexander in ge af Discovery; and Mr, Scorgssy’s Anomaly in the Va- Needle as observed on Ship-board., x Sketch of the Comet’s Path of July 1819. Annular Eclipse of the Sun-on the 7th of Plate illustrattve of Mr. Lanz’s Instrument for | re ¥ *s Mode of Preparing Opium from the nd of Captain: Forman’s Essay on a Property in a been unobserved by Philosophers.—A Plate de- improved Hydro-pneumatic Apparatus, &c. ight, &c.; and Mr. Cuartes Bonnycastie’s- mn_respecting the ee uence of Masses ee Tron on the Mari F ae ah of Mr. Pann’ s Die of Mr, MAvam’s im- te! ve of Mr. Jamieson’s Marine ercurial Log-Glass—A Plate | Galvanic Apparatus—A inally proposed for the Re- me aeeaion of Blectro-Mags: Geo. Innes’s ‘Calenlations ae happen on the 15th of May Hy ros tue Balances of. Isaraw e a Pee illustrative Sof Mr ‘Copper-on the Southern Shore of TRAIT of the. Ebiror, engraved by — Pppendage to ‘ToFET’s ‘Blowpipe. 4 ustra > of Mrs. Inserson’s paper On the hrough the Wood.—A Plate descriptive n determining Altitudes from the Trigono- Moor, Varkshire.-A: Plate illustrative of - 1 Lines inGeometry; Mr. Lerson’s Safety - Moore’s new Apparatus for restoring the | uungs in £ suspended Respiration ; and Dr. Reave’s unication on Refraction.—A Plate iJlustrative of a curious Electro- tic Experiment | by Mr. Baavow; and Mrs. Teserson’ s Paper on - a1) alleged to take ye in Plants. ‘Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection; Refrac- 1M: oes 3 Hager on the ee i Observations and Experiments on ~~ ER;—arda P lite by Portgr, illus- Co NTENTS or Nom BER 289. hes: y Lxx. An alphabetical Aieaacemant of : shePubce es n whence Fossit Sxetts have been obtained by Mr. James rersy, and drawn and described in Volume III: of his i Mineral Conchology,”” ‘with the geographical and s t Y graphical Situations of those Places, and the Species ¢ apa &e. By Mr. Joux Panay, Mineral Sarve % LXXI. Some Memoranda respecting Caoutchoue a B: M. Forster, eae : LXXII. ‘On two new Soman of Chlorine and Car- ies: bon, and ona new Compound of Iodine, Carbon, and Hye) < +1 ‘ ‘drogen, By Mr. Farapay, Chemical Assistant i in the Royal | Institution. — oe ear sa, il: cgay @ XXIII. An. ausigar of Mr Bie ‘Aunahonueate Tables and Remarks for the Year 1822. By Grn Tarver, Member of the London Astronomical Society. LXXIV, On the best Kind of Steel and Form fora Com. i DN pass-Needle. By Captain Henry Karer, F.R. Se hes ‘LXXV. On the Apparatus for restoring the: ‘Acad of I ep the Lungs in apparees Det. _ By Joun Murray, F. USE M.W.S.&c. - t u ~ LXXVI. On Spade ane a LXXVII. Notices’ respecting New Bobs LXXVIII. Proceedings of Learned Societies, LXRIX: Intelligence and Misealaneous: . On the Functions of progressive Motion in verteb % mals.—Russian. Discoveries. —Cochraneé the. ” i Imperial Ukase. — Arctic Expedition, = Disc AS Egypt. — Earthquakes, — Meteors.— List Ae P AY Peprcorslapical Table. ie y , : ‘ _ 4, NICHOLSON'S CARPENTER and JOINER’S ASSISTANT, flustrated with 79 Plates, and copious Explanations. The Fourth Edi- rrected. Price 1]. 1s, Boards. - ICHOLSON’S CARPENTER’S NEW GUIDE; a complete ok of Lines for Carpentry and Joinery, with $4 Plates: The Seventh ion. Price 1]. 1s. bound. : . f m 6; NIGHOLSON’S STUDENT'S INSTRUCTOR in drawing ard rking the Five Orders.. 41 Plates. Price 10s. 6d. bound. ; NICHOLSON onthe CONSTRUCTION of STAIRCASES and RAILS. 39 Plates. Price 18s. bound. ' Octavo, illustrated with four plates, priee 12s. in Boards, A PRACTICAL ESSAY on the STRENGTH of CAST IRON, ded for the Assistance of Engineers, Iron Masters, Architects, Mill- hts, Founders, Smiths, and others engaged in the Construction of lines, Buildings, &c, containing practical Rules, Tables, and Exam-_ Also an Account of some new Experiments, with an extensive Table Properties of Materials.’ 1 EOL, ae tat - THOMAS TREDGOLD, Civil Engineer, Member of the Insti- of Civil Engineers, &c. Sia MENTARY PRINCIPLES of CARPENTRY: a Trea- ressure and Equilibrium of Beams and Timber Frames ; the f Timbers ; and the Construction of Floors, Roofs, Centres, 3 with practical Rules and Examples. To which is added, n the Nature and Properties of ‘l'imber; including the Methods and the Causes and Prevention of Decay ; with Descriptions 0, illustrated with Eight Copper-plates, and other Figures, ans, __. Price 18s, Boards, ISTORICAL and DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT of the GINE ; comprising a general View of the various Modes ying elastic Vapour as a prime Mover.in Mechanics, With an Ap- ‘Patentsand Parliamentary Papers connected with the Subject. ARLES FREDERICK PARTINGTON, of the London 9 phat ENGRAVINGS. lh LIX. A Piate illustrative of Mrs. Inserson’s paper On the er-buds of Trees passing through the Wood.—A Plate descriptive - struments employed in a desk Altitudes from the Trigono- _ cal Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire.x—A Plate illustrative of vory’s Theory of Parallel LinesinGéometry; Mr. Lexson’s Safety pipe Appendages; Mr. Moore’s new Apparatus for restoring’ the of the Lungs in Cases-of suspended Respiration ; and Dr. Reape’s ication on Refraction.—A Plate illustrative of a curious Electro. ic Experiment by Mr. Bartow; and Mrs. Ivurrson’s Paper on piration alleged to take place in Plants. tu ‘ Conse SOF Noo 7 Wels 29,0.% 9¢-- Oo thé Giaduatica of: the » Pantogm \ J. W -Woopicar, Esq:Lewes. - ¥ - LXX Xi; On the Porcelain Clay and + Bulicdiode a Ye . ae i eS kin. “Mountain, Flintshire. By W. BrsHor an ) \ Sijes Nant y Moch, pear Holywell in that County. 24 R - LXXXT! Description of the Petrifaction Bonde: at Shin E. } meen (a Village: heat. the Lake of Ourmia, in Persia;) which, Eas produce the transparent Stone: know: by. the Name of Ta a= ai. WR briz Marble, “= al Met TX XXIII. Process & prepar es Satipette eae Mode “of mantfactuting Gunpowder, in Ceylon. 418 RS AINE “ LXXXLV. On Embanking 166 Acres of jae Lae ad aS ee IN from the Sea. By EpWanp DAWSON, Esq. of ‘Alda “s em Tall, near Lancaster... ay (5° s e UXXXV. On the Smelting “of! atin Ored ink ie iii and Devonshire. By ; Joun Parone ‘Preasurer, Of the Geo- : logical Society. v 4d BS y LXXXVI. Gritceasfal Result of th Rxpernicnt. ont Draine feiy f ing of Land, By Joun Curisriaw Curwen; Esq. MiP... = LXXXVII. Account of a-V oleanic Erepucn in Tecland. ¥ By Dr. ForcH HAMMER. . LXXXVII.Onapar tieblarCanstruetion of M-Ambemis s Rotating Cylinder. .By Mr. James Marsu, of Woolwich, oe by P, Bartow, Esq. Royal Military. Aca~ ti te WW B dem he LXXKIX, Description of the Gooseberry Caterpillar - i we @ and practical Means for preventing its Ravages. g : XC, On an Insect which is octasionally very injurious to * St ee) a) Fruit-Tees; By Witridm Spence, Esq. FLAS. oe 08 : Mae ~&CI. Onanew Method of determining the Latitude’ of ~ Bi ‘4 Place by. Observations of the we tic oY PRARG1S¢ DS ee wig Daiiy, Esq: ERS; - es N ASQ. KCI. Rasietinaen on the Gouitaaton of Acetig: Atid eee i sy and Alcohol with volatile Oils. By M. Vavguaiine = bos AD ; XCIIT. Notices respecting New Books = ; XCIV. Proceedings of Learned Sucieties. iat ge XCVz Intelligence cand Miscellaneous Article gia Mineral. New Method of manufacturing Saltpetrea-Gas ~ 0 \\ from Coal ' "Far Capacity of the’ Gases, for Calorie, e ey aeal| iy Waterscements, Moftar, and Lisne.Eléciro-magnetic ae Toa ‘periment. Russian imbassy ta Buchatia. —Amtiqiitics. i # Puff Adder.—Curtous Tustinet of the common Hos. Basis) oo Fh I Nature. Natural Curiosity,~-Ofnitholog y—=New Comets. RY New Compass.-—_Newly-invented Muskets.<-Preservative AY) from © Lightaitg.—E pian: Amiquities Earthquake at f inter Zante. —Caial pal Seam Nay plage ieee we piaes Boats. Pipi ~ . of ne ' eg E I ay 4 » y a sat < 4 * s