Seven a yn 61. id eee Cael. speed eC RE ag) MEA MEA NEA MEA NEA MEAMEA MEANENS F ag | Published the Last Day of every Month-—Price 2%. 6d. : fe - & THE SS / Sg PHILO SOPHI CAL MAGAZINE & Be > ze) AND JOURNAL: es ‘ ‘COMPREHENDING Ce i) THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, [8% THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE. INGE NUMBER CCXCVIL.: For JANUARY. 1823," CONTAINING TWO ENGRAVINGS» ; "1, Illustrative of Mr. Trepcotp’s Paper on the Flexure of ae ical Instruments. 2, Deurerovce and Nicuots’ Apparatus for Madame Gee New Method of ‘Fermentation. SESE aHEY ACY AY Se By ALEXANDER TILLOCH, LL.D. A MRA. M.G.S. M.A.S. F.SsA- ‘EDIN. ‘AND PERTH; ‘CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE. . 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No. br? ‘ v tation, saat and, by rules of the resistance of solids, there will be an equilibrium between the stress and strain when, pseu thor _ Spsgr Te ey ee Pads Tg But the force F that would produce an extension « may be found by direct experiment ; consequently Spsgr oo ee seer PF: PR (af) irert= Se eee (E) where ¢ is the extension produced by the stress on a division situate at A, or the compression on a division situate at B. Hence it appears that were the natural length of a division at A or B, unity when the plane of the circle was horizontal ; by changing it to a vertical position the length of the division would become 1 + 22%2*"; the negative sign being used when =e. an hy the division is compressed, as at B; and the positive when it is extended, as at A. ; Therefore, the difference between the divisions at A and B will be —[;— on the assumption that they were equal when the plane of the circle was horizontal. "Spsger F ; or 12m = Fr 12s6 the difference between a division at A and one at B is per . 8m * eeeevee (T°) Since the derangement is directly as the radius of the circle, it is indifferent, as to this source of error, whether circles be B2 large Now as the height of the modulus m is 12 Mr. Tredgold on the Flexure large or small, provided the divisions be graduated with equal accuracy in either the one or the other. The équation might very easily have been made more general, so as to have shown the degree of extension or compression at any point in the circumference: but since my object is only to show the utmost change that can have place from the causes I have undertaken to investigate, in order to prove whether it be necessary to provide against them or not, I have not gone further than suited my purpose. But the equation ought to be general, if it were necessary to compute the total quantity of extension in any quadrant.of the circle. We may in the next instance proceed to determine the de- pression at the points C and D. The extension of any point in the circumference being as the stress upon it when other circumstances do not vary, and that stress being as the area of a segment multiplied into the distance of its centre of gravity, it would involve us in a consi- derably complicated equation to use the accurate expression ‘for this product. I shall therefore consider the area to be proportional to yz, and the distance of the centre of gravity from the strained point to vary as 2; when 2 is the abscissa and y the ordinate. Now it may be proved that when the depression is represented by a progression, the wth term of that progression will be aie ut * atte when ¢ is the ex- ry? r(cr—a) tension at A. And the sum of the progression is, when v=T,..tr(—2°5+ 4h. log. 2) = tr x °27258872. But t= te (Equation F); therefore, the depression at C or D is Sm ROP EE istevst’ (G) The error from depression at D, or C, is directly as the square of the radius; consequently small circles have, as re- spects this error, the advantage over large ones, The expression will perhaps be better adapted for compari- son, if the quantity of depression be exhibited in parts of the circumference; while the accuracy of the comparison will not be materially affected by the change. In this case, the de- pression at D or C will be the mth part of the circumference 1VW7-4m when 2 = ee ea | H) The quantity m, which is necessary to be known before the equations can be applied, I propose to determine by some accurate experiments, as soon as I have collected suitable spe- cimens, which, with examples, will form the concluding part of this paper. Y If Fig-1. A On the Derangement of Circles. Fig.2. 2906. Phil Mag.Vol.UX\.71.1. Sorter se, — of Astronomical Instruments. 15 If the divisions be upon a ring, supported by arms radiating from the centre, the depression will in general be much greater than in a solid circle, because the stress is not lessened in pro- portion to the reduction of weight, and the power of resistance may often be reduced in a greater ratio than the stress. Be- sides, such circles are liable to be deranged from other causes, - which I shall now endeavour to explain. A circle with arms, as A DBC (fig. 2), when placed as shown in the figure, is well adapted for explaining the effects which I wish to be understood. In the first place, it may be observed that the weight of the arc ab will tend to straighten it, and to spread apart its abut- ments a,b. These effects will be increased by the support which . the arc must give to the arms, and to the arcs (amg. 12. The obvious remedy is to connect the parts a, 6, by a straight bar, as in fig. 4. This bar would form a direct tie, on which the arc would be sustained as an arch by its abutments. It is equally clear that a straight bar must be the most effectual support to the weight of the other ares and arms of the circle. Secondly. The effect of the weight of the arc dc (fig. 2), will be to add to its curvature; and this effect will be increased by the support it must afford to the arms and arcs C, D. These pressures will also be most effectually counteracted by a straight bar dc (fig. 4.) Thirdly. If the circle be put in the position shown by fig. 3, it will be found that the tendency of the are A to straighten, and of the arc C to curve, with the effect of both to depress the arm aE, will be most effectually guarded against by adding the straight bars indicated by the dotted lines. The arrangement to secure stiffness has only been consi- dered for a circle with four arms; but similar remarks apply to one with a greater number, as the reader will readily per- ceive by fig. 5. And also in portions of arcs, as in fig. 6; par- ticularly where a heavy telescope rests upon the graduated arc. But it is not necessary to allow a telescope to depend wholly on the are for support; for by a simple extension of a method sometimes employed by Mr. Troughton, the stress from its weight may be thrown close to the bearings of the axis, and the axis would be made very stiff by the same means. On the whole it may be remarked, that a system of triangle, of which the sides are in proper directions for resisting the stress they are to sustain, is most suited for any purpose where we wish to be secure against the least change of form: for every curved bar is less strong to resist tension or compression than a straight bar of the same bulk. Instruments are for the pur- poses of science, and not to please the eye; and we ought not to 14 Mr. T. Smith on certain Species of to expect graceful forms where stiffness is essential. Pleasing forms are not however to be altogether despised, provided they be consistent with fitness; and I think it will be found that straight-lined figures combined so as to indicate that in- flexible stiffness and solidity which we naturally expect in an instrument intended to measure with accuracy the relative di- stances of such distant objects, will not be wanting in power to call forth some of those pleasing sensations usually compre- hended under the common term of Beauty. [To be continued.] VI. On certain Species of Carduus and Cnicus which appear to be diecious. By Tuomas Smit, Esq. F.R.S. & L.S8.* 4 LTHOUGH Linneus founded his orders in the class * Syngenesia upon nice distinctions, drawn from the various modes in which the florets of different sexes are arranged in each capitulum, the fact that many species were dioecious, or had the male and female flowers on distinct plants, almost en- tirely escaped his observation; for in the last edition of his Genera Plantarum, published in 1764, he remarks, that Gna-: phalium dioicum is a rare example of the separation of the sexes in this class. Jussieu in his Genera Plantarum, published in 1789, does not appear to have been aware of any other example than the above, for he observes at the end of his generic character of Gnaphalium, ‘‘ Species una dioica insigni exceptione.” It has however been pointed out to me by my friend Mr, Brown, that at the time this observation of Jussieu’s was published, Friedrick Ehrhart had shown that some species of Tussilago were dioecious: and our native species Tussilago hybrida and Petasites now rank as one only under the name of Petasites, which is the male, hybrida being the femalet+. Mr. Brown in his Observations on the Composita, inserted in the 12th volume of the Transactions of this Society, an- nounced many more instances of this remarkable circum- * From the Transactions of the Linnean Society for 1822. Part II. + Vide Friedrick Ehrhart Beitrage zur Naturkunde, vol. iii, 1788. The paper is however dated December 1783, and had previously been printed (I believe) in the Hanover Magazine, probably about the latter date. It may be proper nevertheless to note, that M. Cassini, whose extended and accurate investigation of this class gives great weight to his opinion, has come to an opposite conclusion to the above, and considers the two plants as distinct species. His words are: “Les styles du T'ussilago hybrida dif- férent assez du ceux du 7’, Petasites, pour demontrer, independamment de plusieurs autres argumens, que ces deux plantes n’appartiennent point ala méme espéce, comme ont cru trés mal-a-propos quelques botanistes mo- dernes.”—Journal de Physique, tom. \xxvi. p. 191. stance: Carduus and Cnicus which appear to be dicecious. 15 stance: it forms a part of his character of the genus Baccharis, which Richard and Jussieu had previously proposed to limit to such species as were dioecious, and which, thus compre- hending Molina of the Flora Peruviana, contains many spe- cies. ‘The plants forming two of the new genera there pro- posed (Petrobium and Brachylena) he has ascertained to be dioecious; another genus, Piptocarpha, he suspects to be so; and the dioecious Gnaphaliums (to which he shows that margarita- ceum must be added) are also thrown into a separate genus. It will be observed, that the greater part of the genera men- tioned belong to orders which have florets of different sexes in the same capitulum; in such the prevalence of one sort of floret in all the capitula of a plant, to the exclusion of the other, is a circumstance not so unexpected as in the order Syngenesia 4Equalis, where all are hermaphrodite; to this, however, Pe- trobium and Brachylena are referable; and Mr. Brown’s de- scription (in the same paper) of the separation of the sexes in Serratula tinctoria, led me to notice the same circumstance in Serratula, or, as itis now most frequently called, Cnicus arvensis, and in some other species of the genera Carduus and Cnicus, all of which were supposed to have hermaphrodite flowers only. So long ago as the year 1807 I had observed that there were many plants of Serratula tinctoria in which the antherse were entirely abortive; but finding others in which all the organs were apparently perfect, it did not occur to me that there was any separation of sexes. On re-examining this plant, in consequence of Mr. Brown’s observations, the striking difference between the male and fe- male flowers, which had formerly induced me to look for some specific difference between the plants bearing them, appeared to point out a very ready mode of examining the nearly allied species by the external appearance of their capitula without the labour of a minute dissection. Looking at Cnicus arvensis with this view, I soon found that different patches of it had flowers which presented differences similar to those of the Serratula tinctoria, and dissection con- firmed the external appearances; by the examination of very many specimens, I ascertained that some plants bore flowers the anthers: of which were invariably abortive, and that in others the ovaria as invariably withered without producing seeds. A more detailed account of the differences between the male and female flowers is as follows: . The female florets are somewhat shorter and smaller than the male, particularly the lacinize and dilated part of the tube of the corolla; hence the male capitulum, when in flower, ap- pears 16 Mr. T. Smith on certain Species of pears much larger than the female. The part of the style which is bearded in the male is shorter in the female, and de- stitute of pili, except a very few at the base of the fissure; this fissure in the male opens but little; in the female it is very much opened, having the margins bent back and the apices recurved; the apex is divided in the male, but the apices are straight: the male capitulum is more oval, that of the female more cylindrical inclining to conical. The part of the style which bears the stigma is waved in the female, straight in the male; in the female flat, bearing the stigma on the edges generally of a deeper purple than the lower part; in the male compressed, cylindrical, of the same shade of colour as the part below it. The male florets are more exserted beyond the scales of the capitulum, and therefore longer in porportion to it than the females, which frequently project very little beyond the scales. It is not a little remarkable, that the separation of the sexes should have been so long overlooked in this unfortunately most abundant of weeds; the great difference in the appearance of the male and female flowers has not however passed altogether unnoticed, for Roth in his Flora Germanica*, having de- scribed Serratula (our Cnicus) arvensis, says, ‘ Variat primo calyce minori ovato oblongo floribus duplo majoribus pallidio- ribus, stigmatibus subbifidis erectis.” This description, I think, there can be no doubt refers to the male plant. It is I believe a common observation, that Cnzcus arvensis rarely produces seed: and this circumstance has been attri- buted to its increasing so much by the root; the separation of the sexes however presents a much more satisfactory explana-. tion: and I have mentioned before, that the plants of each sex grow together in large patches without intermixture; hence the chance of impregnation being effected is much diminished. A useful ceconomical application may perhaps be made of this fact, particularly if the observation of Villars in his Histozre des Plantes de Dauphiné be correct +: he says, that there is a simple means of destroying this plant, which is by permitting it to flower, after which it dies; if, however, it be cut down before flowering, it will increase in all directions. If the seeds were perfect, it does not seem that much could be gained by this plan: as however there is a great chance that they may not be so, should it be true that the plant dies completely after flowering, it may prove a safe and successful means of dimi-: nishing the quantity of this troublesome weed. I have examined several others of our native species of * Tom. ii. pars 2, p. 295, + Tom. iii. p. 23. Carduus Carduus and Cnicus which appear to be diccious. 17 Carduus and Cnicus in their wild state, and have found female plants in Cnicus palustris, pratensis, and acaulis. In Carduus nutans, acanthoides, and tenuiflorus, and in Cnicus lanceolatus, I met with no deviation from the usual structure. Carduus marianus, which I saw in a garden only, was hermaphrodite, as was Cnicus eriophorus in the same place. Cnicus tuberosus and heterophyllus, which I have also only seen cultivated, were both female plants; and the figure of the latter, given by Professor Hooker in the Flora Londinensis, is manifestly a - female. In the Herbariums specimens of both species occur with perfect antheree. Of Carduus nutans, acanthoides, and tenuiflorus, which I have mentioned as having hermaphrodite flowers only, it should be noticed that I have seen very few of the first; of the other two indeed a considerable number, but all growing in one spot. Cnicus lanceolatus is everywhere too obvious to leave any doubt respecting it. | Cnicus palustris. Having examined a considerable number of specimens, the female plants I find are not numerous, and bear but a small proportion to the antheriferous. The diffe- rence in external appearance between the female and the an- theriferous flowers is not so great or obvious as in some other species; the florets are of the same size, but the antheriferous ones expand more, and the anthers project far beyond the la- ciniz of the corolla; the style is at this period much longer than it ever is in the female; this is distinguished by the small abortive anthers, which not rising beyond the little expanded lacinize of the corolla, are scarcely seen, while the projecting styles have their stigmata more developed and a littte waved. Cnicus pratensis 1 have seen in abundance only in one si- tuation on Ashdown Forest, near Withyham in Sussex: here both the female and antheriferous plants were growing, but in separate patches: in two other spots in the same neighbour- hood, where there was not a great quantity, I found only an- theriferous plants. Cnicus acaulis I have seen growing abundantly, and the fe- male plants seemed to be as frequent as the antheriferous. In examining exotic species, I was generally reduced to a single plant of each; and supposing it to be dioecious, it was probably an equal chance whether it was a male or a female : if a female, it was readily known by the imperfect antherae: but it was not so easy to distinguish a male from an herma- phrodite: this I attempted to do by examining the capitula, which had flowered; and when all the ovaria proved abortive, I concluded that the plant was a male. Vol. 61. No. 297. Jan. 1823. Cc Iam 18 Mr. T. Smith on certain Species of I am aware, neverthelesss, that this is a very doubtful test in a cultivated -plant, the flowers of which are frequently bar- ren from causes that are not obvious. By the kindness of Mr. Anderson I was enabled several times to examine the numerous species of the genera Serratula, Carduus, and Cnicus, which are cultivated in the Botanic Gar- den at Chelsea; and about half the plants to which, from the state of their flowering, I could apply the tests above men- tioned, proved either male or female. In Serratula, the only species not hermaphrodite was the tinctoria. In the genera Carduus and Cnicus I ascertained the follow- ing, as named in Mr. Anderson’s manuscript catalogue, to be female plants. Cnicus tuberosus, ochroleucus, semipectinatus, & Salisburgensis. Three or four others I suspect to be male plants; for, upon examining many capitula that had flowered, I could not find any perfect seeds. - [have looked over the specimens of Carduus and Cnicus in the Banksian Herbarium, and the following appear to be fe- male plants: Carduus rivularis, Chius, rigens, serratuloides, paniculatus. Cnicus leucocephalus, rigens, Erisithales, tuberosus, acaulis, oleraceus. There are specimens of both sexes of Erisithales and acaulis ; the specimen of the female plant of acaulis is remarkably di- stinct from the male. Since I first turned my attention to this subject, a doubt has arisen whether in many, perhaps in most of the cases in which female plants occur, the antheriferous plant may not be an her- maphrodite rather than a male. The plant which I first ascertained to be dicecious was Cnicus arvensis: in this the separation of the sexes is undoubted and unequivocal; for though I have examined.a very great num- ber of male plants, the ovaria have always proved abortive, except in one instance, in which two of the ovaria in one capi- tulum were most decidedly impregnated, the embryo being so far advanced that no doubts could be entertained about it: the stigmata of these flowers did not, however, appear to differ from those of the numerous unimpregnated ovaria which sur- rounded them: this case must therefore be considered as merely accidental. Having ascertained that this species was dicecious, I con- cluded that all the others were so in which female plants were to be met with; but, in some, hermaphrodite plants certainly occur, Carduus and Cnicus which appear to be dicecious. — 19 occur, nor have I been able to detect any males amongst these. It is not easy to distinguish between the hermaphrodite and the male; the only unequivocal test of the latter seems to be, that the anthere should have perfect pollen, and that the ovaria should be abortive; two states of the flowers which it is rather difficult to meet with on the same plant at the same time. The stigma does not supply a distinction sufficiently de- cisive; for although, when the stigma of the female flower is compared with that part in the antheriferous one, a much greater development is perceived in the female, still in the former it is apparently sufficiently developed for the purposes of impregnation: hence it is not possible, from seeing a few plants with perfect antherze, to say whether the species is dice- cious or not; it can only be determined by an examination of numerous specimens. There is another source of error: In Cnicus pratensis the antheriferous plants which were growing near the females had when gathered the appearance of being males: but having kept them for some days and noticed the progress of the develop- ment of the different parts of the flower, it was seen that, when the pollen of a particular flower was entirely dispersed, the stigma became developed nearly as much as in the female flower, although while the style remained covered with pollen it was merely indicated by a line, which induced the idea that the plant was a male: I afterwards found also the antheriferous capitula impregnated, except the florets of the ray, the stigmaia of which were not developed nor the ovaria impregnated: whether this is constantly the case, remains for future inquiry. Neither in Cnicus palustris nor in acaulis have I ascertained that male plants exist; in palustris, from the numerous speci- mens examined, I should conclude that they do not, and that this plant therefore consists of hermaphrodites and females, the former being the most numerous. ‘ In another plant of the Carduacee, equally common with Cnicus arvensis, I have also found female plants; this is the Centaurea nigra; but I have not found any that can be called males, as those plants in which the anthers are perfect have perfect seeds. The female and hermaphrodite (as it must be called here) differ as the male and female do in Cnicus arvensis. The fe- male florets are smallest; they project but little beyond the involucrum; their lacinize are but slightly divaricate; their imperfect antheree do not rise above the apices of the laciniae of the corolla; their filaments are never visible: in the her- maphrodite the stamina project so much, that at the period of their full vigour the filaments are seen above the tube of the C2 corolla. 20 Mr. T. Smith on certain Species of corolla. These differences are less obvious after the flowering is past; for, the stamina being retracted, the hermaphrodite is much more like the female: as to numbers, the hermaphrodite is the most prevalent. In Serratula tinctoria, in which Mr. Brown first pointed out the existence of female plants, I have not been able to satisfy myself that males are to be met with; for in the antheriferous lants I have always found the ovaria impregnated. ‘The seeds of the female differ in being larger than those of the hermaphro- dite. In this species plants occurred which showed a regular gradation from the female to the hermaphrodite; in one, the antheree were much smaller, shorter, and more imperfect than they most frequently are found in the female: in another they were as much larger, projecting, and embracing the style as in the hermaphrodite, but containing only a few grains of abortive ollen, The numbers of the female and hermaphrodite are nearly equal. The stigma of the female is developed very soon after the flower opens; in the hermaphrodite, on the contrary, it does not appear until the pollen of its own antheree is dispersed, the style remaining undivided to the apex till this period; the aid of the anthers of some adjoining flower consequently be- comes necessary for the purposes of impregnation. This is a striking example of a mode of impregnation which, according to M. Cassini, prevails nearly throughout the whole family of the Composite, and which renders the presence of two flowers at the very least necessary to the impregnation of either; constituting, in fact, a species of moncecious inflore- scence; and as it requires some external aid for its completion, forms a transition to the decided separation of the sexes in di- stinct florets, which are further removed into distinct capitula in the moneecious genera Xanthium and Ambrosia, and still further in the dioecious plants. This process is analogous to that which takes place in a few instances in the animal kingdom, in what are on this account termed androgynous animals, of which the Helix hortensis is a well known example. In the androgynous animal, although it has both the male and female organs complete, the one can- not be impregnated by the other on account of their relative position: in the endrogynous flower, impregnation is pre- vented by the organs of the two sexes not being developed at the same time. I am not aware that any particular term has been adopted to designate flowers of this kind; but as they are not confined to the family of the Composite, it might be useful to point them out by an appropriate name, and androgynous seems strictly applicable. Carduus and Cnicus which appear to be diecious. 21 applicable. Linnzeus has indeed use the term Flos androgynus, but it is not, I believe, known what precise meaning he intend- ed to convey by it; from which cause it has fallen into disuse. It being a matter of some interest to ascertain what propor- tion of the species of the genera I have mentioned, or of those allied to them, have the male and female flowers on different plants; and as this can only be effected by examining nume- rous specimens in their wild state, it may be useful to point out some of the most obvious and striking distinctions between the female and antheriferous capitula, and which are such as may be readily observed in a cursory survey of the plants: to de- termine whether the flowers are male or hermaphrodite, re- course must be had to the seeds. The flowers of the antheriferous capitulum are much larger, and the laciniz more divaricate, the. perfect antherz rise be- yond the laciniz and embrace the style; in the female the abortive anther scarcely appear beyond the tube of the co- rolla, and, being generally very small, are not seen except upon a close examination: this gives the female capitulum a uniform colour and appearance, which is destroyed in the an- theriferous one by the projecting of the antherze, frequently of a different shade of colour from the corolla, and which, even when withered, remain exserted nearly to the tips of the la- cinize, producing a ragged and discoloured appearance. The stigma of the female is almost always much more de- veloped, and in general somewhat waved; it is very remark- ably so in the female Serratula tinctoria. In Cnicus arvensis there is another circumstance which di- stinguishes the sexes even after flowering, and which is per- haps more striking than any other; this is produced by the pappus. In the female, the pappus at the time of flowering is shorter than the tube of the corolla, and nearly as long as the scales of the involucrum; after flowering it lengthens very considerably, and, when the seed is ripe, is twice its former length, and entirely conceals the persistent corolla: when the seeds are to be dispersed, the female plants are white with the large and abundant pappus, which appears projecting beyond the scales of the involucrum before it is discharged by their expansion. In the male, the pappus at the time of flowering is nearly of the same length as in the female: it however never increases afterwards, and is concealed after flowering by the withered corolla and antherze: at this period, therefore, Hh male plants are distinguished by the brown withered capitula, which ap- pear generally to perish without discharging their abortive seeds and useless pappus, My 22 Mr. D. Mushet on the Crystallization My observations have not been sufficiently extensive to en- able me to say whether this lengthening of the pappus is a very unusual occurrence ; but I suppose it to be so from the following remark of M. Cassini, the universal application of which must be modified by the fact which I have mentioned: “ L’aigrette ne prend aucun accroissement aprés la fleuraison, méme dans le cas ot l’ovaire des synathérées grandit beaucoup apres cette époque *.” The figures of these plants are not in general delineated with sufficient attention to detail, to show whether they are taken from a male or a female specimen ; in some cases, however, there is little room for doubt, as in Professor Hooker’s figure of Cnicus heterophyllus, to which I have already referred. Cnicus palustris, English Botany, pl. 974, and Cnicus acaulis, Flora Danica, 1114, are certainly antheriferous plants. The figures of Cnicus arvensis in the Flora Londinensis and in English Botany, pl. 975, ave females; but the figure of Fa- bius Columna in his Zcphrasis, i. 46. (the first probably ever executed of this plant) is remarkable for its great accuracy, showing clearly that it is a male; and exhibiting moreover the elongation of the pappus in the female after flowering, by. a comparative view of it as attached to a floret and to a seed; a circumstance unnoticed by others, even where the seed has been delineated with the pappus. VII. On the Crystallization of Cast Iron. By Mr. Davin MusuHer. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. WENTY-THREE years ago I sent you a paper on the Crystallization of Cast-Iron; and at the same time I for- warded to my friend Mr. Lowry a complete set of specimens, to be by him engraved, illustrative of what was at that time considered a new and rather interesting subject. Mr. Lowry’s more important engagements, however, prevented him from completing the undertaking; and as the paper had a reference to the different varieties of iron sent him, its insertion in the Magazine was at first postponed, waiting for the plates, and in timé became overlooked and forgotten. The subject was brought to my recollection about eighteen months ago, while reading a paper on metallurgic crystallo- graphy in Dr. Brewster’s Journal, by Professor Haussman, wherein the crystallization of iron is fully described; and more particularly within these few days, in consequence of being * Journal de Physique, tome |xxxv. p. 17. } informed, of Cast Iron. 23 informed, that Dr. Wollaston had discovered titanium in the copper-coloured cubical crystals, which are sometimes found in the old furnace hearths at smelting iron works. I cannot help feeling it as a matter of considerable regret, that circumstances occurred to prevent the publication of my paper on this subject at the time intended, as the attention of Dr. Wollaston and other able men in the scientific world might have been earlier attracted, there” being, amongst the other varieties of crystallized iron sent Mr. Lowry, an elegant speci- men of cubes found in the hearth ofa furnace at the Clyde Iron- Works, in the year 1794, which it was intended to engraye, and of which I have now a rough drawing in my MSS. Soon after the discovery of these cubical crystals, I sent a specimen of them to the late Mr. Day, to transmit to the Abbé Haiiy, with the view of ascertaining whether this variety of iron was a new discovery, or a modification, which might have come under his extensive observation, without having been particularly alluded to in his Crystallography. The Abbé’s reply, through the medium of my friend Mr. Day, was, that the specimen was rare (leaving me to infer that he had met with it before), and that he considered it an igneous sulphuret of iron. This answer, from authority so high, tended much to repress further investigation on my part; and from this cir- cumstance, contrary to some experiments of my own, I was led to rest satisfied with the same conclusion. It is with considerable pleasure, however, I learn that Mr. Lowry has carefully preserved the specimens I sent him twenty-three years ago; and though the silvery pyramids of the cast-iron must have tarnished after so long an interval, yet, judging from the only remaining specimen of the cop- per-coloured cubical crystals, now in my possession, out of forty or fifty pounds originally obtained from the furnace- hearth, I hope the specimen sent to be engraved, has pre- served its original variety and beauty of colour. Subjoined is the substance of what I find recorded in my MSS., with re- gard to the discovery of, and some experiments made with, copper-coloured crystals. In the year 1794, I was resident at the Clyde Iron- Works, and in the habit of making observations on most subjects re- lating to iron, and iron furnaces. One of the blast furnaces was thrown out, to receive a new hearth; in breaking up the old one, a great mass (commonly called the salamander) of co- agulated matter was found upon the surface of the old stones, composed of metal, cinder, and coke; upon the upper side it was friable, and broke off easily, but became harder as it ap- proached the stony material of which the hearth was origi- i nally 24 Mr. D. Mushet on the Crystallization of Cast Iron. nally composed. In breaking up the lower part of the cindery mass, the cubical crystals of iron were first discovered ; their colours were green, gold, and coppery; the largest cube did not exceed one-tenth of an inch on the base, and many were not one-fourth part of this size. I collected in all forty or fifty pounds of the best; and several hundred weight, containing what I should now reckon superb specimens, were thrown away. In rifting the salamander with wedges, one of the joints of the stone-work was discovered to contain a flexible white sub- stance, like amianthus, lining it on both sides. This sub- stance had a curious metallic taste, and grit between the teeth. By endeavouring to split the stone in the direction of the joint, in order to obtain as much of this substance as possible (which, as it filled the joint undisturbed, had a regular fibrous cry- stallization), I found it open into a regular fissure, filled with compact iron crystallized in imperfect cubes. The density and fracture of this mass, about two inches thick, resembled galena. It seemed composed of an infinite number of small cubes, the superficies of which were easily discerned in its highly-polished fracture. Specimens of this sort are not un- commonly found in breaking up old furnace-hearths ; but I do not recollect having met with the copper-coloured crystallized iron, except in the instance above mentioned, though the ami- anthus and the massive cubical iron I have frequently seen. The high temperature in which the gold- and copper-co- loured crystals were formed, and their attachment to a metallic base, induced me at first to conclude they were purely metallic. Like the mass found in the fissure, they bruised in a mortar, and were equally magnetic. Several of the crystals in suc- cession were exposed to the action of the blow-pipe at a bright red heat; the gold colour deepened to a green, followed by a blue; and then successively passing through the usual shades, returning always the tinge of the original ground, like the copper colour in fine indigo. When exposed to the action of the blow-pipe on charcoal, the crystals seemed to burn, and emit greenish scintillations with borax; they remained for a great length of time, without losing either colour or form. Iam, yours, &c. D. Musuet. Coleford, Gloucestershire, Jan. 6, 1823. As the paper before alluded to contains a particular detail of the various stages of the crystallization of cast iron, and of the method of obtaining it in the large way, it is my inten- tion to forward to you, for the Magazine, a copy of the same, leaving it for you to determine, whether, in the absence of en- gravings, it is calculated to convey information to your readers. VIII. On VIII. On the Declination of the Fixed Stars. By Professor Bessex. Sent from Konigsberg, 29th August 1822 ™s (mee the middle of the last century, a collection of astrc- nomical observations was made by Bradley, which does not appear to have been followed up, after the death of that great astronomer. In the Observatory at Greenwich, the ob- servations were indeed pursued with the same instruments ; but those instruments, from continued use, had lost much of their accuracy; and even at Maskelyne’s death had given erroneous results. Other observatories either did not possess sufficient means, or depended too implicitly on the Greenwich catalogue, which was the only source from which astronomers derived their information till the appearance of Piazzi’s great work. Through Piazzi, however, declinations were given, which ren- dered the former doubtful: in fact, Maskelyne acknowledged the defects of his mural quadrants, which, to the injury of astronomy, had continued far too long without being dis- covered. About this time observations with instruments be- gan to be more frequent; and in fact, those of Piazzi, Oriani, Pond and Brinkley, showed an accordance in the declinations of the stars, which could not be expected to be surpassed : al- though at the same time it showed that mistakes might oc- eur, with those who were not aceustomed to look after them, Besides, all the series of observations did not agree, till the ’ excellent Bohnenberger succeeded in showing the real cause of error, in the repeating circles. The first suspicion of those errors arose from the difference that was observed in the obli- quity of the ecliptic at the two solstices. The smaller repeating circles gave the obliquity at the winter solstice 8” to 16”, and the larger circles of Piazzi and Pond 4” to 8”, smaller than the obliquity at the summer solstice; whilst the observations of Bradley, Groombridge, and myself, gave them both alike. The declinations of the stars which { observed with Cary’s circle, were altogether more southerly than those compre- hended in the catalogues above mentioned. But here mine stood quite alone; for Bradley’s observations were too far di- stant, to admit of their being compared ; and, as far as I know, Groombridge has not published his declinations of the fun- damental stars. Bradley has maintained in his celebrated paper on the Nu- tation, that it is extremely difficult to make observations which are to be depended upon in every case. ‘The correctness of this remark I have had many opportunities of experiencing in * From Bode’s Astronomische Jalarbuch for 1825. Yo), 61. No. 297. Jan. 1823, D the 26 M. Bessel on the Declination of the fixed Stars. the course of my own practice; and therefore, would have laid no particular weight on the declinations by my own obser- vations, if I had not believed that I had contributed somewhat to their certainty by previous proofs of my circle. My confi- dence was increased by the simplicity of the instrument, which allows the observer to become perfectly acquainted with every single step: added to which, his being able to compare his observations on both sides of the circle, affords him a proof of which he is entirely deprived by the use of the repeating circle. Even after the doubt expressed against the correctness of my determinations, I was unable, by the most rigid examina- tion of the instrument, and method of observation, to discover a constant error of more than one second: and even this limit I should consider too great, if I had completed my earlier purpose of determining the particular errors of division for each of the fundamental stars, by my method of repetition (Wiederholungs-Methode), but which I have been prevented trom doing, not only by other occupations, but also from the expectation of shortly receiving the meridian circle of Reichen- bach. From this there was much accuracy to be expected in de- tail, whereas I concluded that in Cary’s circle I might venture to confine myself to such rules as aimed at reaching certainty in general. I considered therefore that time would solve this difficulty, and by progressive improvement add to the science, of observation. This expectation is greater from the meridian circle, in the completion of which Reichenbach has crowned his im- mortal labours. Great, however, as the perfection of this in- strument is, I do not think that the astronomer can venture to dispense with the trouble of personal investigation; taking for granted that he possesses the means of investigating it with that accuracy which is commensurate with the great perfec- tion of the instrument. According to my idea, that instru- ment must be corrected [eliminirt] by all the observations ; and only when these can be shown can the results be consi- dered incontrovertible. I have uniformly kept this object in view; but whether I have thereby arrived nearer the truth, remains to be proved. But this I will venture to say, that I have not left unexplored any source of error, the possibility of which I could contemplate. From these proofs it is now ap- parent that the plan of the circles requires only two cor- rections; viz. in regard to the error of the divisions, and the bending of the telescope. Still, if we hope to gain as correct determinations by the meridian circle as by Bradley’s mural quadrant, it would be necessary to correct even these, by a new fundamental determination of the refraction: on which account M. Bessel on the Declination of the fixed Stars. 27 account I have sought and employed them by the following results. : In the introduction to the 7th Number of my Observations, which is now in the press, I have described the whole of my process. In this place I shall merely touch upon such par- ticulars as appear to me indispensable. The errors of divi- sion I have determined by a very beautiful apparatus of four microscopes prepared by Mr. Privy Counsellor Pistor; from whence it appears that these errors are very small, but still not quite irregular. These irregularities amount for each line probably to +0",3251 only; whence it follows that probably about one only in twenty-six of the lines varies 1” or more, and that among the whole 7200 lines on the circle only two vary between 1”,75 and 2”. Through these slight irregularities, regular errors in the divisions are recognised, whose maxi- mum never reaches 1,”25; but which through the use of the four verniers are mutually done away with, so that the pre- ceding correction does not exceed 0",33. ‘This almost incre- dible perfection of division in a circle of 18 inches radius, can- not but excite the admiration of every one. I find the bending of the telescope in the horizon =1”,11, whilst it is not quite =O in the zenith, according to my researches. The refraction I have determined by very numerous observations from 59 cir- cum-polar stars, and these were found to vary but little from the table in the Fundamenta Astronomia, viz. for the temperature of 48°,75 in the proportion of 1 to 1,003282 greater, which difference would even almost entirely disappear, if I had omitted the suggested correction of —1°,25 in Bradley’s ther- mometer, as well as the remark of Professor Tralles, that the thermometer appears to give the freezing point too high, when immersed in melted snow mixed with water. J] have more- over considered the influence of the state of the thermometer on the refraction in the course of my observations, and found it about a 35th smaller, than it would be by the proportion of 1 to 1,375: for the reasons which induced me to suspect that these would be smaller I must refer to the 7th Number of my Observations already mentioned. The result of these examinations has been, that the declina- tions of the stars from the pole to « Lyra, whether the obser- vations were on the east or west side of the circle, or derived from the upper or lower culmination, agree as nearly as the small incidental errors of observation would lead one to ex- ect. The same agreement on both sides of the instrument is likewise shown by the fundamental stars culminating south of the zenith. I here giye two tables of the declination of these stars. The D2 first 28 M. Bessel on the Declination of the fixed Stars. first fur 1820 is extracted from the new observations con- tinued to the end of 1821. ‘The other for 1815 has been very correctly calculated by Messrs. Rosenberger and Schercke, trom the whole of my observations with Cary’s circle, by means of my new tables of refraction. Declination | Pro- | Declination | Pro- | Annual 1826. bable 1815. bable |Variatioz +- BHyrror. 4 Error.} 1820. o..4 “ “ O° i “ “ “ 2 Aurige .. [45 48 9,12) 0,18 |45 47 44,72) 0,57 [+ 4,478 2 Cygui 44 883 28,47! 0,18 [44 37 26,21) 0,58 [+12,563 a Lyre 38 37 17,77: 0,24 }38 37 4,1! 0,75 [+ 2,962 a Geminorum |32 16 21,05) 0.23 32 16 5466, 0,75 |— 7,190 B 28 27 5,54 0,22 $28 27 44,14] 0,75 J— 8,087 6 Tauri 28 26 40,40) 0,23 [28 26 20,09) 0,76 [+ 3,712 a Andromede |28 5 46,59! 0,22 128 4 3,28] 0,76 |+19,906 a Coron .. |27 19 34,44] 0,22 }27 20 34,61) 0,76°|—12,483 # Arietis 22 36 22,52} 6,23 122 34 56,11} 0,80 |+17,350 2 Bootis 20 7 25,43) 0,21 20 9 0,75! 0,75 |—19,009 z Vauri 16 3 17,16) 0,22 }16 7 37,29) 0,77 | + 7,855 6 Leonis 15 34 40,04) 0,24 J15 36 20,92) 0,79 |—20,083 14 36 10,45| 0,24 [14 36 32,52) 0,74|— 4614 14 14 19,05) 0,24 ]14 12 41,94) 0,77 1+19,258 14 10 56,22| 0,23 }14 9 13,02] 0,75 |+20,028 « Herculis .. a Pegasi 7 a hechis 12 50 33,58/ 0,22 }12 51 59,71| 0,75 |—17,310 z Ophiuchi {12 41 55,66) 0,24 [12 42 10,37). 0,77 }— 3,125 y Aquilze 10 10 53,97; 0,23 J10 10 12,28) 0,76 + 8,286 a .. | 8 24 6,69] 0,21 }] 8 23 14,89) 0,74 j-+ 9,002 z Orionis .. | 7 2! 50,69) 6,22 | 7 23 45,21| 0,76 [+ 1,267 a Serpentis 6 59 54,84} 0.23 [| 7 O 53,37! 0,77 |—11,791 & Aquilee 5 57 50,84! 0,23 | 5 57 9,29) 0,75 1+ 8,488: wz Canis min. | 5 40 40,32) 0,21 | 5 41 23,13) 0,75 [— 8,737 «Ceti .. .. | 3 22 37,67| 0,24 | 3 21 23,46] 0,85 |+14,491 GB Virginis .. | 2 46 42,81) 0,29 | 2 48 23,20) 0,77 |—20,289 a Aquarii . 1 11 25,48) 0,23 | 1 12 48,98} 0,89 14-17,195 aw Hydra .. | 7.53 1,68| 0,23 | 7 51 44,39) 0,83 115,273 B Orionis .. | 8 25 4,22) 0,24 | 8 25 27,36) 0,80 f+ 4,661 a Virginis .. [10 13 7,69] 0,22 [10 11 33,88| 0,73 |—19,027 lz Capricornij|13 3 25,59} 0,55 J13 4 20,91) 0,73 |+16,581 Qa — |13 5 43,49] 0,35 |13 6 40,64! 0,89 :}+4 10,609 laLibre .. [15 14 33,27| 0,25 }15 13 14,64) 0,84 |—15,405 Qa . [15 17 15,05} 0,25 115 15 58,17| 0,82 |—15,374 « Canis maj. |16 28 37,15} 0,23 ]16 28 14,68) 0,73 |— 4,483 « Scorpii .. [26 ¥ 23,00) 0,26 126 0 39,17) 0,85 [— 8,649]. a Piscis austr: (30 34 28,68 0,37 [30 36 2,81) 0,91 [+18,836 In order to show how other observations coincide with those of mine for 1820, I here give a comparison of the same: of the two tables of Pond, the first is the well-known Standard Catalogue*, and the other to be found in the Nautical Al- manack for 182I. * It would be desirable to kniow which, of the numerous catalogues that have issued from the Observatory at Greenwich, is entitled to this cele- brated distinction,—Eprr. : M. Bessel on the Declination of the fixed Stars. 29 Bessel | Piazzi | Oriani Be Pond 1815. | 1800. | 1811. | 1813. | 1813. | 1820. 7] 4 ul 7] 7] a Aurige --- |—1,93 |—0,81 | —— |+1,67 |+1,88 |_0,12 aCygni ... |-+0,53 |42,14 |+41,02 |+1,08 |+2,42 | 41,53 a Lyre ... |+1,01 |41,69 |+1,36 |+.2,05 |+2,39 | 42,23 a Geminorum|—2,27 |+-1,20 | —— |+1,21 |+2,05 |—0,05 B —1,77 |+0,50 | —— |+1,92 |+1.57 |—0,54 6 Tauri... |—1,68 |4-0,42 |4+-1,69 |4-1,44 |+2,02 | +.0,60 az Andromedz|—3,78 |+.0,52 42,43 |1+3,15 |+0,41 a Coron... |—2,28 |+3,31 |4+-2,15 |+2,60 |+2,71 | +2,56 a Arietis ... |+0,57 |4+-1,67 +2,43 |+2,69 | +0,68 | Bootis ~... |+0,25 |4+-2,26 |-41,35 |42.07 |4 2.45 | +1,57 a Tauri... |\—0,54 |42,86 |42,79 |41,96 |4 2,54 | 0,16 BLeonis ... |-40,47 |43,07 42:95 |4 2,09 | +1.96 w Herculis... |—1,05 |4.4,20 |+2,35 |4+2,54 |+3,18 | +2,55 Va Pegasi ... |—0,83 |42,98 |42,51 |42,93 |+4,13 |+1,95 y - e-. |—3,06 |4+0,97 a Leonis ... |—0,39 |4.2,69 |42,60 |42.25 |+2.61 | +2,42 a Ophiuchi |—0,97 |4-4,04 |4+2.47 |41,88 |43,97 | +2'34 y Aquilz ... |—0,31 |42,40 a ... |—0,84 |4.3,78 |+2,51 |42.38 |+3,43 | +231 a Orionis ... |40,91 |40,60 |+2,76 |+2,36 |43,60 |+1,31 a Serpentis |—0,47 |+2,54 |+2,12 |43,73 |4 3,24 | +2,16 6 Aquile ... |4+0,84 |43,38 | —~ |4+3,27 |44,39 |+5,16 w Canis min. |—0,82 |+4,28 |+3,04 |4+3,29 |4.4,22 | +068 w Ceti ... ... |—1,72 |+1,59 | —— |+1,81 |+3,15 | +4,33 6 Virginis ... |—1,05 |+1,48 | —— | —— +2,19 ew Aquarii ... |+2,45 142,93 } —— |+4,04 |+4,19 |+4,48 a Hydre ... |+0,96 |4+2,27 | —— |43,85 |+3,54 | +4,68 B Orionis ... |+0,22 |+1,86 |+2,78 |4.2,68 |+3,15 | +4,22 a Virginis ... |—1,34 |+-2,84 |+3,00 |+3,13 |+3,16 | +4,69 1 Capricorni|—2,47 |4.4,89 | —— |+3,47 |+4,16 | 14,59 Qa —4,16 |4.4,65 |+3,68 |+5,62 |+5,35 | +6,49 le Libre ... |41,57 |42,54| —— | —— |+666|+7,2 2 —0,03 |4.2,94] —— ]+4+4,76 |4.4,65 |+5,05 w Canis maj. |+0,10 |4-2,05 |-+5,36 |41,59 |45,16 |+1,15 a Scorpii ... |40.52 |4+3,05 | +2,65 |4+5,57 [45,74 | +4,00 # Piscis austr. |+0,03 |+3,80 |+3,71 |} —— | —— |+2,68 CS This comparison shows that my new table bears the same similarity to the others, that the old one had. Upon the whole, indeed, this last gives the stars something more southerly than the former; but the differences are seldom much greater than the probable errors. The corrections which I have brought forward on account of the bending of the telescope, and for the refraction, have, instead of assimilating my decli- nations for 1820 to those of Palermo, Milan, Dublin, and Greenwich, only placed them wider ; so that by this catalogue we do not approach nearer to unanimity than before. It is yet to be proved, whether any assimilation will follow from other quarters, or whether the difference will be still further increased. f 30.3 1X. A comparative Statement of some of the different Features in Pillar Work and Way-going Work. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. TAKE the liberty of soliciting you to insert in the Phi- losophical Magazine, the accompanying statement.—The system of working coal-mines by Way-going ‘work, must find a friend in every humane man, and every honest man ;—wih the former, because it renders a coal-pit free from explo- sive matter; with the latter, because it prevents that shameful waste of property occasioned by Pillar work, at present used in coal-mines. Should the statement annexed not be suffici- ently convincing to the proprietors of coal-works, I am ready at any time not only to defend the system of Way-going work, but to give additional proofs of its utility, if necessary. I remain, gentlemen, Your most obedient servant, Alnwick, Northumberland, A Frienp To tHE PrTMENn; Noy. 21, 1822. To Coal-Oxwners and Coal-Workers. PILLAR WORK. All the collieries on the Tyne and the Wear are work- ed on this principle. For each and every ton of coal brought to bank, two ton of coal are left unwrought, for pillars to support the roof, which two ton are nearly all lost, as but a small propor- tion can ever afterwards be brought away ; and that por- tion which is subsequently obtained is greatly deterio- rated, in consequence of the pressure from above having deprived the coal of its mois- ture and hydrogen. No coal being raised to WAY-GOING WORK. Inall England only between twenty and thirty collieries are worked on this principle. No coal is left ; all is brought ' to bank as soon as it is won. Curving only is required ; bank except what is hewn; there is, and must always be, a very large danke hy of small coal produced by the constant action of the pick. therefore, there is almost no small coal whatever.— None when they curve in the Till. A creep On Way-going Worl: in Coal-Mnes. A creep frequently takes place, occasioned by the heavy pressure from above on the great extent of the roof, and poailpaibictsipalbdoywnish of illars; whic Sia aos produce a fall. A seam coal of thirty inches averages about sixty bolls to the darg ; and other thicknesses in nearly the same proportion. It is almost impossible to work a seam of coal of less than twenty-four inches thick, but never a thinner one, ex- cept where the roof is of stone or some other hard stratum. Only some seams can be worked. Unless the roof is of a con- siderable degree of firmness, the coal cannot be worked, as is the case of the seam called Belford Main Coal, the owners of which were compelled to abandon it on that account on- ly, and thus at that time lost the benefit of their coal. Great accumulations of ex- plosive matter in the vacuums between the pillars. The lives of all those down in the colliery are in constant 31 A slight creep always takes place, but is so slow and so regular that it cannot bring on a fall. A seam of coal of thirty inches averages about eighty bolls to the darg ; and other thicknesses in nearly the same proportion. A seam of coal of twelve inches thick is now working. It is called Cupar Eye Seam, and consists of two seams of coal, which are divided by a stratum of stone of three feet thick: the top seam of coal is fifteen inches thick, the bot- tom one about twelve inches. Every seam can be work- ed. The roof being of a soft or tender stratum is not a pre- ventive to working the coal, as in the instances oftheseams called Belford Main Coal, and Bulman Main Coal: at the lat- ter place they work from dip to rise, being a length of roof of one hundred and forty yards. No explosive matter can accumulate, neither coal nor vacuum being left. No life has ever been lost by explosion ! !—It would be danger of sudden explosions, | impossible for such a circum- and numerous persons have | stance to occur; because the fallen victims to them. | | gases alluded to being ofa less specific gravity than the at- sebipheola ay, they fly instant- ly (as the coal comes down) to the foot of the shaft, ascend to the surface of the earth, and become neutralized. 32 On Way-going Work in Coal-Mines. Many lives have been lost in these collieries by the fall- ing in of the roofs. Besides hewers and putters, there arein most of these works a far greater number of other persons employed, which is one of the heaviest charges on working coal, which is well Only three lives have been lost in these collieries ! and these were not by the falling in of the roofs. None but hewers and put- ters can be employed; as there is not any thing for any other description of person to do. In fact, there is neither room nor occupation for them. known to all viewers and pit- ME?» : To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. _ Alnwick, Jan. 20, 1823. Tue variation in the direction of the currents of air in mines isnot by any means such a phenomenon as Mr. John Rule jun. seems to suppose: it may be traced without difficulty to a sim~- ple cause; namely, the change of wind acting on a change of surface. If the district which contains the twenty-five shafts be examined, there will be found within the boundaries of its surface, or else not far distant, one or more uptakes of ground ; and these elevated spots, probably, have more inclined sides in that neighbourhood than one. ‘Those shafts which are on the windward side of the rising ground will have downcast cur- rents, and those on the leeward side will have upcast currents. The degree of strength of these currents will vary as the quantum of wind does: obstructions in the workings of a mine will affect the current of air both in force and direction. As the opinions of the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine are always received by the world as coming from a source possessed of the most general and correct scientific informa- tion, it certainly becomes a duty incumbent on them not to pro- nounce a judgement without giving the subject a careful and an impartial consideration. Had the statement addressed to you by “ A Friend to the Pitmen ” been so fortunate as to have in- duced you to investigate it, your intelligence would have warned you against making such an unqualified assertion as appears with your name to it, page 470 vol. 60:_ ‘ The only effectual remedy for foul air in mines is by drawing it off by mechanical means.” Now, Gentlemen, I beg leave to say, not only that the assertion is incorrect, being founded on erroneous princi- ples; but that it is made in direct opposition to the proofs which you hold in your hands, that there is another remedy, in all respects simple, safe, and perfect. No mechanical means hitherto tried for purifying a coal mine, have produced at best more On the Ventilation of Coal-Mines. 33 more than a temporary relief *. The disease is too powerfully malignant to be cured by quackery. Remove the cause, and you at once defeat explosion: perfect ventilation will remove the cause, and perfect ventilation can be obtained by way- going work: but never by pillar work. All persons con- versant with the subject of working cecal, well know that ex- plosion is the effect of the accumulation of foul ar; and that these accumulations arise from the very imperfect state of ventilation which pillar work is capable of admitting,—imper- fect indeed, for, independently of the numerous mechanical ob- structions it has to encounter, “a space of five hundred yards square having the current of air passing up and down its work- ings would require the ventilating medium to traverse eighteen miles. The different methods hitherto used of propelling the air through a mine appear to have been miserably defective.” Notwithstanding this strong evidence, a noted viewer * con- siders the system as beyond improvement.” ‘That it is capable of improvement is evident from the statement I forwarded to * We are always willing to admit correction or reproof, when our cor- respondents show that we deserve it ; but we think our Friend to the Pit- men is rather hasty with us. There is nothing in our note by which he ought to infer that Mr. Rule called the change of direction of currents in shaft an inexplicable phenomenon, or that he did more than describe a fact about which he says nothing as to difficulty of finding a cause—indeed he states it quite as clearly as our Friend does. : As to our opinion respecting ventilation, we beg leave to retain it until proof comes to the contrary; and our Correspondent will recollect that the assertion merely of an advocate for a particular system is not usually esteemed decisive evidence. In applying our observation it will also appear, doubtless, upon a little consideration, that we meant it for collieries as they usually are, and not for all possible modes in which they may or might be worked. Now, the com- munication states expressly that in all England, only between 20 and 30 col- lieries are worked upon the way-going plan, and these may therefore fairly be considered as at present uncommon. If the advantages of this mode are as great as our Correspondent seems to think, and upon which, at present, we do not mean to venture an opi- nion, it is certainly much to be desired that it should be fully understood and discussed ; and we should be glad to see that it attracts the notice of competent persons. We are not disposed to criticize strictly the communications sent to us ; but we should be glad if, in papers of this sort, the writers would recollect that technical words used only in particular districts do not correctly ex- plain matters to those who are unacquainted with them, and that provincial weights or measures should be accompanied by their equivalents more ge- nerally known. The paper above may require some translation in this way for our coal friends in the south; and we cannot entirely assent to all the statements it contains.—We think that pillar work is not so absolutely in- capable of ventilation as our friend asserts ; but we publish his letter as we receive it, and take all his expressions in good part, as they imply at any rate great zeal for what he supposes to be very important. ae Vol. 61. No. 297. Jan. 1825. 1D you; 34 On Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. you; in addition to the proofs therein contained, I can safely assert, without the least fear of being proved incorrect, that in a space of five hundred yards square of way-going work, the ventilating medium would only have to travel a distance of considerably less than one-fourth that which it does in pillar work; and the velocity of the current of air is so much in- creased, that it reduces the temperature of the mine so low that the hewers are in general compelled to work with their clothes on, I remain, Gentlemen, yours, &c. Alnwick, Jan 20, 1823. A FRIEND To THE PITMEN. X. Observations on the Vinous Fermentation; with a Descrip- tion of an Apparatus for the Improvement of the Process, ac- cording to the Method invented by Mapamr GERvaIs. HERE is scarcely a single production of the earth, which, when appropriated to the use of man, is not so modified or changed by various preparations, as to possess a different property from that it contained in its primitive state. I'ruit and grain undergo decomposition, and a new recom- position, before he uses them as food; and until he applied art to the juice of the grapes, they were suffered to decay on the vines—but the ingenuity of man has converted them into a pleasant, wholesome, and lasting beverage. In those climates where the only substitutes for wine were milk or water, the inhabitants are indebted to his invention for malt liquor, a beverage which, although inferior to wine, is not destitute of some of those qualities that render it so great a desideratum. The process by which these new properties are pro- duced, is termed the vinous fermentation; it might, perhaps, with more propriety be called the alcoholic or spirituous fer- mentation, since it is a process by means of which all saccha- rine matters, whether they proceed from grapes, sugar-cane, or malt, are decomposed and recombine to form alcohol. But however wrong this denomination may be, we shall make use of itin the following observations, as being well understood by all classes. A vinous fermentation, to be perfect, requires very exact proportions of mucilage and saccharine matter, so as to have the one just sufficient to destroy or attenuate the other; in which case the result would be, if the operation had been pro- perly conducted, a mixture of alcohol and water, differently flavoured according to the materials from which it was pro- duced, On Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. $5 duced, as grapes, pears, apples, or malt and hops; but such accuracy in the proportions cannot be expected, either from nature working at large, and varying in every climate, soil, and situation; or from short-sighted man acting mechanically, and frequently in ignorance of what he is doing. A perfect fermentation, therefore, has been considered an object almost. impossible to be obtained; and all we wish to show is, that the errors of the mixture may be corrected, and the whole process improved, by good management. The common practice, until a few years back, has been to ferment in open vessels; and though it was a circumstance well known among chemists, that a certain portion of spirit and flavour escaped in the form of vapour during the process, yet no one had an idea that the condensatory system could be applied; as it appeared impossible to effect the fermentation in air-tight vessels, being unable to surmount the great difti- culty which existed, of keeping down and managing that enormous bulk of non-condensable gases, which are emitted during the decomposition of the saccharine matter, and which acquire greater expansive force by the gradual increase of heat. The idea, however, occurred to Madame Gervais, a pro- prietor of considerable vineyards near Montpellier, who has founded a system on the following principle: that what is termed the vinous fermentation, is a mild, calm, and natural distillation; which, according to the usual acceptation of the word, has proved a correct system, since not a single drop of spirit is formed before it commences, nor after it is over. Having first laid down this ground-work, she proceeded to obtain an apparatus that would operate in such manner as to return into the vessel the spirit and flavour that was evolved from the fermenting gyle, and Jet out the non-condensable gases, which might, by the increasing heat, acquire too great an expansive force, and burst the working-tun: a short de- scription of. this apparatus will be a fresh proof that the greatest advantages are often derived from the most simple means. It consists of a vessel resembling the head of the ancient still, and constructed of such form as to be capable of being placed securely on the back, or vat, in which the process of fermentation is to be carried on; the back or vat must be closed air-tight, with a hole in the top, communicating with that part of the apparatus called the cone or condenser. ‘This cone is surrounded by a cylinder or reservoir, which is to be filled with cold water, so that the alcoholic vapour or steam, evolved during the process, may be condensed as it Gomes in E 2 contact 36 On Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. contact with the cold interior surface of the cone; and being thereby converted into liguid, trickles down the inside of the condenser, and through a long pipe is returned into the fer-. menting liquor. By the application of this apparatus, a considerable portion of alcohol, which has been hitherto suffered to escape in the form of vapour, along with the non-condensable gases, is con- densed and returned into the liquor ; and the non-condensable gases are carried off by a pipe, which, proceeding from the interior lower part of the cone, and running up the inside of the cylinder in the cold water, passes out through the side, and the end is immersed some depth below the surface of wa- ter contained in a separate vessel, permitting the gases to escape, but still under a certain degree of pressure, the object of which is, to confine the alcoholic steam and gas within the cone, and allow them a sufficient time to cool and condense. To persons in the least acquainted with chemical opera- tions, it would be useless to dwell on the merits of this appa- ratus; they will at once see how beneficial it would prove to any liquid that has to undergo the vinous fermentation in any, stage of its manufacture; but to those who are not so conver- sant in the principles and causes of these operations, they will require to be pointed out. To obtain a good fermentation, as complete a decomposi- tion of the must or wort, and as perfect a recomposition of alcohol as possible, are the great objects to be obtained. To acquire the former, three requisites are necessary; fluidity, heat, and motion. The latter; density, coolness, and tran- quillity. Let us examine each of these separately: first, of fluidity. The specific gravity of the liquid, most eligible to produce a good fermentation, is between 1020 and 1-140, or eighteen ; and one hundred and thirty-two pounds by Dicas’s improved saccharometer, made by Joseph Long, No. 20, Little Tower- street, London. Below eighteen pounds of real extract per barrel, the liquid is too thin to produce a proper fermentation, and above one hundred and thirty-two pounds it is too thick; but supposing the specific gravity of the must or wort to be correct, it may be carried beyond a proper dilatation by too much heat, or congealed to too great a consistency by exces~ sive cold; consequently either a thunder-storm or hard frost will derange the operation, and are equally injurious to fer- mentation. Any method, therefore, that will ensure an even temperature must be of great importance; and such a method is obtained by applying the apparatus already described, since, by preventing the access of atmospheric air, the sudden changes - On Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. 37 changes of the external temperature can have no effect upon the fermenting gyle; and if it has been prrcnep at a proper heat, (which is between sixty-five and eighty *,) will proceed through its different stages, as well during the hottest days of summer, as in the selected months of autumn and spring. With respect to motion, we are indebted to Monsieur Gay- Lussac, an able French chemist, for a beautiful and important experiment, proving that must, possessed of all the requisites to produce a good fermentation, will not begin to ferment un- less excited by a foreign agent. He placed the must in a close vessel, from which the atmospheric air had been exhausted, where it remained several days without giving any signs of fermentation, from which he concluded some power was wanting to break the union of its constituent principles; he therefore introduced a small quantity of oxygen, which imme- diately caused the must to ferment, evidently proving the ne- cessity of a small portion of atmospheric air (which contains oxygen), to allow the fermentation to commence. But it at the same time proves, that, after performing that office, this great enemy to all fermented liquors may be dispensed with, without impeding the process; as the small quantity of oxy- gen, introduced by Monsieur Gay-Lussac, was soon absorbed by the carbon to form carbonic acid gas, and. he found no oc- casion for any further supply. This discovery is of the greatest importance, since it en- ables us, without the least detriment or inconvenience to the process, to exclude the oxygen of the atmospheric air, which, by constantly supplying the gyle with the principle that causes and promotes acidity, casts on it from the first that roughness and disagreeable flavour which spoil most of our common be- yerages. Here again the new apparatus proves of great benefit ; for as soon as carbonic acid gas is evolved from the fermenting gyle, the atmospheric air, being lighter, is driven out from the upper part of the working-tun; and as no air is permitted to enter afterwards, all the subsequent carbonic acid gas emitted diminishes the quantity of oxygen contained in the gyle, by the oxygen uniting with the carbon as fast as it disunites from the saccharine matter during its decomposition, and thereby secures a soundness and peculiar mildness not to be procured by any other mode. The necessary conditions for a complete decomposition of the saccharine matter having been stated, it remains to notice those required for a good production of alcohol. * Fermentation will take place from forty-cight to one hundred and thirty-cight degrees, ; The 38 On Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. The first already mentioned is a certain density, in order to allow the several principles which are disunited to recombine. It is doubtful whether such a combination will in any case take place, until the temperature of the gyle, having attained its greatest heat, is afterwards cooled a few degrees; a fact con- firming which is, that a portion of the liquid taken out when at its greatest heat, and tried by distillation, produced little or no spirit: but such refrigeration must not be effected too sud- denly, as it might coagulate the yet undecomposed mucilage, and check its further action on the remaining saccharine mat- ter; and by arresting that natural operation which ought to be pursued a longer or shorter period, according to the spe- cific gravity of the fermentable matter, might produce that result termed ropiness, by holding in solution the coagu- lated mucilage. Here again the apparatus will be found of great service ; for, by frequently renewing the cold water in its reservoir, the internal temperature will gradually diminish by the heat of the gyle coming in contact with the cold interior of the cone: but in order to effect this, the tranquillity above mentioned is ne- cessary, since the continual motion is caused by the oxygen soliciting new combinations with the carbon, and thereby constantly giving rise to a fresh supply of heat. Besides the advantages already mentioned, which are com- mon to all fermented liquors, there are others peculiar to each, that require to be explained. The apparatus being applied to ferment the must of grapes, has been found to procure an increase of quantity, amounting in some instances to ten or twelve per cent., and which neces~ sarily varies according to situation, season, or former manage-~ ment; but in no instance has it been found less than from five to six per cent. When applied to the fermentation of beer, this saving has constantly been between four and a half and five per cent., a quantity certainly inferior to that obtained from wine, but which will not appear unimportant when it is considered that this saving is a spirit congenial to the nature of the beer, and an essential oil necessary to its preservation; in addition to the peculiar mildness and superior flavour. It remains now to mention the principal objections which have hitherto been of- fered against a general adoption of the system, and application of the apparatus to the fermentation of beer; as it cannot be expected that any persons should relinquish those plans they have been accustomed to consider right, or incur fresh ex~ penses, without being fully convinced of the advantages to be derived from them, The On Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. 39 The first objection raised against the system was in conse- quence of the whole process being performed in the same ves- sel, as fears were entertained of the beer being yeast-BITTEN: but the first experiment soon dispelled all doubts respecting that event, as the beer was tasted by at least fifty of the best judges in London, and pronounced not to be in the least af- fected by the yeast, which has been fully proved by every suc- ceeding experiment: and if we examine that question more attentively, we shall find beer is never kept in any vessel, whether working-tun, cleansing-casks, or keeping-vats, with- out being in contact with yeast: therefore, if it were to commu- nicate any unpleasant or bitter taste by long contact, it would do the same equally on the old system as on the new. But yeast does not impart a bad flavour, unless it has contracted it by long exposure to the atmospheric air; which can never be the case with the apparatus, since, as there are no DRAWINGS OFF, neither the yeast nor beer comes in contact with the at- mosphere. Another objection was, that the yeast, by so protracted a fermentation, must be spent, and incapable of producing a se- cond fermentation. If such were the case, brewers, by adopt- ing the new system, would be left in a most awkward situation, since eight or ten days would be the longest period they could continue their operations. But Lavoisier, in an experiment on fermentation, found that only one seventy-second part of a pound of yeast had been destroyed in fermenting five hundred pounds of wort. Besides, experience teaches us that yeast does not lose its power by remaining long in the beer; for when a barrel of beer is moved, that has remained stationary six months or a year, a fresh fermentation takes place, and more particularly if the temperature is at a certain degree of heat. However, as the objection was made by one of the great brewers in London, it became incumbent to refute it by imme- diate experiment. The yeast made use of on that occasion pro- ceeded from pale ale, fermented under the apparatus fifteen days, and was kept eight days; it had not, indeed, so quick an effect as the other yeast had, tried at the same time, which was only kept one day, and proceeded from porter brewed ac- cording to the old plan, as the latter began to move about two hours after it was srr, and the former did not act until ten hours later; but they both produced an equally good fermen- tation. The brewer who attended this experiment, a man of great experience, attributed the slowness of its action to its pro- ceeding from pale ale, and more particularly to haying been kept 40 On Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. kept so long; at the same time admitting, he never would ‘himself use yeast of such an age. However, another expe- riment was made, in order to ascertain if that was the real cause; it was tried at Messrs. Gray and Dacre’s brewery, and found to be perfectly correct; for yeast from table beer, which had been fermenting under the apparatus eight days, even after it was kept three days; produced a per feetly @ oood fermentation. Some brewers have objected to the length of time it requires to ferment in close vessels; but although the process appears to proceed slower in them than in open ones, yet the beer is brought much earlier to perfection; for with respect to strong beers, as porter or ale, they are as fur attenuated, and as fit to drink, six weeks after they are brewed, as any fermented in the general way after three months. With respect to table beer, from fifteen to twenty days are thought requisite to bring it into perfect condition; but it is said the table beer brewers will exclaim against a thr ee weeks’ fermentation, since forty-eight hours is a sufficient time by -the present mode, their object being a quick return: still it ean hardly be supposed they are serious in their exclamations, from the known impossibility of accomplishing any fermenta- tion in that period. : ‘The operations of nature are neither violent nor precipitate, but gentle and slow: if urged by too great a desire to obtain quick returns, imperfect and bad results will be produced, and they are to be obtained much more easily without than with the apparatus. A boiled solution of hops in unfermented wort does not constitute beer; the one produces drowsiness, and disorders the stomach, whilst the other, on the contrary, ex- hilarates the spirits, and promotes digestion. Having so far endeavoured to point out the use and advan- tages of the new system to the brewers, we shall venture to explain to the distillers and vinegar-makers the benefits they may derive from the same process. The chief object of these manufacturers, during the vinous fermentation, is to arrive in the shortest time at as complete a decomposition of the saccharine matter and production of the alcohol as possible, since upon these depend the strength and quality of the product. ‘The way to effect this is by nian FERMENTATIONS; but if there is access for atmospheric air when the wash is in that high state of dilatation, it will rush in and furnish the batch with fresh oxygen, and thereby ac- celerate one portion of the wash into the acid fermentation before the whole of the alcohol has had time to combine; so that / Pgs P28 MANE, ee 5 Wf > ( Datel tonces i bohity VA Vailas SMM E Plate n. Vol,6t.N°297. oscal Fat mnwhich the process of termentation is carried on Condensty cone copmunicating thipedtately with the trtevtor of de fermenting Fat Jniall Aan eetending reutd the interior base of Wate bang adapted Co pec We the condensed Meohial and Essenetal ols rom whence thi are enducted down the snutl pipe D into the Fat, Reservotr tor containing cold water siurroiuiding the Cone Lait pape conunuucating with the tntertor of the Cine the ea tremens being tnunersed some trches below the wurtace df the water in the stall tah G trom whenee thenoncondenst(ble tasses are pernitled te escape tile the atmosphere tock to draw v7 the water trom the reservoir LE: On Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. 41 that distillers and vinegar-makers are obliged either to stop the process before it is complete, or to suffer a certain portion of alcchol to be destroyed by the commencement of the acid fermentation: in both of which cases their loss is unavoidable. The apparatus will not only prevent this, but condense a cer- tain portion of spirit, as in every other case of the vinous fer- mentation. The British wine- and cyder-makers may cherish the hope of improving their manufacture by the same method, so as to make it superior to many of the foreign wines; cyder and perry in particular are capable of being greatly benefited by it, as an experiment which we have made upon the former leaves us no room to doubt of the great advantages to be de- rived from the application of the apparatus. Apples, and indeed almost every fruit, contain the principle of a very pungent acid, called the malic acid. This, when the oxygen of the atmospheric air is allowed to combine with it, produces a roughness, which is often so predominant in cyder as to cause it to be scarcely drinkable; but all access of the at- mospheric air being precluded during its fermentation, cyder becomes a mild and pleasant beverage. The same will, doubtless, be the case with perry, which, when perfect, will bear as near a resemblance to champagne, as any two liquids produced from fruits so different in their external appearance can have. However, wine, in its most perfect state, is the criterion of all fermented liquors; every imita- tion is rated according as it more or less possesses the same properties. ‘The characteristic qualities of wine are alco- hol and flavour; the one may be obtained from any vege- table substance containing saccharine matter and mucilage, and is the principle of strength and durability. We are not so well acquainted with the nature of the other, being of so volatile and subtle a disposition as to have hitherto baffled all analysis, and only to be detected by the most perfect sense of taste ; and though some palates can discover its presence with tolerable accuracy, yet they are unequal to point out the means of increasing or improving it. We know some of the causes which occasion its escape, the principal of which is. heat; every additional mixture of good, for the purpose of improving a bad flavoured liquor, any adulteration or disease, will equally destroy it; and it lies concealed until fermentation is nearly completed, when it is developed, and manifests itself as a last and crowning perfection. This circumstance may have given rise to the opinion, that the principle of flavour is resinous, since it becomes more pre- valent as alcohol (which is the best dissolvent of resin) be- Vol. 61. No. 297. Jan. 1823, F comes 42 Captain Forman’s Defence comes more predominant. Be this as it will, the apparatus may some day serve to ascertain the fact, since the spirit con- densed by its means is strongly impregnated with that princi- ple, and, if resinous, may be easily separated by simply mixing it with pure water; when the spirit, by having a greater affi- nity for the water, will disengage itself from, and allow the resin to precipitate. To conclude: It may be observed that the most approved wine is not always produced from the best must, but frequently derives its superiority from fermentation and good manage- ment. In like manner will beer and other fermented liquors acquire their greatest perfection from the same source, which, for that reason, ought to claim and engross the attention of every brewer, or other person engaged in the manufacture of fermented liquors. —. The invention of Madame Gervais above described, is fur- ther stated to have engaged the attention of several of the most eminent chemists and enlightened men in France, where a company has been formed, consisting of the Duc of Bellune, Count Chaptal, Viscount Chaptal, Count Dullau Dallemans, Count de Brissac, Mons. Froidfond de Bellisle, Mons. Gaston Deurbroucq, &c. &c., who have purchased Madame Gervais’ patent in order to propagate the utility of her improved method of fermentation ; which, moreover, is already successfully prac- tised at the considerable brewery of M. Chappellet in Paris. A patent for the use of the apparatus in this country has been obtained by Messrs. Deurbroucq and Nichols; and it has been tried with such complete success by Messrs. Gray and Dacre of Westham, in the county of Essex, that they have adopted the system, and are now, as far as the alteration to be made in their working-tuns will permit, fermenting on no other plan. XI. A Defence of the New Theory of the Tides, in reply to Mr. Henry RusseEtv’s Observations. By Captain ForMANn. R. RUSSELL has at length produced the principle upon which his hypothesis is founded; and, as I am now able to meet him on equal terms, I have no doubt of speedily con- vincing your readers, that his theory (which by the way is as great a deviation from the old one, for which he expresses so much veneration, as mine is) is not sufficient to account for the phzenomenon in question, and consequently cannot possibly be true. ** Let a stick,” he says, ** of about an inch in diameter, be loaded at each end with a steel ball, taking care that its spe- cific of the New Theory of the Tides. 43 cific gravity be less than that of water: while swimming on its surface, by applying a magnet, the ball to which the infiuence of the magnet is directed will be sensibly elevated, although the magnet has not sufficient power to support the ball in the atmosphere. In this experiment the ball under the influence of the magnet is elevated by the superior gravity of the other ball, on the same principle” (how 7s this proved?) * that the flood tide is elevated by the superior gravity of the ebb, for take away the ball that is not influenced by the magnet, and the other immediately sinks; take away the ebb, and the flow immediately subsides.” Now I have always been taught to believe, that, in proving the possibility of one fact by the acknowledged existence of another, it was necessary for the two cases to be precisely ana- logous; but what analogy is there between two steel balls con- nected with each other by a stick, and the particles of water, all of which are perfectly independent of each other? Mr. Rus- sell has very justly observed, that, if we take away the ball that is not influenced by the magnet, the other immediately sinks ; and the cause of this is too obvious to require an explanation. So long as the two balls nearly balance each other, the stick is kept in a horizontal position, and they are both supported, not by the power of the magnet, but by the buoyancy of the wood; but the moment either of the balls is taken away, as the power of the magnet’s attraction is not equal to the gravity of the one that remains, it cannot prevent it from sinking, and the stick, for want of being confined in a horizontal position, is no longer able to support it.. Upon the same principle, as the particles of water are not. connected with each other by a wooden lever, the downward pressure of the waters in one part of the world can no more lift up the waters in another, than the downward pressure of one of these steel balls could lift up the other after the stick that connected them was cut in two; and consequently, so long as the power of the moon’s attraction, together with the centrifugal force of the waters, is not equal to the power of the earth’s attraction, it is impossible to account for the rising of the waters, except by supposing that they are lifted up by the expansion of their own particles. If the power of the moon’s attraction, by taking off a portion of the gravity of the particles of water, be not suflicient to pro- duce the quantum of expansion in the waters that my theory requires, the degree of the compressibility of water, even in the deepest parts of the ocean, must be too trifling to deserve any notice; and, supposing the waters to consist of hard particles, I cannot understand how a change in the specific gravity of a portion of these particles can produce any alteration in we re- I' 2 ative Ak Captain Forman’s Defence lative positions of the rest. Mr. Russell, in his veneration for old theories, will no doubt allow that the power of gravity de- creases as the square of the distance increases ; and, admitting this, he should inform us how the superior gravity of the waters in one part of the world can possibly produce a rising of the waters in another part at the distance of nearly 6000 miles, when, by the above rule, the gravity of the waters in this place is only the 144000dth part less than it is in the other. In the annexed figure, I have supposed the whole earth to be covered with water, with the moon perpendicular to B, where B the waters, in consequence of her influence, have reached their ut- most height. Now it follows, upon Mr. Russell’s principle, that the waters which are rising be- tween C and D must be lifted up © A by the downward pressure of the waters that are ebbing between B and C; and consequently that t the influence of this downward pressure must extend to the di- 7 stance of 6000 miles, which is iD about the fourth part of the whole circumference of the earth. This, however, is not the only difficulty attending Mr. Russell’s hypothesis; for if we suppose the waters (which is really the case in the Atlantic Ocean) to be confined within the boun- daries J and h, there will, at this time, be a constant rising in every part, without any downward pressure to lift them up. Mr. Russell has endeavoured to explain away this objection, by observing that a sufficient quantity of water to produce the flow may be poured in from the Southern Ocean: but this ar- gument completely overturns his own hypothesis; for, to say nothing of the absurdity of supposing that these waters can travel at the rate of three or four thousand miles an hour, which they must do to produce such an effect, the tides would then be raised, not by the downward pressure of those waters which constitute the ebb, but by an accumulation of water coming in from the Southern Ocean; and Mr. Russell has yet to explain in what way this accumulation is produced. Mr. Russell may perhaps be inclined to argue that the waters that constitute the ebb are seldom, if ever, at a greater distance from those that constitute the flood than two or three hundred miles; and I ad- mit that they are not. But then the gravity of all these par- ticles must be very nearly the same, and consequently the one cannot be lifted up by the superior gravity of the other when this of the New Theory of the Tides. 45 this superiority has no existence. Thus, for instance, the tide may be ebbing on the coast of Florida, in America, while it is rising on the coast of New England; but, as the waters which constitute the ebb are nearer the moon, their specific gravity must be proportionably less; and how then will Mr. Russell account for their being able to produce such an effect ? Mr. Russell denies that my theory is sufficient to produce a rising of the tides on that side of the earth which is furthest from the moon. To make use of his own words, he says, “ He simply imagines a repelling power*, which I defy him to prove the existence of, and the work isdone.” This defiance comes with peculiar grace from Mr. Russell. I have written a book, in which I have proved at least the possibility of my hypothc- sis being true, by showing that similar effects can be produced by a couple of magnets. Mr. Russell, however, does not think proper to look into this book, but calls on me to write over again, for his satisfaction, what I have already written! Let him seek for the proof in either of the two pamphlets+ which Ihave published on the subject, and refute it if he can; and in the mean time, I challenge him, and every other philosopher as well, to account for the rising of the tides, on ezther side of the earth, in any other way, without taking away the power of the earth’s attraction altogether. Mr. Russell has also accused me of mis-quoting his words in my reply to his first letter ; but, as I am only charged with substituting a “ no” for a “not,” it is really a distinction with- outa difference. Itmay be more correct to say a magnet has not power than that it has xo power to lift a scale beam, but the meaning of both is precisely the same; and, as there was no advantage to be derived from the change, it was not very likely that I could have been guilty of it intentionally. With the exception of Mr. Russeil’s zew hypothesis, all the theories of the tidesthat have attracted any attention, at least all those that acknowledge the moon’s agency in producing the phenomenon, either suppose that the waters are pulled upwards by the moon’s attraction, or that they are lifted up by a centri- fugal force occasioned by the earth’s revolving round the com- mon centre of gravity of the earth and moon. In my “ Re- marks,” I have proved that philosophers, in accounting for the phznomenon upon either of these principles, must have lost sight of the earth’s attraction altogether; because, in either case, the waters are pulled towards the earth’s centre by a force which is much greater than the power which endeavours to * Which, by the way, never once entered my head. + “ New Theory of the Tides ;” and “ Remarks on the Opinions of Phi- losophers concerning the true Cause of their Rising.” carry 46 Captain Forman’s Defence of carry them off. acts, however, when they can be found, are the best arguments ; and, in spite of Mr. Russell’s objections, I shall make use of a handful of water in order to prove that both of these opinions are directly the reverse of what is really the fact. Ifwe take up a handful of water at the time the tides are rising, it must be evident that, as this water is brought nearer the moon and carried further from the earth, the power of the moon’s attraction must be increased and the power of the earth’s diminished; and consequently, if the power of the moon’s attraction had been sufficient to lift the waters up in the first place, it would certainly be sufficient to prevent them from falling when they were brought so much nearer to it. The same argument holds equally good with respect to the notion of the waters being raised by a centrifugal force; for as a drop of water upon the tgp of a high mountain travels through a much greater quantity of space in the same time, its centrifugal force must be considerably greater, while the power of the earth’s attraction to restrain it will be proportionably less, than it is in any part of the ccean; and if this centrifugal force is not able to prevent water from falling when its power is great- est, how is it possible for it to lift water up in those places where its power is so much less? Wherever we have the op- ortunity of making the experiment, we always find that water falls downward when the support upon which it rests is taken away. It is evident then, that when the tides are rising, the waters must be pushed upwards by some power below; and, unless we can suppose that the bed of the ocean is lifted up by the moon’s attraction, (when it has not power to lift a grain of sand upon the earth’s surface, ) there is no power that can pro- duce this effect besides expansion in their own particles. Philosophers, upon what principle I cannot imagine, have latterly conceived the notion, that, in the deep parts of the ocean, the waters are agitated and put in motion by a centri- fugal force, occasioned by the earth’s revolving round the common centre of gravity of the earth and moon; and that it is this agitation that preduces the rising of the tides*. This opinion however is grounded upon no analogy, and is in direct opposition to evident facts. On every part of the earth’s sur- face, in lakes and ponds, or wherever we may choose to place a drop of water, the centrifugal force, occasioned by the earth’s motion, has not power to produce the least sensible rise ; and as, the deeper the waters get, their centrifugal force will be so much diminished, while the power of the earth’s attraction * See Dr. Young’s Natural Philosophy, and an article, on Cuthbert’s New Theory of the Tides, in the 4th volume of the Quarterly Review. must the New Theory of the Tides. 47 must be proportionably increased, it follows of course that there can be no sensible rise (except by expansion) of any of the par- ticles below. To argue, then, that the mass of water may be in agitation, while all the particles of which it is composed must necessarily be at rest, is about as rational as to maintain that a number of cyphers, every one of which is nothing in itself, may amount to a considerable sum; and yet it is to buoy up this ab- surd hypothesis that my theory is rejected ; while, at the same time, it is tacitly acknowledged to be true by all the philoso- phers, as is evident by their not venturing to oppose it in any way save that of mere assertion. That water is compressible to a certain degree, has latterly been proved by facts which cannot be disputed; and, supposing the degree of compression to be sufficient, the necessary conse- quences of such a principle exactly correspond with the phze- nomena that really take place. Thus, for instance, if we sup- pose the sum of the expansion of all the particles of water at the depth of fifteen miles to amount to thirty feet, there would not be a rise of one inch* at the depth of only a hundred fa- thoms; and, as the waters will only have lost a portion of their gravity, they of course will not remain standing on a heap, but must necessarily roll from those parts, where the rise is great- est, towards the shores of the ocean, where, in consequence of the little depth of water, the rise is imperceptible. This prin- ciple, then, will at once explain, why the tides in many places run in an opposite direction to the moon’s motion; why the flood tide, in every part of the world, always comes from the ocean; why there are no tides in lakes and shallow water : and, by a parity of reasoning, we have only to suppose that there is not a sufficient depth of ocean, near the coasts, to account for there being no tides in the West Indies and the Mediterranean Sea. The only rational objection, then, that can be brought against my theory is, that it requires a much greater depth of ocean, or a greatér power of attraction in the moon, than philo- sophers are disposed to allow. But this objection, coming from the Newtonian philosophers, is in the highest degree ab- surd. If they would only give themselves the trouble to think * In fact, it would hardly amount to a single line, because the particles of water at the depth of 15 miles would have a weight taken off them which would be equal to the diminution of the weight of all the particles above that depth ; and consequently, taking the average, every particle of water in the ocean where it is 15 miles deep, would have a weight taken off it equal to the diminution of the gravity of 74 miles depth of water ; while every particle, where the ocean was only 100 fathoms deep, would only be relieved of a weight that was equal to a diminution of the gravity of no more than 50 fathoms, about 48 Captain Forman’s Defence of about the matter, they would immediately perceive that this objection affects their own theories with tenfold greater force. It is impossible to account for the rising of the tides, in the old way, without supposing the power of the moon’s attraction to be even greater than the earth’s; for, if the power of the earth’s attraction was not sufficient to prevent the moon from lifting the particles of water off its surface, it would never afterwards be able to bring them back again, when its own power must necessarily have diminished by the increased distance, while that of the moon would be proportionably increased. If, as the Newtonian philosophers suppose, the power of gravity decreased as the square of the distance increased, the power of the moon’s attraction, at the earth’s surface, could only be equal to the 144.000dth part of the earth’s; and in that case I readily admit that it would not be sufficient to produce the quantum of expansion that my theory requires. But this doc- trine, after all, notwithstanding it is so generally entertained, is nothing more than a mere guess : it is grounded upon no ana- logy, is inconsistent with other opinions that are entertained by the same philosophers, and is evidently not true, because it is in direct opposition to indisputable facts. ‘The Newtonian phi- losophers allow that the velocity of accelerated motion in- creases in arithmetical proportion with the distance, and not as the square of the distance increases; and, by the same rule, unless it can be shown that the diminution of the power of gra- vity is not constant and gradual, it must decrease inversely in the same proportion ; that is, it must zzcrease, from the point where it ceases, in arithmetical proportion with its distance from it; and consequently, before we can determine in what proportion the power of gravity in any body decreases, we must first of all ascertain to what extent it reaches. Ifthe diminu- tion of the power of gravity be constant and gradual, as has heretofore been supposed, it must accord with the above rule; and if it be not, it must be independent of every rule; so that, in either case, philosophers are evidently mistaken in supposing that the power of gravity “decreases as the square of the di- stance increases.” So much for the arguments upon which this famous law is grounded ; let us now see how far it is borne out by facts. Ac- ~ cording to the most approved astronomical calculations, the sun is supposed to be about 96 millions of miles distant from the earth*, and his power of attraction is supposed to be * T have said 96 millions in order to avoid a tedious calculation, but 95 millions will make the argument still stronger in my fayour. 200,000 the New Theory of the Tides. 49 200,000 times as great; while the moon is supposed to be 240 thousand miles distant from the earth, and her power of attrac- tion 40 times less.. The earth’s centre is allowed to be very nearly 4000 miles from the surface of the waters, and conse= quently is 60 times nearer to it than the moon is, and 24,000 times nearer than the sun. Now 60 multiplied by itself, and. this sum multiplied by 40, will make the power ot the mcon’s attraction, at the earth’s surface, 144,000 times less than the earth’s; while 24,000 multiplied by itself and divided by 200,000, will make the power of the sun’s attraction equal to the 2880th part of the earth’s, which is 50 times greater than the moon’s. I suppose I need not go about to prove that the power of the moon’s attraction, at the earth’s surface, is really greater than the sun’s; because it not only is acknowledged to be so by the Newtonian philosophers, but the effects of the moon’s influence on the tides is always apparent, while the influence of the sun upon the tides can never be discovered, except (and then it is doubtful) at those times when it may be supposed to be acting in conjunction with the moon. It is evident, then, that this far-famed law is grounded upon.no principle, and is in di- rect opposition to an indisputable fact; and, unless the autho- rity of Sir Isaac Newton’s great name, unsupported by any ar- gument, be sufficient to bear down truth by falsehood, philo- sophers can no longer have any excuse for making this sup- posed law an objection to my theory. In my “Remarks on the Opinions of Philosophers concern- - ing the true Cause of the Rising of the Tides,” I have shown that the power of the moon’s attraction, at the earth’s surface, is, in all probability, equal to the 100th part of the earth’s at- traction, and may possibly be equal to the 50th; and conse~ quently, unless the above arguments can be refuted, (and that can only be by setting aside a positive fact,) the power of the moon’s attraction must be quite sufficient to produce expansion in the waters, without supposing an extraordinary depth of ocean. This pamphlet, as well as my “ New Theory of the Tides,” I have taken care to put into the hands of most of the leading philosophers in London*: and though they may per- sist in treating it with contempt, their refusal to look into it will not do away the force of the arguments it contains. If they can prove that my theory is not well founded, there may be some excuse for their neglect: but if they cannot, it may * In addition to most of the Reviews and Philosophical Journals, it has been sent to the Board of Longitude aud the Astronomical Society, and put into the hands of Sir Humphry Davy, Mr. Pond, and seyeral other leading philosophers in town. Vol. 61. No. 297. Jan. 1823. G possibly 50 Method of determining the Proportion possibly be true; and if it should ultimately be received, their rejection will certainly not enhance their reputations with pos- terity; for, in that case, it will be inferred that they either wanted the discernment to perceive the force of my arguments, or else that, from a feeling of jealousy, which is unworthy of philosophers, they wanted the candour to acknowledge it. Iam yours, &c. Water Forman. Note.—We feel obliged, at the same time that we insert the above com~- munication from Captain Forman in defence of his New Theory, to avow that his arguments have not convinced us, as we have not been able to re- concile them with the laws which govern the motion of fluids—And we cannot help thinking that the confidence which he feels in his theory causes him to undervalue those conclusions to which the freest discussion and most profound inquiries on the subject have almost uniformly led. We would not, however, be understood to deny an expansion in the wa- ters of the ocean occasioned by the attraetive power of the moon; as any power diminishing their gravity must necessarily in some degree produce. that effect.—Epir. XII. Method of determining the Proportion of Carbonic Acid in Mineral Waters*. —D*: AUG. VOGEL of Munich found by repeated experi- ments, that the method of determining the quantity of car- bonic acid contained in a mineral water, recommended as being the best by M. Thenard in his System of Chemistry, vol. iv. p- 159, is uncertain in its results. M. Thenard recommends to introduce the mineral water into a retort, from which a bent tube leads into a solution of muriate of lime and caustic ammonia. After the water has boiled two or three minutes the whole of the carbonic acid gas is extricated, passes into the solution of muriate of lime, and combines with the lime through the influence of the ammonia. Dr. Vogel has found muriate of baryt as well as muriate of lime mixed with ammonia to be equally unfit to detect small quantities of carbonic acid. When he dissolved from three to four cubic inches of carbonic acid gas in one ounce of caustic ammonia, and put this ammonia into a solution of one part of muriate of lime, or of muriate of barytes in nine parts of water, neither of those liquids was affected by it; but precipi- tation would begin only when the quantity of carbonic acid was increased; or, without increasing the quantity of gas, the carbonates were precipitated by ebullition, which also disen- gaged a little ammoniacal gas. * From Schweigger’s Ny Journal. fiir Chem. u. Phys, Bd, 3. H. 2. p. 204. When of Carbonic Acid in Mineral Waters. 51 When he introduced into a graduated receiver over mercury containing eight cubic inches of carbonic acid gas, a solution of muriate of barytes previously mixed with half its weight of caustic ammonia, an immediate absorption of 2.7 cubic inches of gas took place, without disturbing the transparency of the liquid. It did not begin to show a milky appearance until after the mercury had risen higher and three cubic inches of gas had disappeared. The eight cubic inches of gas were after- wards absorbed entirely, and yet no considerable precipitate took place. After the precipitate was separated by a filter, the clear filtered liquid was heated to ebullition, by which means a considerable quantity of carbonate of baryt was further sepa- rated. A solution of muriate of lime with ammonia is acted upon by carbonic acid gas in the same way as muriate of barytes. After some hours of contact the liquid is hardly rendered tur- bid, and even after 24 hours the filtered liquid gives a preci- pitate by ebullition. Only in cases where a great quantity of gas is absorbed by the ammoniacal solutions of baryt and lime, or where the mix- ture stands for several days, are the carbonates entirely preci- pitated. In the absence of a mercurial apparatus in examining mineral springs on the spot, lime water is sometimes employed, and not altogether improperly, if the quantities of carbonic acid gas are but small: I found, however, that lime water, even when the lime is not entirely separated by the carbonic acid, retains some carbonate of lime in solution, which will be found by heating such lime water to ebullition, in a closed retort, when the carbonate of lime remaining in solution will fall to the bottom. But this phenomenon ought not to be mistaken for, and should not be considered as analogous to, that observed by Mr. Dalton, when pure lime water was likewise rendered turbid by ebullition ; for it has been ascertained since by Mr. Phillips (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. v. 16. 213.) that lime is much less soluble in hot than in cold water. In order to convince himself that the precipitate obtained was neither hydrate of lime nor crystallized lime, Dr. Vogel made a comparative experiment by introducing into a given quantity of newly prepared lime water carbonic acid gas in such proportion that the lime water remained still alkaline; he fil- tered, and heated it to ebullition in a long-necked matrass, by which it was rendered very turbid; he then separated the precipitate, which, on being dissolved in muriatic acid, produced a violent effervescence. G2 An 52 Dr. Vogel on Mineral Waters. An equal portion of lime water not having been in contact - with carbonic acid gas was brought to ebullition in the way just described ; it was precipitated in a much smaller propor- tion, and the precipitate was dissolved in muriatic acid w7thout any effervescence; consequently carbonate of lime had been precipitated in the first case, and hydrate of lime in the latter. Though both lime water and barytes water absorb carbonic acid speedily, and the carbonates are precipitated very readily in both, but particularly in a solution of barytes, yet lime water and barytic water, when previously mixed with ammonia, are not in the least rendered turbid by a small proportion of carbonic acid gas, and the earthy carbonates are wholly precipitated from them by ebullition only. Lime water acts in the same manner when poured into a solution of alkaline carbonate of ammonia; the transpa- rency is slightly clouded, and immediately after restored, and ebullition is required to obtain a precipitate; but ifa greater proportion of lime water be added to the carbonate of ammo- nia, a permanent precipitate is produced. These phenomena naturally suggest the question, whether those carbonates dissolve in ammonia and form salts with dou- ble bases, or from what other cause these carbonates are not readily precipitated from a liquid, which contains no super- abundant acid, but which on the contrary is alkaline. Concrete carbonates do not dissolve againin ammonia; how- ever, it does not appear improbable to Dr. V. that a super- abundance of ammonia is an obstacle to their concretion, and consequently that the ammonia at least in the liquid state forms a peculiar salt with those carbonates, whose equilibrium is af- terwards disturbed by the evaporation of a part of the ammonia, which thus occasions a complete decomposition. Carbonate of lime obtained by muriate of lime and ammonia, when sufficiently washed, does not retain any ammonia; but carbonate of barytes obtained in the same way, when brought to a red heat, still affords some ammoniacal gas. If therefore muriate of ‘barytes or muriate of lime, mixed with ammonia, were employed for detecting carbonic acid, it would be necessary to boil these liquids for some time in order to separate the carbonates entirely. But if it were desired to know the exact proportion of car- bonic acid gas on the spot at a mineral spring where no mer- curial apparatus was to be procured, Dr. V. for the above rea- sons considers as the surest means, to pass the gas through barytic water, and to determine the volume of the carbonic acid gas from the weight of the carbonate of barytes when dried. XIIT. On [ 53 J XIII. On the Application of Potassium in Eudiometry. By — Joun Murray, 7.1.8. M.W.S. Sc. : HERE are several methods of examining the relative pro- portionals of atmospheric air, and ascertaining its compara- tive purity; as for instance, By a solution of green sulphate of iron impregnated with nitrous gas, or more immediately by passing up into a limited volume of the atmospheric air a gra- duated quantity of the gas itself;—By burning phosphorus in a given volume, or exploding an assignable quantity of hydrogen with the confined atmosphere, by the electric spark; and it may be fairly presumed that this last is the one most to be depended on. The electrical machine, however, is not always in order when we want it, and the electrophorus is frequently difficultly ex- cited amid the counter agency of an occasional humid atmo- sphere, &c. The following is a new application of potassium in eudiometry, and an elegant substitute for the electric spark, whether from the electrical machine or electrophorus. Into the graduated detonating tube (provided with the usual recoil spring, and affixed to the mercurial cistern) pass up the assigned quantity of hydrogen ;—let a bubble of water follow, so as to form a thin film on the surface of the mercury ; then by means of delicate iron forceps bring the smallest chip of po- tassium in contact through the mercury,—it immediately ex- plodes, while the mercury ascends and determines the relative purity. Thus also, by way of illustration, mix equal parts of hydro- gen and chlorine in a small and strong cylinder over water, re- taining a small portion of the water on inverting it. ‘Throw in the smallest portion of potassium: a violent explosion in- stantly ensues, and the production of muriatic acid gas is com- plete. In like manner, drop a minute chip of the metal into a cy- linder filled with hydrogen, with a little water at bottom, the orifice being exposed to the atmosphere ;—an explosion ensues, in a few seconds, and so soon as it mixes sufficiently with the descending atmospheric air to form an explosive medium. ‘Perhaps this may be deemed not an uninteresting applica- tion of that wonderful substance called potassium, the discovery of which we owe to the genius of Sir H. Davy. London, 25th December, 1822, I am yours, &c. J. Munnay. XIV. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. Maske.ynr’s 36 Stars for every Day in the Year 1823, at the time of passing the Meridian of Greenwich. 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On H Vol. 61. No. 297. Jan. 1823. [ 58 ] XV.—On the combined Action of Heat and Pressure on Water, Sulphuric Aither, and rectified Oil of Petroleum. By the Baron CaGNIARD DE La Tour*. T is well known that the temperature of liquids may be raised much above their boiling points by heating them in a Papin’s Digester; and it might be expected that the compression within, increasing with the temperature, would be an obstacle to the total conversion of the liquid into vapour, especially when the space left above the liquid is only of a limited extent. It appears that the expansion + of a volatile liquid has a limit, beyond which, notwithstanding its compression, the whole ought to be converted into vapour, provided the capacity of the vessel in which it is heated is sufficient to suffer it to di- late beyond its maximum of expansion. In order.to ascertain this fact, a piece of strong iron gun barrel was filled about two-thirds full of alcohol. A small ball of silex was also introduced, and the noise occasioned by its rolling backward and forward was observed while the whole was in a cold state. When this apparatus -was heated to a certain point over charcoal, the ball appeared to strike the inside of the gun-bar- rel as if no liquid was contained in it, which was rendered more perceptible by applying to the ear a small handle attached to the apparatus. On suffering the apparatus to cool, this effect ceased, but took place again on restoring the temperature. The same experiment was tried with water; but it did not perfectly succeed, owing to the joints becoming defective from the force of the steam. This was not the case with sulphuric zther or rectified oil of petroleum, and they produced the same results as were observed with alcohol. These experiments were repeated with the same liquids con- tained in small glass tubes, closed at both ends by the flame of a blow-pipe. A tube of this description being filled with alcohol to about two-fifths of its capacity, and then carefully heated, the liquid wis observed to acquire a greater degree of mobility in pro- * From the Annales de Chimie. + By expansion in this case must be understood the mere increase of bulk from heat unattended with any alteration in the nature of the fluid. M. C.’s opinion appears to be, that this expansion has a fixed limit, and that any addition of heat toa fluid already arrived at this point instantly changes its whole bulk into highly compressed vapour. portion Action of Heat and Pressure on Water, &c. 59 portion as its temperature was augmented; and after it had expanded to about double its first bulk it disappeared com- pletely, by being converted into a transparent vapour, so much so that the tube appeared quite empty; but by pérmitting it to cool for a moment a thick cloud was formed, and the alcohol appeared again in its original state. A second tube filled nearly half full of alcohol produced a similar effect; but a third tube filled rather more than half full was broken on being heated. . Experiments tried with essential oil of petroleum and with wether gave analogous results, with the only exception that zther appeared to require less space for its conversion into vapour without breaking the tubes than oil of petroleum, and the latter, less again than alcohol. From these facts we may infer that the more a liquid is ex- panded in its natural state, the less additional space it will re- quire to attain its maximum of expansion. In all the experiments already described the air was expelled from the tubes before they were closed; but on repeating them without expelling the air they gave similar results, and it be- came more easy to observe the progressive expansion ‘of the liquids in this case, as no ebullition was produced as in the former experiments. . The last experiment was made with a glass tube filled with water to one-third of its capacity. This tube lost its transpa- rency and was broken in a few moments. It appears that a strong heat enables water to decompose glass by taking up its alkali; probably this mode of decompo- sition may produce other interesting results in chemistry*. On carefully observing the tubes employed in those experi- ments, when the air had not been previously expelled from them, it was remarked, that those in which the fluid had not * Norr.—I first observed that glass was acted upon by water, under high degrees of compression, about six years ago.—The glass bulbs of thermome- ters exposed to the’ continued action of high pressure steam, were found to be first opake like ground glass, and after being immersed. for two or three weeks, they became ' full of minute pores and the mereury escaped without an apparent fracture. This action is so very gradual, that I am not inclined to adopt the suppo- sition that the fracture of the tubes in these experiments was owing to the decomposition of the glass, but rather to the elastic force of the inclosed steam.—Neither ar I quite convinced that the alkali is the’only part of the glass acted upon; for I have reason to think silex itself is dissolved by water under compression, which may account for the quantity of silex de osited by the water of the Geyser on any stibstances exposed to it, as it is Gretted from this stupendous ‘digester.—P. Taytor, ts : H 2 sufficient 60 - M. Cagniard de la Tour on the sufficient space to take its full degree of expansion previously to its transformation into vapour, did not always break imme- diately after the liquid appeared to have filled the cavity in the tube; but that the explosion took place proportionably later as the liquid would have been incapable of a much greater ex- pansion. i May we not draw from these facts a conclusion, that liquids which are capable of but a small degree of compression at a low temperature, become more compressible at a higher tem- perature, and much more so in the present case, when the liquid is on the point of being converted into an elastic fluid under a pressure amounting probably to several hundred at- mospheres ? It is presumed that the foregoing observations may be inter- esting to those who are engaged in the application of steam to engines, and they may perhaps throw some light on the question proposed a short time since by the Institute on the compressibility of fluids. By some later experiments, an attempt was made to deter- mine the pressure as well as the temperature under which the former results were obtained. The apparatus employed for ascertaining the pressure was so contrived, that a column of atmospheric air was compressed by a short column of mercury interposed between the air and the liquid contained in the tubes. It was found that ether is capable of being converted into vapour in a space less than double its original bulk, and that in this state it exerts a pressure equal to 37 or 38 atmospheres; a column of air 528 millemetres being reduced to 14 mille- metres in length, and the temperature of the zther being equal to 160° Reaumur.—This experiment tried three times gave the same result. . Alcohol was reduced into vapour in a space a little less than three times its original bulk, in which case it exerts a force equal to 119 atmospheres; a column of air of 476 millemetres in length being reduced to 4 millemetres, and the temperature being 207° Reaumur. In order to ascertain the temperature, the experiments were made in an oil bath, in which a mercurial thermometer was inserted, while the column of air was kept at 18° Reaum. by a refrigerators spas 3 On adding a)small quantity of carbonate of soda to the water submitted to the forégomg experiments, the glass was much less deprived of its‘transparency, and it became possible to ascertain Action of Heat and Pressure on Water, &c. 61 ascertain that the tubes broke when charged with water at about the melting point of zinc, and that water may be con- verted into steam in a space equal to about four times its ori- ginal bulk. XVI. Description of a Barometer for measuring Altitudes, con- structed on the Principle of the Elasticity of included Air. By Joun Murray, F.L.S. M.W-S., Sc. Sc. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. J AM not solitary in having to complain of the expense, non-portability, liability to fracture and disorder, (coupled with difficulty in manipulation, ) attendant on the common form of the barometer for the measurement of altitudes. I have been wearied and disgusted with their occurrence and consequent disappointment. The sympiesometer of Adie is subject to similar objections —nor is the ingenious application of the thermometer by Mr. Wollaston, to ascertain the elevation by the ebullition of water, entirely free from inconvenience. It occurred to me, that the elasticity of a portion of included air might be enlisted into the service; and, as far as I have been able to determine, the instrument (a drawing of which is now submitted) will answer every purpose. It is so portable that it occupies little more room than that of a common thermo- meter, and reposes in a case not exceeding say 12 to 14 inches long. i forms an elegant instrument, and I trust is calculated to supply an interesting desideratum in science.—It is needless to add, that the spring of a small portion of air at any given density being equivalent to the pressure arising from the gravity of the whole atmosphere, calculated at the same density, is the principle on which this instrument is constructed. The sub- Joined explanation of its structure will convey, it is hoped, a sufficiently accurate idea, and one by which any person may avail himself of the invention. I am, Gentlemen, yours, &c. London, 23d December, 1822. J. Murray. P.S. I have already intimated to you my determination to take no further notice of the communications of Mr. Moore. J. M. Ex- 52 Mr. Murray on a Barometer for measuring Altitudes. Explanation of the Figure. A is a square phial which contains the supply of mercury, the surface of which is represented by the dotted line. B is a tube graduated say from 31 to 20 inches, commencing from the inferior orifice, the numerical value decreasing in the ascent. The lower end of this tube, which is seen immersed in the quicksilver, and which slides up and down through an air-tight collar of leathers at da, is ground to fit a small socket at 6: c and d are two ground stoppers, accurately adjusted.— Glass step-cocks will be more difficult and less simple. C is a glass tube to coyer the instrument and to screw on at a. Before commencing the ascent, the stopper d is removed, and the altitude of the mercury in a good barometer ascertained. This is noted— the stopper is replaced, and it may be advisable to tie a slip of bladder (or a ground glass cap) over it, for additional security: the stopper c is at some time removed, and subsequently ad- justed. These being done, the graduated tube Bis pressed down until its lower orifice reposes in the socket f, and the glass envelope is screwed over the collar of leathers at a, which is externally provided with a small screw for this purpose. The summit of the acclivity being gained, the cover is un- screwed, and the tube elevated until the level of the surround- ing mercury is on a line with that indicating the altitude of the barometer set out with (e. g. 30 inches): the stopper c being now removed, the mercury will ascend and determine the ele- vation ; the difference between, say 30 inches, and that where the mercury now reposes, will give the altitude above the point of departure. The thermometer, it is needless to add, as in the common construction, must accompany the present instrument, and an affixed spirit level determine the plane. If the instrument is perfectly air-tight, the original supply of air obtained on the level of the sea will subserve the purpose any length of time. But it may be requisite to verify the in- dications of the instrument by taking advantage of every op- portunity presented by an accurate and good barometer. XVII. No- Ler'63~" | XVII. Notices respecting New Books. Entomographia Ruthenica. MAY distinguished naturalists, such as Pallas, Marschall, de Bieberstein, Steven, Severguine, Adams, and others, have been, of late years, engaged in investigating the natural history of that immense tract of country which forms the over- grown empire of Russia. With the exception, however, of Pallas in his Zcones, scarcely any one had hitherto attempted to make known the entomological treasures necessarily con- tained in a territory which may almost be said to border on the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and to extend from the Tropics to the Pole. This task has been at last undertaken by the celebrated zoolo- gist, Fischer, counsellor of state, and director of the Imperial Society of Natural History of Moscow; and the part of it which he has executed, and which has only now reached England, is such as might have been expected of his well-known talents and industry. Some critics may, perhaps, object to the work, the almost total want of method which it displays, and which appears to have been preferred merely for the sake of more conveniently and speedily describing those interesting species which have been lately added to our catalogues, by Steven, Henning, Escholtz, Gebler, Besser, and others. ‘How far this motive will excuse the learned Author in the eyes of English Entomo- logists, we shall not presume to inquire; but the scientific ac- curacy with which a number of new species are described, and the inimitable beauty of the figures which accompany the de- scriptions, together with the quantity of interesting matter which the book otherwise contains, must infallibly give it a place among the most valuable works which have of late years appeared on a science, which, as yielding in interest to no branch of Natural History, is daily gaining more and more ad- mirers. This first volume is divided into two parts, one of which re- lates to Russian Entomology, and the other to Entomology in general. This last promises to be a very complete Genera In- sectorum arranged alter the artificial system of Latreille. As yet, however, it is confined to the limits of the Linneean genus Cicindela, and consequently is much interfered with by the late work published in France by MM. Latreille and Dejeau. Of the Russian insects described, the reader will find al- most every species new tohim. There are also fourteen new gencra described and figured, of which one (Caris) belongs to the Cicindelide; four, viz, Plectes, Cechenus, C ‘allisthenes, Anomeus, 64 Notices respecting New Books.— Russian Entomography. Anomaus, belong to the Carabidee; six belong to the Pime- lidze, viz. Adesmia, Diesia, Platyope, Ocnera, Hedyphanes and Tagona ; one to the Helopidee, viz. Ditylus ; and two, viz. Pe- dilus, and Pogonoeerus, to the Pyrochroide. Except Caris, which is Brazilian, and appears to have been previously named Ctenostoma by Klug, all the above genera are Russian, toge- ther with several more, which are indicated by our author in his catalogue of genera, and which wll no doubt hereafter be described and figured by him. Among the insects most worthy of remark, is the Carabus bacchivorus, an Oonalaschka insect, which, when its proper prey is deficient, and its carnivorous appetite cannot be satis- fied, subsists on the berries of the Empetrum nigrum, or crow- berries. There is also a species of that singular genus Blaps (Blaps halophila), which, carrying the propensity of the Pime- lidze to the extreme, inhabits the salt crust which is formed by the Lake Indus. The Lethrus Longimanus is also a remark- able insect, from its approaching much nearer to the Lampri- mid@ than the-species common in English collections. Of this last genus, there are no less than four species described; and of the economy of the common Lethrus Cephalotes an account is given; which, as it seems a fair example of the skill of the author as an entomological observer, we shall here abstract. «“ Le Lethrus cephalote est un animal tres nuisible aux en- droits cultivés, parce qu’il cherche de préférence les gemmes ou les feuilles 2 peine apparentes et les coupe nettement avec les pinces tranchantes de ses mandibules. C’est pourquoi on Yappelle en Hongrie, ou il fait beaucoup de mal aux vignes, coupeur, Schneider ; la poitrine avancant beaucoup au-dessous de ’abdomen, les pattes de derri¢re paraissent insérées prés de Vanus. I] grimpe trés-bien, et fait son chemin de retour en reculant. Aprés avoir coupé le coeur d’une plante, il re- cule comme une écrevisse, portant sa proie dans son trou. Chaque trou creusé dans la terre est occupé par paire. Mais du tems de laccouplement, il se montre souvent un male étranger qui désire d’y étre admis. La se livre un combat véhément, qui est toujours nourri par la femelle, laquelle, fer- mant entrée du trou, pousse toujours le male du derricre. Ce combat ne cesse qu’avec la mort ou la fuite du male étranger.” Dr. Faithhorn on Diseases of the Liver and Biliary System ; comprehending those various, extensive, and often complicated Disorders of the digestive internal Organs, and Nervous System, originating from these Sources. The Fifth Edition, with an Appendix of Cases illustrative of the Principles of Treatment. Svyo. 9s. boards. Memoirs Analysis of Periodical Works on Zoology and Botany. 65 Memoirs of the Life and Works of Sir Christopher Wren ; by J. Elmes, Architect. 4+to. Portrait and Ten Plates. Preparing for Publication. Early in February will be published, in one volume octavo, with 14 Lithographic Plates, the First Part of an Epitome of the Elementary Principles of Natural and Experimental Phi- losophy; by Professor Millington of the Royal Institution.— This volume will include Mechanics, Pneumatics, Acoustics, Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, and a very copious Account of the Steam-Engine in its progressive and present State. The Se- cond Part, when published, will include Magnetism, Electri- city, Electro- Magnetism, Optics and Astronomy. Captain Scoresby, whose Description of the Arctic Regions excited such a lively interest not long since, and whose various papers in the Transactions of Learned Societies have made him favourably known to the scientific world, has now in the press an Account of his Voyage to Greenland in the Summer of 1822. In the course of this voyage he explored the eastern coast of West Greenland, to the extent of between 700 and 800 geographical miles, the greater part of which may be con- sidered as original discovery. He has constructed a chart, founded on about 500 angles or bearings, taken at 50 diffe- rent stations, most of which were determined by astronomical observations. This we understand is to accompany the work ; and it will constitute the first and only accurate map of that remote and all-but inaccessible region. From traces of recent inhabitation found in different places, there is reason to think that the descendants of the Jost colony, said to have been esta- blished in West Greenland in the beginning of the 15th cen- tury, and which has long excited great interest, still exist. The rank which Mr.Scoresby holds as a scientific navigator, and the airy interest attached to the regions which he has explored, ead us to expect much gratification from this publication. ANALYSIS OF PERIODICAL WORKS ON ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. Sowerby’s Mineral Conchology. No. 66. By a note attached to this Number, we perceive, with much “eae that this work will be continued by the Sons of the ate Mr.Sowerby; at the same time we venture to hint that, if it is extended much further, it will become so expensive as to defeat the professed object of its publication,—that of assist- ing students and collectors. It has likewise been mentioned ol. 61. No. 297. Jan. 1823. I ta 66 Analysis of Periodical Works to us, that there has been already a needless creation of species, which should be more properly considered as varieties. -'This may have been the case prior to the commencement of our monthly analysis of this work ; but we do not think the charge is applicable to any subjects we have noticed since that period. Inthis Number the descriptions deficient in the lastare supplied, and the following additional plates given. Pl. 378, three new species of Cyprea from the Suffolk crag, characterized on the authority of the Rev. S. R. Leathes. They are named C. coc- cinelloides, retusa, and Avellana. May not the two last represent the same species? their only difference is size, and in.the dorsal sulcation of the last, which the former does not possess; but this we know is not always a specific character. Pl. 379. Au- rvicula pyramidalis, a shell whose genus we consider as uncer- tain. Pl. $80 and 381. Plagiostoma Hoperi, and rusticum. Pl. 382, P. leviusculum, from the Pisolite of Malton. Pl. 383. Gryphea Columba of Lamarck, and G. nana from the clay at Shotover. Sowerby’s Genera of Shells. No. 10. Downax; accompanied by excellent figures of D. Scortum, cu-, neata, Trunculus and deltordes ; UNGuULINA, a genus of Daudin,, instituted on rather a slight foundation. Capsa; another genus of the French conchologists, with even less pretensions than the last, as it differs from Donaz so slightly, that we think it should only form a division under that genus. TuBICcINELLA, well distinguished by Lamarck, and formed of the Lepas tra- cheeformis. Erycrna, with very good figures of the following species, the two first of which are stated to be new: 1. £. com- planata testa ovata, compressa, subineequilatera, levi, epider- mide olivacea induta, concolore. 2. E. striata testa zequilatera, subtrigona, compressa, costis plurimis, confertis, transversis, anticé rigidis. 3. H. plebeia is stated as the Donax plebeia of English authors. NavicrLia; a fresh water genus resem- bling a Linnzan Putella, but having an operculum. Curtis's Botanical Magazine. No. 431. We have not in this Number a single new plant. Plate 2364 represents Ardisia paniculata, with very good dissections of the flower. Elichrysum proliferum, a plant well known, but very beautifully figured. Thunbergia grandiflora, Justicia pedunculosa (the J. Americana of Willd. and Hort. Kew.), Ribes multiflorum, and Alive acinacifolia, terminate. this Number: respecting the last, Dr. Sims has not adopted, the recent distribution of this overgrown family into separate ge- nera, a ‘on Roology and Botany. 67 nera, proposed by Mr. Haworth, although he candidly acknow- ledges he has not studied them sufficiently to judge of their ac- curacy; we should have considered this the very best reason for adopting such reformations, proposed by botanists who have exclusively devoted their attention to this tribe of vege- tables.. Mr. Haworth has arranged this plant under the genus Gasteria. The figure is oa NN Sweets Geraniacee. No. 35. The only species in this Number, is Erodium multicaule, thus defined: “ E. pedunculis multifloris, foliis ternato-pinna- tifidis: segmentis oblongis acutis inciso-serratis, petalis acutis calyce longioribus, caule ramosissimo adscendente.” | It appears to be the plan of this work to give only one real species of this immense tribe in each Number; the Sata plates being devoted to record those hybrid varieties whic may be raised ad infinitum by the London gardeners at _plea- sure, and which, if they are all to have a place in this pubica- tion, will inevitably extend it to four or five hundred Numbers. This plan will be attended with little advantage to science, and with disappointment to many persons of moderate income, ‘who have been induced to take it in, from a belief that it would be principally confined to species... We are ever anxious to en- courage the publication of works conducive to real utility or sound information. But the author should bear in mind, that on the plan on which this is now conducted, its termination cannot be expected for many years. The plates are unexceptionvble and the subject popular; and if the author is disposed to take our hints, intended as friendly ones, we shall be the first to notice the improvement, and give our support and recommen- dation for the success of Geraniacea. Loddiges’s Botanical Cabinet. Parts 67, 68. -. As no specific characters are given, the mere names of the plants figured in this work will not interest our readers: we shall therefore only remark on the contents of the Parts now before us, that Phyteuma virgata, stated as a native of Mount Lebanon, we found abundant both in Attica, and on the mountains of Boeotia, growing in tufts among limestone rocks. If its cultivation was assimilated to such situations, we ap- prehend the present difficulty of increasing this beautiful and delicate plant would be overcome. Greville’s Scottish Cryptogamic Flora. No. 7. The present Number of this beautiful work, contains: J. 31. Uredo Lini De Cand.—T. 32. Aspergillus penicellatus, a beauti- ful microscopic object of the natural family Byssoidee Grev. 12 Mucedines, 68 Royal and Linnean Societies. (Mucedines Link.), which grows upon damp gramineous plants in the Herbarium. The genus is adopted from Micheli, and is characterized anew by Mr. Greville: “ Minutus, czespitosus vel sparsus. Plantulz filamentosze simplices vel ramose sep- tatee, apicibus plerumque clavatis, et capitulis sporidiarum in- structis.” ‘The species is thus designated: ‘ Cinereus, spar- sus, gregarius, simplex: capitula sporidiarum laxa, subnutan- tia; sporidiis moniliformibus.”— 7. 33. Erineum aureum Pers, and Grev. in Edin. Phil. Journ.—T. 34. Cyathus Crucibulum Pers. (Nidularia levis Sow.), of which we have beautiful dis- sections, showing the highly curious structure and elastic na- ture of the stalks of the lentiform bodies, which had escaped the notice of preceding naturalists.—T. 35. Echinella circu- laris, already figured and described by our author in the Transactions of the Wernerian Society. In the 35 Plates now published of this work, we have illus- trations of no less than 20 genera of British Fungi. Arrangements, we understand, are made for the speedy publishing of this author’s Flora of the Environs of Edinburgh, under the title of Flora Edinensis, XVIII. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. Jan. 9. "(YHE reading of Professor Daubeny’s paper on Rocks that contain Magnesia was resumed and con- cluded; and a paper was read, entitled ‘“* Some Corrections applied to the great Meridional Arc extending from Latitude 80° 9’ 38",39, to Latitude 18° 3’ 23,64, to reduce it to the Parliamentary Standard.” By Lieut. Col. W. Lambton, F.R.S. Jan. 16. Some Practical Observations on the Communica- tion and Concentration of the Magnetic Influence. By Mr. J.H. Abraham, of Sheffield.. Communicated by the President, Observations on Magnetism. By John Macdonald, Esq. F.R.S. Part only of this paper was read, Jan. 23. The reading of Mr. Macdonald’s paper was re- sumed and concluded; and the Society, according to custom, adjourned over the anniversary of King Charles’s martyrdom to Feb, 6. LINNEAN SOCIETY. Jan. 21. The following communications were read: ' Descriptions of three Insects of Nepaul ; by Major General T. Hardwick, F.L.S.: viz. Gerris laticaudata (Cimex Linn.), Panorpa major, and Bombylius longirostris, = en eS LP 7 Astronomical Society. 69 Description of a tail-less Deer; native of the Snowy Moun- tains of Nepaul, and Plains of Muktinauth, about five weeks journey from the Valley of Nepaul in a north-west direction. This deer is mentioned as perhaps not different from Cervus Pygargus of Pallas. It was presented by the Court of Kat- mandoo, ard is now in the Menagerie of the Marquis of Hast- ings. Aso: part of an account by Dr. Wm. Jack, F.L.S. of the Lansium and some other genera of Malayan plants: Those described were, Lansium domesticum (Decandria Monogynia —Meliacee of Jussieu); and Hedycarpus Malayanus. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. At a Meeting of this Society, January 10, 1823, the follow- ing papers were read: On some new Tables for determining the Time, by means of Altitudes taken near the prime Verti- cal; by Francis Baily, Esq. F.R.S. L.S. &c. The object of this paper is by means of certain tables to facilitate the determination of time, the most important requi- site to every practical observer. By those who at any time may not have access to a transit, observations of the altitudes of stars in or near the prime ver- tical may be employed with success, and the instructions and tables, which are given in this paper, will greatly diminish the labour of computing the results. A Letter from J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. to C. Babbage, Esq. Secretary of the Society, was read, * ape a me- thod of computing an occultation of a fixed star. e pro- cess here explained differs from that of Dr. Young, which in point of arithmetical brevity is superior. It has, however, the advantage of being more readily reduced to algebraical for- mulee—a circumstance of some importance, since any person conversant with algebra can never be at a loss in the practical application of well-constructed formule. An Account of some Trigonometrical Measurements taken in the Alps, and conducted by means of Gunpowder Signals. Communicated by Professor Pictet of Geneva. On the Corrections of the Place of Juno, as given in Mr. Groombridge’s Ephemeris of that Planet for the present Month, by which it appeared that the AX. should be —7” and the North Declination, + 1/3. By Stephen Groombridge, Esq. F.R.S. his was the last meeting of the Society before its anniver- sary, which takes place on the 14th of February. XIX. In- Bos %eyy 9 XIX. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. OBITUARY.—Dr. Cuaries Hutton. DEP on Monday the 27th of January 1823, at his house in Bedford-row, CuarLtes Hutron, LL.D. F.R.S. &c. in the 86th year of hisage. This venerable character will be remem- bered with gratitude, as long as useful science is duly appre- ciated; perhaps no name can be mentioned, either ancient or modern, that has so successfully promoted those branches of mathematical knowledge, most conducive to the practical pur- poses of life, as Dr. Hutton. He has been an eminent author for upwards of sixty years, and, during forty of that period, he discharged the arduous duty of Professor of Mathematics, at the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, with the highest honour to himself and advantage to his country. His im- provements in military tactics have greatly promoted the suc- cess of the British Artillery and Engineers for the last half century, and have even been acknowledged and adopted by several of the first Professors on the Continent.— Morn. Chron. Dr. JENNER. With unfeigned sorrow we have to announce the death of our distinguished countryman, Dr. JENNER, the discoverer of Vaccination. He expired yesterday morning (Sunday, 26th January), after a very short illness, at his house at Berkeley, in the 74th year of his age. An event so awful from its sud- denness, and so impressive and mournful, from the eminent qualities of him who has thus been removed from among us, demands an ampler notice than we now can give; but we can- not refrain from expressing our ardent hope, that due and ample honour will be paid to the memory of an individual, not less worthy of love for his private virtues, than of esteem and admiration as one of the greatest benefactors of mankind. —Gloucester Journal. os ELLIS ON THE EFFECT OF COLD ON THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE. In a letter which we have received from Dr. De Sanctis, he expresses his regret that an error into which he had been led relative to Governor Ellis’s observations on the effect of cold on the needle, should have given umbrage to that gentleman’s relative, whose remarks on the subject appeared in our last volume, p.199. The mistake complained of, originated in Dr. De Sanctis having read the account, not in the “ Voyage to Hudson’s Bay,” but in an elementary work where it was imperfectly and incorrectly quoted. DISCOVERIES IN THE INTERIOR OF AFRICA. It is with great pleasure that we have to announce the return of a Discoveries in the Interior of Africa. 71 of Captain Alexander Gordon Laing, of the Royal African Light Infantry, from the interior, in the full enjoyment of good health. He Jeft Falaba, the capital of Soolimana, on the 17th of September last, and on the night of the 28th ult. arrived at the village of Maharie, on the left bank of the Rokelle, where he was met by Captain Stepney, Senor Altavilla, and the Hon. K. Macauley; next day he proceeded to this colony, where he arrived on Tuesday last, the 29th ult. It may be recol- lected that Captain Laing left this colony on the 16th of April last on a mission to the King of the Soolimana nation, on which occasion the most enterprising portion of the merchants em- braced the opportunity of forwarding a caravan with such ar- ticles of merchandise as were supposed suited for the trade of the interior. The path by which the Mission returned has been what is called opened, and many natives of the Soolima and Kooranko nations have accompanied it for the purpose of trading with the colony. Captain Laing, on his return, had sent a mes- senger to intimate his intention of visiting the King of the nor- thern Koorankos, but was, nevertheless, compelled to wait two weeks for his arrival at Kamato, although his majesty had ex- pressed a strong desire of seeing him; he treated the party well, and agreed to permit the people of Sangara to pass through his country to this colony. The Sangaras are great travellers and great traders, resembling in both respects the Saracooles; but as yet they have been obliged to barter their gold and fine cloths in the Soolima and Footah countries for European arti- cles, the natives of the latter countries, for political reasons, preventing their approach to the water side. ‘The Koorankos, under the dominion of Ballansama, seem to be a better and more liberal people, manifesting an anxious wish to facilitate the intercourse of more distant nations to this colony. Several traders from Sangara, who were on a visit to the king, accom- pany the Mission, and have brought a considerable quantity of old; and the king has sent one of his sons and his only bro- er to assure His Subélicaty the Governor of his wish to open and cultivate an intercourse with the colony. ‘The King of the Soolimas has also sent a son of his to make similar assurances. Captain Laing has traced the whole course of the noblest branch of this river, the Rokelle, to its very source. He slept at its source on the 3d of September last. It rises in 9 deg. 45 min. N, lat. and 10 deg. 5 min. W. long. After receiving many tributary streams near its source, it swells out to a con- siderable river before it has run 30 miles—it might here be navigated, were it not for the numerous scattered rocks over which it has to flow.—Fvom the Sierra Leone Gazette, Nov. 2. Vrom 72 Analysis of Lava from Vesuvius. From two different eminences he saw the hill from which the mysterious Niger (there called Tembie) springs—the hill is named Loma, and forms the commencement of a chain ex- tending to the northward from the Kissi country, where they first arise. The Niger flowing from the hill of Loma in 9 deg. 15 min. N. lat. and 9 deg. 36 min. W. long. marks the boun- dary between Sangara and Soolimana, the former being to the right or east, and the latter to the left or west. The geogra- phical site of Loma was ascertained by taking the bearings from two points thirty miles distant from one another; and from the talent and well-known accuracy of Captain Laing, there can be no doubt of the observations being correct. The Camaranca River was also visited at several parts of its course by Captain Laing: it rises two days’ journey east of the Niger, and makes a bold attempt to unite with the Ro- kelle, about ninety miles distant from this colony, approach- ing at one place within a few miles of it. In its westerly course it runs through the centre of the Kooranko country, which is one of the largest that we have any knowledge of on this side of Africa. Captain Laing also makes mention of the Mungo*, alargeand very fine river, which disembogues itself into the ocean through the same mouth as the Scarcies; it is a river of greater mag- nitude than the latter, and it has hitherto been unknown to Europeans; rises twenty miles to the northward of Rokelle, close to Beilia, a Foulah town two days’ journey S. E. from Timbo. It was at this town that Serjeant Tuft and Musah Kanta were left by Alimamee Abdolkader, when he went to attack Sangara. ‘Lhe king crossed the Niger the second day from Beilia. In the Limba country the Mungo is joined by the Kabba, a river upwards of one hundred yards broad, and which rises about twenty miles south of Timbo, the capital of the Foulahs. Captain Laing places Timbo in 10 deg. 52 min. north lat. and 10 deg. 34 min. west long. It is to be earnestly hoped that this Mission, executed with so much skill, prudence, and success, will pave the way for another enterprise, which Captain Laing is anxious to under- take from the very source of the Niger to its mysterious termi- nation. — eas ANALYSIS OF LAVA FROM VESUVIUS. Several chemists have analysed the lava of the last eruption * It is the wish of Captain Laing to change the native name of this river to M‘Carthy’s River, in honour of our esteemed Governor Sir Charles M‘Carthy. of North-west Expedition. "3 of Vesuvius, and M. Pepe has discovered in it the following ingredients: sulphate of potash, sulphate of soda, sub-sulphate of alumine, of chalk, and of magnesia; hydro-chlorate of pot+ ash, that of soda, a good deal of oxid of aluminium, calcium, silicium, and magnesium; much trioxid of iron, antimony, and a little gold and silver. The chemist who has contented himself with announcing the existence of these different sub- stances in the ashes of the eruption, promises to investigate and publish their respective proportions. Other substances, which the mountain continues to throw out, are very different from the preceding. This eruption appears to favour the hypo- thesis that the volcanic fire may be produced by the infiltra- tion of the sea-water, in the masses of potassium, sodium, &c., which are not yet oxidated; and the production of electrical fluid in such great abundance may arise from the same source, since the effects of the voltaic pile (auge) ave obtained by the oxidation of metals. THE NORTH-WEST EXPEDITION. At the Monthly Meeting, on Tuesday last, the 7th instant, an interesting Paper was read to the Literary and Philosophi- cal Society, on the probable situation, condition, and prospects of Captain Parry and his brave fellow-adventurers, an inquiry surely not ill-timed at a season to us of joy and festivity, to them of dreariness and darkness. It showed the probability of their having succeeded in getting a passage through some inlet in the north-west of Hudson’s Bay; since, if this had not been the case, they would have returned, or at least been heard of. If they should have got beyond the Copper Mine River the first summer, it is a subject of hope, rather than expectation, that they may have passed Mackenzie’s, and pushed through Beh- ring’s Straits, in which case we may expect intelligence very soon. But in this case probably Franklin would have heard of them. Or they may have been taken short by the climate before reaching the Pacific, and are now passing a second winter on this side of Behring’s Straits: still a fair hope may be entertained of their ultimate safety ; but it may be the end of this year, or the spring of the next, before we hear of them. Or, thirdly, they may not have been able to find a passage to the Pacific; and then the question is, Can they get back to the Atlantic before the open weather closes, or have they the means of passing a third Polar winter? Various presumptions are in favour of this. But on a fourth, not improbable, supposi- tion, of damage to the ships, or deficiency of, or injury to, their resources, or sickness, disabling from exertion, their si- Vol. 61. No. 297. Jan. 1823. K tuation 74 Meteorological Summary for 1822.—¥ssex. tuation must indeed be wretched ; and what oughtthe country, in contemplation even of its possibility, to do? First, to dispatch directions to the Governors of Canada, Hudson’s Bay, and the North West Company, directing them to equip different parties of natives, with proper supplies, to go in search, by the Copper Mine and Mackenzie’s Rivers, and other routes, with a security of being rewarded at any rate, and munificently in case of success. Secondly, that two or three small vessels be sent in different directions. ‘Thirdly, that Davis’s Straits ships be encouraged to sail a fortnight or more before the usual time, and explore the coast before they come to the fishing- ground. These, or any other expedients, should be adopted, rather than a single chance be lost of saving these brave men. —Newcastle Chronicle. SUMMARY OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR THE YEAR 1822.—ESSEX. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine. Epping, Jan. 7, 1823. The following Tables present the monthly means as de- duced from an accurate Meteorological journal kept at Ep-— ping, latitude 51° 41’ 42” N., longitude 27% east of Green- wich, during the year 1822. The observations from which these tables have been constructed were made with good in- struments, and as near the times specified as possible; the ba- rometer, with the attached thermometer, hangs on the landing place of a first flight of stairs, with the surface of the mercury in the basin twelve feet from the ground, and where neither is affected by any artificial heat; the external thermometer is at a great distance from any building, freely exposed to the air, has a northern aspect, and is not affected by the direct rays of the sun; its height from the ground is about 4 feet. The rain gauge is in a perfectly exposed situation, and is about 7 feet from the surface of the ground. This instrument was sent me by that indefatigable meteorologist, Luke Howard, Esq., and is well adapted to the purpose; at the same time, great care was taken to measure the water as often as any fell, so as to prevent the least diminution from the effects of evaporation, —a precaution very necessary to be attended to, especially du- ring wind, in the spring and summer months. ‘The evapo- rating gauge is about three feet from the ground, has a small roof to prevent the rain falling into it, but, is so placed as to admit of a free circulation of air over the surface of the water imtended to show the quantity of evaporation. I find from experiments made at the same time, with evaporators of the like lineal dimensions, that the process of evaporation is so liable Meteorological Summary for 1822.—Essex. 75 liable to be affected by locality of situation, that no general re- sult can be obtained as to the quantity, even for a very limited extent: but this I know, that the proximity of plants, shrubs or trees, very much impedes the gradual solution of water in air, and which points out the impropriety of allowing high trees to _ grow near a dwelling-house, as they always must render the same damp and unhealthy, and to that degree of which few people are aware. Yours truly, Tuomas Sourre. Meteorological Tables for the Year 1822. TABLE I. AT 8 A.M. AT 2 P.M. Ge we ~- So Cie Sie Wind Dig oe a= | 6 meet ge | Se SO KES Toy oe hes 22 )}4% |N.ES. WES | as : Jan. {29-726 |40°065 |36°323 |37| 510/72} 29-721 |40-677/41-645| 39} 5/18/62 Feb. —|29-738 |44°214 |40°178 |13) 8155/36} 29-726 |45°143/47-107| 3} 4/58/47 March |29-684 |47°097 |43°193|11| 4/40/69] 29-659 |48-871|53°000] 9} 0/41)'74 April |29-588|47°'700 |45°700 |41}21|40] 18] 29-585 |49°233155-100| 39]26/31)/24 May |29-653 |58'000 |55°968 |54/44/1 5/11 129-640 |60-258 |67°419} 51/44) 11/18 June {29-770 |65*300 |64°133 |38|37]17|28 | 29-762 167-733 |76°638 | 30}42)19)29 July {29-484 |62°710|62°903 |24| 6/47/47] 29-480 |64°365171°968 | 15|12|59/38 Aug. |29-584 |62-290 |60°645 /22) 9/30|63] 29-581 |65:956|70°58] | 13}19/26/66 Sept, {29-640 |57-567 |54°800 |44/27/ 16133} 29-631 [59-367 |63°867 | 28/42|20/30 Oct. |29-3'79 153-677 |49°806 | 10)32)65|1'7} 29-341 |54-S06 |57°419 | 13]/22)53}36 Noy. |29-420/48°867 |44°4.00 |10|10/68/32 | 29-369 |49-633 |50°133] 16] 2/53/51 Dec, {29-706 |3'7°097 |31°355 |38/41/26/19 | 29-692 |37-484)36°548 | 42145) 8) 9 Yearly |29°614 |52°049 |49°117}29 20,56 37] 29°599 |53°459 |57°618 | 25}22|35)40 Means: TABLE II. Max, att’ Ther. range of ext! Ther, an. |29°723 40-371 |38°984 |38) 5}14|67 eb. |29°732 |44°679 |43°643] 8) 6)57)41 March }29-671 |47°984 |48°096 |10] 2}41/71 April |29-586 |48°467 |50°400 |40|23/36/21 May {29-647 |59°129 |61°693 |53/44| 13|14 June = |29°766 |66°516 |70°383 |34/39/18/28 uly = |29°482 |63°53'7 |67°436 |20| 9/53/42 Aug. |29°583/63°113 }65°615 |17|14) 28/65 Sept. |29°635 |58'467 |59°333 |36|34) 18/32] -764| 2°384 92; 16 23 Oct. | 29°360 |54°242 |53°613|12)27/59/ 26} 3°824) 1-066 81] 17 31 Nov. [29-395 |49°250/47°267]13| 6/60/41] 3°847| °858/ 1°05) 18 28 Dec. 1.646} +602) 1°55] 15 26 Yearly |29°606 |52°754 |53°368 |27/21|35/39]22°652 |26°425| 1 -00 156] 28°4 Means. eel K 2 1*388| 2469 al) io 32 76 Meteorological Summary for 1822.— Essex. P. S.—I have no wish to occupy your pages to the exclusion of your more scientific communications, but must beg to ob- serve, that I believe, if correct observations of the barometer, the attached and external thermometers, were made in dif- ferent parts of the country for one year, or even for a much less period, and a mean of these observations taken as above, and compared, we might, by that useful instrument the barometer, be enabled to ascertain the.exact elevation of most parts of the country. It must be evident to every one, that the mean alti- tudes of the barometer obtained from a great many observa- tions would so far reduce the errors arising from unequal at- mospheric pressure, as not in the least to affect the results founded on such observations; for though an equilibrium of pressure may never take place over the whole extent of this island, at any given increment of time, yet, nevertheless, any change in one place is generally followed or preceded by a si- milar change in others; and therefore, the means in such case cannot be much affected by this circumstance. But there is another source from which errors may arise, and which, if not attended to, will in a great measure render such comparative observations useless; —J mean the constant variation of the al- titude of the mercury in the basin. This equation can always be found when barometers expressly constructed for the purpose of measuring altitudes are used ; but in our common portable chamber barometers there is no contrivance for that purpose. To render the common barometers useful for measuring alti- tudes, the exact point of zero, with the ratio of the area of an _ horizontal section of the mercury above the orifice of the tube in the basin, to that of the column itself, should be engraved on the plate of the instrument; whence, by this simple plan, the most common observer will be able to find this equation, and which, being applied to the altitude shown by the vernier, will always give the exact height or length of the mercurial column above the surface of the quicksilver in the basin; ob- serving to add the quantity thus found when the barometer is above zero, and subtract the same when it stands below the said point. The simple method here pointed out would, if adopted, completely establish the universality of this interest- ing and useful instrument. ° 2 Ws In page 444 of your last Number, your correspondent Mr. Innes Is correct in saying the ) makes the first impression on the ©’s limb to the left hand. I know that will-be the case at ans and I dare say the like will take place at Aber- een. "YTB Ul SIOMOYS d[QeJOpIsuOoUT 9dIy} JO OZ PUT ‘{aenuee Jo yif pue yI9 ay} Uo s1oMOYs O43 A[UO Ud9q SuTALY 91043 ‘mous JO aouasqe o11}U9 3soul]e VY} pue—‘asev1oAB Jenuue dy3 JO YI.MOJ-au0 ynoqe ‘sayour [g"f ‘A[n¢ Ur UreI Jo []ey ALeUIPIOBIIXd JY} —‘s]S8Od “Gg JO “Gq BY} UO UY} ‘pue[sUq Jo qaed sty ur 3]9y AjastoAas o10UN YNuL Uaeq Avy 0} sWIads YI “Iaqua0aq YI 9Y3 Jo IYStu ayy UO SutLno90 auroLny 947 GIB ‘SEB UL UOTwAsasqo jo AyWOM sooURJsUMIND JoIyO IY, “TEST UL UBY} ssay A[qeseprsuod st ‘advIVAe ano aAoge Joya YonoY} “ured Jo Tey CYT, [SST UL uEYI SBgT Ur JOYSty soyzeI uaaq YIOq oAvY JOJOWIOAV puR aanqesodua L eaL WE COIGOT anil OUR Ghel ceimel CTOs pla Gn ROTO One ea Meteorological Summary for 1822.—Cheshire. TI] 89 )08t | SF | 19 s0e'sclog OE 8F'Ga| ZF 62 LF'6c! FI 86 9F|S6'SS|8E'9F] ** Awad 043 Joy adeIOAY 3 0¢'8z|02'0E}¢9" eg’ | FI FL IS|9l'9E90'Te] °° ° 82+ +s taquia2eq I CC'8aleL GAS" eo ee CFF9O LEO SE] “tt tt ttt zaquiaaoyy Fo iz 08'8z|09'6z102" st’ | Ie LFSPILP'ESI6U SF “°° 8872874990790 9 II 00'6z|¢8"6zes" ec | 9¢ 90°Tg|08°Z¢)0F'TS] "77777777" Jaquiaadag val I 06'82|08'°62| oF" If | oF O'SS|BET9\g0'9G] “TTT tees asndny L 3 C6'8a|¢L Gals" oe’ | oF 60'9S|FS'T9\Ze°9G] vssstte tees es Am 8 Ll 0€°62|08'6z)£9" £9" | $F OL'6S\es Logo's] “ttt ets oung j Il 00°62|06'6219¢" lo | ge 2 OSle0120 Gr Tah etra ss Sese ale € g 08'82|00'0¢10¢" 6p | Le CO'TF9TSE 90'SF] “Tet dy II 06'82|¢0'0¢|e¢" os | Le OG oF sF Grice sr] ttt youeyy é 09°88/0e"0¢)}¢¢" gor. | $3 FUscloceries'Ze] sree Azenaga 01 | 9 EL 196'8z|S6'62169'6e| 69°62! Z9°62}_ 1S 90°Le|60' Treo" Le] ttt Arenueg ‘S| (a TN fourm [xe] 7. g fumm|xea} or | sg | g *I9J0UL *I9JOUI ‘praysajoovyy wau ‘huozoay hapsopypr ‘ATINVLG GuvMay ‘aay ay? fg Zest of suorva.sasgQ yoorsojoxoajayy fo hunuung “AYIHSAHOD 78 Meteorological Summary for 1822.—Scotland. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. Extracted from the Register kept at Kinfauns Castle, N. Bri- tain. Lat. 56° 23’ 30”.—Above the level of the Sea 129 feet. Morning, Evening, 10 o’clock. 10 0’clock. Mean height of |Mean height o 1822, |Barom.| Ther. {Barom.| Ther. January .« .|29-922|40°000j 29-921 |39-645 February. . | 29.692)40°964 March. .. .|29-993|43°516 April .....|29-843/47-666 May .....|30-037|54:226 June eceee 29-987|61-900 July ......|29-658}61:030 August ...}|29°698/58-677 September. | 29-865|52°560 October. . . | 29:477/47°840 November. | 29-361|44°733 December . | 29-894|37°258 Average of i ri she aoa 785\49-197 ANNUAL RESULTS. MORNING. Barometer. Thermometer. Observations. Wind. Wind. Highest, 12th Dec. W. 30°50 95th June, SE.-. . Lowest, 24 Dec. W. 28°38 2sthDec.n iNWs 6 |< 26° EVENING. Highest, 20th Dec. W. 30°46 | 4th June, W.. . . . 66° Lowest, 2d Feb. SE. 28:29 27thiDees— We. rs rare g — Weather. Days. Wind. Times, Parte seo ee ee tO Ne aDd NB tine 11 RainorSnow . .. . 155 BE cand/S HS ss sgh eons - Bical SW odode cw UP tea teeeiae $65; | W.and NW.2. ~ 4...) a0" | —— 365 Extreme Cold and Heat, by Six’s Thermometer. Coldest, 28th & 29th Dec. « Wind NW.& SE.. . 24° Hottest, 3d June . . . . Wind SW. ara ful 8 Mean Temperature for 1822... ,.... . 48614 ee REsuLT OF Two Ratn GAUGES. In, 100 Centre of the Kinfauns Garden, about 20 feet above the level ‘ ? 27°80 of theSea Ha Onda ER ie Pear reat Kinfauns Castle, 129 et’ See a ss ais Ve aeMoNPiat a Ole LIST eo LIST OF NEW PATENTS. To George Richards, of Truro, Cornwall, architect, for certain improve- ments in grate-stoves, furnaces, and other inventions for the consumption of fuel, and in the flues connected with them, whereby they are rendered more safe, and the smoke prevented from returning into the rooms in which they are placed, and also for an improved apparatus for cleansing the same. —Dated the 26th December 1822.—6 months allowed to enrol speci- fications. To James Rogers, of Store-street, Bedford-square, Middlesex, Esq. for a method or apparatus for the purpose of attaching trowsers and gaiters to boots and shoes.—26th December.—6 months. To James Neville, of New Walk, Shad Thames, Surry, civil-engineer, for an improved method of producing and applying heat to, and construct- ing and erecting, furnaces and other reservoirs, severally used for the various purposes of roasting or smelting metallic ores or other substances, melting metals or any other matter, and for heating pans or boilers in various cpe- rations of producing steam, distilling, brewing, dyeing, boiling, or baking sugar, boiling soap, or any other manipulation or operation in which the application of heat is necessary ; and also for the purpose of producing and applying heat to furnaces, pans, boilers, and reservoirs, already erected and used, or to be used, for the purposes above mentioned; and likewise for effecting a saying in fuel, and producing a more complete combination of smoke than at present takes place; as well as a better mode than now in use of collecting any volatile substance contained in, or combined with, me- tallic ores or other substances, in the separation of which heat is neces- sary; and for the purpose of applying heat to the operations of baking or dyeing substances in kilns, floors, or racks, or in ovens.—8th January 1823. —6§ months. To William Johnson, of Great Totham, Essex, Gent. for a means of ob- taining the power of steam for the use of steam-engines with reduced ex~ penditure cf fuel.—8th January.—6 months. To William Lister, of Baildon, in the parish of Otley, Yorkshire, cotton- spinner, for certain improvements in the method and machinery for prepar- ing and spinning wool, silk, mohair, or other animal fibre of any quality or length of staple-—16th January.—6 months. To Robert Copland, of Wilmington-square, in the parish of Clerkenwell, Middlesex, Gent. for his combinations of apparatus for gaining power, part of which are improvements upon a patent already obtained by him, for a new or improved method or methods of gaining power by new or improved combinations or apparatus applicable to various purposes.—16th January. —15 months, To George Miller, of Lincoln’s Inn, Middlesex, Brevet Lieutenant-Co- lonel in the Royal Brigade, for a method or plan of communicating the spiral motion to shot and shells when fired from plain barrels, and for igniting by percussion shells to which the spiral motion has been thus communicated.— 16th January.—2 months. To James Taylor, of Raven-row, Mile-end, Middlesex, master-mariner, for a new method of constructing the bottoms of merchant ships, and placing the pumps so as to prevent damage to cargoes by the bilge water. —16th January.—2 months. : To Junius Smith, of Old Broad-street, London, merchant, for certain improvements on a machine for washing, cleansing, and whitening cotton, linen, silk, and woollen garments, or picce goods.—20th January.— 6 months. METEORO-~ 80 Meteorology. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. The London Observations by Mr. Cary of the Strand. The Boston Observations by Mr. Samuet VEALL. Thermometer. Days of | London. | Boston. oo sey Weather. Month. if ; Inches. i 1822. 3 Lond. |Boston| London, Boston. Dec. 27|29/32'39| 35 = 130°4.0'30°25|b air Cloudy @ 28/25 33 °27|30°15|Fair Fine 29/23|32'25| 30°5 *10/30°05|Fair Windy 30/23 30/29 32 |29°83/29'83/Fair {Fine 1823, 31/28 S07? 30 *78/29°64|Cloudy |Fine Jan. 1/29}32'34) 33 *75|29°65|Cloudy |Cloudy 2137 43/40 36 °75|29°65|Showery|Cloudy, Rain A. m. 3)/4.0)4.5,4.0] 40 *87|29°70|\Cloudy |Cloudy 4|40|42'40] 38:5 | +80/29-60\Cloudy 5/39/40 42) 36 *76|29°70|Rain 6|42/43'39| 43 |g0-01/29-72|Cloudy 7|39|4.0'36| 39 *18/30°05|Cloudy 8/34/3932) 36°5 | °22/30:05|Cloudy 9/28 3529 32°5 |29°99)29°85|Fair 10/27/33'28| 35 *89/29°77\Cloudy - 11/27 31]24 34 ‘96|29:90|Fair ( 12/23)'2927| 30°5 | +92/29-85|Cloudy 13/27 agla4 30 -67/29°53|Cloudy 14/21/31)24) 30 "6129°55|Cloudy 15/22)26)/28| 27°5 *30/29°25|Snow 1630/33/31] 31 *4.0/29°25|Clondy 17/31/33|30] 28 *4.2/29:25|Cloudy 18/29|32/24| 28 "4.3/29°25|Cloudy 19|12/24/18) 17-5 | *56/29-50\Cloudy 20/20|24/30) 34 *75|29°70| Fair 21/30/32|28] 32°5 | *92/29-90|Cloudy 22)25|26/29| 24°5 | -99/29-95|Cloudy 23|22/24/25| 24-5 | *80/29°88|Fair 24124127|29! 30 °84129°84\Fair- 25/22|26/25| 23°5 | °77|29°80|Snow @ 26/25|28/30) 32 *85|29°80|Cloudy Do. rain & snow P.M. Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Fine Fine Fine Fine Cloudy, Snow A.M. Fine Snow Snow Fine, Snow a.m. Cloudy — [7 years. Fine. Coldest day for Snow Cloudy — Fine Tine Cloudy Cloudy Fine The weather during the latter half of January has been intensely cold. On the 18th at Glasgow Fahrenheit’s Ther. was at 18°, and on the same day at Edinburgh at 19°. On the 19th at Oxford and at East Grinstead it was as low as 5°, At Maidstone on the same ‘morning it was at 10°, and at ten o’clock at night at 4°, Our accounts from the Continent speak of the weather as being excessively se- vere. On the 12th January at Leipzig, Fahrenheit’s Therm. was at 4° below zero. On the preceding day it had been as low as 11° below zero, = 44 below the freezing point. THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL. 28° “FEBRUARY 1828. XX. Geological Section of Hunstanton Cliff, Norfolk. By Mr. Ricuarp Taytor. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. GENTLEMEN, uk subjoined sketch represents a section of the lower chalk strata, at the point where their course to the north- ward is interrupted, at Hunstanton Cliff, by the German Ocean. The intersection of the chalk beds, and of some of the succeeding strata, forms at this point a cliff of a mile in length, in which the general inclination to the eastward may be observed. This spot is interesting to the collector of spe- cimens of fossil remains, from the number and variety it pro- duces. SECTION. No. 1. 2 feet. The upper or vegetable soil varies from six inches to four feet. No. 2. 36 feet of chalk rock at the thickest part: the beds much disjointed and cleft in all directions. The chalk is suf- ficiently hard and durable to be used in building the houses of the neighbouring villages; but from long exposure to ~ weather, it decomposes. It has very few traces of organic re- mains. meee No. 3. 3 feet, a compact stratum of very hard chalk, con- taining an immense quantity of marine remains, the most im- portant of which are Inoceramus Cuvieri—2 species. Com- plete specimens are with difficulty disengaged from their hard matrix;—innumerable fragments of this shell are diffused throughout the stratum. Zchinites, Spatangus, Conulus, Dlu- stre on Echinites and Belemnites, Flustra utricularis? Spines of Echini. Terebratula ovata, T. plicata, T.subundata, T. in- termedia, and two other species. Small Belemnites in great numbers. Serpula, two species; Ammonites Greenoughii, very large, but not abundant; sometimes two feet in diameter. Sponges or alcyonites in this chalk are about ten inches dia- meter ; their surfaces marked with parallel waying or serpen- Vol. 61. No. 298. Feb. 1823. L tine 82 Mr. R. Taylor’s Geological Section of Hunstanton Cliff: tine lines. Some other fossils belonging to these beds are occasionally found in the neighbourhood; they consist of Trochi, two species of Echini, teeth, palates and fragments of fishes. The sea-water has the effect of hardening this rock; that part of it which is daily covered by the sea is much harder than that which is dug in the pits in the country around. No. 4. 14 foot. A stratum of white chalk, more loose than the last, containing no fossil shells, yet is distinguished by a remarkable species of ramifying zoophyte, resembling the roots of trees ; about an inch thick, branching and interweav- ing in every direction. Some of the fragments are not unlike the horns of a stag. No. 5. 4 foot. An intermediate vein or seam between the white and the red chalk, varying from one to six inches in thickness; of a soft substance and of a deep red colour, sup~ plying, probably, the colouring matter of the two succeeding strata. Several small springs of water issue out, at the eastern ter- mination of the cliff, from between the beds of white and red chalk. No. 4 and 6 in this situation. No. 6. 2 feet. Red chalk, of a rough disjointed structure, similar, except in colour, to No. 4, and, like it, though in a smaller degree, interwoven with the ramifying zoophytes be- fore mentioned. It contains three or four species of Terebra- tula, smooth and plicated, JT. biplicata and intermedia; a vast number of fragments of Jnoceramz, and numerous specimens of small, fusiform, slender, and almost translucent Belemnites, besides small siliceous semitransparent pebbles. No. 7. 2 feet. A more compact stratum than No. 6, of a darker red chalk, contains more siliceous pebbles and fewer organic remains. Those most observable are Terebratula and Belemnites. It varies in its degrees of hardness, being in some parts very loose and crumbly, but for the most part equally hard with the strata above. No. 8. 10 feet. A sandy ferruginous stratum; in some places possessing all the properties of stone, and adapted for building; and in others very soft. It is of a light brown co- lour, stratified, with vertical clefts or fissures passing into the stratum beneath. It contains no fossils, but some pyrites may be collected. It was probably in this stratum that Mr. Aikin discovered a magnetic iron ore, described as containing eighty- five parts oxide of iron and fourteen of oxide of titanium. Colour dark; iron black. Occurs in loose octahedral ery- stals, or in small roundish and angular grains; fracture con- choidal, rarely exhibiting any traits of lamellar structure ; lustre, Mr. D. Mushet on the Crystallization of Iron. 83 lustre, highly shining and metallic: yields to the knife. Spe- cific gravity 4°6—4°9. No. 9. 40 feet. Pudding-stone and sandy breccias, of a dark-brown colour ; composed of very small siliceous pebbles cemented together. ‘There are frequently slender white veins passing through the masses of stone several feet in length. No. 10. 20 feet. About twenty feet only is visible of this stratum, which consists of very dark pudding-stone; in some places being almost black. Large rounded blocks are scat- tered about the beach, and are only discernible at low water. No parallel layers of flints are observable in any part of this section of the chalk strata; but some occur of great size in the chalk-pits at Thornham and other adjoining parishes, of the description which have obtained the name of Paramou- dre. ‘These were of a cup-like shape, three or four feet long, and ten or twelve feet round, resembling those at Whitiling- ham and Thorpe near Norwich. I am yours, &c. Norwich, Jan. 17, 1823. Ricuarp Taytor. XXI. On the Crystallization of Iron. By Mr. Davin Musuer. [Continued from p. 24.] HE crystallization of cast-iron may be divided into two classes; namely, that which takes place in chasms or shrink- ages of the metal, and that which is merely superficial. The former possesses the greatest beauty and variety, and may with propriety be divided into three distinct stages. Ist. That in which crystallization may be said to have com- menced, and which, while confined to this stage, may truly be called linear. ‘This is indicated by a series of lines running parallel or concentric to each other, according as the chasm inclines to a plane or hemisphere. ‘These ground fines are intersected at right angles by a slighter class of lines, which has the effect of covering the surface of the meta] with a che- quered series of dots and minute hollow squares, This stage of the operation takes place when a small chasm is formed by shrinkage of a proportional quantity of fluid iron. Its beauty and regularity will greatly depend upon the process being effected in ee absence of external air; wherever air has ae the surface of the iron, the sharpness of the lines, and a still more minute and silvery ground-work crystallization, are destroyed by oxidation, and the beauty of the specimen very much impaired. ey The 84 Mr. D. Mushet on the Crystallization. of Iron. The 2d stage of crystallization is marked by a separation of a certain number of these lines into quadrangular prisms, sometimes five, and in other instances seven lines, forming the stamina of the forth-coming crystals. As the process of shrinkage is carried forward, the quadrangular prisms sepa- rate longitudinally, and a series of points begin to appear, which are the summits of the more perfect forms. Both series of lines become nearly of the same magnitude, are much more accurately defined; and such seems the effect of the per- pendicular subsidence, that the form of the crystal is also af- fected by the gravitation of the mass. The crystal may now be compared to a spear head, with serrated edges, or like some varieties of the Fern. In indigo-coloured crystals, the stem is frequently of a splendid silvery colour, and at other times gray, gold, or purple. It may be proper here to observe, that although all lines in the crystallization of cast-iron, when the crystal is in its most finished form, appear perfectly smooth; yet, when examined by means of a glass, present a regular succession of knobs, whose convex surfaces, assuming a different colour from the inferior planes, add much to the variety and beauty of the structure. The last and most perfect stage of the crystallization of cast-iron takes place under the following circumstances: Iron exceedingly divided by fusion; a large mass with considerable perpendicular height to admit of slow and insensible subsi- dence; a complete exclusion of atmospheric air; such circum- stances being present, large and deep cavities are formed, and time is given for the crystal to form and disengage itself from the more solid parts of the iron, so as to form groups or masses of crystallization. Each individual crystal has now ‘become double, a new series of ramifications is tound crossing the original stem at right angles. Though this new formation does not always measure so much across as the other; yet, when the form is complete, the crystal may be viewed on four different sides, exactly similar to each other, forming a qua- drangular pyramid, a section of which horizontally would be a cross. The serrated edge is now confined to the summit of the crystal, which commonly terminates in the figure of a spear point; but the inferior portions present slender yet di- stinct and well-formed filaments, proceeding from the stem to the extremity. ‘These pyramids are of various proportions, some only equal to their base in height; while others are equal to twice the base; some of them incline rapidly, and form sharp summits ; whilst others rise more perpendicularly ; frequently they are found Mr. D. Mushet on the Crystallization of Iron. 85 found united base to base, but more often obliquely, taking the most slender filament as the foundation of the next cry- stal. Investigating masses of crystallized cast-iron, I have found the slender ramifications present dots or burnished points impressed with the parent form of the crystal; and in cells where the glass can only reach, the most minute but most per- fect forms may be discovered. The most perfect specimens of crystallized cast-iron are to be found at foundries where cannon, mortars, large rollers, or such heavy iron machinery is made, as it is necessary to cast with large feeders or heads, to supply the diminution of volume or subsidence that takes place by the gravitation of the fluid iron. At one time I possessed a very large and beautiful collec- tion made at the Clyde Iron-Works, where a considerable manufactory of Government and other guns was carried on during the early part of the late war. These crystals were obtained in the greatest abundance, when by accident the head or feeder of the gun had not been filled sufficiently high with fluid iron to overcome the quantum of subsidence that afterwards took place in cooling. When the gun was carried to the cutting carriage, and the knife applied to separate the head close by the termination or muzzle of the gun, the de- ficiency was soon discovered by the iron cutting open and spongy, and an imperfect casting indicated. A blow from a heavy sledge, under such circumstances, was sufticient to se- parate the head from the body of the gun. The fracture occasioned by such separation was generally convex to the muzzle end of the gun, and concave to the head or feeder; the latter of which presented a fine arrangement of crystals, in- serted in the solid iron, while the convex surface presented the more perfect and detached forms grouped base to base, or obliquely, as circumstances had determined. There can be no doubt that every gun or large casting, made with a head or feeder, contains a portion of crystallized iron, though it becomes only obvious and most easily got, when the casting is imperfect at the point where the knife or chisel is applied; and probably these opportunities are at all foundries sufficiently numerous to furnish an ample supply of crystallized iron, though a supply might be obtained from a more perfect casting, particularly a mortar or cannon, by first measuring the depth of the shrinkage on the head or feeder, and applying the cutting knife from four to six inches lower than the ascertained point. As soon as the iron begins to cut open and spongy, the operation is to be stopped; and the 86 Mr. D, Mushet on the Crystallization of Iron. the upper part of the head broken off by means of a large hammer. ‘This will generally be followed by a fine display of crystallized iron, of every variety of colour; or, if the coloured crystals should be scarce, they can readily be made from the silvery coloured ones, by heating them in a vessel in a bright fire, till the summits of the pyramids begin to change colour. The specimen is then thrown out, and will be found, when cold, possessed of every shade of colour of which polished iron er steel is susceptible. Cells of colourless crystals resembling frosted silver are sometimes observed in large castings, opposite to the runner or feeder, which seem to differ from the other crystals merely in their formation having taken place under circumstances where atmospheric air has been totally excluded. The less carbon in the iron, the purer the colour and the more perfect the form of the crystal; and this observation may be extended to all crystals of cast-iron in general. When cast-iron is run from the blast furnace and becomes covered with a quantity of the fluid slag, the surface of such iron is sometimes found to possess a linear chequered crystal- lization, in which are stems of the more perfect pyramid, but of an imperfect form like the letter H with feathery lines across, and but little relieved from the plane of the metal. Tron cooled slowly in this case communicates the most beau- tiful prismatic colours to the slags, of a deeper and more de- terminate dye than the surface colours before alluded to. If Swedish or Russian malleable iron, both of which con- tain more carbon than English iron, are melted in a crucible, they will cool with a slightly radiated convex upper surface, and a smooth under surface with the convexity increased. If the same irons are melted under glass containing an alkaline mixture, both their upper and under surfaces become beauti- fully crystallized. If the carbon predominates, as is the case in some of the Swedish steel irons, the under surface will pre- sent small crystallized concaves, in which the rudiments of the octahedron may be found. English malleable iron, when melted, cools in flat buttons with asmooth upper and under surface; but when melted with from one to two per cent. of carbon, the cooling becomes more convex on both sides, and crystallization ensues; in point of form similar to that which takes place with foreign iron, but with a less splendid metallic surface. The grain of the frac- ture of cast or melted malleable iron varies with every change of temperature. If it is melted in a heat merely sufficient for its fusion, the grain will be small and tough, and the iron will draw at a red heat under the hammer. Every shade of heat beyond M. De Candolle on the Species and Varieties of Brassica. 87 beyond this, impairs the malleability; and when melted in 170° of Wedgwood, it either crystallizes in a scaly sort of la- mina, or in cubes inserted in each other, not in the least duc- tile when cold, or malleable whilst hot. I am yours, &c. D. Musuer. XXII. Memoir on the different Species, Races, and Varieties of the Genus Brassica (Cabbage), and of the Genera allied ta it, which are cultivated in Kurope*. By M. Aucustin Pyramus Dr Canpo..e, Professor of Botany in the Aca- demy of Geneva, §c. &c.+. [* has been observed, that most of the culmary and cecono- mical plants now cultivated in Europe, came, originally, from some other part of the globe. The Cabbages may be considered as an exception to this remark, as they appear to have been known from the earliest period of civilization, and from being altered by the influence of various climates and modes of cultivation, as well as increased by crosses obtained from the intermixture of races and varieties, have become so numerous throughout Europe, as to be deemed unworthy the attention of the learned: insomuch, that botanists and culti- vators have alike adopted the various names handed down by tradition, and which have been indiscriminately applied in passing from one province to another, to plants of very diffe- rent natures. This will sufficiently account for the difficulty of classing and distinguishing the different species, races, and varieties of cultivated Cabbages; plants undeservedly neg- lected, and which I have been Jed to consider with attention, from the desire of throwing some light on botanical synonyms, as well as from the hope of inducing naturalists to fix their at+ tention on cultivated plants in general. M. Duchesne, the author of the Monograph on the Straw- berries, has already published a Memoirt on cultivated Cab- * From the Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, Vol. V. Part I. for 1822. + In order to afford the British Horticulturist the full advantage of the information contained in this Memoir, an attempt has been made to add the English names of such of the vegetables described by the learned Pro- fessor, as are known and cultivated in the English gardens. The reader will find in the second volume of M.De Candolle’s Regni Vegetabilis Systema Naturale, under the different genera, the various authors who have men- tioned or described the species and varieties now noticed.—Sec. t Article Cuov. Lamarck Encyclopédie Botanique, vol, i. p.742, et seqq. bages. 8s M. De Candolle on the Species and Varieties bages. Besides his work, which has in some measure guided my researches, I have had valuable assistance from M. Vil- morin of Paris, who, being at the head of a very large com- mercial establishment in that city, particularly mstituted for ceconomical plants, has studied them with care and accuracy, and has deduced very interesting results from his experiments. M. Audibert, settled at ‘Tarascon, has also had the goodness to communicate his ideas arising from facts, which close ob- servation and assiduous practice have led him to discover. M. Sageret, an enlightened member of the Agricultural So- ciety of Paris, has also sent me the results of his experiments on cross-bred: Cabbages, and the ingenious conclusions which he has deduced from them. Lastly, M. Nestler, Professor of Botany at Strasbourg, where the culture of the oleaginous cruciferous plants is extensive, has obliged me with a few de- scriptions, and some important remarks on the distinctions between these plants. To these several communications I have added the re- marks which occurred from my own observation, having, at different times, visited most of the countries where these plants are cultivated; besides which, I have particularly at- tended to the specimens grown in the Botanic Garden at Ge- neva, where, from the kindness of Messrs. Vilmorin and Au- dibert, few of the known varieties of Cabbages have escaped my notice: and I consider it no little advantage to have seen them produced under the same climate, at the same time, and in the same ground, from seeds which had been collected from various countries. Five species of Brassica* have particularly attracted my attention ; the oleracea, campestris, Rapa, Napus, and precoz ; these I shall successively submit to examination, by describing the characters, history, and peculiar varieties of each. First Specizrs. BRASSICA OLERACEA. Among the different species of an extensive genus, the cul- tivated Cabbage is particularly distinguished by its herbaceous and biennial stalk, by its leaves being covered with a glaucous bloom, and glabrous from their first appearance, somewhat fleshy, not actually scolloped, but sinuated to the midrib, the lower leaves not excepted. It bears a strong resemblance to the Brassica Cretica, and the Brassica campestris; but the former has a ligneous stalk, and the early shoots and young leaves of the latter are covered with bristles. It differs also * See De Candolle, Reg. Veg. Syst. Nat. vol. ii. page 582, « from of the Genus Brassica. 89 from the Brassica Rapa, which has hispid leaves, without glaucous bloom; and from the Brassica Napus and Brassica precox, the radical leaves of both which are pinnatifid, or lyre-shaped. First Race*. BrassicA OLERACEA SYLVESTRIS. Chou Sauvage. Wild Cabbage. _ From universal testimony, this Cabbage is a native of Eu- rope; it is mentioned by Dioscorides+ as an inhabitant of Greece, and Sibthorp{ expressly says that he found it wild on rocks near the sea-shore of that country. M. Bose as- sures us that it still grows wild on the coasts of France. M. Bouchet found it near Abbeville, on the hilly shores of Treport; and I remember, likewise, to have seen a few ir- regular plants on the elevated coasts of Normandy. In En- gland§, it is found more plentifully in Yorkshire, Wales, Cornwall, and especially about Dover ||, where it was noticed. by Ray 4; and grows abundantly, together with Chezranthus Cheiri **, (Wild Wall Flower,) on the chalky rocks of that shore. Both these plants are in blossom in the month of May, and are distinguished from each other by their different tints, the flowers of the Wild Cabbage being extremely pale, and those of the Wall Flower a deep yellow; the stalk of the Wild Cabbage is crooked, half ligneous, branching, and seemingly perennial, though it most probably runs to seed at the end of two, three or four years, and then dies; it is from three to four inches in diameter; the young branches are green, her- baceous, and cylindrical. From the remarkable thickness of the parent stalk, compared with its height, and with the se- condary branches, we can easily account for the thick and fleshy stalk of some of its varieties, such as the Chou-rave. The leaves which shoot from the summit of the sterile branches form a kind of rose, giving to the wild plant the intermediate aspect between the two grand races, the Round-headed Cab- _* The Professor has used the terms Race, Variety, and Sub-variety, to enable him more distinctly to class and divide what may be considered the Botanical varieties of each species. Each Race comprehends one class of variation, and is divided and subdivided into what he here terms Varieties and Sub-varieties. Sec. Kouuen quceos. Dioscor. Hist. ed. Serr. lib. 2. cap. 146. Sibthorp, Flora Grece Prodromus, vol. ii. p. 29. Brassica oleracea. Smith’s Flora Britannica, vol. ii. p. 720. English Bot. plate 637. || Gerard also found it in the county of Kent, on the shores between Whitstable and the Isle of Thanet. See Johnson’s Gerard, page 316.— Sec. @ Lait Synopsis Stirp. Brit. edit. 3, vol. ii. page 293. **® Cheiranthus fruticulosus. Smith’s Flora Brit. vol. ii. page 709, Eng. Bot. plate 1934. Vol. 61. No. 298. Feb. 1823. M bage, 90 M. De Candolle on the Species and Varieties bage, and the Cayalier or Tall Cabbage, so that one may easily conceive it to have degenerated to both of these. When its natural tendency to form a rose has been gradually de- creasing, or, in other words, when the stalk or branches have had a greater tendency to shoot than the leaves, it has pro- duced the race of Cavalier Cabbages; when, on the contrary, the disposition of growing toa rose has been gaining strength, and the vigour of the stalk diminishing, the race of round- headed Cabbages has been obtained. The leaves of the Wild Cabbage are in every respect like those of the Garden Cabbage, fleshy, glabrous, and of a blueish green; the inferior ones are petiolated, and more deeply di- vided than in the cultivated varieties, from which circumstance one might suppose that the Brassica Napus is not essentially different; their terminal lobe is a flattened oval, indented and very large, their surface either plain, or slightly rugose or blistered. On comparing the wild individuals together, it is easy to conceive that by culture varieties have been obtained with leaves more or less swelled out, such as the Milan Cab- bage* (Savoy). The leaves of the Wild Cabbage are na- turally green, and become red when exposed to the sun, or when old, and diseased; this reddish colour is. permanent in some of the cultivated Cabbages, and we shall find that most of the varieties of each race have sub-varieties belonging to them, some green, and some red, the difference in colour forming no essential part of their character. The flowers of the Wild Cabbage are in thick bunches in the shape of a panicle; the lateral ones sprout from the axillee of the upper leaves. These panicles form a corymb greater or less according to the distance of the lateral branches, and their length, com- pared with the central one, from which circumstance it is easy to imagine the possibility of increasing the natural disposition of the panicle to form a corymb, and this determines the cha- racter of the Cauliflower. The flowers of the Wild Cabbage, like those of the varieties most common in kitchen gardens, are of a pale yellow, which we must not confound with the bright yellow of other cruciferous plants; the colour has va- rious degrees of paleness, and becomes white in a few culti- vated kinds ; .this difference however does not appear essen- tial. This minute examination of the Wild Cabbage will lead us to understand how the many cultivated kinds may all be referred to one and the same type. Duchesne has classed the * The Savoy is known on the Continent by the name of Chou de Milan (Milan Cabbage); but this appellation in England is only given to a variety of the Cavalier or tall Cabbage, noticed hereafter.— Sec. varie™ of the Genus Brassica. 91 varieties under six principal divisions, or races, viz. the Colsa (Coleseed); the Choux-verds (Choux-Cavaliers), (tall or open Cabbages); the Choux-cabus (Choux-pommés), (round-headed Cabbages); the Choux-fleurs (Cauliflowers); the Choux-raves (Turnip Cabbages); and the Choux-navets (Turnip-rooted Cabbages, or Navews). I can, however, only admit four of these six races; the Colsa and the Choux-navets belonging undoubtedly to the Brassica campestris, their young leaves being bristled. On the other hand, I divide the round-headed Cabbages into two, and I consequently reckon five divisions or races among cultivated Cabbages, in addition to the ori-; ginal type which I have considered as the first of my races, viz. the Cavaliers, or tall or green Cabbages; the Milans, or Savoys; the round-headed Cabbages; the Choux-rayes, or Turnip Cabbages: and the Cauliflowers. I proceed to take a rapid view of each of these. Second Race. BRassicA OLERACEA ACEPHALA. Chou Cavalier. 'Tall or Open Cabbage. The Cavalier Cabbage is distinguished by its lengthened stalk and its scattered and expanded. leaves, which do not grow toa head. The name of Chou Cavalier seems to be de- rived from Chou Caulier, alluding to caulis, a stem, by which names the ancients have at different times spoken of the Cab- bage in general, Emilius Macer, the first who fully described it, gives it the name of Caulis herba*. In the south of France it is vulgarly called Cawet, from the same origin: be this, however, as it may, there is reason for preserving to this race the name of Cavalier, formerly that of the whole species, be- cause it has more affinity than any other to the wild species, and the name has the advantage of recalling to the mind the distinctive character of the plants, a long stem. This race is known under other popular names, such as Chou Vert (Green Cabbage), its leaves retaining their primitive colour from be- ing constantly exposed to the tight, whereas the leaves of the round-headed Cabbages turn white; Chou chessa, because it is often employed as food for cattle; Chou en arbre; Chou sans téte; and Chou non pommé. 1 have adopted the name of acephala for the Latin nomenclature, as better expressing the character of the race, than that of virzdis, employed by Magnat and Duchesne}. The green hue, in fact, though frequent in this race, cannot be considered as essential to it, many of its varieties having sub-varieties of a reddish colour. * Emilius Macer de Herbarum virtutibus. Friburg. 1530, page 6). + Lamarck, Encyclopédie Botanique, vol.i. page 743. Me The 52 M. De Candolle on the Species and Varieties The Cavalier Cabbage has five* principal varieties, suffi- ciently distinct for ordinary practice, though the peculiar cha- acter of each variety may happen now and then not to be readily distinguished. The first is the Brassica ramosa+, Cavalier branchu (Branching Cabbage), differing only in size from the Wild Cabbage. There is also scarcely any diffe- rence discernible between this ramous plant and Daubenton’s Chou vivace. ‘The second variety is the Brassica vulgaris, Cavalier, or Chou vert commun; this shoots up higher than the preceding one, its stalk remaining nearly single ; but these two varieties have little to distinguish them from each other: the latter is most generally cultivated in the western part of Eu- rope, as food for cattle, and sometimes as a garden vegetable ; the amazing height to which it grows may be attributed to two causes; the custom of stripping off the lower leaves to give them to the cattle, and to their being planted in close rows ina rich and fertile soil, whereby they often reach four or five feet in height, and continue in vigour for two years together, and sometimes last even three years; this variety is generally known by the names mentioned before, as being applicable to the whole series of the Cavalier; those which are peculiar to it are Chou en arbre, Chou ad chévre, Grand Chou vert, and Chou vert de Touraine. 'The common Cavalier is for the most part green (Brassica vulgaris viridis): it takes a reddish cast (Brassica vulgaris purpurascens) in the sub-variety designated by Caspar Bauhin, as Brassica rubra, which name is given by the moderns to the red variety of the round Cabbage}. The third variety of the Cavalier is Brassica quercifolia, Chou a Jeuilles de chéne (Oak-leaved Cabbage); nearly resembling the next variety, the Chou frangé. Different gardeners assure me that they have even seen these Cabbages change from one to the other. Their mode of incisure, however, being distinctly * The description of the plants known under the general name of Win- ter Greens, by Mr, William Morgan, published in the second volume of the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, has enabled me to ascertain the English names of many of the plants enumerated by Monsieur De Candolle. —Sec. + This variety appears to be described by Mr. Morgan in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, vol. ii. page 314, as the Thousand-headed Cabbage. The French, who also call it Chow a@ mille tétes, seem to have several sub-varieties, which are respectively denominated in the Bon Jar- dinier for 1821, page 145, 1st, Le grand Chou @ vache; 2d, Le Chou moels hier ; 3d, Le Chou vert branchu de Poitu; 4th, Le Chou vivace de Dauben- ton.— Sec. , { The Chou caulet de Flandres is described in the Bon Jardinier for 1821, page 145, as differing only from the others by the red colour of its leaves, and may therefore be taken as the red sub-variety of the common Cayalier Cabbage.—- Sec. . ; characterized, of the Genus Brassica. 93 characterized, I do not think proper to confound them. In the Chou @ feuilles de chéne, the lobes are deep, broad-oblong, plain, and entire, or nearly so; the extremitiés not irregularly scolloped, nor the foliage inclined to a reddish hue; it is uni- formly of a pale green; this variety is far from being gene- rally cultivated*. The fourth variety is the Brassica + fim- briata, Chou frangét (fringed Cabbage), remarkable for its numerous lobes, the edges of which, from being much and closely cut, have the appearance of a fringe; the depth, the number, and form of these incisures vary considerably, and have given rise to as many different names. Chou vert frisé, Chou frisé, Chou frangé du Nord, Chou frisé non pommé, Chou Jrisé d’ Allemagne, may be all referred to this variety. The Brassica pinnata, Chou plume, or Chou aigrette (feathered Cabbage), can only be looked upon as a sub-variety. The fringed Cabbages vary considerably in colour; some are green, Brassica fimbriata viridis, Chou vert frisé, some red, Brassica Jimbriata purpurascens, Chou rouge frisé, and some streaked with green and red, others with green and white, and others ain with green, red, and white, Brassica fimbriata versicolor ; each of these sub-varieties is to be found springing from the same seed. This Cabbage, though excellent food, is often cul- tivated for mere ornament, on account of the diversities of its form and colour. It has also been tried with success as an oleiferous plant, and though less useful in that respect than the Colsa, it may be allowed an honourable place in the cul- ture of plants in general, if we take into consideration the produce of its seeds and leaves together. The fifth variety, which, like the preceding, is sometimes, though not so fre- quently, admitted into ornamental gardening, is the Brassica palmifolia, Chou palmier (Palm-leaved Cabbage) §, known by its elongated leaves, having a few incisures, and irregularly swelled out; in this latter property it bears some resemblance to the Milan Cabbage (Savoy), but differs from it in its leaves, which never form into a head, and in its stalk, which is long, like that of the Cavalier; its foliage is of a deep purplish * The tall Cabbage known generally in England under the name of Chou de Milan, and described in Mr. Morgan’s paper before alluded to, (Horticultural Transactions, vol. ii. page 315,) is probably a sub-variety of the Chou a feuilles de chéne.—Sec. Brassica Sabellica. De Candolle, Reg. Veg. Syst. Nat. vol. ii. p. 584. The Green Borecole, or Scotch Kale of the English gardens (see Mor- gan in Transactions of the Horticultural Society, vol. ii. page 312,) is_evi- dently this variety; and the Purple Borecole of the English, or Brown Kale of the Germans, also described by Mr. Morgan, is a coloured sub-variety of the same.—See. § This plant is not, I believe, cultivated in the English gardens.— Sec. green, 94 M. De Candolle on the Species and Varieties green, and the leaves in some individuals are nearly plain: so much so, that they might be confounded with the true Cava- lier; an additional proof that this variety belongs to that race. The Brassica tophosa, figured by John Bauhin*, appears to be a sub-variety which might be referred either to the Fringed or Palm Cabbage, and tends to prove the diversities of oe racter which unite these varieties: as I have had no oppor- tunity of seeing the plant itself, I cannot class it with any de- gree of certainty. To these five varieties, which compose the race of Cavalier Cabbages, I shall add asixth, which may, in time, probably be found sufficiently distinct to form another race; I mean the Cabbage called Chou d@ grosses cotes, Brassica costata (Large-ribbed Cabbage). The authors who have preceded me in the classification, either rank it among the Cavaliers, or pronounce it to have more resemblance to this race than to any other. Its distinguishing character is a short stem, nearly single, with close leaves, but especially with extremely + thick ribs; it is also known in France under the names of Chou de Beauvois, and Chou a larges cétes, and is principally sown in village gardens, for the use of the family, being very abundant in produce, though not very delicate in flavour. While cultivating the Brassica costata, I have more than once had occasion to observe a curious sub-yariety, or dege- neration of the kind; some of the plants emitted from the back of their primary ribs a kind of appendage, similar in consistency to the footstalk of the leaves; these appendages were of different sizes, and the largest dilating at its extremity formed a concave disk resembling a cup or funnel. This sin- gularity recalling to mind the organization of a well-known plant, the Nepenthes distillatoria, | have given the name of nepenthiformis to this sub-variety, and class it immediately under the variety that produced it; but .I should not be sur- prised if the same accident were to be met with in every other variety of Cabbages; and in that case, I disclaim every pre- tension to rank it even with the sub-varieties, and shall consi- der it only as an accidental defect. Third Race. BRrassicA OLERACEA BULLATA. Chou cloqué. Blistered Cabbage. The Blistered or Milan Cabbage, or Savoy, known to gar- * John Bauhin, Hist. Plant. vol. ii. page 830, fig. 3. i + The Cove tronchuda, an open Cabbage, which has recently been intro- duced into the English gardens from Portugal, and which has been found so excellent a vegetable, nearly agrees with the above character and descrip- tion of the Chou a grosses cotes. —Sec. deners of the Genus Brassica. 95 deners by its short stem, by its leaves being thickly pressed together when the plant is young, and expanding more or less as it grows older, yet preserving at all times their distinctive character of being blistered all over the surface, occasioned by the parenchyma growing proportionally faster than the nerves, in consequence of which it cannot be contained in the space they leave. ‘This race, commonly known in France by the names of Chou de Milan*, Chou de Savoy, Chou cabu frisé, Chou pommé frisé, Chou de Holiande, and Chou Pancalier, is intermediate between the Cavalier and the Round-headed Cabbages ; it is allied to the first by the intermediate variety of the Palm Cabbage, which, as we observed before, has blis- tered leaves like the one, and a long stalk tike the other, but never forms a head. It resembles the Round-headed Cab- bages by the manner in which the leaves are disposed, and differs from it by their appearance, which is plain in the Round-headed Cabbages; or, what amounts to the same thing, the nerves of the leaves are more loosely spread in the one than in the other. Gardeners, in general, distinguish several varieties in this race, which are founded on very slight dif ferences. Such are, according to Monsieur Vilmorin, 1st, the Milan ordinaire, vulgaris ; 2d, the Milan hatif, or petit Milan, precox, which is generally smaller than the preceding; 3d, the Milan nain or court, humilis; from which the 4th, Pan- calier of Touraine, Turionensis, does not appear to be distinctly separated; 5th, the Mzlan doré, aurata; 6th, the Milan a téte longue, oblonga; this last may perhaps be looked upon as a real variety, its character being more precisely marked, and it is known to have been mentioned by ancient authors; 7th, the Chou gros d’ Ambervilliers, major, apparently the same as the Milan des vertus, or Pommé frisé d’ Allemagne ; all these varieties+ undoubtedly belong to the Chou de Milan, but I have some hesitation in classing, as an 8th and last variety, another kind of Cabbage, the Chou d jets}, gemmifera, consi- dered by good authority to belong to this race. It is re- markable for its elevated stalk, which not only terminates in a looser and more irregular head than the true Chou de Milan, but emits from the axillze of its inferior leaves a number of * These are the Savoy Cabbages of the British gardens.— Sec. + It is probable that all these varieties of the Savoy are in the British dens under different names. In Mr. Morgan’s paper on the Winter reens, before referred to (see Horticultural Transactions, vol. ii. page 307, el seqq.) he describes the Green Savoy, the Dwarf Savoy, and the Yellow Savoy, as the three most distinct kinds.—-Sec. t The Brussels Sprouts.— Sec. See Morgan, in Horticultural Transac- vol. ii, page 309. aan Ut 86 M. De Candolle oi the Species and Varieties small shoots, each terminating in a rose or head, about-the. size of a walnut, and composed of leaves lying more or less closely together. It is very commonly cultivated in Belgium, and is much prized for its delicate flavour; the French call it indifferently, Chou d jets, Chou a gets et rejets, Chou de Bruxelles, Chou rosette, Chou a mille tétes, and Chou vert d petites pommes. The Brassica capitata polycephala of Dalechamp* may be pos- sibly referred to this variety, though his plate gives but an imperfect idea of it, and has more the appearance of a Round- headed Cabbage whose head has been accidentally divided in different places. Fourth Race. BRrassicA OLERACEA CAPITATA. Chou cabus en pomme. Round-headed Cabbage. This race is more generally cultivated than the preceding ones. The stem of the Round-headed Cabbage is short; its leaves, which at first are close and -concave, finally unite in a terminal close head; they are neither blistered nor undu- lated, as in the preceding race, but the interior leaves, from being sheltered from the light by the outward ones, are pale and watery, better flavoured, and of easier digestion, ‘This race of Cabbages was known to the ancient Gauls by the name of Chou capu; the Italians call it Capuccia ; both names de- rived from caput, a head: whence has proceeded that of Chou cabus; it is also called in France Chou pommé, Chou en téte, and Chou pommé a _feuilles lisses. The variations observed in this race are chiefly confined to the shape of the head and the co- lour of the leaves; the first circumstance appearing to me the most important, I have adopted it, to class the varieties, ad- mitting as sub-varieties the green, and the purple or red. The varieties are as follows+: 1st, the Chow deprimé ou aplatic, depressa (Flat-headed Cabbage), the head of which is tolerably large, and round, though flattened at the summit. Some gar- deners distinguish it by the name of Chou de Strasbourg, while others apply that name to the following. 2d, Chou sphérique, spherica (Round Cabbage), also called Chow cabus commun, is of a globular form, and very generally cultivated. 3d, Chou * Dalechamp, Hist. General. Plant. 521. f. 2. + The arrangement of the Round-headed Cabbages, according to the shape of the head, will afford an excellent guide to any person desirous of classing the sorts, and describing them accurately. Al the varieties used in France are not noticed in this Memoir, still less all those kinds which are cultivated in England ; no attempt therefore has been made to class English Cabbages here in the manner proposed by the learned Professor. In the two instances of the introduction of English names, the York and the Battersea Cabbages which he ‘states are applied: in France, they are pro- bably correct, since the shape of their heads accords,—Sec. obové of the Genus Brassica. 97 obové ou en ceuf; obovata (Ege-shaped Cabbage), is shaped exactly like an egg with the small end downwards, and has, I believe, no common name. 4th, Chou élliptique ou ovale, elliptica (Elliptic Cabbage), the head of which is a perfect oval, swelled out in the middle, and equally pointed at both ends; it is called by the French gardeners, Chou d’ York. 5th, Chou en pain de sucre, conica (Conical Cabbage); the shape of this Cabbage resembles an obtuse cone, or a long egg, the large end downwards; it is cultivated in France un- der the following additional names of Chou Chicon, Chou d’ Ambervilliers, Chou de Battersea, Chou a@ téte conique. All these varieties are susceptible of keeping the natural colour of their foliage; those that are green on the outside of the head and white in the middle, are called Chour pommés blancs (White Round-headed Cabbages); others, that take a purple tinge, deep only on the outside leaves, are called Choux pommés rouges (Red Round-headed Cabbages). The Sphe- roidal Cabbage appears to have the greatest tendency to purple of any other; its sub-variety is what is generally called Chou rouge, or Red Cabbage. Gardeners again distinguish among the Round-headed Cabbages, the Full Heads and the Hollow ‘Heads; but as this character is far from being constant, it may be looked upon rather as an accident than as a variety in the species. The flowers in this race are generally yellow, but now and then are white in different varieties. Fifth Race. BRAssicA OLERACEA CAULO-RAPA. Chou-rave. Turnip Cabbage. This race is easily distinguished by the swelling of the stalk in the upper part, which forms a kind of round fleshy head on the end of the stem on which the leaves are produced ; this swollen part is usually employed for culinary purposes; the comparative thinness of the leaves appears to be also a con- stant character in this kind. M. Sageret has assured me, that many of the hybrids he had formed from various kinds of Cabbages had the same swelled stalk as the Chou-rave, and I should not be surprised to find among the many different Choux-raves cultivated in gardens, varieties proceeding trom other races of Cabbages. The common Chou-rave and the Chou-navet are often con- founded together, each name being indifferently given to both in most of the French provinces; they are, however, distinct kinds. ‘The leaves of the Chou-rave are ectly smooth, those of the Chou-navet hispid or hairy. e Chou-rave is swelled only at the head of the stem; in the Chou-navet, on the contrary, it is the root that swells, the stem inclining to Vol. 61. Xo. 298. Feb. 1823. N diminish 98 M. De Candolle on the different Species diminish where that of the Chou-rave enlarges. Caspar Bauhin and Linnzeus* designate this race by the name of Brassica gongylodes; but I have thought proper to preserve that of Caulo-rapa; first, as it is more ancient, having been used by Lobel and Camerarius+, and secondly, as it recalls the com- mon name by which it is generally known throughout Europe; and thirdly, as that of yoyyvas employed by Theophrastus} seems rather to belong to the Chou-navet than to this plant. I distinguish two principal varieties of Chou-rave§, or Tur- nip Cabbage; Ist, the Chou-rave commun, communis (Com- mon Turnip Cabbage), its leaves being neither fringed nor curled, but perfectly smooth and even; of this the gardeners have two sub-varieties, known by their colour, viz. the Chou- rave blanc, alba (White Turnip Cabbage), the leaves of which are of a greenish white, and the swelled and fleshy part of the stem still whiter, it is usually called Chou de Siam. 2d. The Chou-rave violet, purpurascens (Purple Turnip Cabbage), so named from the swelled part, and footstalk being purple or red. These sub-varieties, however, are scarcely distinguish- able, the White Chou-rave having for the most part a purple tint |. The second variety, which I call Chou-rave crépu, crispa, has curled and fringed leaves, and is cultivated at Naples under the name of Pavonazza. I agree with M. Vil- morin in looking upon this Cabbage as a degeneration of the fringed Cavalier, to which it bears the same relation as the common Chou-rave does to the common Cavalier, except that the swelling in the stalk is less constant in this variety, and more oval than round. ‘The French and Italians must be at- tentive not to confound the plant vulgarly called Chou-rave with the one so named by the botanists, and written without a hyphen between the words; the first is the Brassica oleracea Caulo-rapa, which I have just described; the second the Bras- sica’ Rapa, which I shall mention hereafter. Sixth Race. BRassicA OLERACEA BOTRYTIS. Chou Botrytis. Flowering Cabbage. The race to which, in order to avoid confusion, I am obliged * C. Bauhin. Pinax, page 111. Linnzi Sp. Pl. edit. 2. vol. ii. page 932, ‘Lobel, Adv. pp. 99, 92.. Camerarii Epist. 251. Theophrasti Hist. lib. 7. cap. 4. The Chou-rave is cultivated in the gardens of Germany under the name of Kohl-rabi, and is also much used as an esculent vegetable at the Cape of Good Hope and in the East Indies, where it is called Anol-Kohl. ‘ || The French have a third sub-variety, which they call Chow-rave nain hatif, Dwarf early Turnip Cabbage. It has smaller and fewer leaves, and is ready for use sooner than either of the other sub-varieties. Sce the Boz Jardinier for 1821, page 146.—Sec. ' ‘ to of the Genus Brassica. 99 to give the Latin name, has a very peculiar organization, the bunches of flowers, instead of being loosely spread into a pyramidal form, like those of a panicle, are close from their basis, and form a kind of regular corymb; to which is added a second character that may be considered as a natural con- sequence of the first; the pedicles, from being tightly kept together before their time of blossom, lose their shape, grow fleshy from adhering to each other, and in general produce nothing but the rudiments of abortive flowers; the fleshy pe- dicles are in general cut for use before the opening of the flowers, so that, contrary to all other varieties, where the leaves and stalk are alone taken for culinary purposes, in this, the floral footstalk is the only part eaten. This race comprehends two varieties, viz. the Cauliflowers and the Broccolis. 1st, The Brassica cauliflora, Choufleur (Cauliflower), has generally a short stem, with white ribbed oblong leaves; the pedicles uniting at the head of the primary branches into thick, short, irregular bundles, in the shape of a corymb: it appears. to be a degeneration of the Brassica oleracea costata, Chou @ grosses cotes. ‘The French gardeners have three sub-varieties of the Cauliflower, Ze dur, the hard, also called English Cau- liflower, Le semi dur, the semi-hard, and Le tendre, the soft or tender, which is most forward in growth. These sub- varieties, founded on different degrees of firmness of the foot- stalk, are far from offering a constant character, and seem principally to depend on the nature of the ground, and in- fluence of the climate. ‘The second variety is the Brassica cymosa, Broccoli; its stem is more elevated, the leaf-nerves less prominent, the pedicles altogether less thick and close, they are also longer, so that on becoming fleshy, they resem- ble in shape the young shoots of Asparagus; hence the name of Asparagoides, given by the ancient botanists to the Broccoli. The Broccoli seems to be a degeneration of some variety of Cavalier Cabbage. It is divisible into two sub-varieties: 1st, The common or white Broccoli; 2d, The purple or Maltese Broccoli; and each of these are again divided into several kinds by the practical aa ai o be continued.]} XXIII. On different Modes of working Coals, and of ventilat~ ing the Works. By Mr. Joun Farry, Mineral Surveyor. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal, ’ : ‘HE subject, on which “ A Friend to the Pitmen” has ad- dressed you, from Alnwick, in Northumberland, in p. 30 of your January Number, is not quite so new to your pages, Ng as 100 = Mr. Farey on different Modes of working Coals, as that gentleman appears to imagine; nor is the mode of working Coals, which he denominates “* Way-going work,” either any late invention, or by any means so limited in use, as to be at this time practised, at less than 30 Colleries in all England, as is erroneously asserted. In my “ Mineral and Agricultural Report on Derbyshire,” vol. i. pages 188, 344, &c. published in 1811, this very im- proved method of working Coals, was, as far as I know, for the first time noticed in any publication: it is therein briefly described, not as any recent invention, but as the mode in which, from time immemorial, several hundred Collieries had been, and continued to be worked, in Derbyshire and in Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire adjoining, under the name of ** the long-way of working *.” OF ' Ever since I was, in 1807, first witness to the wonderful saving of Coals, and to the great security to the Workmen, as well from local falls of the Roof, as from explosive or choaking Damps, which this mode of working effects, besides its nu- merous other advantages, (see vol. iii. pp. 348 and 399, &c. of my Derbyshire Report) I have neglected no opportunity of recommending its adoption+, wherever the wasteful and dan- gerous mode of “ Pillar-work” prevailed: In the spring of 1817, p. 60 of your 49th volume, I made this recommendation to the Coal-Owners and Agents of the Tyne and Wear Di- strictt, and mentioned a case (that of Sherrifhail Colliery in * This excellent mode of working, was in 1776 transferred to the Coal- works of the Carron Iron Furnaces, in Stirlingshire, Scotland ; but the pro- visions of a Lease, stipulating for stout “Pillars of Coal” to be left, were for some years, there, absurdly interposed to suspend its use: since which period, it has spread, partially, into most of the British Coal-fields ; but as yet, without becoming any where else so general, as in and near to Derby- shire, I believe. In 1814 Mr. Richard Griffith jun., in his “Report on the Leinster Coal- district,” in Ireland, p. 85, calls this * the broad-method of working ;” and speaks of it as a Yorkshire practice, with “ shallow and thin beds of Coal ;” instead of describing it as the established and general practice, with almost all their wrought seams, in the great Coal-field which extends thence southward into Nottinghamshire, as above mentioned, + Chesterfield (see Derb. Rep. iii. p. 655) and its vicinity, I have long considered, as one of the best situations for observing and studying this Mode, and haye, professionally, referred the managing Agents, of a score or more Coal-awners, my Employers in Great Britain, to this spot, for prac- Fe information, preparatory to introducing the practice in other Coal- elds. : t Mr. Holmes, in his “Treatise on the Coal-Mines of Durham, and Northumberland,” published a few months earlier, page 89, represents Mr. James Ryan, as having proposed this, as his own new method of working, calculated to save Coals and perfect ventilation; but it does not appear, that the “ Society of Arts,” admitted this claim of Mr. R. either in the pamphlet they issued, or in their 34th volume of Transactions, subsequently published, Dalkeith, and of ventilating Coal Works. 101 Dalkeith, Midlothian, Scotland) wherein “ the money pro- duce per acre from the same Seams, had nearly been doubled, by the change to the Derbyshire or long-way of working :” it would seem, however, from your Alnwick Correspondent’s statement in p. 30, that little success has yet attended the recommendation. Now, perhaps, when the rage for “ Safety-Lamps,” as the means of bolstering-up the vicious system of working, against which I have often addressed your Readers, and those of some other periodical Works, has had time to subside; when a be- ginning has been made, as mentioned in p. 31, and your zez- lous Correspondent has, upon the spot, undertaken to advc- cate and enforce the matter, I begin to have some hopes of seeing a change gradually effected. In the mean time, I should feel much obliged, by seeing the following particulars or any of them stated in your pages; viz. what are the dimensions of the Measure, which your Correspondent calls a Boll? and whether it is heaped? How many pounds does a Boll of Coals weigh ?, in average and in extreme cases. How many superficial square yards constitute the Darg ? which he men- tions: probably the Daugh, of the 2nd Report on Weights and Measures, September 1820, means the same thing?; but it is there spoken of, as an uncertain Scotch Measure of Land. The Names and Situations, and as many particulars as he can and may be willing to furnish, of the Collieries, in or near to Northumberland, where the “ way-going” method may have come into use?; explaining, if he can, which are their several Seams (like Cuper’s-eye, Belford and Bulman Mains) with reference to the numbered Strata, in the * Section of the Strata,” lately published by Mr. Westgarth Forster ?. I must agree with your Correspondent in thinking, that mechanical means are inadequate, to the effectual ventilation of large Coal-Works on the “ Pillar” plan, and that where the Derbyshire or “ long-way” is adopted, such means are rarely wanted, and only for temporary purposes, whilst pre- paring or fitting the Works; when the simple “ Ventilator,” which Mr. John Taylor has described to the “Society of Arts,” (see their 28th volume, p.219) might occasionally be very useful. I am yours, &e. Howland-street, Feb. 5, 1823. Joun Faney. XXIV. On [ 102 ] XXIV. On the Nomenclature of the Cornish Rocks. By JOHN Hawkins, Esq. F.R.S. Sc. Honorary Member of the Society.* I TRUST that I shall not incur a charge of presumption, if, in this stage of our existence as a scientifical body, I point out to my colleagues the necessity of a correct nomen-. clature. I allude to the very general application of foreign terms to our native rocks and minerals, in which mistakes are, easily committed, that are injurious in their consequences to. the progress of geology. In pursuing this fascinating science in a country which has so many claims to our attention, it is natural that we should look, either for the correction or the confirmation of our ob- servations, to our predecessors in this career, particularly the. Germans. By a comparison of our own observations with. those which have been published by these enlightened foreign- ers, we shall be enabled to ascertain how far any of the phz- nomena, which have engaged our attention, are peculiar to this country; what circumstances of any interest may have been overlooked by us, or what Jinks of the great chain of na-., ture are here wanting: and thus, in a science where the ex- perience of one observer can accomplish so little, and that little by such slow degrees, the united labours of Europe may be made subservient to our instruction. This acquaintance however with the observations and the, discoveries of our predecessors cannot be obtained without some difficulty, whether it be in the study of a foreign idiom, or in the correct application of the synonyms of those mineral bodies, which are the objects of our examination; for it is. mortifying to be obliged to confess, that except in the school of Freyberg, no serious or very successful attempts have been made to settle the language of geology. It is therefore fortunate for this science, that so many of the writers who have acquired any celebrity in it, have been educated in this school, and consequently have been led to adopt the same terminology. Nor is it less fortunate for the advancement of this science, that Saxony, which has been the principal theatre of their observations, is, of all countries, that which presents the greatest variety of interesting geological. phzenomena. And here I cannot forbear to,express the sense which I feel, of the obligations which I owe, in common with so many others, to the father of this school, the celebrated Werner. This man seems to have been born at that particular period in * From the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, yol, ii, 1822. the: On the Nomenclature of the Cornish Rocks, 108 the history of a science, when a genius like his was most wanted to give strength and consistency to its advances. It was he who first methodized and depurated the labours of his prede- cessors, created a new mineralogical language, taught a more natural method of observing, and pointed out a proper divi- sion of labour in these pursuits. Placed at an active period of life in the mining and minera- logical chair of Freyberg, and in the very centre of the Saxon mines, those abundant sources of geological instruction; he had all the means of effecting whatever his zeal or his genius suggested. ‘The eloquence of his delivery, his scientific pre- cision, his enlarged conception of things, his attention to the wants of his hearers, soon drew around him pupils from all the countries of Europe, and made Freyberg the centre of in- formation in all that relates either to the art of mining, or to the science of mineralogy. It was frequented by the natives of every part of Germany, (with the exception of the Austrian states, which had a school of their own,) most of whom were deputed by their respective Governments to perfect their mining education there. At the academy of Freyberg were as- sembled Russians from the furthest part of Siberia, Swedes and Norwegians, Poles, Frenchmen, Italians, Spaniards; and in the year 1793 I found there two Brazilians. When the Spanish Government in 1786 judged it advisable to intro- duce the improved process of amalgamation into the countries of South America, most of the young mining proficients, who were selected for that purpose, were the pupils of Werner, and my fellow students. : From these causes has arisen that general diffusion of the mineralogical language and method of Saxony, which, by giving such an uniform direction to geological mquiries, has so much conduced to the advancement of this science in the last thirty years; and hence it is, that the name of Werner is become so well known in every region of the globe, from the mines of Siberia to those of Peru and Mexico. If I should be asked in what particular department of sci- ence I feel most partial to the merits of my instructor, I would point out that of geology. It is here that I think them pre- eminent. His accurate mode of investigation, the facilities which he enjoyed for personal observation, and the numerous opportunities which presented themselves for collecting infor- mation through others, enabled him to classify and to arran all the known strata of the earth, and to unfold, as it were, the order of nature in their formation. The language of his country was, I think, particularly fa- vourable to these views. It is rich in words both simple and compound, a 104 Mr. Hawkins on the Nomenclature compound ; and what the English (if they adopt not the Latin idiom) find so necessary to.express by a circumlocution, the Germans very readily and significantly render by a compound word of their own. Can we justly blame Werner, if, in respect to the nomen- clature of natural bodies, he adopted the terms that were in common use? His choice, as is often the case in matters of this nature, was determined by a balance of inconyeniencies: Moreover, the very general diffusion of mining ideas through- out that part of the continent, had already created a language which, although rude, and even barbarous, and to a certain degree variable in its application, comprehended nevertheless most of the new objects of geological interest. Its adoption therefore was calculated to accelerate the advancement of this new science in Germany, from whence, in the natural course of things, it found its way to other countries, which have since admitted it to all the rights of naturalization. bey It is the correct application of these terms of foreign origin, whenever it may be necessary to make use of them, that I now venture torecommend to our Society. It is a key which will certainly open to us a great treasure of information, and give an additional value to whatever we may choose to com- municate. : . I am induced to be the more explicit on this subject, by the use which has lately been made of the term grey-wacke. This term, so well known in the dialect of the Saxon miners, has been applied to a rock-formation, which occurs in some parts of Germany, where it constitutes the greater portion of that group of mountains known by the name of the Hartz Forest. : Werner, who had the means of making himself perfectly acquainted with the natural history of this rock, has classed it among those which he supposes to have been deposited during the passage or transition of the earth from its chaotic to its habitable state. It is considered as the most important of these transition rocks; for with it, to use the language of Jame- son, commences a new geognostic period, namely, that of me- chanical depositions. ‘The characters of the mass do in fact justify, to a certain degree, such an inference; for its coarser grained varieties are visibly composed of an aggregation of particles of quartz and hornslate; which particles have the appearance of having been somewhat rounded by attrition, and are cemented together by the matter of argillaceous slate. It would have been more consistent with the notion of its derivative origin, had every definition of this rock-formation been confined within these limits: instead of which we find it extended of the Cornish Rocks. 105 extended by later geologists, through all the regular grada- tions observable in the grain of the mass, to argillaceous slate, which has never been suspected of being derivative; and after an unavailing attempt to maintain the line of distinction be- tween these two rock-formations, by some external characters, which are not sufficiently constant to be of any importance, it is now pretty generally acknowledged that the terms grey- wacke slate and argillaceous slate are convertible, it being im- possible, without the aid of petrifactions, to ascertain where the one ends and the other begins. A dilemma so unfortunate as this is, ought to have sug- gested the probability of some error in the process of reason- ing upon which these distinctions are founded, and might have sooner led to its correction; for, as the priority of formation was confessedly due to that slate which contained no petrifac- tions, it was natural to conclude that the order of transition, if there were any, would be conformable with the march of nature. It is surprising, as the derivative origin of the grey- wacke rests so much upon this view of the subject, that there should ever have been any other opinion in respect to this or- der, and that the grey-wacke rock, instead of terminating the for- mation of argillaceous slate, should have been regarded as its archetype, or the point from which it proceeded. So general, nevertheless, has been this misconception, that the terms grey- wacke and grey-wacke slate have been applied, without re- serve, to strata which exhibit in a very imperfect manner, if at-all, the derivative character, and which are altogether de- stitute either of petrifactions or of the limestone beds containing them ;—in short, to a primitive rock, in no respect whatever differing from our argillaceous slate: the consequence of which js, that this latter and more ancient denomination is now, in the literal sense of the word, losing ground, and gradually be- coming obsolete. It does not appear that Werner had ever contemplated this abuse of a denomination, which the progress of discovery, at the period when he first adopted it, seemed in his opinion to justify. Struck with the derivative nature of this rock, and the organic remains which were occasionally observed in the mass, he found it expedient to separate it in his earliest syste- matical arrangement, even from the argillaceous slate into which he had traced its. transition, and with which it alter- nated. Accordingly, in the short or elementary classification of mountain rocks (gebirgs-arten) which he published in the year 1787, the grey-wacke is placed among the derivative rocks at the head of the secondary class, but no mention is Vol. 61. No. 298. Ich. 1825. O made 106 Mr. Hawkins ‘on the Nomenclature made of grey-wacke slate; so little was he then dispdsed to include in this new denomination, any thing which possessed not the true derivative character. The same arrangement subsisted at the period of my second visit to Freyberg in 1793; but on my return thither in the year 1798, I found that some very important changes had taken place in the order of the Wernerian arrangements; the class of transition rocks having been introduced between the primitive and the secondary; at the head of which new class, was placed that argillaceous slate, which had been observed to contain organic remains; the true grey-wacke being here stationed at the end of the series. The primitive sort of argillaceous slate, on the other hand, still kept its place in the system of arrangement, next to micaceous slate. Admitting, as Werner did, that nature had repeated the same operations at various intervals, there was nothing in this separation of the argillaceous slate into two distinct classes, which could be deemed unscientific. And here I could have wished, that the nomenclature, as well as the arrangement of these rocks, had remained sta- tionary, or at least subjected to such limitations as would have obviated all that confusion which has since arisen. ‘The chief cause of this evil, I suspect to lie in our ignorance of the true nature of grey-wacke, It has been generally considered as a derivative rock, and this opinion is necessarily connected with the notion of a previous disintegration of strata of argillaceous slate, and the removal or reunion of their fragments. But, if this had been the case, nature unquestionably would have left ‘a bold line of distinction between strata, the origin of which had been so essentially different; whereas no such line exists, the transition of one rock into the other being insensible, This shows that both owe their origin to the same mode of deposition, the nature of which has been apparently both che- mical and mechanical, without being derzvative; except in those cases, where the fragments of one bed are found inclosed in another. By our adoption of this hypothesis, we should indeed exclude grey-wacke, as a distinct rock-formation, and admit it only as a subordinate one, which may have some in- conveniences, although none that I know of, that can be com- pared with those arising from its present station in the system; where it seems to be perpetually struggling not so much for existence, as for exclusive dominion. As it appears, therefore, that the two rocks here mentioned cannot be separated in any system of geology, without some violence to nature; would it not be advisable to include both under the general denomination of the older; distinguishing the primitiye of the Cornish Rocks. 107 primitive sort of argillaceous slate, from that which is of more recent origin; and considering the true grey-wacke as apper- taining to the latter? Being desirous of ascertaining the synonyms of the rocks which constitute the principal strata of Cornwall, I transmitted to Mr. Werner in the year 1793 a well chosen collection of specimens of some of their varieties; and in the autumn of the same year, I had the satisfaction of hearing his decision upon them. No doubt was expressed of the nature of our metalliferous rock, the Aillas. It was pronounced to be a ge~ nuine ¢hon-schiefer, or argillaceous slate, in no respect differing from that which occurs in Saxony. As the belts of iron-stone which encircle the granitical hills in Cornwall had very early engaged my attention, I felt par- ticularly anxious to submit some specimens of this interesting rock-formation to the examination of such an experienced ob- server. ‘Those taken from the neighbourhood of Penzance were, after a rigid scrutiny, pronounced to be hornblende- rock intimately mixed with the constituent mass of argil- laceous slate, and in part genuine hornblende-slate. Some specimens of iron-stone from Penpillic and Corrogat in Tre- wardreth parish, which I procured from. the late Mr, Rash- leigh of Menabilly, were characterized by Werner as follows: ‘This rock is an intimate mixture of hornblende and dense or compact felspar, in which a little quartz may be occasionally perceived. Some specimens bear a very near affinity to the horn-schiefer of the Swedes.” To the judgement of the same accurate observer I submitted various specimens of our Cornish elvan; and the result of their examination was expressed in the following words: “ ‘The globules in the Chyanoweth elvan consist of quartz and mica intimately mixed. This, together with the elvan from Pe- denavonder in Sithney, perfectly resembles the substance of the granitical veins near Kibenstock and Johangeorgenstadt, and is in fact a fine grained variety of granite. ‘The elvan from Portkellis-Bal, and Huel Whidden in Breage, is the same, with this difference only, that the felspar is dissolved into porcelain earth. The elvan from Polgooth is an argillaceous porphyry, which in the lowest levels of the course or channel, approximates to the same fine grained granite which composes the veins at Eibenstock, ‘The Pentuan stone is common por- phyry.” I shall now lay before the Society some thoughts and re- flections that have naturally arisen during the consideration of this subject. O2 There 108 Mr. Hawkins on the Nomenclature of the Cornish Rocks. There are ‘evidently numerous varieties of the Cornish elvan, in some of which may be traced the transition from porphyry into granite. The mass contains, moreover, in a state of dispersion, many extraneous crystallized substances, and is intersected by veins of different minerals, which veins are of contemporaneous formation. The circumstances under which the elvan occurs, as we learn from the instructive re- port of Mr. Carne, are in many respects singular, and, inas- much as they are connected with the natural history of our tin and copper lodes, highly important. We have still, however, but an imperfect knowledge of these, and I trust that those mem- bers of our Society, who may have opportunities for collecting farther information, will not neglect to avail themselves of them. By way of hint to assist their inquiries, I beg leave to mention, that in addition to the many extraneous substances which have been observed in the elvan, may be placed the tourmaline which I found in a quarry of this rock between Grampound and St. Austle. I shall moreover take this op- portunity of recording a very old observation of my own, which throws some light, imperfect as it is, on the mode of its for- mation. I allude to a smooth spherical mass of elvan, about the size of a large cannon-ball, which I once found imbedded in a solid block of the same rock. This ball of elvan appeared to have acquired its shape by long attrition, before it became inclosed in a fresh deposition of the same mass. I shail conclude with recommending a more accurate dis- crimination of all the varieties of our granite, and an inquiry into their relative situation. In an attempt which I once made to express by colours on Martyn’s map, the different strata of the county, I perceived that the granite hills formed several distinct and insulated groups of a circular form. Each of these in my opinion deserves a particular examination, with a view to the decision of a question of no small importance, whether these insulated portions of granite are, strictly speak- ing, of homogeneous formation. ‘That variety of granite, which, besides the three constituent parts of the mass, in their usual relative proportion, contains large perfect crystals of felspar in a state of dispersion, appears to me to be peculiar to the west of England, although even there not of general oc- currence. The Dartmoor granite is of this kind; likewise that of St. Just, Sancreed, Sennen, St. Levan, Buryan, Paul, Ma- dron, and.Gulval. Should the remaining parishes of the peninsula westward of Penzance be composed of it, we must necessarily draw this inference, that the strata which constitute the granitical formation in Devon and Cornwall, belong to two The Rev. S. Greatheed on Tin. 109 two or three different periods; that is to say, they indicate as many pauses in their deposition, which allowed perhaps of some modification of temperature, and either a quicker or a slower passage from a solvent state to that of a crystallized deposition. XXV. On the Knowledge and Commerce of Tin among An- cient Nations. By the Rev. SamuEL GREATHEED*. OF the commerce by which Britain has been raised to its present state of eminence, no article can vie for ancient celebrity with that of Tin. Our country was known by the name of Cassiterides, or the Tin Islands, by nations that were actually ignorant of its situation. This, indeed, was carefully secreted by its Phoenician visitors, at the same time that they exaggerated its productions. Hence ancient writers, from Herodotus to the elder Pliny, in reference to these subjects, were involved in uncertainty and error; and it has become difficult, not only to reconcile their various statements, but even to ascertain, in some instances, their meaning. Could these objects, however, be attained, there still remain facts, for which it is not more easy to account. Metallurgy, perhaps, above every other useful art, has been remarkable, at all times, for its mysteries; and to ancient naturalists, the mysteries of tix seem to have been inscrutable. No metal of equal utility is zow, I apprehend, to be found in so few countries; and most of these were then unknown to the more civilized nations, and the rest were at remote di- stances from them. Yet tin is named among other metals, by Moses, sixteen centuries before the Christian era; and Homer, who wrote eight centuries later, represents it to have been used at the siege of Troy, apparently in the eleventh century before Christ. The first population of Britain will not rea- sonably admit of being assigned to an earlier date; and the Phoenicians seem to have first extended their navigation to the Atlantic Ocean about the same time. Another century, or more, may naturally be allowed for them to penetrate so far northward as Britain, and to obtain from its south-western extremity, and the adjacent islands, this celebrated article of their commerce. So incommunicative, however, were they, concerning the original deposit of the treasure, that Herodotus (inquisitive and indefatigable as he demonstrates himself’ to have been) could only learn, 400 years after Homer, that tin * From the Transactions of the Roya! Geological Society of Cornwall, vol. ii, 1822, was 110 Rev. S. Greatheed on the Knowledge and Commerce was procured from some western islands, the situation of which was unknown. From that date to the Christian era, the successive Greek writers, Aristotle, Posidonius, Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, and Strabo, manifest clearer information. They knew that tin was obtained from the northern confines of Spain and Lusitania; and likewise from Britain, over-land through Gaul; but they mostly distinguish the latter country from the Cassiterides, without assigning the situation of those islands. Roman writers, even to a later date, discover less information, and more incredulity, on the subject. Pliny gives the name of Pluwmbum candidum to the Cassiteron, or ‘Tin, of the Greeks; and scouts, as fictions, the reports that it had ever been procured from islands in the Atlantic Ocean, or any where but from Spain and Lusitania. ‘The name of Stannum, together with the proper uses of tin, he attributes to a metal which he describes as found intermixed with silver and Plum- bum nigrum (or Lead*). With the latter metal, he repre- sents Britain peculiarly to have abounded; but he does not intimate, that either Stannum or Plumbum candidum (or al- bum) had ever been found there. Yet Julius Cesar, above a century earlier, had said, Nascitur ibi plumbum album+. _ If, however, he meant 77%, his information was erroneous ; for he represents it as a production, not of the maritime, but the zn- land part of Britain; apparently confounding it with our in- terior lead mmes. Of these, Pliny seems to have been better informed; the Romans having then gained possession of Der- byshire: but of British tin, he appears to have been wholly ignorant; Cornwall being unconquered, probably, till the reion of Antoninus; and the Romans being, of all ancient po- lished nations, the least commercial. The Latin term Stannum, appears to have been adopted from the ancient Cornish, Stean, or the Welsh Ystaen; for which, Plwm gwynn (synonymous with Plumbum album) is sometimes used. Another term, Alcam (from Can signifying bright), is, however, always used for Tin, in the Welsh Bible; perhaps, from a doubt whether that metal was meant. ‘The expressions, “ Thy silver is become dross,—I will purge away thy dross, and take away all thy tint,” accord better with the Stannum, than with the Plumbum candidum, of Pliny. The Hebrew term Bedzl, translated Tin, likewise signifies, “ that which is separated;” and the Greek translators (who every where else render it cassiteros, or tin) here translate it meta- phorically, “ the wicked.” That the prophet Ezekiel meant proper tin, appears, from his enumeration of it with silver, * Nat. Hist. lib. xxxiii, cap. 16, 17. + Bell. Gall. vx 10, $ Isaiah, i, 22, 25. . iron, of Tin among the ancient Nations. 111 iron, and lead, as articles of commerce which the Phcenicians obtained from Tarshish, or Tartessus, in Spain*: but he else- where describes it (with Isaiah) as if separated, by fusion, from silver; in common, however, with iron, lead, and even brass, or copper+; between the last of which, neither the He- brews, Greeks, nor Romans, used any name of distinction ; Cuprum being formed from As Cyprium, or Cyprian Brass. - Moses mentions Tin, with Gold, Silver, Brass, Iron and Lead, as part of the spoils of the Midianites +; who had long been principal carriers of Oriental merchandize§, and were consequently very rich in precious metals ||. Whatever, there- fore, is to be understood by Tin, when first mentioned in the sacred history, it was more likely to have been procured from the East, than from the West, by the Midianites, long be‘ore Britain could probably be inhabited, or even the Phoenicians haye passed into the Atlantic Ocean. The East Indies might have been peopled six or seven centuries before; and ‘Tin, which is found abundantly at Banca, and in Siam, might have passed, by barter, through Hindostan and Persia, into the hands of the roving Midianites. The Greeks might, in Homer’s time, be supplied by the Pheenicians, with tin, from the Spanish mines. ‘The only use of it in the Trojan war, was that which Vulcan made to em- bellish the arms of Achilles; and for this he was more likely to be indebted to poetical invention, than to mercantile enter- prise. When the Pheenicians, from 'Tartessus and Carthage, began to obtain tin from Britain, they might choose to report that all which they sold came from so remote and unknown a country (the course to which they laboured to conceal), rather than from any part of Spain, where other nations could more easily have penetrated. When that country was subdued, and Carthage destroyed, by the Romans, in the second cen- tury before Christ, their traffic ceased, and the Lusitanian mines fell into the power of the conquerors; but the Phocean merchants of Marseilles obtained British tin from the depét of St. Michael’s Mount; whence it was fetched in boats to the opposite coast of Gaul, carried on horses to the upper Rhone, and navigated down that river. (Diod. Sic. lib. v. c. 9.) When the Romans conquered Gaul, and invaded Britain, the natives of both countries seem to have abandoned a commerce, which could only have enriched their oppressors, and have aug- mented their cupidity; and it was consigned to oblivion, till the entire conquest of South Britain detected the unsuspected treasures of Cornwall. * Ezekiel, xxvii. 12. + Ezekiel, xx. 18. {+ Numbers, xxxi, 22. § Genesis, xxxvii, 25, 28. || Judges, viii, 24, 26. Such 112 Mr. W. Swainson on Iridina, Such appears to me to be the most natural development of the confused and partly contradictory accounts, which the an- cients have bequeathed to us, of their knowledge and acquisi- tion of tin. XXVI. Remarks on Iridina, a Genus of Fresh-water Bivalve Shells ; with the Specific Characters of three Species. By Wiutiiam Swainson, Esq. .RS. FLAS. &c.* NEITHER Linneus nor any of his followers appear to have been acquainted with the shell, on which Lamarck has founded the genus Jridina ; a fresh-water bivalve of great rarity, and supposed to be a native of South America. Only one species being known to that celebrated naturalist, his ac- count of it is unaccompanied by any specific character; an- other has been figured by Mr. Sowerby, under the name of I. elongata, but without any definition. Having recently met with a third species, I now beg to offer such specific characters for all three, as may serve to distinguish them in the system; subjoining at the same time a modification of the generic cha- racters as defined by Lamarck. 1. Zrzdina (Familia Nazada). Testa eequivalvis, ineequilatera, transversa; umbonibus decor- ticatis. Cardo longus, linearis, per longitudinem tuberculosus; subcrenatus: tuberculis inzequalibus crebris; ligamentum ex- ternum, marginale. Shell equivalve, the sides unequal, transverse; umbones de- corticated. Hinge-plate long, linear, broken into obtuse, crenated, unequal, erowded tubercles. _ Ligament external and marginal. Obs.—The animal of this genus is unknown; but, judging from the shell, its situation in the system will be intermediate between Unio and Anodon: the brilliancy of the pearly in- terior of the valves is highly beautiful. Species.—1. Iridina striata. I. testa transversim oblonga, anticé lata, extremitate utra- que striis radiatis ornata ; margine basali sinuato. Shell transversely oblong, anteriorly broad, with radiated striz at each extremity; basal margin sinuated. Jridina ex- otica. Lam. Syst. vol. vi. p. 89. Ency. Meth. pl. 204. (bis.) Sih: alti ; This grand and excessively rare shell, I only know from the description of Lamarck, and the figure above quoted; neither am I aware that it exists in any collection in this coun- * Communicated by the Author. try. a Genus of Fresh-water Bivalve Shells, §c. 113 try. Judging from the figure, the breadth of the shell is rather more ‘than six inches ;‘its length, from the umbones to the basal margin, two and a quarter ; and at the anterior end two and a half:’ from the umbones div ree two sets of radiat- ing strise crossing both the extremities; but whether these strize are elevated or depressed is uncertain; the basal margin is sinuated, or gradually contracted, in the middle: The specific name of exotica, given by Lamarck to this species, being applicable to all that are known, I have pro- posed that of striata as descriptive of its peculiar character. 2. Iridina elongata. I. testa leevi, transversim oblonga, anticé lati; margine basali integro ; umbonibus subretusis. Shell smooth, transversely oblong, anteriorly broad; basal margin entire; umbones subretuse.—Z. elongata. Sowerby’s Genera. Not having myself examined this shell, I can only judge of its characters from the figure given by Mr. Sowerby, and to which no description is. subjoined. It appears. perfectly smooth, of a greenish olive colour, and the umbones less. pro- minent than the last: the basal margin also is not sinuated ; and the size somewhat smaller. ‘This shell is now im the pos- session of the Rev. Dr. Goodall 3. Iridina ovata. I. testa levi, transversim ovata ; umbonibus prominentibus, vix mediis. $45 Shell’ smooth, transversely oval; umbones prominent and nearly medial. One perfect valve of this excessively rare shell has recently come to my hands, and is remarkably distinct from the two pre- ceding. Its form is short and oval; the umbones very pro- minent, and nearly placed on the middle of the’ hinge mar- gin. The colour dark-brown tinged with greenish, and enl- tirely smooth. There is one valve of a species belonging to this genus in the British Museum ; it is polished, and the margin appears to have been cut; the name attached to it is Iridina exotica; that it is not the Jridina exotica of Lamarck, is too obvious to require argument. If it be a valve of any of the’species here enumerated, it most probably is one belonging to the species last described; but, from its imperfect state, the ques- tion cannot positively ‘be decided. * Vol: 61. No. 298. ‘Feb. 1823. Pp XXVIIL. Re- hy Addo J XXVIII. Report made to the Academy of Sciences on a Paper of M. F.tourens, entitled ‘ Determination of the Properties of the Nervous System, or Physical Researches concerning Lrritability and Sensibility.” By M. G. Cuvier. "BE Academy has directed MM. Portal, Berthollet, Pinel, Duméril, and myself, to give an account of a paper of M. Flourens, entitled ‘* Determination of the Properties of the Nervous System, or Physical Researches concerning Irri- tability and Sensibility.” This paper may be considered under three aspects; the ex- periments made by the author, the consequences he derives from those experiments, and the language in which he ex- presses them. He has repeated before us his principal ex- periments, and they appeared to us exact. We have followed his arguments with attention, and the greater number of them seem to us just; but the language he has employed differs in some important points from that generally received, and may give occasion to objections and to misunderstandings, if we do not endeavour at once to rectify it. It is indeed from a desire to be useful to the author, by giving the results of his experi- ments with more clearness, that we shall begin this Report with some criticisms of his nomenclature. When a nerve is pinched or pierced, the muscles to which it is distributed contract with more or less force, and at the same time the animal feels pain more or less intense. When a nerve is separated from the rest of the nervous system by @ ligature or by section, and it is pinched or pierced in the same manner above the ligature or section, contractions in the muscle are again produced; but the animal no longer feels pain; it loses at the same time the power of commanding those con- tractions of the muscle which that nerve animates. These facts have been known ever since attention has been given to physiological experiments. Herophilus and Erasistratus de- monstrated them; Galen left them in writing, and it is upon them that this fundamental proposition rests, that the nerves are organs by which the animal receives sensations and exercises: voluntary motions. A more minute attention to the movements which take place m1 the animal body, has also discovered that it is not by me- chanical contractility that the nerve causes the muscles to con- tract. On the contrary, the nerve, during this action, re- mains perfectly motionless ; it is not even necessary to employ its intervention. A prick, an immediate irritation upon the muscle, causes it to contract; this effect is visible for some time even upon a muscle of which the nerve has been divided ;— even upon a muscle detached from the body. the Ss. M. Flourens on the Nervous System. 115 This property, to which Glisson and Frederic Hoffman had already directed the attention of observers, became towards the middle of the eighteenth century, the object of the numerous experiments of Haller, and was known under the name of Jr- ritability. These experiments showed that this property of forcibly contracting, either from immediate irritation, or in consequence of the irritation of the nerve, exists in the muscular fibres; and that it exists in no other element of the animal body. Their importance excited a lively interest; the disciples of this great physiologist repeated them, and indeed exaggerated their effects. As the irritability is not in proportion to the size of the nerves which are distributed to each muscle, and as it was then believed that there existed muscular parts entirely or almost entirely devoid of nerves; some physiologists concluded that this property belongs to the fibre itself, independently of its con- nexion with the nerve; that the nerve may be one of the irri- tating agents, but that the other irritants would act without it. It would, however, be wrong positively to attribute this opi- nion to Haller himself. Many passages in his writings show very distinctly that he was by no means ignorant of the co- operation of the nerve in the phenomena of irritability; and the more these phenomena are studied, the stronger will be the conviction of that cooperation. Now that the nerves of all the muscular parts are known, that no muscular fibre can be conceived which has not some connexion with a nervous filament, nobody would venture to maintain that this nervous filament remains passive during the contraction. The only thing incontestably proved, is, that the contraction may take place independently of all sensation in the animal, and of all volition which that sensation may have produced. Now this latter proposition, which Haller first placed in a clear light, and the natural application of it which he made to involuntary motions, such as those of the heart and viscera, completely overturned a physiological system long in vogue, I mean that of Stahl, which made -the soul the author of all the motions of the body, not only of those which we perceive and will, but even of those of which we have no consciousness. Stahlianism, already forgotten in Germany, where systems disappear as rapidly as they arise, had just been introduced at Montpellier by Sauvage. An attempt was made to defend it against the school of Haller; but this apparent defence was made only by distorting the system, and peony into the language of physiology an innovation which for a long time Seditied 16 render that science not only the most difficult, But 2 the 116 M..G: Cuvier’s Repdrt.on the Researches the most mysterious and the most contradictory of all. \ This innovation consists in generalizing the idea of sensibility to such a degree, as to give that name to every nervous coope- ration accompanied with motion, even when the animal had no perception of it. Thus were established organic and local sensibilities, upon which the supporters of the system founded reasonings only applicable to ordinary and general. sensi- bility. | According to these physiologists, the. stomach, the heart, the uterus, felt and willed, and each organ became a sort of lesser independent animal endowed with the faculties of the greater. This interversion of the use of terms was singularly fa- voured, and even increased, by the double sense of which most of these terms are susceptible in our language. . In fact, sensi ble, in French, signifies, at the same time, capable of experi- encing sensations, capable of giving them, capable of con- ducting them. It is used in the first sense, when we say an animal is a sensidle* being; in the second, when we speak of a sensible sound or light; in the third, when physiologists affirm that the nerves are sensible. Writers of great talent have deceived themselves to such a degree by the employ- ment of these figurative and ambiguous expressions, that they thought they had explained phenomena, when, in fact, they had only translated the expression of them into metaphorical language ; and it must be confessed that this illusion has com- municated itself to a great number of their readers. For- tunately it has not seduced men accustomed to rigorous dis- quisition; they give to every expression a sense fixed by a positive definition, and they avoid with the utmost care the use of it in any other acceptation, well knowing that they would thus expose themselves to the danger of falling into that kind of sophism which is one of most frequent occur- rence, designated by logicians under the name of the syl- logism of four terms, Now it appears to us, that this demand for precise language had been sufliciently answered in later times by rigorous phy» siologists, as far as the properties which now engage our at- tention are concerned; and that it was unnecessary, in treat- ing of them, to cliange the established language. When they say the muscular fibre ts irritable, they mean that it alone has the power of contracting, in consequence of irritation ; when they say the nerve is not irritable, they mean that irri- * In English we should here use the active participle sentient, which conveys the precise idea, and avoids the confusion of which M. C. so justly complains. This is an instance of the importance of philological studies, with a view to every object of philosophic inquiry—See Tooke’s Diver- sions of Purley, vol. ii. p. 486.—Enir. : 7 tation of M. Flourens on the Nervous System. 117 tation does not cause it to contract; but certainly they do not pretend that it may not, therefore, produce irritation in the muscle: there is not an individual among them who has not always known that the contrary is the fact.- When they say the nerve is sensible, they mean that the animal receives all its sensations through the medium of the nerves; but they cer- tainly do not pretend that the nerve, separated from the body, can continue to communicate sensations to the animal, still less that it can experience any itself. / We shall begin, then, by entreating M. Flourens to ex- punge from his excellent work an introductory part relative to this nomenclature, and which can only tend to confuse ideas, without any solid advantage to science. Thus, from the fact that the nerve, when pricked, preduces contractions in the muscle, he concludes that the nerve is zrrztable: it is sufficiently clear that, in this proposition, he gives us no new information, but that he only changes the meaning of the word irritable. From the fact that the nerve separated from the rest of the system, no longer gives any sensation to the animal, he concludes that the nerve is not senszble. This also is simply the change of a word, whick tells us nothing but what we knew before. M. Flourens himself admits that he introduces a new Jan- guage ; for he says, “I call ¢rrétability the property which the nerve has of exciting sensation and motion without experien- cing them itself” Now to give toa word in common use, a new sense, is always a dangerous proceeding. If it is neces- sary to express a new idea, it is much better to invent a new term than thus to distort an old one. What is true, what is independent of all verbal disputes on this subject, is, that the fibre contracts, whether it be irritated immediately, or whether the nerve be irritated; that the nerve is, consequently, @ conductor of irritation; that the animal feels the impressions made upon its nerves when these have a free communication with the encephalus;—that consequently the nerve is a conductor of sensation. ‘These are the terms which might be employed with advantage, in order to increase the rigour of the received language; they are those, in fact, which we shall use in the remainder of this Report. To express then, in general language, the real questions which M. Flourens has proposed to himself, and which are not, perhaps, determined with sufficient clearness in the title of his paper; we will say, that he has endeavoured to ascertain by experiment: 1°. From what points of the nervous system artificial irri- tation may proceed in order to reach the muscle. ais WY 118 M. G. Cuvier’s Report on the Researches 2°. To what points of that system the impression must ex- tend, in order to produce sensation. 3°. From what points voluntary irritation descends, and what parts of the system ought to be untouched, in order to produce it regularly. We will add, that in this first part he has considered these questions only with relation to Vertebrated animals, and to their nervous system of animal life; that is to say, to the brain, the spinal marrow, and the nerves which proceed from them. In order to resolve these questions, the author begins with the nerves, and repeating, with respect to them, the known experiments, he establishes the two general effects of their ir- ritation which we have just described; he shows with great precision, that to produce contraction there must be a free and uninterrupted communication of the nerve with the muscle; and that to produce sensation, a free and uninterrupted com- munication with the encephalus is necessary: he concludes that neither contraction nor sensation belongs to the nerve; that these two effects are distinct; that they may be excited independently of each other ; and that these propositions are true, at whatever part, at whatever ramification of the nerve, the communication may be intercepted. Employing the same method with regard to the spinal marrow, he arrives at similar results. When it is irritated at a certain point, it causes con- tractions in all the muscles whose nerves originate below the point of irritation, if the communications have remained free; it ceases to cause them if the communication is cut off. The exact inverse is the case with sensations; and as in the nerves the empire of the will demands the same freedom of communication as sensation does, the muscles below the in- tercepted spot no longer obey the animal, and it no longer feels them. Lastly; if the marrow is intercepted at two points, those muscles alone, whose nerves originate from the interval comprised between those points, will experience contractions ; but the animal has no longer any command over them, nor does it receive any sensation from them. We shall not detail all the combinations by means of which M. Flourens has varied the experiments on this subject; it is sufficient to say that they all lead to the result which we have just described. The author concludes from them, that sensation and con- traction do not belong to the spinal marrow any more than to the nerves; and this conclusion is decisive as it regards en- tire animals. It would be very important to know, if it is equally so as it regards animals which have lost the encepha- lus, and which, in certain classes, appear to be far from losing immediately of M. Flourens on the Nervous System. 119 immediately their animal functions; but it is a question to which we shall have occasion to revert at the conclusion of this Report, even with regard to warm-blooded animals. M. Flourens concludes, moreover, from a part of his experi- ments, that what he calls the dispersion or generalization of irritations, or, in other words, general sympathies, are esta- blished by means of the communication among all the nerves of which the spinal marrow is the medium; but he has not developed this proposition sufficiently to enable us to appre- ciate the reasonings upon which it rests. I come at length to the encephalus; and it was in this cen- tral part of the system that new lights might be expected from experiments better directed than those of preceding physio- logists. In fact, although Haller and his school made many experiments on the brain, in order to ascertain its vital pro- perties, and the special functions which might be assigned to the different parts of which that complicated organ is com- posed, it must be admitted that these experiments have not es very exact results. The causes of this were, on the one and, the insufficient knowledge possessed at that time of the connexion of the parts of the encephalus and of the directions and communications of their medullary fibres; and on the other, the want of care to isolate them in the experiments. When the brain was compressed, for example, it was not known on what point of the interior the compression had acted with the greatest force ; when an instrument was introduced, sufficient care was not taken to examine to what depth and into what organ it had penetrated. M. Flourens has, with some reason, made these objections to the experiments of Haller, Zinn and Lorry, and has endea- voured to avoid similar defects by operating principally by the way of ablation; that is to say, by removing, whenever it was possible, the part whose special function he desired to ascertain. In order to convey a more distinct conception of the facts which he has discovered, we will briefly run over the col- lection and the mutual relations of the parts in question. It is now known, especially from the late researches of MM. Gall and Spurzheim, that the spinal marrow is a mass of medullary matter, white on the exterior, gray in the interior, divided longitudinally above and below by furrows, the two fasciculi of which communicate together by means of transverse medullary fibres; that it is enlarged at regular intervals ; that it sends out from each enlargement a pair of nerves; that the medulla oblongata is the superior part of the spinal marrow inclosed within the cranium, which also sends out several om 0 120 M. G. Cuvier’s Report on the Researches of nerves; that the fibres of communication of its two fasciculi cross there, so that those of the right ascend into the left, and vice versa; that these fasciculi, after this first enlargement in the Mammiferae by an admixture of grayish matter, and after having formed the protuberance known by the name of pons Varolii, separate and take the name of crura cerebri, conti- nuing to send out nerves; that they again enlarge by a fresh admixture of grayish matter, in order to form the masses com- monly called thalami nervorum opticorum; and a third time, to form those called corpora striata ; that from the whole exter- nal edge of these last enlargements, is given off an expansion of greater or less thickness, and more or less folded externally in different animals, entirely covered with grayish matter, and re- flected upwards to cover them again, by forming what are called the hemispheres ; and which, after bending down between them, unites itself to that of the opposite side by one or more commissures or fasciculi of transverse fibres, the most consi- derable of which, existing only in the Mammiferee, is called corpus callosum. It is also well known that upon the crura ce- rebri, behind the optic thalami, are one or two pair of lesser enlargements, known, when there are two pair, as in the Mam- miferze, under the name of tubercula quadrigemina, from the first of which the optic nerves appear to take their origin; that the olfactory nerve is the only one which does not sensi- bly arise from the spinal marrow, or from its branches; and that the cerebellum, an irregular mass externally white, ‘and internally cineritious, like the hemispheres, but often much more divided by exterior folds, is situated crosswise behind the tubercula quadrigemina, and upon the medulla oblongata, with which it is connected by transverse fasciculi, which are called crura cerebelli, and which join it on either side of the pons Varolii. In these masses, so different and so compli- cated, it was necessary to seek the point from which irritation proceeded, and that at which sensation terminated; it was ne- cessary to ascertain their respective cooperation in the acts of the will ;—and this is what M. Flourens has especially laboured to accomplish. : He has examined, first, how high we must ascend to pro- duce efficacious irritations on the muscular system; and he has discovered a point at which these irritations were power- less ; then proceeding to the opposite side of the encephalus, he has irritated it more and more profoundly, so long as it did not act upon the muscles: and when it began to act, he found himself again at the same place where its action had stopt in ascending. This is also the place at which the sensation of ex- citations directed against the neryous system stops; above it, punctures of M. Flourens on the Nervous System. 121 punctures and wounds may be inflicted without causing pain. Thus M. Flourens punctured the hemispheres, without pro- ducing either contraction in the muscles, or appearance of pain in the animal; he removed them in successive lamine ; he performed the same operation on the cerebellum ; he took away, at the same time, the hemispheres and the cerebellum. The animal remained impassive. The corpora striata and the optic thalami were attacked and removed, without pro- ducing any other effects. The iris was not even contracted in consequence, nor was it subsequently paralysed. But when he punctured the tubercula quadrigemina, trembling and con- vulsions immediately took place, and increased in proportion as he penetrated more deeply into the medulla oblongata. ‘The pricking of these tubercula, or of the optic nerve, produced acute and prolonged contractions of the iris. These experiments agree with those of Lorry, printed in the third volume of the Mémoires des Savans étrangers. * Neither irritations of the brain,” says Lorry, “ nor of the corpus callo- sum itself, produce convulsions: it may even be removed with impunity. The only part, among those contained in the brain, capable of uniformly and universally exciting convulsions, is the medulla oblongata: it is that part which produces them to the exclusion of all others.” ‘These experiments contradict those of Haller and Zinn, in all that regards the cerebellum ; but from the observations of M. Flourens, it appears that these physiologists had touched the medulla oblongata without perceiving it. Hence M. Flou- rens concludes (to use his peculiar language), that the medulla oblongata and the tubercula are irritable; which in ours signifies that they are, like the spinal marrow and the nerves, conduc- tors of irritation; but that neither the cerebrum nor the cere- bellum has that property. The author concludes also, that these tubercles form the continuation and the superior termi- nation of the spinal marrow and the medulla oblonzata ; and this conclusion is in perfect conformity with their relations and anatomical connexions. Wounds of the cerebrum and cerebellum produce neither pain nor conyulsions ; and, in ordinary language, we should thence pronounce that the cerebrum and cerebellum are insensi- ble. But M. Flourens says, on the contrary, that these are the sensible parts of the nervous system; which only means, that they are the parts at which the impression received by the sensible organs must arrive, before the animal can experience a sensation. M. Flourens appears to us to have completely proved this proposition, as far as regards the senses of sight and hear- Vol. 61. No, 298, Feb, 1828. Q ing. 122 M. G. Cuvier’s Report on the Researches ing. When the cerebral lobe of an animal is removed on the one side, it no longer sees with the eye of the opposite side, although the iris of that eye preserves its mobility: when both lobes are removed, it becomes blind and deaf. But he does not appear to us to have proved this with equal certainty as to the other senses. In the first place, he has not made, nor indeed could he make, any experiment concern- ing taste and smell; and, even as to touch, his experiments do not appear to us conclusive. It is true that the-animal thus mutilated assumes a torpid air; that he neither himself origi- nates any act of volition, nor performs any spontaneous move- ment; but when he is stricken or wounded, he exhibits all the appearance of an animal exercising its usual functions. In whatever position he is placed, he resumes his equilibrium : if he be laid on his back, he turns himself round again; if pushed, he moves onward; if the animal be a frog, it leaps on being touched; if a bird, it flies on being thrown up into the air; it struggles when put to pain or inconvenience; and if water is dropped into its beak it swallows it. Undoubtedly, we should find it difficult to believe that all these motions are produced without the excitement of sensa- tion. It is true that they are not directed by any ratiocinative process. The animal removes himself from the cause of ir- ritation, without any further intention; he has no memory, and will repeatedly strike or stumble against the same obstacle: but this proves at most, to use the expression of M. Flourens, that the animal is in a state of sleep. Indeed he moves and aets precisely like a sleeping man; but we are far from believing that a man, while asleep, who moves himself into the most convenient positions and attitudes, is absolutely without sensa- tions; nor does it by any means follow, because his perception of them was indistinct, and because he has retained no recol- lection of them, that therefore he has not experienced them. Hence, instead of saying, with our author, that the cerebral lobes are the sole organs of sensation, we would confine ourselves to the limits of the fact, and be content with asserting, that these lobes are the only receptacle in which the sensations of sight and hearing can be perfected, and become perceptible to the animal. If we shonld add any thing more, it would be, that they are also the receptacle in which the sensations assume a distinct form, and leave durable impressions on the memory ; that they are in faet the seat of memory, the faculty by which they furnish the animal with the materials of judgement. This conclusion, reduced to its exact and proper terms, would be- come the more probable, since, beside the probability it derives from the structure of the cerebral lobes, and their coment wit of M. Flourens on the Nervous System. 123 with the rest of the system, it is still further supported by a fact in comparative anatomy, that the intelligence of animals is constantly proportioned to the volume of these lobes. Having observed the effects of the ablation of what may be strictly called the brain, M. Flourens proceeds to examine those of the extirpation of the twbercula quadrigemina. The excision of one of these tubercles, after a convulsive motion of short duration, produces a durable blindness of the eye on the opposite side, and an involuntary giddiness; that of both tubercles, renders the blindness more complete and the giddi- ness more violent and prolonged. ‘The animal, however, re- mains in possession of its other faculties, and the iris retains its contractility. The deep extirpation of the tubercle, or the section of the optic nerve, produces only paralysis of the iris; whence M. Flourens concludes that the ablation of the tuber- cle has no other effect than would follow the section of the nerve ; that the tubercle, therefore, is only a conductor of vi- sion ; and that the cerebral lobe alone is the term of the sensa- tion of sight, and the place in which it is completed, by being converted into a perception. He observes, that when the extirpation of the tubercles is too deeply performed, the medulla oblongata is affected, and gives rise to violent and continued convulsions. The most curious and novel part of the experiments of M. Flourens seems to us to be that which concerns the functions of the cerebellum. During the ablation of the first lamine, he observed no- thing more than a slight weakness, and a want of connexion in the motions of the animal. When the middle laminz were removed, a nearly general agitation was manifested. The ani- mal, though still seeing and hearing, performed motions only in an uncertain and hasty manner. Its faculty of flying, walking, and retaining the erect posture, was gradually lost. ‘When the cerebellum was removed altogether, the faculty of perform- ing regulated motions entirely ceased. Placed upon its back, the animal no longer turned itself: it nevertheless perceived the blow with which it was menaced; it heard cries, and endeavoured to avoid danger by a thousand fruitless efforts : in a word, it retained its faculties of sensation and volition, but had lost the power of producing voluntary muscular contractions. It was scarcely able to keep its erect position, by supporting itself with its wings and tail. The extirpation of the brain had produced a state of sleep ; the excision of the cerebellum produced one of intoxication. “ It is astonishing,” says M. Flourens, “ to observe the pi- geon losing by degrees, as its cerebellum is removed, the fa- Q 2 culty 124 M. Flourens on the Nervous System. eulty of flying; then, that of walking; and, lastly, that of holding itself in the upright posture—and this, also, is only gradually lost. The animal begins to be incapable of remain- ing erect upon its legs; then its feet become unable to sustain it. At last every fixed position becomes impossible: it makes incredible efforts to attain some particular posture, without being able to accomplish it; and yet, when exhausted by fatigue it seems desirous of obtaining some repose, its senses are so clear, that the least gesture of the operator produces a recommencement of its contortions, without the slightest con- vulsive motion, so long as the ¢ubercula or the medulla oblongata remain uninjured.” We are not aware that any physiologist has hitherto pro- duced any experiments which exhibited the slightest. resem- blance to these singular phenomena. Experiments on the ce- rebellum of quadrupeds, especially if adult, are extremely diffi- cult, on account of the thick bony parietes which it is necessary to remove, and the large vessels which are unavoidably opened, Besides, most experimenters have conducted their operations according to some established system, and have been too apt to find that which they wished to discover; and, assuredly, none have hitherto surmised that the organ which balances and regulates the motions of progression, was the cerebellum. This discovery, if its universality be established by carefully repeated experiments, cannot but confer the greatest honour on the young observer whose work we have just analysed. As to what remains, the Academy is as capable of judging as we are, that, with the exception of the superfluous altera- tions of terms, and of certain well-known facts which the au- thor was compelled to adduce in order to give his work an air of uniformity, this Memoir offers more precise details of old observations than we have hitherto possessed; and contains others whose novelty and importance are equally worthy our attention. The integrity of the cerebral lobes is indispensable for the exercise of sight and hearing: when they are destroyed, the will is no longer manifested by acts of spontaneous volition. Nevertheless, if the animal be excited from without, it executes regular acts of locomotion, as if endeavouring to avoid the immediate pain and inconvenience. But these motions are inadequate to the end; very probably because the memory, which disappeared with the removal of the lobes which seem to be its seat, no longer supplies the basis or elements of judgement. For the same reason, these motions are followed by no decisive result; because the impression which produced them leaves no trace on the memory, nor excites any durable volition. On Maps of the Moon. 12a volition. The integrity of the cerebellum is necessary for the. regularity of acts of locomotion. While the brain is entire, the animal will see, hear, and exhibit marked and decisive sym- ptoms of volition; but if the cerebellum be destroyed, he will be unable to preserve the equilibrium requisite for the per- formance of locomotion. Irritability will, however, subsist for a considerable time in the remaining parts of the body, without the intervention of the cerebrum or cerebellum. Every irrita- tion of a nerve produces action in the muscles to which it is distributed: every irritation of the spinal marrow produces action in the members and parts below the irritated point. The faculty of propagating irritation on the one hand, and receiving pain on the other, is altogether confined to the supe- rior part of the medulla oblongata: viz. the part at which the tubercula quadrigemina adhere to it. This at least is the place whither all sensations must arrive, in order to become percep- tions: this is the place whence all the orders of the Will must necessarily depart: hence the continuity of the nervous organ from this place to the particular parts concerned, is necessary for the execution of spontaneous motion, and for the percep- tion of impressions whether internal or external. All these conclusions are not identical with our author’s, nor conceived in the same terms: but they are those which have appeared to us to be rigorously deducible from the facts he has so ably brought forward and attested: they are doubt- less sufficient to enable you to judge of the importance of those facts; to engage you to express your satisfaction to the author for what he has already done; and to procure for him your invitation to continue his communications in the progress of his interesting inquiries. G. Cuvier, of the Institute. N.B. This Report was adopted by the Royal Academy of Sciences in its sitting of the 22d of July 1822. XXVIII. On Maps of the Moon. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. HE want of an accurate and well-executed map of the moon must, I imagine, have been felt by many persons fond of astronomy, as well as by me. I have inquired at the shops in London for a map of the moon, without success, al- though planispheres of the stars and solar systems are to be had without difliculty. In Keill’s Astronomy, London, 1739, are, 126 On the North Polar Distances are, what I suppose to be, accurate prints of the moon; and there is one also in the Description of the Copernican Sy- tem, &c. by William Deane, London, 1738. Except these two publications, and Russell’s expensive work, I do not at present recollect any, with maps of the moon, which can be called good; but probably there may be many unknown to me. What appears to me to be wanting, is an accurate figure of the moon, on a sheet by itself, which can be easily purchased. If such a figure does not exist, would not the pro- moting the publication of one be worthy the attention of the Astronomical Society of London? I shall be obliged to any of your readers who will inform me where the best maps of the moon can be met with, either in English or foreign books. 9th December, 1822. Aw InguiREr. Norre.—We can inform our respected correspondent, that Dr. Gruithuissen has lately given a Map of the Moon in Bode’s Astron. Jahrbuch, 1825; with a Letter explanatory. It is a Lithographic drawing, and might be copied and re- printed in this country, at a trifling expense—Epir. XXIX. On the North Polar Distances of the Principal Fixed Stars. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. PRE portion of your readers, who take an interest in the advancement of astronomy, are greatly obliged to your correspondent, who, for a considerable time past, has furnished so many valuable articles from the foreign journals; by which a knowledge of the exertions used on the continent for the improvement of that science has been diffused through these islands. The article in ycur last Number, “ On the declination of the fixed Stars, from Professor Bessel,” is particularly inter- esting. It is the first regular account we have had of the results in declination of the new Meridian Circles of M. Reichenbach. The reports of these results had occasioned considerable interest here; as they appeared to differ very considerably from the results obtained by Mr. Pond and Dr. Brinkley, which nearly agreed with those of MM. Oriani and Piazzi. I request permission to make a few remarks on this subject. The object of them is to show that, great as the discordances appear, there is nothing can be deduced from them unfavour- able to the respective instruments, or to the skill and care ‘4 the of the Principal Fixed Stars. 127 the observers. If the subject be rightly considered, I doubt not it will plainly appear that these instruments are not, in the smallest degree, answerable for the discordances. The splen- did talents of Messrs. Ramsden, Troughton, and Reichenbach, to whom we owe the construction of these instruments, have been most strikingly exhibited therein. It is from another source that the disagreement of the respective results is to be sought for. I think it will be found that errors in the quantity of the constant of refraction have occasioned the whole difficulty. I shall endeavour to show, that an error of about half-a-second in this quantity, as used by the different observers, will produce very nearly the whole effect. Also that, apparently, the at- tempt to ascertain the constant of refraction to this degree of precision, is one of the most difficult things that have yet been aimed at in astronomy. It appears to me that no observer, however excellent his instrument, and great his care and skill, can be certain that he has arrived at this degree of exactness. It might be inferred from this, that I suppose the errors of the results may be equally divided between the Konigsberg catalogue, and those of Greenwich and Dublin. It may not be very unsafe to rest on this conclusion. But, from a circum- stance arising out of a recent comparison of the catalogues of Mr. Pond and Dr. Brinkley, a degree of probability is ob- tained, that their catalogues are the most exact. For the purpose of making a comparison with M. Bessel’s catalogue, I shall use the recent determinations by Dr. Brink- ley of North Polar distances, which were published in the Journal of Science in September last, and refer to the last number of the Philosophical Magazine for M. Bessel’s de- clinations. I might equally have used Mr. Pond’s North Polar distances; but, as the mean difference of Dr. Brinkley’s North Polar distances of 1813 reduced to 1820, and of those in the Journal of Science, is precisely =0",0, I have taken the latter. M. Bessel appears to have examined, with great care and industry, the divisions of his circle; and there can be no rea- son for not acquiescing in his opinion of the excellence of his instrument in this respect. Unfortunately, M. Bessel has not added the declinations of stars between his zenith and the Pole: with the assistance of these, we might have made an interest- ing comparison of corresponding large arches in each circle. A comparison of this kind has been recently made, as to the . circles of Dublin and Greenwich; and the result has been such, as to leave no manner of doubt that the divisions of these instruments agree together in a very exact manner; and ap- pears 128 On the North Polar Distances pears to have put an end to all questions, as to the instruments having changed their figure, or to any apprehension of error from the bending of the telescopes. We may safely assume, for our present purpose, that the three circles of Greenwich, Dublin, and Konigsberg, are perfect, as to their divisions, &c.; particularly as M. Bessel mentions that he has made allowance for the small effect produced by the bending of the tube of the telescope. It may, however, be satisfactory to some, to com- pare the two arches of interval between the adjacent stars of the catalogues of Dr. Brinkley and M. Bessel. ‘This compa- rison is given in columns A and B of the subjoined table. Although we have not the means of comparing large arches, for want of stars north of the zenith, yet these will serve to tte the care that was used in dividing these instruments. ut it is right to remark, that the agreement between corre- sponding arches, large as well as small, of the Dublin and Greenwich circles, is even closer. Column C gives the excess of M. Bessel’s North Polar di- stances above those of Dr. Brinkley, inserted in the Journal of Science for September 1822; after having added 0,3 to the latter North Polar distances. ‘These North Polar distances were computed from the co-latitude 36° 36’ 46”,5, the same as Dr. Brinkley had adopted in 1813: but lately he is inclined to adopt 36° 36’ 46”,8, as probably more exact. The excess in column C may (assuming the divisions of the circles exact) be supposed to arise from the combinations of errors in the constants of refraction; and in the determination of the co-latitude, or Polar point. If, £ being the constant of 3 —1 refraction (==) at mean temperature and mean barometer, we suppose e+ tan. Z.D. to represent the quantity to be applied to each Polar distance of M. Bessel, to agree with those of Dr. Brinkley, we shall have 27 equations; which, by the method of making the sum of the squares of the errors a minimum, give e=—1",49 and 34=0",70 According to the recent determination of M. Bessel (Ast. Fund. p. 36. and Phil. Mag. for January) the mean retraction at 45°=57",35 x 1,00328=57",53. Hence k=57",68 for the external thermometer. Dr. Brinkley’s value for the znternal thermometer is =57",72. Now, if we suppose, in M. Bessel’s determination of #, an error in excess =0",35; and in Dr. Brinkley’s an error of 0’,35 in defect; the whole quantity 04 is accounted for: and the mean difference of the North Polar di- stance of Dr, Brinkley and M. Bessel will be reduced to pei ess of the Principal Fixed Stars. 129 lessthan 1”, The difficulty of avoiding so small an error, in the value of /, as 0”,%5 will be presently adverted to. But it will be asked, Can it be possible that, in one place, the constant of refraction, for the internal thermometer, should be 58,01; and in another, for the external thermometer 57,33? The mean external thermometer at Konigsberg is probably rather more than 5° lower than the interior. For 5° the reduction to the interior is =,$5 x 57”,3=0",60. This is very nearly the difference Mr. Groombridge found when he determined the constants of refraction by the internal and ex- ternal thermometers respectively. ‘Thus the two constants will be Dublin . 587,01 Konigsberg 57 ,93 A difference much greater than this may arise from the de- viations of the heights of the barometer and thermometer, at each place, from exact standards. ‘Thus we have only amean discordance of 1” to account for. This might easily arise from errors, difficult to avoid, of the co-latitude in one place, and of the determination of the Polar point on the circle, in the other. On the supposition of these errors, and the above er- rors of the constants of refraction, the differences would become those in column D. But still the errors in the co-lat., and in the Polar point, are more easy to be avoided than much greater than those above supposed in the constants of refraction. ‘Therefore, let us suppose that the whole discordance is to be attributed to the errors of the constants of refraction: then we shall have (27 tan. co-lat. 27,85) §k= —59”,69 or, taking the lat. of Konigsberg= 54° 48’ eee hey } for the external thermometer. internal thermometer ; and 57”,08 for the constant at Konigs- berg for the external thermometer: or probably 57”,68 for the internal thermometer. On this hypothesis the differences would be as in column E. The difference between 58”,32 and 57”,68 is less than might arise from the deviations of the respective barometers and ther- mometers, from exact standards. ‘This appears to be a subject that has not been at all attended to. ‘The difference of the specific gravities of the mercury in the barometers, and other causes, might occasion a difference of height: want of exact- ness in the seales of the thermometer might also occasion other Vol. 61. No. 298. Feb. 1823. R differences. 130 On the North Polar Distances differences, A difference of =4, of an inch, in the two barome- ters, is equivalent to about 0”,38 in the constant of refraction ; and 2° difference in the two thermometers, is equivalent to about 0”,24: the sum is 0”,62. A discordance to this amount is not very unlikely. , But no real source of error arises from ¢hzs cause, when the constants of refraction are determined by help of the respective barometers and thermometers; as has been done by Dr. Brinkley and M. Bessel. Mr. Pond has not made public any determination of his constant; but as he has so steadily ad- hered to Dr, Bradley’s table of refraction, there cannot be a doubt that he has satisfied himself by his own observations, as to the constant from which that table is deduced: and in fact it appears, by a recent comparison of the Dublin and Green- wich North Polar distances, that the constant used in each of those places is really the same; although in consequence, as is highly probable, of the discordances of the meteorological in- struments, they appear to differ by 0”,68; that used by Mr. Pond being 57”,04, and Dr. Brinkley’s being 57”,72. Dr. Brinkley and M. Bessel make nearly the same allow- ance for change of temperature. Mr. Pond, having adopted Bradley’s table, of course differs considerably from them. But this does not affect the comparisons here made; because the three catalogues may be all considered ‘as made within a few degrees of the mean temperature. It is very difficult to esti- mate precisely the discordances resulting from using at Dublin the interior thermometer, and at Konigsberg the exterior. - It is however reasonable to suppose they are not great. Admit- ting, then, that the two catalogues may be assimilated to each other, by using the constants of refraction above stated, it re~ mains to account for an error apparently so great as 0”,6 in the constant as determined at each place. If we consider the manner in which this element is deduced, we shall easily see that 0”,6 can by no means be considered as a great error. ; Let us suppose the constant of refraction = +8h, 8h being very small: that is, suppose we have determined the constant =f/nearly. Then if, with this constant, p be the co-latitude determined by stars near the Pole, and p’ the co-latitude by stars . 1 . — U . at a considerable distance from the Pole, 3s=”—", n being a nr 4 number depending on the tangents of the zenith distances. For determining p’, stars lower than 76° or 77° Z. D. ought not to be used, on account of the imperfection of the theory of refraction. The stars used are generally between 60° and 75° Z.D.; and the value of m cannot safely be so great as unity. In of the Principal Fixed Stars, 131 In Dr. Brinkley’s determination, »=07,74 (vid. Trans. Roy. Irish Academy, vol. xii.). It is not likely to have been greater in M. Bessel’s investigation: which investigation, although it may be very different in appearance, must essentially be the same. ‘Therefore let us take k= +4 (p—p’). When we consider the irregularities of refraction at zenith distances exceeding 60° or 70°, and consider the number of circumstances relative to the corrections used in reducing the observed zenith distances to the mean, it is not likely p’ can be depended on nearer than 0”,3; and, although p is not equally affected by the irregularities of refraction, yet the other cir- cumstances may easily concur in making it uncertain to 0",15: thus 24 may be uncertain to 0,6; which is required. for our supposition. In meridian circles p—p’ answers to the distance of the Polar points determined by assuming the’ constant of refraction =/: and here more causes of error interfere, be- cause, instead of the plumb-line, the index error is used for ascertaining the stability of the instrument. It appears that the effects of irregular refraction have been only lately duly appreciated. Formerly it was supposed that Pp on account of the greater number of stars used, was more exact than p. It is at present impossible to estimate the pro- bable error arising from the effects of irregular refraction ; and therefore, in the probable error given by M. Bessel, he seems to have computed it generally with a reference only to common observations. The conclusions that appear to follow from the whole are, that it is quite uncertain whether the catalogue of Dr. Brinkley or of M. Bessel be most exact; and that probably the mean between them will be nearest the truth. A circum- stance favourable to M. Bessel’s constant is, that the obli- quity of the ecliptic, deduced from both solstices, comes out nearly the same. In another way, this appears rather to ope- rate differently, from the general unwillingness of astronomers to allow this great constant of refraction which so obviously solved the difficulty. This showed they considered observation to be against it. Another favourable circumstance of consider- able weight, is, that Mr. Groombridge nearly agrees with M. Bessel. But, by the recent comparison of North Polar distances observed at Greenwich and Dublin, and which may be easily made, it appears nearly certain that the same constant of re- fraction is virtually employed in each observatory. It is very unlikely that the two constants should be inexact by the same quantity. ‘This, and the great agreement between the respective North Polar distances, are much in favour of the exactness of the North Polar distances of Mr. Pond and Dr. Brinkley. R2 M. Bes- 192 On the North Polar Distances of ‘Fixed Stars. M. Bessel’s distinguished talents and extraordinary assiduity ought to prevent us from forming any hasty. adverse opinion. The question is quite open, and must be decided by the future labours of astronomers: which, it is desirable, should be par- ticularly pointed to the investigation of the constant of refrac- tion for both interior and exterior thermometers. The baro- meters and thermometers should, if possible, be compared with exact standards. The results, then, if from sufficiently nume- rous observations, will probably be not very discordant; and a mean of them may be adopted for the common use of astro- nomers, by which our tables of refraction and our catalogues will possess an uniformity very different from what we see at present. I am, gentlemen, Your most obedient and humble servant, - 9th Feb, 1823. AuPsTse. PD. Differences of | Diff. for Konigsb. adjacent Stars|samestarsin} N, P. D. of M. Bessel’s|Dr. Brink- |— Dublin. Catalogue, __|ley’s Cat. A Konigsb. | Konigsb. N.P. D.| N..P. D. = Dublin.|= Dublin ° ~ = ~ = Capella .. 14 0,95 a Cygni a Lyre Castor Pollux 68 Tauri e Andromed» e Cor. Bor. e« Arietis Arcturus .. Aldebaran &Leonis .. y Pegasi .. Regulus .. # Ophiuchi y Aquile .. a e@ Orionis . a Serpentis B Aquilze Procyon .. ew Cetin ase. a Aquarii .. SpicaVirginis la Capricorni Ber! (ave Sirius Wow ORW CHO KKWDO OFKK ORD POO CWO AS f.0883..9 XXX. On a proposed Society for Scientific Information. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. GENTLEMEN, A FEW young men, following scientific professions, having observed with regret the want of a Society in which, by the mutual communication of their ideas and information, they might acquire a just method of investigating and discussing philosophical subjects; and being aware that the scientific so- cieties at present in existence are not calculated for that object, being conducted on principles which suppose a previous and extensive knowledge, are therefore desirous of commencing one to accomplish the above end; and have appointed me (as one of their number) to request the insertion of this in your Journal; trusting, that by its extensive circulation it will meet the eyes of those who may be desirous of forming part of such a Society. Persons wishing further information on the subject, may have it by applying by letter (post paid) to me, at Mr. Don- kin’s Manufactory, Blue Anchor Road, Bermondsey. I am, gentlemen, yours respectfully, Feb. 18, 1823. Ricuarp Harris. We gladly give insertion to Mr. Harris’s letter ; and shall be truly happy if we can be in any way instrumental in the promo- tion of the design which it announces, convinced as we feel of the beneficial tendency of institutions for the dissemination of useful knowledge among all classes of the community. It might probably be of essential service, if any of our friends would fur- nish us with accounts of the societies of this kind, which we un- derstand have been instituted among the artisans of Glasgow and Birmingham, and especially of one which has lately been esta- blished in Edinburgh. We should be inclined to recommend, as the means best adapted for the purpose, familiar systematic lectures to classes, accompanied by experiments and examina- tions; and especially the avoiding of every thing that tends to parade and vain disputation.—Ep1rors. XXXI. Notices respecting New Books. Recent Publications. OPULAR Parts of Astronomy, compiled from Brinkley, Vince, &e. by John Fitzjohn, F.C.D. The Fortieth Volume of Transactions of the Society of Arts. Tosbrooke’s 134 Notices respecting New Books. Fosbrooke’s Encyclopedia of Antiquities. No. I. 4to. Revived Architecture of Italy. No. I. folio. Arrago’s Narrative of Freycinet’s Voyage. 4to. Parts I. and IJ. of a Series of Engravings in Outline, by Henry Moses, of the Works of Antonio Canova; with descrip- tions from the Italian of the Countess Albrizzi. The British Empire in 1823; corrected to the latest periods, from the New Population and Finance Reports; by the Rev. J. Goldsmith. 18mo. A Historical and Topographical Essay on the Indian Islands ; by W. Goodisson, A.B. 8vo. Elements of Plane and Spherical Trigonometry; by Olyn- thus Gregory, LL.D. 12mo. An Elementary Treatise on the Mathematical Principles of Arithmetic. Translated from Lacroix. 8vo. : A New and Complete Set of Decimal Tables, or an Im- proved System for calculating Monies and Weights; by John Westgate. 4to. Practical Advice to Asthmatics and those who are subject to Winter Cough; by a Scotch Physician. A Concise History of Ancient Institutions, Inventions, and Discoveries in Science and Mechanic Art. 2 vols. 12mo. A Lecture on the History and Utility of Literary Institu- tions; by James Jennings. 8vo. Schmidtmeyer’s Travels to Chili. Parts II. and III. 4to.. An Impartial Account of the United States, from Materials collected during a four Years’ Residence; by Isaac Holmes of Liverpool. 8vo. Journal of a Tour from Astrachan to Karass; containing Remarks on the General Appearances of the Country, Man- ners of the Inhabitants, &c. by the Rev. William Glen, Mis- sionary, Astrachan. 12mo. Preparing for Publication. African Geography. Mr. Bowditch has made arrangements for the speedy publication of a Sketch of the Portuguese Esta- blishments in Congo, Angola, and Benguela, with some Ac- count of the modern Discoveries of the Portuguese in the Interior of Angola and Mozambique, with a Map of the Coast and Interior. : The Diary of a Journey through Southern India, Egypt, and Palestine, in 1821-2, by a Field-officer of Cavalry, will soon appear, with maps, &c. In a few days will be published, Universal Stenography, or a practical System of Short-hand; by Mr. W. Harding. ANALYSIS [13810] ANALYSIS OF PERIODICAL WORKS ON ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. Sowerby’s Mineral Conchology. No. 67. Pl. 384. Sigaretus canaliculatus, from Hordwell, described as new, and the only fossil species known of the genus. SpEc. Cuar. Obovate, convex, longitudinally striated ; spire pointed, its urns (or rather volutions) distinguished by a canal; um- bilicus large. Pl. 385. Neritina concava and uniplicata: we by no means think the latter is a fresh-water shell; it is at variance with the generic character that precedes its descrip- tion, and was confessedly found in a bed of sand (near Wool- wich) which contained a mixture of fluvialic and marine shells. Pl. 386. Pleurotoma priscus (Murex. Brander 25 and 44), Pl. 387. P. fusiformis, P. brevirostrum, doubtful if belonging to this genus. P. laevigata, ditto. Pl. 388. Ostrea bellova. cina, and edulina, of Lamarck; both from the sand-pits near Woolwich. Sowerby’s Genera of Shells. No. 11. Garrorania. Mr. Sowerby says very truly, that this is a genus not likely to be admitted by the generality of concholo- gists; it has been published under Lamarck’s name, but since that naturalist has been affected with blindness. Scararra, the type of which is the famous Wentletrap shell, or Turbo scalaris of Linn.; four recent, and one fossil species are deli- neated, Burrostrires, an extraordinary fossil genus, accom- panied by a figure of B. inequilobus. Virrina, with good figures and judicious remarks on two species. Contra of Leach; separated from Balanus, on account of having only four valves, a character affording, in our opinion, good di- stinctions for a section, but not sufficient for the creation of a genus, Gastrocua@na, Spengler; with an illustrative plate. of G. modjolina and cuneiformis. Curtis’s Botanical Magazine. No. 432. Pl. 2370. Sedum spurium? of Willd. Enum. Cistus (or rather Helianthemum) Barrelieri, of Tenore, an acute botanist of Naples. Loasa nitida, Willd. from Peru. Nemophila Pha- celioides, Barton Fl. Am. Achania mollis, Willd.: to the de- scription of this plant, we shall add that its flowers are partially opened during the hottest part of the day; and that in a na- tive state it grows to the height of a moderate sized apple tree ; but with long, thin, and straggling branches. Hyperi- cum uralum, a new plant from Nepal, first discovered by Dr. Buchanan. “ 7H. fruticosum, 5-gynum ; foliis ellipticis mucronulatis glabris nitidis, floribus terminalibus subcorym- bosis, 136 Analysis of Periodical Works on Zoology and Botany. bosis, foliolis calycinis ovalibus obtasissimis, petalis limho or- biculatis, ramis ancipitibus. Gunnera perpensa Willd.: the concluding plate is No. 2377, and represents Geranium Wal- lichianum, an interesting species from the Himalaya moun- tains of Nepal. ‘ G. pedunculis elongatis bifloris, foliis 5-lobis utrinque cauleque sericeo-villosis: segmentis laté cuneato- ovatis inciso-dentatis, stipulis laté ovalibus obtusis, caule ad- scendente angulato.” The Botanical Register. No. 95. Pl. 676. Vanda teretifolia; Lindley, Coll. 6.7.6. Intro- duced, we presume, to rectify some omissions and inaccuracies which, it would appear, have found a place in the previous de- scription of this plant. Pass?flora albida, a new and delicate species from Brazil. ‘ P. foliis subrotundo-cordatis petigs bicalloso; floribus solitariis pedunculo robusto longo aliquoties brevioribus; involucro foliaceo ante anthesin caduco; calycis carinis undulato-alatis; operculo radiato; columna inclinata ; staminibus secundis.” Cassinia spectabilis, Brown (Calica, Persoon); by a note attached to this article, we are told that the Melastoma granu- losa (Pl. 671 of this work) is the same as Rhexia Fontainesiz of Humb. and Bonp. Crinum amabile, var. angustum: this latter name was made specific in Mr. Kerv’s former remarks on this genus; but subsequent observations induce him now to consider both as one species; for ourselves, we incline more to the former opinion of this gentleman than to his latter. Acasia longissimaof Link. Enum., a singular New Holland plant; Athrixia capensis, a new species from the Cape; but the specific character is unaccountably omitted. This Number concludes with Pl. 682, Dichoresandra thyrsiflora, a beautiful plant, first described by Professor Mikan, one of the botanists sent four years ago to Brazil by the Court of Austria. Sweet’s Geraniacee. No. 37. Two out of the four plates in this Number represent species, one, the Pelargonium multiradiatum, of Sprengler; the other, P. pallens (Geranium pallens of Andrews). Loddiges’ Botanical Cabinet. Part 69. Among the plates in this part are accurate representations of the Banana tree with an enlarged representation of its deli- cious and very singular fruit. XXXII. Pro- Pll S19 XXXII. Proceedings of Learned Societies, ROYAL SOCIETY. Jan. 23. THE reading of Mr. Macdonald’s Observations on Magnetism was resumed and concluded; and the Society adjourned over the anniversary of King Charles’s martyrdom. Feb. 6. A Letter from Major-Gen. Sir T. Brisbane, F.R.S. to the President was read, communicating the first Series of Observations made by M. Rumker at the Observatory at Para< matta in New South Wales.— Account of ‘some Caves dis- covered in the Limestone Quarries at Oneston, in a Letter from J. Whidbey, Esq. to John Barrow, Esq. F.R.S.—Ac- count of the Bones found in the above Caves; by Mr. W. Clift. Communicated by Sir E. Home. Feb. 13. Letter from Dr. T. Young, For. Sec. R.S., to the President, respecting M. Rumker’s Re-discovery of Professor Encker’s little triennial Comet.—Account of Experiments on the Velocity of Sound, made at Madras; by J. Goldingham, Esq. F.R.S. . Feb. 20. The reading of Mr.Goldingham’s Paper was com- pleted, and a Paper was begun on the question, Does an Evolution of Heat take place during the Coagulation of the Blood? by Charles Scudamore, M.D. &c. Communicated by the President. . ROYAL INSTITUTION. Since the publication of our last Number the Lectures have commenced; and the following is a list of the Courses an nounced for the present season. Each Lecture commencing at 2. o’clock. On Experimental Chemistry, including the principal Ope- rations of Chemical Analysis. By William Thomas Brande, Esq. Sec. R.S. Lond. and F.R.S. Edin. Professor of Chemistry to the Royal Institution. Commencing on Saturday the 1st of February, and continued on each succeeding Saturday. On the Improvements and Discoveries that have taken place in Natural Philosophy, and particularly in the Subjects of Optics and Magnetism. By John Millington, Esq. Civil En- ineer, Sec. Astron. Soc. &c. Professor of Mechanics to the Royal Institution. Commencing on Thursday the 6th of Fes bruary, and continued on each succeeding Thursday. On Comparative Physiology, comprising an Examination of the Structure and C&conomy of the different Classes of Ani- mals. By P.M. Roget, M.D. F.R.S. Commencing on Tues- Vol. 61. No. 298. Feb. 1823. S day 138 Linnedn Society. day 11th of February, and continued on each succeeding ‘Tues- day. On the Scientific Principles of Arithmetic (considered as a branch of Mathematics) and the Elements of Algebra. By John Walker, Esq. formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, and M.R.LA. Commencing on Wednesday the 12th of Te- bruary, and continued on each succeeding Wednesday. On Music. By W.Crotch, Mus. D. Professor of Music in the University of Oxford. To commence after Easter. __ A Syllabus of each of the Courses may be obtained at the Royal Institution. : We are happy to observe that the Great Lecture Room has been most successfully heated by one of Mr. Perkin’s new invented hot air stoves, and that the Lectures are very well attended. LINNZAN SOCIETY. Feb. 4. The following communications were read: A Continuation of Dr. W. Jack’s Paper on Lanstum and other Malayan Plants. _ The following were the species noticed : Pierardia dulcis.—Leuconotis anceps (Tetrandria Monogynia —Apocinez).— Myrmecodia* tuberosa (Tetrandria Monogy- hia—Rubiacez). — Hydnophytum formicarum (Rubiacez).— Lasianthus cyanocarpus (Rubiaceee).— Helospora flavescens (Rubiaceze). — Glaphyra* nitida (Icosandria Monogynia— Myrtacez.)—Glaphyra sericea. Catalogue of the Land and Fresh-water Shells found in the County of Suffolk; by the Rev. Revett Sheppard, F.L.S. The Habitats of these shells for the midland and western coun- ties having been given by Dr. Maton and Mr. Rackett vol. viii., the present paper is to supply. those of Suffolk and Essex. Linnzeus’s arrangement is followed, the author being of opi- nion that all these shells are reducible to his genera: at the same time he highly commends M. Draparnaud, considering his genera as excellent subdivisions of the Linnzan ones. Feb. 18. The following Papers by Major-General Hard- wicke, F.R.S. & L.S., were read: Description of the Sciwrus Sagitta, with a Figure. — Ac- count of the Buceros galeatus of Shaw, with two: Figures.— Description of a new Species of Phasianus, with Figures of * The names Myrmecodia and Glaphyra are ineligible, inasmuch as they have been preoccupied in Entomology by Latreille, who has the genera Myr- ‘mecodes and Glaphyrus,—Entv. the Astronomical Society. 139 the Male and Female.—Description of the supposed Female of Phasianus cruentus, with a Figure.—Description of a small Antelope, native of the Himalaya Range, and Mountains of the Nepal Frontier, called by the Natives Goral.— Descrip- tion of an Insect which appears to be a new species of Scui7- gera of Latreille, Cermatia of Leach. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. This Society held its Third Annual General Meeting or An- niversary at the Society’s Rooms in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, on Friday the 14th of February, when Officers for the ensuing year were chosen, and a Report from the Council was read, stating, among other matters, that the Society now consisted of 187 effective members and associates, among whom were included most of the eminent astronomers of Europe: that the funds were in a flourishing condition; and that great pro- gress had been made in establishing an Astronomical Library, which would shortly be opened for the use of the members. The Report likewise paid a just tribute of respect to the memory of the lamented President of the Society, Sir William Herschel, as well as to Sir Harry Englefield, Dr. Hutton, Delambre, Tralles, and several valuable members of which the Society had been deprived by death during the last year; and it concluded by calling upon the members and associates generally to promote the objects of the Institution by every means in their power, and particularly by the transmission of such papers and observations to the Society as might by their registry and comparison become useful. A minute investiga- tion of the heavens by dividing it into small portions to be examined by each individual member was also recommended. The following Officers were then elected for the ensuing year. ; President—Wenry Thomas Colebrooke, Esq. F.R.S. & LS. V ice-Presidents.—Francis Baily, Esq. F.R.S. & L.S.; Ma- jor Thomas Colby, Roy. Eng. LL.D. I'.R.S. L.& E.; Davis Gilbert, Esq. V.P.R.S. & F.L.S.; Sir Benjamin Hobhouse, Bart. F.R.S. Treasurer.—Rey. William Pearson, LL.D. F.R.S. Secretaries.—Charles Babbage, Esq. M.A. V'.R.S. L. & E. ; John Millington, Esq. Prof. Mech. Phil. Roy. Inst. Foreign Secretary.— J. ¥. W. Herschel, Esq. M.A. F.R.S. L. & E. Council.—Captain F. Beaufort, R.N. F.R.S.; George Dol- lond, Esq. .R.S.; Benjamin Gompertz, sq. F'.R.S.; Ste- phen Groombridge, Esq. F.R.S.; James Horsburgh, Esq. S@2 F.R.S. 140 Geological Society. F.R.S.; Daniel Moore, Esq. F.R.S. S.A. & L.S.; Peter M. Roget, M,D, F.R.S.; Major-General John Rowley, Roy. Eng. F.R.S. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Jan. 3. At this Meeting was read ‘‘ An Account of the Geo- Jogical Structure of the Bahamas; by the late Rev. J. Wright, Rector of one of the parishes in Nassau; transmitted to Pro- fessor Buckland in compliance with the desire of Earl Ba- thurst.” From this account it seems that the Bahama Islands are all of similar structure and appearance, composed of cal- careous matter, and barren. Large caves are general, bearing evident marks of having been excavated by the sea. Jan. 17. A Paper was read §* On the Beds of Limestone and Clay of the Iron-sand of Sussex. By Gideon Mantell, Esq., M.G.S., and Charles Lyell, Esq. M.G.S.” Mr. Mantell traces the direction of the calcareous beds connected with the iron- sand formation in the county of Sussex, and enumerates their several localities; to which he subjoins drawings and descrip- tions of some of the most remarkable fossils found in the lime- stone of Tilgate Forest. He then adds a letter addressed to him by Mr. Lyell, containing an account of the strata in the neighbourhood of Horsham, with a section of the quarry of Stammerham, and with remarks on the phenomena presented by the grooved and furrowed surfaces both of the calcareous and sandstone beds of that country. A Notice was then read, accompanied with Specimens, by C. Daubeny, M.D. F.R.S. and M.G.S. Professor of Che- mistry at Oxford, illustrative of the Strata cut through in the Seven Rakes Mine near Matlock, Derbyshire. After describing the qualities of the strata of limestone and toadstone, their dimensions, and connexions with each other, and the minerals which they contain, both in veins and regu- larly disseminated through the mass; Dr. Daubeny concludes with general observations on the phenomena which they pre- sent. He considers that there would be great difficulty in reconciling the facts there observed, with that theory which refers to an igneous origin the formation of the toadstone, On the 7th of February, being the Anniversary of the So- ciety, the following gentlemen were chosen as Officers and Council for the year: President.— William Babington, M.D. F.R.S, Vice-Presidents—Arthur Aikin, Esq. F.L.S.—John Bo- stock, M.D. F.R. & L.S. — George Bellas Greenough, Esq. F.R. & L.S.— William Haseldine Pepys, Esq. F.R.S. Secres Trench Royal Academy of Seiences. 14:1 Secretartes.— William Henry Fitton, M.D, F.R.S.—Charles Lyell, Esq. F.L.S.—Mr. Thomas Webster. Foreign Secretary.—Henry Heuland, Esq. Treasurer.—John Taylor, Esq. Council.— Hon. Hen. Grey Bennet, M.P. F.R.S.—Rev. William Buckland, F.R.S. Prof. Geol. & Min. Oxford.—Hen. James Brooke, Esq. F.R. & L.S.—Henry Thomas Colebrooke, Esq. F.R. & L.S.— Major Thomas Colby, LL.D. F.R.S. L. & E,—Thomas Horsfield, M.D. F.L:S. —James Laird, M.D.— Charles Stokes, Esq. F.R.A. & L.S.—Thomas Smith, Esq. F.R. & L.S.—Henry Warburton, Esq. F.R.S.— Philip Barker Webb, Esq. F.L.S.— William Hyde Wollaston, M.D, F.R.S. ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, PARIS. Nov. 4, 1822. M. Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire presented a Me- moir On a single and general Cause of Monstrosities; the first part, which was read, is entitled ** Of Monstrosity con- sidered in its relations with the question of the pre-existence of Germs.” The following list of candidates for the vacancy among the Foreign Associates was presented, and their several claims dis- cussed: Messrs. Wollaston, Berzelius, Olbers, T. Young, Dalton, De Buch, Brown, Scemmering. Noy. 11. Ona scrutiny taking place in the election of a Foreign Associate, (the Committee having presented Dr. Wol- laston in the first rank, and M. Berzelius in the second,) the majority of suffrages was found to be in favour of M. Berzelius. Messrs. Fourier, Biot, and Arago were presented by a Com- mittee, as candidates to succeed M. Delambre as Perpetual Secretary of the Mathematical Sections. M. Arago declined on account of the pressure of his present duties; and at the elec- tion which subsequently took place on the 18th the votes were, for M. Fourier 38,’ M. Biot 10. M. Delille read a description of Beninaza cerifera, a new genus of the Cucurbitaceze. A Memoir by M. Lamouroux was also read, On the Animals of the Tubipora musica ; and one by M. Desvaux, On the Organs of Reproduction in Acotyledo- nous Plants; and on the Uniformity of these Organs, notwith- standing their apparent difference. Noy. 18. M. Girard read a Memoir “ On the Resistance of Cast Iron, whether used for conduit pipes, or ‘for steam-engine boilers.” This having occasioned a discussion on the compa- rative advantages of steam-engines of high and low pressure, the Academy appointed Messrs. Laplace, Gay-Lussac, Girard, Ampere, 142. Capt. Parry's Expedition.— African Expedition. Ampere, and Dupin, as a committee to make experiments on this subject *. Nov. 25. Messrs. Périer offered the use of their manufac- tory for the intended experiments on high-pressure steam- engines. The following Memoirs were read: ‘ On Tourma- lines,” by M. Brun-Neergaard: ‘“ On the Direction taken by a Magnetic Needle placed on the Circumference of a Circle which turns on its Centre,” by M. Dutrochet: and “ On the Hurricanes of the Antilles,” by M. Moreau de Jonneés.” XXXIII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. CAPTAIN PARRY’S EXPEDITION. AS account derived from Russia, we are glad to learn, af- fords a fair ground to hope for the success and safety of the expedition under Captain Parry. The particulars are, that several fishing vessels belonging to Kamtschatka ‘and the Aleutian Isles, saw our navigators off Iey Cape. ‘The Russian commander, Krusenstern, states, in a communication to our Board of Admiralty, that he examined the masters of these vessels separately, and that he is satisfied of the truth of their reports. This is highly gratifying, and indeed glorious news, if correct, as, in that event, British enterprise will have ef- fected another grand discovery, a passage to Icy Cape from Behring Straits. — . AFRICAN EXPEDITION TO DISCOVER THE COURSE OF THE NIGER. The Mission, consisting of Dr. Oudenay, Major Denham, and Lieut. Clapperton, had on their first journey arrived at Mourzouk, the capital of the kingdom of Fezzan, in the month of April last, in the best health and spirits, having performed the journey in 42 days, a distance of 600 miles. On arriving at Mourzouk, the same house was prepared for them that had been inhabited by Mr. Ritchie and his friends in the year 1819, and where he fell a victim to the arduous enterprise he had undertaken. All those who have read Captain Lyon’s inter- esting narrative of this journey, will recollect the delays and difficulties that presented themselves to the further prosecution of their object, and the privations they had here to encounter and endure; which paralysed their exertions by exhausting at once their health and their resources. Major Denham, fear- ing lest his hopes might. be defeated by similar means, and all his endeavours to advance to Bourno proving ineffectual, de- waite We shall look with much eagerness for the result of the labours of these eminent persons,.on a subject which has excited great and inereasing interest here, especially since the attempts to make the use of steam at high pressure a subject of legislative interference—Eprrors. cided a Cinnabar. 143 cided on the hazardous alternative of returning to Tripoli, and he describes his journey in these words :— 4 “In pursuance of my intentions, which you were made ac- quainted with by my letter from Mourzouk, I left that place on the 19th of May, and after 23 days of very great fatigue ar- rived here (Tripoli) on the 11th of last month. One Arab Sheikh and two camels composed, with myself, the caravan. Our usual time was from 14 to 16 hours in the 24on the march; and in passing the Deserts (three and four days in length) al- ways 18 hours; the camels I scarcely ever allowed to rest; the halt we always made in the middle of the day to allow the ’ camels to come up, was by far the most trying part of the journey, exposed to the burning heat of the mid-day sun, where nature had not provided shade sufficient for a grass- hopper; lying on a scorching sand,and with nothing to alleviate our parching thirst but wretched water which had been se- veral days in beastly skins, was a misery I had no conception of before. At night we generally got a little kouscacous, with some fat and salt, no bad supper; but a cup of tea was luxury supreme, as it satisfied thirst, and took oif the edge of the pu- trid taste of the bad water; our fire, which was always made by scraping together the camels’ dung which we found, was consequently uncertain, and we sometimes could not find more than was necessary for boiling a little water. I had a tent with me, but seldom pitched it; we were all too tired, and my Arab thought it quite useless; we slipt off our horses when i=) . nearly sleeping with fatigue and heat, the nose-bag was put over the poor animal’s head, and a cord round his two fore legs; the loose stones were soon cieared from a space large enough to receive our carcases, and rolled up in a bornouse, in two minutes all our troubles were forgotten.” Fresh arrangements having been now made, by which it is hoped all the difficulties, except those of climate, may be avoided, Major Denham has again set forward to rejoin his associates, and ina subsequent letter says, ‘ I shall certainly make the attempt at returning home by way of Egypt.” CINNABAR. The following is M. Kirchoff’s method of preparing this article in the humid way :— Triturate in a porcelain cup, with a glass pestle, 300 parts of mercury with 68 of sulphur, moistened with some drops of a solution of potash, till a black proto-sulphuret is formed, and then add 160 parts of potash dissolved in an equal quantity of water. [leat over the flame of a candle the cup containing the mixture; continuing the trituration without intermission, Add 144 = Yeast.—Preservation of Grain.— New Institution. Add pure water from time to time as the liquid evaporates, that the oxide may be constantly covered an inch deep. Af ter two hours continued trituration, a great part of the liquid being allowed to evaporate, the mixture begins to change from black to brown, and then quickly to red. No more water is to be added, but the trituration should be continued. The mass will acquire the consistence of a jelly, and the red be- come still more brilliant with great rapidity. When it has attained its highest perfection, the cup should instantly be re- moved from the flame, or the red will be quickly turned to a dirty brown colour. YEAST. The following methods of making yeast for bread are both easy and expeditious :—Boil one pound of good flour, a quarter of a pound of brown sugar, and a little salt, in two gallons of water for one hour; when milk-warm, bottle it and cork it close: it will be fit for use in twenty-four hours. One pint of this will make 18lb. of bread.—To a pound of mashed pota- toes (mealy ones are best) add two ounces of brown sugar, and two spoonfuls of common yeast; the potatoes first to be pulped through a cullender, and mixed with warm water to a proper consistence. ‘Thus a pound of potatoes will make a quart of good yeast. Keep it moderately warm while fermenting.—This recipe is in substance from Dr. Hunter, who observes that yeast so made will keep well. No sugar is used by bakers; when adding the pulp of potatoes to their 77sing.— Yorkshire Gazette. ——— PRESERVATION OF GRAIN, &c. FROM MICE. The following effectual method to prevent mice from eating the grain in stacks or mows, and cheese and other articles, can- not be made too generally known :— Mr. Macdonald, of Scalpa, in the Hebrides, having, some years ago, suffered considerably by mice, put at the bottom, near the centre, and at the top of each stack or mow, as it was raised, three or four stalks of wild mint, with the leaves on; gathered near a brook in a neighbouring field, and never after had any of his grain consumed. He then tried the same ex- periment with his cheese, and other articles kept in store and often injured by mice, and with equal effect, by laying a few leaves, green or dry, on the article to be preserved. NEW LITERARY INSTITUTION. A meeting was held on the 17th Feb. with a view to the establishment of a new Literary Institution in the neighbour- hood of St. Paul’s. The Royal, London, and Russell Institu- tions being placed respectively in the western, eastern, and northern Chinese Sheet Lead,— Antiquities. 145 northern extremities of the metropolis, something of this kind seems to be desirable for those who inhabit or frequent the middle of the town. It is to be called the Metropolitan Lite- rary Institution. This design has originated, we believe, in consequence of a crisis in the affairs of the Surry Institution, produced by its having been carried on in too expensive a manner. A number of the subscribers resident on the south side of the Thames have also announced a proposal for a new Surry Institution on a more economical plan. CHINESE SHEET LEAD. The following account of the Chinese method of making thin sheets of lead was communicated to Dr. Brewster by Mr. Waddell, who during his residence in China obtained much information respecting the arts of that singular country. The operation is carried on by two men; one is seated on the floor with a large flat stone before him, and with a moveable flat stone-stand at his side. His fellow workman stands be- side him with a crucible filled with melted lead; and having poured a certain quantity upon the stone, the other lifts the moveable stone, and dashing it on the fluid lead presses it out into a flat and thin plate, which he instantly removes from the stone. A second quantity of lead is poured in a similar man- ner, and a similar plate formed, the process being carried on with singular rapidity. The rough edges of the plates are then cut off, and they are soldered together for use. Mr. Waddell has applied this method with great success to the formation of thin plates of zinc, for galvanic purposes. ANTIQUITIES. Paris.—The spirit of criticism and analysis with which the antiquities of Egypt are now investigated, daily conducts to the same goal men of letters who follow the most different routes. Thus M. Champollion jun., who applies with so much success to the investigation of the ancient writing of Egypt, and M. Lehonne, who endeavours to explain the Greek and Latin inscriptions found in that country, have both arrived at the same results; for the discovery of the phonetic hierogly- phics, which we owe to the former, has only confirmed, with regard to the date of productions of Egyptian art, the con- clusions which the latter had drawn two years ago from the inscriptions engraved on the facade of certain temples, and which M, Champollion discovers by the designs of the bas- reliefs of the great portico of Esné,—that the zodiac of that temple was carved under the reign of the Emperor Claudius. We are informed that M. Lehonne proves, from Greek in- scriptions discovered in the temple of Esné, that the zodiac Vol. 61. No. 298. Feb. 1823. T sculptured 146 Mock-Suns.— Electro-Magnetic Experiments. sculptured on the ceiling of the pronaos of that edifice was made in the reign of Antoninus. Now this zodiac, as well as that of the great temple, begins with the sign of the Virgin, and the date of it had been also fixed at three thousand years before the Christian era. The temple itself, the erection of which was assigned to that remote period, is not anterior to the reign of Adrian. As for the planisphere of Denderah, we know that M. Champollion reads on it in phonetic hieroglyphics the word Autokrator, and assigns it to the reign of Nero. M. Le- honne had also proved from Greek inscriptions, that the rectan- gular zodiac of the pronaos must belong to the reign of Tiberius. It may therefore be considered, as a fact resulting from posi- tive researches, that not one of the four famous zodiacs dis- covered in Egypt is anterior to the dominion of the Romans in that country. ‘Lhe important facts connected with this question are laid down by M. Lehonne in a work which will appear in a few days, under the following title: ¢ Researches into the History of Egypt during the domination of the Greeks and Romans; derived from Greek and Latin inscriptions, re- lative to the Chronology, the state of the Arts, the civil and re- ligious Usages of that Country.’ 1 Vol. 8vo, pp. 600, with fac- similes.— Zhe Museum. §5£—————— MOCK SUNS. At Dalmellington, Ayrshire, about mid-day on Saturday 25th January, four suns were observed in the firmament at one time. An uncommon vivid halo, resembling a rainbow, half-circled each of the mock suns, while the natural one was entirely surrounded. The appearance of the whole was ex- tremely beautiful, and exceeded in brilliancy and splendour any thing of a similar nature which has occurred in the me- mory of the oldest shepherds in that quarter. This phaenome- non, though varied in appearance, was likewise visible at Ayr, and in other places of the county.— Ayr Courier. NEW ELECTRO-MAGNETIC EXPERIMENTS, The following is a very curious and simple electro-magnetic experiment made by Dr. Sebeck of Berlin. Take a bar of antimony, about eight inches long, and half an inch thick; connect its extremities by twisting a piece of brass wire round them so as to form a loop, each end of the bar having several coils of the wire. If one of the extremities be heated for a short time with a spirit-lamp, electro-magnetic phanomena may be exhibited in every part of it— Ann. Phil. iv. 313. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. A Bill for the Equalization of Weights and Measures has just been brought into the House of Commons by Sir G. Clerk. or ee Oil Gas in France. 147 OIL GAS IN FRANCE. Mr. Taylor’s invention for producing gas from oil offers to all countries the means of enjoying the advantages of gas- light, without injuring the oil trade, or accelerating the con- sumption of coals. ‘The following amusing discussion in the Chamber of Deputies informs us that our Parisian neighbours are attending to the subject. In our own country, Messrs. Taylor and Martineau are employed to erect their oil-gas ap- paratus in Dublin, Liverpool, Bristol, and several other large towns. The following debate took place in the Chamber of Depu- ties on the 22d instant: “ M. Demar.ty, alanded gentleman at Lille, required that the usage of hydrogen gas should be pro- hibited in France [/aughter], in consequence of the distress its use occasioned to the merchants, manufacturers of oil, and cul- tivators of oleaginous seeds and plants [voice on the left, ‘ Re- fer that to the /zterati’]. M. Banine—The cultivation of olea- ginous plants has increased within a few years very much in our country; but the use of gas has also extended itself, and the manufacturers of oil seem to dread the progress of this new light [laughter]. A wise Government ought equally to protect every species of industry, on the value of which experience and individual interest can alone decide. M. Lecronex Ducuave- LetT—Lighting by gas tends to augment the consumption of coal, which is already not sufficiently plentiful for the various uses for which it is required, while our markets are crowded with oils which find no purchasers. It seems to me, that by placing limits to the employment of gas, we should procure a greater quantity of combustibles for our own manufactories, and a surer sale for the oleaginous productions of our soil. I move that the petition be referred to the Ministers. M. pr Laporpr —The Chamber ought not to enter into questions of private interest. It is very natural that oil merchants should be jea- lous of the employment of gas; just as we might expect the wax dealer should petition against the use of tallow, the small- beer brewers should desire the suppression of all ale making, and the whole tribe of beer makers and sellers should request us to shut up coffee-houses, and forbid the use of all other drink but what is made from malt and hops [laughter]. M. bE BourriennE—I think it necessary to inform those who cul- tivate plants from which oil is made, that gas is now not only extracted from coals, but also from several oleaginous sub- stances. ‘The Company just established in Paris only em- th oleaginous substances to produce gas; and the result will be, that in place of employing coal, nothing else will be used to supply gas, but the oleaginous produce of our own soil.” TZ Results Meteorological Summary for 1822.—Y orkshire. 148 OL-LE [8 |G | GGINLS/SHIPE|9G|6E} FEI T|Sa/SS|TG\oEF 6¢ 86-1 L8°6 o8-¥ L9-0 09-€ 00 9 OF-3 96-6 $LG 18-€ OL 96. ‘Dy ‘seyouy ut Ayyueng, ‘uleY ‘omg T0684] GZ | 78 | SEI) 9898 69'S |60L-66|G0 8% | 0-08 | ‘sueayw jenauy | yee | | | | | fel 010] 9 Ys Io Ie {a Ir Is Io J9 J¢ 49 Ir GI | 69-6 09:3 |G66-66190-86 |99-06 | ‘29a 0 {0 | 0G Fx 16 JG J% JO JsTOljS Jo 10 jo 9 | 89-8 GG-1 1096 66) 19.83 |90-0S | “AON 010 | PT Ip 19 IL IT IS Iu Jala Io Io {a 6I } 16h 86-0 |966 66136-83 |06-63 | ‘90 0101 % fr }9 {0 JO Jo Jollo |O Jo Jo II ¥I | 9LG¢ TI-T |¥9L-60| 60-63 |03-06 | ‘3dag 0 j0 | SI Jr IE JP J3 Ie JSlle Jo IL JE {0 €l | 68-7 80:1 {919-63} 30-6 |O1-0g snsny 0 |0 | 6B fo {oO |b IE Ie I¢ jo IE Ie I¥ IE Gl} Ing LUO 171 63} 01-63 |L8-66 | Aine 01019 Io {ft |8 IE Ie Jo jo Jo Ie |b 19 Gl | t9F LO 0 |866.6310S-60 |L10¢ | eunc 00} ¢ fr {a IE Jo [a |o Jo IO ju {Stfo gL | 6ug GO-l |LSg.6%} 06-6 |Gg 06 | API G |L | OL fz {¢ IT |¢ Ig IL Ig 19 13 IS IP OL | 0g. 66:1 |05L-63} 96-83 |rs os | IMdy 61916 fe {6 |0 | Is |STlp IL Jo jo IL LU} €UOl | 09-1 1189.63} 08-86 | 08-08 | 42eTAT O10} & Fr |? [2 1G J¢ [ele JO JO JO JL SL | 69-41 } SFG |8L.601 93-86 |OL-08 |. “99H OL] 6 Fe IL 13 {9 Jory jo JO jt | IE LI | 86-9 LIL |0L8.62] 01-63 [L208 | “Ger yids t YL Ie “OW alge steizisiaisia lel als 8 2] ssoyouy |:e3uey! “pay | aww | -xeq | ‘suuo =| 4/2 DR) go) | =a x : Wo} Ul pequos 24 (6 C ® | -ap savedg *19yJBIM “SpulA, *JaJIUIOUIIIY f, *JoyaMOIeg ‘bs ‘NOLMDOLG save fg ZBI 4DaK ay} ut ‘asrysysoX Suoynpy Man yo yday sazsisagy yorsojoL0ajapy v fo sysayy (‘gf ‘d wo.y panuyuo)) Suvayx IsVd THL XOX SNOILVAUASAOQ TVIINOTOUOTLA, JO SAIUVWWOG TAL ANNI Meteorological Summary for 1822.—Yorkshire. 149 ANNUAL RESULTS. Barometer. Inches. Highest observations, Feb. 27th. Wind N.W. 30°700 Lowest ditto, Dec. 5th. Wind var. & temp. 28-050 Maupe of the Merevry cee Seyse eke eee wee cee GSD Mean annual barometrical pressure... ... «2 —29°703 Greatest range of the mercury in December she 2°600 Least _ ditto ditto in June... B 0°670 _ Mean annual range of ditto ... 0... see eee ons 1°:360 Mipages. described by ditto 0.0 os fess. Sets +e. ;-85°S50 Total number of changes in the year ... ... «.. 195°000 : Six’s Thermometer. 5 Greatest observation, June 5th. Wind var. +» 84°000 Least ditto Dec. 28th Wind SE. se | 25°000 Range of the mercury in the thermometer ... ... 59°000 Mean annual temperature... 9... see eee oer = 48°90] Greatest range in June ase) Lsee., weer, peer vee,,., 42°000 Least ditto in January and December ... ... 20-000 Mean-aurnal ditto: (68 sea stk gece Si.) 29°00D Winds. Days. Merde dnd Mast Ai ase. ee aly Secs BS North-East and South-East ... 0. cee ose 0 76 SUMAN WALES, 44 ansh cusaen s badeeeed ltewer lise ean, SO South-West and North-West eld) ae lose) sobs ony LEO Vere) O61 ise. + Roooksel:. ded Sete dAehO: aaa. os | BS Rain. Inches. Greatest quantity in July © 42.) 008 seo see one 6:000 Least ditto; in December, 439 22) cscly. ies 1-280 Total ‘amount “for the*yéar’ ss ee see eee sen ©) 3'7°EOD OBSERVATIONS. Pressure.—The greatest range of the mercury, which is nearly that for the year, took place in December, and notwith- standing the amount of rain, the spaces described in inches and the number of changes in the direction of the column, are less than usual, while the mean is higher than for some time ast. a Temperature-— The mean temperature for the year just elapsed is 1° higher than that of the preceding one. ‘The months of April, May, August, September and December, were considerably warmer in 1821 than the correspondin ones of last year, while the three first months, and June an July, are as much the reverse. The means of October an November in both periods are nearly alike. . Rain.—The amount of rain exceeds that of last year m3 war 150 Meteorological Summary for 1822.—Kent. wards of eight inches, and is the wettest we have had since 1816. The greatest monthly quantity fell in July, attended on five successive days with most tremendous thunder and lightning. I am yours, &c. New Malton, Feb. 5, 1823. JAMES STOCKTON. Register of Rain and Evaporation kept at Croom’s Hill, Green- wich, during the Year 1822, by Henry Lawson, Esq. N. B. The rims of the Rain-Gauge and Evaporator are placed just four feet from the ground. Livapo- Rain. |ration. 1822. From 7 to 14 July.} 0-528 | 0-744 Dec.30 to 6 Jan. | 0: : 14 to 21 0-770 | 0:840 6 to 13 D . 21 to 28 0-645 | 0-798 13 to “0: b 28 to 4 Aug.| 0-602 | 0-604 20 to . . , 1] 0-060 | 0 676 27 to | 0 : 0-110 | 0-726 Feb. 3 to Gs ; 0-834 | 0.866 10 to H . pe .| 0-533 | 0-650 17 to E : : 8 0-055 | 0-681 0-026 | 0 569 0-015 | 0-461 1-427 | 0:300 . {0-711 | 0261 0-823 | 0:350 1-680 | 0-365 0-496 | 0-475 . | 0-085 | 0-172 0:248 | 0-131 2:040 | 0-146 0-961 | 0-191 . | 0-610 | 0-123 1-524 | 0-065 0-068 | 0-062 |June2 to 9 : : ‘ 0:040 | 0-056 9 to F 5 0-058 | 0-057 16 to —_—_- 23 to : : Total Inches.}24:299 |23:341 30 to : Rain. Evaporation, There fell ‘n 1817 66 259349 ee. wee * 22227 1818 ... 24:252 ... «. 27°064 1819.5. 5 27°339' 4.0 200 ©6921 °369 F820 218000 QS-274 cess > weet) 19°680 182] 3h BUT4B! Oca. © eee! 205507 1822 ... 24°299 .6 we 23°34] METEORO- 0-99 660| G.L9| $-LS| 1-LP6z/001] Z1-ES] PP-ZS| Zz-ZS| 29-65] O€ | Z-1£] 10-FS|9z|Z8] £6-62| £6.62] £6.62) 06-0 | Of-69 upset P£6-62| 00-6% | OL.08 2z8t 410} SaDLIOAY ; PEl9S|06 | 26-15) 61-LE| 79-SE} 18-07 1S] 66-62] 66-62] 00-0] 19-0 |Z%-9 | ST | OS-1 | 266.62) 00-6% | OS-0€ | equiavaq .91| 9-LL| 9:9] 6£|SS|P6 | 99-PS} 09-6F| 0f-SF| C7-£S} OT 29} PL-62) €L-62| €L-62} 6F-0 | 02-L | 6% | 11-1] 82-62} 61-62% | O£-0£ | Tequioaon Z-GL|9-S9] 6£/ZS|16 | 0S-SS} 79-£S} O£.€S] ZS-6S| 1z 69] S9-62! 9-62 F9-6z! OL-0 | 76-2 | If | 26-0] 679-62) SZ-62 | L1-0€ |" 2990390 ¥-6 Z9|9-0S| COEISG FPS.SSIES-LS| E1-LS) 99.79} 02 ZL| F6-62| F6-62| F6-6z| L¥-0 |Zz-S | 1% | 00-1] ZP6-6z] 02-62 | 03-0£ |requiaydag BES . 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PL-6£| ZP-9F| OT PSI Z1-0f] 01-08] o1-0€| 12-0 | 99-4 | ES | TE-LPETT-O€] O1-6 | TF-0F | Axtenuer ° °o ° ° ° ° ° ‘ul ul uy ‘uy ‘ul ‘ul uy ‘ul ‘uy is} «Sl 0 2] 38 : i] ole al pelowl= 2) eele® melwel| Seleeslegiez & SSL Blas sz =) st a.8 rE Sls a Ps Se rele gs ZB 5°] 3S Jrerpoyy) ‘UA ] “xepr | ‘SwpuoT SelsclSsl22|'|"|aolSs|se| Be lfe Be|Fe| Fe /22s) 25 (99) * co oe or ” oO ag co - Zz be’ oe 7 co v oe . . a> srayoWOASATT 89] od g g ‘QOUMIOULIATLT, SurzaysiJa1-jpag *rOaWOIE "8S ,F ONY, UT “YOIMuIaary Jo IS9AQ ,L of “SuOT ‘YMON ,OF LF OF WT ‘A’°TT ‘sanuog wii, Ag ‘squpzy “44odsoxy ‘huapvoy ayz fo hiognasasqQ ay2 7M 1d9y “GERI Lv2K ay} 40f JoUdnoe? porHojowajayy V Jo syynsayy Meteorological Summary for 1822.—Hampshire. wo “a CL A on Ice Se CLR oe GlOgn nim: ‘ SeSHHoaneSraa| B -oap ‘sayouy UT Urey USSR Seer ake g pa Shalt CARATS HHAHOKRA 2 29 19 19 © 1919 1N1N.O 18D 1910 Ye) DAASDONMAAIHNS a ‘sayouy ut uomeiodeag | OA AMOMDOKOCARS Q 3 “repuny,y, omooscananoan] FF a g BSumysty 4 fonocoamateroan |] & 6 HOVOOTHHSCSCHA aa S *S109}9 TAT onl Oeste ct & ay *sMOqUIeY PSS ome Ceres & ‘sqreyT awunT Jmoecaccoangnaa | gs ‘soyeyy avpog — PO HNN AAMAS TRS a ‘wuapsueg |ooooooongmooo | 6 i} 8 “eae Jrotmaanacooo|] FF 3 < “eau econnon9OoOnOO rs} *shUq HODHOnRORHONOe Ve) yo soquiny, pejoz, | PAR POPPMIBIIG 2 ‘oy ¢ [SS Sovansoe + | a ; Je, eH =) oT 5 : istic & Bot lonmoooo Mao | = BloStey Hie Hit colt § | -Ay¥g ysBQ10A0 UY rhOO NOOO a | 5 HA epnojg WE “Ae |=sn8 See ce Saye Lond Hie wie *A¥g Ivap VW sottonotanae | ps) . c fe. 2) o xt Len] snqutiny SS ja Ct CUR a a % a gone | C 5 | “smensojnuing | ORY SOS eee she ee Ps | S is) Ro) Ro) [| smug |Zazsasetesese| 8 g “snyeg [Se S S58 SS Sal Ss 3 5 DALMSOODODDND rs) s STIIVIISOLITY | RASRSSRSRARES | ~ S ise) uc A | smmumong [HSesaassaseo| gs = : rmMmoaonne tort =) STEEL |Eeenansaaads | 6 sen eintaeneniats she. HOHOHOmHMMOMOR Ne) jo saquinyy pero, | SP 62 9269.09.09. OD. 09 2 Hania His Hie as as) “4589 MA -(HON [SSS Saaass | 12 A Ale AIA He mle ) 3 B59 M loGnadansoane au = sa 0 | SEA ao Fonts © 4S =| _ ES WIM-"YMoG | Omowaste < 2 3 no Lee ta “aandto ww [on _ oletesert s: mens Rates | Se Hie Hiaeic Ie let Hie ° ‘seq -YINOG | THOTEOMAArAKA I 4 mS a “yseuy Jonoaonaames” “o | a no sean s . -) et Land sey -YION Jo - © oS Hele Aerie ja “qON [Sao te aaad = | = be ke 2 orevg yn =| So v9 ao 2° aezexsy v | a2 o2 By nOZA 42 Meteorological Summary for 1822.—Hampshire. 158 ANNUAL RESULTS FOR 1822. Barometer. Inches. Greatest pressure of the atmosphere, Feb. 28th. Wind EF, 30°70 Least ditto,. ditto Dec. 2d. Wind W. 29:00 Range of the mercury . 1°70 Annual mean pressure of the atmosphere . i007 29°934 Mean pressure for 170 days, with the moon in North declination . . 29°902 Mean pressure for 183 days mala hee moon in South declination . . 1p o= ~~ BO°894 Annual mean pressure at 8 oO >dlook: A. M. be +-4.99°932 poet ee eat So aacladke aN 4 ea IP 89932 at.8.dicladkin Jame. "3! Hi 0°560 Greatest annual variation in 24 hours in March: ‘ 0900 Least of the greatest variations in 24 hours in June 0°350 Sum of the spaces described by the alternate rising and falling of the mercury . . .... +69°300 Number of changes, caused by the nee in the weight of the atmospheric column . . ... 272 Self-registering Day and Night. Thermometer. Greatest thermometrical heat, June 11th. Wind N.E. 87° cold, Dec. 29th. Wind E. 26 Range of thermometer between the extremes. . 61 Annual mean temperature of the external air . . 54°01 of do. atS AM... 52°22 of do. at8 P.M... 52°44 —__—__- mi — do. at PIMs, |: 59°62 Greatest rangein May . . ie 41°00 Least of the monthly ranges in January. pi haeles (is 24°00 Annual mean range. ee 31°20 Greatest annual variation. i in 24 hours in June . 30°00 Least of the greatest variations in 24 hoursin January =~ and November © .~. . 16°00 Annual mean temperature of spring ‘water at 8 AM. 53°12 De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer. Degrees, Greatest humidity of the atmosphere on the 17th Feb. 100 Greatest dryness of ditto on the 5th June 29 Range of the hygrometer between the extremes . . 71 Annual mean of ditto at 8 o’clock ALM. . . + .- 67°5 at 8 oclock P.M. . 9... .- 69°9 at 2o’clock R.M. .... . - 57°5 at 8,2, and 8o’clock .. . 65°0 Vol. 61. No. 298. Feb. 1823. U Greatest oe 154 Meteorological Summary for 1822.—Hampshire. Greatest mean monthly penny of the qmeephens in January . 78°9 Greatest mean monthly dr yness of the re atmosphere i in A i ala i i a nae a ; pn ee 48°44 Position. of the Winds. Days. From North to North-East... . . . . 243 North-Wast: te Haste) Or ease ape el Sash tose Mast os bo antral ree + |Seuthlast to South: i720. cP Yves made s—— South to South-West) lsh". Actin =: ‘Southewesnita, Wiest?) tt Sato") eae a West to NorthWest! oS. =. North West towNorth 2 2 eS E : 365 Clouds, agreeably to the Nomenclature ; or the number of days on which each modification has appeared, Days. OUI ee TS ere nad ict eee ame Cirrc-cumulus’ ). ive. al ce eco cep ot ee GHETURSEDALLISt ice on ot Late oriotece ar as oth Ler peierethh cous EPG ee ee bee in ee en Gamitlsncsen ee AGA Cae ae hick icls rat Sate: Cumulostratuss «air + chitown deascero yi eee OL Nimo 11Sie dis at eh Be Fuliinrencand oot ee Oe General State of the Weather. Days. A transparent atmosphere without clouds . 453 Fair, with various modifications of clouds . 163 An overcast sky, withoutrain . . . . . 87} Lg Me i eek eal Ret TAL 2 SE aha Mle 29 CRETE RT 5 Rain; hail, and sleet: ie te ¢ pCR POO Gee 365 Atmospheric Phenomena. No. Anthelia, or mock-suns diametrically opposite to the true sun to cela : Parhelia, OF tno GS UTSiing Stes: Gasp kien aa? Pesocre Paraselenze, or mock-moons ..... . 5 Solar halos aye nee eh G2 Re ae Lunar halos’... . S38 oll (0.40). fuse ae Rainbows, solar and limar ais =. cc it) SeghveD aap Meteors of various sizes . . sloth) Lightning, days on which it happened «> Glee 5 a ditto ditto «erage th Evaporation. Inches. Greatest monthly quantity in June. . . 8°75 Meteorological Summary for 1822.—Hampshire. 155 Least monthly quantity in January . . . 0°95 Total amount for the year. . . . . . 49°15 Rain. Greatest monthly quantity in November . 7.500 Least monthly quantityin June . . . . =0°385 Total amount for the year near the ground 33°487 N. B. The barometer is hung up in the observatory 50 feet above low-water mark; and the self-registering horizontal day and night thermometer, and De Luc’s whalebone hygrometer, are placed in open-worked cases, in a northern aspect, out of the rays of the sun, ten feet above the garden ground. The pluviameter and evaporator have respectively the same square. area: the former is emptied every morning at 8 A.M. after rain, into a cylindrical glass gauge accurately graduated to ;1,th of an inch; and the quantity lost by evaporation from the latter is ascertained at least every third day, and sometimes oftener when great evaporations happen by means of a high tempera- ture and dry northerly or easterly winds. BarometricaL Pressure.—The mercurial column this year has shown no unusual elevation nor depression: it has not fallen so low by ;%,ths of an inch as in 1821.—The mean pressure is ,1,ths of an inch higher than that of the last year, and 13 ths of an inch higher than the mean of any year since the close of 1814; but the aggregate of the spaces described by the alternate rising and falling of the mercury is 114th inches less. ‘This high mean pressure, which will no doubt be found by every meteorologist to have obtained this year, may be justly attributed to the fine dry weather the first half of the year. For 170 days that the moon had a North decli- nation, the mean pressure was only ;3,th of an inch higher than that in the 183 days of her South declination. So equal an annual pressure with the moon on each side of the Equi- noctial, does not obtain in very wet years, as in 1816 and 1821. Temperature.—The mean temperature of the external air a few feet from the ground, is higher than that of any other year during the last eight years, and 14° higher than the warm year 1818. This is the result of a remarkably mild winter and spring year. ‘The winter and spring months are also stated to have been very mild, with a humid air in the northern parts of Europe; while in the several countries of South America the cold was so unusually severe, as to have been considered a most extraordinary phenomenon in the climate of that country. It is a remarkable circumstance in our climate when the monthly mean temperature is highest in June by {ths of a degree: such, however, was the case this year, an anomaly which we have not before experienced in the course of our U2 thermo- 156 Meteorological Summary for 1822.— Hampshire. thermomietrical. observations. ‘The mean temperature of May, too, was higher than the: mean of September, which is also unusual: it was the means of the most early hay-making, and of the earliest completion of an abundant corn harvest, we can remember: in short, it brought on an early and dry summer that was almost equal in its monthly mean temperature. The annual mean temperature of the air at 8 o’clock A.M. and 8 P.M. coincide within }th of a degree; but they deviate from the mean of the extremes nearly 17°. The annual mean temperature e& spring water as taken at 8 A.M. is nearly a degree less thai he annual mean temperature of the air: last year it was rather more than a degree minus. The maximum temperature of the ground, as inferred from the temperature of spring water, took place at the latter end of September, a fortnight sooner than in 1821. he mean state of the air, by De Luc’s whalebone hygro- meter, is 5°°8 drier than the preceding year, and ;%ths of a degree drier than that of the dry year 1820. After so dry an air, the two very wet autumnal months, October and Novem- ber, which afforded almost the one-half of the year’s depth of rain, was most powerfully felt by the human constitution, in the attacks of acute rheumatism and asthma. Winp.—There is a near coincidence in the position and duration of the reigning winds this and the preceding year ; the South- West having prevailed longer, and the North shorter, than from the other points of the compass. The next greatest durations are in the North-East and North-West winds. The remarks on the winds in our annual meteorological results for 1821, in vol. lix. pages 276 and 277 of the Philosophical Ma- gazine and Journal, still hold good, and they supersede the necessity of further explanations thereon at present. The fol- lowing is the number of strong gales of wind, or days on which they have prevailed this year, namely: N. IN-E,| E. |sx.| s. |s.w.! Ww. |N.W.| Days. — { 5 |12| 4 5 | ss | 5% 5 | 8 CiLoups.—Of these we have only to remark that the czrrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus, have been more prevalent, and the stratus and nimbus less in appearance than in former years, when a similar quantity of rain has fallen. There has not been so great a display of atmospheric phenomena this year as last, excepting lightning, thunder, and meteors.— With regard to the meteors, almost one-half of the annual number was seen in August: Meteorological Summary for 1822.—London. 157 August: this coincides nearly with the proportion of meteors which that month bears to the annual number that have been seen here for some years past. Now, as the maximum temperature of the ground takes place generally at the close of August, or the beginning of Septem- ber, which is some time after the greatest summer heat of the sun’s rays, it naturally induces a belief that the exhalations from the earth, (whose composition must be of various gaseous qualities,) uniting with the gases of the atmosphere, may be the chief agent in their production, particularly, as these sum- mer meteors are much nearer the ground than those seen in the winter evenings. The evaporation is more than double that of last year; which is but a natural result, considering the dryness of the spring and summer months, and the uncommonly ~ high mean temperature of the air. Rain has fallen more or less on 181 days, of which 64 whole days and nights is the real time it has rained. July, October, and November, afforded more than one-half of the amount of this year’s rain; and June, July, August, and September, more than one-half the amount of the evaporation. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Corncip1Ne in opinion with my worthy friend, and your able and scientific correspondent, Mr. Thomas Squire of Epping, that the best practical results would ensue from a comparison - of meteorological observations throughout the country, I have forwarded you the mean atmospheric pressure, in its effect upon a column of mercury, taken at 10 0’clock daily in the City ; also the maximum and minimum of the same for each month of the past year; the elevation of the place, taken at the mean of several observations, at 60 feet above the level of the sea: assuming as data the correctness of the given elevation of the apartments of the Royal Society, Somerset-House, the latitude of the place of observation 51° 30’ 38”, the longitude 212 (in time) west of Greenwich; the radius of the earth assumed as $954°590 miles. I have stated the elevation particularly ; which should always be given where known, as the force of gravity increases inversely as the square of the distance from the earth’s centre. I am, gentlemen, Your obedient servant, Cornhill, 15th Feb. 1823, R. WEBsTER. 158 Barometric Observations.—On portable Barometers. 1822. January. Inches. July. Inches. Mean height . 80°098 Mean height 71299761 Maximum » » 30°40 Maximum . . 30°15 . Minimum . . . 29°65 Minimum. . . 29°45 Maximum range. 0°75 Maximum range. 0°70 February. August. Mean height . . 30°063 Meanheight . . 29°890 Maximum . . 30°55 Maximum ... 30°20 Minimum... . 29°30 Minimum . . . 29°50 Maximum range. =-:1'25 Maximum range. 0°70 March. September. Mean height . . 30°014 Mean height. . 29°936 Maximum . . 30°35 . Maximum . . 30°15 Minimum. . . 29°55 . Minimum. . . 29°40 Maximum range. 0°80 - Maximum range. 0°75 April. October. Mean height . . 29°906 Meanheight . . 29°733 Maximum 4 [a 28025 Maximum a, tet SOMO Minimum. . . 29°40 Minimum. . . 29°35 Maximum range. 0°85 Maximum range. 0°75 May. November. Mean height . . 29°954 Meanheight . . 29°76 Maximum - - 30°40 Maximum oe seuSPs Minimum. . . 29°35 Minimum. . . 29°35 Maximum range. —=1°05 Maximum range. 0:90 June, > December. Mean height . . 30°015 Meanheight . . 30:03 Maximum 5 ESOS Maximum - + 30°45 Minimum. . . 29°65 Minimum. . . 29:10 Maximum range. 0°50 Maximum range. 1°35 Mean of the whole year . . . 29.930 Maximum of the year. © . . 30.55 Minimum of the year. . . «29°10 Barometrical range of the year . 1°45 ON PORTABLE BAROMETERS. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Havine for some time paid attention to the mode of deter- mining the heights of places by means of the barometer, I beg leave to observe, in reference to asuggestion of Mr. Squire, in page 75 of your last Number, of a defect in the common porta- ble barometers, from the uncertainty of the relative capacities of the tube and cistern, that it is possible that some instru- ment-makers may omit to mark on some part of the instru- ment List of New Patents. 159 ment this requisite information; but I deem it justice to state, that all the best made barometers have, for a long time, been marked in the way suggested, chiefly, I believe, on the tube with a diamond. There is another source of error, not noticed by Mr. Squire, and it is of some importance; I mean the correct position of the scale, relative to the basin, which renders it necessary that, in addition to the ratio of the tube to the basin, there should also be on some part of the instrument the equation, or correc- tion to be applied to the scale. As there may be some little difference in the specific gravity of the mereury used, it would give satisfaction to the more ac- curate observer, if some kind of proof or trial was made of all the portable instruments, with a good standard barometer, at Jeast until a variation of one inch had been carefully observed and registered, from which the future corrections might be cal- culated. I am, gentlemen, yours truly, Leighton, 18th Jan. 1523. B. Bevan. P.S. The thermometer at Leighton, exposed in the open air in the night between the 18th and 19th of January, was at 1°, or 31° under the freezing point; and the following night at 3°. . LIST OF NEW PATENTS, To William Gossage, of Leamington Priors, Warwickshire, chemist and druggist, for a portable alarum to be attached to and detached from clocks and watches, and which may be regulated to take effect at any given period of time.—Dated the 11th February 1823.—2 months allowed to enrol spe- cifications. To Nathaniel Partridge, of Bowbridge, near Stroud, Gloucestershire, dyer, for improvements in the setting or fixing of steam boilers, or other coppers, by which a considerable saving of fuel will be effected, and the smoke more effectually consumed.—14th Feb.—6 months. To Thomas Fuller, of the city of Bath, Somersetshire, coach-builder, for his improvement in the construction of shafts, and the mode of attaching them to two-wheeled carriages.—18th Feb.—2 months. To Philip Chell, of Earl’s Court, Kensington, Middlesex, engineer, for certain improveinents on machinery for drawing, roving, and spinning hemp, flax, and waste silk.—Feb.—6 months. To Augustus Applegath, of Duke-street, Stamford-street, Blackfriars- ‘ road, Surry, printer, for certain improvements in printing machines.—Feb. —6 months. To Thomas Bury, of Salford, Manchester, Lancashire, dyer, for his im- provement in dyeing or producing a permanent nankeen colour on cotton wool, skein yarn, and certain other articles—Feb.—2 months. To Francis Deakin, of Birmingham, Warwickshire, sword-maker, for his improvements to piano-fortes and other stringed instruments.—Feb.—6 months. To William Church, of Nelson-square, Surry, gentleman, for his im- proved apparatus for printing, to be used by type, block, or plate printers. —Feb.—6 months, METEORO- 160 . Meteorology. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. The London Observations by Mr. Cary of the Strand. The Boston Observations by Mr. Samuet VEALL. Thermometer. Height of Days of | London. | Boston. the Barom. Weather, Month. | als Inches. BiiMetherg 1823. A 2 ft Lond. | Boston} London. Boston. >I | | | Jan. 27/30/32'40) 30 |29-60|29-5O)sicet Snow—heavy rain at 28/40/4345] 37 °52129°34)Rain |Rain [night 29/43 49,49 46 °15/28°90)|Showery| Ditto 30|43 47/43 46°5 *54/29°30|Cloudy |Fine 31/42/4240) 38°5 | °12/29-:04|Cloudy |Cloudy Feb. 1/37/38.37| 34 |98°78!28-76|Rain Do.—snow A.M, 2137/4240] 39 *67/28°60|Cloudy |Rain 3/42/42 36] 38 = |29°05|28°85|Rain Ditto 4132137 32) 36 *31/29°10| Fair Stormy 5|28|35 30) 33 *75/29°60|Kair Fine. Snow e.m. 6/30/31 30) 29 *54/29°50\Snow — |Cloudy 7|33|39 43] 32 *17/29°14)Rain Snow 8|35|40 36] 36°5 52|29°30| Fair Pine 4443) 39 °72'29°50|Fair Cloudy 10/43/4541] 41°5 | +25/29°14)Rain .|Cloudy ( 11)/43)51/4°7| 50 *4.5/29-10|Showery|Cloudy 12/50'50 43} 49 *4.0/29-05|Cloudy |Fine 13 35/45 4.0) 40 *70/29°4.5| Fair Fine 14|42,43 38] 46 *47/29:20|Showery|Cloudy 15/38|38)33} 40 °97|29°75|Rain Rain 16|37|40/34| 38°5 |30°27/30°12|Cloudy |Rain 17|33|38.33| 37°5 | *18|29-90|Cloudy {Cloudy 18/34/41/40] 38°5 |29°60/29°43|Stormy |Stormy. Snow A.M. 19)43/45/38] 41°5 *4.0|29°05| Fair Fine [heavy rain at 20)35\44:4.0] 42 *99/29°65| Fair Fine [night 21/43 48149 49 45/29°06|Stormy |Stormy and Rain 22|4:3|45|38) 43 *52|29°24/Showery|Fine 2340/46/43) 41°5 | *58/29°33/Rain — |Rain—stormy night 24/42/48/38) 47°5 | °72|/29°30| Fair Fine—stormy A.M. @ 25)37\44/49! 41 *35/29°10|Stormy /Rain 26/35/42| |41°5 | °12/28°78\Fair = |Fine The quantity of Rain in London since the 26th Jan. amounts to 4:95, The following are some observations contained in a letter from Amster- dam, where the thaw commenced on the 28th of January:—At Utrecht, January 22, 10 p.m. Fahrenheit’s thermometer was *4 below 0; and at 3 the following morning *8 under 0. Utrecht, 23d January, 7 a.m. *11 below 0; at Rotterdam, a thermometer by Dollond, which in the severe winter of 1798-9 was only «4 below 0, stood on the 23d January at 8 a.m. at ‘74 below 0.— Morn. Chron. Feb, 3, woplury ig umvig TAITO NOLNVLSNAH 2 PIOUS YTPHUD OY? SP NOLL IIS UW ll TXT VA PON UAT 7 = - - rt— eC THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL. 31° MAR CH 1823. XXXIV. On the Orbit of the Planet Vusta. By A Con- RESPONDENT. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. GENTLEMEN, HAVING amused myself, during the autumn of 1821, in calculating the place of Vesta, at intervals between the beginning of April and the end of July 1822, from Daussy’s Tables (in Connaissance des Tems 1820), with a design of making some observations on the meridian; I was mortified, on receiving Bode’s Ephemeris for 1824, to find that my cal- culations differed considerably from: those given by the author for certain days in the above months. However, when Mr. Groombridge communicated to the Astronomical Society an Ephemeris for the opposition of the four small planets in the summer of 1822, (and which was inserted in the Philosophi- cal Magazine for January of that year, page 28,) I was in some degree relieved from my embarrassment by a remark which that gentleman made respecting the above-mentioned Tables of M. Daussy; viz. “ that the orbit of Vesta having been found, from later observations, less than at first computed, the mean longitude given by them has become nearly twent minutes in arrear.” But upon looking over Bode’s Jahrbuch for 1825, lately received, a new difficulty has arisen. In page 181, a number of observed places of Vesta, during the month of June last, are given by Professor Encke, and the opposition is stated to have taken place on the 15th, at 22" 53’ 29",5 Paris time. True long. being = 264° 38’ 53” Hel. lat. ph Se 2. iin 55S . Geo. lat. woe et 4 «19 «75 And it is further remarked that Daussy’s Tables for the same time give the true long. 264° 37’ 34",9 Hel. Jat. =+ 2 17,.10,4 differing from the true situation of the planet only in long. —1’ 18”,1, and in hel. lat. +5”,1. Vol. 61. No. 299. March 1823. x As 162 Mr. T. Drummond on a Property As this circumstance appeared remarkable, I calculated the position of the planet for the above given time, viz. 22 53’ 29",5 on June 15, taking the arguments of the tables for 10° 53’ 29",5 on June 16, as the epoch of them is mid- night, and found the result very nearly corresponding to that mentioned by Professor Encke; the small difference having been occasioned probably by having used a different ephe- meris for the sun’s longitude, &c. I should esteem it a favour if any gentleman would explain how the tables could give the longitude at the above opposition within so small an error, if they ave twenty minutes in arrear. March 8, 1823. W.M.M. XXXV. Ona Property of Polygons. By'T. Drummonp, Esq. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. pee following proposition, together with the more general property deduced from it, not being given, I believe, in any of our books on elementary geometry, a demonstration may, perhaps, not be uninteresting to some of your mathema- tical readers. I am Your most obedient servant, Tower, Feb. 14, 1823. T. DrumMonp. If the opposite sides of an irregular hexagon inscribed in a circle be produced to meet, the three points of intersection will be in the same straight line. The demonstration which follows, is of the converse of this proposition, from which the one now enunciated may be de- duced as a corollary. Let a circle and a point A without it be given; if any two secants AB and AC be drawn, and straight lines EG and DG be also drawn through any point G of the intercepted arc to meet when produced any straight line drawn through A, then if the points of intersection 1B and HC be joined, and IB and HC produced to meet, their intersection R will be in, the circumference of the circle BDGEC. Produce AB and AC till AM and AN be respectively equal to AD and AC, make AL = AH, and jon MN, ML and NL; the lines ML and NL will thus be parallel to DH and CH, and the angles MLA and NLA= respectively to AHD and AHC. From L draw LP parallel to IE, and meeting AC in P, from ] draw IO parallel to LM, and meet- ing AM in O, join EO and MP. Since IO is parallel to LM of Polygons. 163 LMthe Z At}O=ALM=AHG, therefore Z OJG=EGH= EBD, and a circle may consequently be described about the quadrilateral BIOEK; the Z BIE is therefore =BOE. In like manner since LP is parallel to IE, the ZMLP=OIE= OBE=DCE =& (by const.) ANM, and a circle may be de- scribed about the quadrilateral LNMP; the Z NLM is there- fore = NPM. But IO and IE being parallel to LM and LP, AL: AI:: AM: AO:: AP: AE, therefore OE 1s pa- rallel to MP and the ZMPA=OEA. The ZBAE which is = AOE+AEO, is therefore =BIE+CHG, and BIA+ CHA being thuy =BAE+ EGH= BAE+ DCA= BDC, their supplemental 2I RH will be equal to the angle contained in the segment BFC, and the point of intersection R will therefore be in the circumference of the circle BGCF. Q.x.p, The demonstration now given is equally applicable to any position of the point G in the circumference, and as the line drawn through A is also unlimited in position, the point of intersection R may be either in the same segment with G, or in the opposite, or in the adjacent segments. Wherever, therefore, the two points G and R be assumed, if GD GE and RB RC be joined and the opposite lines produced to meet, that is, RB with EG and RC with DG, the points of intersection and the point A will be always in the same straight line. In like manner if RD RE and GB GC be drawn, another set of intersections will be obtained having the point A com- mon to both; from any two points, therefore, two sets of in- tersections may always be had with reference to the same se- cants; but G and R may also be referred to the secants DE and BC, and thus two other sets be produced in which the in- tersection of the secants is common to both. X 2 Accord- 164 Mr. T. Drummond on a Property of Polygons. According, therefore, to the number of points R and the number of secants to which any point G of the inscribed hexa- gon may be referred will be the number of sets of intersections that can be formed by the figure.—This may be determined by considering the several relations in which the points G and R may stand with reference to the secants. 1st. Both points may be within the secants and in opposite segments. 2d. ———-——_—- within and in the same segment. 3d. One may be within and the other without. 4th. Both may be without and in opposite segments. 5th. without and in the same segment.. In the 1st case, G and R will be any two opposite points of the hexagon, and will form with the secants AB and AC opposite sides produced two sets. of intersections, in which A will be common to both. Hence 6 will be the whole number obtained by considering all the opposite points with reference to the opposite sides; but since [AH must be common to every pair, 6—2=4 will be the number that can be thus formed. In the 4th case, the secants will be the lines DE and BC (joining alternate points) and G,R opposite points as before: hence the same intersections will result as in the 1st case. The point A will in the 2d case be formed by the intersection of the alternate sides of the figure; and as every such point will correspond to two sets, 12 will be the number resulting in this case. The point A will in the 3d case be formed by the intersec- tion of a side with the line joining the points adjacent and al- ternate to it: hence the No. 6, and 12 sets of intersections. In the 5th case, A will be the intersection of a side with its opposite diagonal, and therefore 12 sets will also result. Hence, therefore, in any irregular hexagon inscribed in a circle, if the sides be produced to intersect themselves, to in- tersect the lines joining the alternate points of the figure, and also the diagonals, and if these last be also drawn intersecting themselves and the lines joining the alternate points, then the intersections thus formed may be resolved into 40 sets of three each, having their three component points in straight lines. This property nay be extended to every polygon; for let m denote the number of its sides, then m.m—1l.m—2......m—(n+1) will be the number of hexagons into which it may be resolved; » being =m—6, and therefore {m.m—1l.m—2......m—(n+1)}40 will be the num- ber of intersections in straight lines. Further, Mr. R. Webster on the Variation the Magnetic Pole. 165 Further, as any other point G may be assumed, correspond- ing points R, I and H will be obtained : hence it follows that a polygon of m sides may be inscribed in a circle so as to have m—3 or m— 4 points of intersection in the same straight line, according as m is an even or odd number. When any two points E, G coalesce and the line drawn through them passes into a tangent, corresponding points will be found in the pentagon: and when any other line A B also becomes tangential, similar properties will occur in the qua- drilateral. XXXVI. On the Causes of the Variation of the Magnetic Pole. By Mr. Ricuarn Wesstenr. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal, ON the return of Captain Parry from exploring the North- West passage, in which he succeeded as far as 115 degrees of west longitude, I hastily wrote the following hypothesis upon the causes of the variation of the magnetic pole: if you deem the paper worthy insertion in your Magazine, it may cause some of your scientific friends to devote a portion of their attention to the theory of that desideratum in science. Cornhill. Iam yours, &c. Rp. WEBSTER. In commencing an hypothesis upon the magnetic pole, and the causes of the variation of the needle, it may be legitimately a portion of such a paper to venture an opinion upon the first formation of the earth; that it then was in a vitrified liquid state is conclusive in my mind, from many circumstances; but I will only give two illustrations, as necessary to this position, namely, the increased bulk at the equator, being an oblate spheroid, a form the earth must take in its revolution on its axis (when liquid), as far as it could overcome the power of gravity; but had it been a solid body, its component parts would not disunite, and could not tend towards the centre. Again, though I must avoid, as much as possible, any geolo- gical observations, as it will lengthen this paper much beyond your limits; yet I must observe, the earth is in every parti- cular formed in regular strata, the denser deposits being al- ways the lowest; deposits can only take place in uniform suc- cession where there is fluid to admit the denser to sink: as we dig into the earth, we find gneiss and granite, the primary rocks aving no organic remains beneath them in any single instance on record, which proves they must have there sunk of their own 166 Mr. R. Webster on the Causes own specific gravity, before any organic matter had existence; and if a fluid, from any cause but fire, organic matter may have had existence, in the latter it is impossible. Assuming as a fact the earth was in its first formation a fluid, by excess of heat, the denser bodies, as the metals, iron, &c. would, by the power of gravity, compose the centre of the earth, and gra- dual and partial coolings taking place, on the exterior surtace, before the interior, would of necessity cause violent explosions and convulsions, throwing the earth into variety of mountains and valleys: metallic matter would retain its liquid state long after what I assume as the substance composing the outer . crust of the earth, namely, what the geologist calls primary rocks, had formed itself; and as it dried it would contract, and cause large fissures, in which the metallic fluid may have been driven in the diurnal revolution of the whole on its axis, making the veins of metals which intersperse the surface of the globe. Admitting the outer crust would be complete long before the interior was cool, a position self-evident, metal- lic fluid would occupy a much larger space than when con- centrated into a solid mass, and between this solid and the outer crust is an immense body of water, having sunk from the earth’s surface as the space between the centre sphere and it became unoccupied by the concentration of fluid into sub- stance which had for ages during the period of cooling, as the lighter body, surrounded the whole. I need not say much upon the probability of water for a very long period covering the earth, it being evident from the immense deposit of shells in every part of it. I shall assert iron to be a very large component part of this inner sphere, as it is admitted to be the most universally diffused substance in nature; it must also form a component part of some other planet or portion of the system of which this earth is but a trifle, as it is known that all the meteoric substances that have fallen on the earth bear the proportion of nearly nine-tenths of iron to one-tenth of the scarce metal called nickel. Having said thus much as a prelude to my hypothesis on the causes of the variation of the needle, and assuming still, this inner sphere to be suspended or rather inclosed in fluid, it would revolve on its axis with the earth; yet with a pro- gressively less motion, falling backwards in its course each successive day, that would amount to one entire retrograde revolution in 584 years; and this may be readily conceived, that an interior ball suspended in fluid may not equal the outer in a rotary motion. I would now fix the north mag- netic pole about 72° 40’ north latitude, and 100° 30’ west longitude, of the Variation of the Magnetic Pole. 167 longitude, five of the variations in Captain Parry’s chart * making that longitude, and three the latitude. I conceive the true poles and the magnetic poles to have been at one period at the same point, and that some violent convulsion of nature, say at the period of the Deluge, the magnetic pole was thrown out of its natural position about 17 degrees (and what but some inconceivable force could drive out the waters from the earth’s centre to the overwhelming the whole surface?) We see in all matters that concern us, the Omnipotent works by meatis, and there is no effect without a cause, and no at- traction could draw the waters from the interior that would not remove them from the surface; whereas an impetus from the centre must drive them out. The interior sphere being driven from its position relatively, would assume a different axis, leaving the influence and form of its poles the same; thus irregularly revolving upon its new-formed axis, it makes the considerable variation which is known to take place during different periods of the day, making, when each revolution is complete, but a very trifling diminution in its progress with the earth, which travelling irom west to east causes the mag- netic pole to recede from east to west. I would add, as an illustration of this hypothesis, that its considerable increase westward, and rapidly till it come to near its greatest elonga- tion from England, when its appearing stationary in its pro- gressive motion from 80° to 100°, an appearance that must follow in the extreme of the circle, while revolving under the true pole of the earth at and near 90° on either side of any given point; the return of the magnetic pole towards the east, or rather the diminished west variation, which will be more rapid as it approaches our meridian, not between us and the pole, but on the opposite side of the earth, approaching longitude 180°, at which point it will arrive about 1950, when the true and the magnetic pole will be the same in the meridian of London, after which it will progressively increase in eastern variation; and when near 80 to 100, its greatest elongation eastward, it will again for years appear stationary, will then diminish its easterly variation, and when the half revolution is again complete, will pass between us and the pole under our meridian. At a future day I may trouble you with an opinion, why the concentration of the magnetic fluid should direct the needle to that point. Ricuarp Wepssrter. * This was written after Captain Parry’s chart was out, and previous to the publication of his book; therefore 584 years was calculated upon the assumed data of 100° 30! west longitude and 72° 40/ north latitude being correct. XXXVII. Some r.6s J XXXVI. Some Account of M. Bicuar’s Theory of Life .* VERY thing around living bodies, according to M. Bichat, tends constantly to their destruction. And to this influence they would necessarily yield, were they not gifted with some permanent principle of reaction. This principle is their life, and a living system is therefore necessarily always engaged in the performance of functions, whose object is to resist death. Life, however, does not consist in a single principle, as has been taught by some celebrated writers, by Stahl, Van Hel- mont, and Barthez,&c. We are to study the phenomena of life as we do those of other matter, and refer the operations performed in living systems to such ultimate principles as we can trace them to, in the same way that we do the operations taking place among inorganic substances. ‘The chemist refers the phznomena of his science to the chemical, the natural philosopher to the physical, properties of matter. So in phy- siology we are to analyse the functions, as we study them, and thus discover the properties or powers of living systems, to which they are to be attributed. Living systems are thus found to be endowed with certain properties, powers, or principles, the chief of which are those of feeling and moving, by whose possession their organs are rendered capable of performing the functions upon which the continuance of life depends. Life, then, according to Bichat, is the state of being, produced by the possession and exercise of what he calls the vital properties; yet he does not always adhere with logical strictness to this definition, but rather uses the term sometimes to designate collectively the vital properties themselves, and this, perhaps, is its best and most convenient sense. His essential doctrine, however, is, that there is no one single, individual, presiding principle of vitality, which animates the body; but that it is a collection of matter gifted for a time with certain powers of action, combined into organs which are thus enabled to act; and that the result is a series of functions, the connected performance of which constitutes it a living thing. * From the North American Review, No. xxxvi. p. 145.— Marie Francis Xavier Bichat was born in 1771. He studied under the celebrated Desault, whom he assisted to the end of his life in his practice, in his studies, and in his lectures. At the age of 27 he published his Treatise on the Mem- branes ; and in the succeeding year his Researches upon Life and Death. His next work was his General Anatomy; and he began a work on Descrip- tive Anatomy, of which he lived to complete only two volumes. He died in 1802 in the thirty-first year of his age, greatly esteemed and ee f 1S Some Account of M. Bichat’s Theory of Life. 169 This is his view of life, considered in the most general and simple way. But in carrying the examination further, he points out two remarkable modifications of life, as viewed ‘in different relations, one common both to vegetables and ani- mals, the other peculiar to animals. ‘The vegetable exists en- tirely within itself; and for itself, depending upon other sub- stances only for the materials of nutrition; the animal, on the contrary, in addition to this internal life, has another, by which he connects himself with objects about him, maintains relations with them, and is bound to them by the ties of mutual depend- ence. This affordsa principle, upon which to form a distinct classification of our functions. Those which we have in com- mon with the vegetable, which are necessary merely to our individual bodily existence, are called the functions of organic life, because they are common to all organized matter. Those, on the other hand, which are peculiar to animals, which in them are superadded to the possession of the organic functions, are called the functions of animal life. Physiologically speaking, then, we have two lives, the con- currence of which enables us to live and move and have our being; both equally necessary to the relations we maintain as human beings, but not equally necessary to the simple exist- ence of a living thing. By our organic life, food proper for our nutrition is first submitted to the operation of digestion, is then thrown into the circulation, undergoes in the lungs the changes which respiration is intended to effect, is then distri- buted to the organs to be applied to their nutrition; from these, after a certain period, is taken away by absorption, thrown again into the circulation, and discharged at length from the system by means of the several exhalations and se- cretions. This is the life by which all the parts of the body are kept in a state of repair ; it is the life of waste and supply; necessarily subservient to the performance of those functions, which are the distinguishing characteristics of our nature, but not at all engaged in their performance itself! By our animal life, on the contrary, we become related to the world about us; the senses convey to us a knowledge of the existence of other things beside ourselves; a knowledge also of their qualities and their capacities for producing pleasure or pain; we feel, we reflect, we judge, we will, and react upon external things, by means of the organs of locomotion and voice: according to the result of these mental operations, we become capable of communicating and receiving pleasure and pain, happiness and misery. In fact, by the organic life we merely exist nega- Vol. 61. No. 299. March 1823. Y tively: 170 Some Account of M. Bichat’s Theory of Life. tively; by the animal, that existence becomes a blessing or a curse, a source of enjoyment or of suffering *. It is not at all pretended that the idea of this division was entirely original with Bichat. Most physiologists have had some faint conception of it, and others have more distinctly recognised it under a somewhat different modification and with a different title. But he has made it peculiarly his own by the ingenious and novel manner in which he has stated, ex- plained, and illustrated it; the detailed application, which he has made of it, to the various pheenomena of the living system ; and the beautiful and almost poetical air which he has, by means of it, thrown around many of these phenomena. In the first place, as he teaches us, the two lives differ, in some important respects, as to the organs by which their func- tions are performed. | Those of the animal life present a sym- metry of external form, strongly contrasted with the irregu- larity, which is a prominent characteristic of those of organic life. In the animal life, every function is either performed by a pair of organs, perfectly similar in structure and size, si- tuated one upon each side of the median dividing line of the body, or else by a single organ divided into two similar and perfectly symmetrical halves by that line. ‘Thus the organs of sight and hearing, and of locomotion, are double and similar ; the nerves of the brain go off in corresponding pairs; the or- gans of smell and taste and the brain are situated with a perfect regard to thislaw. The organs of the organic life, on the con- trary, present a picture totally different; they are irregularly formed, and irregularly arranged; the stomach is disposed * After the death of Bichat, a work was published by M. F. R. Buisson, embracing the same parts of physiology as the Researches of Bichat, but with some modification of his views, which, however, had been submitted to his revisal, and met with his approbation. Buisson was a particular friend of Bichat, and one of the editors of the three posthumous volumes of the Anatomie Descriptive. Man, he defines to be an intelligence administered {servie] by organs; and upon this view of his nature, founds a physiological classification, the same in effect as that of Bichat. The organs are of two classes: 1. Those immediately subservient to the purposes of the intelli- gence, such as the eye, the ear, the organs of locomotion, of voice, &c. and these, taken together, form the active life: 2. Those not immediately con- nected with the intelligence, and not under its control, which are yet neces- sary to it, from nourishing and preserving the instruments with which it does immediately operate, such as the stomach, the heart, the lungs, &c. these form the nutritive life. This division, it is obvious, does not differ essentially from that of Bichat ; and, although perhaps a more original and beautiful point of view, from which to look at man, as a subject of physio- logy, it is less perfectly applicable tc life, considered as a whole, and possessed by a long series of animals and vegetables. ; without Some Account of M. Bichat’s Theory of Life. 171 without any regard to the median line, and one half of it bears no resemblance to the other; the same is true of the liver, the spleen, and all the organic viscera. The heart, it is true, isa double organ; but its parts are of unequal size and strength ; the rest of the circulating system presents a thousand irregu- larities; and the lungs are dissimilar in the two sides of the thorax, in the division of their lobes, and the quantity of mat- ter they contain. This symmetry of the form is accompanied by a corre- sponding harmony in the functions of the organs of the animal life. The exactness and perfection of vision depend upon the similarity of the impressions transmitted by the two eyes to the brain; if these impressions are dissimilar, vision will be imperfect in proportion; hence we shut one eye when the power of the other is increased by the interposition ofa lens, and hence we squint when one eye is made weaker than the other. The same is true of all the senses, of the muscles of locomo- tion and voice, and of the brain itself; if there is between the ‘corresponding organs on the two sides, or the corresponding halves of the organs, any inequality or dissimilarity, that is, if there is any defect of symmetry, the consequence is an imper- fection in their function. Upon this principle Bichat explains the difference between different individuals in their natural capacity for distinguishing accurately the harmony of sounds. A good ear for music, as we express ourselves in common lan- guage, is only the result of the possession of two symmetrical organs of hearing, which transmit to the brain similar impres- sions; a bad ear, on the contrary, is produced by any in- equality in the organs, which transmit two unequal impressions. Thus, when one, either of our ears or eyes, is deprived of its usual degree of sensibility, we can hear or see much better by making use of that alone, which is uninjured, than by having recourse to both. ‘The same remark is extended to the func- tions of smelling, tasting, and touching, and to the functions of the brain and muscles. But nothing like this is true of the organic life, to the regularity of whose operations, harmony and correspondence of action is not a necessary condition. The functions of the organic life are constantly going on; they admit of no interruption, no repose; whatever cause sus- pends, but for a moment, the respiration or the circulation, destroys life. They form a necessary and connected series, which must be always moving on in continued progression, from the beginning to the end of existence. But in those of the animal life the case is widely different. ‘They have intervals of entire repose. The organs of this life are incapable of con- stant activity, they become fatigued by exercise and require ae ¥i2g rest, 172 Some Account of M. Bichat’s Theory of Life. rest. This rest, with regard to any particular organ, is the sleep of that organ; and in proportion to the extent of the previous exercise, and the number of organs fatigued, the state of repose will be partial or general. Upon this principle Bichat founds his theory of sleep. General sleep is the com- bination of the sleep of particular organs. Sleep then is not any definite state, but is a more or less complete rest-of the whole system in proportion to the number of organs which require repose. ‘The most perfect sleep is that where all the functions of animal life, the sensations, the perception, the imagination, the memory, the judgement, locomotion, and voice, are suspended; and the various forms of imperfect sleep exhibited in dreaming, somnambulism, &c. are all produced by the wakefulness of some particular organs. The two lives differ also in regard to habit; the animal be- ing much under its control, the organic but slightly. In the animal life, habit renders our feelings and sensations less in- tense, whilst it elevates and perfects the power of judging. The eye is no longer sensible of the presence of objects to which it has become familiarized, the ear takes no notice of sounds that are constantly repeated, the other senses become hardened against the operation of agents which have often ex- cited them; but at the same time the capacity for forming an accurate judgement with regard to their qualities has been growing more perfect. Thus, a piece of music gives us at first a feeling of pleasure simply, and nothing more; if it be often repeated, this pleasure vanishes, but we become capable of estimating the merits of its arrangement and harmony. In the organic life it is not so; respiration, circulation, secretion, &c. are totally without the dominion of habit, and although some of the tenon: of this life, most intimately connected with those of the animal, are in some measure under its in- fluence, yet in a general way a freedom from this influence is a distinguishing characteristic of the organic life. Every thing relating to the understanding is the attribute of animal life; whilst the passions on the contrary belong to the organic life, have their seat in its organs, influence them when they are excited into action themselves, and are on the con- trary influenced by the state of the organs. The relation which the passions have, so remarkably, with the animal life, is intermediate, and not direct; all the primary phenomena produced. by their excitement are exhibited in the internal organs; the heart is violently excited in anger, more mode- rately in joy; fear, sadness, grief, produce an opposite effect. The lungs are equally affected, the respiration is quickened or impeded, a sense of oppression or suffocation is brought on, Some Account of M. Bichat’s Theory of Life. 178 on, according to the nature and degree of the passion excited. In various emotions we experience peculiar sensations in the epigastrium, a sharp pain, a sense of fulness or of sinking; in other cases moral decided effects are produced, a spasmodic vomiting, a copious secretion from the liver or the mucous membrane of the intestines, producing a diarrhoea. All the natural gestures by which we attempt to express the intellec- tual and moral affections, are so many proofs of the correct- ness of these views. If we wish to indicate any of the phz- nomena of the intellect, relating, for instance, to memory, to perception, or to judgement, we carry the hand spontaneously to the head; but if we would express love, joy, sadness, hatred, &c. we involuntarily place it upon the breast, or the stomach, We say a strong head, a well organized head, to express the perfection of understanding; a good heart, or a feeling heart, to express moral perfection. any of the phenomena of dis- ease indicate the same relations between the organic viscera and our moral affections. In the diseases of some organs, the mind is cheerful and happy, taking always a favourable view of things, and this, even when the disease lies at the very root of existence; and on the contrary, when some other organs are affected, it is invariably gloomy and apprehensive, anticipating the most fearful results, and even in trivial complaints expecting the most fatal consequences. The two lives differ also in the mode and epoch of their origin. ‘The organic is in activity from the very first period of conception; the animal enters into exercise only at birth, when external objects offer to the new individual means of connexion and relation. In the foetal state, the ceconomy is solely occupied in the formation and nutrition of the organs; this is the preparative stage of existence. ‘The organs, which are to perform the functions of the animal life, are created and perfected, but they are not exercised; they are not accessible to the operation of the agents whose excitement is necessary to bring them into action, and of course they remain in a state of sated repose, until the stimulus, first of the air, and afterwards of food, light, and sounds, is applied to the appro- priate organs. At birth, then, a great change takes place in the physiological state of man. His animal life is first brought into existence, and his organic life becomes more fully deve- loped and more complicated, in order to accommodate itself to the increased demands which this change necessarily brings upon it. But from this moment, there is no further altera- tion or improvement in the functions of the organic life. They are as perfect in the infant as in the adult, they are not sus- ceptible of education. But in those of the animal life every thing 174 Some Account of M. Bichat’s Theory of Life. thing depends upon the education they receive; at first feeble; imperfect, indistinct, they gradually become developed, and the direction given to this development, and the character which they ultimately possess, depend in a great measure upon the influence exercised upon them by extrinsic circum- stances. Differing thus in their origin and in their mode of develop- ment, the two lives differ also in the mode of their termination in death, when this takes place naturally, that is, at the ex- tremity of old age. The animal life is becoming gradually extinguished, before the organic has begun to fail. One after another its functions cease to be performed. ‘The eye be- comes obscured, it ceases to feel or to transmit the impression of light. The ear becomes insensible to the impulse of sound. The skin, shrivelled, hardened, deprived in part of its vessels, is capable of but an obscure and indistinct sensation; the parts dependent upon it, the hair and beard, lose their vitality, grow white, and fall off. The intellectual functions follow in the train of the sensations, the perception is blunted, the me- mory fails, the judgement becomes infantile; and at the same time the muscles under the influence of the brain, viz. those of locomotion and voice, partake of the same decrepitude. The old man moves with pain and difficulty, and speaks with a thick and trembling voice. ‘Seated near the fire which warms him, he passes his days concentrated -within himself; estranged from every thing around him, deprived of desires, of passions, of sensations, speaking little, because induced by no motive to break silence, happy in the feeling that he still exists, when almost every other one has already quitted him.’ In a certain sense then the animal life dies first, and leaves the organic still going on in the performance of its functions; this separation is more or less complete, and continues for a greater or less length of time, in different cases. The old man may continue to breathe and digest, for some time after he has to all intents and purposes ceased to think and to feel; he con- tinues to exist as a vegetable, when he no longer lives as an ani- mal, Death, howeyer, at length seizes upon the organic life. Gradually and step by step the vital forces desert the different organs: digestion, secretion, &c. languish, the circulation and respiration are successively impeded and finally stop. In considering the vital properties, as in all his inquiries concerning life, Bichat had constant regard to his grand divi- sion into the two lives; and he recognises in the functions of each life, the exhibition of properties peculiar to itself, or at Jeast properties modified by the nature and relations of that life to whose functions they are subservient. In the organic life, Some Aceount of M. Bichat’s Theory of Life. 175 life, the organs have in the first place a sort of sensibility* or perception, by which they become acquainted with the pre- sence and qualities of the substances applied to them; this is the organic sensibility; they have then a property by which they react upon these substances, and excite in them motion; this is the organic contractility. It has two modifications. 1. Where the contraction is insensible, as in the exhalants, capillaries, secreting vessels. 2. Where it is sensible, as in the heart, the stomach, the intestines, and these are called re- spectively, the znsenszble, and the sensible, organic contractility. In the organs of the animal life, there is also a sensibility, by which they are not only made capable of receiving the im- pression of an object and its qualities, but of transmitting that impression to the common sensorium; and a contractility, which not only renders a part capable of contracting, but is in the exercise of its power under the entire control and direc- tion of the brain. These properties are called the animal sensibility and the animal contractility. But the principal and most important feature in the physio- logical system of Bichat, is the complete, and entire, and ex- clusive explanation of all the phzenomena of the living system upon the principles of Vitality alone. Former physiologists have not always kept this distinctly in view; they have not invariably recognised the principle, that the living system is in a certain sense insulated with regard to other matter; that it is governed by a set of laws essentially its own, peculiar to itself. The human body has been regarded, too often, as a mass of matter, organized to be sure, but yet under the direc- tion of physical laws, and the performance of its functions has been ascribed to the powers of inorganic matter. Hence phy- siology has generally been somewhat tinctured by the favourite science of the age, with some of its notions. In the days of mechanical philosophy, the functions were explained as much as possible by the laws of mechanics. The force of every muscle was calculated to a grain, the velocity and momentum of the blood were supposed to produce the motions of the living fibre, and the fibre to be so constituted as to vibrate like the chords of an instrument; the stomach acted on the food like a pair of mill-stones, the chyle was absorbed from the intestines by the power of capillary attraction, and animal heat produced by the mutual attrition of the fluids and solids. So with the chemists, the human system was no less than a chemical laboratory. ‘The stomach was a crucible, a retort, * Respecting the ambiguous use of this word, see p. 116, and Diversions of Purley, ii, 486. or 176 Some Account of M. Bichat’s Theory of Life. or an alembic; the lungs a furnace, and respiration a true combustion, where the refuse and stubble of the system were consumed, and by the same means, with a commendable ceco- nomy, the animal heat was maintained; whilst secretion and exhalation were resolved into the operations of precipitation and distillation. These false views have always retarded the progress of the science. But with Bichat the properties of life were all in all. ‘The phenomena of the system, whether in health or disease, were all ascribed to their influence and operation. And although there is doubtless much room for difference of opinion with regard to the particular views which he entertained of the nature of vitality, and although much may be said in defence of the opinion that it consists in one single independent principle, and not in a collection of distinct properties, yet this really makes very little difference. It is as easy to conceive the different properties to be so many di- stinct modes of operation of one principle, as it is to view them as existing separately, and only acting in concert. We have only to alter a few modes of expression, accordingly as we adopt one or the other of these hypotheses; the things in- tended remain essentially the same, 7. e. the vital functions are all referred to the operation of the vital laws, in the same way that the phanomena of physics and chemistry are all referred to physical and chemical laws. To many of these opinions of Bichat there are strong ob- jections; and in a general way it may be observed, that he has very much over-rated and exaggerated the distinctions which exist between the two lives, that he has too often exhibited a caricature of the truth. Not that he had not himself perfectly clear ideas of their exact connexions and distinctions; but it happened, that, carried away by an ardour which had often as much poetry as philosophy in it, he gave to his doctrines the colouring of a warm and rich imagination, and, like every en- thusiastic young man who is eager in the diffusion of favourite opinions, frequently drew truth with too bold and well defined outlines, and represented that as entirely distinct in nature, which was only so in his artificial arrangement, and in nature was blended and compounded with something else. His sy- stem affords a happy and striking expression of some of the fundamental distinctions of physiology ; and though in some measure calculated to give to beginners in the science views a little too artificial, yet when qualified by a proper acquaintance with the details of the phzenomena of life, as exhibited in the whole vital creation, is better adapted than any other to form us to correct, methodical, and distinct views. To speak more particularly, much might be said to a that Mr. G. F. Hutton on Chronometer. 177 that he attaches by far too great importance to many of the distinctions which he draws between the two lives in his Phy- siological Researches. This remark is true of those founded upon the external forms of the organs, the mode of their ac- tion and its duration, and those founded upon the natural end of the two lives. Not that there is not a general difference in these respects between the two lives, but that he has drawn the line with far too great distinctness, and laid too much stress upon the division which it establishes. More especially with respect to the influence of habit and the seat of the passions, we think very strong objections lie against the views which he has advanced; and his doctrine of the vital properties, in pre- cisely the form which he gave it, whether as it regards their number or the exact relation which they severally have to the functions to whose performance they contribute, would pro- bably meet with few defenders, although in its general essen- tial features, and with some considerable alterations of detail, it is that adopted by some of the most eminent physiologists of our own country and of Europe. pi nrc mam, XXXVIII. On Chronometers. With Remarks on the Trial just terminated at Greenwich, under the Direction of the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. ‘Lo the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. 7 OUR insertion of the inclosed Paper on Chronometers in your valuable Journal, will much oblige Your most obedient servant, Walworth, 15th Feb. 1823. G. F.-Hurron. Ir has been justly remarked, that heroes and politicians may astonish the age which produces them and witnesses their ex- ploits ; though doubts may arise as to the ultimate utility re- sulting to mankind from their achievements : while, on ‘the other hand, the names of professors of arts and sciences will be recorded as benefactors to the human race, and will liye till organized nature forget her motions, or tradition its powers of utterance. But, in this age of improvement, when the skiil of the artist is duly appreciated, and his productions are submitted as mo- dels for guiding and perfecting the judgement, great astonish- ment has been excited in the scientific world by the failure of ~ improvements in chronometers : and, though rewards have been paid, and premiums offered, as an encouragement to per- Vol. 61. No. 299. March 1823. Z fection, 178 Mr. G. F. Hutton on Chronometers. fection, still we appear to have made scarcely any progress to that end during a period of upwards of twenty years. In 1801-2, Mr. Earnshaw deposited two chronometers at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, which, on trial, were pronounced to be scarcely affected even when the thermome- ter was at 28° of Fahrenheit. For the rate and true per- formance of these chronometers, the Honourable Board of Longitude awarded to that artist the sum of 30001. With the view of attaining to as much perfection in these invaluable instruments as possible, the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, in the latter part of the year 1820, “ for the purpose of further encouraging the improvement of chronometers,” were pleased to publish a no- tice in the Gazette, that a depdt would be established at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, where chronometers would be received from their respective makers for a year’s trial; and that, at the end of that period, their Lordships would purchase the chronometer which should have kept the best rate at the price of 300/., and the second best at 200/.; provided that more than ten chronometers should have been submitted to competition, and that such chronometer should have kept its rate within specific limits. In consequence of this notification, upwards of thirty chro- nometers were sent—some by respectable watchmakers, and others by practical artists. During the period, however, al- lotted for the proof of their respective rates, nearly one half of them were withdrawn from the trial. From the rates published, it appears that some of these chronometers varied 20” and even 40” per day on their previous rates; and of the remainder, five only seemed likely to attach credit to their respective makers. These, indeed, went satisfactorily while the thermometer stood at a moderate temperature; but when, from the short frost at the end of December, it fell to 31° Fahr., their daily rate was affected, some to 10”, and others even to 23”, in one day. The variation was considerably greater during the suc- ceeding intense frost in January, when the thermometer fell to 27°. The whole exhibited great changes; and one of them was altered in its rate to nearly 50” in the day: thus, conse- quently, becoming totally useless for the immediate objects for which they were designed—that of attaining perfection for astro- nomical and nautical purposes. That so great a failure should cause serious disappointment to the Honourable Board, as well as to the scientific world, and to all others interested in their perfection, is not to be won- dered at. And we may fairly presume, that as these five chro- nometers, together with one previously withdrawn, were made by Mr. G. F. Hutton on Chronometers. 179 by two excellent artists, and that much pains were bestowed on their construction, the principle adopted for compensating the effect of heat and cold is either imperfect and uncertain, or that their adjustments are not generally understood. Without entering, however, into this question at present, it may not be unimportant to suggest a few hints, which may eventually tend to further improvements in these valuable ma- chines. In the first place, no chronometer should be accepted for trial, that did not bear the name of the artist by whom it was actually made. By this means encouragement would be held out to the practical artisan, as a spur to his exertions; and he would, if successful, obtain the reward of merit to which he would be entitled. Whereas, by accepting chronometers from nominal makers, who may employ skilful workmen, they be- come the ostensible makers of a machine, though they are per- haps actually ignorant of the scientific principles on which it is constructed. et In the second place, no chronometer which has been tried should ever be allowed to be submitted a second time. In the third place, and perhaps this is the most important of all, no chronometer should be submitted for trial, but those actually made for that purpose; and for which a reasonable time should only be allowed: and this recommendation is founded on facts too well known to be called in question. Of the chronometers sent to Greenwich, in consequence of the notification of the Board of Admiralty, scarcely half of them bore the name of the respective artists by whom they were actually made; and consequently the very object of at- suit perfection had a chance of being defeated: for, as the reward was open to all presented, it might happen that a chro- nometer sent to India, if; during the voyage there and back, it had kept its rate satisfactorily, might be sent in even by its owner, and bear away the prize. Whereas, by the proposal now submitted, the object of the Board would be attained, and every artisan be placed on an equal footing. Out of the five chronometers which failed on trial, there is little doubt that some of them would have kept their rate within the prescribed limits, and have performed with consi- derable accuracy, if the winter had been as mild as the last; and consequently would have obtained the reward offered by the Board, as due to them, according to the tenor of the noti- fication in the Gazette: the consequence of which might have been fatal, if they had been sent to sea bearing the high cha- racter which such a reward, and from so exalted a body, would naturally have given to them. Z2 Had, 180 Mr. G. Fy Hutton on Chronometers. Had, however, even one of these chronometers received the reward, no dependence could have been placed on the same maker producing another equally good; for it is more than probable the nominal proprietor was not the actual artist who constructed it, and consequently the object of the Board would have been defeated: one individual would have gained a name to which he was not entitled, from the ability of the artisan on whom he depended for his work; and the artist himself would not only have been unrecompensed, but another would have received the reward of his labour, his ingenuity, his perseve- rance, and his invention. Besides, the same artist might not always be procured; an inferior one might be employed; and although the second chronometer might have all the appearance of the perfection of the first, there would be an essential difference in their quality, from the absence of scientific knowledge, so absolutely neces- sary to complete. a machine of such delicacy in its construction, and correctness in its adjustments. From all that has been suggested, it appears that not only encouragement should be given to the practical artisan, as here recommended; but another method of trial should be adopted, whereby to ascertain that neither heat nor cold could affect the chronometer. In mild winters, as before stated, chronometers may stand the trial; therefore artificial heat and cold should be substituted, so as to produce the extreme of both. In calling the attention of the scientific world to this mo- mentous subject, the principal object has been to excite our artists to exertion, and to afford them due encouragement for their ingenuity: that, while this country can boast of inventing and bringing to perfection those beautiful pieces of complex machinery, wherein a giant’s strenyth may be directed by an infant’s arm, we may boast eventually of obtaining perfection in chronometers, by which so much benefit will be produced to generations yet unborn; and that, whilst we rank high in the estimation of foreign nations, by our progyess in arts, com- merce, and manufactures, we may be enabled to navigate the mighty waters of the deep, as fearless of danger from the ele- pee as our maritime superiority is proverbial and unques- tioned, (elie XXXIX. Me- pst "4 XXXIX. Memoir on the different Species, Races, and Varieties of the Genus Brassica (Cabbage), and of the Genera allied to it, which are cultivated in Europe. By M. Aucusrin Pyramus De Canpoite, Professor of Botany in the Aca- demy of Geneva, &c. 8c. (Concluded from p. 99.] SEeconp Species. BRASSICA CAMPESTRIS. UNDER the name of Chou des champs, Vield Cabbage, I comprehend all those that have blue and glabrous leaves at an advanced period of their growth, like the Brassica olera- cea, and hairy leaves in the young plants, like the Brassica Rapa; they may be considered in this respect as intermediate between the former and the latter. The Brassica campestris is indigenous to Europe, and spoken of by botanists as growing spontaneously in fields in England* and Scotland, in Goth- land, in the southern part of Lapland, in Spain near Madrid, in Transylvania, and in the Crimea; but we must observe, that where wild plants are found growing in the vicinity of the very grounds in which the same.plant is cultivated, there al- Ways remains some doubt as to the origin of the wild one, it being natural to suppose that it proceeded from the cultivated plant in its neighbourhood, and more particularly as they scarcely ever differ from each other. First Race. BRrasstcA CAMPESTRIS OLEIFERA. Chou oleifére. Colsat or Colsa, sometimes written Colza. The plant which I here designate as being the Field Cab- bage in its natural state, or very little altered by cultivation, has a slender root, an upright, smooth, and branching stem, about a foot and a half or two feet high, which, together with the foliage, is covered with glaucous bloom, the interior part of the leaves of the young plants, as well as their edges and nerves, are covered with bristles; when older, all the leaves are smooth, the lower ones are petiolated and shaped in the form of a lyre: that is, their inferior lobes are separated as far as the mid-rib and the superior ones united; the stem leaves are bent inwards, embracing the stalk; they are scol- ioped at their_basis in the shape of a heart, oblong, and entire at the edges; the flowers are constantly yellow, the leaves of the calyx are half expanded, the seed-pods are upright, round, perfectly tetragonal, swollen in a slight degree, and terminated in a point, which is near! quadrangular at its base ; the seeds are brown, abundant, anc tolerably large. This plant is cul- * Smith, Flora Britannica, vol. ii, p. 718. English Botany, plate 2234, tivated 182 M. De Candolle on the Species and Varieties tivated for the oil contained in its seed, and appears to be the most productive of any that are used for the same purpose. But such is the confusion existing in the nomenclature of these plants, that it is difficult to know, without the minutest de- scription, which are to be referred to the same species. The one now under consideration appears to be the true Colsa, cultivated in Belgium, and in several of the eastern parts of France, in Germany, and in Switzerland: in other provinces the name of Colsa is given to the Brassica Napus oleifera, or Navette d’hiver, while the Brassica campestris oleifera is simply called Navette. So we must refer the Colsa of Duchesne and Lamarck to the Brassica Napus, as well as the plant de- scribed in the Flora Britannica * under the name of Coleseed : on the other hand, in the greatest part of the Netherlands, and France, Colsa implies the Brassica campestris oleifera, so that, to prevent any mistake, I have chosen oleifera for the me- thodical nomenclature, which is at least as comprehensible as the names of Colsa and Coleseed, both merely signifying Cab- bage seed, in the German origin. It would be desirable for agriculture that in all countries, cultivators would examine whether the plant they rear is the Brassica campestris oleifera, or the Brassica Napus oleifera, which can easily be ascertained by observing whether the young plant is rough or smooth ; if hispid, it is the Brassica campestris ; if glabrous, the Brassica Napus. Experiments} made by M. Gaujac show the produce of the first, compared to that of the second, as 955 to 700. The true Colsa, the plant now described, is generally sown about the middle of June, in well manured nursery ground, from whence it is transplanted after harvest into fields properly prepared, and manured again in November, after which, 1t stands the winter tolerably well, blossoms in the spring, and soon after runs to seed. There is a variety of Colsa, called in France Colsa de Mars, which may be sown in spring, and harvested in the same year. It is less productive, but may be employed on ground that has not been prepared soon enough in the preceding year, or to replace those plauts of other kinds that have perished in win- ter. I have seen both these varieties, when sown in the same ground in the month of May, wear a very different aspect in September; the early or spring one, précox, was in full blossom, and the late or autumn one, autumnalis, had not the slightest appearance of a flower. Some authors speak of a variety called the white-flowered Colsa, but as I have constantly seen _ * See Brassica Napus in Smith’s Flora Britannica, vol. ii. page 719, and English Botany, plate 2146, + See the end of this Memoir. the of the Genus Brassica. 183 - the flowers of a bright yellow, I suspect this name has arisen from some confusion of nomenclature. Second Race. BRaAssicA CAMPESTRIS PABULARIA. This second race of Field Cabbage is designated by Com- meralt in the Memoirs of the Agricultural Society of Paris, for 1789, under the name of Chou d faucher. It is perfectly* intermediate between the Colsa and Chou-navet, and there- fore to be considered an hybrid between the two races; the root is fusiform, slender as in the Colsa, but much longer, the stalk is short, like that of the Chou-navet, but not so thick, the radical leaves numerous, hispid on the edges, and on the nerves underneath; they have a long petiole, and are lyre- shaped; the plant bears frequent cutting as food for cattle. Third Race. Brassica cAMPESTRIS Napo-BrassIca. Chou-Navet. Navew. The third race of Field Cabbage is that of the Napo-Bras- sica, Chou-Navet (Navew), easily distinguished from the two former by its root being swelled into a tuber near the origin of the stem. Duchesne and other authors have considered this plant as belonging to the Brassica oleracea; it is com- monly confounded with the Chou-rave, Brassica oleracea Caulo- Rapa, but it decidedly belongs to the Brassica campestris, its young radical leaves being hispid in the same manner as in the Colsa: this race comprises two distinct varieties, the com- mon Chou-navet, and the Ruta-baga; the latter name is fre- quently given to sub-varieties of the former, which occasions some confusion both among practitioners and those who write on the subject. The real Chou-navet+, Brassica Napo-Bras- Sica communis, is known by its irregularly shaped root, which is either red or white, but never yellow, thence forming two sub-varieties: the white sub-variety, Chou-navet blanc, alba, * Mr. Morgan, in the paper before referred to (Horticultural Transac- tions, vol. ii. page 315), has described four kinds of Winter Greens without stems, and with fusiform roots, with which M. De Candolle does not appear to be acquainted ; their dwarf habits ally them to the Brassica campestris, while other properties show their affinity to the Brassica oleracea acephala or tall Cabbages ; the first, however, nearly approaches the character of this second race of the Brassica campestris, whilst the three last will probably be considered as of hybrid production between the two above-named species. Their names as given by Mr. Morgan are, Ist. Egyptian Kale, or Rabi Kale: 2d. Ragged Jack; 3d. Jerusalem Kale, and 4th. Buda Kale.—Sec. * + The Chou-navet is little known in the English gardens, though not un- common in French horticulture. When cultivated in Great Britain its roper designation is Turnip-rooted Cabbage, to distinguish it from the urnip Cabbage, or the Chow-rave of the French.— Sec. (White 184 M. De Candolle on the Species and Varieties (White Navew), is sometimes mistaken for a Ruta-baga; the other is the Chou-navet ad collet rouge, purpurascens (Red Navew). The Ruta-baga, Napo-Brassica Ruta-baga, also called Navet jaune, Navet de Suede, Chou de Laponie, and Chou de Suede*, has a root more regularly round or oval, and is yellow both on the out and the inside. It is natural to suppose that the race of Chou-navets proceeds from the Colsa crossed by the Brassica Rapa; its characters are intermediate between the two, and Mr. Sageret has found that among the hybrid plants he had obtained from the Colsa, many were swelled out at the lower part of their stem. Care must be taken not to confound the Chou-navet, united by a hyphen, with the Chou navet writ- ten as two distinct words; the former is the Brassica cam- pestris Napo-brassica, Turnip-rooted Cabbage just mentioned ; the latter, the Brassica Napus, the fourth species of Brassica, the true Turnip, of which I shall speak hereafter. Turrp Species. BRASSICA RAPA, Rave ou Navet. ‘Turnip. Is said to be found in a wild state in various parts of Eu- rope, but the facility with which its seeds can be transported from the place where it is cultivated must leave its native ha- bitat-a matter of doubt. This species, first pointed out by Lamarck in the Encyclopédie Botaniquet, and called Bras- sica asperifolia, comprehended several varieties of the Brassica campestris; it was afterwards described by Poiret, in the same work ||, by the name of Sinapis tuberosa, which, strictly speak- ing, is applicable to one only of its varieties; for this reason, as well as to follow the older name, I have thought proper to preserve the name of Brassica Rapa, introduced by Linnzeus§. This species is distinguished from the preceding by its foliage not being glaucous but of a decided green, like the Radishes, which are called in Trench Petites Raves ; secondly, by the * The Ruta-baga is well known in Great Britain, in field cultivation, as the Swedish Turnip; though of modern introduction, it is extensively grown. The true and pure sort has yellow flesh and is without a stem, but it is apt to degenerate from both these important requisites to a good plant, either by the flesh becoming white, or by the erown running up into a stem of more or less length. It is remarkable that the yellow fleshed Swedish Turnip produces whitish flowers, whilst the white fleshed bears dark yellow flowers.—Sec. + Smith’s Flora Britannica, vol. ii. p. 719. English Botany, plate 2176. Martyn Flora Rustica, vol. ii. plates 49 and 50. ${ Lamarck Encyclopédie Botanique, vol.i. page 746. || Poiret Encyclopédie Botanique, vol. iv. page346. ! Linn. Species Plantarum, edit. 2. vol. ii. page 931. inferior . of the Genus Brassica. 185 inferior or radical leaves being permanently covered with stiff hairs: in every respect. the young plant bears more resem~ blance to a species of Raphanus, than to one of the genus Brassica, and as it differs again from Brassica, by its spread- ing calyx, it ought, perhaps, to be placed under Sinapis, as Poiret and Brotero* have proposed. First Race. Brassica Rapa DEPRESSA. Navet rond, ou Rave plate. Round Turnip. The common field and garden Turnip. Ithas a large root expanding under the origin of the stem into a thick round fleshy tuber, flattened at the top and bottom, and distinctly producing, from its lower end, a small slender radicle: this is the race particularly called Turnip; and in French faves, Grosses Raves, or Rabioules; it is a vegetable too well known as excellent food for men and cattle, to need any further re- mark on its utility in a memoir essentially destined to the classification of varieties, of which the Turnip offers a consi- derable number. In the first place, it is variable in size; some are about two inches in diameter, and others six or eight, and even more, which difference, though allowed to be somewhat hereditary, depends in a great measure on the nature of the soil, and manner of cultivation; the many intermediate de- grees, therefore, in the size of the Turnip, make it impossible to establish a character of variety upon that difference. Se- condly, the flavour of the Turnip offers little less certainty ; it is a mixture of the sweet and acrid, the latter quality residing principally in the fibres, the former in the juice; the propor- tion of these two principles seems to vary according to the nature of the soil: it is not unusual for Turnips to change their flavour when they are grown in a different bed, and from this circumstance, common both to the Brassica Rapa, and Brassica Napus, most countries boast of particular localities famous for their excellent Turnips. Thirdly, the different shades in the colour of the Turnip seem to deserve more at- tention than its size and flavour, and offer some varieties + and sub-varieties to observation. ‘The White Turnip, alba, is the most common of all; it is entirely white, except near the ori- gin of the stem, where the root being exposed to the light, the skin takes a reddish tint. The Yellow Turnip, flavescens, is ' * Sinapis Rapa. Brotero Flora Lusitanica, vol. i. page 586. + It would occupy too much space to give here the names and peculiar characters of the great numbers of Turnips grown in the gardens and fields of England and France ; whenever it is attempted, the classification by co- lours proposed by M. De Candolle will form a good plan of arrangement. —Sec. Vol. 61. No, 299. March 1823. Aa of 186 M. De Candolle on the Species and Varieties of a pale apricot colour on the outside and inside: it is not so common as the white kind, neither does it grow to so large a size, but it deserves the preference for culinary purposes, being much sweeter than the former. The Black Turnip, nigricans, known to most of the ancients *, I have never seen, nor am at all acquainted with, The Red Turnip, punicea, has the skin of the fleshy part red, and appears to be a slight degeneration of the white species. Lastly, the Green Turnip, viridis, mentioned by the ancients, is more likely to prove an accidental variety than a permanent one. Second Race. Brassica Rapa OBLONGA+. This race differs essentially from the preceding in the shape of its root, which forms an oblong tuber, growing insensibly thinner till it ends in a radicle; it is less fleshy than the flat~ tened Turnip, but with respect to its foliage and flavour, it bears a strong resemblance to the latter, and has not unfre- quently been confounded with it by modern botanists. The ancients, on the contrary, distinguished it perfectly well, and described it in most of their works under the name of Rape oblonga. It is now so little cultivated that I have not been able to collect more than a few plants scattered here and there under different denominations, in the several countries where I haye studied rural productions, and I have constantly seen it of a white colour. When more particularly attended to, I shall not be surprised to find it offers the same variety of colour as the flattened Turnip. In speaking of it, several an- cient botanists have cited examples of the enormous weight to which it arrives. Matthiolust speaks of an oblong Turnip weighing thirty pounds; those I have seen were, on the con- trary, considerably less in size and weight than the flattened Turnip; however, the Rapa oblonga is exactly intermediate between that and the following variety. Third Race. Brassica Rapa OLEIFERA. Wild or oleiferous ‘Turnip. This third race of Turnips appears to be the wild type of the species, or at least is very near to a wild state; it is distin- guished from the two preceding varieties by its root being * C. Bauhin’s Pinar, 89-90.—Tournefort Inst. 228. + Oblong Turnips are well known to the English farmers, by whom they are grown, under the names of Tankard Turnips and Decanter Turnips ; there are white and red varieties of these ; the roots being of looser texture, they are less able to support the severity of our winters, and therefore are used for autumnal feeding, before they can be injured by frosts.—Sec. t Matthiolus Comm. page 330. slender, of the Genus Brassica. 187 slender, very slightly fleshy, nearly cylindrical, and running to a point at its extremity. It was mentioned, and tolerabl described, by ancient authors under the name of Wild Turnip. I recognised the same plant in Dauphiny, under that of Na- vette, and I reared from its seeds several individuals resem- bling the figures given by the ancients. We must not con- found the Navette of Dauphiny with the Alsace Navette; Villars* has described the former under the name of Brassica Napeila; but the variety 6, which he has subjoined, appears to me to belong to some other species, which I cannot affirm to be the Colsa, as he mentions that in another article, though he may probably have mistaken it for the Brassica Napus olei- Jera, which is the true Navette. This Ravette, or Navette of Dauphiny, distinctly separated from every other kind of olei- ferous Cabbage by its leaves, which are free from glaucous bloom, and covered with strong bristles, is preferred for cul- tivation in the southern valleys of the mountains of Dauphiny, in a soil unfavourable to every other oleaginous cruciferous plant; it is less productive than the Colsa, but being of a more hardy nature, is useful notwithstanding; the seeds are sown after harvest, and ripen in the month of June following. Fourtu Species. BRASSICA NAPUS. The species to which I give this name, in common with all botanists, though very nearly approaching the Brassica ole- ‘racea and the Brassica campestris, deserves to be separated from each; it differs from the Brassica oleracea by a thicker root and more slender stalk, by leaves more generally scol- loped to the mid-rib, and particularly by its expanded calyx. It differs from the Brassica campestris, by its glabrous leaves, which are smooth even in their earliest age, and is unlike both in the size of its seeds, which are little more than half that of the others, also by its seed-pod spreading open when ripe, by which it differs equally from every other neighbouring species. It cannot be confounded with the Brassica Rapa, its leaves being both glaucous and smooth ; it is thought to be originally of Europe, but its native soil, like that of every plant that has been cultivated time out of mind, is difficult to ascertain; we may separate it into two distinct races, on the principle of the shape of the root. First Race. Brassica Narus OLEIFERA. Navette. Rape. The oleiferous Navette is what is termed in all the northern provinces of France, Navette, Navette @hiver, and Rabette ; * Villars Histoire des Plantes de Dauphiné, vol. iii. page 334, : Aa2 in 188 M. De Candolle on the Species and Varieties in Germany, Reps Riiben, or Winter Reps, and according to the Flora Britannica*, Rape+, Navew, or Coleseed, in En- - gland. This plant differs from the Navet, properly so called, by its slender root, which is scarcely thicker than the stalk ; it is sown after harvest, in summer, or at the beginning of autumn, and the seeds are collected in the following spring ; sometimes it is sown in spring, to be gathered in autumn; the cultivators throw it lightly on the ground, and raise the earth afterwards into ridges to clear it of weeds, and place the plants at proper distances; it appears to be less productive than the true Colsa, but more so than the summer Navette, of which I shall speak hereafter; these differences are principally owing to the proportional size of their seeds. The continual con- fusion, however, arising in botany and agriculture, between the Colsa, Navette, Navette of Dauphiny, the summer Navette, and winter Navette, naturally leaves great doubts in the mind, as to their respective results.. I must own that I felt for a long time much uncertainty in deciding whether the Colsa and the true Navette were two species, or only two varieties of the same species, their differences being of so doubtful a nature; but the unanimous agreement of cultivators on this point, and my own observation on the constancy of their distinctive cha- racters, however slight, have determined me to adopt the first opinion. We must observe, lastly, that the plant indicated by Duchesne and Lamarck}, appears to be our Navette, the English Coleseed. Second Race. Brassica NAPUS ESCULENTA. Navet. French Turnip. The Navet, properly so called, differs from the Navette in the same manner as the Rave from the Ravette; that is, by its fleshy root being thicker than the stalk, and forming a nearly oval tuber; we must neither confound it with the Brassica Rapa oblonga, from which it differs by its smooth and glaucous leaves, nor with the Chou-navet, differing also from this. by its spreading seed-pod and bare leaves, nor with the Chou-rave, in which the swell in the root is above instead of being below the origin of the stem. The true Navet || even * Smith Flora Britannica, vol. ii. p.719. English Botany, plate 2146. Martyn Flora Rustica, vol. iii. plate 103. + The application of the English term Navew to this plant seems inac- curate; for the Navew is properly the Chou-navet, see page 183.—Sec. { Lamarck Encyclopédie. Botanique, vol. i. page 742. || In the early period of the existence of the Horticultural Society (see Transactions, vol. i. page 86), Mr. Dickson brought this excellent esculent into the notice of the English gardeners ; it is still, however, but seldom cultivated. Sec. surpasses of the Genus Brassica. 189 surpasses in the sweetness of its flavour the sweet Turnip, and has not any of its acrid particles. We distinguish three va- rieties of Navet by their colour: the White, alba, which is the most common; the Yellow, fava, of a more delicate flavour ; and the Black, nigricans, the fleshy part of which is white, and the skin only of a blackish colour. : , Firry Species. BRASSICA PRACCOX. The fifth, and Jast species of Cabbage here mentioned, and unknown to botanists till lately, has long been cultivated by different farmers in various parts of Europe; it is called in the Eastern provinces of France Navette d’Eté, Navette de Mai, Navette annueile, and in Germany, Kohl Reps, or Summer Reps, which has the same signification as the French Navette d@’Eté; it is distinguished from the preceding by its upright seed-pod, which does not open when mature; from the Brassica oleracea, by its expanding calyx, and from the Tur- nip, by its glabrous leaves; and, lastly, from them all, by its precocity; it is usually sown in spring, and though it blos- soms later than the Winter Navette, it has time to ripen in the course of the year,-and is distinctly an annual, whereas the two preceding varieties ripen their seed only in the second year. This species was introduced into botanical gardens by Messrs. Waldstein and Kitaibel, of Hungary, under the name of Brassica precox, a name truly expressive of its nature, and adopted by Messrs. Schultes* and Hornemann+. I have since received from M. Nestler some specimens of it, accom- panied with very interesting historical notes and descriptions: he calls it Brassica striata, as expressive of its character: but the prior claim of the Hungarian botanists, and the desire of coming as near as possible to common practice, have induced me to adopt their appellation. ‘‘ This plant,” says M. Nest- ler, * is often cultivated on hilly ground, where the Winter Navette does not succeed; as the seed is much smaller, its produce scarcely exceeds one half of the latter; its seed is lightly thrown into the ground, mixed with that of other plants, such as Lettuces, &c. and requires more space than the Win- ter Navette to produce a certain number of seed-pods, for if confined for room it has scarcely any.” ** Near and about Strasbourg, however, it is less cultivated than the other. Its seed is equally useful in the preparation of oil, for no distinction is made between the oil of the Sum- mer and the Winter Navette confounded together under the * Schultes Obs, n. 1010, + Hornemann JTort, Hafn, vol. ii. page 621. name 190 M. De Candolle on the Species and Varieties name of Reps hl, which is particularly used for lamps, after haying undergone the necessary process of purification by Thenard’s method.” At present we know of no variety of the Brassica precox, having a fleshy and tuberous root, as in the preceding species; but it is probable from analogy that it might be susceptible of the same development. Messrs. Waldstein and Kitaibel* think that the Brassica elongata ‘might be cultivated with success as an oleiferous plant. This species, known by the extraordinary peduncle of the seed-pod rising above the discus, has several chances of succeeding; in the first place, it is of a robust nature, and thrives in tolerably good ground; secondly, it yields seed abundantly; thirdly, its seed-pods are slow in opening, so that the seeds which ripen first are not lost, while the rest are ripening; this species is cultivated in some parts of Hungary, and I mention it here to attract the attention of botanists and cultivators to it, as a novelty. Iw order to prevent confusion of nomenclature, I shall here mention a few species of the Neighbouring Genera that have been popularly confounded with the preceding. Of these the First is the Moutarde blanche, Sinapis alba (White Mustard)+; it is cultivated in the Vosges, under the name of Navette d’ Eté, but can in nowise be confounded with the plant that more ge- nerally bears this name; the leaves are more deeply divided, and have their lobes more indented, but, above all, the seed- pod is short, hispid, and terminated with a kind of depressed horn, in the shape of a dagger; it contains but a small quan- tity of seeds, and these are of a pale colour. It is generall employed for making mustard, but, as I before observed, it 1s cultivated in some parts of France as an oleiferous plant, under the name of Navette d’Eté, and sometimes it is called _Graine de Beurre. The next is the Camelina sativat, which is likewise desig- nated in some provinces by the names of Navette d’Eté, and Graine de Beurre; in other places, from a curious confusion of terms, it is called Camomille!; the Belgians name it Door ; the Alsacians, Dotterle; the Germans, Dotter; and the Ita- lians, Dorella. Next to the true Colsa this is the most produc- * Waldstein & Kitaibel Plant. rar. Hung. vol.i. page 26, tab. 28. - + See De Candolle Reg. Veg. Syst. Nat. vol. ii. page 620. Smith Flora Britannica, vol.ii. page 721. English Botany, plate 1677. Martyn Flora Rustica, vol. ii. plate 70. ft See De Candolle Reg. Veg. Syst. Nat. vol. it. page 515. Myagrum satiwum, Linn. Sp. Plant. ed. 2. vol. li.. page 894. Alyssum sativum, Smith Mora Britannica, vol, ii. page 679, and English Botany, plate 1254. tive of the Genus Brassica. 191 tive among the oleiferous cruciferous plants, and is known by the following distinctions: its leaves are entire, and prolonged at their basis by little ear-like appendices; its seed-pods are of an oval shape, narrow at the lower part next the peduncle, and contain a great number of small seeds. The Third is the cultivated Radish, Raphanus sativus, which might easily be mistaken, when young, for the Brassica Rapa, and one of its races bears in France the name of Rave; it is distinguished by its seed-pod_ being nearly acuminated, of spongy consistency, never opening spontaneously, and having compartments within to keep the seed separated. It is said to grow wild in the south of Europe, but this seems to be little more than a conjecture. If it should be, as it is supposed, the Pagans* of Theophrastus, it would most probably be a native of Greece or the neighbouring countries; its analogy to other species of the same group, and, what we know already con- cerning one of its varieties, Raphanus sativus oleiferus, would make me suppose it to have come from Asia, The Raphanus sativus, which I studied at the same time with the Brassica, ought, I conceive, to be separated into two distinct divisions, each of which may probably prove to be species capable of being subdivided into several varieties and sub-varieties. Miller assures us that he has cultivated them for forty years, without any alteration ; nevertheless, most of the modern cul- tivators have observed several variations in them. Monsieur Audibert, for example, thinks that the colour is more perma- nent than the form; others speak of several changes of colour. The following divisions, however, appear to be constant : first, that of the common Radish, Raphanus communis; its charac- ter, a fleshy root, neither compact nor tuberous, of a red or white colour, but never black; this is divided into three races perfectly analogous to those of the Brassica Rapa. First Race+. Ravruanus sativus RADICULA ROTUNDA. Radis. The Round or Turnip Radish. The root in this plant is swelled into a round or oval tuber prolonged at the extremity till it becomes a filiform radicle ; this race peculiarly bears in France the name of adis; in Italy, Radice; and in England, Turnip Radish; it has three varieties of colour, viz. the white, the rose or pink, and the red or purple. * Theophrast. Hist. lib. 7. cap. 4, +A full account of all the varieties of Spring, Radishey, both Turnip Radishes and Long Radishes, has been given by Mr. William Christie, in the third volume of the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, article 84, page 436,—Sec, Second 192 M. De Candolle on the Species and Varieties Second Race. RAPHANUS SATIVUS RADICULA OBLONGA. — Rave. Long Radish. The root is long, nearly cylindrical, diminishing insensibly to a point at the extremity; in French it is generally called Raviole, or Rave; in Italian, Ramolaccio, and Ravanello; in English, the common garden Radish; it offers the same va- rieties of colour as the preceding race, and has besides a sub- variety of form, which might be more properly termed a varia- tion or accident in the species, as it seldom continues the same when the plant is taken from its native soil. I speak of the French Fave tortillée du Mans, Raphanus radicula tortili, (Crooked Radish,) in which the root is so crooked as to re- semble a cork-screw. Third Race. . RAPHANUS SATIVUS RADICULA OLEIFERA. Oleiferous Radish. The root of this Radish is slender, and so thin as to be scarcely fleshy, but the plant is abundantly productive of seed, and well worth cultivating on that account as an oleiferous plant. It was introduced in the time of Miller under the name of Raphanus Chinensis. 'The Chinese Radish appears to be the type of the cultivated species; its root, according to M. Vilmorin, is in different varieties, gray, white, or red, a circumstance that would tend to unite all the varieties men- tioned in this article, and noticed a few years since at Placen- tia, in Italy, as belonging to the Raphano oleifero Cinese, at which place M. Grandi* published instructions on the man- ner of cultivating it. The second division of cultivated Radishes+ is that of the Black Radish, Raphanus niger, considered by the ancients, and by some few of our moderns, as a distinct species. ‘The root of the first variety of this race is always thick, and black on the outside, compact, and nearly tuberous; it is known in France under the name of Radis noir, gros Raifort noir, Rai- fort des Parisiens, and presents two varieties of shape, the Oblong, vulgaris, and the Round, rotundus. Morison{ and Weinmann § have attempted to distinguish the latter, but there does not appear :ny important difference. Another variety is known by the name of Razfort gris (Gray Radish); this is sometimes extremely pale, or nearly white. The Raphanus albus orbicularis of Miller, gros Raifort blanc, or Radis d’ Augs- * De Grandi Ist. Cult. Piacenza. edit. 6, 1807. + Mr. William Christie has given a detailed account of these Radishes, under the names of Autumn and Winter Radishes, in the fourth volume of the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, article 4, page 10.—Sec. { Mor. Hist. i. page 2, c. 13. § Weinmann Phyt. 860. bourg, gf the Genus Brassica. 193 bourg, called in England White Spanish Radish, is a variety less known. Observations on the Cross-bred Vegetables found among the preceding Plants. There is no doubt that many of the plants which I have enumerated are the results of different cross-breeds, obtained by mere chance in various gardens, and preserved by the care of agriculturists.. Having never found an opportunity of making such experiments methodically, I shall content my- self with relating a few facts communicated to me by M. Sa- geret, who, being an excellent and zealous cultivator, has de- voted several years to the trial of cross-breeds. The results he has obtained on cultivated Cabbages appear to me worthy the attention of the curious. The cultivated Cabbage, Bras- sica oleracea, according to M. Sageret, presents a singular phenomenon, that of being incapable of receiving fecundation from any but its own species; he tried in vain the pollen of the Brassica campestris oleifera, or Colsa, as well as that of every other species of Brassica; he then found out that it had a natural tendency to fecundate several other species of Cab- bages, and even the cultivated Black Radish, but it could not be impregnated by any except its own varieties: the Brassica oleracea botrytis has not, however, undergone a trial with it. It appears that the cross-breeds known are produced in gar- dens without any interference. The Colsa, the Chou-navet, and the Ruta-baga, appear from these experiments to be hybrid products of the Cabbage, and Turnip, taken in different degrees of culture, and domes- tication; they are none of them capable of crossing the true Cabbage, but may all become fruitful by its means; they can produce amongst themselves other cross-races which bring their own seeds to perfection; the Colsa in particular can- not be considered as the type of the cultivated Cabbage, as Messrs. Duchesne and Lamarck supposed; but its manner of mixing in artificial breeds, shows, as I have already observed, that it forms a type sui generis. One might suppose that the Colsa was originally produced from the Cabbage and the Navette; the Brassica campestris pabularia by the Cabbage and the oblong Turnip; the Napo-Brassica by the Cabbage and the white Turnip, and the Ruta-baga by the Cabbage and the yellow Turnip. General Observations. The several plants which I have offered to notice, and classed according to my own observations, are, as every body Vol. 61. No. 299. March 1823. Bb knows, 194 M. De Candolle on the Species and Varieties knows, disseminated throughout Europe; but from the con- fusion reigning in their popular and unscientific nomenclature, it was impossible to know which of these species and varieties were spoken of on different occasions, so that the experiments of one country were useless for another, and it was impossible to deduce any general considerations on the nature of these vegetables. In order to apply the classification proposed I shall add two short remarks. The distinction of the several varieties once established, we shall find it possible to use terms of comparison for the different experiments made by cultiva- tors, and more especially for those of Mons. Gaujac*. The medium product of a hectar+ of ground cultivated in oleiferous cruciferous plants appears to be, Brassica campestris oleifera. Kiliogrammet 955 of oil. Brassica Napus oleifera . c : i 700 Brassica oleracea acephala fimbriata 3, aa0%00 Brassica campestris Napo-brassica communis 650 Brassica campestris Napo-brassica Ruta-baga 650 Camelina sativa . : ‘ : 3 595 Brassica preecox. : 2 P ‘ 450 Hesperis matronalis ; j . : 350 Brassica Rapa oleifera. : - (undetermined.) Raphanus sativus Radicula oleifera- . x ditto Brassica elongata. ; ; . ditto If we now compare the cruciferous plants together, in a dif- ferent point of view, we shall obtain some curious results on their organization. Most of them, and perhaps the whole num- ber, are susceptible of two different variations, the one hav-- ing a thin, slender, slightly fleshy root, the other a thick and fleshy root: in general, those of the first kind bear a consider- able quantity of seeds, and are cultivated throughout Europe as oleiferous vegetables; the others, on the contrary, bring few seeds to perfection, and are cultivated in general for their roots, as excellent for field or garden vegetables. So in the Brassica oleracea, the varieties that have a thin stalk are culti- yated for their seeds, and those that have swelled radicles are reserved for food. Among the varieties of the Brassica cam- pestris, which, by reason’ of its large seeds, appears to be emi- nently oleiferous, the Colsa is the most productive, and has the thinnest root; for the produce of oil, the Rué¢a-baga and common Napo-brassica are much less useful. In the Brassica Rapa, the Navette with a thin root is cultivated for its oily seeds, whilst the Turnip, or Brassica Rapa depressa, is used * Bull. Soc. Encourag. Industr. Paris, pp. 67 & 69. - t The Hectar is equal to 2 acres, 1 rood, 35-4 perches English. The Kiliogramme is equal to 21b. 802, 12146 grains troy. ‘ or of the Genus Brassica. 195 for food. In the Brassica Napus, the Navette with a thin root is cultivated for its oil, and the Navet for the sake of its root. Lastly, in the Raphanus sativus, the same circumstance again appears; the thin roots constantly belong to the many-seeded varieties, whilst the thick fleshy roots are employed for culinary purposes only. A similar law may be observed in other cru- ciferous plants. The Cochlearia Armoracia (Horse-radish), which has a very large thick root, rarely brings. any seeds to perfection, whilst every other species of Cochlearia produces them freely; this observation may be useful to guide cultivators in the choice of the varieties proper to try as oleiferous plants. If taken in a more extensive sense, it may serve to throw some light on the laws of vegetation in general, for we know it is not confined to cruciferous plants alone; and I should be tempted to elucidate this idea, were it not a digression in a memoir of this nature. ‘There is no doubt that much remains to be done to make the history of Cabbages and Radishes clear and satisfactory. For this purpose it will be necessary to assemble the different varieties cultivated in those countries where I have had few correspondents on the subject. The nomenclature of the divers European languages ought to be ascertained and compared with precision; cross fecundation tried in order to obtain the existing varieties, or produce new ones, all of which will no doubt be undertaken, and executed one day or other. I-shall therefore content myself with pre- senting this memoir, as a specimen of the method of classifi- cation, and nomenclature, which appears to me useful to ad- mit among cultivated vegetables in general, and conclude by claiming indulgence for the inaccuracies of detail that, in spite of every endeavour, may have escaped my notice. Note.—Perhaps the following glossarial notices, the collec- tion of which from Nemnich and other sources has been sug- gested by the perusal of the above excellent Memoir, may be acceptable to some of our readers. ‘The universality of the popular names of the varieties of the genus Brassica and _ its allies, in the European dialects, is proportioned to their ex- tensive usefulness to mankind, and their great antiquity as ob- jects of culture. The origin of their names may perhaps furnish hints as to the countries from which some of the varieties have been derived. The Roman name Brassica still survives in some Celtic dialects: as in the Welsh and Bretagne Bresich ; and perhaps in the Spanish and Portuguese Berza, the Italian Verzi, Ver- zotto, the Brescian Verz, and the Slavonic Verza, Verzina, from which may perhaps be derived the German Wirzing, unless these latter are rather to be traced to Wurze a plant or wort. Bb2 The 196 Note on the common Names The appellation of the genus which obtains most extensively is that which is referred with most probability to the Greek Kavaos, Latin Caulis*, and which is found in the following forms : TEUTONIC DIALECTS. ROMANCE DIALECTS. German. Kohl ; anc. Kol.+ Ital. Cavolo. Dutch. Kool, Kaal. Span. Col. English. Cole. Scotch. Cale. | Portug. Cowve. A. Sax. Caul, Capel.t | French. Chou: ancientl Danish. Kaai. Chauls, Caulet, Caul. Swedish. Kal, anc. Kdi.|j Langued. Caoule, Caou. Combinations of this name with various others furnish ap- pellations for most of the varieties: as Kohlrabi, Cauliflower, Borecole, Boerenkool, &c. Thus from the Coleseed, Koflsaat, Koolzaad, Kaalseed, Kolsa, of the English, German, and other Teutonic dialects, the French, Italians, Spanish and Portu- guese have adopted their name Colsa. _ The English names for M. De Candolle’s 6th race, Cauli- flower and Broccoli, are derived from the South of Europe. The names for the Cauliflower in the South are: Italian Cavol-fiore. Venetian Caolo-fior. Spanish Coliflor. Por- * Caulis herba, Emilius Macer. + Kor, thyrsus vel scapus planta. Gracis xavacc, Latinis cazlis, France. chol, Camb. cawl, et inde cawl gwyllt caulis agrestis, apud Boxhorn. in Lexico et Botanologio Antiquo-Britannico. Gloss. Pez. caulis chola.” “Kor, brassica, et omnis herba que non immediaté e terra sed e scapo supra terram assurgit. Gloss. Pez. caulis cholastoch. 1. e. scapus brassicz. Similiter et Cambris atque Anglo-Saxonibus caw/ non solum caulem, sed etiam brassicam, et olus in caule significat.””—WacutTer. { Hence Capel-pypt, Colewort: Capel-pynm, gurgulio. || “ K&x, olus, brassica. Brarx. R. c. 22. Hwar sum stjel kali annes mans kalgarp, ‘ Quicunque brassicam furatur in alterius horto:’ ubi tamen per kal forte non tam brassicam, quam omne oleris hortensis genus intelli- gere debemus. Ita enim vox hac apud veteres accipitur. Interpres Islandus Marc. iv. 32. de grano sinapi: vex thad upp og verdr 6llum kaalgrésum meira: ‘surgit et fit majus omnibus oleribus.’ Isl. had. Sworro Sturv2s. tom. i. p. 613. Mun han eirn atla, at eta kal alt a Ein- glande: “ille solus sibi proposuit, omnia, que Anglia fert, olera con- sumere,’ quod proyerbiale genus est loquendi de immoderata ingluvie, quodque simul innuere videtur, brassicam veteres non domi plantasse, sed ab Anglia petiisse. C. B. caul. vy. Pezronii Hist. des Celt. p. 337. A.S. cawl, cawlwurt. Ang). cole, colewort. Al. chol. Germ. kohl. Gall. chou. Hisp. col. It. cavoli, coli. Derivant ab olus alii, alii a xéAov, quod apud Athenzeum exponitur reo, cibus. Sed verius est, terminatione tantum differre hanc nostram vocem a Latino caulis et Gr. xavads, quod in oleribus idem est, ac caudex in arboribus, ceterum pro brassica etiam ob notabilem ejus caulem accipitur. Pur, Hist. Nat. lib. xvii. c. 24. Odit vitis et caulem et omne olus. Pro caule veteres etiam colis usurpasse, ex melioribus Horatii editionibus probat Vosstus, in Etym. Ule vero Sat. lib. ii. 4. canit Cole suburbano, qui siccis crevit in hortis.” Ture. of the Varieties of Brassica. 197 tuguese Couve-flor. French Chou-fleur; with which may be classed the Polish Kalafiory, Swabian Karfiol, and Swiss Kardiviol ; while the Germans, Dutch, Danes and Swedes have the equivalent names Blumenkohl, Bloemkool, Blomkaal. Broccoli is an Italian name signifying sprouts, and derived from Brocco, a stem or sprout (derived by Menage from ver- rucum Lat.): it is also called Cavolo broccoluto, Span. Broculi, Port. Couve dos Broccos. This Italian word Broccoli appears to prevail through all the countries of Europe, while in the northern nations the Teutonic appellation Sprouts, Sprossen- kohl, Spraten, Spruitkool, is also given to them. The Anglo- Saxons had the word Sppoce from Sppaucan or Sppycan, to shoot forth, and they named the month February Sproutkele, says Verstégan, as it was “ the first hearbe that in this moneth began to yield out wholesome young sprouts.” This author adds that February is yet in the Netherlands called Spruckel*, Our English name Cabbage most properly belongs to M. Decandolle’s 3rd and 4th Races, which are capitate or headed ; and the word is probably from the Italian name Ca- puccia+. Allied to the Italian Cavolo capuccio, are also the French Chou cabu (anciently Capu, Cabuts), Dutch Kabuyskool, Danish Cabudzkaal, Brescian Gabuz, and Kapusta in several Slavonic dialects. ‘The Teutonic dialects have also names of the same signification for the headed race, as Kopfkohl, Hauptkraut, Hovedhaal, Hufoudkaal. With Rapa (Pagos) are to be classed: Ital. Rapa, Raviz- zone, Cavolo-rapa. Span. Raba, Colinaba. Slavon. Repa. French Rave, Chou-rave. Germ. Riibe, Rive, Rabe, Reps, Re- pich, Repskohl, Kohl-rabi, Riibesaat. Dutch Raap, Raapkool, Stekraapen. Swed. Rofva, Stickrave. Dan. Rapsat, Roe, Kaalrabi: And with Napus: Ital. Napo, Navone; Span. and Portug. Nabo; French, Navette, Chou-navet; Engl. Navew, Turnep; Ang. Sax. Nepe; Norw. Nepe; Island. Nepur, Nepukal; Wallach. Nap; Lapl. Népo. Epit. * Sprock-kelle, Spor-kelle; Februarius. Kaliani Etymologicon ed. 1787. + Caboche, a head, in old French, and Cabega, Spanish, are from Cabo the Romance derivative from Caput. XL. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. MaskELyNr’s 36 Stars for every Day in the Year 1823, at the Time of passing the Meridian of Greenwich. {Continued from page 57.) N, B. On those days where an Asterisk is prefixed the Star passes twice; the MR given is that at the first passage, 1823. sion of Dr. Maskelyne’s 36 Stars. wht Ascen f=] zt True apparent R 198 61-61 | 86-12 |PL-9F -6€ | 68-LP 3 3 ‘s 's €% L| L€ 9} SVS Sav Ww H| ‘WH | ‘KH | ‘Ww ‘H| WH WH -o1y | voidg -oay d| -oy |-AH 7 -u9 2} ¢ -7y | -2plv » 4 99 Maskelyne’s 36 Stars. 1 of Dr zon O, oht Ascensi aS . ‘ent R we appar Ti LS ¥S 68 OC sedeoe iSle 18o 6¥ a 20:35 | 60 6% L6 go \00.9€|¢P | 9t 9S (oo Lg te =| 6T ral ce ov 60 66 co 9% t6 |90 £6.61 |06-L9|Se-1S | 12-zh/O1-P2 |OLST |€E-1S| PH-ge| LO-0 | 96-15 |ZO-89| Et-Sh |26.9F £0-LE| 96-SE | OF-FI | S1-6 *s ‘s “Ss ‘s *s ‘s ‘s ‘Ss *s ‘Ss ‘s ‘s °s ‘s “s —— 6S €% ISS sz LP zoloS Iz/SE os!g OslL OB OF 61| VF 61) LE 6t \O€ gI| 9% LI |9 LUGL OT\SE S1jL] Stl IF FI WH WH wen} nH] ow cH] cH |W cH] WH ‘WH | ‘IW ‘H WweH| wn |W ‘H| ‘WH! ‘NW ‘H) “NWCA | CN CH ‘apout | ‘ised | yneyye}renby fruskp}rudep| dep) ay ‘et | apmby| aat'T “nyo *sqyno | *sarey| squad) ‘zog | @aquT -orpuy 7|-aq %} -W10\T » ” %% »{ |-mbyg!-mby»| 4 » |-niydQ*|-10fy2| -uy j-reg *|10D 7) 2S f 200 | XLI. On the Structure of the Earth, and the Changes which are continually passing upon it by the constant Operation of the Laws of Nature. Read before the Glasgow Philosophical Society on the 29th of July 1822. By James Boaz, Esq.* N examining the structure of the earth, it is found to con- sist of stratum sub stratum as deep as has yet been ex- plored; and mostly all having the appearance as if water had been the principal agent in their formation.—Of these im- mense masses of inert matter, there is another feature which obtrudes itself on our attention,—whether the stratified beds be of clay, till, sand, gravel, mud, or other soft substance, or coal, schistus, limestone, ironstone, or even the hardest rock ; all have been subjected, more or less, to change of situs, either upward, downward, or laterally. Thus, First. In some instances a whole district of land appears to have been forced upward per saltum, or rather its conti- guous or adjoining district depressed, as if what formerly upheld it, had sunk, or been annihilated. These s7ts are well known to miners; when they lose their vein, it is usually by a dyke or trouble intervening, and (unless acquainted with the conterminous workings) they are often completely at a stand, after they get through it, whether to dig for the lost stratum above or below its former floor. They sometimes find it again 10 feet higher up or lower down; sometimes 100, and sometimes not at all; as it has either cropped out to day, descended past their reach, or otherwise unaccountably dis- appeared. Between the parted masses there is almost always a partition wall or dyke, several feet thick, consisting often of calcareous, siliceous or metallic substances, which after the disruption had interposed themselves, either in a dry or a fluid state, to fill up the chasm. Some beautiful stalactitial specimens of this kind may be seen at the Giants’ Causeway in Ireland. Second. Vertical separations, where immense rocks and even also whole districts have receded laterally from each other, without having produced any change in the relative level of their respective strata. In these cases the chasms have generally been filled with the same materials as those produced by sits. Third. That exercise of Omnipotence, which produced the vertical depressions and lateral recedings before alluded to, musc have occasioned these innumerable declinations of strata, from the dead level, to all degrees of obliquity, every where so * Communicated by the Author. : conspl- Mr. J. Boaz on the Structure of the Earth, &c. 201 conspicuous; as well as the many extensive caverns of vast dimensions, through which water having found a passage has, in the course of ages, worn down, dissolved and carried off those materials which otherwise would have accumulated and entirely filled them. In other cases, after every corner of every cavity has been filled or cemented, we see the effects of fresh disruptions, de- nudations, and separations of materials, and subsequent fillings up. In all the classes of animal and vegetable beings, it is easy to know, by their appearance, nearly the length of time they have existed ; but, except in the instances in which we surprise na- ture at work in her laboratory, in the art of repairing, by her liquid petrifactive solder, the ghastly fissures and fractures of the shell we inhabit, it is impossible to ascertain the age in which any of these masses assumed their present shape. When however we see that a rock has been cracked and ce- mented, it is reasonable to conclude that the mending has been a subsequent operation to that of the formation. Again, when we see stratified masses of equal thickness having a de- clination of 45 degrees, we may rest assured that these masses are not reposing in the situation in which they were originally formed: for, were a flat level field to be covered over with fluid mud, it would, on drying, form a stratum of nearly equal thickness throughout :—on the other hand, if the same mud had been deposited on the side of a mountain, the stratum would be shallow high up, and deeper at the bottom. In some parts of the world, we see immense chains of high mountains composed of matter stratified in every direction from the dead level to the vertical. These also we may fairly conclude were not originally so. Every mountain, whether of soft or hard materials, has a tendency by the gravity of its particles to find a lower situa- tion. ‘The mouldering tooth of time, aided by frosts, rains, winds and chemical affinities, fritters away the most flinty pre- cipices, and pulverizes them so sufficiently as to be blown down by every breeze, or washed and floated away by innumerable currents of water to the great receptacle, the ocean, and there deposited, in stratum super stratum, often at immense depths, until an event shortly to be mentioned brings them up again to the face of day. In Holland, the lowest of all low countries, excavations have been made several hundred yards deep, and nothing but beds of alluvia found. The highest lands, —Quito, the Andes of America; the Himéla mountains in Asia, still higher; and others, on all of which marine debris has been found,—must Vol. 61. No. 299. March 1823. Ce one 202 Mr. J. Boaz on the Structure one day or other come to their level, and again become the play-ground of the little Nautilus. Such indeed are the mighty revolutions which the crust of this earth has been sub- jected to, that at vast depths we find the remains of tropical animals and vegetables near the pole, and polar productions near the equator. In endeavouring to account for these transitious phzeno- mena, philosophers have classed each other into Neptunians and Plutonists. I will here briefly scan their respective doc- trines. The former attribute all to the agency of water. There is no doubt that by it the highest lands would, in the process of future remote ages, find their way to the bottom of the sea as mentioned above. But what of that? Continuous silent fritterings and wearings down might well reduce the height of the Alps, so as to be washed by the waves of the ocean, and indeed to level all distinctions between sea and land, but could never remove whole countries from one latitude or cli- mate to another. On the other hand, the Plutonists attribute all these pheenomena to internal fires and volcanic eruptions. Although the effects of these are vast, and their potency ex- tensive; yet neither can they account for what have been pro- duced. It is true we have seen mountains melted by internal ignition, burst, and vomit their contents in rivers of liquid lava to distant depots. Islands formed in the middle of the sea, and immense beds of the hardest materials tossed up and laid recumbent at every angle of elevation; but still such gi- gantic agency falls far short of placing the coast of Cayenne at the pole, or Lapland at the equator; and yet there is a natural power that can do this, other than any I have yet mentioned; and that power is at this moment at work. The equatorial diameter of the globe is 8000 miles. It is flattened at the poles like an orange. The proportion be- tween the equatorial and polar diameters of the earth being as 230 to 229: hence the difference is a two hundred and thirtieth part of the whole, or 35 miles. When therefore, in the slow succession of ages, the polar parts of the earth be- come the equatorial, either the solid parts at the present poles must rise, or the hollows become filled up by the ocean, which in that case will there have a depth equal to nearly 17 miles; and, on the other hand, some parts of the present equatorial terra firma, when wrought round to the situation of the future poles, must so sink and accommodate themselves by centrifu- gal action, and other great causes, as to cause the earth to as- sume and maintain the form which it now has,—that of an ob- late spheroid. I am not sure if this theory has ever been before suggested; but and continual Changes of the Earth. 203 but such as it is, Inow submit it to your consideration. Its ra- tionale is simple, accords with and sufficiently accounts for all the geological phenomena and facts we are in possession of ; and amongst the rest hitherto inscrutable, these immense forests of vegetable remains laid prostrate and transformed into beds of coal, covered over by and buried under millions of acres of matter, in some places a hundred, in others a thou- sand feet deep, accessible only by pick, wedge and hammer to the miner, who brings up productions of past ages and warm climes, as a substitute during winter for the absence of that great luminary the sun, by whose agency they were originally reared. But this is not all. In the slow, progressive and equal whirl of the terrestrial ball, deposits of this kind haye been made at periods remotely distant from each other, as coal- formations are often separated by strata, which must have sag thousands of years to collect and deposit. or is this theory destitute of support from analogical reasoning. We see the earth, in her annual revolution round the sun, alternately turning every part of her surface to his benign influence; so much so, that on an average the poles receive nearly as much light and heat in 365 days as the equator. AND wuy, to make all parts equal otherwise, May SHE NOT REVOLVE IN THIS WAY ALSO? All nature goes by revolutions, by production and repro- duction: the death of one animal is the life of another. ‘The individual is the son of a day,—the species may be said to be eternal. By the same parity of reasoning, the moon also changes her poles; and, if we may credit our visual organs, something very like a former pole still appears on her disk near her lower limb, where the seas and land run more in stripes pointing to it—something like our own Greenland, and other northern isles, peaks, and promontories, all which lie more north and south than east and west, occasioned, perhaps, by the tidal currents running more in that direction in the polar regions than at the equator. e can judge of matters only as they present themselves to our senses, an also, like his fellow animals, is the creature of but a day; his observations of the forms and relative posi- tions of the seas, waters, and mountains of the earth are ex- tremely limited; indeed, their changes are so slow that they are often made before the operations were perceived. He can with difficulty see even the hour hand’s motion of adial, and how can he follow the growth of the shell of a nut or of the terraqueous globe ! Cc2 XLII. On [ 204 J XLII. On the Measurement of Timber. By Mr. W. WiseE- MAN. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. INDING lately, in your Philosophical Magazine and Journal for December last*, a letter by Mr. William Gut- teridge, in which he reprobates, urges a change in, and pro- poses a substitute for, the customary method of timber-mea- suring; I cannot refrain from offering a few observations on the occasion. Experience teaches that suggested plausible alterations are, when adopted, not always improvements, Mr. Gutteridge evidently proceeds on the supposition that the timber of these kingdoms, when measured for sale, is al- ways in the round state (for, in 47s new scheme, the only trans- verse dimension he directs to be taken is the diameter at the midlength, and the only content is the cylindric); whereas the fact zs, that the far greater part is (what may be called) semi- squared; that is, the transverse section is brought nearly to the figure of an octagon; consequently Mr. G.’s plan cannot, with any propriety, be applied to any timber of this descrip- tion. And here, I am of opinion that a better or fairer me- thod for semi-squared timber cannot be devised than the old quarter-girt; for, the nearer the timber is to a perfect square the nearer truth will be the content; and the further from a square, though the purchaser gets a larger quantity, he incurs greater expense in reducing it (as in general he must at using) to a square. ‘The same observation extends to all round tim- ber which is to be converted to the square form at using. But timber being, without doubt, sometimes used in the round state, itis necessary to lay down rules for ascertaining the true content thereof. Again, granting argumenti causd, that timber in general is in the round form, Mr. G. evidently proceeds on the supposi- tion that no rules have hitherto been promulgated by which the true content of such round timber can be determined. This is not the fact. ‘To my knowledge, sliding rules accom- panied by precepts have been in circulation and constant use above 25 years, by which (having either the diameter or quar- ter girt at the middle) not only the cylindric, but also (havin any two of the three diameters or quarter girts of the middle and ends) the true conical content of round tapering timber is found with the greatest “ease and brevity.” So that the * Vol. LX. p. 418. “ shield Mr. Wiseman on Timber-measurine. 205 oO “ shield of protection to designing knavery,” and the practice of “ legerdemain,” have long since fallen plump “to the ground.” I would here just observe, that timber so tapering that one diameter is above triple the other, is rarely found in practice. A tree may occur now and then, having that disparity of dia- meters; but it usually happens that the tree naturally divides itself by sudden swells into two or more distinct parts, and consequently must “ be measured” duobus vel pluribus Jrustis. I will supply the investigation of the principle, as relates to round timber, to which the abovementioned sliding rule is adapted. Let s denote half the sum, and d half the difference of the extreme diameters of any tapering piece of timber; Z the length, and p be = -7854. Then, the diameters themselves being s+d and s—d, the formula 4 pl x (s4+d)? + (s—d+VWs+a?xs—@2= ipl x 2s° + 2d* + s°—d?=1 pl x 33° 4+ d?= pl s°+-3 pl d? expresses (as is well known) the true content. In which (s being the dia- meter at the midlength) pl s* is the cylindrical content, and 3 pl d° the difference between that and the true content, Now since 13°5405 in inches, is the diameter of that cylinder whose length and content in feet are always equal to each other, and since the contents of cylinders of the same length are in the duplicate ratio of their diameters; therefore 13'5405? (the square of the diameter of the standard cylinder) : 7 (its content) :: s° (the square of the given diameter) : the cylindrical con- tent required; and in the same way 13°5405?: 3/2::d?: the difference, which added to the cylindrical, will give the true conical content. Now two logarithmic lines, sliding one upon the other as in sliding rules, one being of a double rad us wth respect to the other, will, it is plain, solve these analogies by an operation as short and easy as in the old mode; that is, the length (2) on one line being set to 13°54 on the other (usually called the girt) line, the middle diameter (s) on this last line will stand against the cylindrical content on the first line; and one-third of the length (42) on the first line being set to 13°54 on the other, the half difference of the two extreme diameters (d) on the second line will stand against the quantity on the first line, which added, makes the true content, In a similar way the true content can be obtained by this sliding rule, when, instead of the diameters, the corresponding quarter 206 Mr. Newton on Timber-measuring. quarter girts are given. The gauge point to which the length is to be set, instead of 13°54, will be 10°635. In fact, this sliding rule is adapted to many other uses, as to find the true content of octagonal, hexagonal, &c. timber, &c. It is plain, from the above, that, were it necessary, tables could easily be constructed for every purpose to which sliding rules are applied. In conclusion: I think I have shown, that the recognising Mr. G.’s “ precepts” by act of parliament, and his “ pledge,” which, perhaps, he would find impossible to redeem, are alike unnecessary. I am, gentlemen, Your most obedient servant, — Portland-place, Hull, Feb. 25, 1823. Wo. WISEMAN. We have also received from Mr. Paul Newton a letter re- specting Mr. Gutteridge’s proposed plan for the measurement of timber. He observes, that by this plan “ a national advan- tage is doubtless intended to be held out to us in our maritime capacity! Mr. G.’s plan is professedly in favour of the grower. Now is not this grower very frequently a Dane, a Norwegian, an American, &c.; and is not Mr. G. zealous to enhance the price of that commodity (timber) for the benefit of the pur- chaser—the British? ‘The expense of shipping would be greatly augmented on Mr. G’s plan. ‘Tf our shipping be worth 30 millions, according to our pre- sent mode of measuring and our present price of timber, &c. this ‘improved method’ would compel us (cordage and other articles in proportionate advance) to pay at least 36 millions for our wooden walls. Six extra millions would consequently issue from the Treasury and the purses of our merchants; three millions of which would, on a moderate computation, pass into the hands of Danes, Norwegians, and Americans. Thus Bri- tons would lose three millions, in the single article of shipping, from a regard to a foreign grower. If it be true, that Great Britain and Ireland own at present about 12,000 merchant- vessels, and employ annually upwards of 4000 foreign vessels, we may reasonably conclude that, in a few years, from the adoption of Mr, G.’s method, these numbers, as well as the na- ture of our intercourse with foreign nations, would be reversed ; and I fear we should in that case transfer those useful parti- tions, the wooden walls, to our neighbours.” Newark, Jan. 6, 1823. Note.—Probably, whatever system of measuring prevails, the price will adapt itself to it.—Eprr, E20r #2 XLIII. Some Experiments connected with the Relations of Caloric to Magnetism. By Joun Murray, Esg. F.L.S. M.W.S. §c. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. in has not been determined whether the deviation of the magnetic needle in M. Oérsted’s interesting discovery, to the east or west according as it is posited above or below the uniting wire of the Voltaic circle, is to be attributed to the caloric evolved, or the electricity developed. The following experiments seem to prove that the former is the efficient cause of this declination; and, as connected with the relations of heat to magnetism, the short and simple detail may be deemed of interest. I used a long and slender magnetic needle taken from a theodolite. It was freely suspended by a thread of flos silk attached to its centre, and depended from a brass stand. On bringing the flame of a spirit lamp eastward of the south pole, it was primarily slightly repelled by the flame, and on the lamp being withdrawn the south pole moved toward the east to the amount cf 45° declination, and then slowly retro- graded to its former position. The flame being introduced westward of the south pole, seemed to attract the needle; and on being removed, the south pole deviated still more considerably toward the east, and finally slowly returned to its proper station. The lamp was next brought westward of the north pole, and the flame seemed in the first instance to repell it; when the lamp was withdrawn, the north pole moved toward the west, and the deviation amounted to 70°. After a proper interval it resumed its previous locality. The flame, now brought eastward of the north pole, first exhibited an attractive influence; and on its removal the north pole slowly advanced westward, and at last retrograded. The amount of the declination will of course vary, and will depend on the proximity and continuance of the flame. The flame brought under the centre of the suspended needle, occasioned a circular motion. I am, gentlemen, our obedient servant, Gloucester, March Ist, 1823. J. Murray. XLIV. Re- [ 208 ] XLIV. Remarks on Fermentation. By Joun Murray, Esq. F.L.S. MWS. §c. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Nailsworth, March 5, 1823. [% your Number for January last, we are informed that Messrs. Deurbroucq and Nichols have taken out a patent for Madame Gervais’ new method of fermentation; namely, that of fermenting in close vessels. I have been in the practice of recommending fermentation on this principle for several years with the superadded advan- tages of conducting the process under the influence of a les- sened or increased pressure on the surface of the fermenting mass, in order to check or accelerate the process as may be required .by circumstances and season, because I had found experimentally that fermentation moved with an accelerated progress under an attenuated pressure of the atmosphere, and that an increased density checked and retarded it. Hence I recommended fermenting in close vessels with the air-pump applied. The piston rod posited horizontally, at- tenuated the superincumbent pressure, and when it moved in the vertical plane, an additional density was acquired. It is now three years ago since this was carried into effect on my recommendation, by Mr. Buchannan, a respectable brewer of St. Ninian’s, Stirlingshire. On these principles, it is evi- dent that a violent and rapid fermentation might be checked in summer, and a too tardy one accelerated in winter. As to the syphon applied to the fermenting vat, it had long, I know, been so, successfully, attached to the cask in the case of domestic wines, by Mr. Blunt, an ingenious and intel- ligent chemist of Shrewsbury, and on my recommendation applied by the cyder manufacturer with success. It appeared to me to be of some consequence to ascertain whether it might be advantageous to retain the carbonic acid gas developed in fermentation, or suffer its entire expulsion. Mr. Charles Spurrell, connected with the establishment of Messrs. Barclay, Perkins and Co., made, at my particular re- quest, the following experiment :—Half a bottle of mild porter was filled with carbonic acid gas from the fermenting guile, and a similar experiment made with table beer. These were placed in a cellar by the side of full bottles of the same beer and porter; all hermetically sealed. They were examined at the end of 13 months. Those with carbonic acid gas and only half full, were very mild and pleasant, without. any ten- dency whatever to acidity, while the others were considerably acid and otherwise unpleasant to the palate. The Determination of the Altitude of Great Whernside. 209 The preceding experiments are instructive, as they forbid us to lose the preservative principle contained in carbonic acid gas, and moreover explain the transit into the acetous change. Carbonic acid gas is expelled in vinous fermentation; and be- ing thus quit of its counterforte, it is prepared at a favouring temperature to glide into that of the acetous, the step which precedes the last,—the concluding act—the putrefactive fer- mentation, which resolving the materials into ultimate and elemental forms, finishes the conflict, and the whole sinks into undisturbed repose. : It may not be irrelevant to mention the following experi- ment connected with the question of vinous fermentation ;—it verifies a somewhat similar one, made, if my memory serves me well, some years ago, by a continental chemist. A deep conical ale glass was nearly filled with Port wine, and its ori- fice closed by a slip of bladder, and properly secured. At the end of 226 days the liquid had diminished to one half its original volume. The colour was deeper than before, and it burnt in all respects like proof brandy. By this method may Mr. Brande’s interesting conclusions respecting the quantity of alcohol contained in wines receive verification. I am gentlemen, Yours most obediently, J. Murray. XLV. Determination of the Altitude of Great Whernside : with Remarks on terrestrial Refraction. By A Corre- SPONDENT. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. GINCE my last communication, 293 observations made with the horizon sector, at fifteen different stations, have fur- nished data to prove, beyond a doubt, the incorrectness of the altitude of Great Whernside, as given in the Ordnance Survey. It is the more desirable to enter into the details, as the accuracy of a forthcoming survey of the upper part of Wharfdale will in a great measure depend on the exact de- termination of the elevation of this mountain, the loftiest of the valley. It is almost superfluous to premise, that without an ade- quate knowledge of the nature of refraction, the most careful observations made with unexceptionable instruments are but vague and perplexing materials for calculation. May I there- fore be allowed to display my present store of information on Vol. 61. No. 299. March 1823. Dd this 210 Determination of the Altitude of Great Whernside ; this important subject, prefacing my own theories and obser- vations by those of the few yet enlightened authorities I have been able to consult ? The strata or spherical shells of the atmosphere increasing in density the nearer they approach the surface of the earth, rays of light entering from above and not tending towards the centre of these strata, which is also that of the earth, pass with varying obliquity through media of increasing density, and, from the principles of optics, become curves convex towards the eye of the observer. Hence the object is seen in the direction of the inferior extremity of the curve, and the observed elevation exceeds the true by an angular quantity termed astronomical retraction. When these curves are in- tercepted by a mountain or other object within the limits of the atmosphere, the refraction is denominated ¢errestrial, and bears a certain proportion to the angle formed at the centre of the earth between the eye and the object. MM. Biot and Arago found from experiment that the re- fringent force of dry air was directly as its pressure, and in- yersely as its temperature. The barom. being 29922 inches, and the therm. 32°; the ratio of the sine of refraction to the sine of incidence was constantly as 1 to 1:002943321, and the correction for temperature equal to 00208 + for 1°. The allowance for the moisture suspended in the atmosphere is con- sidered too trivial to require notice. Experiments made with the barometer prove, that within the limits of the observations the density of the atmosphere, when of uniform temperature, diminishes in geometrical pro- gression. Under such (unusual) circumstances, with a pres- sure of 29:922, and temperature of 32°, Laplace calculates the terrestrial refraction at z}, of the contained arc. Biot observes that when the altitudes are but small, the densities of the air vary in arithmetical progression in propor- tion to the difference of elevation, and determines the refrac- tion in the ordinary condition of the atmosphere at ;+., of the arc; to which, under such restrictions, it bears a constant proportion. Dr. Maskelyne appears to have stated the refraction at ;,. An anonymous writer, who has treated the ray of light as a projectile, determines the refraction, when nearly horizontal, at ;1.,; the barom. being 30 and the therm. 50, and the di- minution of heat 1° in 300 feet. When the fall is about 1° in 55 feet, the strata are of equal density, and the ray is un- refracted or rectilinear. With a diminution still greater the refraction becomes negative, the curve being concave towards the eye of the observer. In with Remarks on terrestrial Refi action. 211 In calculation, it is customary to divide the observed sum of the refractions equally between the angles of elevation and depression ; but this method, Biot remarks, is in most cases a mere approximation, the error increasing with the extent of the arc. 5; So much for theory; let us next learn how far it has been confirmed by actual experiment. Delambre informs us, that he found the refraction subject to great variety, being at one time negative, but states the mean at ~3.;- The angles were measured with the repeating circle, which giving the double of the zenith distances cor- rects the error of collimation and irregularities of the level at every pair of observations. In England, the refraction as determined by Roy, Mudge, and others, with the great theodolite of Ramsden, seems to have had no limits to its range. The mean as stated in one part is 1-12th, in another 1-15th; and, if I mistake not, the data in the 3d volume of the Survey will be found upon calculation to determine it equal to 1:17, subject as before to considerable irregularities. In India, the observations of Major Lambton, made witha similar instrument, give a mean refraction of about 1-16th; not free, however, from very marked exceptions. Subsequent operations to ascertain the height of the Hima- laya mountains appeared, when the ray was confined to the highly elevated regions of the atmosphere, to indicate a very sensible diminution of refraction*. This is precisely what theory would teach us to anticipate. Within the limits of 2000 or even 3000 feet it would however be scarcely percep- tible, nor will it be sensibly affected by the ordinary changes of the weather. Captain Warren has given us the details of his experiments on terrestrial refraction, and seems to attribute its changes to the greater or Jess degree of moisture contained in the atmo- sphere. P Should the steel rod of the upper telescope of the theodolites be discovered to be conical, the estimated error of collimation will, if I mistake not, be found incorrect. Were the ends of the rods reversed in position, the angles would in such case differ from the preceding ones. To conclude: the observations of Dr. Wollaston across the Thames, tend to prove that when the surface of the water or ground around the observer is unwontedly heated or cooled, * See Phil. Mag. for 1821, vol. lix. pp. 130 and 190. Did? the 212 Determination of the Altitude of Great Whernside ; the refractions will be less or greater than usual. The reason is sufficiently obvious. I now add the result of my own observations, made with an instrument of which the description has already been riven. The eye-tube and object-glass being reversed in position in the hollow cylinder of the horizon-sector, the angular error of the parallellism of the sides is correctly ascertained. This is 2 constant quantity (the effect of expansion, which is nearly insensible, excepted), and being once determined the experi- ment needs not to be repeated. ‘The error of collimation is then equal to half the difference of the zenith distances as given by the two indices, and, like to the repeating circle, is determmed at every pair of observations. ‘This is an object of no little mo- ment, the error frequently increasing in the course of a few hours from 2” or $” to four times the quantity. It has already been remarked, that an increase of temperature affects the levels, and causes an augmentation of the observed zenith di- stances. From 34° to 54° the correction was 10”; but from 40° to 73° it was scarcely so much: Mr. Troughton conceives the alteration to be occasioned by one end of the glass-tube being thicker than the other. Were this the sole source of the evil, a remedy presents itself in the ¢wo indices of the sec- tor. The tubes might be so placed as to counteract their irregularities (on this subject consult Biot’s description of the repeating circle), It is proper to remark that two thermo- meters, one shaded and the other not, were noted, and the ayerage made use of to correct the levels for expansion. As to the range of the refraction, I admit to have found it nearly as extensive as any recorded; but have had the good fortune to stumble upon methods of reducing its variations to limits so circumscribed as to render it no longer a formidable impediment to accurate computation. The refraction in its variations from its mean quantity may. affect the ray in its total extent, or only partially; for instance, at either or both extremities, or at one or more intermediate portions. Of the former class is the variation influenced by the change of the refringent force of the air, as indicated at the place of observation by the barometer, thermometer and hygrometer. This variation, as is demonstrated by theory and confirmed by my own numerous experiments, is too trivial to be percep- tible in arcs not greater than 30’. The diminution of tem- perature in terms of the ascent, when taking place in the same ratio throughout the arc, must, as we have already been ap- prized, most materially regulate the degree of refraction. The- orists with Remarks-on terrestrial Refraction. 213 orists have consequently insisted upon the propriety of noting the temperature at the two stations. ‘The experiment has been tried. At Pendle Hill, 507 feet higher than Rumbles Moor, the temperature, June 19, 1821, was for several hours 4° or 5° the warmest. The air was nearly saturated with moisture, and the refraction, contrary to theory, remarkably smal]. In addition to this fact, the zenith distances of hills at distances of 30 to 40 miles, although observed in different years, rarely varied so much as 10”. Hence it is probable that the diminution of temperature, variable as it is without doubt on the sides of mountains, may. be constant in the greater part of the path of the ray. If the temperature noted at the base and summit of the hill where the instrument is used, should indicate a decrease of heat. different to 1° for every 200 or 400 feet, the observer must be prepared for an unusual refraction, and will do well to repeat the observations the next opportunity. This method is more convenient, and probably of more real utility, than the preceding one. The degree of refraction at the nearest extremity of the curve most sensibly influences the estimate of the direction of the ray. We must next advert to the more considerable and dan- gerous variations which, distorting the ray without the sligIftest reference to its extent, have rendered the ratios of the refrac- tion to the arc so inexplicably capricious. The diurnal variation of refraction, of which the effects have -been described in my last, is without doubt the principal yet unforeseen cause of these apparent anomalies. Within the range of my observations, I may describe it as being peculiar to certain periods of the year, generally from the middle of January to that of June. In the course of the three first months of last year, strange to tell, it was only once percepti- ble at the Observatory, the apparent elevation of Rumbles Moor scarcely varying 8” during the whole period. ‘The ex- cepted observation was on a frosty day, nearly the only one during the winter. At Rumbles Moor, June 12, 1821, the variation was nearly ata maximum. May 28, 1822, the an- gles were constantly the same from noon till within an hour of sunset, when the refractions, as is usually the case, suddenly increased 10”. Unable as I am efficiently to account for the cause of the diurnal variation, yet as its effects are greatest upon angles nearest to the ground immediately around the station, and as it appears to be more intense on a plateau than on a peaked mountain, and in low situations rather than in more elevated ones, it may be supposed to proceed from the radiation producing dew, known to be several degrees colder than the contiguous air. This explanation becomes more probable, 214 Determination of the Altitude of Great Whernside ; probable, since the variation is known to exist in India (pro- bably throughout the year), where the radiation is so conside- rable, and the dews in consequence so copious. In these climes the refraction, according to Captain Warren, remains at its maximum during the night. Another proof may be ad- duced. At an elevated window of the Observatory the varia- tion, although affecting observations made on the 43-feet stand in the garden below, could not be said to have ever been per- ceived. Setting aside the investigation of the cause, the errors produced by the effects may be easily avoided by taking the mean of the extremes, which seldom differs many seconds from the constant angle. This remark is confirmed by the observations of Captain Warren as given in the ninth volume of the Asiatic Researches. It is rather singular that the Cap- tain should fail to draw a similar conclusion. The small increase of refraction occurring abruptly neat sunset, appears to be confined to situations where the preced- ge eas is observable. ; hen the ray nearly grazes an intermediate piece of ground, the angle, on a hot day especially, will be a little vitiated. Happily this is of rare occurrence: three or four instances would be the utmost I could quote. y When a mountain is the object of observation, and the sum- mit is not pointed, but flat or slightly rounded, it is evident that the depressions will be observed in defect, and the eleva- tions in excess. In the former case, the ground immediately contiguous to the pole marking the station will be confounded with the furthest visible part of the hill in the same direction ; and in the latter, the foot of the staff is invisible, and a nearer part of the summit will be observed. Its value must in general increase with the magnitude of the angles, and its effects in terms of the arc diminish with the increased extent of the latter. As it cannot well exceed three or four feet, it would not have been alluded to, were it not to show that it gives to the refraction of short arcs the appearance of being inexplicably large. Se- yeral of the stations adverted to in the following list of refrac- tions, consisting of piles of stones, towers, walls, rocks, &c. to which the above remarks are inapplicable, they are pointed out as affording a fair confirmation of the theory advanced. Another source of irregularity in the ratios of the refraction to the arc, is the unequal disposal of attraction around the ob- server, which altering the situation of his zenith, increases the elevations in one part of the horizon, and diminishes them in another. The disturbing causes will be varied in their effeets according to their arrangement around the horizon, their bulk, specific gravity, distance, and elevation, When a mountain- ous with Remarks on terrestrial Refraction. 218 ous range, running east or west, overhangs a champaign di- strict, the effect of the unequal attraction will be at its maxi- mum in the direction of the meridian. Hence the refraction observed at the side of the ridge will be greatly in excess, and that from the plain will be sensibly in defect. Half their sum will not indicate any thing particularly anomalous; but in as- signing it to the angles of elevation and depression in equal quantities, great errors are necessarily committed. Supposing the stations on the fronting sides of two similar and parallel ranges, both the refractions will be in excess ; yet, being nearly equal, will not vitiate the corrections. ‘The stations having the same meridian, an easy method of determining the sum of the refractions naturally suggests itself. Call one station A, the other B, and a culminating highly elevated star S. The difference between 180° and the sum of the observed vertical angles SA B and SBA (allowance being made for the astrono- mical refraction) will be equal to the correct sum of the refrac- tions: and the eacess of the other estimate will be equal to the sum of the disturbances of the plumb line at the two stations. Without having made any experiments of this description, I have hit upon the method of properly estimating the retraction due to each observation, and proving, with various success, that unequal attraction may materially affect the refraction in terms of the arc. In attempting to account for the uniform yet remarkably small refractions at Great Almias cliff, it has been seen, that it was assigned to the unusually high tempera- ture of the air above the rock; but as the cliff is the abrupt termination of the mountains of Wharfdale, the excess of mat- ter would be entirely, and in an important degree, in the di- rection of the stations observed. ‘To conclude: Will the at- mosphere at equal elevations be of the same density over the sea as when resting upon a huge mountain ? In summer the observer is frequently annoyed during the heat of the day by a tremulous motion in the air. Its effects are sometimes visible within a few yards, giving to the objects around the most bizarre appearance imaginable. When the undulations are vertical, the angles will remain correct within a few seconds; but should they assume the form of a chain, when shaken, great errors may be committed. I have already given two instances of irregular refraction at Symon Seat, and may now add other two from the same station. Sept. 10, 1822, (the thermometer having a range of only one degree in the course of four hours,) the tremulous motion being confined to the south-east, Jack-hill and Great Almias, both in that direc- tion, were observed to be extremely distorted: their observed depressions 216 Determination of the Altitude of Great Whernside. depressions gave a refraction of 1; and =, the arcs being 8’ 34” and 11’ 44” respectively. The mean refraction being about one-fifteenth, it is probable that the depressions were alike in excess by 27". Sauntering, in June last, near a large lime-kiln to the left of the road from Ingleton to Askrigg, I was surprised, considering the clouded, chilly state of the atmo- sphere, to observe the hills to the north-west remarkably tre- mulous, whilst those in other directions were totally unaffected. Placing myself on the opposite side of the huge mass of ignited yet unsmoking matter within the kiln, the reverse took place ; plainly indicating heat to be the cause of the ebullition observ- ed in the air. On days when thermometers in the shade and exposed to the sun have indicated a considerable difference, I have remarked the tremor confined to a sandy road. Reciprocal observations of two hills having been made with extreme care, and the distance correctly determined, it re- mains to be demonstrated how the refraction due to each ob- servation is to be ascertained. ‘This is easily effected in the course of a survey, by noting their difference of elevation as deduced from the mean of anumber of observations made from stations nearly equidistant. ‘The errors of collimation and of the levels are consequently opposed to each other in quantities nearly equal: the estimate of the refraction, whether incorrect from causes confined to the locale, or from a-distortion of the ray in its whole extent, will but slightly affect the correct-. ness of the calculation. ‘The errors arising from unequal at- traction and improper pointure will likewise be nearly annihi- lated. The mean difference of altitude as thus determined may be called the frst correction. An increased approximation to ac- curacy may now be produced, by finding the difference of al- titude of each auxiliary station, and the hills themselves, by the observations from the other stations, and substituting these mean differences for those used in the first instance. These corrections, being carried on to the third order, were found to ensure to the altitudes an accuracy of less than half a foot, which when the arc is not less than 4 or 5’ is quite sufficient for our purpose. In possession of the correct relative heights and the distance, we are able to calculate the true angles, dif- fering by the quantity of refraction from those observed, ex. gr. —At Ingleborough the depression of Great Whernside,_ as observed June 14 and 17, 1822, varied from 8’ 40” to 8’ 50”, mean 8’ 45”. At Great Whernside the observed depression of Ingleborough, September 1, 1821, was 3’ 23”, and April 15, 1822, 3’ 17”, mean 5’ 20”. The distance is 85,598 feet, arc 14’ Precession and Nutation of Fixed Stars. ©. — 917 14’ 2”, the correct difference of altitude resulting from obser- vations at five different stations, 644 feet. The true angular difference is consequently 2’ 36”; the refraction: at Inglebo- rough ;+,; and at Great Whernside aise X. X. [To be continued.] a eee ee XLVII. Supplementary Table for computing the Precession and Nutation of the Fixed Stars. By ¥. Baty, Esq. F.B.S. and LS. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. [\ your Magazine for October last, I alluded to some new tables of Aberration and Nutation which had béen com- puted under the direction of M. Schumacher, and inserted by him in his Astronomische. Hiilfstafeln for 1822. Tables for the computation of those quantities are of constant use to the practical astronomer : but, it must be evident, to those who are acquainted with the principles on which M. Schumacher’s. tables are constructed, that the values denominated A and B (which are confined to the Precession and Nutation) require to be calculated every year. M. Schumacher, however, has given them only for the years 1819-1822; which renders the general tables, to which they refer, of little or no use at the present time. In order to remedy this temporary defect, I have computed (for my own use) the logarithms of A and B for the years 1823 and 1824: and as they may probably be of service to some of your readers, and perhaps render the adoption of M. Schumacher’s tables more general, I have sent them for insertion in your Magazine. I should remark that, in the value of B, I have included the quantity denoted by +-08768 cos 2 8, in order that the total result may accord with those deduced from the rigorous formula given by M. Bessel. I am, gentlemen, Your obedient servant, March 19, 1823. Francis Barry. Vol. 61. No. 299. March 1823. ‘Be Day. 218 Table for the Precession and Niutation of the Fixed Stars. er Log. A. Log. B. Day. January 0 4: 0°7042” | 9°5104 | 0°3924n 0°7075" | 9°5567 | 0°3969n 0°7152” } 9°5958 | 0°4103n 0°7257 | 9°6290 } 0'4292n 0°7368n | 9°6568 | 0°4489n 0°7465n | 9°6797 | 0-4657n March , 3 | 0°7532n | 9°6994 | O°4765n 0°7555n | 9°7165 | 0°4791n 0°7529n | 9°7322 | O°4722n 0°7449n | 9°7474 | 0°4549n April -0°7318y | 9°7630 | 0°4267n 0°7136n 9°7793 | O°3875n 0°6919» 9°7969 | 0°3378n May 2 0°6695n 9°8156 | 0°2832n 0'6436,y | 9:8356 | 0°2142, é 0°6209n 9°8561 | O°1472n June 8 0°G022n | 9°8770 | 0°0852n 0°5893n 98975 | 0:0367n 0°5831n 9°9171 | 0°0101n July E 0°5839n 9°9356 | 0°0081n 0°5906,, 9°9526 | 0°0286n O°6013 y 9°9677 | 0°0626n August : 0°6136n | 9°9811 | 071014» 0°6257n 9°9928 | O°137I1n 0°6354n 0°0029 | 0°1454n September 7 ¢ 0°6416n | 0°0119 | 0°1794n 7 0°6412pn 0:0200 | 0:1 757n 27 “ 0°6348n 0°03038 | 0715429 October 7 024 0°6214n | 0°0353 | 0°1096n 17 : | 076010 | 0°0434 | 0'0362n 9 3 0°5855n | 0°0522 | 9°9235n November 6 70525 | 0°5414n] 0°0617 | 9°7485n 16 “O65 0°5053n 0:0723 | 9°4422, 26 ‘07 7 0:0837 80864, December 6 ‘ ; 0:0957 | 9:3233 0°1067 | 9°5345 0°1196 | 9°6726 0°1321 | 9°6882 —1°693 —0°693 [ 219 J XLVIIL. Sérictures on Dr. Youne’s and La Piact’s Theories of the Tides. Ina Letter to Dr. Younc. By Cap- tain ForMAN, ft. N. Srr, | BEG leave to acknowledge the receipt of your letter, dated February 6th, 1823, in which I am informed, ‘that the Board of Longitude sees no reason to alter its sentiments re- specting my theory *; and that the Board considers it as un- necessary to give me the trouble of a personal attendance at. any of its meetings.” Now, Sir, under correction, I submit, that, if the members of the Board of Longitude had really wished to ascertain whether my Theory of the Tides was well founded, their best plan would have been to have permitted me to have been pre- sent at the time of its discussion, in order to give me the op~ portunity of explaining those parts of it that might have re- uired explanation, and of replying to any objections that might have been brought against it. This, Sir, would at least have looked like sincerity, and have taken from me all right to complain; but as you will neither afford me this opportu- nity of explaining my hypothesis, nor condescend to inform mé upon what grounds you found your objections, the only al- ternative that is left me is to compare my theory with the one that is most in vogue at present; and if I can make it appear, that the necessary and acknowledged consequences of the lat- ter are at variance with facts, I expect that the Board of Lon- gitude will embrace the opportunity of proving its impartiality and love of justice, by pronouncing this theory to be ill-found- ed also. ~ [have now before me the first volume of your “ Lectures on Natural Philosophy;” and as you have referred to La Place’s 6pinions, without pointing out any material difference in your sentiments, it is fair to consider both theories as substantially the same; and consequently the same arguments that are suf- ficient to prove your theory ill-founded, must be equally effi- cacious when applied to the other. The grand feature in both your theories is, that the tides, which visit our coasts, and in- deed all the coasts of the Atlantic, come from the Southern ocean; and the only difference in your opinions, at least so far as concerns the production of the derivative tides, is, that you suppose the original wave, from whence this tide is derived, moves at the rate of about five hundred miles an hour, and reaches the port of Brest about twelve hours after it has en- * Which was referred, by the Board of Admiralty, to the Board of Lon- gitude, and pronounced by the latter to be ill-founded. Ee?2 tered 220 Capt. Forman on Dr. Young’s and La Place’s tered the Atlantic; while La Place supposed that it required a day and a half to arrive at the same place. ’ It is the’nature of fluids to press equally on all sides *; and, if a portion of its gravity should be taken away from the water in one part of the ocean, the pressure of -the other parts will naturally (unless prevented) cause this part to be lifted up, un- til the superior gravity of the particles on one side be balanced by the greater quantity on the other. So far as I can un- derstand you, for you are not very explicit, this principle forms the groundwork of both your theories: but, at all events, as water, under all circumstances, always falls down when it is deprived of its support, it must be clear that if neither the, moon’s attraction nor its centrifugal force can prevent water from falling, they cannot of themselves lift water up; and, as you will not allow my principle of expansion to be an efficient cause, there is no other principle that can, in any way, account for the phenomenon. You say “that if the earth were wholly fluid, and the same part of its surface were always turned towards the moon, the pole of the spheroid being immediately under the moon, the Junar tide would remain stationary, the greatest elevation being at the points nearest the moon and furthest from her, and the greatest depression in the circle equally distant from those points ; the elevation being, however, on account of the smaller surface to which it is confined, twice as great as the depression.” Now, Sir, I have already proved that the moon’s attraction cannot lift the waters up, and you have declared that my prin- ciple of expansion is not * well founded.” It is fair then to conclude that you account for the rise of those waters which have least gravity, by the pressure of those which have most ; and I admit, that if the same part of the earth’s surface was always turned towards the moon (but not otherwise), the pres- sure of the heavier particles would produce a fall on the one side and a rise on the other, which, added together, would be nearly, but not quite, equal to the proportion the loss of gra- vity bore to the depth of water. So far I admit this principle to be good; but I deny that the elevation will be greater than the fall; because, if the water be lifted up by pressure, it is evident that the rise on the one side will be no more than what is just sufficient to make room for the fall on the other. Let the curved line A BC fig. 1. represent the surface of the ocean covering a whole quadrant of the earth’s circumference. * This, by the way, is caused by the e/asticity, not the slipperiness, of. their particles ; for if it was not for this principle of elasticity, the only ef- fect that could be produced by an increased gravity of the waters would be to bury their lower parts deeper in the bed of the ocean. Now Theories of the Tides. 221 <= Now if the waters between B and C, in consequence of their superior gravity, fell down to the dotted line Bc, there would necessarily be a corresponding rise on the opposite side of B K cc LT to make room for this depression; but, as the area ac E is equal * to the area A C ¥, it is evident that this rise would not exceed the height of the dotted line A a, which is just equal to the fall C c. Now, Sir, if you meant to be understood that the waters are drawn up simply by the power of the moon’s attraction, you are bound to show how it happens that the moon’s attrac- tion has power to lift the waters up, when it has not power to prevent them from falling: if you meant that the waters are lifted up by the expansion of their own particles, you ought, in Justice, to have admitted my theory to-be true; and if you meant that they are lifted up by the pressure of the heavier particles, zndependent of expansion, your principle will not ac- count for the elevation being greater than the fall; and I beg you to keep this latter fact in mind, because I shall presently make use of it as an argument to prove the superiority of my theory over yours. But, whatever may be the principle by which you account for the rising of the tides, you have plainly stated as facts, that, from some cause or other, there is an elevation produced in the Southern Ocean of forty inches, and a fall of twenty; that this trifling elevation of only forty inches sends a wave into the Atlantic, at the amazing rate of five hundred miles an hour,. which finally raises the tides on our shores two or three times as high as the source from whence they are derived. Now, as water is never known to rise above its source, I cannot un- derstand how a rise and fall in one place of only five feet can produce a rise and fall in another place of sixteen or eighteen * In fact it is rather more; but as this difference, in a radius of four thousand miles with a fall of only a few fathoms, would only amount to an infinitely small fraction, the two areas may be considered as essentially the same, feet ; 222 = Capt. Forman on Dr. Young’s and La Place’s feet; and especially at the distance of more than four thousand miles, which alone, one would naturally suppose, would be quite sufficient to exhaust the whole force of the pressure. Be this, however, as it may, it is clear that if, as you suppose, the original tide does come from the Southern Ocean, it must visit the southern coasts of the Atlantic before it does the northern ; and the following extracts from a Tide-table evidently prove that the very reverse of this is frequently the case. Times of High water on Fall and Change Days. Places. Situation. ‘Time. Lat. Long. H. M. -Sligo Ireland 645 54 29 8 40 Butt of Lewis Lewis Islands 6 45 58 29 6 12 Balta Shetland 300 60 1 Bantry Bay Ireland 345 5135 10 04 Cape Finesterre Spain. 3:00... 42, 56gh1 9, 34 Oporto Portugal 815 41 11 %8 40 Bayonne France 330 43 29 1 28 Nantucket America 1203 4043 69 50 Boston America 11 30 42 24 71-03 Cape Canso America 8 30 4520 60 55 Buttton’s Island America 650 69 35 65 20 Entrance of Senegal Atrica 10,|30.0:.1 5[63.j od 631 Cape Blanco Africa 945 20 55. 17 10 In every one of the above extracts, and I might easily have produced as many more, it is evident that the necessary and acknowledged* consequence of your theory is at variance with . facts; and I suppose you will allow, that a proposition which is at variance with facts cannot possibly be true. Making the proper allowance for the difference in their longitudes, it is high water at Balta as soon as it is at Bantry Bay, and at Bayonne even before it is at Oporto; and yet, if the tide did come from the southward, it evidently could not reach the two former places until it had passed the two latter. It is evident from this, that the tides in the North Atlantic Ocean do not come from the Southern Ocean; and, in order to anticipate every objection that can be brought against my theory, I shall row show that they are not produced by any pressure in the Atlantic Ocean, that may be occasioned by one portion of the waters being heavier than another. Upon the principle of pressure and equilibrium, it is clear that twice the depth of ocean will make amends for the-loss of * “Tt sends a wave into the Atlantic, which is perhaps twelve or thirteen hours in its passage to the coast of rance.’’—Sce Lecture xlvil. page 480, half Theories of the Tides. 293 half its breadth*; and if you really meant to account for the rising of the tides by pressure, it is wonderful that this idea never once entered your thoughts, as it would have saved yeu the necessity of supposing, that a wave or tide could move at the incredible rate of 500 miles an hour. But, at all events, it is very easy to prove that, if this principle will not produce a sensible rise of the tides, a greater breadth of ocean can do little more. than add another cypher to the sum of nothing. Let ABC (fig. 2.) represent a quadrant of the earth’s circumfe- rence, and BC the boundaries of the Atlantic Ocean, which is about 45° broad. Now, upon the principle of. pressure and equilibrium, if we suppose the moon to be vertical at A, there would be a rise at B and a fall at C exactly proportioned to the difference in their specific gravities; but all the while the moon was moving from A to B, which would take about three hours, the waters at B would remain stationary at the same height, because the specific gravities of the waters in the Atlantic Ocean, during the whole of this time, would necessarily bear the same proportion to each other, and consequently must produce similar effects. In three hours after the moon had passed B, she would be vertical at C, and then it would be high water at C and low water at B, and would continue so the next three hours ; so that, if the tides were produced by the pressure of the waters within the Atlantic, they ought to remain stationary at high and low water-for the space of three hours without any apparent rise or fall; and, as this phenomenon has never yet been observed, it is fair to conclude that the tides are not pro- duced by pressure. Here, perhaps, it will be argued, that if it be the nature of fluids to press the lighter particles upwards until the equili- brium be restored, there must necessarily be a rise and fall of the waters produced by pressure, and that these effects ought to be visible. ‘To this I reply, that these effects are entirely prevented by the moon’s motion. Let A and B represent two adjoining portions of water in the ocean, and suppose the spe- ~ * If we suppose any part of the ocean to be 90° broad, twelve miles deep, and the waters at one extremity to be twice as heavy as they are at the other, there would necessarily be a rise of four miles at one end and a fall of four miles at the other; so that eight miles depth of heavy particles might just balance sixteen miles of those which had only half their weight. Now if we suppose the waters in this ocean to retain the same specific gravity, gradu- ally increasing from one end to the other, but that ha/f the breadth was cut’ off, the waters at one extremity would only be one-half part heavier than the other extreme; and yet, if the ocean was twenty-four miles, or twice as deep, there would be a fall at one end and a rise at the other of more than four miles and three quarters, in order to restore the equilibrium ; and con- sequently twice the depth of ocean will more than compensate for the loss of half its breadth. cific 224 Capt. Forman on Dr. Young’s and La Pleae’s cific gravity of A to be somewhat'more than that of B. — Now, if the moon stood still, there would necessarily be a fall of the waters at A and a rise at B, until, in consequence of the in- creased quantity of the lighter particles and the diminution of the heavier ones, the weight of the two portions became exactly equal. But, in consequence of the moon’s continual motion, the specific gravity of all the particles of water is continually changing, and consequently, the moment the particles at A be- in to press upon B, the weight of B becomes equal to the weight that A possessed at the time the pressure commenced; and though the weight of A, for some time at least, is continu- ally increasing, yet, as the weight of B increases in the same proportion, the resistance on the one side will always be equal to the pressure on the other. Suppose a person to be continu- ally throwing weights into one scale in order to lift up the other, but that the weight of the opposite scale (no matter by what means) constantly increased in exact proportion with the wer that was employed to lift it: does it not necessarily fol- low that the two scales, under these circumstances, must al- ways preserve the same equipoise? And, by the same rule, so long as the moon continues to change its place, the resistance of the particles on the one side will always be equal to the pressure on the other. Fortunately, however, this fact does not rest upon mere opinion. ‘There is a case almost precisely analogous, in which a much greater disproportion of pressure does not produce any sensible alteration in the relative position of the waters; and if the effect is not produced in this instance, we have no right to conclude that it can be in the other, The earth moves in its orbit with a velocity equal to 68,000 miles an hour; and while it is pressing upon the waters before it with this amazing force, it is simply dragging the waters be- hind it by the power of its attraction. Now, if the same parts of the earth’s circumference (supposing them to be water) were always before and behind the earth’s track, there would no doubt be a fall of the waters before and a rise behind, until the: greater pressure of the waters before were counterpoised by the greater quantity of the waters behind. What is the reason, . then, that this extraordinary pressure does not produce a rise and fall of the waters, but because the effect is entirely counter- acted by the earth’s revolving on its axis? Before those waters which are immediately before the earth’s track can produce any effect by pressure upon their neighbours, they are removed to the very situation their neighbours occupied the moment before, and are prevented from falling by the greature pressure of those particles which have just taken their places. Whether this rea- soning be good or not, it is clear that this extraordinary pres- sure Theories of the Tides. 225 sure does not produce any sensible rise in the waters; and, as it does not, we have certainly no grounds to suppose that the comparatively trifling pressure occasioned by the moon’s attrac- tion is sufficient to produce a rise in the waters of several fa- thoms. The phznomena of the tides in every respect are totally dis- similar to the effects that must necessarily be produced by pres- sure; and this fact alone, even if the impossibility had not been made good, would be quite sufficient to prove that the tides are not produced by pressure. I have also proved that your and Laplace’s theories are at variance with facts, and therefore cannot possibly be true; and I shall now show, that the neces- sary consequences of my theory correspond in every particular with the phenomena that really take place in nature: and if all this, taken together, do not amount to a sufficient proof that my theory is true, I am at a loss to understand how any thing in philosophy can be proved, or why we should set a greater value upon the opinions of a Newton, than upon the wild and frantic conceptions of the most fanciful enthusiast. As the sum of the expansion of a sufficient number of parti-. cles will amount to several fathoms, while the sum of the ex- pansion of a very few will be imperceptible, my principle of ex- pansion necessarily requires that-there should be a sufficient depth of water in the neighbourhood of any projecting cape where the tide first makes its appearance, and that the moon should be vertical, or nearly vertical, over that place at the time of high water. Now, if it should be found that the time which my theory necessarily requires for the tide to arrive at the coast after it has been produced in this deep water, should, as far as we are capable of proving it, exactly correspond with facts, it will furnish a strong presumption that my theory is true; and I am bee? willing to allow its reception to depend upon this proof. t appears by the Tide-table now before me, that it is high water at the Land’s End four hours and a half after the moon has passed the meridian. Now, if we suppose this tide to be produced at about two hundred miles to the south-west of the Land’s End, the moon will be on the meridian at that place about sixteen minutes after she has passed the meridian of the Land’s End: and, supposing the ocean in this place to be seven or eight miles deep, and the pressure to move at the rate of about fifty miles an hour, it will take ten or twelve minutes afterwards for the tide to arrive at its full height. It would be high water then at this place about half an hour after the mioon had passed the meridian of the Land’s End; and, sup- posing the tide to advance at the rate of fifty miles an hour, which it does. in the Channel, it would require just four hours Vol. 61. No, 299. March 1823. ¥ f to 226 Capt. Forman on Dr. Young’s and La Place’s to reach the distance of two hundred miles; and consequently would be high water at the Land’s End exactly at the time set down in the Tide-table. Now if it should be found that, at the distance of more than two hundred miles from the Land’s End, ships are in the habit of striking soundings, it would be evident that my theory was erroneous; but if they cannot get soundings in any part of the world, at those distances from the shore where my theory indicates the tides are produced, this circumstance will amount to a demonstrative proof that my theory must be true: for it is morally impossible that a false theory can always be right by chance. Again, I have proved (fig. 1) that, if the waters were lifted up by pressure, the elevation would be equal to only the fall; whereas, you have acknowledged yourself, and the fact is easily proved, that it ought to be at least twice as great. | Let us now see whether my theory of expansien will account for this phze- nomenon; and if it will, in what way can you account for a false theory’s corresponding, in every particular, with the phaeno- mena in question? Let L M (fig 3.) represent the level of the ocean, with the moon vertical at M, or, rather, about two de- grees beyond it, and LH the waters gradually lifted up by ex- pansion, from the point where the moon has no influence to the point where her influence is greatest. Now it is evident, that the higher the waters are raised the more rare they will be- come; and, as the denser parts of the fluid must necessarily press upon the rarer, the pressure produced in this way will occasion an additional rise on the one side and a corresponding fall on the other. Here, Sir, you will observe, that there is no impediment to prevent this pressure from taking effect, because the waters actually do become rarer, and the pressure takes place at the same moment with the expansion. The dotted line ZA, in the above figure, represents the elevation and fall pro- duced by this pressure; and, though it may be difficult, if not impossible, to calculate the exact proportion, it is evident that the elevation will be so much greater than the fall, as the waters are lifted up in the first place by expansion, independently of pressure. Now, Sir, suppose you had occasion to pass through a wild and intricate country, where you had never travelled before: it is possible that a stranger might put you in the right road by accident; but if there were a great number of subsequent turn- ings, your guide could not always go right, unless he was well acquainted with the way; and, by the same rule, if my theory was false, it might, by pure aecident, agree with one or two iso- lated facts; but it is impossible that it could so entirely coincide with all the most minute phenomena, unless these phanomena were Theories of the Tides: 227 were produced by the very cause I have assigned. Seareli the records of philosophy from the earliest periods, and where will you find any thing like this? Where will you find an instance of a false theory in which no one can point out an error? And yet, while you refuse to admit my theory, you attribute such a miracle to me. You cannot say that my theory does not satis- factorily account for all the phenomena connected with the rising of the tides; and the only objection you can possibly make to it is, that the principle is inadequate; an objection, begging your pardon, which is founded in your own ignorance of the rate by which the power of gravity diminishes. If you will have it “that the power of gravity decreases as the square of the distance increases,” then the power of the moon’s attrac- tion, at the earth’s surface, can only amount to the 144-thou- sandth* part of the earth’s, and a pressure derived from this force can only produce a rise and fall equal to the 144-thou- sandth part of the ocean’s depth. Supposing the ocean to be twenty miles deep, and allowing it the full breadth of 90°, it will not produce a rise and fall of nine inches; and we want a principle that will raise the waters four or five fathoms. Choose what principle you will, you cannot make it answer, unless you give up this pretended law, which you know very well has no existence in fact; and if you cannot tell in what proportion the power of gravity decreases with the increase of distance, how can you make it an argument, that the power of the moon’s attraction is not quite sufficient to produce the effects my theory requires ? In my last pamphlet I proved, in the first place, that the’ power of gravity does not decrease as the square of the distance increases; for, if it did, the sun’s attraction at the earth’s sur- face would be fifty times greater than the moon’s: and se- condly, that the moon’s attraction at the earth’s surface might possibly be equal to the 50th part of the earth’s, and, in all pro- bability, is equal to the 100dth: and, supposing the moon’s at- traction in our latitudes to be equal to the 200dth part of the earth’s, seven or eight+ miles depth of ocean would be quite sufficient to produce the necessary expansion, * In the Jatitude where, according to your and Laplace's theories, the: original tides are produced, it can only amount to the 280-thousandth part of the earth’s attraction. + It is evident by Mr. Perkins’s two experiments, that the degree of the compressibility of water increases in arithmetical proportion with increased depth ; and consequently, twice the depth of ocean will produce a four-fold rise. Supposing the moon’s attraction at the surface of the earth to be equal to the 200dth part of the earth’s, seven or eight miles depth would produce a rise and fall of nearly five fathoms ; and, if it should only equal the 800dth part of the earth’s attraction, a depth of fourteen or fifteen miles would ss Fe the “ 228 Notices respecting New Books. If-you.will not allow the power of the moon’s attraction at the earth’s surface to be so much as my theory requires, you at least cannot prove that it is not; and, in that case, the only fair way to determine the question is to ascertain which of the ¥e theories comes nearest the truth, By comparing the dif- erence between the high-water marks at spring and neap tides, with the difference between the low-water marks, it is easy to ascertain what proportion the elevation bears to the fall. Now, if there should be no difference between the rise and the fall, it will be evident that the tides must be produced by pressure, and not by expansion ; if the elevation should exceed the fall in a very trifling degree, the effect produced by expansion must be equally trifling; but if, as I believe is the case, the elevation should be twice as great as the fall, it must be evident that one-half of the elevation is produced by expansion alone, for there is no other principle that will produce this effect; and, as the rise of the other half, with its corresponding fall, must be nearly, if not entirely, produced by a pressure, which is the necessary consequence of this expansion, it follows that the pressure of the waters, which is solely dependent upon a diffe-. rence in the gravity of their particles, has either produced no effect whatever, or, at the utmost, an elevation and fall which are too trifling to deserve any consideration. Bath, March 12, 1823. Watrer ForMaAN. XLIX. Notices respecting New Books. “A Table of the CrrciEs, arising from the Division of a Unit,. po 200 t veces sea by all the Integers from 1 to 1024; ing e pure decimal Quotients that “ise fr } Pritts ep s that can arise from this “A a Series of Deca QuortieEnts, for all the proper vulgar Fractions, of which when in their lowest Terms, neither the Numerator nor the Denominator is greater than 1000 :” 8vo. pp. 153. 4 JN a Ber volume, P- 385, and in our 51st volume, p. 137, — ave briefly noticed the ingenious and vastly laborious < ations of Henry Goodwyn, Esq. on the subject now fur- ther | by the same ‘gentleman, in the works before us. e first of the thin volumes entitled as above, contains all: the waters to the same height. As philosophers can neither prove, on the one hand, that the deep parts of the ocean do not ever exceed fifteen miles. nor, on the other, that the moon’s attraction at the earth’s surface may not be equal to the fiftieth part of the earth’s, I cannot understand upon what principle they found their objections to my theory. requisite. Notices respecting New Books. 229 requisite information, as to the circulating or repetend part of the quotients, in the whole suit of arithmetical works published or further contemplated by the author: but besides the uses of these tabular circles, in connection with the others of Mr. Goodwyn’s Tables ; by itself; this volume may sometimes prove of important use, in abridging the labour of very long divisions, by any divisor under 1025: thus, after having care- fully found the quotient to 8 or 10 places of figures (but some- times a less number may suffice); then, by comparing the same with the several circles here set down under the given divisor, the peculiar succession of several of the last digits, in the quo- tient, and of others in the table, being found the same, will mostly detect the particular circle, applicable to the case, and. also the digit of the quotient, found by actual division, as above, whereat the circulating or repetend part of the quotient be- gins; and then, by help of such tabular circle, any further required number of places in the quotient can be supplied, however numerous, and may, if requisite, be easily proved, by a converse multiplication, by the divisor. The second of the volumes before us, is an importantly use- ful one ; it is the first of five parts, wherein, in case of a fayvour- able reception by the public, the author intends to give 152,096 decimals to 8 places, arranged in an increasing series, and having opposite to each, the vulgar fraction equivalent thereto ; so that by the aid of the arithmetical complements, taken out almost by inspection, all the 304,192 proper fractions of diffe- rent values, expressible by numbers under 1001 in numerator and in denominator, may be found, and the complete decimal value of each ascertained, by inspection and reference to the volume of circles above mentioned. In the volume, or part rather, which is before us, the first 30,414 decimals of this series are comprised, extending from. ‘001 to 09989909 ; and wherefrom, a like number of the last of the same series are deducible, as complements, almost by inspection, extending from *90010090 to 999; besides which, (although the author has not pointed it out) by merely remov- ing the decimal point, and abating or adding a cipher, equiva- lent to @ general multiplication by 10, throughout the table,, this volume will exhibit also 30,414 decimals, distributed through the whole series (with the exception of its extreme parts which the table itself supplies) from ‘01 to 9989909, with their equivalent vulgar fractions, from >}, to are and in like manner, @ general multiplication by 100, of all the first 3025 decimals and fractions in the table, will give as many such, distributed in the same way through the whole series, except its extremes below *1 and above *998890: which table, especially 230 Notices respecting New Books. especially as thus extended in its application, cannot fail to prove highly acceptable and useful to calculators, in the in- terim, which I hope will not be a long one, before the four remaining parts of this table are published, and also, all the fur- ther arithmetical tables which Mr. Goodwyn has ready com- puted. The ingenious calculator will be at no loss to perceive an easy mode by help of the quarto pamphlet by Mr. G. en- titled “The First Centenary,” &c. announced in our 51st vo- lume, as above, whereby any one amongst the very numerous vulvar fractions, indicated above, may be sought for and found, in this volume, and its equivalent decimal value obtained (by aid of the circles) almost by inspection, to any desired number of places of figures. Observations on the Effects of Lightning on Floating Bodies ; with an Account of a new Method of applying fixed and con- tinuous Conductors of Electricity to the Masts of Ships. Ina _ Letter addressed to Vice- Admiral Sir Thomas Byam Martin, K.C.B. Comptroller-of His Majesty's Navy, Sc. §c. §c. By William Snow Harris, Member of the Royal College of Sur- geons. Royal 4to. pp. 92. The nature of this work is very fully expressed in the title. Though its principal object be the preservation of ships from accidents by lightning—a most important subject—in other re- spects it is well deserving of the attention of electricians, con- taining many curious facts in their favourite branch of science. Mr. Harris effects his object by inserting in a groove, ploughed longitudinally in the aft part of the fixed and sliding masts, slips of copper about an eighth of an inch thick and one inch and a half wide, with an adequate metallic connexion in the caps through which they slide, and a similar connexion with the sea through the keel. The whole is so contrived, that any elongation or contraction of the masts, or the renioyal of either of them, will in no way break the continuity of the conductor. The werk is accompanied with five lithographic prints, and a well-contrived experimental illustration of the course of the lightning, effected by lines of gold (on paper) subjected to a violent electrical discharge. Recent Publications. An Epitome of the Elementary Principles of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, including Mechanics, Pneumatics, Acoustics, Hydrostatics, and Hydraulics; with a copious Ac- count of the Progress and present State of the Steam-Engine. By John Millington, Prof. Mech. Royal Institution, Secre-— tary to the Astronomical Society, &c. 1 vol. 8yo. 14 Plates. The Analysis of Periodical Works’on oology and Botany. 231 - The Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar, with copious notes, illustrating the-structure of the Saxon, and the formation of the English Language; and a Grammatical Praxis, with a literal English version. With remarks on the history and use of the Saxon tongue; and an Introduction on the origin and progress of alphabetic writings, &c. By the Rev. J. Bosworth, M.A. F.A.S. ’ A new Edition of Donn’s Hortus Cantabrigiensis, with nu- merous additions and corrections. By J. Lindley, F.L.S. &c. ANALYSIS OF PERIODICAL WORKS ON ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. Sowerby’s Genera of Shells. No. 12. Turnritetta Lamarck: a genus including such Turbines of the Linnean school as have avery long attenuated spire, and an entire oval mouth. Cutow. It is almost mconceivable how Linnzus could have associated this genus with the Multivalves, placing it the first in his system, and Patella nearly the last. “This wide separation of two genera, so closely allied to each other, can only be accounted for by the obligation he felt of adhering to the rules of his artificial system. PLanaxis: a new genus (and we think very unnecessary one) recently made from Buccinum. Cranta: a group of strangely formed Bivalves, allied to Anomia of Linnzeus, and remarkable for the similarity which their interior valves bear to ahuman skull. Batanus: to which genus Mr. S. has also attached that of Acasta (Leach), Nent- TINA: it is our opinion that the only ground for separating the marine from the fluviatile Nerits, must rest on the difference of their respective animals. Mr. Sowerby remarks that the river shells have no teeth, yet he figures one with remarkably /arge, and another with smal/ crenated teeth ; moreover, the teeth in his Navicella altavillensis (which he now refers to this genus) are still more prominent. On the whole, therefore, we think this genus is objectionable. It can never be understood by the generality of conchologists, who have not the opportunity of studying the animals of these two genera, and ascertaining their respective distinctions. Hooker's Exotic Flora. The Second Part of Dr. Hooker’s Exotic Flora was published on the 1st of December, and contains several highly interesting subjects. The first plate (the 18th of the work) represents the truly beautiful Begonia argyrostigma,a plant of recent introduction to our gardens, and re- markable for the fine red colour of the underside of its leaves, whilst their upper surface, which is of a deep green, is studded with silver-like spots. ab. 19 is the Orontium aquaticum, a well known plant, but of which no sa- tisfactory figure existed. Tab. 20. Cactus truncatus, which appears to have flowered for the first time in this country in the Royal Botanic Garden of Glasgow ; and is singular in the form of its stems, as well as beautiful in the size and colour of its flowers. ‘Tab. 21. Peperomia blanda: 'Tab. 22. Peperomia quadrifolia: Tab, 23. Peperomia polystachia:-—three singular plants of the natural order Piperacee, which many authors unite with the true Pipers; but not with sufficient reason, as appears by the interesting remark, under Pep. blanda, quoted from Humboldt and Kunth Noy. Gen, Tab. 24, Velleia lyrata of Brown’s Prodromus (the Vell. spathulata of Juss. in Ann. du Mus.). Tab. 25. A second species of Doodia, D, caudata (D. aspera having been figured in Part J.), a rare N, Holland Fern, ‘Tab. 26, The handsome but well known Caladium bicolor, which appears to om = ; troduce 282 Analysis of Periodical Works troduced for the sake of illustrating its generic character ; the plant having formerly ranged among the Arums. Tab. 27. A charming new Honey- suckle, the Caprifolium pubescens, with yellow fragrant blossoms. It was lately discovered by Mr. Goldie in Canada; and living plants of it are to be obtained only in the garden of his father-in-law, Mr. Smith of Monk’s Wood Grove, Ayr. Tab. 28. A pretty little and very rare Fern, Anemia humilis. Tab. 29. and Tab. 30.. represent two species of Hydrocotyle, H. nitidula of Richard’s Monograph of that genus, and H. nepalensis, a new species from the East Indies. Tab. 31. Osbeckia nepalensis, a new species, recently sent over to our gardens from Dr. Wallich. Tab. 32. Sty- lidium laricifolium, with very satisfactory analyses of its curious flowers. Tab. 33. Hemionitis palmata. Greville’s Scottish Cryptogamic Flora. No. 9. This interesting work goes on with spirit and regularity. No. 8 is oc- cupied, as is the greater part of the former Nos., with Fungi. Tab. 36 is the Helvella Mitra of Linn. Tab. 37. Clavaria fragilis of Holmskiold (C?. gracilis of Sow.). Tab. 38. Lycogala miniata of Pers, ( yeoperdon Epidendrum of Sow.). Tab. 39. A new and very curious parasitic Spheriu,—Sph. verrucosa of Mr. Greville. “ Sph, minuta, nigra, spatsa, globosa, valde verrucosa, in pileo Polypori abietini parasitica.” It belongs to a section of the genus of which the individuals have no trace of an orifice, and hence have been formed, by Mr. Grey, into the genus Astoma. Tab. 40 is a new Lycogala,—L. minuta,Grey. “ Gregaria, alba, ovata, subconfluens, depressa, valde fragilis; sporulis nigris.” It inhabits de- cayed leaves, sticks and straws, in the autumn, about Edinburgh. The Botanical Register. No. 96. This Number is uncommonly rich in new, and at the same time, beautiful lants. Pi. 683. Costus afer ; a new plant recently introduced from Sierra eone, and of which the following are the characters: “ C, foliis lanceo- lato-elongatis, spicd turbinaté coarctata, bracteis herbaceis muticis obtusis, calyce breve tridentato dentibus herbaceis muticis; filamenti dorso gla- bro.” Two varieties are further enumerated, one smooth, the other pube- scent. Bidens procera; likewise an unpublished species lately sent by seed from Mexico. We give an extract only of the specific character, which we consider quite sufficient to distinguish the species. “ B. stricta, ra- mosa: foliis decursivé bi-tripinnatis pinnulis linearibus acutis canaliculatis integris flaccidis ; germinibus cuneiformibus transversé compressis, biari- statis.” Globularia longifolia Willd., from Madeira. Eulophia guineensis, a new and elegant addition to this genus, brought by Mr. Don from Sierra: Leone. ‘‘ Eu. foliis lanceolatis: labelli calcare subulato adscendente lami- nam subzquante ; laminz lobis lateralibus cum columna in faucem lineato cristatum convolutis; terminali grandiore ovato-rotundato convexé ex- planato ; disco erugato. Pl. 687. Salvia splendens, a superb species from Brazil, with long crimson flowers and calyx. “ §. foliis petiolatis ovatis lanceolato-acuminatis serratis, basi subcuneatis integerrimis, subtus gla- bris: corollz tubo elongato subtilissimé lanuginoso, labii inferioris laciniis lateralibus reflexis; stigmatibus exsertis styloque glaberrimis.” Banksia amua of Brown Linn. Trans. Aristolochia labiosa. 'This is a most won- derful species, even among this singular family, so remarkable for the shape of its flowers. It appears to have been confounded with Professor Link’s A. ringens, but distinguished by these characters: ‘“ A. caule volubili, foliis reniformibus subrotundis cordatis amplexicaulibus, corollis basi incurva saccata, medio bilabiatis; labio superiore explanato bilobo, inferiore (lan- ceolato) canaliculato.” It has been recently introduced to Kew from Brazil. on Zoology and Botany. 233 Brazil. Subjoined to this Number is the Index of the eighth volume of this truly valuable publication, and another Index of-all the plants con- tained in the work. Curtis’s Botanical Magazine. No. 433. Pl. 2378. Hedychium flavum of Dr. Wallich, from Bengal. The next plate represents a new genus under the following name and characters: Schizopetalon Walkeri. “Cal. cylindraceus, basi equalis, clausus. Pe- tala ovata inciso-pinnatifida. Stigmata gibbosa, approximata. Czetera desunt.” This is an imperfect character ; but, as far as it goes, strongly indicates a genus that cannot be united with any yet known: it belongs to the class and order of Tetradynamia Siliquosa, and was received from China. Astragalus stipitatus, a new plant of this numerous genus, recently disco- vered in Nepal. “ A. foliolis multijugis ovato-oblongis obovatisve mucro- nulatis glabris, stipulis maximis foliaceis, spicis tenuifloris, leguminibus compressis glabris stipitatis cernuis.’’ Boltonia glastifolia Willd. Brodiea Ixioides. This adds another species to the two already known of the genus. “ B. corone foliolis subulatis.” It is a native of Chili. The concluding plate (2383) represents the white variety of Azalea pontica. Loddiges’s Botanical Cabinet. Part 70. This part concludes the seventh volume of the work: we therefore take another opportunity of pointing out to the authors, the great and essential improvement they can very well commence in a new volume ; that is, by giving some one or two references (or synonyms) to those authors who may have previously described the plants selected for this work. We do not want intricate synonyms cleared up, or learned disquisitions on natural families ; which, however useful and important to science, are not adapted to a work of this nature; but we strongly recommend a reference either to Linneus, the Hortus Kewensis, Willdenow’s Species Plantarum, the Bo- tanical Magazine, or the Botanical Register. Some one of these books are in the hands of almost every one who takes an interest in this delightful pursuit; and thus they would be enabled to learn something more of the history of any particular plant, beyond what is given in the Cabinet. One thing is certain, that the authors themselves must consult some books to ascertain the names they affix to their plants; let these authorities there- fore be given to such as are already described ; and, with regard to such as are not, the fact being mentioned would be sufficient. We make these remarks purely from a fondness for this interesting little book, and with a wish of seeing its neat plates, and useful notices, rendered more valuable to the botanist than they are at present. L. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. Feb. 27. (THE reading of Dr. Scudamore’s paper On the Evolution of Heat during the Coagulation of the Blood, was resumed and concluded; and a paper was read On the Double Organs of Generation in the Lamprey, Conger Eel, Common Eel, and Barnacle, which impregnate themselves; and in Earth-worms, the individuals of which class mutually impregnate each other. By Sir Everard Home, Bart. V.P.R.S. Vol. 61. No. 299. March 1823.. Gg March 234 Linnean Society. March 6. A paper was read, On a new Phenomenon of Electro-magnetism. By Sir H. Davy, Bart. P.R.S. March 13. A paper was read, On Fluid Chlorine. By M. Faraday, Esq. Communicated by the President. And the reading of another was commenced, On the Motions of the Eye, in illustration of the Uses of the Muscles of the Orbit. By Charles Bell, Esq.; likewise communicated by the Presi- dent. LINNZAN SOCIETY. March 4. The following papers were read: Description of the Skeleton Head of the Long-snouted Alligator of the Ganges, or Lacerta Gangetica of Linneeus, pre- sented to the Linnzan Society, together with the entire Skele- ton of a young subject of the same species, by Major-Gen. Thomas Hardwicke, F.R.S. &c. Description of a Serpent hitherto supposed of the genus Boa, and the Boa Phrygia of Shaw; but which, on a more minute examination than that able naturalist had the oppor- tunity of making, is found to be a Coluber; on which account it is proposed to refer it to that family, and to designate it Coluber Phrygius. Mr. Sheppard’s Catalogue of Suffolk Shells was concluded. Mr. Brookes exhibited, after the meeting, a fine living spe- cimen of the Kinkajoo, Viverra caudivolvula. March 18. Observations on the generic character of Locusta, with the Description of a remarkable Species. By the Rey. Lansdown Guilding, B.A. F.L.S. &c. With figures. “I. camelliefolia, thorace deflexo, elytris concavis sapice rotundatis ala longioribus.” Rather frequent on trees in St. Vincent's. The Natural History of Phasma Ramulus. By the Rev. L. Guilding. With figures. “ P. Ramulus, filiformis, cinereo-rufescens, capite cornuto, pedibus fusco fasciatis, angulatis, subsequalibus.” Observations on the Genus Ascalaphus, with the Description of a new Species. By the same. With figures. “ Ascalaphus Macleayanus, alis vitreo-iridescentibus, im- maculatis: oculis thoraceque cupreo-nigris: dorso maculato: ventre cinereo.” In thickets in the West India islands, and the adjoining parts of the continent. On the Nature of the Marine Production commonly called Flustra arenosa: considered by Ellis and Gmelin as belong- ing to the order Vermes Zoophyta; but rather to be considered as the matrix of Nerita Glaucina. By John Hogg, Esq. B.A. F.L.S. St. Pet. Coll. Camb. With a figure. De- Geological Society. 235 Description of the Tailed Bat commonly found in Calcutta. By Maj.-Gen. Hardwicke. Description of Furcrea agavephylla, the Agave Cubensis of Linneus and Jacquin, and the A. Mewicana of Lamarck. By M. Felix de Avellar Brotero, Prof. Bot. Coimbr. Foreign Member of the Linn. Soc. , Gen. Cuar. “Corolla hexapetala supera. Stamina ad medium crassiora, glandulz triforate nectariferee germen obtegenti inserta, corolla dimidio breviora. Capsula trilocu- laris, trivalvis, polysperma.” Spec. Cuar. ‘ FE. agavephylla, foliis caudicis crassis, lineari-lanceolatis; externis dentato-spinosis, dentibus sursum uncinatis; internis subintegerrimis; omnibus spina longa ter- minatis, scapo squamigero ad medium pyramidaté paniculato, floribus seepé binis ad bracteas axillaribus pendulis abortivis caducis, bractearum axillis deinde bulbiferis.” In Maranham, Pernambuco, and other parts of the Brazils: plants were brought to Portugal 30 years ago, and cultivated in the Royal Botanic Garden near Lisbon, where they flowered in November and December 1814. It grows luxuriantly in Portugal in the open border. On the Generic and Specific Characters of the Chrysan- themum Indicum of Linnzeus, and of the Plants called Chinese Chrysanthemums. By Joseph Sabine, F.R.S. F.L.S. &e. In Vol. XIII. of the Society’s Transactions Mr. Sabine pointed out that the plants called Chinese Chrysanthemums had been improperly referred to the Ch. Indicum of Linn.— Mr. Sabine now proposes to separate these plants as distinct species; and all the varieties cultivated in the gardens of the common Chinese Chrysanthemum he proposes to unite un- der the name of Chrysanthemum Sinense: with the following specific character: ‘ C. foliis coriaceis petiolatis sinuato- pinnatifidis dentatis glaucescentibus, radio longissimo caule fruticoso.” The separation seems to be well founded, upon the thinner texture of the leaves of the Ch. Indicum, those near the top of the stem being entire, whereas those of the proposed new species are deeply cut; and the ray-florets in the former are but little longer than the calyx, while those of the latter are twice or thrice the length of the calyx and sometimes more. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Feb. 21. Two Letters were read, communicated by the Pre- sident, addressed by Joseph Byerley, Esq. to B. Fayle, Esq. containing some Notices on the Geology of Sierra Leone. At Gg2 Sierra 236 Astronomical Society. Sierra Leone and in the immediate neighbourhood, sienite, porphyry and basalt are the predominant rocks. Feb. 21 and March 7. A Paper was read, entitled ‘‘ Notes on the Geography and Geology of Lake Huron, including a Description, accompanied by Drawings, of new Species of Organic Remains.” By John Bigsby, M.D. M.G.S. In this paper the author enters in some detail into a geo- graphical and Sri een description of the coast and islands of Lake Huron in North America. The greater part of the northern shore is composed of primitive rocks, while the Manitouline islands, which stretch nearly across the centre of the lake, with the southern coast, are entirely composed of secondary calcareous formations. ‘To this paper is subjoined a Map of Lake Huron, and Plates illustrative of the organic remains which are contained in great abundance in the lime- stone rocks. March 21. A Paper was read, entitled “ Observations on the Belemnite.” By J. S. Miller, Esq. A.L.S. Communicated by the Rev. W. D. Conybeare, M.G.S. The author commences this paper with an historical sketch of the various opinions which have been entertained with re- gard to the belemnite, and of the works of those naturalists who have treated of that fossil. He enumerates the various names which ignorance or superstition assigned to it in the earlier periods; and lastly, the almost equally discordant and imperfect theories which have been successively advanced on the same subject by writers of a more recent date. Mr. Miller then offers his own opinion on the original structure and na- ture of this organic body, and adds the reasons and the ex- periments which have led him to his conclusions. He con- siders the belemnite to have been an animal of the Cephalopo- dous division of the Mollusca, inhabiting a fibrous, spathose, conical shell, divided into chambers connected by a siphun- culus, and beyond which shell extended a protecting guard or sheath. Mr. Miller refers the internal radiated texture to its original organic structure, and not to any subsequent process of crystallization. ‘To this paper is subjoined an enumera- tion and description of the various species of belemnites, ac- companied by plates illustrative of their form and structure. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. March 14. The papers read at this meeting were: ist. On the Determination of the Resultant of two Forces or Pressures applied to a Point of Matter, by means of a func- tional Equation. By Dr. Meikleham, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow. 2d. —S ee eee dis ee London Institution.—Earthquake at Grenada. 237 2d. A Comparison of Observations made at Dublin with those at Greenwich on the Parallax of certain Fixed Stars. By Dr. Brinkley, Prof. of Astronomy, Trinity College, Dublin. Many valuable presents of scientific books were received, in furtherance of the Library which we announced, in our last Number, that this Society was about to form. ‘1 LONDON INSTITUTION. A Course of Lectures by Mr. Brande on Electricity, Voltaic Electricity, and Electro-Magnetism, and a Course on Metal- lurgy by Mr. John Taylor, have just been concluded at this Institution. And those of Mr. R. Phillips on Chemistry as con- nected with the Arts and Manufactures, and by Dr. Crotch on National and Scientific Music, are now in the course of delivery. LI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. EARTHQUAKE AT GRENADA. New York, Feb. 22. HE sloop Paulina-Julia, Capt. D. A. Tooker, has arrived in 32 days from St. John’s (Spanish Main). By Mr. Cooke, one of the passengers, we learn that on Sunday the Ist of December, the city of Grenada was visited by a tremendous earthquake, which cracked the walls of most of the houses, and overthrew some of the stone crosses before the churches. Most of the tiles were shattered and stripped from the roofs of the houses. Its effects were felt eight leagues distant. Two or three shocks were felt every day for a week, but the first was the heaviest, and commenced at day-light. Our informant states that he was up, and went to the front door, where he observed the church, which was opposite, filled with persons at mass. In a few moments they were all in the street on their knees, and the house suddenly began to move, and the walls to crack. He called a fellow lodger (a Mr. Nixon), who was asleep, and both rushed into the street as quickly as possible. The ground under them moved so much like the heaving bil- lows of the ocean, that they became extremely dizzy. In the afternoon an image of our Saviour was carried in procession through the streets—the multitude chanting a hymn, The next day they formed another procession, and carried an image of the Holy Virgin decorated in a splendid manner. For a week gollestiig the inhabitants slept out of town, fear- ing a return of shocks still more violent, which might bury them beneath the ruins of the city. On Friday, the 20th of December, another shock of an earthquake was felt, which compelled our informant and others to fly to the street. ‘The mountains near the town, it was plain to 238 Asiatic Society.—Steam Navigation.—Fruit Trees. to be seen, had been split at the top by the violent concussion of the earth.— Commercial Advertiser. Two shocks of an earthquake were felt at Norrkelji, in Swe- den, on the 30th of January. ASIATIC SOCIETY OF LONDON. Considerable progress has been made in the institution of a Society for the Encouragement of Literature, Science, and the Arts in connexion with India and other countries east- ward of the Cape of Good Hope, to be denominated The Asiatic Society of London. A number of gentlemen have been already enrolled as members. Among the objects of the Society will be the promotion of researches into the arts, litera- ture and history of Asia; as well as the diffusion of various branches of European knowledge and art among the inhabit- ants of that continent. These labours, there is good ground to hope, may at no distant period be shared by intelligent natives of the East incited to follow up researches into their own history, literature, and antiquities, and animated by the spirit of improvement which has already begun to manifest itself among them. ——. STEAM NAVIGATION TO INDIA. Extensive arrangements have been formed, with the concur- rence of Government, for the establishment of steam vessels to convey passengers and light goods from this country to Grand Cairo. The Pashaw of Egypt has engaged to have from two to three hundred camels always in readiness to fa- cilitate the communication from Cairo to. Suez, and from Suez to Cairo, and that the expense shall not exceed five shil- lings per hundred weight. Similar arrangements have been made for the passage trom Suez to Surat, and other places. FRUIT TREES. The growth of weeds round fruit trees recently transplanted, does them much injury, and diminishes their fruit in size and quality. Sonnini, in his Bzblioth. Physico-econom., states that, to prevent this, the Germans spread on the ground round the fresh transplanted trees, as far as their roots extend, the refuse stalks of flax, after the fibrous part has been separated. This gives them surprising vigour. No weeds will grow under flax refuse, and the earth remains fresh and loose. Old trees treated in the same manner, when languishing in an orchard, will recover, and push out vigorous shoots. In place of the flax stalks, the leaves which fall from trees in autumn may be substituted; but they must be covered with waste twigs, or any thing else that can prevent the wind from blowing ad away.

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Queries relative to the Mode of using M. ScuuMaAcHeEr’s Tables of Aberration and Nutation. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. VERY lover of astronomy must feel obliged to your cor- respondent, Mr. F. Baily, for the many valuable commu- nications with which he continues from time to time to enrich your pages. The Supplemental Table in your last Number, which, in conjunction with others of M. Schumacher, serves for computing the precession and nutation of a number of » fixt stars, will doubtless be duly appreciated by those ob- servers who are enabled to avail themselves of the assistance it offers. I am sorry to say, that at present I am not among that number. Owing to my imperfect knowledge of the Ger- man language, I am not certain that I understand the account the author has given of the formation of these tables; and as he has added no example of the manner in which they are to be used, I feel considerable doubt as to the method of apply- ing them in particular cases: for instance, it is customary in using tables of this kind, in leap-years, to add one day before the 29th of February, or to subtract one after. Is this the case here? Again; Do the tables give the corrections for the noon of each day? But another, and more perplexing doubt arises, as to the days themselves, The tables profess to give the logarithms necessary for finding the corrections for every tenth day; that is, for January 0, 10, 20, &c. But what is meant by January 0? If it mean the instant that the year commences, or the beginning of January the 1st, then I pre- sume that 10 is to be accounted the 11th; and soon. I ob- serve that in the table of apparent right ascension of the prin- cipal stars in Mr. Baily’s Astronomical Tables for 1822; in M. Schumacher’s Astronomische Hiilfstafeln, and also in our Nautical Ephemeris, the same notation prevails. The latter work, for instance, gives us a table of the true apparent place of twenty-four fixed stars, at the moment of noon on every tenth day of the year, beginning with January 0. What day, I again ask, is here meant? In the explanation prefixed to the Ephemeris, we are told that the places of the planets, sun, &c. with the particulars depending upon them, are computed to the instant of apparent noon, or beginning of each day :— Hence, if I want the sun’s place for the instant the year begins, I find it opposite January 1. Why is a different notation used for the stars? Or, if January 1 is to be understood to mean the instant the year begins, what am I to understand by January 0? Would Mr. Baily have the goodness to ex- plain a | ! 4 Queries relative to Schumacher’s Tables. 249 plain to what period of time the first line of his table is meant to correspond, I shall feel much obliged. Perhaps he ‘will also condescend to give an example of the use of M. Schu- macher’s tables. I am induced to hope this, from his having himself acknowledged the utility of it. In the work above alluded to, he observes, ** that it would be desirable that ma- thematicians should agree among themselves, never to recom- mend or adopt any table that is not accompanied with an ex- planation of the method of using it.’ ‘The force of this very just observation applies, in this instance, only to M. Schu- macher. But as Mr. Baily has already had the goodness to supply one defect of the tables, by continuing the supple- mental one, I am not without hope that he may also be in- duced to supply the other; without which I am afraid they must still remain useless to many persons who might wish to avail themselves of their assistance, as well as to Your obedient servant, Oxford, April 12, 1823. T. M. LV. On the late Opposition of the Planet Vesta. By S. Groomeriper, Esq. F. B.S. Sc. §c. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Your Correspondent W. M. M. in the article No. 34, of the Journal of last month, having. stated some discre- pancies in the computation of the ephemerides of the planet Vesta, for the opposition‘in June 1822, I will explain that part which arises from the elements which I had used; and which now appear from observation to be rather in excess of the true place of the planet. .I had assumed for the mean longitude on Ist of January 1822, 216° 55’ 6”. The Tables of M. Daussy for the same epoch, give 216° 37’ 4”, a difference of 18’, to which I alluded when observing these had fallen into arrear; and not recollecting at that time they were com- puted for the preceding midnight, which would add 8’ 8”89 to the epoch br the twelve hours, and reduce the difference to ten minutes. The object in the computation of an ephemeris is to point out nearly the situation of a planet for observation, from which to deduce the elements; and each succeeding opposition will introduce corrections that continually approximate to the true place of the planet. It is not therefore necessary for that purpose to go through the labour of computing the various perturbations of the elliptical orbit; but’ having found the equation of the centre for each sixth day at noon; and taking Val. 61. No. 300. April 1823. li out 250 Mr. Groombridge on his Tables out of the Nautical Almanack the longitude of the earth: (allow~ ing for the constant of aberration 20”, and also the lunar equation contained in the longitude of the sun), and the di- stance of the sun; proceed direct to the right ascension and declination of the planet. These latter for the ephemeris at midnight may be easily found by interpolation. The following are two observations of Vesta, made on the meridian, which happen to be convenient to find the apparent opposition of the planet. 1822. Mean time. R, Dec. S. Long. Lat. N. Boge ik ene 1 RiWtoe fled o af Fs oR gihus June 14]12 8 3:4 [264 43 42-6138 57 21:3/265 0 O06 4 25 9-4 17 | 11 53 11°3 263 57 28:8/19 8 31°1/264 16 39-7} 4 12 169 I have assumed —7'-2 for the parallax in declination, and 23° 27’ 53”-0 for the apparent obliquity of the ecliptic; whence the above will be found the geocentric longitude and latitude: the opposition appears to be, on June 15th, at 22" 48’ 59°"2 mean time, in longitude 264° 39’ 3’*4; latitude N. 4° 18’ 53-8. Applying 9’ 20”, for the difference of the meridians of Paris and Blackheath, will show the opposition to have taken place at Paris on June 15th, 22" 58’ 19”, being 4°50” later than the time given by Professor Encke. These different results will appear in the following com- parison : Paris. Blackheath. om 4 J ot h. 4 o# 53 29 | 2248 59 rt) Apparent opposition, M.T., June 15th i “ True longitude 264 38 53 | 264.39 3-4 Computed longitude - ae 264 37 34:9 | 264 42 11 ; Error ... —1 181 +3 76 True latitude North dee Ne 419 75 4 18 53°8 ‘Heliocentric latitude bed oe DEE ons 217 40 Computed heliocentric latitude 217 10-4 2 16 46:8 Error... {f +0 5.1 —0 17:2 It therefore appears that I had supposed the mean longi- tude of the orbit about 3’ in excess. The Ephemeris of Pro- fessor Encke gives a mean error in R—2’ 36"°7, and in Dec. +145: my Ephemeris gives an error in R-+3’ 165, and in Dec. +87. The difference in the time of opposition may arise from: the use of different reductions of the earth’s longi- tude; yet the Connaissance des Tems, preceding the Nautical Almanack 22” in the longitude of the sun, being equal to the distance of the meridians of Paris and Greenwich, should not affect the deduction. 'The difference 13”°7 in the true geo- centric latitude of the planet, will partly arise from the later is to be found in the principle of attraction, which, being a power inherent in matter, effects all motion, from that of the smallest of the Planet Vesta. 251 time of the opposition, as the latitude was decreasing; or it may be also affected by not having applied the same parallax in the reduction: the refraction was probably the same in both cases; the mean of which, in my Tables, agrees with those of the French. Blackheath, April 18, 1823. S. Groompriner, LVI. Observations on the Experiments of Mr. Murray, on the supposed Relation between Caloric and Magnetism. By Aw ExPErIMENTER. Lo the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. "THE curious fact mentioned by Mr. Murray in the last Number of the Philosophical Magazine, first, I believe, occurred to my son, a boy about nine years of age. He had been in the habit of accompanying me while making experi- ments on various philosophical subjects, and amongst the rest some on magnetism and electro-magnetism. One day I found him anxiously waiting my return home, to inform me of a dis- covery he had made, which was precisely that of Mr. Murray. He told me that he had “found out that flame attracts the magnet ;”. and on his repeating the experiments before me, I must say that I was at first much astonished. But having learned from long experience to doubt the accuracy of hast conelusions, I advised him to make the trial on a small piece of zinc wire which happened to be at hand; and on repeating the experiment, he obtained precisely the same results as be- fore. The cause of the apparent magnetic action of the flame on the needle was now obvious: it was evidently only the current of air produced by the heat of the lamp that caused the motion in question; and if Mr. Murray will take the trouble to make the experiment here indicated, he will find the same results. Yours, &c. Colchester, April 2, 1823. An EXperIMENTER. P. S.—It should have been observed that we did not make Mr. Murray’s last experiment: if it had occurred to us at the time, it would have been difficult to have performed it, with- out burning the silk by which the needle was suspended. i112 LVII. On [> 252] LVII. On the Cause of the Magnetic Power of the Poles of the Earth. By Wi111am Dossiz. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Jourial. Glasgow, Feb.. 20, 1823. "THE following communication on the discovery of the cause of the magnetic power of the poles of the earth is at your service, if you judge it worthy of a place in the Philosophical Magazine. In an Essay on the aurora borealis inserted in the Number for September 1820, one circumstance relating to those phzx- nomena is unnoticed, being either unknown or not thought of by me at the time (1816) that it was first written. The fact alluded to is the agitation of the niagnetic needle during the exhibition of those lights; which fact, I presume, is established by several observers, and has induced such to consider mag- nétism as the cause of those appearances. The above fact, I confess, if it had occurred to me at the time, I could not have accounted for on the principle I assumed; but that circum- stance would not have shaken my confidence as to the general cause, it being too manifest to be affected by one fact unex- plained. "A curious discovery made by Professor Moriccheni of Rome, probably about the same time the above-mentioned paper was written, throws much unexpected light not only on this subject, but on other still more interesting phenomena. The fact discovered is, that the violet rays of the prismatic spectrum possess a magnetizing power. ‘This extraordinary discovery clearly points out the connexion between the polar lights and magnetism; and also lays open the mystery of the earth’s magnetism, together with the deviation of the magnetic from the true meridian, as I doubt not I shall be able satis- factorily to explain. : It will be recollected by those who have read _ the essay re- ferred to, that the aurore are explained as owing their ex- istence to the vast accumulation of ice around the poles re- flecting the rays of the sun chiefly about the time of the equi- noxes. - The Marquis Ridolfi, in making experiments on the above Professor’s discovery, found that a steel needle was soon com- pletely magnetized by the violet rays separated by a prism, and concentrated by a lens. If it is considered that a great part of the space within the arctic circle is studded with prisms or masses of ice, adapted for decomposing the rays of the sun to On the Magnetic Power of the Poles of the Earth. 258 to an inconceivable extent; we have a right to infer that the earth itself is magnetized by the very same means as the needle in the above experiment. The road to this inference is so direct, that to convince, it seems only necessary to point it out. It seems self-evident that the magnetic power cannot reside in water either in a fluid or solid state; and it is probabie that it cannot be transmitted through the waters of the ocean, and therefore will reside where the land predominates within the arctic circle; and also for this further reason, that it is there the ice naturally assumes those forms best adapted for decomposing the sun’s rays: hence, where this power of de- composing the light is chiefly concentrated, the magnetic poie will probably be found. The prevalence of land at the north over that of the south pole is evidently, for these reasons, at once the general cause of the positive magnetism of the former, and the frequency and splendour of the aurora proceeding from it, in comparison of the faint exhibition of the arora australis. Although the magnetic pole is to be looked for where the jand abounds within the arctic circle; yet its situation is most probably determined by local circumstances seemingly con- trary; such as the abounding of water within land, on the shores of which the most powerful apparatus for decomposing light will be formed. Its situation will also be affected by changes incident to all climates: hence its place may change, though not according to any known law. ‘The magnetic influence no doubt extends over a considerable space, but the point of greatest intensity will be the magnetic pole for the time. All these considerations evidently point to the very spot of the globe where the magnetic pole is known to be situated; yet the northern boundaries of the eastern world may possibly be so much magnetized, as to attract the needle in such parts of the world as are more within its sphere than that of the north- west pole. There is nothing hypothetical in these theories of the aurora borealis and the earth’s magnetism: what constitutes a hypo- thesis is its resting on supposed facts; or, what is worse, ascrib- ing effects to causes they are not known, or known not, to pro- duce. The above explanation admits of the same proof as the doctrine of universal gravitation both in kind and degree. Its celebrated discoverer justly inferred that the planetary bodies must exert a similar power on one another, to that he found the earth exert on smaller bodies near its surface, because the same law evidently governs both. It is with equal justice in- ferred, that if one of the components of light, separated by a small glass prism, has the power to magnetize a steel needle, the same rays produced to a certain extent will magnetize the earth 254 Mr. Dobbie on the Magnetic Power earth itself, if it contains any substance susceptible of it, which experience proves it does contain: and it is no less certain that the polar region contains the means of effecting that se- paration of the rays of light, in the refractive power of innu- merable angular masses of ice. The same reasoning applied to the aurora borealis is equally conclusive. It has lately been found that a very small mirror reflecting the rays of the sun, is seen at a much greater di- stance than could have been previously expected. I have often observed this powerful effect of reflection in ploughed land: for instance, a dazzling reflection is frequently perceived at a considerabie distance; in following it out, the cause is dis- covered to be a small bit of glass or an insignificant fragment of glazed earthenware, &c. If such an effect:is produced by so small a reflecting surface, with the disadvantage of the full glare of day, what must be the effect when the sun’s rays fall upon a world bespangled with reflectors as the polar regions are ? with the advantage of the darkened hemisphere, like a great camera obscura opened to receive the images of the sun (as certainly the awrora are), though distorted and reflected at se- cond hand by the soft bosom of the yielding atmosphere: if this second reflector were more perfect, these phanomena would probably be the most splendent the eye could witness in the natural world. Thus, by ascribing te known facts their legitimate and known effects, and those effects agreeing in every particular with the phenomena in question, it falls little or nothing short of demonstration that such are the true causes. This theory of the earth’s magnetism, and that of the awrora borealis in the essay referred to, mutually confirm one another, | The illu- mined arch described in the latter has appeared more fre- quently than I was aware of at that time, and each appearance of it has happened so near either of the equinoxes, as scarcely to leave a doubt that the then relative position of the earth and sun is essential to its production; which establishes the prin- ciple on which that phanomenon is explained. The simple mean here suggested, by which the phzeno- mena of the polar aurora and magnetism are at once effected, 1s striking and sublime: all the operations of nature are so when their true causes are discovered, and afford but small encouragement to the inventors of complex theories: indeed, the perpetual failure of all such baseless fabrics may well put out of countenance that propensity. True knowledge is only attained by the observation and right application of facts, Nature is extremely frugal in the means employed for the at- fainment of any particular end, A remarkable instance of this a is to be found in the principle of attraction, which, being a power inherent in matter, effects all motion, from that of the smallest a a a ee ee ee ee ee a rm a of the Poles of the Earth. 255 sniallest atom to the system of the universe; and modified by heat, light, and electricity, produces all other changes in the material world. It is not improbable that, in accordance with the simplicity of nature, magnetism may be only a modification of the com- mon principle of attraction, impressed on matter susceptible of it by certain external means, among which are the violet- coloured rays of light. Electricity also possesses the power of communicating that principle; but acts so capriciously (rela- tive to man’s knowledge), that it sometimes changes its direc- tion, at others destroys it where it had existed. Assuming electricity as the cause of the earth’s magnetism, no reason could be assigned for the situation of the magnetic pole; nor, in short, for any of the facts observable in the pheenomenon in question. But besides these reasons, no electrical phenomena have been observed by any voyagers to the polar regions. The present paper is an exact counterpart to that above- mentioned on the aurora borealis, explaining the intimate con - nexion observable between those phenomena, and accounting for every particular relating thereto, without leaving a single difficulty, either as to time, place, or appearance. Those accustomed to wander in search of causes through intricate mazes, may feel inclined to reject them for their ex- treme simplicity: but let such recollect that this is the chief characteristic in the whole system of nature. I am, Gentlemen, Your obedient humble servant, Wruiam Dossier. LVIII. Description of the Methods employed in determining the Altitudes of several of the principal Mountains and other re- markable Olyects visible from the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. By A Correspondent. [Continued from vol, lix. p, 142.} T has already been observed, that a proof level placed upon the cylindrical rings of the horizon-sector, well adjusted and supposed to be level, proved that the ring near the ob- ject-glass was elevated 35”. The Ys having an angular opening of 90°, the observed zenith distances will consequently be in excess by 14”, instead of double that quantity, as before determined. Since my last, I have repeated the experiment with apparatus recently made for the purpose, and find it to be 2" less. By reversing the eye-tube and object-glass in po- sition, the error, as appeared from the average of five observa- tions, was equal to 11". The experiment, it is true, ie the 256 Altitudes of Mountains, gc. visible from the utmost skill of the observer to produce consistent results: yet Iam ata loss to conceive how I should have estimated the error at 25”, unless, as in the case of the proof level, I had erroneously noted the double of the quantity. By referring to the preceding list of refractions it will be evident, that as the refractions for the smaller arcs are in general considerably in excess, the constant error of the instrument must haye been sensibly over-rated. The subjoined list of refractions, determined (with few ex- ceptions) in the course of last year, will require some little ex- planation. The stations are arranged in the order of their altitude (which is affixed), and are followed by the date, time, and num- ber of observations, together with sundry meteorological re- marks, The frst column contains the initials of the stations ob- served:—the second, the particular object of pointure:—the third, the arc:—the fourth, the number of observations :—the Ayfth, the refraction resulting from the difference of the ¢ruz and observed angle :—the sixth, the bearings of the stations :— the seventh, the difference of altitude as deduced by making use of one half of the sum of the observed refractions, or ot 1-18th when the observations were not reciprocal. The dast column gives the difference corrected in the manner described in my last. An asterisk (*) prefixed to a refraction denotes that it is sup- posed to exceed the meant (1-18th) in consequence of the mountain observed being flat or slightly rounded. When the ground was not the object of pointure, the re- fractions appear to have been in most cases remarkably small. They are distinguished by a prefixed +. In the direction of the excess of matter the zenith distance will be measured too great, and the refractions will fall short of its mean value. By using a mean quantity in calculation the determined differences of altitude will be in defect, or in excess, as the objects observed are higher or lower than the station itself? In cases that admit of little or no doubt, the mark + denotes that the plumb-line will have been deflected towards the object observed. ‘The mark — indicates a defect of matter in the direction of the station to which it is prefixed. It is superfluous to insist upon the extreme difficulty of deter- mining the apparent zenith of the observer when the instru- ment is placed on the brink of a deep, broad and nearly pre- The mean refraction was found by trying what proportion half the difference of the sus of el the observed depressions, and the sum of the observed clevations + the contained arcs, bore to the sum of the said ares. cipitous the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. 257 cipitous valley with mountains of superior altitude beyond. Great Whernside, for instance, is 719 feet higher and scarcely ten miles N.W. of Symon Seat; yet as the-latter is on the excessively steep termination of Barden Fell, with the inter- vening deep valley of Troller’s Gill, the plumb-line appears to have been drawn towards the south-east. ‘To be brief, such of your readers as may not have access to Greenough’s or Greenwood’s map must defer their erztzque until I am able to furnish you with a sketch of Wharfdale. It is necessary to remark that the errors of pointure, the effect of unequal at- traction and other irregularities, may in some instances affect the refraction in the same way, and that in others they may wholly or partially compensate each other. In determining the value of a degree of the meridian in this country, will not the amplitude of the celestial arc have been estimated in excess, and the length of the degree consequently under-rated, by erecting the zenith-sector at Burleigh Moor, and at Dunnose,—the excess of matter being to the south at the former place, and to the north at the latter ? (I. H.) Ingleborough Hill. 23744 feet (ground). The base is of limestone and nearly 20 miles in circum- ference. ‘The summit is of grit, remarkably flat, and about 400 yards across. It is placed quite to the west of the centre of its huge base. (See Professor Playfair’s comment on the Huttonian theory.) 1822, Therm. Bar. June 13th 13" to 18" 57 to 66 (28:050 to 27°950) 16 obs. 14 13 to18 51 to6l wee ee one 1] . 17.10 to1l6 57to6l so) Heae pits es 9 Feet. Feet. P.G. Wall. 5’ 15" 1 obs. 3, E. 911. 93-2 R. L. B57 © 3 ay SE. 576°4 578°6 W.S. Wall.12 4 2 jg E.N.E. 67:0 68°1 +G.W. Rock.14 2 5 oz - iE. 672 64°6 ** —P.H. 18°13 {2 zis S. by E. 540°5 545°6 +8. 5. Rock. 19 48 1 zz E.S.E. 790°1 783°6 (G. W.) Great Whernside. Rock 2310 feet. Limestone with grit superposed, steep to the W.S. & S.E. 1822. April 15th, 10" to 17", Therm. 43 to 50. 29 obs. (At Kettlewell, 1615 feet lower, the temperature was steadily 74° higher.) ._ *4* Between Pendlehill and Ingleborough the country is almost entirel champaign. The observation on the 13th was 24’ 21”; on the 14t 24 214”. Four miles north of Ingleborough is the huge mass of Whern- side, exactly 40 feet higher. Vol. 61. No. $00. April 1823. Kk April 258 Altitudes of Mountains, §c. visible from Therm. April 29, 16" to 17° — 55 to 56 S.S.E. misty. 6 obs. May 16, 12 to 17 — 55 to 62 S.S.E. brisk. 15 E. S. Wall. 3° 4” 1 obs. N.W. 16°7 164 W.S. Wall. 3 26 2 N.W. 4°8 3°5 +L.B. Stone. 3 42 1 yr(neg.) W. 3614 360°7 TREELaWallrs6s041 1 SCUGE We, Ween bate a 3: ot NV.N.W. 325°1 322°7 ited S. Power 8 40 2 ie S.S/EO '720°3" 171920 P.G. Wall. 8 481 wr W. 26:1 28°6 +R. a ee ee S.W. 511-7 5140 —F.F. — 1018 38 js S.by W..1138°4 1139°2° 1821. +B.R. —— 1240 1 = dee S.S.E. 998°3 996°0 ie 2 ee ee ee ee ee Ww. 67:2 646 +R.M.— 16 87 6 jy S.S.E. 990°3 9880 P.H. —— 2026 4 +4 S.W. 481:4 480°9 (W. 8S.) West Settron-side. Wall 2306} feet. Limestone with grit superposed. Declivities very uniform to the N.E. and S. but rather steep to the W.N.W. Settron- side is the Camfell of the Ordnance Survey. 1822. May 2, 10° to 12" Therm. 56 to 57 East 17 obs. E.S. Wall. 0’ 26” 1 obs. S.S.E...,14°6 p01 2r9 +L. B. Stone. 3 0.1 4 neg. S.W.. 358°8 357-2 G. W. Rock. 3 26 S.E. 4°8 315 +R. H. Wall. 4 0 W. by S. 319°4 319°2 PaiGs Walk: “37542 W.S.W. | 24°7 . 25°1 at) eee el) yo S.W. 5153 510°5 (E. 8.) East Settron-side. Wall 22933 feet. 1822. May 2, 13" to 14" Therm.53 to 55—12 obs. (Great fall of rain in the night). — i s+ W.S. Wall. 0’ 26” 1 obs. N.N.W. 146 § 12°9 G. W. Rock. 3 26 1 SET. B6°77-> 164 R: H. Wall ;422) 1 02 W. 3052 306'3 —S.S. Tower. 11 36 1 ws S.E. 700°4 702°6 F. F. $2 24604 yooh S. 11942 1122°8 R. M. —— 19 26 2 ae SE. "969°6' S71"6 (P. G.) Pennigent. _ Wall 22814 feet. June 21, 16" to 18". Therm. 64 to 70. Bar, 28°090 to 28°060. (Air very moist.) Summit grit, and very steep on every side except to the north-east. The base is chiefly limestone, but alternates mid- way with the grit, The rock alluded to in the Ordnance Sur- vey, now forms part of the boundary wall. Its latitude is 54 9 27; not 54 10 56 as erroneously stated in the Survey, and copied into my preceding list. The the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. 259 The level of the right index being found broken, the error of collimation was in this instance determined at every obser- vation by noting the angle (in the first place) with’ the left one; then turning the telescope half round (the pointure being made good), the instrument was again inverted and the left index re-levelled. The angle noted differed from the pre- ceding one by double the error of collimation. +1. H. S715" 2 obs. 0 W. 91:1 93:2 +R. L. 536 1 yyneg. SS.E. 487-0 4854 +G.W. Rock. 8 48 1 ae E. 261 = 286 F. F. 11) £40 rr S.E. 1107°5 1110°6 P.H. —— 1720 1 zo S. by W. 454°7 452-3 (R. H.) Raisegill Hag. Wall 19874 feet. 1822. April 30, 11" to 14%, Th. 58 to 62. Bar. 28°558. 15 obs. Pads 3’ 36” 1 obs. S.W. 294°8 294-1 W.S..Wall.-..4 .0 .1 fan K. by N. 319°4 319-2 E.S. Wall. 452 1° 4b E. 305-2 306-3 G.W. Rock. 6 34 2 3, ESE. 3951 329-7 (L. B.) Low Birks. Stone 19494 feet. 1822. April 20, 12 to 145, Therm. 39 to 43. 16 obs. Raisegill Hag and Low Birks are part of the ridge of lime- stone and grit separating Wharfdale from Littondale. Its direction from Skirfare Bridge is N.W. E.S. Wall. 2’ 38” 1 obs. N.E. 343°4 © 34403 Wawa Wal, =o O 1 vr N.E. $58°8 357-2 +G.W. Rock. .$ 42.1, 24 E. 361:4 3607 ee Wa. 5° 8. | qa W.byS. 331-7 339-1 rr. — 109 1 qrx %S.by E. 779°0 778-5 —P.H.—— 1850 1 735; SSW. 1136 120-2 (P.H.) Pendle Hill. The ground contiguous to the north side of the Beacon hillock 1829 feet. 1821. September 24, see vol. lix. page 133. The base to the north is limestone; to the east grit. Halft- way up the mountain on the north the excavated turf roads are upon a dark-coloured iron-stained schist, nearly vertical. ‘fwo-thirds of the height from the summit are of grit, with precipitous declivities to the east and north. It is so finely insulated, that were the station removed a little more to the westward, the plumb-line would in all probability be wholly unaffected, Kk 2 “RK. M: 260 Altitudes of Mountains, §c. visible from R. M. 16’ 46” 2 obs. i E. by N. 5044 507°1 P.G. Wall. 17 20 i N.by E. 4547 4523 S.S. Tower. 17 48 —— 7 N.E. 237°0 23871 I. H. 18 13 —— =, N.by W. 540°5 5455 G. W. Rock. 20 96 —— 3. N.E. 481-4 480-9 W.S. Wall. 21 48 ——,;1, N.N.E. 478°5 477-4 (R. L.) Ryeloaf Hill. 1796 feet. 1822. Sept. 18. 14" to 17%. Therm. 50 to 52. Fine to the S. Misty at intervals to the N. A violent gale from the E.N.E. Ryeloaf is of a round shape, is of grit upon limestone, and like to Ingleborough overhangs the low-lands to the south and south-south-east. E.N.E. is the superior limestone fell of Grisedale Edge, scarcely a mile distant. The effect of un- equal attraction is strikingly exemplified. The first observa- tion is a very doubtful one. *H. F. 4’ 34” lobsj, N.E. | 481 50:2 +P.G. Wall. 5 36 1 ge N.N.W. 487:0 485°4 er 6 42 2 S.E. 621°7 625:2 +L H. 8 57 dy N.W. 576-4 5786 +G. W. Rock. 9 22 as —N.E. 5116 5140 +8. S. Rock. 11 42 zr E.S.E. 2061 205-0 —P. H. 12 12 35 5.S.W.. 35:0. $38°1 (H. F.) Hard Flask. 1746 feet. Of limestone; slightly rounded and irregular on the surface contiguous to the station. 1822. May 24, 13° to 15". Therm. 59 to 61. 16 (excel- ee ee | lent) obs. —*K.M. 1’ 9” 1 obs. 4 SE... 267 272 ++L.B. Stone. 3 24 1 ao N. 203°0° ‘203°5 +R..L. 4 34 1 qgneg. S.W. 48:1 50:2 —G.W. Rock.4 52 1 3 N.E. 5646 5642 = 646 1 ji, SSE. 5749 5750 (S. S.) Symon Seat. Rock 1591 feet. 1822. Sept. 10. 11" to 16". Therm. 51 to 52. 25 obs. +R.M. — 8’ 63 2 #£x°SS.E. 2719 269:0 —G.W. Rock.8 40 6 55 N.W. 7203 719°0 R. L. 1142 1 » 3, W.N.W. 2061 205-1 P.G. Wall. 14 52-1 3, N.W. 693°6 690-4 P.de 17-48, 2 oody SW 2870-98878 I.H. —— 1948 2 535 W.N.W.790:1 783°6 (K. M.) the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. 26% (K. M.) Kilnsey Moor. 14753 feet. Of Limestone. +E. F. VY 9” lobs.4 N.W. 269°7 2702 ++L. B. Stone. 4 22 1 gy INN. W.. 472°8 © 47397 —G.W. Rock. 5 2 1 3 N.E. 835°5 834-4 —F.F.-—— 549 1 jj, S.by E. 3060 304-8 —S.S. Tower. 7 38 1 se | ELS.E. 1180) 5115°4 Pei. 15°26 1 I S.W. 355°4 353°5 (R.M.) Rumbles Moor. 1322 feet. A ridge running from W.N. W. to E.N.E. Tothe W.N. W. the moor is nearly level with the highest part for a distance of 2 miles. May 28, 1822. 12 to 18". Therm. 54 to 62. 27 obs. Oct. 15, 12 to 14 42 to 43. 10 S.S. Tower. 8’ 6” 2 obs. 3+ N.N.W. 271°9 269°0 eae kt - 9 56 4 a5 N.W. 152°6 151:2 ++G. W. Rock. 16 37 6 ye N.N.W. 990°3 .988°0 1 eR: 1. 1638 2 2 —N.W. 471°8 4740 +P.H.—— 164614 3 W.byS. 5044 50771 eae ya 19°96" 7 gs N.N.W. 969°6 - 971°6 +I.H. —— 2534 5 3 N.W. 1055-0 1052°6 (B. R.) Beamsley Rock. 1314 feet. 1822. Oct. 18, 12" to 13". Therm. 44 to 48. 9 obs. The western termination of a ridge parallel to Rumbles Moor. S.S. Rock. 4° 3” N.N.W. 276°5 277°0 R. M. 4 $8 S.S.E. 8-2 8°0 F. F. 748 2obs. 74 W.N.W. 143°5 143:2 +G.W. Rock. 12 40 6 qo N.N.W. 998°3 996:0 (F.F.) Flashy Fell. 1171 feet. 1822. June 8, 12" to18". Therm. 62 to 67. Wind E.S.E., violent. 15 obs. The fell is of grit, principally upon limestone. The excess of attraction (but the case is not a little difficult) will be to the _ N.N.W. and the defect to the S.W. *K.M.—- 5/49” lobs. } N.byW. 3060 304°8 +R.L. —— 642 1 gi NSW.) °621°7 * 625°2 *+H.F.— 646 1 tr N.N.W. 5749 575°0 B.R. —— 7 48 gy ° EASE.” 148°5> 1482 _— 9 56 1488 | 5012 | 3724 | 3382 | 3720 feet 5 inches be- low ditto + Linear feet of the collective spans of the arches, and 927 | 708t| 935 | 1240}¢ 1068 widths ofthebear- ing piers + Linear feet of the collective spans of 545 | 6601) 788 | 1080t] 860 the arches § Descent of * ue ie north end 14 23 875 ya af 3h south end 1% 24 22. inches || Foot passengers 89640 61069 37820 Waggons 769 533 173 Cartsanddrays | = 2924 1502 963 Coaches 3 1240 990 1171 Gigs and taxed { » é carts ee 485 500 569° Horses not - drawing J 764 522 615 * App. Rep. H. of Com. Lond. Brid. 1821. App. BI. Rep. Lond. Port, Plate V. and MS. Drawings. By comparing the collective spans of the arches of Southwark and Wa- terloo Bridges, it appears that Waterloo Bridge might have had only five Ware on Vaults and Bridges, 297 ‘The average time of high water London Bridge spring tides is nine minutes earlier below than above bridge ; of neap tides; fifteen minutes. The tide rises 15 feet out = of 18 feet 6 inches in half = | Ft. In. u. M. | the time of the flood. a=, 18 6 high water at Ae 44 The stream at spring #F | 18 0 } flood 3 33 } tides runs upwards about 20 g (15 0 1 flood 2 22) minutes after it is high wa- = | 5 0 } flood > 1 11 | ter by the shore, and in the a 0 O low water mark 0 0 | middle from 30 to 32 mic jaa nutes. 2d Rep. Lond. Port. { App. C. 3. The last in this interesting collection is a Tract on the Prin- ciples of Pendent Bridges, with references to the properties of the Catenary, applied to the Menai Bridge; and contains a Theoretical Investigation of the Catenary. The work is illustrated with 20 very useful plates. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. The difficulty and tardiness with which the transactions of foreign Societies make their way to this country, and the - comparative ignorance in which we consequently remain re- specting the discoveries of the more active continental labourers in the field of zoology, is a subject of much regret and em- barrassment to the British naturalist. There are several societies in Berlin, Vienna, and other European and trans-atlantic capi- tals, expressly formed for the cultivation of this science, and supported by the contributions of eminent men, active and zealous in the investigation of its yarious branches; but their writings come to us by chance, aud sometimes after a lapse of years. An unaccountable negligence on this point pervades arches each 132 fect span; and 500 feet im length of that bridge might have been saved; and in that case, the whole of the inclined roads on the Surry~ side. parallel with the river, and the greater part of the compensation ex- pense would have been saved also: for the descent would have terminated 500 feet nearer the river. ‘The middle arch would then have been in the middle stream at low water nearly. A much gréater saving even than this might have been made by following the example set at Verona. The ex- cessive magniticence and strength of this bridge surely ananifests the opu-— lence of its founders as much as the great pyramid of Egypt does that of Cheops. The cubical dimensions of the stone sunk to make the Breakwater at Plymouth, and of the stone, brick, and timber used at Sheerness, may bear a comparison with those of this pyramid. lf we are as ostentatious of our wealth as the Egyptian, we apply it to works intended for the public benefit. § App. B. 3, Rep. Lond. Port. || Month. Mag. March, 1816, and Morn. Chron. 26th May, 1812. Vol. 61. No. $00. April 1823. Pp all 298 Notices respecting New Books: all the public as well as private libraries and institutions of this metropolis, with which we are acquainted: and while from the learned of our own country are extorted a number of copies of their works, however costly and unproductive, for the gratuitous supply of various privileged institutions, there is no one library (since the death of the ever to be lamented Sir Joseph Banks, whose private munificence was exerted to supply this defect of our public institutions) where in return they can find the foreign scientific Journals and Transactions . of learned societies, or the most important productions of the press of foreign countries. We make these preliminary remarks as a preface to the following analysis of the Transactions of the Academy of Na- tural Sciences in Philadelphia. The first volume is dated so far back as 1817; but which we never saw until recently lent to us by an obliging friend, who has just received it from America, We only regret that our limits will oblige us to confine the fol- lowing notice to the heads of the interesting papers they contain. The first part of the first volume contains the following valuable papers by M. Le Sueur; a naturalist and draughtsman of distinguished excellence, who accompanied the unfortunate Péron in the French discovery ships sent to Australasia : Description of six new species of the genus Fvrola, from the Mediterranean, with masterly outlines of each on one plate.— Description of Firoloida, a new genus of Mollusca, and of three species belonging thereto, with figures of the same. These two papers are highly valuable, as they have made us ac- quainted with a tribe of most wonderful animals hitherto un- known. On three new American species of the genus Raja. Ditto of five new species of the genus Murena; two of Gadus, and one of Cyprinus. Description of Testudo geographica, a new aquatic species from Lake Erie, with a spirited figure. The characters of Catostomus, a new genus of abdominal fishes; with descriptions of the species. Description of four new species of Hydrargyra, a genus o! fresh-water fishes Observations on several species of Actinia; illustrated by figures. The indefatigable industry and accurate investiga- tion displayed in the above papers, reflect the highest honour on M. Le Sueur, and credit on the Transactions of the Society. Mr. Ord, the American zoologist, has the two following papers: Account of Ovis montana, the Rocky-mountain Sheep; a new quadruped of North America; and Description of a large Ameri- can Ibis, probably distinct from Tantalus Mexicanus of Latham. Mr. Nuttall, the American botanist, has papers on the fol- lowing subjects: Observations on the genus Hnogonum, and on the natural order Polygonee of Jussieu. Account of two new genera Philadelphia Journal of Natural Sciences. 299 peers of plants, Crypta and Hemianthus (of the natural or- ers Portulacee and Lysimachie); and of two new plants, Tillea simplex, and Limosella tenuifolia. Description of Col- linsia, a new genus belonging to the Antirrhinee. Mr. Say has likewise some interesting papers relative fo the entomology, conchology, and crustaceology of North America, of which we must content ourselves with only no- ticing the heads. Description of several new land- and fresh-water Shells. An Account of the Crustacea of the United States. Description of several new Insects. An Ac- count of the Hessian fly, Cecidomyia Destructor, of which an interesting notice on its destructive ravages may be found in Kirby and Spence’s Entomology. Dr. Maclure has a paper on the Geology of the West India Islands; and this part con- cludes withan Account of the Incorporation, Library, Museum, and Apparatus of the Society. Part II, We begin with the zoological papers of M. Le Sueur, containing descriptions of several new fishes of the American continent; and of Maclurite, a new genus of tur- binated fossil shells. Mr. Say continues his account of the Crustacea and Testacea of the United States, comprised’ in several papers :—likewise a Description of three new Species of Nesa, a Genus of Crustacea, formed by Dr. Leach. Mr. Ord has Observations on Grecula Quiscala and barita of the Linnzan school; and an Account of the Florida Jay of Barton. From Dr. Maclure, the president, there is an in- teresting Essay on the Formation of Rocks, or an Inquiry into the probable Origin of their present Form and Structure. By Mr. Isaac Lee there is another valuable paper on the Minerals at present known to exist in the vicinity of Phila- delphia. The Botanical notices are few, and consist only of © Observations on the genus Glycine, and some of its kindred genera, by Mr. Stephen Elliot. Description of several new species of American Amphibia, by Mr. Professor Green ; and of two new species of Linnean Lacerta, by Mr. Jacob Gil- liams. Description of three new Fishes, by Dr. T. Mitchill, also of three new genera of Fishes, by Professor Rafinesque. The miscellaneous papers are: Description of a Hydrostatic Balance, by which the specific gravity of minerals may be as- certained without calculation, by Dr. Coates. A Case of an unusual Arrangement in the ascending Cava and in the ex- ternal Taculer Veins of the Human Subject, by Dr. Horner. The usual lists of the library, museum, donations, &c. are at the end of the volume. In the three succeeding numbers of this work, being all that have yet reached us, are contained the following papers : Pp?2 Account 300 Analysis of Periodical Works Account of the Marine Shells of North America, by Mr. Say; among which the conchologist will find many new species. On a new Locality of the Automalite, by Lardner Vanuxem. Description of three new species of the genus Sciena, by M.Le Sueur. On the Geology and Mineralogy of Franklin, in Sussex County, by L. Vanuxem and W. H. Keating. Observations upon the Cadmia found at the Ancram Iron- Works, Columbia County, New-York, erroneously supposed to be a new mineral, by W. H. Keating. On the Onychia angulata, by M. Le Sueur ; and Description of some Crystals of Sulphate of Strontian from Lake Erie, by Dr. J. Troost. We think the abstract we have now given of these inter- esting volumes, will awaken some interest for the work among the zoologists and men of science in this country. It ap- pears to come out in monthly numbers ; but how such a long interval has elapsed between the printing of the concluding part of the first volume (which is dated 1818) and the com- mencement of the third (which was published in July 1822), we cannot divine. The booksellers are, Dobson in Philadel- phia; and Miller, 69, Fleet-street, London. ANALYSIS OF PERIODICAL WORKS ON ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. Sowerby’s Genera of Shells. No. 13, 14. , - Hirrorus Lam.: agenus formed of the Lmnzean Chama Hippopus, to which Mr. Sowerby has added what he conceives te be another species, named by him H. avicudaris, but he has not subjoined a specific character ; and it appears to us doubtful, whether this shell should not rather have been placed as a Cardium. Cravacrii.a Lam,: a recent species of this genus is here, for the first time, announced and figured by the name of GC. apertz, and an outline of Lamarck’s C. echinata is likewise given on the same plate: Orzicuta: from the remarks on this, it appears Lamarck has formed his genus Discina from some specimens of Orbicula Norvegica sent him hy the author! In fact, we know not where the present system of genus-making will terminate, for ‘“ the doctors” begin to be puzzled by their own genera ! Parmacetta of Cuvier: the shell of which covers only a portion of the animal, and resembles a Linnzean Limpet. Orion, Leach: the type of which is Lepas aurita Linn. Cryaras: another genus of Linnean Barnacles (or @irripedes of the moderns) formed from the Z. villosa of Linn., a shell found on our own coasts. Haioris: a genus remaining nearly the same as it was left by Linnecus, except in having the imperforate Earshells removed to another family, Three species are figured. Rorrtia: separated by Lamarck from the T'rochi, the type of which is Z'’rochus vestiarius (Linn.). Avicuta, Lamarck: accompa- nied by the description and figure of a new and beautiful species, 4. aculeata, thus defined: “ testa obliqua oblonga, aculeata, aculeis compressis subim- bricatis, confertiusculis, subdepressis; cauda longiore spinifera;”’ the term cauda, however, is quite inadmissible as applied to the winged process in bi- valve shells, for the same term is used to express the base of univalves. Mr. Swainson has judiciously termed this part /inea cardinalis. ANcyLUs: a genus including the fresh-water Limpets. AcHatina: with which is united the on Zoology and Botany. 301 the genus Polyphemus of Montford. The author appears not to be aware that Mr. Swainson has copiously illustrated this genus in the Zoological Illustra- tions, and figured a number of new and rare species belonging to it. We are glad to find that no difference in the execution of the plates, since the death of Mr. Sowerby, is perceptible; but that his son appears, in this instance, fully competent to support the reputation which his father, as an artist, so justly acquired. The Botanical Register. No. 97, 98. Pl. 690. Jasminum paniculatum ; a Chinese species, hitherto unpublished, but described in the MSS. of the late Dr. Roxburgh. J. fruticosum, erec- tum, undique lve ; foliis (coriaceis) ternatis ; foliolis ovalibus, obtusé acu- minatis; paniculis terminalibus; (corolla 5-fida). Pl. 691. is a double plate of the beautiful Astrapea Wallichii of Lindley ; (Collect. Bot. 14.). From the observations made in the description, it appears Mr. Lindley’s figure is in some points erroneous, having been made from a dried speci- men. Pl. 692. Holmshioldia sanguinea (Hastingia coccinea of Smith). We should have been glad if the ingenious writer, who defends this generic name from the imputation of being “ uncouth,” had given us some idea how it is to be pronounced ; for to us it is perfectly unutterable ; and we question if one of our readers would undertake the task, without rehearsing it a dozen times to himself, before he ventured on the experiment; in truth, such barbarisms should not betolerated. MManettia coccinea Willd. Massonia longifolia, var. introduced by that able botanist, and enterprising traveller, Mr. Burchell; who, however, considers it a new species, to which he has affixed the name of candida. Ethulia conyzoides Willd. from Egypt. Pl. 696. Cactus truncatus (Link. H. Berol.), a Brazilian plant belonging to Mr. Haworth’s genus Hpiphyllum. Pl. 697. Banksia paludosa Brown: an elegant shrub, introduced by Mr. Brown from Port Jackson. Acacia vestita: a new species, from the same country as the last. “A. hirsuta, ramis divaricatis, foliis hirsutis dimidiato- ellipticis lanceolatis aristatis arista marginis exterioris rectioris terminali ; stipulis minutis caducis; capitulis sphzericis laxé sparséque racemosis subso- litariisve”’? This is but an abridgement of the descriptive character given to the species, which is disproportionably long. Agapanthus umbellatus (var. minimus), probably a distinct species: Dracontiwm polyphyllum Linn. : two valuable plates, representing the different parts of this smgular but un- commonly fetid vegetable. Neottia orchivides Willd.: an interesting spe- cies from Jamaica. Berberis pinnata: a new acquisition to our green-house collections, though described by Lagasca, Kunth and Decandolle. The ar- guments adduced by Mr. Brown against the admission of Mahonia as a ge- nus distinct from Berberis, are quite conclusive. Satyriwm coriifolium: a rare and lovely plant from the Cape. We are not at all disposed to agree in the observation at the end of this article, tending to make several (to us) very di- stinct species, mere varieties of each other. Experience has proved, that greater confusion in the science has originated by making too few species than too many; for, the more we generalize our definitions, the more we de- part from that accurate detail, so absolutely essential in describing the indi- viduals of intricate genera. Curtis's Botanical Magazine. No. 434, 435. This number contains two new species. — Pl. 2384, Huonymus latifolius, a well known shrub from the south of Europe. Hibiscus militaris Willd.; an American plant. Owalis lobata, raised from sced recently imported from Chili, ©. acaulis, seapo unifloro petiolis longiore foliis ternatis ; foliolis bilobis ; radice tuberosa. Lobelia pyramidatis, recently described, for ‘the first 302 Analysis of Periodical Works on %oology and Botany. first time, by the indefatigable Dr. Wallich, as a native of Upper Nepal. Tulipa suaveolens: the broad-leaved variety. Anagallis latifolia, from Spain. Cynanchum nigrum, Brown Asclep. (Asclepias nigra Linn. Willd, &c.) The concluding plate represents a new species of Crassula by the specific name of albiflora, recently sent from the Cape. C. foliis carnosis ovatis acuminatis patentibus cartilagineis. Pl. 2392. Bromelia sylvestris Willd.: represented remarkably well on a double plate, from a plant at the Chelsea Gardens. Opuntia vulgaris, Ha- worth: here called a dwarf variety of the common Cactus Opuntia. We al- most think this may turn out a distinct plant from that now become indige- nous in the south of Europe; the spines of which are always three in each fasciculus, near an inch long, and more horny than setaceous, The Mediter- ranean plant, moreover, is erect, and not prostrate. Hyoscyamus niger (var. 8. annua): we concur with Dr. Sims in thinking this a simple variety. Pe- rilla ocymoides: the figure is particularly well designed; but the want of outline dissections is doubly felt from the minute size of the flowers. P].2396 represents the same species of Berderis as we have before noticed in the Botanical Register; but it is here called B. fascicularis. In the adoption of specific names, priority should be an invariable guide, a rule decidedly against the name here followed. The arguments on the instability of Ma- honiaas a genus, are the same as those we have before alluded to. Crinum angustum, a lovely plant, beautifully figured. The initials of W. H. lead us to believe Mr. Herbert is the writer of the description, and of the postscript, which we think both judicious and satisfactory. The impropriety of pla- cing C. angustum as a variety of C. amabile we before alluded to, in our re- marks on that Number of the Botanical Register wherein this has been done; Mr. Herbert’s remarks on the subject strengthen our own previous opinion. Sweet’s Geraniacee. No. 39, 40. A solitary species occurs in No. 39, and it has been already described by several botanists ; it is the Geranium tuberosum of Willdenow and the Hor- tus Kewensis. In No. 40, no one genuine species occurs. Recently Published. The Septenary System of generating Curves by continued Motion; including sundry Observations on the System,’ and on its Application and Utility in Civil and Naval Architecture, Sculpture, and those Arts generally, where a fine curved Line is so highly esteemed. By Joseph Jopling. Preparing for Publication. Mr. Tredgold is preparing for the press an Essay on Heating and Drying by Steam; in which its Application to warming Buildings, Stoves, Green-houses, Manufactories, &c. will be explained, and compared with other methods of distributing heat. A New Edition of the Essays on Mill-work of the late Robertson Buchanan, is in the press; with considerable Ad- ditions on the Teeth of Wheels, the Arrangement of Ma- chinery, the maximum Effect of moving Powers, the Princi- ples of Water-wheels, &c. &c., by the Editor T. Tredgold, Civil Engineer. LXVI. Pro- { 303 ] LXVIL. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. March 20, ee reading of Mr. Bell’s Paper on the Mo- tions of the Eye was resumed and concluded ; and the Society, on account of the approaching Fast and Festival, adjourned over two Thursdays, to meet again on April 10, when the following papers were read :—Account of an Apparatus, on a peculiar Construction, for the Exhibition of Electro-magnetic Experiments; by Mr. Pepys.— On the Condensation of several Gases into Liquids; by Mr. Faraday. April 17.—On the Application of the Liquids produced by the Condensation of Gases as Mechanical Agents; by Sir H. Davy.—On the Temperature, at considerable Depths, of Fresh-water Lakes within the Tropics; by Captain Edward Sabine.—Part of a Paper by Prof. Buckland was read ; being a continuation of his former Paper on the Cave containing Fossil Bones discovered at Kirkdale in Yorkshire, with an Account of other Caves in Yorkshire and Germany. April 24.—Experiments for determining the Length of the invariable Pendulum at various Places in the South American Station; by Captain Basil Hall, in a Letter to Captain Henry Kater, F.R.S. LINNZZAN SOCIETY, April 1st.—At this meeting were read: Remarks on a minute luminous Insect frequently observed in the Course of a Voyage to India; by Major-General Hard- wicke, F.L.S. &c. Also the beginning of the 2d part of a Com- mentary on the Hortus Malabaricus; by Francis Hamilton, M.D. I'.L.S. &c. April 15.—The reading of the Commentary on the Hortus Malabaricus was continued. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. April 4. Two Notices were read on a recent Ligneous Pe- trifaction ; by the Rev. J. J. Conybeare. A Notice was also read respecting a mass of Quartzose Fer- ruginous Sandstone, occurring in the Limestone near Bristol ; by George Cumberland, Ksq. April 18.—A Letter was read containing A Description of two new Species of Encrinus found in the Mountain Limestone near Bristol; by George Cumberland, Esq. A Letter was also read On the Geology of Pulo Nias, an Island on the western side of Sumatra; by Dr. Jack. Com- municated by H. 'T. Colebrooke, Esq. A Paper 304 Horticultural Society. A Paper was read, On the Geology and Geography of Sumatra, and some oF the adjacent islands ; ; by Dr. Jack. Communicated by H. T. Colebrocke, Esq. HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Feb. 4.—The following papers were read :—On the autumn and winter management of cauliflowers, so as to preserve them through the w iter By Mr. George Cockburn, gardener to William Steven Poyntz, Esq.—On “the cultivation and propa- ation of Gardenia radicans. By Mr. Samuel Sawyer, gar- Sdacs to Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Esq.—On the management of fig-trees in the open air. By Mr. Samuel Sawyer _— Notes on the effects of frost upon glazing. By Joseph Sabine, Esq., F.R.S., &c., Secretary.—On forcing’ strawberries. By Mr. George Meredew, gardener to Charles Calvert, Esq. Feb. 18.—The following papers were read: =On a method of treating potatoes, so as to preserve them in a fresh state du- ri ing the winter. By Mr. John Goss.—On a variety of Bras- sica oleracea fimbr sate, called Woburn perennial cabbage. By Mr. John Sinclair, gardener to His Grace the Duke of Bedford, at Woburn.—On ‘the fertilization of the female blossoms of fil- berts. By the Rev. George Swayne. Mr. Swayne suspected that the infertility of the filbert was occasioned by the defi- ciency of male blossoms; and it occurred to him, that by ob- taining branches of the wild hazel, and suspending them oyer the filbert plants, he would compensate for that deficiency. This experiment he tried with complete success, and the paper gives an interesting detail of his mode of operating. March 4.—A paper on the cultivation of melons in the open air, by John Williams, Esq. was read.—A communication by the Rev. John Bransby was read, stating some useful particu- lars as to the best mode of cultivating the Tetragonia expansa, or New Zealand spinach.—A paper by Mr. John Lindley, the Assistant-Secretary at the garden, was read, containing some particulars relative to the seedling varieties of Amaryllis, which had been raised by the Hon. and Rey. William Herbert, and flowered in the garden of the society.—A large collectiti of fruits, preserved in spirits, was exhibited ; they were brought home by Mr. George Don, a botanical collector i in the service of the society. They had been collected at St. Thomas’s, Africa, Maranham, and Trinidad. PAY S054 7 ASIATIC SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, The first general meeting of this Society was held on the 15th of March at the Thatched House, St. James’s street. —Henry Thomas Colebrooke, Esq. having been called to the chair, announced that His Majesty had been graciously pleased to become Patron of the Society ; and that the Marquis Welles- ley, the Marquis of Hastings, and the President of the Board of Commissioners for the Affairs of India, were nominated Vice- Patrons; also, that the number of members already exceeded three hundred. The following members were elected to form the Council; viz. Duke of Somerset; Duke of Buckingham; Marquis of Lansdowne; Earl of Aberdeen; Right Hon. C. W. Wynn; Right Hon. Sir G. Ouseley, Bart.; Right Hon. John Sulli- van; Sir G. T. Staunton, Bart.; Sir E. H. East, Bart.; Sir J. Malcolm, G.C.B.; Sir A. Johnston, Knt.; Sir J. Mackin- tosh, Knt.; James Alexander, Esq.; John Barrow, Esq.; H. T. Colebrooke, Esq.; Colonel F. H. Doyle; Colonel C. J. Doyle; N. B. Edmonstone, Esq.; John Fleming, Esq. ; Captain Henry Kater; Andrew Macklew, Esq. ; Wm. Mars- den, Esq.; G. H. Noehden, LL.D.; Colonel Mark Wilks; Charles Wilkins, Esq. And the following were chosen Officers of the Society; viz. President.—The Right Hon. Charles Williams Wynn. Director—Henry Thomas Colebrooke, Esq. : Vice-Presidents.—Sir Geo. Tho. Staunton, Bart.; Sir John Malcolm, G.C.B.; Sir Alex. Johnston, Knt.; Col. Mark Wilks. Treasurer.—James Alexander, Esq. Secretary.—George Henry Noehden, LL.D. The following interesting address was then delivered by Mr. Colebrooke : ** Called by the indulgence of this meeting to a chair, which I could have wished to hhave seen more worthily filled, upon so interesting an occasion, as the first general meeting of a Society instituted for the important purpose of the advancement of knowledge in relation to Asia, 1 shall, with your permission, detain you a little from the special business of the day, while I draw your more particular attention to the objects of the insti- tution, for the furtherance of which we are now assembled. * To those countries of Asia, in which civilization may be justly considered to have had its origin, or to have attained its earliest growth, the rest of the civilized world owes a large debt of gratitude, which it cannot but be solicitous to repay : Vol. 61. No, $00, April 1823. Qq and 306 Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. and England, as most advanced in refinement, is, for that very cause, the most beholden; and, by acquisition of dominion in the East, is bound by a yet closer tie. As Englishmen, we participate in the earnest wish, that this duty may be fulfilled, and that obligation requited; and we share in the anxious de- sire of contributing to such a happy result, by promoting an interchange of benefits, and returning in an improved state that which was received in a ruder form. ‘«* But improvement, to be efficient, must be adapted to the actual condition of things: and hence a necessity for exact in- formation of all that is there known, which belongs to science}; and all that-is there practised, which appertains to arts. Be, it then our part to investigate the sciences of Asia; and in- quire the arts of the East, with the hope of facilitating ameli- orations, of which they may be found susceptible. “‘ In progress of such researches, it is not perhaps too much to expect, that something may yet be gleaned for the advance- ment of knowledge, and improvement of arts, at home. In many recent instances, inventive faculties have been tasked to devise anew, what might have been as readily copied from an Oriental type; or unacknowledged imitation has repro- duced in Europe, with an air of novelty, what had been for ages familiar in the East. Nor is that source to be considered as already exhausted. In beauty of fabric, in simplicity of process, there possibly yet remains something to be learnt from China, from Japan, from India; which the refinement of Europe need not disdain. “‘ The characteristic of the arts in Asia is simplicity. With rude implements, and by coarse means, arduous tasks have been achieved, and the most finished results have been ob- tained ; which, for a long period, were scarcely equalled, and have but recently been surpassed, by polished artifice, and refined skill, in Europe. Were it a question of mere curiosity, it might yet be worth the inquiry, what were the rude means by which such things have been accomplished? The question, however, is not a merely idle one. . It may be investigated with confidence, that an useful answer will be derived. If it do not point to the way of perfecting European skill, it as- suredly will to that of augmenting Asiatic attainments. The course of inquiry into the arts, as into the sciences of Asia, cannot fail of leading to much which is curious and instruec- tive. The inquiry extends over regions the most anciently and the most numerously peopled on the globe. ‘The range of research is as wide, as those regions are vast; and as various, as the people who inhabit them are diversified. It embraces their ancient and modern history; their civil polity ; their long- enduring eee Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. ‘307 enduring institutions; their manners, and their customs; their languages, and their literature; their sciences, speculative and practical: in short, the progress of knowledge among them; the pitch which it has attained ; and last, but most important, the means of its extension. “« In speaking of the history of Asiatic nations (and it is in Asia that recorded and authentic history of mankind com- mences), I do not refer merely to the succession of political struggles, national conflicts, and warlike achievements; but rather to less conspicuous, yet more important, occurrences, which directly concern the structure of Society; the civil in- stitutions of nations; their internal more than their external relations; and the yet less prominent but more momentous events, which affect Society universally, and advance it in the scale of civilized life. It is the history of the human mind, which is most diligently to be investigated: the discoveries of the wise; the inventions of the ingenious; and the contrivances of the skilful. Nothing, which has much engaged the thoughts of man, is foreign to our inquiry, within the local limits which we have prescribed to it. We do not exclude from our re- search the political transactions of Asiatic states, nor the lucu- brations of Asiatic philosophers. The first are necessarily connected, in no small degree, with the history of the progress of society; the latter have great influence on the literary, the speculative, and the practical avocations of men. “Nor is the ascertainment of any fact to be considered de- stitute of use. The aberrations of the human mind are a part of its history. It is neither uninteresting nor useless, to ascertain what it is that ingenious men have done, and con- templative minds have thought, in former times; even where they have erred: especially, where their error has been graced by elegance, or redeemed by tasteful fancy. Mythology then, however futile, must, for those reasons, be noticed. It in- fluences the manners, it pervades the literature, of nations which have admitted it. Philosophy of ancient times must be studied ; though it be the edifice of large inference, raised on the scanty ground of assumed premises. Such as it is, most assiduously has it been cultivated by Oriental nations, from the further India to Asiatic Greece. ‘The more it is in- vestigated, the more intimate will the relation be found be- tween the philosophy of Greece and that of India. _Which- ever is the type or the copy, whichever has borrowed, or has lent, certain it is, that the one will serve to elucidate the other. The philosophy of India may be employed for a commentary on that of Greece; and, conversely, Grecian philosophy will help to explain Indian. That. of Arabia too, avowedly copied Qq2 from 308 Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. from the Grecian model, has preserved much which else might have been lost. A part has been restored through the medium of translation; and more may yet be retrieved from Arabic stores. «© The ancient language of India, the polished Sanscrit, not unallied to Greek and various other languages of Europe, may yet contribute something to their elucidation; and still more to the not unimportant subject of general grammar. ‘Though Attic taste be wanting in the literary performances of Asia, they are not, on that sole ground, to be utterly neglected. Much that is interesting may yet be elicited from Arabic and Sanscrit lore, from Arabian and Indian antiquities. Connected as those highly polished and refined languages are with other tongues, they deserve to be studied for the sake of the parti- cular dialects and idioms to which they bear relation; for their own sake, that is, for the literature which appertains to them ; and for the analysis of language in general, which has been unsuccessfully attempted on too narrow ground, but may be prosecuted with effect upon wider induction. The same 1s to be said of Chinese literature and language. This field of re- search, which is now open to us, may be cultivated with con- fident reliauce on a successful result; making us better ac- quainted with a singular people, whose manners, institutions, opinions, arts and productions, differ most widely from.those of the West; and through them, perhaps, with other tribes of Tartaric race, still more singular, and still less known. «* Wide as is the geographical extent of the region to which primarily our attention is directed, and from which our asso- ciation has taken its designation, the range of our research is not confined to those geographical limits. Western Asia has, in all times, maintained intimate relation with contiguous, and not unfrequently with distant countries: and that connexion will justify, and often render necessary, excursive disquisition beyond its bounds. We may lay claim to many Grecian to- pics, as bearing relation to Asiatic Greece; to numerous topics of yet higher interest, connected with Syria, with Chaldzea, with Palestine. Arabian literature will conduct us still further. Wherever it has followed the footsteps of Moslem conquest, inquiry will pursue its trace. Attending the Arabs in Egypt, the Moors in Africa; accompanying these into Spain, and cultivated there with assiduity, it must be investigated without exclusion of countries into which it made its way. «¢ Neither are our researches limited to the old continent, nor to the history and pursuits of ancient times. Modern enter- prise has added to the known world a second Asiatic conti- nent; which British colonies have annexed to the British do- main. Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. —_ 309 main. The situation of Austral Asia connects it with the In- dian Archipelago. Its occupation by English colonies brings it in relation with British India. Of that new country, where every thing is strange, much is yet to be learnt. Its singular physical geography, its peculiar productions, the phenomena of its climate, present numerous subjects of inquiry : and vari- ous difficulties are to be overcome, in the solution of the pro- blem of adapting the arts of Europe to the novel situation of that distant territory. The Asiatic Society of Great Britain will contribute its aid towards the accomplishment of those im- portant objects. «« Remote as are the regions to which our attention is turned, no country enjoys greater advantages than Great Britain for conducting inquiries respecting them. Possessing a great Asi- atic empire, its influence extends far beyond its direct and local authority. Both within its territorial limits and without them, the public functionaries have occasion for acquiring varied in- formation, and correct knowledge of the people and of the country. Political transactions, operations of war, relations of commerce, the pursuits of business, the enterprise of curiosity, the desire of scientific acquirements, carry British subjects to the most distant and the most secluded spots. Their duties, their professions lead them abroad : and they avail themselves of opportunity, thus afforded, for acquisition of accurate ac- quaintance with matters presented to their notice. One requi- site is there wanting, as long since remarked by the venerable founder of the Asiatic Society of Bengal ; it is leisure: but that is enjoyed on their return to their native country. Here may be arranged the treasured knowledge which they bring with them; the written or the remembered information which they have gathered. Here are preserved in public and private reposi- tories, manuscript books collected in the East, exempt from the prompt decay which would there have overtaken them. Here too are preserved in the archives of families, the manuscript observations of individuals, whose diffidence has prevented them from giving to the public the fruits of their labours in a detached form. “ An Association, established in Great Britain, with views analogous to those for which the parent Society of Bengal was instituted, and which happily are adopted by Societies which have arisen at other British stations in Asia, at Bombay, at Madras, at Bencoolen, will furnish inducement to those who, during their sojourn abroad, have contributed their efforts for the promotion of knowledge, to continue their exertions after their return. It will serve to assemble scattered materials, which are now liable to be lost to the public for want of a ve- hicle 810 : » Astronomical Society. hicle of publication. It will lead to a more diligent examina- tion of the treasures of Oriental literature preserved in public and private libraries. In cordial cooperation with the existing Societies in India, it will assist their labours, and will be as- sisted by them. It will tend to an object first in importance ; the increase of knowledge in Asia, by diffusion of European science. And whence can this be so effectually done as from Great Britain? ‘* For such purposes we are associated ; and to such ends our efforts are directed. ‘To further these objects we are now as- sembled; and the measures which will be proposed to you, Gentlemen, are designed for the commencement of a course which, I confidently trust, may in its progress be eminently suc- cessful, and largely contribute to the augmented enjoyments of the innumerable people subject to British sway abroad; and (with humility and deference be it spoken, yet not without aspiration after public usefulness, ) conspicuously tend to British prosperity as connected with Asia.” April 19.—The second Meeting of the Society was held at Willis’s Rooms, H. 'T. Colebrooke, Esq., Director, in the Chair. The Laws framed by the Council were submitted and approved. A magnificent donation was announced from Sir G. Staunton, of more than two thousand Chinese books, ma- nuscript and printed. Such an auspicious commencement au- gurs well for the establishment of a noble library of Oriental literature. A part was read of a Memoir concerning the Chi- nese, by J. F’. Davies, Esq.; from which it appeared, that the marvellous antiquity claimed by some of the chronicles of China is rejected as fabulous by the learned men of that country. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. April 11.—The Papers read this evening were: lst. A Letter from M. Pastorff to the late President, on a Photosphere, observed at Buckholtz in Germany, round the Planets Venus, Jupiter and Saturn. 2d. Extract of a Letter from M. Littrow, Director of the Imperial Observatory at Vienna, to the Foreign Secretary, re- lative to the Cause of certain Discrepancies in Astronomical Observations,-and on the Construction of Instruments, and Correction for Refraction. An Address lately published by the Society announces that medals in bronze, silver, and gold, are to be bestowed as ho- norary distinctions on such persons as shall make material discoveries or improvements in the science of astronomy. And in order to direct attention to the objects most worthy of en-: couragement, the following list is given: e Astronomical Society. 811 The discovery of any new Planet, Satellite or Comet; or the re-discovery of any old Comet, or of any Stars that have disappeared.—Observations to elucidate the existence of Pa- rallax in the Fixed Stars.—A considerable collection of ori- inal and well authenticated observations of the Eclipses of Finsitse’s Satellites, or of Occultations of the Stars by the Moon, reduced to the mean time of any known Observatory.—The like, on the positions of the Fixed Stars, and Nebule; tending either to the enlargement and perfection of our present cata- logues, or to the more accurate determination of variable stars in size, colour, or situation, as well as the perfection of our ca- talogue of double stars, with the determination of their di- stance, and angular position.—A development of the operation of Refraction, with a view to the more perfect theory of that phznomenon; particularly at low altitudes, where irregularities take place when little or no variation has occurred in the Ba- rometer or Thermometer.—Observations on the Tides, parti- cularly in situations where the current is not influenced by lo- cal formation or any contiguous Continent.—Observations tending to determine the true figure of the Sun or of the Earth, and other planets.—The reduction of any well authenticated observations.—The formation of more simple and easy Tables than now exist, for the reduction of astronomical observations. — The formation of new Tables for the more recently disco- vered Planets, together with those of Jupiter’s Satellites.— Inquiries into the labours and observations of preceding astro- nomers, and of the instruments they used, with a view to dis- cover whether any records can be found of the more recently discovered Planets or Comets, and to obtain a more perfect catalogue than now exists of such stars as have from time to time disappeared.—A comparison of the places of any of the celestial bodies, as observed at any of the principal Observa- tories, with their places deduced from the most approved Ta- bles; but more particularly those of the Moon. In this latter case, it would be desirable that the numerical value of the ar- guments of the principal equations should be annexed to each comparison ; and that in all cases, the principles on which the deductions are made should be fully and clearly stated. Among the instrumental improvements may be mentioned the perfection of the Achromatic Telescope, by experiments on the formation of better glass and its powers. A simple but effectual contrivance for enabling an observer to determine the right ascension and declination of small stars, without illumi- nating the wires in the field of the Telescope.—An Instrument, or rather means, for determining the apparent magnitude of the fixed $12 City Philosophical Society.x—Medical Society. fixed stars, so as to obtain a correct scale whereby astronomers may be enabled to express themselves in one common language on this subject.—A method of applying the Reflecting Tele- scope to transit or circular Instruments, in as convenient and useful a manner as the Refracting Telescope. The Society’s Gold Medal and Twenty Guineas are also of- fered for the best paper on the theory of the motions and per- turbations of the satellites of Saturn.—The investigation to be so conducted as to take expressly into consideration the influ- ence of the rings, and the figure of the planet as modified by the attraction of the rings, on the motions of the satellites :. to fur- nish formulee, adapted to the determination of the elements of their orbits, and the constant co-efficients of their periodical and secular equations, from observation : likewise to point out the observations best adapted to lead to a knowledge of such determination. The papers to be sent on or before the 1st of February 1824. t CITY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. We would suggest to our correspondent Mr. Harris, that an institution similar to the one which he wishes to form, has been established several years, where lectures are delivered every fortnight, original papers are read, and subjects connect- ed with the various branches of science are discussed by the members. Its object is to afford every facility to those who may wish to obtain scientific information. As we are ac- quainted with several of its members, we do not hesitate to recommend to the attention of Mr. H. and his friends the City Philosophical Society, whose meetings are held at the house of Mr. Tatum, 53, Dorset-street, Salisbury-square, where further information may be obtained. . MEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, BOLT-COURT, FLEET-STREET. In conformity with the Will of the late Dr. Anth. Fothergill, the Society resolve to give annually to the Author of the best Dissertation on a Subject proposed by them, a Gold Medal, value Twenty Guineas, called the “ Fothergillian Medal,” for which the Learned of all countries are invited as Candidates. 1. Each Dissertation offered for this Prize must be delivered to the Registrar, in the Latin or English Language, on or be- fore the 31st day of December. 2. With it must be delivered a sealed packet, with some motto or device on the outside; and within, the Author’s name and Mr. Perkins’s Seam-Lngine. 313 and designation: and the same motto or device must be put on the Dissertation, that the Society may know how to address the successful Candidate. 3. No paper in the hand-writing of the Author, or with his name affixed, can be received ; and if the Author of any paper shall discover himself to the Committee of Papers, or to any Member thereof, such payer will be excluded from all compe- tition for the Medal. 4. The Prize Essay will be read before the Society, at the Meeting preceding the Anniversary Meeting of the Society in March 1824. 5. The Prize Medal will be presented to the successful Can- didate, or his substitute, at the Anniversary Meeting of the Society. 6. All the Dissertations, the successful one excepted, will, if desired, be returned with the sealed packets, unopened. One Dissertation only on the subject ‘“ Dropsy,” proposed by the Society for the Fothergillian Medal, to have been ad- judged in March 1823, having been presented; the Society, thinking it probable that from the recent establishment of the Prize it had not been sufficiently made known to the Medical Faculty, have deferred the adjudication of the Prize for the best Dissertation on the subject of ‘* Dropsy” to another Year. The subject of the Essay for the Gold Prize of the ensuing Year is “* Diseases of the Spine.” ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, PARIS. Dec. 2, 1822.—The following memoirs were read :—On Animal Heat, by M. Dulong.—On the use of Bronze in the making of Medals, by M. Puymaurin, jun.—On the triple com- pounds of Chlorine, by M. Despretz. Dec. 9.—M. Cuvier read a Note on the Rhinoceros of Africa, lately described in the Philosophical Transactions; and on the Head of a fossil Rhinoceros found near Montpellier.—M. Fres- nel read a Memoir on the particular kind of Double Refrac- tion which Light experiences as it traverses Rock Crystal in a direction parallel to the Axis. Dec. 23.—M. Desmoulins read some Observations on the connexion between the Strength of the Sight and the Extent of Optic Nerves and the Retina. LXVII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. MR. PERKINS’S STEAM-ENGINE. \ 4 R. PERKINS’S invention is founded on a most invaluable discovery—that water is capable of enduring an elevation of temperature even to a red heat, or perhaps an indefinite ex- Vol. 61. No. 300. April 1823. Rr tent, B14 Mr. Perkins’ Steam-Engines. tent, by being subjected to a very high degree of pressure: which pressure, while it permits the expansion of the molecules of water as a fluid, prevents their further expansion, or the liquid assuming the gaseous form of steam. ~ Instead of the boiler of the ordinary engines, Mr. P. substi- tutes a cylinder, which he terms the generator. This cylinder is made of gun-metal (the most tenacious and least liable to oxi- dation) of about three inches in thickness, closed at both ends, with the exception of'a valve in the top, opening outwards; which valve is loaded with weights equal to the state of the pressure from the expansion of the heated water within. The cylinder is placed vertically in a cylindrical furnace; consequently it be- comes surrounded on all sides with the fire, and soon acquires a temperature of 400° to 450° Fahrenheit. The production of steam is effected by an injecting-pump throwing in water at one part of the generator, which displaces through the valve an equal volume of hot water from the generator. ‘This water, at 420°, passing into the induction or steam-pipe, instantly ex- pands into steam, communicates with the working cylinder, and gives motion to its piston, which is placed in a horizontal di- rection, for the more convenient application of its power to ma- chinery. The reciprocal action of the piston opens and shuts the apertures of the duction and eduction pipes, by means of rotary valves, as usual in some other engines. But the opera- tion of generating and condensing the steam is effected so in- stantaneously by this engine, that the piston performs about 200 strokes in a minute, when the engine is at full work. In- deed, considering the small extent of surface, the power of this engine is almost incredible, the generator containing only about eight gallons of water, and the working cylinder not exceeding two inches diameter, with a stroke of the piston about 12 inches in length. The piston rod gives motion to a crank and fly-wheel similar to other engines. A most decided improvement is also made by Mr. P. in con- densing the steam under a very great degree of pressure, and at a temperature of about 320°, and in this state returning it into the reservoir for the successive supply of the generator. In consequence of this economical arrangement, the space occu- pied by the engine with all its appurtenances, does not exceed an area of six feet by eight. The present model is calculated as equal to a 10-horse power; and Mr. P. considers the whole of the apparatus of sufficient size for a 30-horse engine, with the exception of the working cylinder and piston. The consumption of coal for this engine is within two bushels per day, when at full work. All risk of accident is effectually provided against, by the following Mr. Perkins’s Steam-Engine. 315 following ingenious contrivance. It should be remembered, that owing to the small extent of surface exposed to the ex- pansive force of the steam, and the latter being generated only in sufficient quantity for each succeeding stroke of the piston, there is much less liability'to accident from this engine than in most other high-pressure engines. To prevent, however, the possibility of such an event, the induction pipe, in which the steam is produced, is calculated to withstand an internal force of 4000 pounds to the square inch, and it is also provided with athin copper tube, which is calculated to burst at a pressure of 1000 pounds; while the pressure under which Mr. P. works the engine does not exceed 500 pounds on the square inch. In order to demonstrate the perfect safety of the operation of this engine, notwithstanding this immense internal pressure, Mr. Perkins has on several occasions urged the power of the steam till it bursts open the sides of the copper tube, without occasioning the smallest risk either to the spectator or to any other part of the apparatus. This mode of allowing the escape of the steam by rending open the sides of the ball, (which is made of a determinate strength,) is probably superior in the certainty of its operation to any modification of safety valves. It is also a very remarkable fact, that the steam which escapes in this case is not by any means of that elevated tem- perature which might have been expected from its prodigious expansive force*. ‘This fact seems to involve some points con- nected with the doctrine of latent heat, or the conversion of fluid into gaseous matter, and vice versd, with which we are at present but very imperfectly acquainted. We understand Mr. P. is further engaged on some very important inquiries on this most intricate branch of natural philosophy. We have not heard any comparative estimate of the price of Mr. P.’s engines, but we apprehend their original cost will be very considerably lower than that of others; while they can be worked with 1-10th part of the fuel, and occupy only a fifth part of the space required for those of the low-pressure construction. ‘The latter point is one of the highest import- ance, in situations where manufacturers are limited for room, as in the metropolis and other great towns. The very superior ceconomy of these engines over all others, not only in the consumption of fuel and water, but in the weight of materials, must also render them peculiarly adapted for locomotive engines; and we entertain little doubt that steam carriages will, ere another 20 years have elapsed, become as generally adopted among us as steam vessels are at the pre- * On the temperature of steam at different degrees of compression, see Mr. Philip Taylor’s paper, p. 452, vol. Ix. Rr2 sent. 316 Condensation of Gases into Liquids. sent. And when we take into consideration the immense saving in the consumption and tonnage of coals, we are of opinion that Mr. P.’s invention will infinitely extend the use of the steam-engine in navigation.— Museum. CONDENSATION OF GASES INTO LIQUIDS. Mr. Faraday has succeeded in condensing chlorine into a liquid: for this purpose a portion of the solid and dried hy- drate of chlorine is put into a small bent tube and hermetically sealed; it is then heated to about 100, and a yellow vapour is formed which condenses into a deep yellow liquid heavier than water (sp. gr. probably about 1.3). Upon relieving the pres- sure by breaking the tube, the condensed chlorine instantly assumes its usual state of gas or vapour. When perfectly dry chlorine is condensed into a tube by means of a syringe, a portion of it assumes the liquid form under a pressure equal to that of 4 or 5 atmospheres. By putting some muriate of ammonia and sulphuric acid into the opposite ends of a bent glass tube, sealing it hermeti- cally, and then suffering the acid to run upon the salt, muriatic acid is generated under such pressure as causes it to assume the liquid form ; it is of an orange-colour, lighter than sulphu- ric acid, and instantly assumes the gaseous state when the pressure is removed. Sir H. Davy has given an account of this experiment to the Royal Society. By pursuing this mode of experimenting, sulphuretted by- drogen, sulphurous acid, carbonic acid, cyanogen, euchlorine, and nitrous oxide, have been also found to assume the liquid form under pressure, and to appear as limpid and highly mobile fluids. It is probable that other gases may be condensed by similar means, and that nitrogen, oxygen, and even hydrogen itself, may yield, provided sufficient pressure can be commanded. Some of Mr. Perkins’s experiments render it more than pro- bable that atmospheric air under a pressure of some hundred atmospheres changes its form; and it is not unlikely, that some very curious and interesting results may be obtained by the aid of a slight modification of the apparatus used by that gentle- man in his researches connected with high pressure steam.— Quarterly Journal. ae To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine. Some very interesting facts lately published, seem to con- firm the supposition, that all gases may be reduced to a liquid or solid form. I have long had experiments in view for this purpose, thinking it probable that they will change their state by the joint application of pressure and cold, but have not found leisure Report on London Bridge.—New University in Virginia. 317 leisure to carry the design into effect. If any gas is con- densed, the temperature rises, and the elasticity is thereby in- creased; but if a frigorific mixture is applied, it not only acts by the abstraction of caloric, but also facilitates the applica- tion of additional pressure. When a gas is suddenly con- densed, a vapour seems to float in it for some time, whatever be the nature of the gas. Mackenzie, in his valuable “ ‘Thou- sand Experiments,” suggests that this may be the matter of light; is it not more probably part of the gas reduced to the state of vapour ? B. MR. TELFORD’S REPORT ON LONDON BRIDGE. The Bridge Committee of the Corporation of London having caused observations to be made on the tide of the river Thames at various stations, prior to the removal of the water-works and the opening of the stopped arches, in order that a judgement might be formed of the effect of removing the dam*, referred the consideration of the subject to Mr. Telford, who has made a Report, of which the following is an extract: “‘ In regard to the effect which will be produced by the enlargement of the Waterway of London Bridge—not having obtained satisfactory data, I am not prepared to give an opinion upon so important a matter; the absence of satisfactory data is in part attributable to the waterworks on the Surrey side not being yet removed, nor the locks sufficiently opened, so that the tidal observations on the upper or western portion of the river are of course imperfect. “ But even these tidal observations, if obtained, would be very insufficient without an accurate survey of the river, its shores and banks, &c. from London Bridge to the first lock at ‘Teddington; and as I understand that no such document exists, I consider it my duty to request authority to get this survey made in a full and correct manner, since (without giving any definite opinion upon the point) I have no hesitation in saying that the removal of the existing dam will occasion a most im- portant change in the river westward of the bridge, and may possibly affect the navigation and injure the property on both its banks to a very serious extent.” NEW UNIVERSITY IN VIRGINIA. An University has just been established for the State of Vir- inia by the venerable ex-president Jefferson, now approach- ing his 80th year, at Charlotteville, near Monticello the place of his residence. He has expressed a hope, by selecting pro- * For the opinions of Mr, Ware and Sir H, Englefield, see above, p. 292. fessors 318 Society of Auvergne —Volcano.— Earthquakes. fessors from both hemispheres, to make this one of the best establishments of the kind in his country. There are at first to be ten professors, and apartments for 208 students. NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF AUVERGNE. A Society for the study of the Geology, Mineralogy, and Botany of the province of Auvergne has lately been established at Clermont, whose object is the thorough investigation of the natural history of that singularly interesting province, and the formation of a complete collection of its natural productions. VOLCANO. Accounts from Batavia of the 23d of November state, that a second eruption of Galong Goening, which took place on the 12th of October, has done almost as much injury as that on the 8th. The plain of Singapama is covered with mud mixed with burning sulphur; and it is said that twenty kampongs have been destroyed, and one thousand persons killed.—On the 11th of this month the Resident of Priang returned to Tanjore, from his survey of districts laid waste by the eruption, having first done what was necessary to maintain order, and provide for the inhabitants who have escaped, and for the sick. By the most accurate estimate that can be made, the two erup- tions have laid waste, in the different districts, 124 kampongs, and 3085 persons have perished. Besides the great number of cattle that have been killed, the damage done to the rice is very considerable. It is estimated at 8300 tjans, of 1000 katjes, of 1250 pounds. The number of coffee-trees destroyed is about 1,668,000. dee as EARTHQUAKES. Information had been received at Rio, that on the 19th of November, Valparaiso (which, from being a miserable village, had, by the blessings of commerce and civilization, increased within a few years to 17,000 inhabitants) was laid in ruins by an earthquake. The shock lasted four minutes, and all the churches and two-thirds of the city were destroyed: about 200 of the inhabitants perished, and a great quantity of merchan- dize was lost. The shock was felt at Santiago, but it did no injury there. On the 5th of March, there was a severe shock of an earth- quake at Palermo, and a good many buildings were damaged. Several people were killed; but the British escaped without any injury either to their persons or property. . On the 30th of January there was an earthquake in the island of Alond. The day was gloomy, and it snowed. Between eleven and twelve in the forenoon a violent shock was felt, ac- companied with a loud subterraneous noise, so that several houses trembled. LIST [ 319 -] LIST OF NEW PATENTS. To Thomas Hancock, of Goswell Mews, in the parish of St. Luke, Old- street, Middlesex, patent cork manufacturer, for his improyement in the preparation for various useful purposes of pitch and of tar, separately or in union, by an admixture of other ingredients with either or both of them.— Dated the 22d of March 1823.—6 months allowed to enrol specifications. To Thomas Wickham, of Nottingham, lace manufacturer, for a com- ound paste and liquid to be used for the purpose of improving and co- ouring lace and net, and all other manufactured articles made of flax, cotton, wool, silk, or any other animal or vegetable substance, whether the fabric of the same be composed of holes or interstices, or of open or close work or otherwise, and to be applied in the process of getting up, dressing, or colouring the same.—24th March.—2 months. To William Jessop, of Butterley Hall, Derbyshire, iron-master, for his elastic metallic piston or packing of pistons to be applied either externally or internally to cylinders.—27th March.—2 months. To William Warcup, of Dartford, Kent, engineer, for his improvements in the construction of a machine called a mangle.—38d April—2 months. To James Frost, of Finchley, Middlesex, builder, for certain improve- ments in the process of calcining and preparing calcareous and other sub- stances for the purpose of forming cements.—3d April.—6 months. To Christopher Pope, Bristol, spelter-maker and metal merchant, for a composition of certain metals to be used for the purpose of sheathing the bottoms of ships and vessels, and of roofing houses, or for any other pur- pose to which such composition may be applicable.—8th April.—2 months. To Daniel Wade Acraman, of Bristol, iron manufacturer, and William Piper, of the Cookley Iron-Works near Kidderminster, Worcestershire, iron manufacturer, for certain improvements in the preparation of iron for the better manufacture of chains and chain cables.—12th April.—2 months. To John Martin Hanchett, of Crescent-place, Blackfriars, London, Com- panion of the most honourable Order of the Bath, for certain improvements in propelling boats and vessels.—12th April.— 6 months. To John Francis, of Norwich, shawl and bombazin manufacturer, for his improvement in the process of making or manufacturing a certain arti- cle or fabric composed of silk and worsted for useful purposes.—12th April. —2 months. To Gerard Gaultrie, of Castle-street, Holborn, London, gentleman, who, in consequence of communications made to him by certain foreigners resid- ing abroad, and discoveries by himself, is in possession of a machine or ap- aratus upon a new and portable construction, capable of being inclined in different degrees adapted to the conveyance of persons or goods over water or ravines, for military or other objects, and applicable also to pur- poses of recreation and exercise—16th April.— 6 months. To Joseph Johnson, of Waterloo Bridge Wharf, Middlesex, for certain improvements on drags to be used for carriages.— 16th April.—6 months. To Samuel Hall, of Basford, Nottinghamshire, cotton spinner, for his method of improving lace, net, muslin, calico, and every other description of manufactured goods whose fabric is composed of holes or interstices, and also thread or yarn as usually manufactured of any kind, whether the said manufactured goods or the said thread or yarn be fabricated from flax, cotton, silk, worsted, or any other substance or mixture of substances whatever.—18th April.—6 months. To William Southworth, of Sharples, Lancashire, bleacher, for certain machinery or apparatus adapted to facilitate the operation of drying calicos, muslins, linens, or other similar fabrics —19th April. METEORO- "SLL “AVIA 9G GUIS UOPUOT Ut ULEYT “u0ou Je prey pue ulel jo aos ‘OM “qu ye ured fpura YS onid “ULOUL SI} JsOLf QUIT ‘Mm DE ULey “4udiu 07 uo ol J uel [pRUg "ued Urey “AA, pura ruard KULLOyg “qqdi0 ye ouley u0sog, Apno[p aurg| Apno[g auly meg aur) Araaoyg aury Pre | aurg) Apnoyg BIA | IH eH Ire sy Apno[g Apno[g9 Apnojg Apnoyg Apnoj9 Tey qe Uey ae uy Apnolg urey auly uley Aurr0jg| Aramoyg Urey IIe, ould aes aul Ney ASU Apnoyg Uley urey Apnojg aul auly Apnoyg Apnoy9 uley Apnoyg Apnoyy ‘uopuo'yT “UAHLVA MY “uOjsOpy 7D Tika, “4 pup “aw ‘sayouy UL “JaJaULOIeEg Jo WIP ‘UopuoT Ut AUK) 4] ir f €V| oG\LS 97 S-€0| ob aS/EP G.8P} SP\LS\2v 8h) €b9S SP|ZV,2S 6£)| CV sr, RE] 96 0S S-£7) 8€,0S 19,79 €g|1S| 17 8? eViLy, eViLy ‘JOJOWLOULIOY,T, “snjeys -oynuing ‘snpnuiny “sanoty jodsoy) Jo AINUNT “SOLID *snpnut “no01g BE jOLB-G | *** 1COP- Coe. 061: O9T- eeenee mt seneee Of L- S00. O10- Sl Be le ee | Gol: G6L- ole. oVt- 0£0. ovo. [= oS Se et : . . . 090- O10. 070. . *punoigay} qeau uley “SNAIL “aq fo suorpa.sasgg ayy 5 L.G9 8.89, 69 | $8P og | ol 18.9) I Z8-6Z $9.66 06-63 CP.6% 12-62 LL-66 [6.6% 18-66 19-62 99-62% £0.0€ PZ-0€ 0f-0£ F0.0£ L0.0€ P1.0£ QI-0€ 00.0€ ZL.66 £1.63 ¥9.6% 0%-6% V0.6% GV-66 F8.62 PL.6% goof : SoBLIOAY 9% GG @ ine £% (a 1@ 0% 61 ‘UOT jo sktq ‘WV *¥D0[D 0 INS ysvd-spey 4v “UU0ASOH ATAVL IWOMOTOWOELAN V Phil. MagVot UX) PUN. Fig. 10. THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL. Shit. .M AM Ages. LXVIII. On the Quantity.of Rain collected in two Rain-gauges placed at different Heights from the Ground, for a Period of Twelve Months; with Remarks on the probable Causes of the Increase in the lower Rain-gauge. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine.and Journal. Portsmouth, April 17, 1823. URING the last twelve months, from April 1822 to March 1823, both inclusive, I have registered the daily quantities of rain from two similarly made rain-gauges; and. the following are the monthly amounts in each gauge: In the Rain-gauge three feet above the Ground. April 2°570 inches; May 1°510; June 0°385; July 4277; August 1°815; September 1685; October 6°750; November 7°500; December 2°240; January 3°365; February 4°585 ; March 2:095.—Total amount 38°777 inches. In the Rain-gauge 23 feet above the Ground. April 2°270 inches; May 1°365; June 0°325: July 3°850; August 1°705; September 1620; October 6:640; November 7°295; December 2°240; January 3:025; February 8°700; March 1°715.— Total amount 35°750 inches. Augmented difference in the lower rain-gauge 3:027 inches. The greatest monthly increase in the lower gauge occurred in July 1822 and in February 1823, two wet and windy months; for in July strong gales prevailed eleven days, and in February cight days. ‘The increase in the lower gauge during these two months is almost one-half of the 12 months’ difference. I certainly expected to have seen a greater in- crease in the lower gauge than only ;'; more than that in the upper one. It is necessary to observe that the gauge near the ground was about 50 yards distant from the upper gauge, and so placed as only to meet with a partial obstruction on the east side: this, however, is not considered of material conse- quence, as we seldom have rain with an easterly wind; and when it does come from that quarter, it is generally steady for 20 or 24 hours. Vol. 61. No. 301. May 1823. ee I would 322 On Rain-Gauges Z I would not have ventured to state any thing on this already agitated subject, without first being possessed of at least twelve months’ observations punctually made on the quantity of rain collected in each gauge. With this advantage I may perhaps be enabled to handle the question in a different manner from what has hitherto appeared. It is the possession of these ob- servations that must serve as an apology fcr my presuming to publish the results, with remarks that were made progressively during the before-mentioned period. The question now is, What are the causes of the redundant quantity of rain being generally collected in the lower gauge ? Various are the opinions upon this subject: the two chief ones are these, which seem to militate in the general principles against each other. 1st. That some portion of the receiving surface of the upper gauge is deprived of its rain, by strong drifting currents of air that carry it to another place; and the deficiency is grounded in a great measure on the particu- lar height of the gauge from the ground, and the sine of the rain’s inclination, as influenced by the velocity of the current that accompanies it. Or should the rain fall perpendicularly to the mouth of the gauge (with or without wind), it will re- ceive its due proportion.—2d. That the quantity of water re- ceived by a rain-gauge is totally independent of the general inclination of the rain, which is represented by diagrams, both in regard to the drops of rain falling in parallel and curved line: so that the obliquity of descent is not considered as having any relation to the quantity of rain which the gauge receives. Both these theories having been advanced without any ac- companying results of rain caught in two gauges placed at dif- ferent heights, they may each be right and each be wrong. I will now state my opinion as concisely as possible, and ge- nerally from the memoranda I made at different times during the 12 months; but whether my conclusions are right or wrong, they will be for the decision of those who are more in- _ timately acquainted with the subject than myself. In steady rains, with calms, or light airs that do not turn the rain out of a perpendicular or down-right course, I have gene- rally found that the quantity in each gauge was nearly equal, and sometimes the same, particularly when the air was natu- rally dry, or not saturated with thick haze or damp mists. But when the rains were accompanied with strong gales of wind, whose velocity was at from 50 to 60 miles an hour, from any point of the compass, then the difference of rain in the upper and lower gauge was perceivable on pouring it out into the graduated glass gauge. This difference seeming to depend. on placed at different heights. 323 on the strength of the wind, or the angle it makes with the ho- rizon, has induced many meteorologists to infer that the in- crease in the lower gauge depends almost wholly thereon: but there are other causes to be taken into consideration to account satisfactorily for the difference in the lower gauge; they are as follow:— ist. The prevailing eddy winds beneath surrounding ob- structions, as hills, houses, &c. in boisterous weather, which we generally experience here, when the wind comes across the Atlantic Ocean. 2d. The difference in the density of the passing mzmbz, or rain clouds, at different heights from the area of the lower gauge. 3d. The greater quantity of atmospheric air condensed and precipitated with the streams of rain, when in a state of con- densation, the nearer it is to the ground. And lastly: The deflecting currents, which turn the drops of rain out of their vertical or slightly curved course into an ob- lique direction, and thereby spread the bulk of rain upon a greater surface. Besides these, there may be a variety of other circumstances contributing to the augmentation of rain in the lower gauge ; but these, in my opinion, are the most essential ; and if there is any reasonable argument in these premises, my object is attained: at the same time they point out the impos- sibility of an accurate demonstration of the causes, by such simple diagrams as are well known to meteorologists to have been injudiciously employed as the foundation of the arguments upon both sides of the question ; for the solution of any ques- tion on geometrical principles must appear very erroneous, without the application of all the necessary corrections that really belong to it. Those who superintend one or more rain-gauges know well that the direction of the rain is influenced by the strength and velocity of the wind that accompanies it ; and that it is drifted nearly in its direct course, whatever the sine of its inclination may be, or the angle it makes with the surface of the gauge. If the lower gauge be not so much exposed to the deflections of the wind and rain as the upper one, as 1 suppose it is not, on account of the intervening eddy winds, Xe. ; then do these deflecting currents, which turn the rain from a perpendicular descent, cause the greater quantity to be received in the lower gauge? Perhaps it may justly be said that the additional quan- tity in the lower gauge will depend on tie relative proportion of the surfaces trllsinben the bulk of rain falls at the upper and lower gauge. But the spread of rain when the building is not high will, I think, be generally as great at the upper gauge as Ss2 at 824 On Rain-Gauges. at the lower one; because the eddy winds alter the oblique course of the direct rain and wind to a more perpendicular descent, the more so as they approach the receiving surface of the latter. These eddy winds are formed by the springing back of the direct current from the sides of the houses, &c. upon which they forcibly strike; and the more violent they are, the greater of course must be the effect of the eddies. Hence a gauge near the ground surrounded by walls or houses, though its situation be tolerably open, will receive the rain more freely, and in a greater ratio, than one at the top of a building 20, 30, or 40 feet high ; because the springing back or recoiling of the current alters the deflected course of the rain to a more ver- tical fall into the recipient part of the gauge; a circumstance that may in some measure be traced in the drops of rain on coming within a few yards of the ground. In the winter months, when the sun’s rays have but little power to raise the vapour plane, the clouds are generally very low: so that we are sometimes enveloped by thick fogs and mists; and a change in their temperature and electrical state will cause a sudden condensation, and convert them into rain in a more rapid manner than appears to be effected in an op- posite season: hence it happens that rain and wind are more frequent in the winter than in the summer months, and that the redundant quantity in the lower gauge is proportionably less in the latter season. It may be necessary to observe, in confirma- tion of the greater density of atmosphere near the earth’s sur- face, that when it was inclined to condense by meeting with supervening cold currents, I have, after a dewy night, often measured from the rain-gauge ;3, of an inch in depth; the residuum probably amounted to ;4, more. So great a quantity of dew does not appear to be collected in a rain-gauge placed at a considerable height from the ground: for in a fine clear evening soon after sunset, we sometimes see a limit to the height of the dew, by its purple or lilac tinge. We also know by barometrical experiments that the atmo- sphere near the ground is thicker and much heavier than that above it; therefore, the nearer the gauge is to the ground, the greater will be the quantity of rain received in it; arising chiefly from the enlargement of the drops and the eddy winds below. It is probable too, that a rain-gauge placed 200 or 300 feet from the ground may be higher than the base of the rain- fraught cloud; in that case the comparative quantity of rain collected in it must be further diminished. I am not aware that the manner in which the influence of the wind upon the rain takes place, has been attempted to be explained in any plausible way. It Mr. Upington on Short-hand Writing. 325 It would be desirable to know the comparative deficiency of rain at every 8 or 10 feet above the level of the ground, up to 100 feet, which perhaps is as high as any rain-gauge is placed upon buildings, in order to be clear of all obstructions. But when there are so many collateral circumstances to be taken into the account, it seems very difficult to determine upon a constant allowance for any proposed height, except by careful experiment, or the practical results of every day’s rain through the whole year. So long as this remains one of the grand arcana in meteorology, and the height of the rain-gauges is not particularly mentioned, it is impossible that we can know the real product of rain at the ground in the different parts of the country where rain-gauges are kept: indeed, J much fear, from this necessary precaution not having been very particularly attended to, that many of the laborious results of rain caught and published are far from being what they ought to be; namely, the correct annual quantities that have fallen at or near the surface of the earth. It is probable that these remarks, if they should be deemed worth inserting in your valuable Magazine, will be contested by some of your able correspondents: if so, I trust they will first take a little trouble, as I have done, to draw their con- clusions from practical results. Yours, &c. GLOosTERIAN. LXIX. On Short-hand Writing. By H. Urrneton, Esq. {Continued from vol. lix. p. 28.] Blair’s Hill Cork, Feb. 13. SHOULD hope that by this time I have thoroughly sa- tisfied my reader, that nothing within my power has been left untried to convey to him a comprehensive idea of my de- sign. I shall now proceed in the same manner I have hitherto done, and lay before him, previously to the production of my alphabet, the method which I pursued in its formation. I first directed my attention towards the “ scale of charac- ters,” and found, that of the first series or right lines there were but three remaining; having, for the sake of muscular execution and the promotion of lineality, relinquished both the diagonal descending ones / and \, and substituted in their stead* the looped characters 4 equal too/, and 6y= w. The first [pair] being somewhat less complex than the second, and contributing much, by its ascending direction, to counter- * The loss occasioned by this substitution has been already calculated. act 326 Mr. Upington on Short-hand-Writing. act the descending tendency of our short-hand words, I allotted to the letter L, which is the szxth letter on the “ scale of oc- currence.” And to the letter K, which is only the eleventh upon the scale, I allotted the less simple though at the same time the more Jineal [or level] one. The question then was, How should the three remaining right lines be appropriated? Apparently to the three first letters NTS. But here all fixed rules of brevity gave way in some trifling degree to convenience. In our language there are frequently so many repetitions of N and S to be found in the same word, that lineal [call them horizontal] characters are desirable for both ; and therefore to N I assigned the most eligible of the simple curves ~; and to S* the horizontal line —. T was provided for by the perpendicular | ; and R (the fourth letter of the scale) obtained the ascending+ diagonal 7. Three additional cwrves were now to be disposed of; one of which, viz. ), I bestowed upon the succeeding letter D. L was already formed. Th and F were passed over for reasons I shall immediately adduce. M_ obtained another of those curves, viz. the dzneal [horizontal] one ~ ; while the remain- ing one ( being in many cases very inconvenient for junction with preceding characters, was assigned not to P [K was al- ready disposed of ], but to the following letter B, which occurs somewhat oftener than P as an znczpéent, but far less frequently than P as a subsequent. I now return to Th and F, Th (which I shall almost ba- nish as an intermediate, and express by T aspirated when necessary,) is the second letter on our scale as an incipient. To it then I assigned the most suitable of the third class or hooked characters, viz. } , or at option f{.. These charac- ters, though swift, and convenient as inczpients, are in many cases extremely difficult of precise execution as zntermediates. F, although a little superior to M on the scale of occur- rence, obtained the remaining{ hooked characters — = re; which characters, notwithstanding the peculiar combinations %* As the conjunction “ and” shall hereafter be represented by an arbi- trary; and as the letter Sh is to be expressed by aspirated S; the difference between N, otherwise =1000, and S =762, will be so diminished, that, in order to avoid some awkward turns, I conferred the horizontal line upon the letter S in preference to N. + Although K has been reduced in brevity by the assignment of a curve in place of a right line; yet R, to which this curve should otherwise have fallen, has been consequently increased. Therefore the actual loss sustain- able is infinitely less than the superficial observer may suppose. . £ I say “ remaining, ’ in consequence of my having expunged as general letters (for the prevention of crabbed turns and difficult angles) the hooked characters descending to the right. of Mr. Upington on Short-hand Writing. 327 of our language, might indeed with almost equal muscular advantage, and perhaps some fractional advantage as to bre- vity, have been assigned to M: but when I considered that - subsequent V is sometimes to be expressed by F, I thought it desirable that the double character should be given to F in preference to M, in order that V should, on such occasions, be rendered more definite. I shall treat of this distinction in the sequel. The next characters of which I have to speak, are the two simple looped* ones eS J and o==a., taking care, as I already stated, that the cncipient disadvantage of these shall be obviated by prepositives. These characters then have been regularly applied, in the order of occurrence, to those letters which most require them as subsequents: the former to the letter P; to G the latter. V, which I passed unnoticed in its proper place, does not obtain the only remaining and comparatively tedious charac- ter @ = 9; but is represented’ when incipient or alone, by the two simple lines y. When a subsequent, it is similarly written in convenient cases; and in other cases it is expressed (often definitely) by the letter F. W.. This letter, which rates considerably above V as an incipient, [when a subsequent which very rarely occurs, it is considered as a vowel, | I designated by one of the quickest and most convenient of the rejected hooked characters; viz. /. H. I call this letter an aspirate, and provide for it among the vowels, thus 4%. ; Wh, incipient, is expressed by the only eligible character remaining among the rejected hooks, viz. ~\ ; the line, to avoid angles, being in all difficult cases, somewhat inflected, thus ~\y. Wh, when a subsequent, which very rarely happens, is omitted like W. Y, which scarcely ever occurs as an incipient+ [when a subsequent, it isranked among the vowels ], I have represented by the comparatively tedious mixed character 8 which is well calculated for junction with succeeding ones. Thr as an incipient is expressed by Th and R, V: whena subsequent by T and R, thus \¥. The aspirate, if, thought necessary, may subsequently be introduced as thus Js. * The ascending diagonal one was already conferred on L; and the de- scending one towards the right has been expunged as a general character for reasons too often mentioned. + “ You,’ “ your,” which in our language cause the frequency of the letter y as an incipient, shall be otherwise disposed of. Does not this let- ter alone expose the fallacy of our system-mongers who style their plans of short-hand “universal?” Every language has its own peculiar cha- racter. Ch 328 Mr. Upington on Short-hand Writing. Ch cannot be dispensed with either as an incipient or sub- sequent. As an incipient it is very rare. ‘The only remaining and least desirable of all the looped characters, viz. @ = 9), Is therefore appropriated to this double letter. Sh. S serves for the basis of ¢his double letter. The aspirate may be omitted or used at option; thus — when in- cipient or intermediate; thus —y when final or alone. X is represented by two detached horizontal lines; as thus -—; the upper line being joined to the succeeding character, as “extent” —=\, le. vint. Q is expressed, when incipient or alone, by the two right lines 7 The horizontal one being last formed is joined to the following character like the upper line of the letter X. When Q is a subsequent, K is used in the place of it; and should obscurity be apprehended, the letter W is added, as thus with the word “request” (written rhwst) §F J. Soft G being in all cases sounded like this letter, G is always substituted for it. ~ Z when incipient is written 3-. S, in the beginning of a word, being never sounded like Z, cannot in such case with propriety be substituted for this letter*. In the progress of a word Z is always to be expressed by S, which frequently as- sumes that sound.—Nofe: the horizontal line of incipient Z is joined to the succeeding letter. Here ends the alphabet of consonants; of which it may briefly be said, that of the eighteen general characters exhi- bited in the ‘‘ table,” I have applied all those that were best calculated for swbsequents to letters which indispensably re- quired them, being ¢hzrteen in number; viz. BDFGKLM NPRSTCh. One more of the eighteen I assigned to Th as an indispensable incipient ; and the remaining four, viz. 7 de- scending, 1, R=A, C=V (with the exception of \ + modified) I rejected for the prevention of exceedingly difficult angles{. What fractional advantage may be gained by an alphabet which shall retain the whole, disposed in regular or- * The want of this distinction has, more than once, confused me. Con- text is not at all times immediately decisive. + For the sake of lineality I shall employ the rejected loop € similarly modified for the letter L after ascending strokes, as thus \A . How- ever, this modification or inflection of the line need not be adopted, but when convenience shall require it. I have so frequently mentioned angles, that an example may be de-. sired. ‘Take the word “ Scotland,” as expressed by Dr. Mavor’s Alphabet, which no modern contrivance has excelled—and what hand shall execute it with precision and dispatch? . ‘The separate letters of which it is composed are Sktlnd —\ | 7). ~ der Mr. Upington on Short-hand Writing. 329 der of occurrence, without regard to muscular execution or lineality,—let those who may wish to form and professionally to practise such an alphabet, decide. Of VowELs. This part of my subject shall be soon discussed. If the immediate reading of any passage promiscuously taken up— and not deciphering with a certain share of difficulty, by the aid of context—be the object of the writer; occasional vowels not only in the beginning and ending, but in the middle of words, are indisputably necessary: and to each of these vowels separate characters must assuredly be given. If Na- ture, then, has not furnished us with simple ones, we must either resort to those of a tedious and complex kind ill-calcu- lated for short-hand, or we must avail ourselves of the most eligible consonant characters, distinguishing them as vowels by position*. The sounds of which I have sometimes felt the want, are as follow: H_[or aspirate] A, E, 1=Y, O, U, Oo, Au, Ou, Oi; also intermediate Y (as in ‘ beyond”). And if, agreeably to the present plan, intermediate W be added, we shall require no less than eleven characters to represent them. Of these W and Y already exist; a simple do/ shall stand for I = Y; complex characters shall for obvious reasons be given to the diphthongs; the aspirate has been already described ; and the vowels A, E, O, U, Oo, must be taken from the class of consonants +. As the plate with my observations thereon, when presented to the reader, shall exhibit the whole of this scheme, unne- cessary anticipation must be here avoided. I shall therefore content myself, on this occasion, with describing the manner of distinguishing those vowels by position ; exemplified by the vowel I= Y. Let us then so place this vowel with respect to the letters RT, that without the possibility of mistake we shall discover the various combinations Irt+t Rit 4 Rt 4. Rtit 4° : What can be more simple and more perspicuous? In truth [ know not any case, intermediate or other, with respect to the placing of these vowels, that presents a difficulty which (unless the consonants be unreasonably small} or ill-formed) a mo- * If, agreeably to modern usage, a dot, by changes of position, shall re- present three distinct vowels; why should not a single change of position distinguish a vowel from a consonant ? + Acomma , and comma reversed ¢ are equivalent to two of these, as shall in due time be explained. Nor shall this comma interfere with our com- mon stop which is called by that name. ; t As expedition is in some degree promoted by exceedingly small writ- Vol. 61. No. 301. May 1823. Tt ing, 330 On Electricity excited in Paper. a moderately intelligent person may not with ease over- come. ; I shall now touch on The PRepositivEs. These are no more in form than ordinary consonants; but, in consequence of their size and elevation, they become even strikingly conspicuous. ‘They are equivalent to capitals in common writing; and represent, as far as possible, by ouéline, or rather by some obvious characteristic, the incipient looped characters whose place, for the promotion of brevity, they are intended to supply. The looped incipients are in all but five ; of which, Ch occurring too rarely to notice, there are but four to recognise; viz. G, K, L, P, which shall be delineated on the plate. P, in the mean time, may serve to elucidate my object, it being written not f =Q but |; as in the words m prt ~ |y [that is, “my part” |. Here the loop appertaining to P is omitted, and the letter thus represented by its line* alone. L is likewise represented by its proper line 7: K by the curve with which it commences ] ; and G, through ne- cessity, not choice, by the reverse of K, as [ . LXX. On Electricity excited in Paper. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. HE following is an account of an experiment which was suggested by an accidental circumstance. Should you think it worthy of insertion in your valuable publication, it may possibly amuse some of your readers. If half a sheet of letter paper be made very warm at the fire, then laid flat on the table, and, while held by one of the edges, rubbed hard with a piece of Indian rubber (or elastic gum), it will be observed to stick to the table as if it were. wet. When this is observed to be the case, if two opposite edges ing, it may perhaps be necessary to use this kind of writing while follewing a rapid speaker. But, on such occasions, we must dispense with almost all the vowels; and even omit so many petty words as well as syllables of our more consequential words ; that deciphering rather than reading is the in- evitable result. If, in common long-hand without contractions, our writing (when we are hard pressed) is scarcely legible by ourselves, how must it be with short-hand ? * Incipient P thus written before S, which is a horizontal line, must produce a right angle, in opposition to my general design. It is not, how- ever, incumbent on the practitioner to use either P or any other of the Prepositives: yet I must observe that in my own practice I find them ex- ceedingly convenient; nay, they simplify the writing to my eye. be On Electricity excited in Paper. eho | be taken hold of, and the paper raised in such a way that it shall still be parallel to the surface on which it had been placed, a crackling noise will be heard between the paper and the table. Being entirely removed, if the knuckle be ap- proached, it will receive sparks from different parts of the ex- cited surface, though perhaps too small to be visible in the day-light. A piece of board large enough to rub the paper on, and which could also be held to the fire, answers better than the table alone; for to succeed in the experiment it is ne- cessary to make the paper so warm that the part of the gum elastic which comes in contact, should be decomposed in pass- ing over its surface: therefore, without the addition of such a piece of board, the paper must be warmed and laid down several times before this effect can be produced. It is worth observing, that some gum elastic sold in London, which seems to be made up of a number of small pieces joined together, and which appears to have lost some of the original properties during the process to which it has been subjected, is not fit for the experiment. Two half sheets of letter paper pasted together, with a piece of gold leaf about 2} inches square between them, Bir Se) as to be nearly at an equal distance all round from the edges, look when dry like half a sheet of thick paper. This, treated as above directed for the single piece of paper, gives, when the knuckle is brought near it, a bright spark half an inch or an inch long, for the leaf acts asa conductor. 574 By « Aqule . 4 ? . 0 8& 140 In 1802, the French geographical engineers had made a reat triangulation in Bavaria with the repeating circles of noir. M. Henry, at the same time, made 352 observations of latitude in the northern tower of Notre Dame. We went to the same tower with the circle of Reichenbach, and we there made nearly the same number of observations, which gave us ; Greatest Diff. Numb. of Obs. By the Sun : : : cardia Sa 358 Vol. 61. No. 301. May 1823. Zz In 362 Zach on Repeating Circles. In 1809 we passed through Milan. We there made, with the same circle of Reichenbach with which we had made our experiments at Munich, several observations at the Imperial Observatory of Brera; among others, that of the summer sol- stice. M. le Chevalier de Cesaris, the director of that obser- vatory, made similar observations with the superb eight-foot mural quadrant of Ramsden. We had agreed to compare every day the apparent altitudes of the sun, which we observed with our respective instruments ; this comparison must conse- quently have given the errors of collimation of the mural circle, since it is well known that altitudes observed with the repeat- ing circle are exempt from them. The following is the result : Errors of Collimation of the Mural Circle. 1809, June ni | 1 eocoees + 0;"1 1809, June 19... soo 4,0 [one eG 4 ere ene at i Oe 22...0.— 6, 4 P58. 22? 2S Cr ee ae | 17...0.— 3, 0 BE, ms RO 18 ...000— 2, 1 These errors of collimation ought to be every day the same ; nevertheless, they present anomalies which extend from zero to seven seconds, ‘These irregularities ought, without doubt, to be distributed between the two observations ; but to which of these instruments ought the greater part to be assigned, to the dwarf, or to the colossal instrument ? The question is easy to decide. It was only necessary to compare the latitudes given by the two instruments. We have calculated them as follows: Latitude given by the Circle of Reichenbach. Latitude given by the Mural Circle of Ramsden. NaaAwoOFK wo oO The greatest difference in the murat circle of Ramsden amounts to 7”, whilst in the repeating circle it amounts only to 1”,7. In | Zach on Repeating Circles. 363 In the years 1809 to 1813 inclusive, we made more than 8000 obseryations at Marseilles and in the South of France with this same circle of Reichenbach ; but we will only refer to those which we have already published either in our Correspondance ~ Astronomique Allemande, or in our work L? Attraction des Montagnes, &c. The table of the observations is as follows: Greatest Number “ Attr. des Diff. of Obs. Montag. At. the Royal Observatory at Marseilles : By the pole-star upper culm. . 2,59 300 p- 414 ———— lower ditto . 4, 29 280 p- 414 At the Observatory of St. Peyre : By the pole-star upper culm. . 3, 46 238 p- 416 — lower ditto . 2, 33 210 p- 415 By Urse Minoris upper ditto . 1, 81 150 p- 416 At the Observatory of La Capelette : By the pole-star lower culm. . 3, 16 314 p: 419 At Notre-Dame des Anges : By «Serpentis . - - >} 3; 42 300 p- 100 By ¢Aqule . - é - 4, 40 250 p- 101 By aAquile . , 3, 49 524: p- 101 At the Iste de Planier : By «Serpentis . : : 7 2, ST 298 p- 202 By ¢Aquile . ‘ : - 2, 44 268 p- 202 By aAquile . ° : - 1, 64 330 p- 202 It appears by this exposé, that in 3262 observations, not se- dected, made with a small 12-inch repeating circle of Reichen- bach, the greatest difference in these observations, from day to day, never extended beyond 4” in the altitudes; but ifwe seek these differences in a combination of the series, they never ex- «ceeded two seconds. (To be continued.] LXXIV. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr.MasKELYNE’s 36 Stars for every Day in the Year 1823, at the Time of passing the Meridian of Greenwich. {Continued from page 247.] N..B. On those days where an Asterisk is prefixed the Star passes twice; the AM given is that at the first passage. \ a 1823. ee. ee (ocee ey A ES | Ue Rac eS BT 9£ cS 6L OL 8g (sr | 6L rat gl oP » |L9 £1 {60 ce 1 £6 10-P | 60 19 of 2 ee 9S 08 iL 88 |8P gL Il LL 6€ |99 Il |ga {€ 196 86 90 gS 6% 2 | st LS 18 al 88 |6r | gl II OL 6€ =|r9 80 |90 |8% {88 [6 £0-S1| S¢ 8% S | 6€ LS 28 tL 68 ~|6y —“\ kL or SL |e |€9 90 jo |9% {98 t6 66 1g Ll A for | 8s €g tL 68 joS | LL Or tL Le |19 to |€o |€ |€ | 68 96 gh 0% 8 fib | 69 bg SL |06 |0$ |9L | 60 €L |9€ -jo9 |zo |10 (1% Jig | 98 £6 | oh | Sz a | oP 09 S8 9L 06 {1G | 92 60 €L gf = |8S 00-8 |00-€ ;81 |6L eg 68 1? rd “e | &P 19 98 LL 1652) TS ed] 1S 80 ol ce LG #6 |86 |9t |9L 18 98 ge £% > | rh | 9 Lg gL {16 j2$ | SL | g0 Th VE “199 . 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Iv 9f $8 té LSS} h 10 v6__|So _|zo |€4 |So | 69 | 90 |L6 /tL jG |18_ |Sh-_| 6€ ce | | 9 Ss (Ss. 7 eh 0 $6 |90 |z9 | €L | 90 oL | 8% {LE oL |bL |6L |tP Le of 6L |S & 9S vL £0 96 LO 89 00 90 ol go. |9€ 69 |€L |LL Jer ve lz 9L t a, 49S | PL bo L6 |80 |'9 | €L | 90 OL |8@ |S& |89 |@L |9L IP ze S@ |e |¢ > LS SL So $6 60 |¢9 tL 90 OL gz IGE Lo |tL \th {6€ of (46 oL 4 ~ | LS:88 | SSS 90-1€ | 66-€ | OL-8S|99-FS| PL.6z) Lo-€ IL-Q1| 60-13 |PE-9OE |99-L |TL:% |ELBE|SE-LP| gz-& | o2-bE| Lo-6 | 1 > ‘Ss "Ss ag “S "§ ‘s ‘Ss ‘Ss ot ‘Ss *3 ’s “8. ‘Ss a} Ss ema § “Ss oun S L Vt} St €t aie oF 13 8S 6 |s16|vEL) oF L} €3L| LE 9| SVS ist S|9 Gi GS |Sav.| So | LOT] Fh 1 "A *H | ‘A *H "WM °H |°*W°H |" °H |‘W ‘°H| ‘I ‘H "WW ‘H “IN ° Hc oH ‘HK ‘'H | ‘W ‘H| ‘MW °H| °*N °H | °K CH ‘WH “KM ‘H |°H ‘H = "snag | "stud, | “stud | ‘stu |'snyn3| ‘wap | *xnq uo0fd |*103SV5] ‘sntIG] ‘stuo | EMBy|~syT| “epjad| ueawq) ‘ya {'sHeuy ‘Isetog fot 3 “01 noida -uA d | -oorg | -ax7 [-Apy 2! -10,7 -O1,7 “19% ¢ “BC | -apIy n ” a SS PT SR I EE | REET AR A A I I 365 ’s 86 Stars. yne . Dr. Masiel of 202-0, cht Ascens fo) Z True apparent R 69 £9 60-69} 09-£¢ "Ss SS aL 2 WH Ht "1SvS | yneqye -oIpuy | -a,7 | -uI0,T gl 9L 9S 1aSE 0% ‘NCH ‘enby uss) BY) ek n £1 Il |g0 see) €0-L1 00 L6 P6-91| Lt. eg at rg ‘W “H 9% 8G lz % £3 ir 0% gt aL 69-£5 ‘Ss LE 61 ‘WH ‘aymby 4 SI | PI ea al Il oT 0 8I WH *mih'T Lise Loge LL.9f ae 2 ti a BI Ol Ce Stylo St} 1h PL} OP FI *BAQGVT | “AQT [366 J LXXV. On the new Tables of Aberration, Nutation and Precession. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. N reply to the request of your correspondent T. M. ex- pressed in your last Number, I shall trouble you with the following explanation of M. Schumacher’s tables. The term “ January 0” refers to the noon of December 31st: and the intervals are carried on, for every ten days, to Decem- ber 36; which latter date is meant to designate the 5th of January in the ensuing year. ‘The date of January 0 has been iong adopted by astronomers; and is inserted in Dr. Maske- lyne’s tables published many years ago: so that it is by no means a new term. I acknowledge, however, that it may sometimes lead to confusion. With respect to the formation of the tables, they are con- structed on the principles detailed by- M. Bessel in his Aséro- nomice Fundamenta, page 67: and are so contrived that they show the corrections applicable to the star, at the moment of observation; which is made the argument, wherewith to enter the table. I have not time at present to enter into a full ex- planation of those principles, or of their mode of application : but, the following brief outline may perhaps suffice. At some future time I may probably resume the subject, more at length. The year is supposed to commence at the moment when the mean* longitude of the sun is 280°; and to consist of 366} sidereal days. Now, a given star will, at some time in the year, culminate ¢wice in the period of a day, according to the civil mode of reckoning: and an error of one day, according to such computation, would arise in the argument if no cor- rection were applied to counteract it. The correction, which M. Bessel has introduced for this purpose, is denoted by the letter 2. Again; since the mean longitude of the sun is never exactly the same at the commencement of each successive year; and since, in fact, the year seldom or never begins when the mean longitude of the sun is exactly 280°, a correction for the Argu- ment, is also applied to counteract the effect of this assump- tion. ‘This united correction for the Argument, is denoted by the letter /: and a small table is given, showing its value for certain years. Against the leap year (1820) are inserted two numbers, differing from each other by unity: the first is to be * To explain the mode, by which M. Bessel passes from the mean to the true longitude of the sun, would extend this letter to an inconvenient length. taken On the new Tables of Aberration, Sc. 367 taken if the date is before February 29; and the second, for the remainder of the year. ‘These numbers, for 1823 and 1824, are given at the bottom of my supplementary table. The commencement of the year is dated from mean time at Paris; and therefore another slight correction for the Argu- ment (denoted by 2) is applied when the observations are made under a different meridian. In no part of England, however, will this correction be of any sensible amount. Let f therefore denote the day of observation according to the civil mode of reckoning, and g the sidereal time of obser- vation converted into the decima! part of a day; then will the “argument of the Table be the quantity (f+ g +h+7+4); which is generally the given date, added to the fractional part of a day. But, in fact, we may in most cases neglect the whole of these corrections, and take out the natural numbers corresponding to the logarithms in the table for the given day. For, if the position of the star in declination be within 30° or 40° of the equator, the result in M, will always be true to the nearest tenth of a second, and frequently to the nearest hun- dredth of a second in time. It is only in stars that are situated near the pole that any error is likely to arise. The correct values however may always be obtained by attending to the rule given by M. Bessel; whose extreme accuracy has in- duced him to retain every quantity that might, in any sensible manner, affect the ultimate result. M. Bessel has annexed to some of the logarithms, the small italic letter 2; which, like the + and — signs at the top of some of the columns, denotes that the natural number corre- sponding thereto is to be taken with a negative sign. This method had been previously adopted by M. Gauss. When two of the logarithms, with contrary signs, are added together, the result is negative: on the contrary, the addition of lke signs makes the result posztive. In order to show the application of the tables, take the fol- lowing example. Let it be required to determine the correc- tion, in right ascension and declination, of 8 Leonzs on January 20, 1822, at the time of its culmination. In this case we have Jan’. J = 20.000 = 486 h= -006 pr ela k = —1:029 Argument = 20.463 But, in fact, the variation from day to day is so trifling that we 368 Mr. J. 'Taylor’s Lectures on Metallurgy. we may assume January 20 as the correct argument without any regard to the fractional part of the day; and the calcula- tion will stand as follows: For Right Ascension. B Leonis = +1.6675 —9.4436 —0.0146 +48.9583 January 20 = +9.4138 —0.8563 —0.9722 +1.2426 +1.0813 +0.2999 +0.9868 -+0,2009 For Declination. 6 Leonis = —1.3003 —8.9420 +49.5962 —9.4272 January 20 = +9.4138 —0.8563 —0.9722 +1.2426 —0°7141 +9.7983 —0.5684 —0.6698 The sum of the natural numbers, corresponding to these logarithms, will give for the correction in right ascension + 25",345; and for the correction in declination —12",926. I trust this brief explanation of the tables will be sufficient to enable the English astronomer to make use of them: I am very sure there are no other tables whereby he can obtain the same results with so much ease and expedition, and with so little chance of error. It would be a great acquisition if the constants were given for a greater number of stars: in this case the tables would supersede all others which have been com- puted for such occasional references. Iam, gentlemen, Your obedient servant, Gray’s Inn, May 15, 1823. Francis Batty. y y LXXVI. Sketch of a Course of Lectures on Metallurgy ; deli- vered at the London Institution, February 1823. By Joun Taytor, Esq. Treasurer of the Geological Society. [Continued from p. 291.] Lecture Il. T has been shown that the metals readily combine with a variety of substances, and that in this state of combination they lose more or less of their metallic characters. In their natural state they are most usually thus combined, ~ and the substances in union with them are called mineralizers, These consist of certain simple substances, some acids, water, and even some metals, Under these heads may be enumerated as commonly occur- ring in natural combination with the metals, Oxygen Mr. J. Taylor's Lectures on Metallurgy. 369 Oxygen Sulphuric acid Sulphur Muriatic acid Silex Phosphoric acid Carbonic acid Chromic acid Arsenic acid Molybdic acid Water..cosrssoessseeves Arsenic. The result of the natural combination of these substances with metals is called an ore. Metallic ores are further compounded by including mixtures of more than one metal, as in the case of yellow copper ore, which contains both sulphuret of copper and of iron,—galena or sulphuret of lead, which commonly contains silver,—and many ores which contain arsenic combined with other metals. Again: the metallic ores are much intermixed with earthy substances of various kinds, which, though not in chemical union, have often such an intimate mechanical union as to alter their character, and add to the variety of their appearance and to the difficulty of extraction cf the pure metal. Some of the compounds which have been before described: as the products of art, will appear again in the list of the ores; but generally speaking, owing to the circumstance of other admixtures, or their having been formed in modes which art cannot imitate, their external characters are different in the one case from what they are in the other. One peculiarity which will strike us is the variety of form and splendour of their crystals, each assuming a regularity in their structure which forms an admirable guide by which their nature may be detected; and this circumstance has been used as the foundation of a study that has rendered the greatest ser- vices to mineralogy; it has assumed the name of crystallo- graphy, and should be attended to by all who intend to ac- quire a knowledge of the mineral kingdom. Besides the ores resulting from combinations such as have been mentioned, certain metals are found in their pure or malleable state, and we speak of them then as native metals: such are _ . Platina, Gold ..sssseseseseessereeeeeeseeeeeeeeailmost always. Silver, mercury, copper, antimony......frequently. Arsenic, tellurium, bismuth, iron.........rarely. Taking then into account these and the compounded state of the ores, it will appear that nature presents us with the me- tals under a great variety of form, exciting us to careful ex- amination and diligent skill in their discovery, reduction, and adaptation to our wants, It will hereafter be shown that the art of reducing the metals, depends upon our power of de- Vol. 61. No. 301. May 1823. $A stroying 370 Mr. J. Taylor's Lectures on Metallurgy. ~stroying these combinations, occasionally by presenting other affinities, but in alt practical cases assisted by fire. The precipitation of copper from solution by iron affords an instance, however, of a metal being produced into its me- tallic state from its compound form without the aid of heat. The metallic ores, as is well known, are not the produce of all countries, but are limited to situations in which are found certain rocks which inclose them, and which are therefore termed metalliferous rocks. These occur only in certain parts of the world, and in these places only can we expect a supply of the metals. England at present holds a distinguished place in the list of mining countries ; our produce of iron, copper, lead and tin, is greater than of any other country, and we also possess considerable quantities of zinc and manganese, with a proportion of others: such as arsenic, antimony, cobalt and silver, and occasionally small quantities of gold. The iron works of Great Britain* are of immense extent, and are to be found principally in Staffordshire, Shropshire, South Wales, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, North Wales, Dur- ham, and some parts of Scotland. Copper is most abundantly produced in Cornwall and De- vonshire +; but certain quantities are also furnished from An- glesea, parts of Ireland, and some from Staffordshire. Lead mines are abundant, and very productive on the bor- ders of Northumberland, Cumberland and Durham: next in value may now be placed those of Flintshire and Denbigh- shire. ‘The lead mines of Derbyshire were formerly very im-~- portant, but are now much declined in value. Yorkshire has some productive tracts, and this metal is also found in Scot- land, South Wales, Devonshire and Cornwall. Tin is a very rare product, and but few parts of the world furnish it; in England it is quite confined to Cornwall and Devonshire, and it has there been worked’ from the earliest times}, so as very probably to have been the first article of trade of our island, as we find that the Phoenicians came here to purchase it. ' The ores of zinc are found in Somersetshire, Wales, Corn- wall, and in other places, commonly with the ores of lead. Manganese is pretty abundant in the western parts of Devon- shire and the adjacent parts of Cornwall. The quantity of silver raised in this country is certainly not * See Mr. Mushet’s paper. Phil. Mag. vol. Ix. p. 401, &c. t See Mr. Taylor’s History of Mining. Phil. Mag. vol. v. p. 357. “T See the Rev. Mr, Greatheed on the Tin of the Ancients, Phil, Mag. rol, Ixi. p. 109. very Mr. J. Taylor's Lectures on Metallurgy. 371 Very great; yet it is common in many of our lead orés, and is. extracted in Cornwall, Northumberland and Devonshire. te often exists however in a proportion that dees not pay for separating it from the lead. The true silver ores are not common with us, however they have been found in some in- stances which are confined to Cornwall. The Herland mine, which was some time since worked and is now again about to be opened, yielded some quantity; and in the eastern part of the county some regular silver veins are now working that produce ores similar to those of Peru or Mexico. Gold has been found in small quantities in Ireland, Corn- wall, Scotland, and Devonshire; and arsenic, antimony, co- balt, and some other inferior metals, are found in the mines of Cornwall. The other countries in the old world which deserve notice for the metals they afford, are—Germany, particularly Saxony and the Hartz Mountains, which have for many ages been the seat of mining, and have produced silver, lead, and a variety of other metals ;—Hungary, which is rich in gold. Sweden and Finland have been long celebrated, and particularly for iron and copper mines, which formerly supplied a great part of the world, but now have much failed in their richness. ‘The quality however of the Swedish iron and copper is still unri- valled. Siberia has productive mines of the same metals. The rivers of Africa have long been known for the gold found in their sands, and many parts of Asia have yielded the precious metals as well as others. Spain was celebrated for its mines, and particularly of quicksilver or mercury and lead ; and France has endeavoured to force its mines into notice, though almost too inconsiderable to deserve it. In later times the great source of the precious metals has been the southern parts of America, and most of the enterprize of the adventurers to the new world may be attributed to the abundance of them which was soon found to exist there; and from the time that Europeans gained footing, the quantity of gold from the Brazils, and of silver from Mexico and Peru, as been immense. Experience has taught us, as has been before observed, that metals are only to be found in sufficient quantity to repay the labour of procuring them in certain rocks, which are there- fore called metalliferous. In a former course of lectures these rocks and their general position as relating to each other and to those of a different order were described; and the subject has since been ably illustrated here in Professor Brande’s course on Geology. It needs only be stated therefore that the most important are: S3A2 Primi- 372) Mr. J. Taylor’s Lectures on Metallurgy. Primitive rocks:—Granite; gneiss; mica slate; clay slate. Secondary rocks :—Gritstone or sandstone; limestone; shale or plate. Geologists indeed enumerate many others, but miners con- sider them as modifications of the same. In this country clay slate is the most productive of the pri- mitive class, and limestone of the secondary. The metallic ores are found occupying certain spaces in these rocks, which have been arranged under the names of veins, beds, and masses. The two first are the most usual. Mineral veins, and the particulars of their position, direction, and appearance, have been formerly described. They are to be understood as fissures which have been filled up by dif- ferent mineral substances. . Professor Brande very justly re- marked that the term Vein was objectionable, as it conveys the idea of a tube or pipe filled with metal, whereas it is a plate or lamina. They extend in nearly right lines, are of unequal thickness, penetrate to unknown depths, and usually are somewhat inclined from the perpendicular. ‘They contain a great variety of metals differing in different countries, and in distinct veins in the same country. English miners have different terms for veins: in Cornwall they are called Lodes; in Derbyshire, Rakes; and the term Dyke sometimes used describes the same thing. In these deposits the ores are accompanied. by earthy sub- stances ae in a crystallized or sparry form called Vein- stones, Matrix, Gangue. Beds are the other kind of regular depository of metallic ores. .These are flat or tabular masses interposed between strata of rock, and thus resemble beds of coal. They are seldom very thick, and mostly produce iron, manganese, and sometimes lead. Masses, or as.they are sometimes called Pipes, are irregular deposits of the metals, and, not being usual, need not occupy much of our notice. ; _ The metals or their ores are also sometimes found in allu- vium, such as gravel and sand in valleys, and particularly gold in a native form in many places, and tin ore in Cornwall and Banca. Mr. Taylor proceeded to enumerate and exhibit specimens of the metals in all their principal varieties. _As the metals are generally intimately mixed and blended with earthy matter or spar, or often with other metallic matter of inferior value ; before the processes of smelting or reduction by fire are resorted to, various mechanical operations are used to free them from such admixtures as much as possible, so that Mr. J. Taylor’s Lectures on Metallurgy. $73 that they may be rendered as pure as these means will allow before they go to the furnace. _ The following is a brief account of the processes of dress- ing: The ores, when first raised from the mines, are in various states; some in large masses free from cther matter, other large masses containing ores, spar, &c.; small pieces both of pure ore, and that which is mixed, and much that is crumbled to small minute fragments. The first operations relate to separating them into proper sizes and qualities by spulling or knocking, sifting or gridling, and picking. The purer paris are then separated, and are often removed at once for smelting after having been broken down to a cer- tain degree of fineness or size. The other or mixed parts are submitted to various processes of washing, but first must be put into a proper state of di- vision by being bruised and sifted to uniform sizes: this is done either by cobbing and bucking, manual operations; or by crushing and stamping by machines. The processes of washing are very various, but depend on one general principle,— that the metallic may be separated from the earthy parts by their different specific gravities. ‘Thus, if both are agitated together in water, the heaviest will sink or be deposited first. This principle is applied by throwing the ores into streams of water running over planes gently inclined. The ores settle at the upper, and the spar and earthy parts at the lower. . Another way much in use is by agitating the whole in sieves, so fine as to permit but little of the solid matter to pass, but to admit the water freely. By this agitation in water the ore settles to the bottom of the sieve, and the spar or matrix at the top, where it is skimmed off and thrown away, and this is called Jigging. When the ores are cleaned by dressing, they are fitted for the operations of reduction or smelting. The art of managing metallurgic processes with considerable skill and effect is of the highest antiquity, which is rather to be wondered at, seeing that so few of the metals offer them- selves to our notice in a state fit for any useful purpose; that these occur in small quantities and in few localities ; and that many of the ores have no appearances by which their metallic contents could be judged of. They differ indeed in this respect: thus Galena has much the appearance of the metal it contains. Yellow copper has a metallic appearance, but not indicating the metal. Tin, 374 Mr. J. Taylor's Lectures on Metallurgy. Tin, ironstone, &c. have only great weight; some ores, arse~ niates of copper, have neither weight nor metallic lustre. It has been ingeniously supposed by Mr. David Mushet in a late paper published in the Philosophical Magazine, (vol. Ix. p. 401,) “ On the Origin and Discovery of Iron,” that this metal inight be accidentally produced in the operation of con- verting wood into charcoal. ‘Tradition informs us that the discovery was owing to the accidental burning of a forest in Greece. Similar circumstances might, however, lead to the know- ledge of other metals, particularly such as have ores easy of reduction, and which are often found near the surface of the earth, such as lead and tin. The knowledge of the power of fire over these substances being once obtained, other ores that occurred to notice would be submitted to its action, and thus the number of known metals would be increased. It has, however, been mentioned that the ancients only knew of seven; but it is also certain that they made several alloys, and particularly of copper. The earliest writings seem to prove this, and some even describe the operations. In the 4th chapter of Genesis, Tubalcain is mentioned as “* an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron.” Homer has several passages which are curious; because, in speaking of Vulcan, they describe his forges as urged by bel- lows which must have been applied nearly in the same man- ner as we use them now. “ Thus having said—the father of the fires To the black labour of his forge retires ; Soon as he bid them blow, the bellows turn’d Their iron mouths, and where the furnace burn’d, Resounding breathed ; at once the blast expires, And twenty forges catch at once the fires ; Just as the God directs, now loud, now low, They raise a tempest, or they gently blow— - In hissing flames, huge silver bars are roll’d And stubborn brass ; and tin, and solid gold. Before, deep fixed, th’ eternal anvils stand, The ponderous hammer loads his better hand ; His left with tongs turns the vext metal round, And thick strong strokes the doubling vaults rebound.” Homer. Ilad. book xyiii. line 537. Virgil also, in the 8th book of the Afneid, mentions the melting of stee/, in large furnaces, as contrasted with others in which bellows were used. And commentators on these pas- sages mention, that the Latin name for steel (chalybs) was de- rived from that of a people in Spain, who were very expert in the working iron and its ores and mines. [To be continued.} a a i ia eae [ 375 ] LXXVII. On Mr. Groomsriper’s Tables of Vesta. By W. M. Mosetey, Esq. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. ] AVAIL myself of your valuable publication, to express my obligations to Mr. Groombridge for the satisfactory ex- ere of the difficulty which I stated in your Magazine for arch, respecting the computed and observed places of Vesta in July1822. Soon after I had transmitted the letter, it struck me that some passages in it seemed to call too strongly upon Mr. Groombridge to defend the assertion he had previously made, regarding the orbit of the planet having been found less than at first supposed; but I beg leave to assure him, that nothing was more distant from my thoughts at the moment, than such a design. I fear, however, from the prompt and explicit manner in which Mr. G. has answered the inquiry, in your last Number, that he really did view my communication as directed to himself;—an impression I am very anxious to efface. The circumstance which Mr. Groombridge mentions in regard to his method of applying only the equation of the centre in forming his Ephemeris of Vesta, affords a reason for the discordance which I had found between his positions and mine. I used the whole panoply of Daussy’s Tables, taking out the small equations of longitude, where directed, to three decimal figures. These minor equations sometimes amount to upwards of 50’, the omission of which must produce a con- siderable difference in the final result. The planet, however, may be found, in a telescope with large field, by a less intri- cate process. It was very unfortunate, that after preparing, with great trouble, many calculations of the place of this little planet, during last summer, the weather was so perplexing that I had not one opportunity of comparing the apparent transit with the computed on those. particular days which were selected. How often have observers, in this climate, oc- casion to regret the mortifying disappointments which occur from our turbid atmosphere —‘ Dum latet obscura condita nube dies” ! _ Your obedient servant, May 9, 1823. W. M. Mose ey. LXXVIII. The Characters of several rare and undescribed Shells. By Wm. Swainson, Esq. F. RS. FELLAS. MWS. §c. HE number of shells, unrecorded by systematic writers, which exist in the cabinets of this country, is continually . increasing. Every year witnesses the dispersion of collections, contaiming 376 Mr. Swainson on several rare and undescribed Shells. containing rare or unique species, which are seldom if ever seen again, but after a lapse of years; they are either pur- chased to enrich foreign cabinets, or pass into the hands of other collectors remote from the metropolis, and become of difficult access to a scientific writer. It is therefore of much importance to the science, that such subjects should be re- corded at the time; for, by so doing, extensive materials are accumulated to facilitate the labour of any future writer, who may undertake a general systematic work descriptive of all the species. Impressed with a conviction of the value of such records, however short, or however unconnected with each other, I have drawn up the following specific characters ef shells which appear to me not hitherto described. ‘These notices I intend occasionally to continue, in.the same way, by de- scribing such other new shells as may come under my ob-, servation. ‘The genera, unless otherwise expressed, are those of MM. Cuvier and Lamarck; and I have subjoined an En-, glish version to the Latin characters, that the whole may be more generally useful. 1, CypRmA purpurascens. C. testé ovatd, dorso punctis fuscis, nebulosis, obsito; lateribus purpurascentibus, lividé guttatis; ventre depresso. Shell ovate, the back clouded, and spotted with brown; the sides purplish with dark livid spots; belly depressed. Has. Mus. Mawe. et nostro. 2. Cyprma pulchella. (Exotic Conch. ined.) C. testé ovaté, ventricosA; dorso punctis fuscis, nebulosis, obsito; lateribus flavescentibus fusco guttatis ; ventre striato, striis levatis, spadiceis. Shell ovate, ventricose; the back clouded with brown dots ; sides yellowish with brown spots; belly with rufous elevated strize, Has. Sina, rarissima. Mus. Dubois. 3. Cypr«a spadicea. C. testa ovaté, oblonga, immaculata; dorso rufo; ventre albo; lateribus lividis. . Shell ovate-oblong, unspotted ; the back reddish chesnut; belly white; sides livid. Has. Oc. Pacif. rar. Mus. Dubois, 4, AMPULLARIA carinata. A. testa levi, globosé; anfractibus juxta suturam carinatis; spira brevi; apertura marginata; operculo testaceo. Shell smooth, globose; the whorls carinated near the suture ; spire short; aperture marginated; operculum shelly. Has. Mus. nostro. 5. AMPUL~ Mr. Swainson on séveral rare and undescribed Shells: 377 5. AMPULLARIA refleza. j A. testa leevi, ovato-globosa; spira subventricosa, obtusa, sub epidermide purpurea; apertura castaneo-purpurea; labio exteriore tenui, margine reflexo. Shell smooth, ovate-globose ;_ spire subventricose, obtuse, be- neath the epidermis purplish; aperture chesnut purple ; outer lip thin, the margin reflected. Knorr, vol. v. pl. v. f. 2 (uncoated). Readily distinguished from all other-species by the outer lip having the margin slightly, but distinctly, retlected.. 6. AMPULLARIA imperforata. A. testé ovato-globosa, fasciis fuscis; spird levata, acuta; labio interiore albo; operculo corneo?; umbilico caret. Shell ovate-globose, with brown bands; spire elevated, acute; inner lip white; operculum horny ?; umbilicus none. This is a small shell, in shape resembling Am, fasciata (Zool. Il. . vol. ii, pl. 103), but the spiral whorls are less convex, the tip more acute, and the umbilicus entirely concealed. I do not know its locality, but Mr. Mawe procured several spe- cimens in Paris. : 7. SrrompBus dubius. S. testa gracili, levi; spira ventricosa, apice acuto; labii ex- terioris haud dilatati parte superiore spirdm versus ascen- dente ; lobo basali subobsoleto. Shell slender, smooth; spire ventricose, the tip acute; outer lip not dilated, the upper part ascending on the spire; basal lobe nearly obsolete. This is a small but very curious and rare shell; but for the slight lobe at the base of the outer lip, it might be taken for a species of Terebellum; indeed it may be said to connect the two genera, though its characters approximate most to the genus under which I have placed it. 8. SrrompBus Peruvianus. S. testé nodosa, ponderosa; spira depressi, apice prominulo ; labii exterioris supra producti, attenuati, margine reflexo ; apertura striata. : ' Shell nodulous, heavy; spire depressed, the tip prominent; outer lip above produced and attenuated, the margin re- flected; aperture striated. ‘Mus. nostro. : A large and strikingly distinct shell, recently sent from Peru. 9. SrromBus Tankervillit. S. test’ nodosé plicata; labio interiore crasso, striato, supra acuminato; labio exteriore supra sinuato, intus striato ; apertura rosea, castaneo colore intis fucata. Vol. 61. No. 8301, May 1823. 3B Shell 373 Mr. Swainson on several rare and undescribed Shells. Shell with nodulous plaits ; inner lip thickened, striated, above pointed; outer lip sinuated above, striated within; aperture rosy within, stained with chesnut. : The only perfect example I have seen of this beautiful shell, is in the Tankerville collection. In size and shape it closel resembles S. variabilis (Zool. Tl. vol. i, pl. 10), but bot the lips and also the aperture are strongly striated; the plaits are likewise more numerous. 10. Mirra edentula. M. testa cylindracea, striata; apertura spiré longiore ; labio exteriore inflexo ; columella edentula. Shell ‘cylindrical, striated; aperture longer than the spire; outer lip inflexed ; columella without teeth. Has. Mus. Dubois. This very curious shell has all the habit of a Mitre, except the plaits on the pillar, which are entirely wanting; I know of no other genus with which it can be arranged with any na- tural affinity. 11. Votuta lugubris. (Exotic Conch. ined.) V. testA ovata, leevi, grisea, lineis fuscis, undatis varia; apice acuto; columella 4-plicata ; labio exteriore supra emar- inato. Shell oval, smooth, greyish, varied with undulated brown lines ; apex pointed; pillar 4-plaited ; outer lip above emarginate. Voluta lugubris. Exotic Conch. Part 5. ined. A plain but very rare shell, not included in Lamarck’s Mo- nograph of this genus; the plaits are remarkably thick, and the tip of the spire is not papillary. 12. Votuta Pusio. V. testA ovata, flavescente, fasciis pallidis, transversis, maculis flavis interstinctis cinct4; anfractu basali obtusé nodoso; spira brevissima, acuta; columella multiplicata. Shell ovate, yellowish, with transverse pale bands, and small spots; body whorl armed with compressed obtuse nodules ; spire very short, acute; pillar with many unequal plaits. This is a very remarkable Volute, somewhat allied to Vox. fulva and sulcaia of Lamarck; its distinguishing characters rest on the extreme shortness of the spire, and the compressed nodules on the body whorl. ; _ The two last shells were recently sold at Mr. Dubois’s Auction Rooms; they are the only examples I have hitherto seen of the species, and are now in the possession of W. J. Broderip, Esq. LXXIX. No- Ee 2798s LXXIX. Notices respecting New Books. - "THE First Part of Volume XIV. of the Transactions of the Linneean Society of London has just appeared, and the following are its contents : On the Malayan Species of Melastoma; by William Jack, M.D.— On Cyrtandraceea, a new Natural Order of Plants; by William Jack, M.D.—Remarks on the Identity of certain general Laws which have been lately observed to regulate the natural Distribution of Insects and Fungi; by W.S. MacLeay, Esq. M.A.—Some Particulars of the Natural History of Fishes found in Cornwall; by Mr. Jonathan Couch.—A_ Description of some Insects which appear to exemplify Mr. Wm. S. Mac- Leay’s Doctrine of Affinity,and Analogy; by the Rey. William Kirby, M.A.—Some Account of a new Species of Eulophus Geoftroy; by the Rev. William Kirby, M.A.—Account of the Lansium and some other Genera of Malayan Plants; by William Jack, M.D.—Description of the Cermatia longi- cornis and of three new Insects from Nepaul; by Major- General Thomas Hardwicke.— The Natural History of Phasma cornutum, and the Description of a new Species of Ascalaphus; by the Rev. Lansdown Guilding, B,A.—On the Generic and Specific Characters of the Chrysanthemum In- dicum of Linnzeus, and of the Plants called Chinese Chry- santhemums; by Joseph Sabine, Esq. — Descriptions _ of Seven new British Land and Fresh-water Shells, with Ob- servations upon many other Species, including a List of such as have been found in the County of Suffolk; by the Rev. Revett Sheppard. The Second Part of the Ninth Volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh has just appeared, contain- ing the following papers: On the Mineralogy of Disko Island; by Sir Charles Gie- secké.—On the Nature and History of the Marsh Poison; by William Fergusson, M.D.—Description of some remarkable Atmospheric Reflections and Refractions, observed in the Greenland Sea; by William Scoresby, junior, Esq. — Ac- count of the Erection of a Granite Obelisk, of a single Stone, about seventy feet high, at Seringapatam ; by Alexander Kennedy, M.D.—Account of a remarkable Structure in Apo- phyllite, with Observations on the Optical Peculiarities of that Mineral; by David Brewster, LL.D.—On the Application of Analysis to the Discovery of local ‘Theorems and Porisms ; by Charles Babbage, Esq. — Observations on the Errors in the $B2 Sea-rates 380 Notices respecting New Books. Sea-rates of Chronometers, arising from the Magnetism of their Balances; with Suggestions for removing this Source of Error; by Wm. Scoresby, junior, Esq..— Report on a Communication from Dr. Dyce of Aberdeen, to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, on “ Uterine Irritation, and its Effects on the Female Constitution ;’ by H. Dewar, M.D.—Descrip- tion of some Indian Idols in the Museum of the Society; by W. A. Cadell, Esq.— Observations on the Formation of the Chalk Strata, and on the Structure of the Belemnite; by Thomas Allan, Esq. —On a Submarine Forest in the Frith of Tay, with Observations on the Formation of Submarine Forests in general; by John Fleming, D.D. —Description of a Monochromatic Lamp for Microscopical Purposes, &c., with Remarks on the Absorption of the Prismatic Rays by coloured Media; by David Brewster, LL.D.—On the Absorption of Light by coloured Media, and on the Colours of the Prismatic Spectrum exhibited by certain Flames; with an Account of a ready Mode of determining the absolute dispersive Power of any Medium, by direct Experiment; by J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. In a Letter to Dr. Brewster.—On the Mineralogy of the Faroe Islands; by W. C. Trevelyan, Esq. — Electro- Magnetic Experiments and Observations; by Thos. Stewart Traill, M.D. and W. Scoresby, jun., Esq.—Conjectures on the Analogy observed in the Formation of some of the Tenses of the Greek Verb; by John Hunter, LL.D.—History of the Society. — Laws of the Society. — List of the Office-bearers, Members, and Donations. atk Recently published. Memoirs ofa Captivity among the Indians of North America; by John D. Hunter. 8yo. 12s. ~ A Dictionary of Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Geology; by James Mitchell, M.A. F.A.S. 18mo. 10s.6d. boards. 12s. 6d. calf gilt, forming Vol. II. of the Methodical Cyclopzedia. A Treatise on Dynamics ; by William Whewell, M.A. 8vo. 10s. 6d. The Elements of Pharmacy, and the Chemical History of the Materia Medica; by S.F. Gray. 8vo. 10s. 6d. The Elements of the Theory and Practice of Physic; by George Gregory, M.D. Part II. 10s. 6d. Philosophical Recreations. Vol. Il; by John Badcock, 18mo. 3s. Religiosa Philosophia, or a New Theory of the Earth; by W. Welch. 8yo. 7s. 6d. Narrative of a Journey from the Shores of Hudson’s Bay to the Mouth of the Copper Mine River, &c.; by Captain John Franklin, R.N. 4to. ~ 41. 4s, Analysis of Periodical Works on Botany. 381 Preparing for Publication. In the press, and will be published in a few days, a New Edition of Mr. Parkes’s Chemical Essays in two thick Volumes Octavo, with a great number of Copper-plate Engravings of Apparatus, Machinery, &c. Mr. Bowditch has nearly ready for publication, a Sketch of the Portuguese Establishments in Congo, Angola, and Ben- quela; with some Account of the Modern Discoveries in the Interior of Angola and Mosambique. The sixth and concluding Volume of the late Dr. Clarke’s Travels will soon appear. Mr. F. Riddle is preparing for the press a Treatise on Na- vigation and Nautical Astronomy, adapted to practice, and to the purposes of elementary instruction. Mr. ‘Thomas Clark of Glasgow is preparing for publication A New System of Chemical Nomenclature; exhibiting not only the component parts of compound substances, but also the pre- cise proportion of these parts. Mr. Swainson’s Exotic Conchology, the publication of which has been long suspended on account of the various acci- dents to which the state of lithography in this country had subjected the author, is about to be continued, and the Plates of the fifth number are now printing by Messrs. Rowney and Foster. Mr. Swainson, anxious to attain as near to perfection as possible, has, in consequence of improvements in lithogra- phy, which will do more justice to his excellent drawings, re-engraved most of the plates already published ; and liberal- ly offers to give early purchasers of the work the option of changing their old plain copies for the new and improved en- gravings. We have been favoured with a sight of the new plates, which, in point of design, accurate delineation, and delicate finishing, claim our highest commendation: and this is also due to the scientific descriptions by which they are illustrated. The Natural History of Meteorites, or of those remarkable Masses of Iron, and of Karthy and Metallic Compounds, which, at different periods, have fallen from the Atmosphere, as well in England, as in many other countries; including remarks on their probable origin. With a Historical Introduction, showing, that the worship of them was widely prevalent in former ages, and that it still continues in certain Pagan coun- tries; and an Appendix of Tables, &c. By E. W. Brayley, junior. In 1 vol, 12mo, illustrated by Plates and Diagrams. ANALYSIS OF PERIODICAL WORKS ON BOTANY. The Botanical Register. No. 99. Plate 704. Tupistra squalida; described under this name and figured, but 382 Royal Society. but from a faded specimen, in the Botanical Magazine, pl.1655, Arctopus echinatus: the male plant, and the only species of the genus yet known- Musa rosacea Willd.: fully illustrated by two plates, and by some interestin§ observations of Mr. Brown on the localities and probable species or varieties of this tribe. Sanvitalia procumbens Willd.: subjoined to the description are the characters of the three sub-genera or sections of Helianthus proposed by M.Cassini. Such notices are both interesting and useful to English botanists, who have seldom opportunities of seeing or consulting the foreign journals, Pl. 708 represents a new variety of the Camellia japonica, named luteo-a bi- cans, or Basington’s new Camellia; it has recently been introduced, and ap- pears, as yet, confined to the collection of the person whose name it bears. Arthropodium cirratum Brown (Anthericum cirratum Willd.) : a delicate and very elegant plant from New Zealand. Symplocos sinica: a new species re- cently brought from China. “S. foliis elliptico-lanceolatis utrinque pubes- centibus subcorrugato-venosis: foliolis calycinis acuminatis.” Curtis’s Botanical Magazine. No. 436. Pl. 2398. Maranta angustifolia, an undescribed species from Trinidad. “M. culmo nodoso, foliis lanceolatis basi angustatis, panicula flexuosa, bracteis internis coloratis, calycibus ovatis.” While on the subject of this tribe of plants, we take an opportunity of acquainting the botanical world, that Mr. Roscoe (as it is understood) will very soon publish a further illustration of this valuable and truly elegant tribe. Whether employed in recording the history of past ages, or the philosophy of the living beauties of nature, his powerful genius shines forth; and the name of Roscoe would scarcely need any other record than his luminous observations on the Scitaminee@. Amaryllis cyrtanthoides, a beautiful addition to this lovely tribe received last year from Chili. “A. spatha multiflora, pedicellis cernuis, co- rollis infundibuliformi-campanulatis, genitalibus strictis exsertis, foliis lora- tis obtusis.”’ Flaveria contrayerba Willd. Stapelia barbata Willd. : belong- ing to Mr. Haworth’s genus Huernia. Erigeron bellidifolium Willd. Gno- thera odorata (the G2. undulata of Hort. Kew.). Scizanthus pinnatus F 1. Per. : the description of this plant in Fl. Per. is stated to accord with the sample here figured, but the plate in that work appears to be defective. Calceolaria scabiosefolia of Reem.: Dr. Sims thinks this to be the C. pinnata of the Florg Peruviana, but not the C. pinnata of the Hortus Kewensis. LXXX. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. May 1.— A PAPER by the President was read:—On the Expansion by Heat of Gases in various States of Condensation and Rarefaction; beg an appendix to a former paper on the application of the gases, condensed into liquids, as mechanical agents: and the reading of Prof. Buck- land’s paper, commenced on the 17th of April, was resumed and concluded. May 8.—At this meeting, Prof. Girsted, who has just ar- rived in this country, took his seat as a foreign member of the Society, to which distinction he had been elected some time since: and a portion of the following paper was read; Further Remarks on Caverns containing Bones in Germany ; by Prof. Buckland. May Linnean Society.— Horticultural Society. 383 May 15.—At this meeting the reading of Prof. Buckland’s paper was resumed and concluded: and a part was read of an Account of a Magnetic Balance, and of some new Experi- ments in Magnetism; by W. S. Harris, Esq. The Society then adjourned over one Thursday, in conse- quence of the approaching festival, to meet again on the 29th of May. LINNAN SOCIETY. May 6.—The reading of the Commentary on Hortus Mala- baricus was continued. Dr. Schwegrichen, Professor of Natural History in the Uni- versity of Leipsic, was elected to fill the vacancy which had occurred among the foreign members. May 24.—This being the Anniversary of the Society, the election of a Council and Officers for the year took place, and the following gentlemen were chosen :— Officers.—President, Sir James Edward Smith.—Vice-Pre- sidents, Samuel Lord Bishop of Carlisle; Aylmer Bourke Lam- bert, Esq.; Edward Lord Stanley; William George Maton, M.D.—Treasurer, Edward Forster, Esq.—Secretary, Alexan- der Mac-Leay, Esq.—Under Secretary, Mr. Richard Taylor. Council.—James Ebenezer Bicheno, Esq.; Edward Rudge, Esq.; Joseph Sabine, Esq.; Robert Brown, Esq.; John Geo. Children, Esq.; Adrian Hardy Haworth, Esq.; William Sharp MacLeay, Esq.; Joseph Smith, Esq. The following rare plants were exhibited in flower :—Pan- cratium Amancaes from the garden of the Horticultural So- ciety; Hyacinthus amethystinus ; Polygala amara; Ranunculus Parnassifolius ; and Braya alpina, trom the Botanic Garden at Chelsea. A large number of the Fellows afterwards dined together at the Freemasons’ Tavern. HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. The Anniversary Meeting of this Society for the election of the Council and Officers for the ensuing year, was held at the house of the Society in Regent-street on the 1st of May. The following gentlemen were re-elected Officers: 1 Thomas Andrew Knight, Esq.—President. John Elliot, Esq.—'Treasurer. Joseph Sabine, Esq.—Secretary. Mr. John ‘Turner,—Assistant Secretary. The following are the Council for the ensuing year: Thomas Andrew Knight, Esq., President.—'The Earl of Aberdeen, Vice-President.— Edward Barnard, Esq. Vice- Secretary. 384 Astronomical Society. Secretary.—Mr. Samuel Brookes.—John Elliot, Esq. Vice- President and Treasurer. — Alexander Henderson, M.D. —Charles Holford, Esq.—Robert Henry Jenkinson, Esq. —Mr. Joseph Kirke. — Alexander MacLeay, Esq. Vice- President.—Mr. Hugh Ronalds.—Joseph Sabine, Esq. Se- cretary.—Sir Claude Scott, Bart.—Alexander Seton, Esq. —John Walker, Esq. Vice-President. At the meeting on the 6th of May a paper by the Chevalier Joseph Parmentier was read, On the Pears cultivated in France and the Netherlands, in which their qualities and periods of maturity are pointed out. A short Note by Dr. Wallich of Calcutta was also read, relative to the hardy Rice called Joomlah Dhan, sent from Napal to the East India Company, and presented by the Di- rectors to the Horticultural Society. A considerable quantity of the Rice was distributed to the members present. It is represented as being perfectly hardy, and will probably be a valuable acquisition to the occupiers of low swampy lands in this country. A Paper by the President was read, On the Production of Mule Plants, particularly of Strawberries obtained from Seeds of the Scarlet and Hautboy impregnated with the Pollen of the Alpine; and a Cherry produced between the Morells and the Common Cherry. At the meeting on 20th of May a Paper by the President was read: On an easy Means of raising Peas in Pots for trans- planting for an early Crop in seyere seasons, when the Autumn- sown Crop is destroyed. A Paper by James Robert Gowen, Esq. was read, a New Hybrid Amaryllis of great beauty, produced between Amaryllis vittata and Amaryllis regine. A very interesting collection was exhibited of models in wax, of the varieties of the fruits cultivated in Italy, executed under the’direction of Signor Acerbi of Milan. A fine collection of Double and Parrot Tulips was shown, from the garden of the Society. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. May 9th.— At the meeting this evening, an interesting paper, On the Theory and Application of Compensation Pen-* dulums (particularly of the Mercurial Construction) to Astro- nomical Clocks, by Francis Baily, Esq. F.R.S. was read. From its length it could not however be finished, and the re- mainder of it is postponed -till the next meeting of the So- ciety. We shall therefore defer our account of its contents until our next Number. GEO- Geological Society. 385 GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. May 2.—A Paper was read On the Geology of Upper Canada. A Notice was read On the Discovery of a large fossil Elephant’s ‘Tusk, near Charmouth, Dorset ; by H. 'T. De la Beche, Esq. A Paper was read entitled Observations on the Genus Acti- nocamax ; by J. S. Miller, Esq. A Paper was read On the Belemnites of the Chalk and Al- luvial Strata of Norfolk and Suffolk, with Notices on their Localities and accompanying Fossils; by Richard Taylor, Esq. May 16.—A Memoir was read On the Geology of ‘Southern Pembrokeshire, from the Observations of H. T. Dela Beche, Esq. and the Rey. W. D. Conybeare. Drawn up and communi- cated by the former. This Memoir is accompanied by a Map and extensive sections of the coast. The constituent formations occurring in this district are as follow, beginning with the lower- most: Ist, Trap; 2nd, Greywacke; 3rd, Old Red Sandstone; 4th, Carboniferous Limestone; 5th, Coal Measures. __A Letter was read from Henry Heuland, Esq. For. Sec. G.S., addressed to the President, On the Matrix of the Diamond. In this letter Mr. Heuland describes two specimens, which he laid upon the table of the Society. The first of these, from Ab- baete in Brazil, was a conglomerate of oxide of iron, with small waterworn quartz pebbles, containing a diamond. This, which is called Cascdlhao, Mr. Heuland believestobe of alluvial origin. The ather specimen, from Pereira in Brazil, which Mr. Heuland received from Baron d’Eschwege, was a very small brilliant dodecahedral diamond, surrounded by skorodite or cupreous arseniate of iron in a gangue or matrix of massive oxide of iron (Werner’s brown iron-stone). This oxide of iron, according to Baron d’Eschwege and Alexander Caldcleugh, Esq., forms veins or beds, 25 feet deep, resting on chlorite schist, in the mountains near Pereira, That it isthe true matrix of at least the Brazilian diamond, appears confirmed by the locality where diamonds have not before been discovered, by its being accom- panied by the arseniate of copper, and by the difference of this oxide of iron from that in the Cascdlhao, which is either earthy, granular, or in water-worn particles. ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS. Feb. 3, 1823.—M. Bose read, in the name of a Commission, a Report upon the MS. work of M, Delisle, entitled “ History of Lichens of the Genus Sticta, M. Delisle, of Vire, depart- Vol. 61. No. 301. May 1823. 3C ment 386 Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. ment of Calvados, proposes to publish a general work upon Lichens. He announces that he has already in his possession more than 1000 species named and classed. M. de Montferrand read a Memoir on Electro-dynamic Phenomena. ‘The principal aim of this memoir is to show that all the experiments made upon an indefinite vertical con- ductor, submitted to the action of a horizontal magnet, are mathematical consequences of the theory by which M. Ampere explains the properties of magnets, and of the formula which he has given to represent the mutual action of two infinitely small portions of electric currents situated in any position what- ever in space: in order to prove this, the author has calculated successively, according to this formula, the action of an inde- finite rectilineal conductor upon a small rectilineal current, upon a circle situated in a plane parallel to the conductor, and upon several systems of circles subjected to the same con- ditions: he has obtained the following results : 1°. The action of a rectilineal current indefinite both ways, upon a small current situated in any position whatever in space, is perpendicular to that small current. 2°, When a current which follows any plane curve is sub- jected to the action of a current indefinite both ways, and re- volves round an axis perpendicular to the plane of the curve, and to the indefinite current; the sum of the momentums of the forces which tend to make the conductor revolve, is the same in all positions. _ $°. The mutual action of an indefinite current, and of a small current situated in any manner in space decomposed in a line perpendicular to the indefinite conductor, is in the direct ratio of the cosine of the two directions, and in the inverse ratio of the simple distance. 4°. When a Voltaic current follows a curve symmetrical with relation to an axis, this curve has no action in the direc- tion of the indefinite current upon an indefinite current parallel to its plane and perpendicular to the axis. The circle possesses this property, from being symmetrical with relation to all its diameters. 5°. The action of a small circular current upon an indefi- nite conductor, parallel to its plane, is proportional to the sur- face cf the circle, and in an inverse ratio of the square of the distance; it is independent, as to its intensity, of the relative positions of the circle, and of the conductor. 6°. The angle formed by the direction of the force with the plane of the circle is always double the angle formed with the same plane, by a perpendicular falling from the centre of the circle upon the indefinite current. 7°: "The Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. 387 7°, The action exercised upon an indefinite current by an upright cylinder composed of small circular currents united upon a common axis perpendicular to the indefinite con- ductor, may be represented in all cases by supposing the con- ductor to be subjected to the action of the two forces, the in- tensities of which are in an inverse ratio of the distances to the two extremities of the cylinder, and whose directions are perpendicular to the signs which measure those distances, This result agrees perfectly with the experiment, for M. Pouil- let has established, by the needle’s positions in equilibrio, that law which M. Biot had deduced from its oscillations; that the action of a magnet upon a Voltaic conductor perpendicular to its axis, is represented in all cases by supposing the conductor to be subjected to the action of two forces, whose intensities are in an inverse ratio of the distances to the two poles of the magnet, and whose directions are perpendicular to the lines which measure those distances. If we suppose that the circular currents have their centres in a curve of any form, to which their planes are perpendicular, a disposition which a horse-shoe magnet represents; and if we take for this curve the circumference of a circle, we have that which the circular magnet employed by Messrs. Gay- Lussac and Welther represents. The calculation applied to these two systems leads to two new theorems. 8°. A magnet bent into a circle has no action at any di- stance upon an indefinite conductor perpendicular to the plane of the circle. 9°. The action exercised upon an indefinite conductor by a magnet, whose axis forms any curve symmetrical with re- ard to a diameter, is directed into this diameter every time the indefinite current passes through one of its points, and is perpendicular to the curve of its centres. From this last theorem it follows, that if a vertical con- ductor is suspended upon a vertical axis around which it can revolve freely, and if it is subjected to the action of a horse-shoe magnet placed horizontally, and in such a manner that its diameter meets the axis of rotation; the conductor is constantly brought into one of the two positions in which it meets the diameter of the magnet: of these two positions, the one is always that of stable equilibrium ; the other of unstable equilibrium; the conductor, from the impos- sibility of its fixing itself except in this latter, is made to pass from one to the other, either in reversing the direction of the current, or in turning the magnet in such a manner as that the upper surface becomes the lower; or by presenting alternately to the conductor the concavity and the atti sC@2Z o 388 Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. of the magnet. This consequence of the theory has been verified by experiments which M. de Montferrand has made with one of the Commissaries charged by the Academy to examine his memoir. M. Girard, on the behalf ofa Commission, read a Report on a manuscript Memoir of the Count de Bucquoy, entitled On the Friction of the Teeth of Wheels. Feb. 17.—M. Paulet presented a manuscript Paper entitled Homonymy and Synonymy of the Plants of Theophrastus and Linneeus. M. Girard communicated several details relative to the re- cent explosion of the steam-engine at Essonne. M. de Jussieu, on the behalf of a Commission, read a Report on the results produced by the voyage of M. Leschenault in India. Of these results, the most important is the introduction of more than 100 different species of plants into the island of Bourbon. Among these plants we may mention the cinnamon tree; a barberry, which gives a yellow dye; a medlar, which bears an esculent fruit about the size of a plum; two species of the sugar cane; six of the cotton tree, which have contri- buted to revive the cultivation of cotton in the colony; the poppy from which the best opium has been extracted ; a spe- cies of nettle, Urtica tenacissima, which has been found a valu- able substitute for hemp; the sago palm; the Jllipé, whose seeds afford much oil; the Ficus elastica, the milky sap of which turns to elastic gum; the Browallia, which yields frank- incense, &c. &c. The collections made for the Museum are also worthy of notice. The herbal, for instance, contains about 1200 distinct species, the greater number of which were heretofore known at Paris by descriptions and drawings only. The series of animals collected in the galleries of this esta-. blishment has been increased by $8 mammiferee, which may be classed under 19 species, among which the most remarkable are the bear of the Ghauts, and a new ape; 530 birds, which may be reduced to 171 species ; several beautiful insects, and many crustacea. There are also many living animals, and amongst the num- ber a young elephant. The collection of minerals consists of 650 specimens, col- lected for the most part in India and Ceylon. From those col- lected in Ceylon, it may be concluded that the mountains of that island are primitive. At the distance of some leagues from Candy, M. Leschenault discovered the. mother-of-pearl felt- spar of Ceylon, so much in request among lapidaries under the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. 389 the name of moon-stone, and which nobody had till then found in its gangue. On the banks of the river Cavery he found, at the depth of ten or twelve feet below the surface, corundums of various colours inclosed in their gangue. As to the human inhabitants of these regions, we shall only mention what the author tells us of one of the tribes of the Neilgherry mountains, a part of the chain of the Ghauts. In direct opposition to the prevalent manners of the East, with regard to the union of the sexes, the customs of this tribe per- mit the woman to take more than one husband. On the behalf of a Commission, M. Magendi made a Report on the communication of M. Edwards relative to the exha- lation and absorption of azote in respiration. ‘The Academy has requested M. Edwards to continue the interesting inqui- ries on this subject, to which he has already devoted his at- tention. M. Desfontaines, in the name of a Commission, made a Re- port relative to the Commentary of M. Paule on the Plants and Animals mentioned by Virgil. ‘The authors who have attempted to assign to the plants and animals mentioned by Virgil in his Eclogues, Georgics and Aineid, the names un- der which they are respectively known to modern science, have not hitherto agreed. M. Paulet, in his Commentary, examines in detail the opinions of his predecessors. According to the report of the Commissaries, the work contains critical observa- tions of the most interesting nature, which prove not only ex- tensive botanical information, but a profound acquaintance with the writers of antiquity. March 3.—A Letter was communicated from the Prefect of Rhodez, On the extraordinary Motion of the Barometer ob- served in that city on February 2. M. C&rsted related the results of his experiments on the Compression of Water; he also informed the Academy of M. Seebeck’s late researches on Electro-Magnetic Pheno- mena. M. Lonchamps read a Memoir on the Uncertainty of some Results of Chemical Analysis. March 10.—A manuscript work, entitled A Geognostic De- scription of the Environs of Puy in Velay, was received from M. Bertrand Roux. M. de la Borne presented a sealed packet containing the results of some new researches on the Action of the Voltaic Pile. M. Vauquelin read a Notice on a Crystalline Substance formed ina Solution of Cyanogen. March 390 Captain Parry’s Expedition. March 17.—M. Chaptal gave a favourable Report of M. Al- buquerque’s Elementary Tables of Inorganic Chemistry. M. Moreau de Jonnés read his Researches on the conditions of vegetable organization requisite for the different modes of the geographical transportation of plants by natural agents. March 24,.—Dr. Wollaston was elected a foreign member of the Academy, to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death of Dr. Jenner. -_M. Poisson read a Memoir on the Propagation of Motion in Elastic Fluids. M. Cuvier presented a human skeleton incrusted with lime- stone, which had recently been found at Guadaloupe. M. Bory-Saint-Vincent read an Essay on the Physical Geography of Spain. March 31.—A Notice by M. Chaudruc de Crazanes was read, On the use of Oyster-shells in the ancient buildings of the town of Saintes. M. Vanhagen communicated a Dissertation on the Agree- ment of the Colour of the Epidermis in the Inhabitants of the Tropical Regions. M. Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire communicated his observations on a dog with three heads, exhibited to the Academy. M. Ampere described some new experiments of M. Pouillet, on the electrical effects produced by the contact of mercury and bismuth. M. Poisson read a Notice on the Phenomena of coloured Rings. M. Brochant gave a verbal Report ona work entitled Lear- con Mineralogicum Enneaglottum, by Dr. Michael Kovats, of Pest. M. CErsted read a Notice on the experiments which he had made with M. Fourier; from which it appears that the thermo- electric effects excited by inequalities of temperature may be multiplied by means of the alternate repetition of bars of dif- ferent substances. LXXXI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. CAPTAIN PARRY’S EXPEDITION. N our Number for February, p. 142, we inserted a then current report, that the Discovery Ships under Captain Parry had been seen off Icy Cape; but the following contra- diction of it by Capt. Krusenstern has appeared in the Frank- fort papers. ‘ In English and I’rench journals, which have been copied by the German, among others by the Hamburgh pa- pers, ‘ Structure of the Belemnite. 39h pers, it has been stated; that I had sent word both to Paris and London, of the arrival of Captain Parry on the coast of Kamtschatka: I therefore consider it to be my duty to de- clare, that I have never written a line on the supposed arrival of Captain Parry to any person whatsoever. KRrusENnsTERN, Captain, Commodore in the Imperial Navy. St. Petersburgh, March 26, 1823.” STRUCTURE OF THE BELEMNITE. The following curious particulars on this subject are derived from a Paper which has just appeared in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. IX. Part ii., entitled ** Observations on the Formation of the Chalk Strata, and on the Structure of the Belemnite. By Thomas Allan, Esq. F.R.S. Edin. &e.” A notice of Mr. Miller’s examination of this enig- matic fossil will be found in our Report of the Proceedings of the Geological Society, at p. 236 of the present volume. Mr. Allan first gives a particular description of the belem- nite, adverting to its probable nature when a subject of the animal kingdom; in the course of which he observes “ that its structure is quite different from that of other calcareous fossils, which are formed in general of the common rhomboidal car- bonate, while it is composed of radiated striz, diverging from a point, which appears to have been dependent on some inter- nal organization ;” and that “its organization may have been composed of a soft membranous substance, easily removed on. the animal being deprived of life ;” adducing, in order to con- ‘firm the latter supposition, the circumstance that the belem- nites contained in the Antrim chalk are frequently found to have been perforated by serpulz, and “must have been dead shells at the time they were inclosed in the strata.” He then ‘proceeds to describe, in the following terms, his investigation of the structure of the belemnite: ‘It is some years ago since I was first led to this observa- tion. While examining a flint which had a portion of a belem- nite, I remarked on the calcareous radiated section of the fossil -two or three circular specks of flint; and as they also made their appearance at the other end, it occurred to me to remove the calcareous matter by means of acid. On the accomplish- ment of this, I was surprised and much interested to find that these specks were the extremities of cylindrical portions of flint, having exactly the form and appearance of arteries, and connected with each other, and with that portion of the cone which remained, by means of smaller fibres representing veins, and affording the most striking resemblance to an injected ana- tomical preparation. ‘This discovery naturally raised my cu- riosity ; 392 Structure of the Belemnite. riosity; I searched my cabinet, but in vain, to find specimens of the same kind. JI endeavoured, but with similar success, to procure some from Ireland, and it was not till last autumn (1820), when I was in that country in company with Lord Compton, that I was enabled to procure the necessary supply. In the extensive lime-quarries of Mr. Farrel, of Larne, I pointed out to the labourers the belemnites imbedded in flint, which were quite familiar to them, and for a trifling gratuity an abundant quantity was sent me in a day or two to Belfast. On submitting them to the acid, almost all have afforded some- thing extremely interesting and curious, and have opened up a source of investigation which may probably lead to unex- pected results.” «The means I employed was to dilute muriatic acid with four or five waters, and perhaps this was too rough an appli- cation for the very delicate and minute fibres which were often exposed to it, as I found in too many instances, that, after the specimens were dried, the flinty arborisations would sometimes fall to pieces.” Mr. Allan next describes ten specimens of the belemnite, seven of which had thus been dissected, as it were; referring to seme beautiful figures by Mr. R. R. Greville, with which his observations are illustrated. In one of them, marked No. 3, the conical alveolus “fills up entirely the base of the belem- nite; the trace of its circle being lost in the substance of the flint. At its apex there is a delicate capillary process appended. This is the process, which proceeds from the apex of the cone to that of the belemnite. I have found it always extremely de- licate, and it sometimes fell to pieces by its own weight. There are also some of the little branches of flint which have occupied the pores or perforations alluded to.” “No. 4. This beautiful specimen resembles the first I ob- tained. Alongside of the cone are those tubes and capillary vessels connected with the cone, and with the sides of the be- lemnite, and entangled in lace-like work, small, irregular, glo- bular masses, all connected by the most slender fibres.” In order to prevent No. 5 from falling to pieces, ‘the dissolu- tion of the carbonate was watched, and stopped, when the speci- men was sufficiently displayed ;,.....the vessels which have here existed, have much the character of organization; they twist and range about, quite like the gut of an animal. Still, as we see so little resemblance between this and the other specimens, we cannot but hesitate to attribute it to an origin which be- speaks uniformity and regularity. “No. 6. This specimen is singular; it has evidently been broken off at each end; the cone, of which only a small portion "remains, Structure of the Belemnite: 398 remains, rests upon the flint, which is impressed with the ra- diated structure of the fossil, and the upper part is broken off at right angles, showing not only that it must have been a frag- ment of the belemnite, but also that it was then possessed of the same radiated structure as it now presents. Hence, if it be a petrifaction in place of an original formation, as I have been led to consider it, it must have been transformed previous to its inclosure in the flint. Upon the surface small branches of arborescent flint may also be observed, as if the original had been covered with some delicate conferva, now converted into silex. There are also some of those cylindrical branches very short, as if they had occupied only the commencement of the perforation, which have proceeded from the surface inwards, without the appearance of fracture at the extremities, which are rounded off. These are very like the perforations of a worm, and have induced me to believe that many of them are merely casts of flint, in cavities formed in that manner. “ Nos. 7, 8 and 9. In these experiments the flint which has been displayed by the dissolution of the calcareous spar, pre- sents a new appearance, which may perhaps be best com- pared to the ovarium ofsome animal. Small roundish masses are connected and entangled with each other by thin and very delicate threads.......[n specimens of this kind, I have noticed that the connection between these globular masses is main- tained, more particularly, by ¢wo fibres larger than the others, and more uniform in their position.......1 should observe, that the flint in most of these fossils approaches to calcedony, and is lighter in its colour than the general mass. It sometimes presents an opake chalky-looking aspect, which, I presume, arises from an admixture of calcareous matter; for I have found this variety very liable to crumble into dust, after the operation of the acid.” . * 6 No. 11 is the same fossil found in the limestone, and by being broken longitudinally, there appear in the section of it cavities filled with chalk, as they would have been filled with flint in the specimens I have described,. Ihave a great many more of the same kind, particularly of the flints, and some of them presenting the most beautiful arborisations I ever saw ; quite similar to the most delicate sea-weed, which had -appa- rently been attached to the outer surface of the belemnite.” «I am possessed,” observes Mr. Allan in the sequel, “ of a specimen from Oxfordshire, of a belemnite which is covered with serpuli, and penetrated with numerous worm-holes; and supposing these to have been filled with flint, and laid open by the removal of the calcareous portion of the fossil, we might expect a preparation exactly similar to those 1 have been de- ‘ol. 61. No. 301. May 1823. 3D scribing. 394 Ona Phenomenon developed in Chemical Action. scribing. The great dissimilarity among the specimens seems to preclude the possibility of attributing their structure to or- ganization, howeyer strongly some of them may resemble it ; and, after all, it may be that this arrangement is due to more than one cause....... The first idea that suggested itself, with re~ spect to Nos. 7, 8 and 9, was the striking similarity to the ova- rium of an animal, as already stated; but this is a pursuit F must leave to the comparative anatomist. He may find in the threads by which these rounded masses are connected, more uniformity than could be attributed to the accidental perfora- tions of a worm; nor do I think the elegant and delicate moss- like arrangement of the fibres with which they are surrounded, seems likely to have accrued from any such operation; and as an organized connection has been pointed out, extending from: the siphunculus to the apex of the belemnite; perhaps more practised eyes may be able to trace it further in these or other specimens.” ON A PHENOMENON DEVELOPED IN CHEMICAL ACTION, &c. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine. Matlock, 16th May. Insulated facts are not to be disregarded ; and future theory, founded on the philosophy of Bacon, may successfully appro- priate them. The following seem curious, and may be con- nected with electro-chemical phenomena. When a fine copper wire is passed through a chip of cork, and allowed to float on nitric acid, the action will be seen most active where it is in contact with the float. Both arms fall down. simultaneously, and evidence, not unfrequently afterwards, at- tractive and repulsive play. When a portion of the wire is made to surround the peri- phery of a slice cut from a cylindrical mass of cork, and the ex-: tremities of the wire are united by being twisted together, the action will be soonest efficient at that junction. In the same instant that it snaps at this point, the wire gives way at the op- posite side. ‘The curvilinear wires fall together, and on being examined will be found singularly grooved. The copper wire employed was about 1-60th of an inch dia. meter, and the cylindrical cork, whence the slicé was obtained, 5-8ths of an inch. { am unable to apprehend what your anonymous (a character always suspicious) correspondent would have me to believe. Does he mean to say that the zinc, freely suspended, vibrates: in the magnetic plane, and advances eastward or westward, in the A new Fluid discovered in the Cavities of Minerals. 395 the manner described by me, on the approach of the flame of the spirit lamp ? The phenomena recorded cannot by possibility be explained on the principles of his hastily assumed opinion ; and; moreover, he seems totally ignorant of M. Desseignes’ experiments, and of that of Seebeck ; by which ’tis clear, heat alone excites Vol- taic action and electro-magnetic phenomena. And why should it seem strange that the same agent (caloric) might modify mag- netic exhibitions when excited and in action ? I do not know what is meant by introducing the posthumous priority of the young neophyte of ‘nine years old.” Yours most obediently, J. Murray. A NEW FLUID DISCOVERED IN THE CAVITIES OF MINERALS. A new fluid, of a very singular nature, has been recently aliscovered by Dr. Brewster in the cavities of minerals. It possesses the remarkable property of expanding about 30 times more than water; and by the heat of the hand, or between 75 and 83, it always expands so as to fill the cavity which contains it. The vacuity which is thus filled up is of course a perfect yacuum; and, at a temperature below that now mentioned, the new fluid contracts, and the vacuity re-appears frequently with a rapid effervescence. ‘These phenomena take place instan- taneously in several hundred cavities seen at the same time. The new fluid is also remarkable for its extreme volubility, adhering very slightly to the sides of the cavities; and is like- wise distinguished by its optical properties. It exists, however, in quantities too small to be susceptible of chemical analysis. ‘This new fluid is almost always accompanied with another fluid, like water, with which it refuses to mix, and which does not perceptibly expand at the above-mentioned temperature. It is a specimen of Cymophane, or Chrysoberyl. Dr. Brewster has discovered a stratum of these cavities, in which he has reckoned, in the space of 4th of an inch square, thirty thousand cavities, each containing this new fluid; a portion of the fluid like water, and a vacuity besides. All these vacuities simul- taneously disappear at a temperature of 83. If sucha fluid could be obtained in quantities, its utility in the construction of thermometers and levels would be incalculable. There are many cavities in crystals, such as those opened by Sir Hum- phry Davy, which contain only water, and which, of course, never exhibit any of the properties above described. An ac- count of these results was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh on the 3d and 17th of March—Zdinburgh Phil. Journ. , sD2 596 - . On Uric Acid and Borax. NATURAL HISTORY COLLECTION FROM INDIA. M. L. de Latour, king’s naturalist at Pondicherry (from the year 1816, when the I'rench regained possession of it), has lately returned to Paris. He has visited successively various districts of the peninsula of India, including a part of Bengal, in the island of Ceylon. The fruit of his labours will be of con- siderable utility to the French colonies, and conducive to the progress of the natural sciences. To the king’s garden at Paris he early transmitted a zoological collection, considered as one of the greatest then received. He has since sent a num- ber of live animals to the royal menagerie, and a vast number of herbs and seeds. Among the former are a young elephant, an Indian chacal, and different species of land and sea tor- toises. With each assortment he has forwarded a descriptive catalogue, and accompanying memoirs. He has also brought with him a considerable collection from the three kingdoms of nature; and he had previously introduced at Pondicherry, among other useful plants, that known by the name of the guinea-herb, which is the more valuable from forage being scaree on the coast of Coromandel. MOTION OF GASES THROUGH CONDUIT-PIPES. From numerous experiments made by M. Girard, in the apparatus erected at the Hospital St. Louis for lighting by means of coal-gas, it results :—1. That carburetted hydrogen gas and atmospheric air, brought to the same state of compres- sion, move according to the same laws, and experience the same resistance in the same pipes, and that they do so independently of their specific gravities. 2. That the resistance to the motion of aériform fluids in conduit-pipes is exactly proportional to the squares of their mean velocities; and lastly, That in con- sequence of this law and of the law of Jinear motion, the expen- diture of gas by a given conduit, of uniform size, is always in the direct ratio of the pressure indicated in the reservoir which feeds the stream, and in the inverse ratio of the square root of the length of the conducting pipe through which it passes.— Annales de Chimie, ON URIC ACID AND BORAX. Mr. Wetzlar, a pupil of Mr. Wurzer, in making a series of interesting experiments on uric acid, (of which he readily pro- cured considerable quantities, after having observed that urine mixed with any acid became instantaneously turbid by rub- bing with a stick &c. against the sides of the vessel containing it, and yields in a few minutes a precipitate more or less abund- ant ie Stam Mission.—Earthquakes. 397 ant according to the state of the urine,) found that uric acid is very easily dissolved by solution of borax. If the solution is concentrated, it speedily becomes turbid, and deposits urate of soda, upon which it will dissolve a new quantity of uric acid. Mr. W. proposes borax for trial as a remedy against gravel and stone, at least as a salutary alterative in tedious cases. Uric acid may thus be abstracted in a simple and easy way from the excrements of birds &c. by boiling them with water, to which a small proportion of borax is added. The hot filtered liquor, when saturated with sulphuric acid, precipitates the uric acid in a pretty pure state.—Weizlar Beitr. zur Kentn. des menschl. Harns, &c. SIAM MISSION. Accounts of the Siam Mission under Mr. Crawford, dated Siam, 10th of June 1822, have been received by the way of Penang. ** The scientific department of the Mission, we learn, has been conducted with the utmost assiduity and zeal. There is no finer field in the world, perhaps, for the botanist than the peninsula of Malacca, and the neighbouring islands, where the luxuriance of vegetation is said to be truly astonishing. Notwithstanding various difficulties experienced by this ex- pedition, many rare and new plants have been collected; the zoological collection was daily on the increase, and included different species of mammalia, of birds,a few curious fishes, and a few of the amphibia. Two of the quadrupeds appear unde- scribed; a tolerably good specimen of that singular animal the Trichecus Dugong had been preserved, and_ particular attention had been paid to its internal structure, of which we may expect a full and accurate description. We have not heard whether any valuable mineralogical specimens were pro- cured, but anticipate no great addition to this division of the scientific department, from the peculiar circumstances under which the movements of the Mission were made.”— Cape Town Gazette, Feb. 2. —_——_———_— EARTHQUAKES. Letters from Palermo, of the 3d of April, mention, that on the 27th of March there was a severe shock of an earthquake on the island of Favignano, at a small distance from Trapani. A part of the ancient fortress fell, and 22 persons perished under the ruins. On the 31st there was another shock in Messina, which, however, did no damage. It may easily be imagined what anxiety must be felt throughout all Sicily, ‘in consequence of the shocks at the two remote Capes of Ly- Hibeum and Pelorus. 898 List of New Patents. EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC ERUPTION IN JAVA. On the 27th of December last, about 9 p.m., a shock of an earthquake undulating from I. to W. was felt in the residency of Kadoc, which was repeated 18 times in 30 hours, At the same time a rumbling noise was heard in the mountain of Merapie, which was followed by a dreadful eruption on the morning of the 29th, which burnt four villages and buried two. Fifteen persons lost their lives. LIST GF NEW PATENTS. To Robert Winter, of Fen-court, London, Esq. for his method of con- ducting the process of distillation.—Dated 22d April.—6 months allowed to enroll specification. , To Robert John Tyers, of Piccadilly, Middlesex, fruiterer, for his machine or apparatus to be attached to boots, shoes, or other covering of the feet, for the purposes of travelling on pleasure.—22d April.—6 months. To William Palmer, of Lothbury, London, paper-hanger, for certain im- provements in machinery, for the purpose of painting or staining paper for paper hangings. —22d April.—4 months. To Francis Gybbon Spilsbury, of Walsall, Staffordshire, for certain im- provements in tanning.—22d April.—6 months. To Francis Deakin, of Birmingham, Warwickshire, wire-drawer, for his method of manufacturing furniture for an improvement to the mounting of umbrellas and parasols. —22d April.—6 months, To James Rawlins, of Penton-place, Pentonville, Middlesex, gentleman, fer his bedstead machine or apparatus for the relief of invalids.—22d April. —6 months. To John Hall the younger, of Dartford, Kent, engineer, for his discovery of an improvement in the machinery to be employed for effecting or pro- ducing the pressure on linseed, rapeseed, or any other oleaginous seeds or substances from which oil can be expressed, for the purpose of expressing oil from the aforesaid seeds or substances.—22d April.— 2 months. To Joseph Taylor, of Manchester, Lancashire, machine-maker, for certain improved machinery or apparatus to facilitate or improve the operation of spinning, doubling and throwing silk, cotton, wool or flax, or mixture of the said substances.—29th April.—6 months. To John Bourdieu, of Lime-street, London, Esq. who, im consequence of a communication made toe him by a certain fereigner residing abroad, is in pos- session of a discovery and preparation of a mucilage or thickening matter to be used in painting er colouring linen, woollen and cotton, and cotton cloths and silks, in cases in which gums, mucilages and other thickening matters are now employed.— 29th April.—4 months. : To William Caslon the younger, of Burton-crescent, Middlesex, pro- prieter of gas-works, for certain improvements in the construction of gasoe meters.—10th May.—6 months. ' To Edward Eyre, of Sheffield, Yorkshire, fender-manufacturer, for his improvement in the manufacture of fenders of brass, iron or steel.— 15th May.—2 months, To Jacob Perkins, of Fleet-street, London, engineer, for his improvements in the mode of heating, boiling or evaporating by steam of fluids in pans, boilers and other vessels, —17th May.—6 months. To PARASELENZ SEEN AT GOSPORT. 399 10 the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Gosport, May 26, 1823. ‘From eight till ten o’clock p.m. on the 23d of May, two paraselené appeared alternately, one on each side of, and both the same altitude from the horizon as that of the moon. ‘Fhe eastern paraselene was the brightest; it had colours more vivid about it, and continued in sight some time after the other was extinct, perhaps from being on the side of the moon that was most vaporous. No stationary cloud was visible in or near either of them; but a light red corona, one degree in diameter, surrounded the moon nearly the whole time of their continu- ance, which indicated the presence of haze, or lofty attenuated cirrostratus that in some measure obstructed the lunar light. At a quarter past 9 o’clock those rare phenomena exhibited trains of light that were turned from the moon, and terminated. in points or conical shapes; the eastern one was 12 degrees in jength, and the western about seven. Ata quarter before 10, both the paraselene appeared in circular forms at the same time, without trains, and were tinged with light red, light yellow, and pea green; at this time also, a faint lunar halo presented itself, and measured upwards of 44° in diameter, when each of the paraseleng just without the halo was 22° 40’ distant from the moon’s centre. By half-past.10 the sky was com- pletely overcast with cumulostratus clouds, and light rain fell towards the morning. These were the finest and the most brilliant mock-moons we have ever noticed. They are formed on the same principles as parhelia, and like them indicate a humid air and approaching wet, particularly when acecom- panied by the halo. Yours, &c. Wiziiam Burney. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT GREAT YARMOUTH. _ Mr. C. G. Harley has favoured us with meteorological ‘ob- servations for the first four months of the year. He informs us that his thermometer is placed about 12 or 15 feet above the level of the sea, and 5 feet from the ground, in a northern aspect completely sheltered from the eastern or western sun ; nothing in front nearer than 24 feet, and that a building of black flint: of course, no reflected heat. Time of observation from half-past 11 to12a.M. This in his situation he considers as giving a result approximating nearly to the mean heat of that time during which the sun is above the horizon. plas si ie Teen ee Thermom. Water. 1823, “Dry. Wet. E. SE. S. SW. W. NW. N. NE. ‘bow. High.Med. In. Jeng 18 - 49) AA?) eb ep SO BO 2 BS. 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LXXXII. On Phenomena observed in the making of Oil Gas. By Mr. Joun Ex.iorr. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. MONGST those who have written upon the nature and properties of gaseous bodies, and particularly on their application to the ordinary affairs of life, it is to be regretted that there are few who have reduced their speculations to the test of experiment, and still fewer whose experiments will sup- _ port their speculations. The phenomena which I have noticed in manufacturing oil gas, appear to be so contrary to what I might have expected, that I am anxious to call the attention of the scientific to a subject which, in my humble opinion, is capable of great improvement. The chief difficulties which presented themselves when I commenced, were these :— Ist. The best form for a retort: 2Qndly. A mode by which I might know in what quantity the oil was admitted : 3rdly. The getting quit of an etherial and highly combus- tible fluid which was constantly formed with the gas: 4thly. The dissipating a black residuum, or carbonaceous matter, which remained in the retort after distillation ; And lastly. Making the gas permanently good. The form which I have adopted for the retort is that of a square box about eight inches, with a conical top, through which the oil is conducted: by a pipe reaching within half an inch of the bottom. The necessity for this is evident, when I state (at least, as it has occurred in my own experiments), that if the oil, which is admitted by drops, is permitted to fall through the heated atmosphere in the interior of the retort, a large portion is instantly converted into a condensable vapour, which no sooner comes in contact with a body sufficiently cool, than it again assumes the liquid form, and is received into a box placed at the foot of the tank, which, on account of its proximity to the water, is constantly cool. The second difficulty was easily obviated; yet, easy as it seems, I have known many, and have seen some, who were obliged to Vol. 61. No. 302. Jung 1823. 3 E depend 402 Mr. Elliott on O7l Gas. depend upon the delicacy of their ear, or the accuracy of an index, for information which is of the last importance. Ifyou admit the oil too slowly, the gas is generated in small quanti- ties; and I believe, though I would not assert, that it is thereby injured. If the oil is admitted too rapidly, there is no trifling risk of converting most, if not all, into a condensable vapour. The plan adopted was this:—A glass, which for strength was of an ege-like form, was ground on the outside of the lower end for the space of three-eighths of an inch: this was fitted into the top of the pipe leading into the retort. At the top part of the glass one end of a tap entered, which was connected with the oil cistern, and through which the fluid must pass in its way to the retort. The rate at which the oil entered was of course seen through the glass, each end of which was ground to make it air-tight, and thus one of the principal difficulties was obviated at a very trifling expense. The taps which fit into the glass above mentioned, are capable of great improve- ment when oil of an inferior quality is used. I constantly em- ploy them, though their absolute necessity might admit of a doubt, were the oil carefully filtered and kept free from dirt and impurities. I have mentioned the risk we run, by a too hasty admission of the oil, of converting it into a condensable vapour. This is a fluid of a very singularand peculiar descrip- tion. It is frequently destitute of colour, whilst above it there floats a very dense oily liquid. Its taste is caustic in the ex- treme; if a drop is placed upon the tongue, it produces a sen- sation similar to that we should experience ifa needle had en- tered. It is very inflammable; for ifa quantity be thrown upon a sheet of water, and a light brought into contact with it, the whole surface is in a blaze, throwing up dense volumes of smoke. I intend making some further experiments on this body, the particulars of which, should the results be in- teresting, may furnish matter for another communication. Dr. Bostock, in his experiments on whale oil (Annals of Phil. Jan. 1821), mentions the production of acetic acid, in combi- nation with an inflammable gas. The spirit to which I have al- luded has similar properties. It acts powerfully upon lead, reducing it to a pulpy mass, which resembles the acetate of that metal. This action is exerted only where the gas first enters the lead piping, corroding and dissolving it for two or three inches. My opinion at present is, that tin pipes would answer better; but I-have not made any direct experiments which warrant a positive assertion. (See Mr. Mills on Block Tin Pipes, Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. v. p. 121.)— A large quantity of spirit always left an increased quantity of carbon Mr. Elliott on O7l Gas. 403 carbon in the retort; and I felt persuaded, that if I could avoid making the spirit, I should also lose the carbon. Mr. Brande, in speaking of the apparatus constructed by Messrs. Taylor, mentions, that the oil is decomposed and converted almost en- tirely into charcoal. After many fruitless attempts, I have at last discovered, that if the oil is admitted only when the retort is intensely hot, the whole of the carbon is dissipated, and only a very trifling portion of spirit formed. ‘That the process may be effectual, the gas is made to pass through another retort, which completes the decomposition of that portion of the oil which might not have before been sufficiently heated. These views are not in unison with those entertained by Dr. Henry (Phil. Trans. 1821), who says; ‘‘ So far as my experience goes, no temperature short of ignition is sufficient for the decompo- sition of oil into permanent combustible gas; but the lower the heat that is employed, provided it be adequate to the effect, the heavier and more combustible is the gas, and better suited to artificial illumination.” It has been remarked by writers on this subject, that the retort would only retain its decomposing power for a certain time, and that after this period the heated metal* ceased to act upon the fluid. To remedy this defect, tiles and pieces of brick were introduced, upon the surfaces of which the oil acted; until, like the retort, they also were satu- rated. On the removal of these, and introduction of fresh masses, the process might be renewed and continued ad znf- nitum. The respectability of the writers, though no proof of the truth of their assertions, on most occasions, induces us to believe their statements are correct. Yet I must confess, that the results mentioned are such as I never have obtaimed. My retort is of cast-iron, and I have regularly used it for twelve months past without perceiving any inclination to act otherwise than as at first. Anticipating the evil just alluded to, I had a large brass plug ground into the top part of my retort, which, when taken out, leaves an aperture sufficiently large for the introduction of my hand. A short time ago I had this plug removed, that I might satisfy myself of the truth of some of my statements; and on bringing my hand out of the retort, I found that it was scarcely soiled; the bottom was quite clear of all carbonaceous residue, and in every respect equal to one just put down. Thus dissipating the black residuum is a very valuableimprovement. ‘The apparatus requires no dissection to clean it; the pipe through which the oil is introduced, and which reaches nearly to the bottom, runs no risk of being * If, indeed, the metal may be considered in any other light than as an agent in the transmission of heat. $E2 choked 404 Mr. Elliott on Oil Gas. choked up from a partial accumulation *. But, what is best, that which annoyed, now contributes to your advantage; it becomes chemically combined with the hydrogen, is thrown off when that body is ignited, and during its transformation into carbonic acid surprises with the brilliancy of its combus- tion. As the general result of my experiments I may state, that after the introduction of the oil into the retort, the sooner it is made into gas the more we obtain; and the sooner the gas ‘is got out of the retort after it is made, the more durable it is. On this account, its passage into the gasometer should be faci- litated by the tube having a large bore. The last difficulty which I had to encounter was, to make” the gas permanently good; and the mode which I have just described adds this to its other advantages. Formerly, when a low heat was employed, and the gas suffered to remain un- consumed for a few weeks, it was incapable of affording light, from a precipitation of the combined carbon. ‘The flame was a deep blue, similar to that exhibited during the combustion of hydrogen, obtained from the decomposition of water. On the improved method, I have kept the gas for many weeks without perceiving any diminution in its power of affording light; and as the additional dose of carbon increases its illu- minative power, of course a much smaller quantity of gas is consumed in a given time. There is another singular fact to which I must call your attention, viz. that good gas—that is, gas containing its maximum dose of carbon—burns for a much longer time than when it contains only a minor portion ; or, in other words, that a much less quantity of the former, under the same pressure, would pass through a given space, in a cer- tain time, than of the latter. It is advisable, when the gas is made, that it should not be formed under pressure; the coun- terbalance to the gasometer should rather have the prepon- derance, which materially facilitates its formation, and prevents a deposition of carbon, which not unfrequently takes place when working under a material weight. . These sentiments agree with the views of Dr. Henry, whose paper, ‘On the Agile Compounds of Charcoal and Hy- drogen,” was read before the Royal Society in March 1821, and contains the following notice as the general issue of his experiments :—That oil gas, as he had formerly shown with respect to coal gas, is very far from being uniform in compo- * I mention this as an accident likely to occur where the heat applied is not kept up. In examining a small apparatus which exploded, I found that the accumulation of carbon had stopped up the tube through which the gases passed to the gasometer. sition, Capt. Thomson on the Velocity of Waves. 405 sition, but differs greatly in specific gravity and combustibility when prepared at different times, even from the same kind of oil, owing to variations of temperature and other circumstances. (Annals of Philos. March 1821.)—The Doctor does not in- form us what temperature is most favourable to its generation. I have alluded to an etherial fluid which appears also to have attracted his attention. Whether they are one and the same, or whether on account of the form of my apparatus the fluid may have undergone any modification in its constitution, at present I am unable to determine. The following is that to which I allude :—KEssentially the gases from oil and coal are composed of the same ingredients, though in different propor- tions, viz. simple hydrogen, light carburetted hydrogen, and carbonic oxide gases, with the addition of variable proportions of an elastic fluid, which agrees with olefiant gas in being con- densable by chlorine, but consumes more oxygen and gives more carbonic acid by combustion, and has a higher specific gravity than olefiant gas, and even than atmospheric air. Whether this ingredient be strictly a gas permanent at all temperatures, or amixture of olefiant gas with some new gas, constituted of hydrogen and charcoal in different proportions from what are found in the known compounds of those elements, or merely the vapour of a volatile oil, he leaves to be decided by a future train of experiments. (Annals, Mar. 1821.)—Though these are not his own words, they contain the substance of his meaning. Iam, gentlemen, Your most obedient servant, Charles-street, Sheffield, April 26, 1823, Joun Evuiort. LXXXIII. On the Velocity of the Waves of the Sea. By Capt. Davip 'THomson. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. agri subject of the following communication relating to the velocity of the waves of the sea, seems to have been very much neglected. My attention was first directed to the method of finding the velocity of the waves by the remarks of Captain Horsburgh in that excellent work The East India Directory. The following is the method recommended by Captain Hors- burg for ascertaining the velocity of the waves :— When a ship is sailing in the same direction as the waves are proceeding,—at the time that the log is hove let a person observe the instant that the log is on the top of a wave, and give notice to one holding a watch; the person observing the wave is again to give notice when it just comes to the stern a the 406 Capt. Thomson on the Velocity of Waves. the ship:—the length of the line between the stern and the log will be the measure of the apparent velocity of the waves for the interval of time, to which the rate at which the ship is sailing being added, the sum is the true velocity of the waves. The velocity of the waves per hour may be found as follows: Let @ represent the rate at which the ship is sailing; 6 the number of feet between the ship’s stern and the log; ¢ the interval of time in seconds; v the apparent velocity of the wave in sea miles, and 2 its true velocity; then 306 Ae v,andv+a=2. Or the rule may be given as follows:— Multiply the number of feet between the ship’s stern and the log by 30, and the number of seconds in the interval by 51; then divide the former product by the latter, the quo- tient will be the apparent velocity of the waves, in sea miles, to which add the rate at which the ship is sailing: the sum will be the ¢rue velocity. Instead of the log, it will be better to have something at the _end of the line that can be more readily seen,*; and if the line measure exactly 510 feet (that is, equal to 10 knots), the calcu- lation of the apparent velocity of the waves is rendered still more simple: for here we have only to divide 300 by the se- conds in the interval; the quotient will be the apparent velocity of the waves. The following is a list of ten trials made by me in latitude 36° 20’ S., and longitude 10° E. At the time of these experi- ments the ship was sailing at the rate of 65 knots per hour; there was a moderate breeze from the westward, but it had been blowing hard a short time before from the same quarter. The length of line out was 510 feet. Trials. Intervals in seconds. 13,0 S55 12,5 13,0 13,0 13,5 13,0 12,5 13,0 13,5 OCOMMIAMNEONE — Mean of the intervals 13,05 * A bladder would answer well, being light, and conspicuous on the sea, Now, Zach on Repeating Circles. 407 “= = = 22,99 miles, the apparent velocity of the waves, to which the rate of the ship, 64 knots per hour, being added, the sum 29,49 is the true velocity of the waves in sea miles per hour. The velocity of the waves no doubt depends greatly on the force and continuance of the wind that puts them in mo- tion. ‘This may account for the great difference in the results of the few experiments that have been made for ascertaining the velocity of the waves of the sea. Capt. Horsburgh men- tions that Dr. Wollaston, by some experiments, found the ve- locity of the waves near the coast of Yorkshire to be nearly 60 miles per hour; and that Captain Tate found the waves in the China Sea to have a velocity of only 16 miles. It would therefore be desirable that more experiments should be made on this subject. Trusting that this will be allowed a place in your valuable Journal, I am, gentlemen, Your most obedient servant, 56, Great Hermitage-street, Davip THomson. May 8, 1823. Now, LXXXIV. On Repeating Circles. By the Baron de Zacn. [Concluded from p. 363.] A FIER all these experiments and reflections upon repeating circles, we thought we might make this further experiment, whether such a circle could show the effect which would be produced on the plumb-line and on the level by the attraction of mountains. This idea was more especially suggested by the favourable nature of the place for such an investigation. The city of Marseilles, which stands at the distance of 8000 toises from the sea, is surrounded on the north by a chain of calcareous mountains, which rise to the height of two or three thousand feet above the level of the sea. To the south-west, at the same distance from the town, is a small rocky island, level with the water, called ?’Jle de Planier, upon which a lighthouse has been erected. This favourable situation sug- gested to us the idea of going to make the observation of lati- tude at the foot of these mountains, and in the midst of the sea; and afterwards to combine these two points of observation by a geodesical operation, in order to see whether we should find, in the differences of the astronomical and geodesical lati- tude, some anomaly similar to that found, at infinitely smaller distances and elevations, between Barcelona and Montjouy. This anomaly the astronomers and geometricians of France did 408 ’ Zach on Itepeating Circles. did not hesitate to attribute to the attraction of a little hill, the summit of which was 630 feet above the level of the sea. This is the real object of the experiment which we under- took and executed in the summer of the year 1810, and which we gave to the public, in all its details, in a work published at Avignon in 1814, under the following title: “‘ L’ Attraction des Montagnes et ses Effets sur les Fils-a-plomb, ou sur les niveaux des instrumens dastronomie, constatés et déterminés par des ob- servations astronomiques et géodésiques faites en 1810 a Vermi- tage de Notre-Dame des Anges sur le mont de Mimet, et au fanal de Vile de Planier, pres de Marseille, suivis de la descrip- tion géométrique de la ville de Marseille, et de son territotre,” 2 vols. 8vo. What was our surprise on finding that, in a work which ap- peared in London in 1822, a celebrated English artist says in a paper wpon, or rather against, repeating circles: ‘“ A cele- brated astronomer, a few years ago, in the south of Europe, made observations for finding the attraction of a mountain with a small instrument of the construction R; and obtained a deflection of the level equal to two seconds; and, although his telescope could not have been more than 15 inches long, from this experiment brought out a density of the earth nearly co- inciding with the Schehallien experiment, and with the more recent one which Cavendish obtained by direct attraction.” We had, at first, some difficulty in recognising ourselves in this account; it was not till after we had read it again and again, that we at length discovered two things; Ist, that this celebrated artist meant to point us out in his excellent paper ; 2nd, that he had never read (at least with attention) the work of which he speaks, and in which he makes us do and say what we never did or said; in which we had, on the contrary, done and said the very reverse of what he attributes to us. As an apology for this estimable artist, it has been repre- sented to us that he does not understand French; and con- sequently that, as our work was written in that language, he could not have comprehended it. This is a slight misfortune which we will set right in a very few words. This great artist makes us determine the density of the earth. Now the truth is, that we never thought of doing it, that we never attempted to do it, nor did we ever express the least wish to make any such observation. We knew very well that, to effect that, we must have made the plan, the profile, the elevation, and all the dimensions of Mont Mimet, in order to calculate its mass, its capacity, and its distance from our point of observation, as Dr. Maskelyne did at Schehallien. Now this is what we never wished to undertake, and what we never did under- take. Zach on Repeating Circles. 409 take. The artist in question was therefore deceived, and la- boured under a complete mistake, when he said that we had brought out a density of the earth nearly coinciding with the Schehallien experiment and with the more recent one which Cavendish obtained by direct attraction. Not a word of all this was to be found in our work. This celebrated artist informs us again in his very instructive and interesting paper, that “ it is possible that......a result might have been obtained of an equal quantity contrary to attraction.” But if he had properly read or understood our work, he would have found that not only we had said the same thing, but that we actually expected this contrary result. We extract what we said on this subject (p. 358): ** We will candidly confess that in undertaking this work we were not without apprehension, that instead of finding the effect of an attraction we should find that of a repulsion; that is to say, an absurdity which would have only served to prove the insuf- ficiency of our mechanical and physical means for determining a quantity so minute. We were not ignorant that this had happened to M. Méchain at Barcelona and Montjouy in his ‘search for a quantity almost double that which we were going to seek.” And further (p. 359): ‘* We have formally de- clared that, so far from seeking the cause of these anomalies in local attractions, or in the irregularities of the density of strata of the earth, we were much more inclined to lay the blame on the instruments, and even on the observations. We have since seen that Don Rodriguez, in his ingenious exami- nation of the three degrees of the meridian measured in En- gland, held this opinion in common with us.” If we had be- lieved in the reality of our result, and if that belief had been erroneous, we at least had, as companions in error, Bouguer, De la Condamine, Maskelyne, Méchain, and Delambre, who all held the same belief, and even for quantities much smaller than ours ; for M. Delambre, in fact, speaks of 0",65 of the attraction of mountains found with 13 and 15 inch repeating circles of Lenoir. In the second volume of the Base Métrique, he says (p. 631): “* At Dunkirk it appears that the inequality of attraction must be very small, since the distance from the tower to the sea is more than 1000 toises.” And here we must remark that his observations of latitude differ from those of Méchain by 0’,65; upon which he asks, ‘* Can this small difference be caused by the unequal densities of the earth ?” At least we did not mistake the direction of this result ;, we did not take repulsion for attraction, as befell a great astrono- mer and geometrician; a circumstance which we have re- Vol. 61. No. 302. June 1823. 3F corded 4.10 Zach on Repeating Circles. corded in our three letters published in 1812 in the Bibliotheque Britannique de Geneve. Bouguer, De la Condamine and Maskelyne wished to de- termine the density of our earth; and they undertook their experiments ad hoc. Méchain and Delambre wished to de- termine the magnitude and figure of the earth, and to fix the length of an invariable and universal standard of measure; they had made all their experiments to that end: our project had nothing in common with theirs; it was neither our in- tention to determine the density, nor the magnitude, nor the figure of the earth, nor the length of an universal measure. Our aim was merely to try whether a repeating circle of Reichenbach would exhibit the same anomalies given by a re- peating circle of Lenoir of nearly the same dimensions. The English artist highly disapproves, and even condemns us without mercy for having dared to make use of a repeating circle of such small dimension when we wanted to determine results of so delicate a nature. But is this esteemed artist ig- norant, or has he forgotten, that the French astronomers had used instruments of the same kind, of the same dimensions, and certainly otherwise very inferior to ours, for operations far more delicate, far more important than ours, which was only an object of the private curiosity of an amateur? The artist, in his paper, calls ours a dwarfish experiment, and says that it might be permitted to stand “ on its own lit- tle base.” Without doubt it is of small stature; but all the colossal experiments made for the last 30 years in France and Spain stand upon these same dwarfish bases; for all the world knows (if we except the author of the English paper, who ap- pears not to know,) that all these colossal experiments were made with dwarfish repeating circles. He will answer that they are not the better for that. Be it so; but we will re- mind this great artist of the insult which a David dared to offer toa Goliah; when at Milan, with our pigmy of Reichen- bach of half a foot radius, we stood the assault of an 8-foot colossus of Ramsden, we found a great discordance between these two instruments; we then made the same reflection, and almost in the same terms, as the English artist. We asked in our first letter published in 1812 in the Bibliotheque Britannique, which we have since more loudly repeated, ** Where lies the error? In the colossal or in the dwarfish in- strument?” Our readers know on which side victory has been obtained. The English artist, while he blames us for using a repeating circle of such smai! dimension to determine the density of the earth, Zach on Repeating Circles. 411 earth, which we never had the slightest intention of doing, would have seen, if he had read or understood our work, which it appears he has not done, that such an instrument was precisely and absolutely the one which it was necessary to employ, since our principal object was to try whether such an instrument would produce again the same phanomena which a similar instrument had exhibited at Barcelona. We repeat, our project, and our intention in the operation which we undertook and executed in the environs of Marseilles in 1810, had nothing to do with the determination of the density, the magnitude, or the figure of the earth, nor of an invariable and universal measure deduced from that magnitude and figure. These were the objects accomplished in France and Spain with the instruments in question, which were also thought quite sufficient for determining the deviation of plumb- lines or of levels caused by the attraction of mountains. M. Mé- chain asserts this formally in the second volume of the Base Meétrique (p. 491): “ We have taken advantage (says he) of our abode at Perpignan, to make observations of latitude, in the hope that they may serve to ascertain whether the attrac- tion of the Pyrenees alters the meridional altitude of the stars at Perpignan by causing a deviation of the plumb-line, or of the level of these instruments towards the south, as has been conjectured.” We have seen above, that M. Delambre sus- pected that an effect of 0”-65 might be exhibited by these in- struments. He attributed the difference of three seconds found between Barcelona and Montjouy to this same effect of attraction; and we, on the contrary, in our work L’ Attraction des Montagnes (p. 359), said: ‘* We have formerly declared, that, so far from seeking the cause of these anomalies in local attractions, or in the irregularities of the density of the strata of the earth, we were much more inclined to lay the blame on the instruments, and even on the observations.” What then become of the censures and criticisms of this celebrated artist? Is it possible that he has dissertated de land caprind? But indeed, Jet us see whether it was so ab- surd as this famous artist (whose opinion in these matters is certainly of great weight) would make us believe, to have em- ployed a small repeating circle in finding the effect of the at- traction of mountains. . Setting aside that the greatest astronomers and geometri- cians of France had done the same thing as ourselves, and had even gone beyond us, since they executed a work of the highest and most extensive importance, and one which cost the state millions; instead of which our modest dwarfish ope- ration was no expense to any Government whatever, and was 3F2 only 419 Zach on Repeating Circles. only undertaken for the gratification of the curiosity of an amateur who pursued it for his own amusement; that it did not pretend to decide on any of those elements, proposed with so much pomp and éclat to all the nations of the earth, which none of them would receive, and which France herself has re- jected ;—setting aside, I say, all these considerations, we will confine ourselves to the task of showing, that our attempt was not so utterly irrational as it is said to be, from the circum- stance of our having dared to undertake our experiment with a repeating instrument so small as to be regarded with an eye of contempt. Let us see whether it merits this disdain, and whether the modest David cannot take his sling again and hurl a stone at this haughty Goliah. We will ask then, in the first place, how it happened that this despised pygmy of half a foot in height should have given a better latitude than the eight-foot colossus? How it hap- pened that the irregularities in the little repeating circle of Reichenbach were much less than in the great mural of Rams- den? ‘Three years afterwards we presented to the Observa- tory at Milan a large three-foot repeating circle of Reichen- bach with a fixed level, which had been constructed on pur- pose for us*; and one of the most able observers of that Ob- servatory found, after thousands of observations, the same latitude which we found with our pygmy. (Lffem. Astron. di Milano per 1815. Append. p. 3. Cor. Ast. vol. v. p. 300.) 2°. We wish to know how it has happened, that with our pygmy we should have been able to discover that the latitude of the Observatory of Padua was so ill-determined with an- other colossus, a fine eight-foot mural of Ramsden, and in which the error was not less than 22"!. Several years after, exactly the same latitude which we had established with our pygmy was found with other English and German instruments, both repeating and non-repeating. (Cor. Ast. vol. i. p. 4573 vol. ii. p. 8; val. v. p. 297.) 3°. We will ask how it has happened, that with this same dwarf, we were enabled to discover that the latitude of the Observatory of Bologna was in an error of 18”? We deter- mined with this little circle a new latitude, which was after- wards confirmed by observations made with other repeating circles. (Cor. Ast. vol. ii. p. 8—471.) 4°. We will ask how it happened, that at the Observatory of Turin, with this same little circle we were able to deter- mine a latitude which had never been determined before; and that the able astronomer of that Observatory afterwards found the same latitude with a 15-inch repeating circle of Fortin, * Effemerid. Astronom. di Milano per 1812. Append. p. 3. and Zach on Repeating Circles. 413 and with a three-foot meridian circle of Reichenbach? (Cor: Ast. vol. ii. p. 52; and vol. v. p. 499.) We might accumulate these questions and show that this modest little 12-inch circle, so convenient and so trans- portable, has rendered similar services at Verona, at Venice, at Genoa, at Rimini, at Florence, at Pisa, at Lucca, at Naples, &e. &e. Now we will ask, in the last place, with what other instru- ment has so much ever been effected, and in so short a time? Could it have been accomplished with sectors of twelve and fifteen feet? With quadrants of eight feet? With meridian circles of eight feet? We have, we trust, said enough to de~ monstrate, that our pygmy may enter the field with these mag~ nificent colossuses, and to justify ourselves for having admitted it to the honour of the experiment in which we used it at Marseilles. We have shown in the course of the present letter, that the greatest differences between the observations made with our 12-inch repeating circle never exceeded three or four seconds. Let us see whether the great instruments have succeeded bet- ter, and let us first cast an eye over the observations of Gen. Mudge, made with one of Ramsden’s most perfect 12-foot sectors. We shall find that in spite of the beauty and the excellence of this magnificent sector, constructed by one of the greatest artists of England, in spite of all the precautions and all the skill of so adroit and experienced an observer as General Mudge, he could not avoid anomalies to the extent of four seconds. Don Rodriguez, in his paper printed in the Philo- sophical Transactions, goes still further, and suspects an abso-= lute error of five seconds in the latitude of Arbury, “in spite of the goodness of the instrument and of the skill and care of the observer.” In another passage he says: “ It must, however, be acknowledged that no reproach attaches to the greater number of observers; they have done all intheir power; but in general too much confidence has been placed in the good- ness of their instruments.” Let us see whether the ten-foot sector of Sisson, with which Dr. Maskelyne determined the attraction of the Schehallien, would have done us better service, if we had made use of it, instead of our own little circle, to determine the attraction of Mont Mimet. The Doctor made with this instrument 337 observations, but of these he calculated only 40; we calculated them all, and we found that the greatest differences they con- tained extended to eight seconds. In our work L’ Attraction des Montagnes, we gaye a table of all those observations which had been left for nearly forty years 414 Zach on Repeating Circles. years without being submitted to calculation; and we there said (p. 691), ‘that if the observations had been confined to one star, as was the case at the measurement of the three de- grees at Peru, it would have been quite as possible to have an amplitude of an arc of the meridian of 50,04 as one of 58”,70; and that consequently the effect of the attraction of the Sche- hallien mountain might have been either 3”,5, or 7”,8, a dif- ference which would have completely absorbed all the effect of the attraction which we found at Mont Mimet.” It is clear from hence, that if instead of Reichenbach’s small circle we had used at Mont Mimet Sisson’s great sector, which Dr. Maskelyne used at the Schehallien mountain, the censure of the English artist would have been quite as appli- cable and as just. At the same time he will perceive that all the reflections he has made on this subject, we had made be- fore him; and that we were not ignorant, as he seems to be- lieve, that it was very probable we should obtain a result in a direction contrary to that of the attraction. Again: let us see whether a three-foot repeating circle of Reithephioch would have done its duty better. Open the Ef JSemeride Astronomiche di Milano for the year 1815, Appendice, p- 16 & seq., and you will see, in the observations made with that instrument, anomalies which extend to five seconds. The observations of the pole-star combined from month to month also exhibit differences of two and three seconds. If, then, we had carried this instrument to Mont Mimet, and had observed there as we did at Notre Dame des Anges, and at l’Ile de Planier, three stars, during twelve days of the months of July and August, we might have obtained for the first twelve days of these two months the following compara- tive table: First 12 days. Greatest Diff. =p nee a ee Polar-star of July 2”, 3.4. p- 19 upper ae it of August 2 ,75 p- 20 Pole-star of July 3 ,82 p. 24 lower culm. \ of August 2 ,61 p- 25 8 Cassiopeia of July 3,28 Deas upper culm. § of August 3,91 p. 34 By comparing this table with that which we have given above (see Phil. Mag. page 363) of our little circle, it will be seen that the anomalies of these two circles are precisely the same. It was not therefore quite so absurd as has been represented to use a 12-inch repeating circle for a mere experiment of cu- riosity of no importance, whilst the greatest astronomers and geometricians of France had, before us, used instruments of the ae Zach on Repeating Circles. 415 the same kind and of the same dimensions, and certainly of a very inferior quality, in operations which involved the most serious and important consequences. Thus we are neither the first nor the only persons who have thought it possible to effect with a small circle what ought only to have been undertaken with large instruments. Two of the greatest astronomers and geometricians of Germany, not only thought but did the same thing, and even more. The celebrated Professor Gauss of Gottingen was of opinion not only that whatever could be done with a large repeating circle might be done as well with a small one, but was even inclined to prefer the results obtained by means of the latter. See the 1st vol. of my Correspondance Astronomique, in which will be found the following passage (p. 457): ** The Baron de Lindenau wrote to me some time ago, that M. Gauss inclined rather towards the results obtained by small circles, than towards those obtained by large ones. It would be not only curious but very instructive to know the reasons which have determined this great geometrician, who is at the same time an astronomer not of the closet, but of the starry heavens, in forming so important a judgement.” Professor Gauss did not confine himself merely to thinking and saying; he also acted. In the xxviith vol. of our Cor- respondance Astronomique Allemande (p. 481) will be found the observations of the latitude made by this able astronomer at the Observatory of Gottingen in the year 1813 with a Reichen- bach’s 12-inch repeating circle similar to ours. It will there be seen that the greatest differences, as was the case in our ex- periment, and in those made with all the large circles, did not exceed 2",55. The mean of four latitudes obtained by two stars observed above and below the pole, gave a difference of only 1”,80, and this latitude differed only by 1”,6 from that which Tobias Mayer had determined with his large and beau- tiful Bird’s 6-foot mural*. But what will this great English artist say when he sees that M. Bessel+ at Koningsberg, with one of Cary’s 18-inch pygmies, also ventured to attack the 8-foot meridian colossus at Greenwich, and affirms that he detected it in an error of 5 and 6 and even 7 seconds? We shall not here enter into a discussion as to the point on which side lies the fault of these great differences. It is suffi- cient for the object we have in view, to show that such ano- malies have been found, and announced as real, by one of our first astronomical observers, whatever be the instrument with which they were obtained. * Attraction des Montagnes, p. 449. Corres. Ast. vol, ii, p, 64, + Cor. Ast. vol. vii. cahier iil. p. 274. M. Bessel 416 Zach on Repeating Circles. M. Bessel finds that he differs not only from the great me- ridian circle at Greenwich, but also from those by Ramsden at Dublin, and at Palermo, and from a Reichenbach’s 3-foot repeating circle at Milan. M. Bessel says distinctly (p. 274), * that these differences did not surprise him, since his former observations made with Cary’s circle had already suggested them to him.” What are we to conclude from all this? That we as yet possess no instrument e7ther great or small with which we can arrive at certainty within 2 or 3 seconds. Whatever can be said most agreeable to reason and truth on this subject has already been. said by M. Gauss in a letter published in the first volume of the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London, p. 132. «‘ A point,” says he, ‘* which has occupied the attention of astronomers for some years, though it involves only a few seconds, is yet of the highest importance, both in reference to the art of astronomical observation, and on account of the numerous astronomical elements, whose exact determination depends on it; I mean the minute differences in the declinations of stars, the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the altitude of the pole, which appear in their determination by different though very excellent instruments. There is no doubt these differences arise from the action of gravity on the different parts of each instrument, though hitherto the mode of this action has not been clearly pointed out, nor is it possible to pronounce de- cidedly which instrument has afforded the right and which the wrong result. We know, in fact, very little of the extent to which the yielding of the metals may go; and it seems too hazardous to deny the possibility of this cause exercising a notable influence on the divisions, and in consequence on the observations in any instrument, whatever be its construction, without grounding such denial on sufficient proof. In our meridian circle, the great artist has done every thing to ob- viate the flexure of the telescope by a well-adapted system of counterpoises: still a doubt may remain, whether all the flex- ure be done away with by that means, or rendered quite insen- sible; and the only direct means of ascertaining the point seems to be, the combination of immediate observations of a heavenly body, with those of its image reflected in an artificial horizon.” Thus, then, although we cannot decide which instrument gives the true and which the false result in a question of two or three seconds, whether the 18-inch circle, the 3-foot meri- dian circle, or the 8-foot mural circle, like that at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich ; and since this great 8-foot circle does Zach on Repeating Circles. 417 does not act like a meridian telescope, as the 3-foot meridian circles of Reichenbach do, with the utmost perfection ; shall we therefore assert, that we must sing a requiem over the con- struction of this circle at Greenwich, and leave it to stand on its own GREAT base? We are very far from thinking so; we know better how to do justice to the great artist who con- - structed this chefd’euvre, although he deceived himself in thinking that it would act as a transit instrument. ‘That this is not one is amply proved by the numerous observations of the astronomer royal. ‘This detracts nothing either from the merit of the instrument, which for taking polar distances is perfect; nor from the merit of the author of so extraordinary a work, who is and who will always be one of the greatest artists of his age. We have often heard the late Mr. Ramsden say, that he would construct a sector with which he could de- termine the length of his workshop; that he would make ba- rometers with which he would measure the height of his desk, &c.: all these were only,fagons de parler, to express, that he would do his utmost to give to his instruments every possible degree of perfection; and the hopes indulged by the artist who constructed the mural circle at Greenwich, that this in- strument might also serve as a transit, only prove that this great man pursued his work with so much care and exactness, that he thought his instrument would add, to all its other perfections, that of serving as a transit instrument. Experience has, in- deed, since proved the contrary. It is now the fashion to decry repeating circles. ‘These in- struments have certainly their defects, like all others, and we were the first to discover and to point them out. Nevertheless we ought to be just, and to give to every thing its deserts. We have already asked above, with what other portable instru- ment could we have accomplished what we did in our travels, with a 12-inch repeating circle and an 8-inch repeating theo- dolite? Mr. G. Dollond is much more just in this matter, and considers this sort of instrument with more candour and a more accurate perception of its real utility. This great opti- cian, in his description of a new 15-inch repeating circle of his invention, inserted in the first volume of the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London, says (p. 57): *“ The repeating principle upon which the instrument 1s founded, is too well understood to require any explanation ; I shall therefore only remark, that I consider it to be of very great advantage to portable instruments ; particularly as they cannot be prepared (on account of their price and dimensions) Vol. 61. No. 302. June 1823.. 3G with 418 Zach on Repeating Circles. with such accurate divisions*, or such powerful telescopes, as those larger instruments possess, that are furnished for fixed observatories.” This is precisely what we said in the first number of the sixth volume, page 63, of our Correspondance Astronomique : «© We believe, nevertheless, that repetitions may be of infinite use in the small circles used in travelling, the divisions of which cannot go higher than ten seconds.” We believe, above all, that the repeating theodolites of M. Reichenbach’s construction are superior to every other in- strument, even to repeating circles, for observations of the azimuths and of terrestrial angles, because such observations are always made on a horizontal plane; and with these small and very portable instruments, though their divisions be only to every ten seconds, we can succeed in obtaining the exact se- cond, as our readers may convince themselves by casting an eye over our observations of the azimuths and over the terres- trial angles given in our work, LZ’ Attraction des Montagnes. It is also well known that the repetition of horizontal angles does not present those anomalies which are observable in the re- petition of vertical angles. Of this we have suggested the probable reason in the Number just quoted (p. 64). A celebrated London artist has said that he had heard that some of his contemporaries were endeavouring to bring to per- fection repeating instruments, but that he advised them to do nothing of the sort, but rather to employ their time and talents. in the construction of instruments which promise more success, and to endeavour to bring to perfection the art of dividing. But it appears to us, that this artist is mistaken if he imagines that the only use of repetition is to correct the defects of divi- sion; it is also of use in correcting the smallness of the in- strument, defects of the level, defects of the telescope, defects of observation, &c. It appears that his celebrated con- temporary Dollond has a more accurate perception and a sounder judgement concerning the principle and the nature of repetition; and we hope that the excellent artists with which London abounds will continue to improve this kind of instrument as well as every other. It is no less desirable to serve the humble retreats of modest amateurs, than the sumptuous observatories established by imperial and royal mu- nificence. Every bedy cannot procure 8-foot circles and 15-foot * The divisions of this 15-inch repeating circle are for every 10”. Lenoir’s of the same distance for every 20’. Reichenbach’s 12-inch for every 4’. sectors, Zach on Repeating Circles. 419 sectors, and drag them Over mountains and valleys. Itis only in England that a school-master can buy an instrument which is too dear for a sovereign*. As we before said, every thing in its place. When M. Riippell prepared to leave us for his travels in Africa, we did not advise him to carry a repeating instrument, either great or small, for the same reason that we advised him not to carry a chronometer of the best quality, or of great value, for the purpose of observing longitudes. We explained our reasons for this advice in the first volume (p. 514) of Corre- spondance above mentioned. If M. Riippell had wished to make his observations with a repeating circle, however small, he would rarely have found in the whole course of his travels a convenient, solid and secure spot, sheltered from curiosity, from suspicion, or even from danger. He would have wanted an assistant, indeed he would have been wholly dependent upon one, to make his observations and to adjust the level of the circle. With a sextant of reflexion there are none of these difficulties. With such an instrument, with an artificial ho- rizon, which places and keeps itself level, and with a chrono- meter in his pocket, he may make an observation alone in concealment, in any spot, and in the smallest opening through which the sun shines. These are instruments which he may put in his pocket, conceal, and carry in his portmanteau. In the countries traversed by M. Riippell a question of seconds is of no importance. ‘There, where the latitudes and longi- tudes are quite unknown or incorrect by many degrees, a mi- nute is as much or even more than a second with us. A sex- tant of reflexion does not so easily get out of order as a re- peating circle; it is more easy to handle; one may rectify it every moment, find the error of collimation at every observa- tion, use it upon sea and upon land, for the heavens and for the earth, determine the seasons, latitudes, longitudes, azi- muths, and terrestrial angles, with a precision beyond what is actually necessary or what can be reasonably desired. ‘The sextant of reflexion was therefore in this instance preferable to repeating circles, and even to all non-repeating instruments, because it was here in its place. People had gone the length of saying that repeating instru- ments had arrested the progress of astronomy, and had pre- vented a great number of useful observations which would otherwise have been made, since those made with instruments of this description demanded a great expense of time+, which might * This anecdote is well known in London. + It would be possible to dispute this expense of time, and to show that 3G2 it 420 Zach on Mepeating Circles. - might have been better employed with non-repeating instru- ments. We do not dispute that this charge may be’ well founded with regard to the great observatories which are fur- nished with those large non-repeating instruments; but we think the general accusation as unjust as it is ill-founded. ‘We may reckon in Eurepe twelve mural quadrants con- structed by the first artists of England, by Bird, Sisson, Ramsden; without counting the two in the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, that in the Observatory of Gottingen, and that in the Observatory at the Ecole Militaire at Paris, which Bradley, Maskelyne, Mayer, and La Lande, have used with so much assiduity;—what has been done with the others ? Where are the observations and the catalogues of stars which they have produced? Repeating circles were not invented at the time they were constructed; at any rate they were not in use, and consequently could not prevent the use of other instruments, nor retard the observations which might have been made with them. We are acquainted with six of Reichenbach’s three-fcot repeating circles distributed among five of the great obser- vatories of Europe, without reckoning that at Milan which M. Oriani has employed in his labours ;—what has been done with the others? Nothing at all. It follows, then, that these instruments have not occasioned loss of time, and have not prevented, stopped or retarded the observations which might have been made with the twelve mural quadrants, and with the seven sectors; all constructed by the greatest artists of London. If we are asked the true and precise reason of this dearth of observations which is so much complained of, we shall give it in few words. It is, that in every observatory where there are good repeating or non-repeating instruments, there is not at the same time a Bradley, a Maskelyne, a Pond, a Brinkley, a Mayer, a La Lande, a Piazzi, an Oriani, a Bes- sel, a Struve, or a Littrow. it is not, in fact, so great as it has been represented. M. Oriani employs only three or four minutes of time in making the observation of a star by four repetitions. For the zodiacal stars he makes only two repetitions, and ex- pends only a minute, and often only 30 or 40 seconds. He has generally been contented with four repetitions (and that is sufficient); he has never exceeded eight. (See the Appendices aux Ephém. Ast. de Milan for the years 1812 and 1813.) We should like to know whether Piazzi, in making one observation, does not consume as much or even more time in turning his circle and in reading the revolutions and the parts of his four micro- scopic micrometers. LXXXV. On y igh fy Sal LXXXV. On Celestial Globes. By JW. Woo.tear, Esq. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. ESSRS. ADDISON and Co., of Regent-street, have announced “a pair of magnijicent Globes, THIRTY-SIX INCHES in diameter, to be executed by first-rate artists.” As regards globes in general, I fear they are much oftener pur- chased as articles of furniture than as philosophical instru- ments; and the strongest proof of this opinion is furnished by the Prospectus which has been issued, wherein the style of ex- ecution is much insisted on, but little is said to inform the scientific inquirer. Yet the real merit of a globe is not to be determined by the largeness of its dimensions, the elegance of its engraving, or the beauty of its frame; but by the choice of the materials for the design, and by the care bestowed in their application. Undoubtedly nothing could tend to ad- vance these new globes in the public estimation so much as the assurance that the drawings were to be executed by per- sons of known talent in geography and astronomy, whose names there would be an impropriety in concealing. Of modern English globes, the 21-inch by Cary* and the 18-inch by Bardin (the latter being dignified with the ap- pellation of “ ‘The New British Globes”) are to be considered the standards. ‘The terrestrial globe of the larger pair re- quires no greater recommendation than that of having been executed under the publisher’s own inspection. ‘The draw- ings for the celestial were made by Mr. Gilpin of the Royal Society, well known as a man of science. ‘The drawings for Bardin’s terrestrial were executed by the celebrated Arrow- smith, and the calculations for the celestial were done by Mr. W. Jones, under the direction (I believe) of the late Astronomer Royal. The globes now proposed will present a superficies nearly three times greater than the largest of those before mentioned; therefore ample scope is allowed for very superior correctness and detail. There can be no doubt of the abundance of ac- curate materials for the terrestrial ; but with respect to the ce- lestial the case is different. The celestial globes of Cary and Bardin are both founded * Cary’s 18- and 15-inch cclestial globes, of recent date, are mere re- ductions of the 21-inch altered to the epoch of 1820, Although in the titles reference is made to the authorities of Bode, Piazzi, and Zach, I can- not find any traces of improvement to be ascribed to the works of those eminent observers. on 422 Mr. Woollgar on Celestial Globes. on the catalogue of Wollaston published in 1789, and they each contain about 6000 objects, including the nebulze and clusters. The former globe includes also the stars extracted by Messrs. Herschel from the observations of Flamsteed. Not- withstanding the praises bestowed on the ‘* New British Globes” in various Cyclopeedias and globe treatises, I consider Cary’s celestial globe to possess a decided advantage over its rival, in having annexed to every star its proper numerical or charac- teristic designation; whilst two-thirds of the stars in the other are without any reference. Those who are acquainted with Wollaston’s Catalogue, or who will take the trouble of comparing the portions of the Zodiacal Catalogue (published in your Journal) with Cary’s or Bardin’s globe, will perceive that there is much room for improvement. Now the Prospectus of the 36-inch globes states that “the celestial will contain all the stars as far as the ninth magnitude inclusive, with their nebulee and clusters, the whole depicted with the strictest accuracy.” I fear the pub- lishers are not aware of the difficulty that will attend the ful- filment of this promise. They will perhaps be surprised to learn that there is not any arranged catalogue which embraces the whole sphere to the extent referred to; and that the only maps extant are those of Professor Harding, the latter sheets of which have not yet reached this country, and which being the result of actual examination, embrace only that portion of the heavens visible in Northern Europe*. Not one half of the stars inserted in these sheets can be transferred to.a surface of little more than one-third the extent of the original, without great confusion. In fact, if the designer of these new globes will limit himself to stars of the seventh magnitude and upwards, with the principal nebulz and clusters, he will then have introduced from 15 to 20,000 objects, which, with their proper characters or numbers, will be found to oc- cupy the given space quite as fully as is consistent with distinct- ness. And as such designs will be far superior to any British maps of the stars, Mr. Jamieson’s not excepted, I would sug- gest the possibility of the engraving being so arranged as that impressions of the plates might be done up in the form of a Celestial Atlas. In making these remarks, my object has been to draw the public attention to the principles and comparative merits of the different globes now extant; and to induce the publishers * This most elaborate production is on a scale rather exceeding half an inch to a degree, and contains at least 50,000 stars down to the ninth mag- nitude inclusive. When the whole of the sheets shall have been procured, I may perhaps offer a detailed account to the readers of the Phil. Mag. of Mr. W. Herapath on Opake Crystallized Carbon. 423 of the new ones to detail more fully their plans, that it may be seen whether they are likely to possess advantages sufficient to overcome the considerations of bulk and price, and to in- duce persons of science to sanction the undertaking. I remain, &c. Lewes, May 18, 1823. J. W. Woo.tear. P.S. In reply to the inquiries of Mr. Innes, in your last Number, I have to observe that the third portion of the Zo- diacal Catalogue is nearly completed, and I trust will appear in your Number for June. I never intended to abandon the work, although circumstances have occasioned a temporary suspension. LXXXVI. On Opake Crystallized Carbon. By Wii.1aM Herapatu, Esq. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. JX January last, while performing some experiments on the relative lighting powers of oil and coal gas, my attention was arrested by a singular deposit in the interior of coal gas retorts. J then imagined it to be sulphuret of iron, but the analysis neither gave me sulphur nor iron; in fact, nothing but carbon. ‘The Annals of Philosophy for April last contained a paper on this substance by the Rev. J. J. Conybeare, in which it was stated to be plumbago. From the scientific attainments and well-known accuracy of that gentleman, I was convinced that some mistake had occurred ; and in a private communica- tion I have learnt from him, that accidentally he had operated upon a part of the mass so near to the surface of the retort as to have been contammated with a portion of iron; that he had at my suggestion examined on a small scale, with chlorate of potass, a portion more distant from that point, without being able to detect any trace of metallic or other admixture. In every gas manufactory this deposit occurs, though it dif- fers in appearance according to the manner of working. In Bristol it is hard and very solid, having a specific gravity of 1°865 with a mammillated surface, which, in places, vegetates so as to resemble cypress tress: from some of the spherical faces it is possible to detach thin scales; when broken, its crystal- line form is very visible, and may be compared to that of starch. Although it does not possess a regular cleavage, I think the primitive form is the tetrahedron. _When powdered fine, it loses its gray lustre and becomes a deep black. It is very refractory: with the peroxide of copper it requires somuch heat that the black glass tubes generally give may. yefore 424 Mr. W. Herapath’s Lxperiments on Oil and Coal Gas. before the decomposition is effected. ‘This circumstance has hitherto prevented me from trying the experimentum crucis ; viz. collecting the carbonic acid formed. When chlorate of potash is used, it is necessary to repeat the operation several times, as very little is decomposed each time. Nitre has still less effect upon it. It is a good conductor of electricity. If this substance should turn out to be of the same compo- sition as the diamond; and the only difference between them be, that the diamond has twice the number of atoms in the same space, which is probable from its specific gravity being 3°5; it might throw some light upon the cause of transparency and opacity. We may learn something from the examination of this substance; for as its formation is by thin layers, it is evident that its source is not the coke but the gas; and as it is always deposited on the hottest part of the retort, it shows that coal gas should not be exposed to a greater heat than that at which it was produced; every portion of carbon so deposited being lost both to the gas-maker and consumer, and carbon is the only substance in gas which furnishes light, as pure hydrogen gives out none. Yours, &c. Bristol, 56 Old Market-street, WitiiamM HERApPATH. May 19, 1823. LXXXVII. Experiments on Oil and Coal Gas. By Witu1am Herapatua, Lsq. HE following experiments were performed by Mr. Roct- sey and myself, for the purpose of discovering which of the two gases was most fit for the purposes of illumination, and whether they were equally cheap to the consumer at the prices of 15s. per thousand cubit feet for coal, and 50s. for oil gas. As the results may affect generally as well as locally, I will thank you to insert them in the Philesophical Magazine. January 30, 1823.—Cod Oil. Ib. 02. ers. 3 14 362 oil used. Products.—Carbon found in various parts of the Ib. oz. ers. apparatus (about Leh) si ei ceedecsece OO 1 4am And 44.2 cub. feet of gas, sp. Gr. *8'76....sscsseceeee 2 14 277 Water and acid formed not noticed. The retort was three feet long, having an internal iron tube four inches in diameter and two feet three inches in length. The oil was admitted in a very small stream, but little-faster than dropping, 47 lbs of bricks haying been introduced to in- crease Mr. W. Herapath’s Experiments on Oil and Coal Gas. 425 crease the heated surface. The gas immediately after leaving the retort passed through a distilling worm surrounded by ice: at the end of the worm an oil joint was placed, which enabled us to collect the volatilized oil; from hence it went straight to the gasometer. Before stating any experiments on the light afforded, we would premise that we had ascertained, that Leslie’s photome- ter filled with the vapour of ether was not a more certain test than judgement by the eye; that two similar gasometers, each capable of holding 1} cubic foot, were used accurately graduated to 100ths of a cubic foot. They were filled from their respec~ tive sources to one foot, and then turned off, so that the pres« sure and every other circumstance were equal in each. In Experiments 1, 3 and 5, the lights were adjusted so as to cast an equal shadow at equal distances; and the quantity of gas consumed taken as their relative values. In Exps. 2 and 4, both gases were allowed to burn to the best advantage, that is, as high as possible so as not to smoke. The coal gas light was brought near enough to cast an equal shadow, the squares of the distances being taken as the intensity of light, which in- tensity was multiplied inversely into the quantities consumed, to give their relative values. In No. 5 the lights were com- pared with an Argand lamp—hole -§,ths, wick =8,ths of an inch in diameter, and the gasometers and burners were reversed ; in No. 6 the gasometers only, the fine holes remaining with the oil gas. The coal gas used was taken from the Company’s Main, all the gasometers of the Temple Backs station being turned on. We were given to understand, that the cost price of the coal delivered was 7s. 9d. per ton by contract, and that it produced from 5 to 7000 cubic feet per ton. Oil Gas, sp. gr. *876—Coal Gas, sp. gr. ‘5433. Dura- | Qyan- |Distance} Relative & . : ie? j Values No. of Size of Height |tion of tity of [of Light) Names Gas Experi- Burners. of Experi- Gas rom | from Ex-|(as. ments. Flame. ment. | consumed. Shadow. ae No. p “ 4. liusualholes| not | 10 55 ‘96c.ft. be aad 1:00 |coal | 4. 15 fine holes | taken “50 al Ke a | | | _— 4. 3% in.| 12 41:00 54 in. | 1400 |eoal 2 ; + fsame asabove Qs 5] 58 2:26 oil | 3. 12 holes 3§ | 16 471-000 1:00 coal 3 3. 12same size | 2455 435 equal 2°30 Joil 4 3. ditto 34 16 45 1°00 664 in.} 1:00 coal 3. ditto 2,6, "45 68 + 2°32 Ioil Vol. 61. No. 302. June 1823. 3H 426 Mr. W. Herapath’s Experiments on Oil and Coal Gas. Gasometers and Burners changed. Dura- Quan- Distance Relative No. of Size of Height |tion of | tity of [Of Light |. Waite = = = 4 calculated Experi- Burners. of |Experi-| Gs | from. |trom Ex- |Gas ments. Flame.| ment. | consumea./Dhadow.| periment. No. / 4 | 3. same 38; | 16 58)1°00 1:00 coal 5 3. same 21 — | °42 oo 2°38 joil Argand lamp —|_-148; — |158ers oil Experiment 1 repeated, Gasometers only changed. 6 fe 15 usual holes] 3% 11’ 9” |1:090 | 2 1-00 co 4. 15 fine holes | 24 =! 4h 445 qua'| 2:24 Joil Average of six experiments, as 1 to 2°24. These experiments were repeated in public, as far as time would allow, on February 27th, and less heat was made use of. The same sort of oil was decomposed at a low red heat in the same apparatus. 1-8th in weight was found as residual car- bon; and 83} cubic feet of gas, spec. grav. ‘902, were produced per gallon. If the density had been only °876, as in the last experiment, the quantity would have been (found by propor- tion) 85:9; it was then 86°9, as near a coincidence as can be expected. Thus what was gained in density by operating at a low heat, was lost in guantity. A most respectable and scientific company-attended the ex- periments on light, &c., and the results were, as before, less than 24 to 1; or, more plainly, 1 foot of oil gas would not give as much light as 24 of coal gas. As much had been said, contrary to our experience, of the inoffensive smell of oil gas, and we thought that the fairest mode of trying would be to allow the company present to smell to each while escaping,—and none of the party knowing which gas was made from either substance,—of ten gentlemen, three said oil gas smelt the worst. Coal gas therefore cannot be so much worse than oil gas, as has been represented. Coal gas has the peculiar smell of naphthaline mixed with a small portion of sulphuretted hydrogen and hydro-sulphuret of ammonia; and oil gas resembles a lamp blown out, but not extinguished. To ascertain nearly the heat given out during combustion, we had three tin vessels made, with covers and very concave bottoms, capable of holding one quart of water: a pint at 40° Fahrenheit was introduced into each, and the number of de- grees acquired in the same time from equal lights, and at equal Mr. W. Herapath’s Experments on Oil and Coal Gas. 427 equal distances above those lights, was considered as a relative measure of the heat; and in those instances where the lights ' were at different distances from the shadows, the same correc- tion was applied as in the case of light. Feb, 28. Oil Gas, sp. gr. *886—Coal Gas, sp. gr. 4675, 1 Ag ura- 2 Deg. of| Calcu- 2 | Description Gas __|Height| tion of | Dist. | Heat | lated cE of consumed.| of |Experi- from acquir- | relative orn "y Shadow > 2 Burner. Flame. | ment. 7 ed. | Heat. No. *s | 4. 15 usual holes/1-000 c.f) 3$ in,|10'57 64% in.| 125° | 1:47 to 4. 15 fine holes | +515 3 — same 85° | 1:00 — —_——__—_ i : Compared with Argand lamp, hole 5th, wick 8th of inch. ; | corrected ‘same burners’ /|1-000 3 in. {11 58 [54 in. | 104° | 1-47 to as above “495 28 — |/48in. 84° 1-00 0) 10 3. usual holes 1-09 4t 17 32| equal] 96 {1.31 to 3 <3. ditto “46 23 —_— — | 73 {1:00 Argand lamp grs.oil| 13 — _ ae N57. These three experiments show that coal gas gave out a heat equal to 3, and oil gas 2; while sperm oil from the last ex- periment was a little more than 1, The oil gas used in this experiment had stood 48 hours over water, having lost 3 per cent. in volume, and in density nearly 2 per cent. from *902 to -886; and from the coal gas having a low specific gravity compared with the first, viz. as ‘4675 to 5433, I presume the oil gas must have lost some of its lighting power. But we wish it to be understood, that al- though only 9 experiments are here detailed, we have made nearly 30 on gases of different densities with many sorts of burners, and varying them in every possible way, and we never found 1 cubic foot of oil gas more than equal to 24 of coal. Considering the gases to be of such a description as would be met with in commerce, I have had specimens which have given different results; for instance, where in a small apparatus 50 cubic feet only were drawn from } ewt. of coal compared with oil gas, sp. gr. *886, the results were only as 1 to 14; and again, I had a specimen of oil gas presented to me in London, which from a comparison with sperm oil would have equalled 355 of the coal gas described in the first series of experiments: but such ought not to be considered fair specimens, as they are different from what would be sold to the public. These re- marks will apply to a set of experiments recently made by two able chemists, the results of which were laid before the Com- shig iittee 428 Mr. W. Herapath’s Mxperiments on Oil and Coal Gas. mittee of the House of Commons. The oil gas used had a spe- cific gravity *96, and the coal gas *43: the former nearly 6 per cent. heavier than the mean of nine samples I have tried, and the latter as light as the worst coal gas I ever met with: the mean of the nine of oil was 900 and of eight of coal -500, the first nearly as much below olefiant gas ‘974 as the latter is be- low light carburetted hydrogen *555; and the relative lights of such gases would be, calculating from our experiments, about 25 to 1, or from those gentlemen’s about 23 to 1. I should wish also to show that the oil gas mentioned above was better than what was commonly made from the same appa- ratus; for the gentlemen who owned it stated that they pro- duced upon an average 1124 cubic feet per gallon of oil; now 1125 cubic feet at -96 weigh 137 0z., while the gallon of oil from which it was made would have weighed but 123 oz., out of which must be taken some ounces for water which oxy- gen contained in the oil would form; and some unknown *quantity, always amounting to several per cents., in our experi- ments 12, for carbon left in the retort. These circumstances show that there must be a mistake somewhere,—either that the quantity of gas made is overstated, or that the quality must have been very inferior. We have tried some experiments as to the cheapness of the two gases compared with sperm oil. In set Ist, Ex- periment 5, 158 grs. of oil burnt in an Argand lamp, having a wick ;8ths and hole ;8,ths of an inch in diameter, were equal to 1 cubic foot of coal gas sp. gr. °5433, and to *42 cubic foot of oil gas sp. gr. *876; or 1 gallon of oil price 6s. is equal to 340 cubic feet coal gas ..scccessessceeees 5S. 1d. 143 OMAR ALY. Jest Vide coade FO: | Lea. Again, a coal gas sp. gr. °448 (last of the charge) was in the same lamp equalled by 1334 grs. oil, and coal gas sp. gr. *603 by 184 grs. ; or from the three sets 361 cubic feet of coal gas, 5s. 43d., would be equal to 1 gallon sperm oil. With a large Argand lamp, hole 1} inch, wick 12 inch diameter, 190 grs. oil were equal to 1 foot coal gas, or 1 gallon to 283 cubic feet price 4s, 2d.: with the small lamp before mentioned, oil gas sp. gr. 1:009 required 523 grs, to equal 1 cubic foot, or 1 gal- lon of oil = to 103 cubic feet, price 5s. 13d. From these and more experiments, taking the means, I have found the re- lative prices would stand thus: One gallon sperm oil, price 6s. would be equal to 361 cubic feet coal gas sp. gr, +500, price 5s. 42d. or 144 -—- oil gas sp. gr. -900, price 7s. 23d. Or, calculating in the same way from the experiments brought before the House of Commons by the two gentlemen before mentioned, Mr. W. Herapath’s Experiments on Oil and Coal Gas. 429 mentioned, 1 gallon sperm oil would be equal to 131-9 cubic feet of oil gas sp. gr. ‘900, price 6s. 7d. But there is another reason why. I do not consider their experiments conclusive;—the coal gas was conveyed in a large gasometer from the Company’s main, where it must have deposited some naphtha, which would have contributed to its light; while the oil gas must have held a consider- able portion of vapour of oil dissolved in it. ‘There is much more of this than at first sight we should imagine. It has been seen by our 2d set of experiments that oil gas standing 48 hours over water had lost as much illuminating power as would be communicated by jth of its weight of oil; and from the circumstance that while the light of coal gas increases very nearly in the same ratio as the density, the light of oil gas goes on much faster, taking two specimens at sp. gr. 876 and 1-009, there would be an increase of 25 per cent. of light more than the density would indicate. If we compress oil gas into a globe, a vapour of oil falls upon the interior of it; if allowed to stand in the flask for taking speci- fic gravities, a dew of oil is perceived init. Besides the inequa- lity of the two gases from vapour of oil dissolved, there is an- other source of inaccuracy to be guarded against when one gas is transferred,—I mean the adinixture of common air, a very small portion of which almost destroys its illuminating power. Having now data upon which to calculate, I shall proceed to discuss the eligibility of the gases for the consumer. Ist, Destruction to the service pipes. Here the advantage is in favour of oil gas, but not to the extent which has been re- presented; the causes of which destruction are, moisture, sul- phuretted hydrogen, and hydro-sulphuret of ammonia. The first would act upon iron services only; where their temperature could be reduced so as to render the gas incapable of holding the moisture which it has dissolved in the gasometer. Its ef- fects are visible, particularly at the foot of iron services, where they rise perpendicularly in exposed situations; for as the water is condensed, it oxidates the interior, and has a tendency to wash the oxide down to the bottom, where it accumulates and eventually chokes the pipe; both gases must be alike subject to this fault. Sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrosul- phuret of ammonia are peculiar to coal gas. It has been shown by Dr. Henry, that the gas can be conveniently purified in commerce, so as not to contain more than 1-20,000dth of its volume of sulphuretted hydrogen, a quantity too small to re- quire notice. I am not inclined to attribute the injury of ser- vices to sulphuretted hydrogen, because we hear of none being injuried, ” 430 Mr. W. Herapath’s Experiments on Oil and Coal Gas. injured, except iron and copper; and the substance in the in- terior of copper tubes I have by analysis found to be sul- phuret of copper and ammonia; and as ammonia acts upon copper more than any other metal, and copper in this in- stance is more acted on, I think that we may fairly attribute a principal part of the corrosion to the presence of that gas. As a preventative, the ammonia might be removed by adding to the present mode of purifying a vessel containing dilute acid, or by coating the interior of copper services with some resinous substance; but the best way would be to give up copper altogether, and make use of iron, block-tin, or lead. 2d, Smell, if allowed to escape without combustion. It will be seen from the experiment, page 426, that they are equally offensive to some palates at least: from my own experience I can say, they are both so much so that I think no person would be induced to smell to either from pleasure. 3d, Inconveniences resulting from the combustion of the s. These are, water, Jamp-black, and sulphurous acid gas. The first they both form to avery large amount. Dr. Henry gives the composition of the gases as follows: Oil gas, sp. gr. 906. Coal gas, sp. gr. 500. SB palatine seas acvaalech aloowe| 107, 46°5 carburetted hydrogen ...... 55°8 3°1 hydrogen .....eceressseseseeee 213 9°3 carbonic oxide......se0e000 Ll] Bel HAZOLC ss cs etsapesmereudscise sweet HuA:6 100 99°8 In the following calculation I shall consider that a No. 4 burner of oil gas consumes two feet per hour, and of coal gas five feet; and that upon an average the hours of burning are three and a half per night through the year: in one night a burner of coal gas would consume as much of the three first as contains 944 grs. hydrogen, capable of forming 8496 grs. of water, or 19 oz. 183 grs.; and an oil gas burner equal to this would consume as much of the three first as would con- tain 440 grs. hydrogen, capable of forming 396 grs., or 9 oz. 33 grs. of water. The lamp-black or carbon which is found attached to arti- cles near where gas is burnt, has been considered by some to be a fault of the gas, whereas it is that which constitutes its perfection; for the only combustible elements of the gases are carbon and hydrogen, and as pure hydrogen gives no light, the whole of it must come from the carbon. When more gas is passed through a burner than oxygen is furnished for, the combustion M. Bessel on the Declination of the Stars. 431 combustion is imperfect; all the hydrogen is burnt, but not the whole of the carbon which was dissolved in it: haying lost that which supported it in the form of gas, the carbon becomes vi- sible as a black powder ; and wherever this is seen, it is an in- dication that the consumer has wasted more than he has paid for. There is no sulphurous acid generated in the combustion of oil gas, and very little in coal: thus Dr. Henry has shown that gas purified in the ordinary way contains 1-10,000dth of its volume of sulphuretted hydrogen; and as a No. 4 burner would at its ordinary rate consume 5500 cubic feet in a year, about half a cubic foot of sulphuretted hydregen would be mixed with it, which would form about 14 oz. of sulphurous acid, too trivial to notice; in fact, it was scarcely worth the trouble to notice the products of combustion at all, because they may be easily removed by having a conductor over the light. 4th, There is one property of oil gas which makes it much . less fit for a public light than coal gas,—-it is so very easily extinguished. I have repeatedly extinguished with my breath a No. 4 burner at the measured distance of nine feet, and I should think that on windy nights a whole district of it would often be in darkness. 5th, Relative selling price. The standard selling price of coal gas is, I believe, about 15s. per thousand cubic feet, and of oil gas 50s. If the mean densities I have here calculated upon,—900 oil, 500 coal,—be correct, and I am confident they are not far from the truth, the prices should be, 15s. for coal gas, 37s. 6d. for oil gas: all above that sum is excess of charge above value ; consequently oil gas at 50s. per thousand, as usually manufactured, is 333 per cent. dearer than it should be, according to the light it gives. Bristol, 56 Old Market-street, Wituiam Heraparn. May 26, 1823. LXXXVIII. M. Besser on the Declination of the Stars.* HE Number of Tilloch’s and Taylor’s Magazine for Fe- bruary 1823, which you kindly forwarded to me, arrived in due course; and from it I have seen with pleasure, that the great difference betwixt my determinations of declination and those of Mr. Pond, Dr. Brinkley, and others, have excited attention in England, and will consequently occasion fresh inquiries, which probably will remove the doubts which now exist. * From M.Schumacher’s Astronomische Nachrichten, No, 32. Your 432 M. Bessel on the Declination of the Stars. Your idea, that a new catalogue of declinations ought al- ways to be accompanied with a detail of our own investiga- tions on refraction, perfectly accords with my own; but Dr. Brinkley as well as myself have actually caused such in- vestigations to accompany our papers; and I therefore cannot conceive how the author of the paper in Tilloch’s Magazine can still apprehend any considerable error from this cireum- stance. I certainly am not so fully acquainted with Dr. Brinkley’s investigations on refraction as with my own: nevertheless it appears to me, that, in case both instruments really indicate exactly equal zenith distances, an error of 1”,2 in one of the two determinations for 45° cannot be allowed: but if it be al- lowed for the sake of reconciling both catalogues, then it proves plainly, that both instruments do not indicate equal zenith-distances.—I have examined my own very particularly, as you will see from the seventh section of my Observations, with regard to the absolute correctness of the reading (Angabe), and have indeed discovered a trifling bend in the telescope, on account of which there must be added to the direct reading (Angabe) u of the circle, +1’,11 sin. (u +1° 33’) +0%,26. Cos. (u+1° 83’); if this correction be omitted, my polar- distances would also thereby become smaller, and approach nearer to those of Dr. Brinkley’s: but this is quite contrary to my observations, which do not allow the application of a par- tial alteration, without destroying the accordance in some other art. i : The apprehension of the author of the account in the Phi- losophical Magazine, that there might arise, from the faults of meteorological instruments, a difference in the determination of the constant of refraction, is undoubtedly well grounded: but he observes very properly, that even this would not explain the difference of declinations, inasmuch as each observer ap- plies his own refraction. However, as far as concerns my own meteorological instruments, the barometer is undoubtedly cor- rect to a very minute quantity, both according to its construc- tion and as to its being compared with other good instruments. The thermometer I have examined most minutely, agreeably to a method peculiar to myself, as described in the 7th section of my Observations; which does not leave an error of 0°,1 Fahr. undiscovered. I could wish that every observer would make use of this method; and at the same time desist from the disadvantageous practice of computing the tables of refraction for the position of the interior thermometer: by these means the different determinations of refraction could be correctly compared, and a new trial of the correspondence of the ob- servations M. Bessel on the Declination of the Stars. 433 servations might also be thereby obtained. I know, indeed, that the refraction cannot be considered rigidly correct, either by the exterior or by the interior thermometer; but as the refraction on the outside of the observatory regulates itself according to the exterior thermometer, and can only be altered by the difference of temperature within the observatory, this alteration (sometimes + sometimes —) may be in other re- spects equally as great for stars on the zenith as for stars in any given altitude, and consequently upon the whole can be but very trifling; therefore there remains no other method, but to be guided by the data of the exterior thermometer. If the surface of the warmed air in the observatory were calm and horizontal, it would be otherwise; but this is not the case. = In the letter, from which you have given an extract in the 28th Number of your Astronomische Nachrichten, I observe that Mr, Pond’s catalogue approximates nearer to mine, if it be reduced with the refraction, which I have derived from my observations. But I think that no one should allow himself to make this alteration, unless he can prove from the Green- wich original observations, that the stars below the pole re- duced by the same refraction, give corresponding results. This, the author of the account in the Philosophical Magazine doubts, when he says, that the continued use which Mr. Pond makes of Bradley’s tables of refraction, proves that Mr. Pond’s observations correspond with this table. I cannot decide about this ; but I cannot help observing, that I have obtained a greater refraction from Bradley’s observations than Bradley himself: and that this latter appears not to be reconcileable with the observations of that great astronomer, when examined with great accuracy. Were it, on the contrary, reconcileable with the latest Greenwich observations, then it would appear to me as a striking coincidence of heterogeneous circum- stances. Mr. Pond has had the goodness to send me, through the hands of Dr. Tiarks, a still later copy of his catalogue; but it differs very little from that compared in the 28th Number of the Astronomische Nachrichten, and therefore does not alter materially the result produced from that comparison. Vol. 61. No. 302. June 1823. 8 I LXXXIX. 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An Account of the Observations and Experiments on the Temperature of Mines, which have recently been made in Cornwall, and the North of England ; comprising the Substance of various Papers on the Subject lately published in the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Corn- wall, and other Works. (Continued from p. 353.] III. D—?: FORBES’s paper (Transactions of the Geological Society of Cornwall, vol. ii. p. 159) consists of two parts, in the first of which he gives the original registers of his observations on the temperatures of various mines in Corn- wall; discussing, in the second, the effects of extraneous sources of heat in contributing to the elevation of their tem- perature ; and, conceiving that his observations irrefragably prove the progressive increase of heat in the earth, as we ad- yance downwards, he concludes with some remarks on the probable origin of this internal heat. ** Before proceeding to read my registers,” Dr. I’. says, ‘* it may be proper, with a view to their better comprehension, to premise a few brief remarks on the nature and interior ceconomy of the mines in which the observations were made.” ** 1, Perhaps the clearest idea we can convey to others of the nature of a metalliferous vein, or lode, is afforded by the old theoretical notion, of a narrow rent in the rocky crust of the earth, approaching more or less to a vertical direction, and filled with metallic ores. The object of mining is to break down, and transport to the surface, the contents of this sup- posed rent,—in other words, to cut out from the containing rock, this thin metallic plane. To effect this, galleries, called in Cornwall levels, are driven horizontally on the vein, one above the other, and the ore &c. produced by their excava- tion are transported to the surface by vertical galleries called shafis, cutting the former at right angles. ‘The horizontal alleries are, in the first instance, about two feet wide and six feet high, but varying, of course, according to circumstances, and being frequently extended much beyond their original dimensions. ‘They are driven one above the other at intervals of from 10, to 20 or 30 fathoms. When extended to a cer- tain distance from the original shaft, it is necessary, for the sake of ventilation, as well as for other reasons, to form a se- cond, which traverses all the galleries in the same manner as the first. The distance between shafts is very various,— being from 20 to 100 fathoms. Frequently a communication is made between two galleries by a partial shaft (called a wins) in a On the Temperature of Mines. 437 in the interval between two shafts. When there are more than one lode worked in the same mine, as frequently happens, galleries often run parallel to each other at the same depth. In this case they often communicate by intermediate galleries, driven through the rock (or country, as it is called in Corn- wall) which are termed cross-cuts. A mine thus consists of a series of horizontal galleries, generally one above the other, but sometimes running parallel, traversed at irregular inter- vals by vertical shafts, and all communicating together, either directly or indirectly.” «2, A person unacquainted with the details of mining, on being informed of many hundreds of men being employed in a single mine, might naturally imagine that a visit to their recesses would afford a picturesque and imposing spectacle of gregarious labour and bustle, tremendous noise, and much artificial brilliancy to cheer the gloom. Nothing however is further from the truth as far as regards the mines of Corn- wall; for, like their fellow labourers the moles, the miners are solitary in their operations. Seldom do we find more than three or four men in one gallery at a time, where they are seen pursuing the common operations of digging or boring the rock, in the inner extremity of the gallery, by the feeble glim- mering of a small candle, with very little noise, or much lati- tude for bodily movement. Very seldom are they within the sound of each other’s operations, except occasionally when they hear the dull report of the explosions. In the vicinity of the main shaft of the mine, indeed, the incessant action of the huge chain of pumps produces a constant but not very loud noise, while the occasional rattling of the metallic buckets (for conveying the ore) against the walls of the shaft, as they ascend and descend, relieves the monotony both of the silence and the sound. Still every thing is dreary, dull, and cheer- less; and you can be with difficulty persuaded, even when in the richest and most populous mines, that you are in the centre of such extensive and important operations. What adds greatly to the impression of tameness, is the extreme darkness and dirtiness of the galleries. There is no light whatever, but that afforded by the candles of the workmen, and by those carried by yourself and guide; while the universal presence of water soaking through the crevices of the galleries, and in- termixing with the dust and rubbish, keeps up a constant suc- cession of dirty puddles through which you must pass, besides being frequently obliged to crawl on all-fours through passages too low to admit you in any other manner. ‘The galleries are extended 438 Summary Revicw-of the late Investigations extended by breaking down the looser parts by the pick-axe, and by rending the more solid by gunpowder, Each miner has a candle, which is stuck close by him against the wall of his gallery, by means of a piece of clay; and besides those em- ployed in extending the gallery, there are generally one or two boys employed in wheeling the broken ore, &c. to the shaft. Each of these boys has also a candle affixed to his wheelbarrow, by the universal subterranean candlestick, a piece of clay. A certain band of men (called, however nu- merous, @ pair) generally undertake the work of a particular gallery*. These subdivide themselves into smaller bodies, which, by relieving each other at the end of every six or eight hours, keep up the work uninterruptedly, except on Sunday. By means of this subdivision of the pazrs, there is in general not more than one-third of the under-ground labourers below at any one time. Notwithstanding this incessant labour, the progress of the miner in excavating his gallery is in general very small; one, two, or three feet in a week, or a few inches daily, is often the whole amount of the united operations of 20 or 30 men. In loose lodes and in killas districts they often cut more than this, but often they do not cut so much. It is to be recollected that the lode is very rarely so wide as the gallery, so that it becomes necessary, in order to continue this of the proper size, to hew through the solid rock on each side, which is often very hard, even ibe the lode is soft. ‘The Cornish miner never sleeps or eats under ground, but returns to grass (the technical name of the surface) and to his home, often many miles distant, at whatever depth he may be work- ing when relieved. ‘Che mode of ascent and descent in mines is by means of vertical ladders fixed in the shafts.” ‘¢ 3, Any person who calls to mind the manner, object, and results of the common process of sinking wells, will be pre- pared to expect the presence of water in mines. The quantity of this varies very much in different mines at the same time, and in the same mines at different times. Some of the circumstances that occasion this difference are very obvious; for instance, the topographical relations of the surface, the nature of the rock and lode, the number and size of the lodes, cross courses, &c. Many galleries both on the lode and through the country, * In a note at the end of the paper Dr. Forbes thus corrects this state- ment respecting the employment of @ pair of men: “ It should have been observed, that only one pair can work in the extremity of a gallery, for there are in general several pairs, stoping, or working horizontally, both over-head and under-foot, in each gallery,” are respecting the Temperature of Mines. 439 are quite dry, but in general the reverse is true. Commonly the water oozes almost imperceptibly from the lode and walls of the galleries, and gradually accumulates, as formerly men- tioned, so as to form puddles and pools of considerable size under the feet of the miners 3 and it is very common to find the bottom of long galleries covered, for some hundred feet, with dirty water of this kind to the depth of several inches, and’ sometimes of a foot or more. Sometimes, but very rarely, we meet with brisk streamlets or springs gushing from the lode. In most mines we meet with currents of water flowing towards the pumps, from the upper galleries, or from parts of the mine that have been abandoned.” “ The quantity of water in mines is most abundant during the winter, or rather in the spring, some time after the termi- nation of the rainy season. This fact is easily aceounted for, especially in deep mines, by the length of time that the super- ficial water requires to percolate to a considerable depth. In- attention to this circumstance has given rise to an-erroncous: idea, still prevalent among miners, that a dry easterly wind raises the springs. 'The fact seems to be, as has been satis- factorily shown by Pryce, that the “ dry easterly winds of the spring generally set in, in this country, about the pericd at which the main body of the rain fallen in the preceding months has been able to attain, in its slow progress through the lodes and strata, the bottom of the mines*, The variation in the quantity of water is much more considerable in shallow mines; these soon experiencing the variations of humidity at the surface, according to the seasons. It is a curious fact, that several mines worked under the sea have been found less sub- ject to the percolation of water from above, than many others. This was formerly observable in Huel Cock in the parish of St. Just, and is at the present time in two mines in the same parish, Botallack, and Little Bounds.” “For keeping the workings from being inundated, each mine is furnished with a chain of pumps extending from the bottom to the adit-level, worked by a single pump-rod; each pump receiving the water brought up by the one immediately below it. All the water of the mine, below the adit-level, eventually finds its way into the bottom of the mine or SUMP, whence it is finally elevated to the adit, through which it flows by a gentle descent. to the surface}. The quantity of water discharged * See Pryce’s Mineralogia Cornubiensis ; also“ Observations on the Cli- mate of Penzance, &c.” by John F, orbes, M.D. Penzance 1821, + “I should have said,” Dr. Forbes observes in the note before quoted, “ that 44.0 Summary Review of the late Investigations discharged by the pumps from many of the Cornish mines is very considerable: thus Huel Abraham discharges, from the depth of 1440 feet, about 2,092,320 gallons every 24 hours; Dolcoath, from nearly the same depth, 535,173 gallons in the same time; and Huel Vor, from the depth of 950 feet, 1,692,660 gallons.” ‘4. In giving an account of the ventilation of mines, it is necessary to anticipate, in some degree, the result of our in~ vestigations respecting temperature, and to notice the degree of heat that is found in the air, water, and earth, at the bot- tom of mines. The precise degree of this temperature will be hereafter stated; it will suffice here to mention that it ex~ ceeds 80° in the deepest mines; that it amounts to 70° at a less depth than 1000 feet; and that it is 5° or 6° above the mean temperature of the climate at no greater depth than from 200 to 400 feet. The existence of this temperature at the bottom of mines (however produced) will, of itself, necessarily occasion a constant circulation of air upwards through the shafts ; and, as what ascends must be replaced by the air above, there will of course be a constant current downwards, through the same or other shafts. The extent of ventilation in mines will depend on many circumstances, more especially on their depth, the number of shafts, the degree of communication between the different galleries, and also on the state of the wind at the surface. The cooling effect of high winds is very perceptible even at the bottom of shallow mines, and it appears that the currents of air in the very deepest mines are consi- derably influenced by the force and direction of these.” ‘«‘ For the following observations on this subject, relative to the magnificent mine of Dolcoath, I am indebted to Mr. John Rule jun., one of the superintendants. ‘I have made some experiments to ascertain the direction of the currents of air in this mine, and find that in 25 of our principal shafts (the whole of those open on the main lode) 13 have a strong current of air downwards, and 12 about the same degree of current up- wards; they differ however with respect to the strength of the currents, some being very strong, others less so. I never made any experiments to ascertain the currents of air before ; but from common observation, I am enabled to state that “ that all the water of the deepest level finds its way to the sump. The water from the upper levels is received into cisterns placed in different arts of the shaft, at the termination of each tier of pumps, from whence it is drawn to. the adit.” they eo respecting the Temperature of Mines. 441 they vary as the wind does, so that those shafts which some- times have a current downwards, on a change of the wind have an upward current, and vice versd. ‘The same thin takes place with regard to the Jevels under ground; changes of wind making the current of air run in opposite directions at different times. The strength also of the currents under ground, depends upon the wind at the surface; when it blows hard, the current is strong under ground, and vice versd. ‘We find no want of air under ground, even in the deepest parts, where a communication is made from one level to an- other by means of a shaft or a wins, or from one shaft to an- other by a level. The current of air is frequently so strong even towards the bottom of the mine as sometimes to blow out 2 candle; in fact, we never find a deficiency of air unless it be in a level extended a considerable way from a shaft with- out haying a communication with any other part; or in a shaft sunk far below a level: in which cases we are frequently un- der the necessity of having recourse to some artificial means to procure air in the part wanting it’ ‘ I ascertained the currents of the shafts at the surface by throwing feathers, pieces of paper, and straw, into them. In many cases the currents were so strong as to carry these things rapidly upwards to the height of several yards.’ “Though these currents in the shafts and more open gal- leries are considerable, it is still true that in the great majority of the galleries no current, or one that is very slight, is per- ceptible; and that in all such galleries as communicate by one extremity only with a shaft, or with other levels by a wins, at some distance from their inner extremity (both of which kinds constitute the greater number of the working galleries), there is no current whatever, and in fact, no possibility of there be- ing one. Many of these galleries are several hundred feet in length, with no other outlet but their extremity at the shaft. A sufficient proof of the general stillness of the air in mines is afforded by the fact of lanterns being unknown in them; and during all my visits to these gloomy regions I never saw the candie extinguished by a current of air, more than once or twice.” These introductory remarks are succeeded by the registers of observations made in six mines, the mean results of which Dr. Forbes afterwards presents in the subjoined table, to which we have prefixed a tabular view of various particulars respect- ing the ceconomy and circumstances of those mines, drawn up from the statements in his registers. Vol. 61. No. $02. June 1823. 38K Circum- ‘attons 70’ ’S of the late Invest 2eW O . Summary Rev *savak 94R] jo.auop ussq Sey YAO 97171] 4294 spunog PPTs UT "Bas dy} JO paq ayy yyeoueq Afoa.1p I JO qaed ajqe.aap -Isuo2 @ pur [eAe9]-Bas SNF OFFI Japun paysom sr youypeiog Jo 9104 ay, “SVU sta aur 043 Jo ysdep ayy usyA “SzBT Ul Uoyer YI0q fourm ouj Jo y1ed UWs9959M OY} UT i ~~ a “3923 SSF ‘ouIUE oY} JO yaed wsa3sea ayy uy 4 “206 Sem" ‘QoRJANS OY} JOPUN 4O9F OPFT Sl YOM ‘JAoy JsAMO] OY} UT Ie ay} Jo aaNjeredura; ay} GBI Avy ur yey *y SP]TD] Ur ‘OuLUL saddoo ure YyB.Iqy [92H elies¢ "Sq1.0095 sq] 0009 008 “3 98ST “13 OOG Moe SE TeL Ut “SulUt taddoo yyeoojog oL9 099°S69'T "sqt 0OcE “Sq O00E 8F¢ ‘Y 8h6 ‘Se [PD] UL ‘UU Uy sO AGREE 8 ol9 000‘0¢ sq] 00E "sq 006 0GI "45. 909 "Y OOF Inoge ‘OuTURAIS UT ‘QUIUL U1}, SuUO(-suICy 0g oS 000‘69 ‘sqI 09 "Sq 8F GB "Ey FOS "BOL *oquels pue sey[ty Ut ‘OUTUL UI} spunog opwy “rT aN go Aqrxoygne ay} uo ‘sazv3s ay Inq {1oded sry ur 31 ywadesr you saop saquog ‘aqy (FOS “d dy} UI “C[ST soquooag pu oun ur ueyez se ‘ouT siy3 Jo aanqvsodwio} oy} Jo JuNODDe ue poysIqnd sey uvaTy sewoUy “ay sy x 009‘L¢ *sq1 009 “SQL OOGT OST "¥ OLS ‘FOF Moqe ‘ourur tad -doo pure uty pouyPog MI] “[OA) SIT Joy auIzeSeyy peorydosopyg ~~ > 5 pextouk waeq sey tl auIUur eal YIM Sump ‘sava - - = gIpe oy of9 is ye pote! M SI] Jo sinyzesodura y, ated = = - Kep sed 000 912 eae a JOIVA JO suey ? it - = = -yjyuow SH 0L6 a sopwioduns jo oinjipuedxy : : - - = yjuou SA O06L ad, goles ® jo ernypuadxy Ms € - > punois Jap dot -unl pale jes uaul JO Jaquinyy : APLU DJIA SUOTJVAIASqO 94} OSE } ee SORE ayy wos yideq - = = = was F006 Ned tai aY} JO JOAg] 9y2 oAoqe yYSIOF] eae “SUIUT saddoo *sooUBJSUIMNIITC) aunyda Ny Puy respecting the Temperature of Mines. 443 Depth in | Huel Little Ding- feet. Neptune. |Botallack.| Bounds. | Dong. |Huel Vor.|Doleoath.| Mean. air. |\water.| a. | w. | a. | w, | a. | w. | a. | w. | a. |w. la | w. TAG ROOT ene | SD") GE Nlece eaaer | GO ere | seek! \e eve | OL | 57 150 to 200} 56 |. 60») 58>) S454 | sve eee | ose eos (907 | 56 200 to 250) 56 |... |.61 |... | 57 |. 55 COM eI felvenei lina foo | 56 250 to 300} 56 | 55 | 61.) 59 | 57 | 59 ove, | one sf GO| see [p08 | 58 SOLS SIO | "OO [tee | see [ese | Gor] tao tes. nner [POWs 1255 $50 to 400} ... | 57 | 66 | 62 ete ODait dele . «. | 60} 59 400 to 450} 60 |... | 66]}.. SOR SSI ices san) Ose] Got ASO10) -SOO! wae | soc || -en0 | soe GOR|N SO Wiese. wees elllin ce - | 60 | 59 500 to 550) 67 | 67 | 68 | 68 Bea | tae | OL Ate GO! (GS, Haase |, 65-165 550 to 600} .. see | eee - eo*| 63 | 6B | wee | woe - | 68 | 68 600 to 650} .. ee see 62 | 63 | 61) 63 --. | 62 | 63 650 to 700 ; . 646 ]° 64, "6a" 64 ¢ | 26m | 64 700 to 750 Pe ary seer OS .. | 67 | 65 750 to 800 oes . 68 | 68 + | 68 | 68 800 to 850} ... | «. ° 66. || 6641" ae [ees | 664) (66 850 te 900} ... ee . .. ° GEC... Ba [a 68 900 to 950)... |. oe an ve *s TL | G2) 2.6 | 62) 71 950 to 1150 : . coe seat | os eee |. 20) | -66 41-70 | 66 1150.to 1260} ... Ae . see. | ewe Ln TY ser | eT ee 1 1260 to 1350} ... | . ee on ce | see co |e 76 | 74) 76 | 74 coo | as . . «|. . 83 )})'79) | 83) | 79 1350 to 1400 All the artificial and extraneous sources of heat in the mines of Cornwall, Dr. Forbes observes, in the second part of his paper, *“ are either the direct or indirect consequence of the presence of the miner. Of the former class we have,—1, animal heat; 2, combustion of candles; 3, explosion of gunpowder; 4, friction and percussion: of the latter class, I shall have to no- tice the effect of mining in lengthening the atmospheric co-- Jumn.” “ In attempting to estimate the power of these causes, it will be necessary to keep in mind the nature of the operations of mining, and more especially the state of ventilation and mois- ture, formerly described. It happens that almost all these extraneous sources of heat exist in the very innermost extre- mities of galleries which have only a very partial communica- tion with the shafts and more airy parts of the mine, and in which, consequently, there is very little change of the air. On this account, and, moreover, because the walls of the galleries are not only very bad conductors of caloric, but are absolutely air-tight, the heat, from whatever cause arising, will be very slowly dispersed. ‘The water, also, as it oozes from the Icde in a state of extreme division, will seize and retain the heat, and in many cases, no doubt, will convey it to the inferior ¢al- * Jlere there was a strong current of air. . 3K2 leries 4A Summary Review of the late Investigations leries by infiltration through the porous lode. The gases ex- tricated from the exploded gunpowder being of superior gra- vity to air, may, in like manner, be safely considered as car- riers of temperature to the inferior parts of the mine. Of the actual power of all these various sources in raising the tem- perature of mines, I shall now proceed to make more parti- cular inquiry.” From the experiments of Count Rumford and Mr. Dalton, Dr. Forbes estimates, that one pound of tallow, during com- bustion, will produce an elevation of 1° in the temperature of 1872 gallons of water. He considers the whole produce of heat from the explosion of gunpowder to be equal to that re- sulting from the combustion of an equal weight of charcoal, and thus, reasoning from the experiments of Crawford and Dalton, that the explosion of one pound of gunpowder will raise 980 gallons of water 1°. With regard to the operation of friction and percussion in raising the temperature of mines, Dr. F., “ without taking any notice of the effect of the friction of the pumps, rods, &c., the incessant operation of rending the lode and rock by the pick-axe and lever,” only considers “‘the probable influence of borivg the rock for the reception of the gunpowder for blasting.”.........“¢ What may be the precise amount of heat evolved by this operation,” he says after a preparatory estimate, ‘I am at present quite unpre- pared to say; nor am [I sure that I can form a conjecture re- specting it at all approximating to the truth. I should, how- ever, be disposed to consider the action of four borers con- tinued for 24 hours, as equal to the effect of the combustion. of one pound of candles. By this supposition 16 lbs. of pow- der in the expenditure of a mine, will represent the efiect of one pound of tallow in combustion.” Respecting the effect of the animal heat of the miners evolved during respiration in contributing to raise the temperature of the mines, Dr. Forbes observes, after some introductory remarks, “ It is probable that the whole of the expired air is not raised to the temperature of the body; it is also certain that the mean temperature of air in mines is considerably above the mean of the climate: making allowances, then, for both these circumstances, it will perhaps not be far from the truth to suppose that the air respired by our miners receives an aug- mentation of only 30°. Irom these data we shall obtain the following results: the respiration of a single miner in 24 hours will raise the temperature of 19,980 cubic feet of air 1°; 9990 cubic feet, 2°; 6660 cubic feet, 3°; 4995 cubic feet, 4°; and soon. Applied to the elevation of the temperature of water, the results- will be in the same time—48 gallons, raised 1°; 24 respecting the Temperature of Mines. 445 24 gallons, 2°; 16 gallons, 3°; 12 gallons, 4°; and so on.— To this we may add 1-20th of the whole, for the effect of heat _ generated at the surface of the body.” “< To these direct sources of heat in mines I have now to add another, which, although quite unconnected with the ope- rations of the miner, results from them. This is a cause which must be of universal operation, yet has not hitherto, as far as I know, been suspected to be at all concerned in the tempera- ture of mines. What I allude to is the lessened capacity for caloric, of the air in mines, in consequence of its increased. density. It has been long known that the temperature of the atmosphere decreases as we ascend in it; and it has been as- certained that the rate of decrease is about one degree of Fahrenheit for every 300 feet....... The converse of course is true......but in estimating the heating power of this source it will not perhaps be right to allow one degree of increase for every 300 feet, in mines generally, as this is the maximum that can happen in any case; and as there are so many situations in which there is hardly any current, and where, consequently, the increase must be much less, perhaps it may be sufiicient to allow 1° of increase over the whole of a mine, for a descent of 600 feet.” ‘* Let us now apply the results of these calculations to a sin- gle mine; and, in the first place, let us confine our attention to the temperature of the water, as both the actual quantity and heat of this are much more readily estimated than those of the air. I take Huel Vor as an example.” ** The monthly expenditure of candles in this mine, as has been already mentioned, is 3000lbs., that of gunpowder 3500lbs.—the number of men employed under ground 548, of which 180 are constantly there.” ‘‘ Supposing then that the whole of the extraneous and artificial caloric, extricated in mines, goes to the elevation of the temperature of the water (and this is allowing, of course, a vast deal more than the truth), the following will be the quantity of water, according to the foregoing calculations, raised every month in Huel Vor from the mean temperature Ot 82° 10.87 "sor Ube 2” Gallons. 3000 lbs. of candles (125 galls. per lb.) ... 375,000 3500 lbs. of gunpowder (63 galls. per lb.) 220,500 Friction and percussion ....ceceeeesssseeess 27,340 Bodies of 180 mem ccccoscoecceseccssccsccsess 18,140 Total per month 640,980 * This is littke more than one-cightieth part of the water actually discharged at the adit, of the temperature of 67°.” “ In the above calculations I have made no allowance 7 the 446 Summary Review of the late Investigations the 14° of temperature, which, according to my previous ad- missions, ought to arise from the increased length of the at- mospheric column; but I apprehend that some part of this must be allowed for the loss of temperature in the process of raising the water to the adit-level.” “I ought to apologize to the Society for submitting to its notice calculations so vague, and perhaps gratuitous, as the above. My reasons for doing so are, my anxiety to induce others to submit the subjects of my rude conjectures to the test of experiment, and my desire to have some tangible quan- tity to base my future reasonings on. Some of my calculations may be found erroneous; but I am convinced that, however erroneous, they afford ample proof of the inadequacy of all the artificial and extraneous sources of heat in mines, to account for the temperature indicated in them by the thermometer. Hence it follows, that the natural temperature of the earth in the mines of Cornwall, at the depths mentioned, must be very considerably above that of the mean of the climate. This’ conclusion is equally deducible from many facts which have been observed in mines. The most conclusive of these, is the high temperature of ‘extensive collections of water in aban- doned mines, or in parts of mines that have been long aban- doned. In many cases of this kind it is impossible to believe that the temperature can have been derived from any other source than the rocky walls of the cavity in which it is con- tained; and as these walls could not derive their temperature from any foreign source, the conclusion is equally in favour of the natural high temperature of the body of the earth at certain depths. An example of this kind is given in the account of Botallack mine, where the temperature of a large isolated collection of water is stated to be 62° at a depth of about 400 feet from the surface.” ‘* A still stronger instance, perhaps, in support of the same conclusion, is afforded by the details of the other submarine mine, Little Bounds. This mine was formerly worked to the’ depth of 500 feet. Of late years very little has been done, and the water has risen to within forty fathoms of the adit, where it is kept stationary by the partial operation of the pumps. There is thus a permanent body of water extending from the depth of 300, to that of 500 feet below the surface, and to per- haps half that distance horizontally. ‘This water, as discharged by the pumps (in 1822), is of the temperature of 564°. It is needless to remark that the daily presence of half a dozen men, and the daily consumption of a couple of pounds of candles, and as many of gunpowder, could have no perceptible effect in augmenting the temperature of the vast body of water that inundated respecting the Temperature of Mines. 447 inundated the lower galleries of this mine. The inference scems here irresistible.” “« The temperature of 55° was found by Dr. Davy and my- self in the water of the abandoned mines of Huel Bog and Huel Fortune.” “* In adopting the inevitable conclusion of the inadequacy of all the extraneous sources of temperature in mines, at pre- sent known to us, to account for the degree of heat found in them, and in the water discharged from them, it must be al- lowed that this extraneous temperature has a considerable ef- fect in modifying the results observed in many parts of them. In proof of this I may refer to almost every page of my jour- nals; and I mention it here chiefly for the purpose of impress- ing the necessity of keeping the fact in view, in making future observations in mines, and in drawing inferences from those already made.” ** It is much more easy to be convinced of the fact of an in- crease of temperature, than to ascertain its precise amount, at - any particular depth. Indeed, this part of our inquiry is ex- tremely difficult, and for several very obvious reasons. The principal of these seem to be, 1. The impossibility in any part of a mine, of determining, with any thing like precision, the exact amount of temperature produced by the extraneous causes existing there: 2. The tendency of heated air to ascend, and of water, and perhaps the gases from gunpowder, to de- scend, thereby carrying the temperature of one part of a mine into another: 3. The great discrepancy (perhaps a conse- quence of the two former causes) between observations at si- milar depths, in the same mine, or in different mines, under circumstances apparently very similar. But although almost every page of my journals shows the difficulty of fixing the precise degree of temperature at particular depths, I think they prove irretragably the progressive increase of this as we ad- vance downwards.” *‘ Perhaps one of the most conclusive and striking proofs of the increase of temperature as we recede from the surface of the earth, will be afforded by the relative temperature of the pump water of the same mines at different times. The only trials of this kind that have been made, to my knowledge, are the following: In 1819 the pump water of Huel Neptune, then of the depth of 540 feet, was 60°: in 1822, when the depth was 750 feet, it was 62°. In 1819 the water of Botal- lack, then 510 feet in depth, was 62°: in 1822, when the mine was 670 feet deep, it was 67°. No material change in the con- dition of these mines had taken place during the interval, ex- cept the increase of depth, to which the augmentation of the temperature could be attributed.” [To be continued.] [ 448 J XCI. Sketch of a Course of Lectures on Metallurgy; deli- vered at the London Institution, February 1823. By Jonn’ Taytor, Esq. Treasurer of the Geological Society. [Concluded from p. 374.] Lecture II. i the last lecture it was inferred from the language of the earliest poets, that several of the metals were operated upon by means not very dissimilar from those now in use. Steel had even an appropriate name among the Romans, di- stinguishing it from iron, and this name was said to be derived from that of a people distinguished for their skill in the ma- nagement of their iron mines. The discovery of this prepara- tion of the metal would argue considerable advancement in knowledge of this sort. We find some of the earliest specimens of weapons to be made of an alloy of copper with tin, which forms a metal al- most as hard as steel, without however possessing the other valuable properties of the latter. There would be great pro- bability in this being made before steel, and being applied to similar uses; but we are not without evidence on this head, as Hesiod expressly says, that in the early ages the arms and in- struments of the primitive heroes were composed entirely of brass. Lucretius also, speaking of the weapons of the ancients, says that the use of brass was known before that of iron. The Phoenicians, a people derived from the Canaanites, and whose existence as a separate nation ceased 6 or 700 years before Christ, were famous for many arts, such as weaving fine linen, making glass, and particularly are recorded as having extraordinary skill in working the metals. ‘Their fame was high for taste, design, and ingenious invention, and their com- merce so extended by their industry and knowledge, that their ships even reached this country, and visited Cornwall for the tin which they purchased there. After the Phoenicians, we find the arts which they possessed principally in the hands of the Egyptians, and that a consi- derable quantity of real chemical knowledge which the- pos- session of such arts would indicate, became mixed up, accord- _ ing to the custom of the country, with fable and hypothesis, and passed chiefly into the hands of their priests. This seems to have been the case even in the time of Pliny: it was, however, communicated probably te the Alexandrian Greeks, among the famous mysteries of the time; and as the complicated Mr. J. Taylor’s Lectures on Metallurgy. 4.4.9 complicated ceconomy of the Egyptian hierarchy declined, by the consequences of the Roman conquest and other causes, the knowledge of some of their arts became diffused into Eu- rope, and with it the spirit that pervaded their philosophy. To this we may trace the study of Alchemy, which has been called “an art without art, the beginning of which is Sualsehood, the middle hard labour, and the end beggary.” Such a summary condemnation ought not however, perhaps, to be passed on a pursuit which at any rate has procured for after times much knowledge, merely because we with superior knowledge can see the absurdity of many of its pretensions, or can detect the imposture of many of its professors. The principal object of the alchemists was to make gold and silver: they imagined a certain mysterious sympathy between the metals and the heavenly bodies of our solar system ; they de- signated them by the same names, and represented them b the same characters. The great intrinsic value of the prin- cipal metals naturally engaged a great portion of the atten- tion of those who acquired chemical knowledge; and finding in the pursuit of many experiments unlcoked-for compounds and results, two dominant passions in the human mind were flattered,—the love of scientific discovery, and the desire of gain. The golden age of alchemy commenced with the conquests of Arabian fanaticism in Asia and Africa, and the subjection of Europe to superstition, and the most profound ignorance. From the 10th to the 13th century little is known concerning the state of alchemical studies; but about the latter period Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, and Raymond Lully, who were able men, raised the pursuit to a degree of credit which it little merited; ‘and it is spoken of as the Hermetic philoso- phy, and sometimes as the holy or divine art. : The 15th century exhibited’ the same combination of che- mistry with alchemy; but the language of the professors was less obscure, and the great authors were, during that period, Hollandus (Isaac and John), George Ripley, and Basil Va- lentine. In 1550 appeared the celebrated treatise De Re Metallica by Georgius Agricola; who, though bewildered in his youth by the false philosophy of the times, made ample amends by this admirable work on Metallurgy and Mineralogy. Alchemy now gave way to the increase of knowledge, and to the effect of the experimental method of philosophizing which was in- troduced by the great Bacon, though a certain number of im- postors and some credulous and honest dupes continued at Vol. 61. No. 802. June 1823. 8 L intervals 4.50 Mr. J. Taylor’s Lectures on Metallurgy. intervals to pursue the glittering phantom. The labours of some alchemists were excessive, and their patience almost be- yond belief: experiments were continued for months and even years, and their repetitions of digestions, sublimations and distillations were almost without end. ‘They supposed that there might be two methods to make gold,—by synthesis or composition, and by transmutation. For the first they la- boured to find out the elements of the metals, which they ima- gined would be some metallic earth, and some essence or spirit which they chose to call sulphur. They held a wonderful opinion of what might be discovered in mercury, which seemed to them likely to possess hidden qualities analogous to what they hoped to find from its volatility, and as they thought spi- ritual nature. Another set directed their efforts to the attempt at chan-~ ging the baser metals into gold, and made their experiments mostly for this purpose on lead and copper, attracted, pro- bably, by the weight of the one and the colour of the other. To effect this transmutation, they imagined that it was only necessary to discover the true elixir, or medicine of metals, the tincture, the powder of projection, or philosopher’s stone,— for by such names were their preparations called,—which they imagined would purge away the impurities which only caused the differences between the inferior metals and the perfect ones. In all this there may perhaps be less absurdity than has been urged; the discoveries of modern chemistry have been as wonderful, and might have seemed as improbable, in a ' former state of knowledge; nor can we be surprised, when they observed, for instance, that lead almost always contains a certain portion of silver, and that all metals were capable of improvement by refining processes, that such expectations were excited. At any rate it is admitted, that from the la- bours of many of these men great progress was made in che- mical research, which was useful in many respects, and par- ticularly enlarged the skill and experience of the metallur- gists, as may be seen in the instance of Agricola, whom I have mentioned. Another class of alchemists directed their labours to find an elixir of life, by which all disease was to be removed from the human frame, and existence prolonged to an indefinite period : but this subject only merits notice here as it is connected with the introduction of metallic preparations into medicine, which is another benefit we have derived from these absurd specu- lations. Paracelsus and Van Helmont were the great authors of this branch of the art. ! With Mr. J. Taylor’s Lectures on Metallurgy. 451 With such motives, great ardour, and often with a large share of real chemical knowledge, it is not to be wondered at that the adepts, as they were called, made many discoveries and inventions, and that modern times should have benefited by them. The treatment of the ores, and the reduction and the processes for refining the metals, have therefore long been con- ducted with expertness; though it may be due to the great improvements in chemical science of later times, that we are able to explain satisfactorily the principles on which they depend. To come to a complete understanding relative to the pro- cesses of smelting, or the reduction of the ores so as to obtain the pure metals, we must bear in mind the compound nature of these substances; observing, First, that all the ores are much mixed with earthy matter even after the operation of dressing or washing, which has been described, so that these earthy parts often bear a large proportion to the whole. Secondly, That volatile mineralizers, or substances which may be dissipated or evaporated by heat alone, enter in most cases into the composition of the ores. These, as has been mentioned, are sulphur, arsenic, carbonic acid, as the most common, and having therefore considerable influence on the processes. Thirdly, That other substances are found combined with the metals which cannot be evaporated simply, but may be separated by the addition of other bodies to which they have greater chemical affinity. These are first and principally oxy- gen, and occasionally some acids. Lastly, That the metals being obtained when the foregoing admixtures are got rid of in a state of union one with the other, or at least to a certain extent, it must follow that, to have the one which we want in a pure state, the others should be separated or destroyed. The processes which are employed for all these objects are: Calcination or roasting ; Fusion or melting ; Refining, which is performed in several modes. All these operations require the application of heat; and in most of them it is urged to a great degree of intensity. The furnaces employed are of two classes :—Blast furnaces, where the fire is excited by the use of bellows or air cylinders constantly working ; and air furnaces, where the effect is pro- duced by strong draught, occasioned by the height or construc- tion of the stacks or chimneys. Blast furnaces are almost entirely employed in the reduction of the ores of iron, and are for that purpose os aac On $L2 arge 452 Mr. J. Taylor’s Lectures on Metallurgy. large dimensions. Ofa smaller size they are very commonly used in iron foundries, where pig-iron is simply melted for making various articles of cast-iron; and similar furnaces are in use in what are called the blowing-houses in Cornwall, for the finer kind of tin called Grain-tin. Blast furnaces of a small kind, called Hearths, are much employed also in Cumber- land and Yorkshire for melting lead ore; but they are nearly confined to this district, as the Derbyshire and Welsh smelters prefer air furnaces. . The fuel is mostly in use for the blast furnaces is coke, or coal charred so as to drive off its bituminous part; this is common for iron. In lead ores the principal fuel is peat or turf with a small mixture of coal. And for tin ores they em- ploy wood charcoal; coal would not answer, as it would cake together and prevent the proper action of the furnace. Air furnaces for smelting are of a construction which is usually called a Reverberatory, though they have also some other local appellations.- It is not unlike a large flat oven with the fire-place at one end and the chimney at the other; so that the matter to be acted upon being placed in the bottom be- tween the flame playing over it, and reverberating upon it, produces the effect desired. These furnaces are used with a gentle draught and a moderate red heat for calcining or roasting, and with a stronger draught and an intense heat for fusion or flowing, and also for refining. ‘They are the fur- naces for copper ores, for lead ores in many places, and for the greater part of the tin ores. Common coal is the fuel used in them, and is the best adapted for them, as the strong flame it gives is just what is required, and the fire-places are so constructed that the fire can be stirred and supplied at pleasure. The first operation which we shall notice, as it is the first in order in the large way, is that of calcination. ‘The object here is to evaporate the volatile substances, or such as may be driven off by heat or converted into a gaseous or aériform state. These are most commonly sulphur and arsenic, and occasionally some acids. Another effect is often produced by roasting or calcination; which is the oxidizing some inferior metal: when the subse- quent fusion takes place, it is got rid of by its combining with the earthy matter in the form of an impure glass called scoria or slag. This happens in the calcination of copper ores, where the iron is oxidized, while the copper is not much al- tered. Calcination of copper, lead and tin ores is performed in re- verberatory Mr. J. Taylor’s Lectures on Metallurgy. 453 verberatory furnaces at a moderate red heat. - In the copper works in South Wales, each furnace contains full three tons of raw ores, which are frequently turned, to expose fresh surfaces, for twelve hours. Lead ores are treated in the same manner, in the same fur- nace often, which with a higher heat is used to melt them, and the charge seldom exceeds a ton. Tin ores being, as has been explained, simple oxides, and not decomposable in this way, are roasted or calcined princi- pally to alter the specific gravity of the pyrites with which they are mixed, which thus may be separated by subsequent dressing or washing. ‘The furnaces for this purpose in Cornwall are called burning-houses. Iron ores, though commonly oxides, are often mixed with sulphurets or iron pyrites, and are roasted to free them from the sulphur; this however is not done in furnaces, but the ore is stratified with refuse coal and burnt in large heaps in the open air. At the Paris and Mona copper mines in the island of Anglesea, where the ores are poor in metal, but contain a large proportion of sulphur, they are treated in the same way, except.that they do not find it necessary to use coal, as a small quantity of wood is suflicient to set the ore on fire, and com- bustion goes slowly on, owing to the sulphur; a heap of 300 or 400 tons is eight months in burning, and some of the sul- phur is sublimed and is condensed in chambers or vaults to which the flues are conducted. _ In the process of calcination sulphur is generally inflamed, and uniting with the oxygen of the atmosphere is converted into sulphurous acid gas, which mixed as it is with the vapour of certain volatile metals, such as arsenic, zinc, antimony or lead, forms a dense and suffocating smoke destructive of ve- getation, but it does not appear so prejudicial to animal life, except where lead is prevalent. Whoever has seen the coun- try round the copper works at Swansea, will have observed the desolating effect of the smoke; and yet it is proved on the best evidence that the men are not subject to any peculiar dis- ease. One set of works there belonging to Messrs. Vivians, who purchase the ores from the mines in Cornwall, sometimes work at the rate of 600 tons per week. ‘These gentlemen have lately constructed, at a great expense, erections to con- dense the noxious vapours, and upon which they have con- sulted Mr. Phillips and other eminent chemists. They have altogether 84 reverberatory furnaces, of which 25 are used for calcining. The 454 Mr. J. Taylor’s Lectures on Metallurgy. The ores being deprived of sulphur, or at least to a certain degree,—for one calcination dees not effect this completely,— the next step in smelting is to get rid of all the earthy mixture, which is done at once by the simple operation of bringing the whole into a state of fusion. It has already been stated that some of the metallic oxides combine with certain earths in fusion, and act powerfully as a flux, which is a term employed for substances that pro- mote the fusibility of others in the fire. It is also necessary to remark, that although a single earth, as silex, for instance, is nearly infusible by itself in our strongest fires, yet by mixing the earths together their fusibility is increased, and we obtain the power of rendering them all fluid by heat. Further, that some of the earths and some of the metallic oxides possess this influence in a greater degree than others. ‘Thus lime in all its states, but particularly in that of fluor-spar, and oxide of lead, are the most powerful assistants of the fusion of earthy matter in general, or the best fluxes. Many salts, indeed, possess this property to a much greater extent; but they are far too expensive for use in the larger ope- rations of smelting, though they are much used for trials in the smail way called Assays. Now as the ores commonly contain different mixtures in different mines, and as it results from what has been said that such a combination as may be thus expected is useful in pro- moting the fusion of the whole; the smelters find it desirable to mix the ores from different veins on this account; but as even this does not always succeed sufficiently, an addition is commonly made of lime, limestone or fluor-spar. With a mixture of these, the ores are submitted to the strongest action of the fire; complete fusion of the whole mass takes place; the earthy parts form a fluid impure glass, being completely vitrified; the metallic parts of the ore, either quite free from sulphur or in a degree combined with it, are also en- tirely melted, and a perfect separation takes place, owing to the great difference in the specific gravity of the substances ;— the earthy glass in a liquid state, which is now called slag or scoria, occupying the upper place, and the metallic part by its weight sinking down and forming a liquid stratum of melted metal underneath, where also it is protected from oxidation and evaporation from the intense heat applied. The whole is in some cases stirred, to assist the precipitation of the metallic matter to the bottom of the furnace; in other cases this is left to take place of itself. The fusion of copper ores is conducted in reverberatory fur- naces Mr. J. Taylor’s Lectures on Metallurgy. 455 naces at a high degree of heat, and the slag is raked off in a fluid state. Lead and tin ores are treated in nearly a similar manner. Iron smelting is carried on in blast furnaces of very large dimensions, in which coke is employed as fuel, and limestone is used as a flux. Copper of the first flowing is in part com- bined with sulphur, so as to require subsequent calcinations and repeated fusions before it comes to the refining process. Lead is generally produced pure in one operation from the reverberatory furnace, and also from the blast-furnace, where the sulphur is dissipated partly by the application of heat, and partly by combining with the lime which is used. ; Tin being produced from an oxide, some carbonaceous matter, such as smallcoal, is used in mixture with the ores; the carbon unites with the oxygen and leaves the metal pure, ex- cept as it may happen to be mixed with other metallic sub- stances. By the operations which have been described, the whole metallic contents of the ores are produced in a separate state, the volatile part being dissipated by calcination, and the earthy part by being converted into slag, which is easily detached from the metal: it is evident however, that if more metals than one exist in the ores, they will all be reduced by the same treatment, and therefore we may, and often do, procure an alloy more or less complicated. © — The purification’ of the metals is performed by various processes of fining, which are suited to their several qualities, and advantage is taken of the different properties in each to effect this. Thus, some metals are refined by their having less affinity for oxygen than others; such as gold, silver, and copper : these not being easily oxidized in the fire, may be exposed to a strong and continued heat, which converting the inferior metals into oxides, they rise to the surface of the melted mass, from which they may be‘removed by various means. An example of this is the separation of lead from silver. This operation is called Testing or Cupellation. Another mode of refining is, when one metal is more fusi- ble than another, whereby a separation of the two may be effected :—Thus tin of the first melting often contains some iron or copper, but being melted at a very low heat, the tin exudes, leaving the others, which do not flow but at a higher temperature. Silver is separated from copper when it is in small proportions by adding lead to the whole infusion. The silver unites with the lead and is separated with it afterwards by 456 Mr. J. Taylor's Lectures on Metallurgy. by a heat which melts it out from the copper. This process is called Eliquation. The silver is separated from the lead afterwards by cupellation, which is a process adapted also to procuring gold. Where metals in the state of oxide are to be reduced into their malleable or proper form, it is done by fusion in con- tact with carbon, as was described in the case of tin ores; and they are therefore mixed with smallcoal, wood, or charcoal. The oxygen leaves the metal, and forms, with the carbon, car- bonie acid, which escapes. Thus litharge, which is the oxide of lead obtained by cupellation, is again brought into the state of lead: this process is called Reviving. Iron in its perfect state is nearly infusible, and it must be largely combined with carbon to make it melt freely, on which account we see the use of smelting the ores in contact with coke. The carbon is separated when it is converted into bar iron; and, in converting this into steel, carbon is again made to combine in another proportion. Copper requires, atter it is freed as much as possible from the other metals, a peculiar treatment with charcoal, and a continued melting heat; which process is called ‘Toughening. The melted metal is much stirred with wooed poles, and after a time assumes the required properties of éxtending under the hammer without being subject to crack. ‘The theory of this process is rather obscure. The volatile metals would of course be dissipated if they were exposed to the heat requisite for melting them out from the substances with which they are mixed in their ores in open furnaces; they are therefore distilled in retorts, which are ge- nerally made of iron. Distillation is employed in this country for obtaining zinc, and abroad also for this metal and in the mines of mercury. The mode of extracting the precious metals most in use in Hungary and other parts of Germany, as well as in all the American mines, is that of amalgamation of the ores with mercury. By this process the gold or silver is dissolved by the mercury and separated from the earthy mixture, and also from the baser metals which do not so readily combine with the mercury. This process requires however that the ores should be previously calcined to decompose the sulphurets, and an addition of common salt is added to facilitate this de- composition ; the whole is then finely powdered, and triturated in water with the mercury by machines. Subsequent distil- lation separates and preserves the mercury, and the gold or silver is refined in the usual way. This Mr. J. Taylor’s Lectures on Metallurgy. 457 This is a complicated and expensive mode, as it always wastes some of the mercury, which is very costly: however, it is in very general use, and is conducted with great precision in Germany; the process was much improved by Baron Born in 1786. ‘The original application of this method seems to have been in Mexico, in 1566, by a Spaniard called Don Pe- dro Fernandez de Velasco. It is much eulogized by foreign writers, but I have often thought it might be superseded with advantage by simpler processes of smelting and cupellation, as practised in England; and I believe an attempt of this kind is now making by English smelters in Peru. A German’ mineralogist of the name of Raspe some time since translated Baron Born’s works into English, and in a preface strongly recommended amalgamation to our copper miners in Corn- wall. As the ores now raised there amount to 100,000 tons in a year, it is not very likely that we should substitute mer- cury for coal. The metals raised in this country form an important part of our national wealth: they are exported in considerable quan- tities in their unmanufactured state; but a greater proportion are worked up into innumerable forms, and thus contribute much more largely to the general stock, in the employment and encouragement of industry and ingenuity. The most important metals produced in Great Britain are: Iron—Copper—Lead—Tin. With respect to the first, the iron-works of this country, as is well known, are of immense extent, and are rapidly increasing in produce. By improved methods of manufacture, iron has of late years been much reduced in price, and this has in- creased the demand both at home and abroad. The manufacture of iron may be computed at IVVBIES Bisl. sth sescrecdecsticveddesdasee 150,000 tons: Shropshire and Staffordshire..... 180,000 Yorkshire and Derbyshire......... 50,000 Scotland and other places......... 20,000 400,000 5l, per ton 2,000,000 Of the softer metals Mr. Taylor spoke with more certainty, as being largely interested in their production from mines in different parts of the kingdom; of these copper is the most valuable. Vol. 61. No. 302. June 1823. 3M The 458 Mr. J. Taylor’s Lectures on Metallurgy. The vita raised in the last year, he stated, was about 10,000 tons, which, however, is less by near 1000 tons than the preceding year, the falling off being owing to the unfa- vourable effect of a low price upon some of the deep and ex- pensive mines. About 8000 tons of copper, or 4-5ths, are produced in Corn- wall, and the remainder in Anglesea, Devon, Ireland, and Staffordshire. In the year 1800 the quantity of copper raised in the Cornish mines was between’ 5 and 6000 tons; so that there has been an increase since that time of from 2 to 3000 tons. The value of the whole quantity of copper in its unmanu- factured state is about one million. The lead of Great Britain probably amounts to from $0 to _ 32,000 tons. The northern parts of the kingdom, Cumberland, Durham, and Northumberland, produce .....sse+eseseeeeee06 12,000 tons North Wales and Shropshire ........s02e020. 8,000 Mier kGire 55. Widest sawed cds gta owevevet « eERSOS Derbyshire, ic. ivesivessctcetierstevecseessss’ ou! 4y000 Scotland, Devon, Cornwall, & South Wales 3,000 31,500 The value of the lead is altogether about 750,000/. Tin, as before stated, is only found in Cornwall and Devon, _ and the quantity has fluctuated from 2800 to 5000 tons in the year; of late we may reckon it at somewhat above 3000 tons, and on the increase, in consequence of an advance in price. The whole value is about 400,000/. We have also certain quantities of zinc, manganese, silver, antimony and cobalt; but of these it is difficult to estimate the quantity or value. The aggregate value of the metals of the kingdom is thus more than four millions, but is increased enormously when manufactured ; and they (the metals) are the foundation of im- portant branches of our commerce in our unrivalled fabrica- tion of hardware. Iron is exported to almost all parts of the world in its raw as well as in its numerous states, and in an infinite diversity of useful and ornamental forms, which it would be tedious to at- tempt to describe. ‘Copper is employed largely in its simple state, particularly rolled into sheet; and is also very much-used in mixture with other metals, it being the principal constituent in brass, gun- metal, and pot-metal. The town of Birmingham alone is said to Mr. Groombridge on the four Minor Planets. 459 to require 2000 tons a year for its varied manufacture. About $000 tons have of late been annually sent to the East Indies and America (United States); the West Indies and different countries in Europe take from us considerable supplies. Of the large portion of lead which our mines produce, a considerable part is worked up into forms which at once de- stroy it, so that it does not return again for use. Thus 5000 tons a year are made into small shot, partly for home con- sumption and partly for exportation. The quantity made into white and red lead and principally used as pigments, and part converted into the glazing of pottery, or an ingredient of glass-making, is little, if at all, short of 10,000 tons. Tin is an article of export to most countries: a great deal is often sent to China, and in the manufacture of tinned plate, or thin rolled iron coated with tin in the manner described above, is a large article of commerce. Mr. Taylor concluded by stating, that the subject might be pursued in another direction, by considering some of the most important metals separately, and by showing more in detail the application of principles which he had generally noticed, which at some future period he might perhaps attempt. XCII. Apparent Places of the four Minor Planets at and about the Time of their ensuing Opposition. Dist. from Opposition. Anomaly. the Earth. Pallas 1823. Oct. 4th 20° 73° 55’ 184 ~Rad. © Vesta .. Nov. 7th 17 335 34 1°57 Ceres... Nov. 21st 11 91 49 1°76 Juno 1824. April 18th 21 336 25 2°27 WHE distance of Pallas and Juno at their opposition will render their light so very faint, that it is doubtful whether they can be seen; especially the former, from the rapid change in declination, which will remove it from the field of view of the preceding night. The succeeding oppositions will not happen till 1825. Blackheath, June 14, 1823. S. GrooMBRriInGE. 3M2 PAL- 460 Apparent Places of the four minor Planets PALLAS. 1823, AR Dec. S. at 1a flag Seta. Sept. 12 |1 25 28 7,22 13 aot 18 14 24 37 344 15 24 10 51 16 23 42 8 7% 17 23 13 24 18 22 42 41 19 22) 129 58 20 Qi 35 9 145 21 81, 0 $14 22 20 24 48s 23 19 48! 10 5 24 19 12 22 25 18 35 39 26 7 O, 554 Si 17 18 | 11 122 28 16 39 29 29 15 59 46 30 15 18} 12 Qt Oct. 1 14 36 19 2 13 53 355 3 13 8 52 4 12 22/13 8 5 11 36 24 6 10 50 40 7 10 3 56 8 915} 14 11¢ 9 8 28 27 10 7 40 42 11 6 53 57 12 6 5] 15 11¢ 13 5 18 26 14 4 30 40 15 3 42 54 16 2uo5 (6 S 17 258 214 18 ie A 35 19 O 35 48 20 (0 59 50 | 17 OF 21 BO eo5 13 22 58 21 25 23 57 39 if 24 56 57 485 25 56 16] 18 O 26 55 34 11 27 54 52 215 28 54 10 32 29 53 30 42 30 52 50 515 31 5212; 19 OF Nov. 1 51 34 8 R ~. | Dee. N. VESTA. 1823. Te eae Oct. 12 {3 24 53 13 24 14 14 23 35 15 22 54 16 22 11 17 21 26 18 20 41 19 19 54 20 19 5 21 18 16 22 17 25 23 16 34 24 15 41 25 14 48 26 13 53 CA 12 58 28 ie) oe 29 ll 4 30 10 5 31 9 5 Noy. 1 8 5 2 Wi Ss 6053 4 5a 5 4 1 6 ae O ve 1 59 8 0.57. 9 |2 59 55 10 58 53 ll b7R5T 12 56 50 13 55 49 14 54 48 15 53 48 16 52 48 17 51 50 18 50 53 19 49 56 20 49 O 21 48 4 22 47 9 23 46 14 24 45 20 25 44 26 26 43 34 27 42 44 28 41 55 29 41 8 30 40 23 Dec. 1 39 40 at and about the Time of their ensuing Opposition. 461 CERES. JUNO. 1823. | MR. | Dec. N. | 182% | MR. | Dec S. at 12" jh at122 |h Oct. 31 |4 10 56| 13 46 |Mar. 24 |14 92 51| °3 18: Nov. 1] 1013] 46 25| 2218| 11 2; 928| 46 26| 21 45 4 3| s41| 46 27| 21 10| 2 56 4| 752] 46 28 | 2035) 482 SP. 7 3): 46 29| 1958) 41 6| 612] 46 so} 1921] 34 7| 521 46 31| 18 42} 961 8} 428| 46 |Aprili] 18 3/ 19 9} 335] 46 2}. 1792; 114 10| 241] 46 3| 16 41 4 11| 147] 46 4| 16 0] 1 564 12| 052] 46 5| 1518] 49 13 |3 59 56| 46 6| 1435] 414 14| 58 501 46 7| 13 52] 34 15| 58 2| 46 s| 13 8| 97 16| 57 4| 46 9} 1223/ 194 17| 56 6| 46 io} 11 38/ 19 is| 55 7| 464 11} 10 53 5 i9| 54 8| 47 12| 10 7| 0 574 20| 53 9| 47 13| 921] 504 a1| 5210] 473 14| 834] 43 22| 51 11 48 i5| 7 47| 36 23| 50 11 483 i6| 7 o| 99 24} 4911| 49 i7| 613] 922 25| 4811| 494 is| 526] 15 26| 47 11 50 i9| 4 39 4 a7| 4612] 51 20| 3 52 2 28 | 45 14 515 North 29| 4416] 59% Ql 3 4) 0 41 30| 4318] 53 22| 216 11 Dec. 1| 42 21 54 23 128] 174 2) 4195] 55 24| 040} 234 3| 4029| 56 25 |13 59 53} 298 4| 3934] 57 26| 59 6| 354 5| 3839] 582 a7| 5819} 414 6| 3745] 59 28 | 57 33| 47 7| 3652/14 1 29| 5647] 53 8 | 35 59 a4 30| 56 1| 58% 9| 35 7 4 |May 1| 55 16] 1 4 10| 3417 54 2| 54 31 ot 11} 33 99 7 3| 53 47| 148 12| 32 41 8 4} 53 3} 195 13 | 31 55 104 5| 5220) 24 14| 31 10 124 6| 5138} 284 15 | 3097 144 7| 50 56| 33 16 | 29 44 164 8| 501 37 i7| 29 2 183 9| 4934) 41 is} 2822} a1 10} 48.55; 45 i9| 9743] 93 11| 4816) 49 20| 27 6| 25 12| 47 38} 53 [ 462 ] Sokal XCIII. Notices respecting New Books. Recently published. ESCRIPTION of the Universal Telegraph, for Day and Night Signals. By C. W. Pasley, Lieut. Col. Royal En- gineers and F.R.S. Descriptions of an Electrical Telegraph, and of some other Electrical Apparatus. By Francis Ronalds. M. Plana of Turin has just published an excellent memoir on the theory of astronomical refraction; in which, amongst other things, he refutes the theory of Dr. Young, and points out a singular mistake into which he has fallen, in his paper ~ inserted in vol. 58 of this Magazine. Preparing for Publication. Mr. J. F. Daniell, F.R.S., has in the press a volume of Me- teorological Essays, embracing, among others, the following important subjects: the Constitution of the Atmosphere ; the Radiation of Heat in the Atmosphere ; Meteorological Instru- ments; the Climate of London; the Construction and Uses of a new Hygromeiter. Mr. W. West of Leeds is about to publish in a separate form, with additions, his Analysis of the New Sulphur Spring at Harrowgate. ANALYSIS OF PERIODICAL WORKS ON BOTANY. Flora Londinensis. We are very happy to learn that arrangements have been made for se- curing the regular continuance of that truly national work, the FLora Lonprnensis. One Number of the new Edition of the OLp Series (or that which was edited by Mr. Curtis, but which had long been wholly out of print); and one Number of the Continuation, or New Series, are hence- forth to appear on the first day of each month, until the Old Series shall be completed, which will take place in about nine months; when the Con- tinuation alone will be regularly carried on as heretofore. During Mr. Curtis’s lifetime it is well known that he had it in contem- plation to make the Frora Lonpryensis, notwithstanding its title, include all the plants of Great Britain; and he had already introduced some plants whose habitats were far removed from the environs of the Metropolis. It is the intention of the present Proprietors to carry this plan fully into effect ; or should any thing, from peculiar circumstances, require to be omitted, it will be among the more common and more minute of the Cryptogamic sub- jects. As Dr. Hooker, Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glas- gow, who has so zealously and successfully studied the Botany of the British Isles, has offered not only to edite the republication of the old series, but also to supply all the materials, both of drawings and descriptions, for the Continuation, the public will be secure that nothing will be wanting in all that concerns correctness of description, fidelity in the figures, and the most accurate and important dissections of the various parts of fructification; and the colouring is superintended by Mr. Graves, whose great abilities in his profession are generally known, Of , i Analysis of Periodical Works on Botany. 463 Of that pat of the work originally published by Mr. Curtis, 62 out of 72 numbers have been re-published, with all the improvements and corrections which the vast additions that have been recently made to the science require, and with new dissections of flowers and fruit, when they have been wanting, to the plates. The generic as well as specific characters are given, and the natural orders to which the plant belongs, together, under some one of the species, with the character of that order, taken either from Jussieu, Brown, or De Candolle. The same arrangement with regard to the descriptive part is adopted in the New Series as appears in the Old; of this 28 numbers have now been published, which contain, besides many of our native plants, which are familiar to the most common observer, several that are of great rarity, and others that have never before been given as natives of Great Britain. Among the latter class may be mentioned the charming Primula scotica, the Luzula arcuata, and the Juncus arcticus. Several alpine plants are here introduced, drawings and descriptions of which Dr. Hooker’s northern residence and frequent visits to the Highland mountains give him the greatest facility of obtaining. Flora Exotica. The Fourth Part of Dr. Hooker’s Exotic Flora appeared on the first of this month, and most assuredly does not yield in point of interest to any of the preceding ones. It is gratifying to see appearing from Glas- gow a work which, in the execution of the plates and accuracy of descrip- tion, is second to none of the numerous Botanical publications of the present day; and which we are confident must maintain a high rank among them. The Author has, indeed, at his command, the collections of the northern parts of the British dominions: besides his own fine Herbarium, which affords so many choice Ferns for publication, and the valuable col- lection of the Royal Botanic Garden of Glasgow, which is immediately under his care, he has free access to the rare subjects in the Liverpool Garden, rich in tropical plants, especially in the families of Scitaminee and Orchide@, and to the magnificent new Garden at Edinburgh, which, whe- ther considered in regard to its extent and the richness of the collection, owing to the great skill of the superintendant, Mr. M‘Nab, and the zeal of the Botanical Professor, or the beauty of its situation, may certainly rank among the very first in the kingdom. From some or other of these sources have been drawn most of the sub- jects hitherto given. Amongst those in the present part we shall enume- rate—Tab. 49, a noble new Savifraga, native of Nepal, the Sav. ligulata of Dr. Wallich, allied to our own well-known S. crassifolia, but having the “leaves beautifully ciliated at the margin. Tab. 50, a splendid fig. of Epi- dendrum nutans, with excellent dissections. T. 51, another new Nepal plant, the Cymbidium lancifolium of Hooker. T. 52, Trichomanes elegans of Rudge; a singular species of Geum from St. Vincent’s, W. Indies, where it was gathered by the Rev. Lansdown Guilding, who is here mentioned, and we believe with justice, as an admirable Naturalist at this time en- gaged in collecting materials for a Fauna India Occidentalis, T. 53, a va- riety of what Mr. Roscoe considers the true Canna indica, distinguished by. the erect interior, trifid limb of the corolla, T.54, Cardamine resedifolia, a native of Switzerland and Savoy. TT. 55, Pothos violacea, a climbing pa- rasitical plant, remarkable for the purple colour and pellucid nature of its berries. T. 56, Ophioglossum petiolatum, a new species from the W. Indies, and doubtless nearly allied to the O. tee . 57, Begonia ulmifolia of Willd., a fine and handsome species. ‘I’. 58, a new Piperonia rubella, the Piper rubellum of Haworth’s Revision of the Succulent Plants. T. 59, Eu- phorbia cotinifolia, a native of Curassoa, in which country the natives em- ploy 464 Royal Society. ploy the acrid juice to poison their arrows. T. 60, a singular but not hand- some plant of the natural order Composite, Synedrella nodiflora, rendered interesting, however, by an admirable analysis of the fructification. The three following plants are devoted to as many species of a new genus of Ferns, the Pleopeltis of Humboldt, and coming respectively from America, Africa, and northern India. The first, t. 61, the Pleopeltis angusta, Hum- boldt; the second, t. 62, Pleop. ensifolia, Hook., a new species gathered at the Cape of Good Hope; and the third, t. 63, Pleopeltis nuda, was sent to our author from Nepal by Dr. Wallich. XCIV. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. May 29.—" [SHE reading of Mr. W. S. Harris’s Description of a Magnetic Balance, &c. was resumed and concluded; and that of the following paper commenced: A ~ Case of Pneumato-Thorax, with Experiments on the Absorp- tion of different Kinds of Air introduced into the Pleura; by John Davy, M.D. F.R.S. June 5.—Dr. Davy’s paper was concluded, and the follow- ing was read: On Fossil Shells, in a letter to the President ; by L. W. Dillwyn, Esq. F.R.S. The reading of the following paper was begun: Observa- tions and Experiments on the daily Variation of the Horizontal and Dipping Needles, under a reduced directive Power; by Peter Barlow, Esq. of the Royal Military Academy. June 12.—The reading of Professor Barlow’s paper was concluded; and the following paper was read: On Bitumen in Stones; by the Right Hon. George Knox, F.R.S. June 19.—The titles and a small part of the contents of the following papers were read: On Astronomical Refraction ; By James Ivory, Esq. F.R.S. Tables of certain Deviations which appear to have taken place in the North Polar Distances of some of the principal fixed Stars; by John Pond, Esq. F.R.S. Astronomer Royal. On a Case of Pneumato-Thorax in which the Operation of Tapping the Chest was performed, with additional Observa- tions on Air found within the Body, &c.; by John Davy, M.D. F.R.S. Account of Experiments made with an Invariable Pendulum in New South Wales; by Major Gen. Sir Thos. Brisbane, K.C.B. F.R.S. Astronomical Observations made at Paramatta; by Mr. Rumker. tg Second Part of Mr. Bell’s paper On the Nerves of the rbit. On Algebraic Transformation as deducible from First chi ciples Linnean Society. 465 ciples and connected with continuous Approximation, &c.; by W. G. Horner, Esq. : On the Apparent Magnetism of Metallic Titanium; by W. H. Wollaston, M.D. V.P.R.S. An Account of the Effect of Mercurial Vapours on the Crew of H.M.S. Triumph, in the year 1810; by William Burnett, M.D. Contributions towards a Natural and Ciconomical History of the Cocoa-nut Tree; by H. Marshall, Esq. On the Diurnal Variation of the Horizontal Needle, when under the influence of Magnets; by S. H. Christie, Esq. The Society then adjourned to the 20th of November next. LINNEAN SOCIETY. June 3.—The following communications were read : Description of a new Species of Erythrina called E. poian- thes; by Felix de Avellar Brotero, Professor of Botany at Coimbra, For. Memb. L.S.: with drawings. Er. foliis ternatis; foliolis lateralibus ovatis, intermedio rhom- beo-ovato; omnibus subtus pubescentibus, rachi petioloque communi, aculeatis, caule arboreo aculeato, calyce oblique truncato: latere superiori vel fisso vel integro, staminibus dia- delphis vexillo vix brevioribus.—Cultivated in the Royal Bota- nical Garden near Lisbon, and elsewhere in Portugal. Native country unknown, probably America. Letter from the Rey. Mr. Whitear of Harleston, Norfolk, stating, that the Little Bustard (Otis tetrax), a native of warm climates stated by Temminck never to be found in the North, had been killed at Butley near Orford, Suffolk, in January last. Specimen now in possession of Mr. Seaman, Ipswich. Extract of a Letter from the Rev. S. L. Jacob to W. G. Ma- ton, V.P.L.S., stating that a Flying Fish (Ezocetus volans) had been caught in July last in the Bristol Channel, ten miles from Bridgewater. Letter from Mr. Robert Anstis relative to a bird shot in the neighbourhood of Bridgewater, varying but little from the Crested Cormorant, and distinguished by having 16 feathers in its tail. Itis remarked that Col. Montagu had invariably found the tail of the Shag to consist of 12 feathers, and that of the Cormorant of 14. June 17.—The following were read : Description of Antelope quadricornis, the Chikara of Bengal ; by Major Gen. Thomas Hardwicke, F.L.S. ‘This antelope is not scarce in India, yet is not hitherto described. It frequents forest and hilly tracts in the western part of Bengal, Bahar and Orissa. About 20 inches high, 2 feet 9 inches long. Between . Vol. 61. No. $02. June 1823. 3.N the 466 Horticultural and Astronomical Societies. the eyes a short pair of spurious horns. Colour bright bay above, whitish beneath. Female without horns, colours lighter. Description of Buceros.—Hornbill without the helmet or rostral appendage, with a pendent gular sac or pouch. By Major Gen. Thomas Hardwicke, F.L.S. Native of the woods about Chittagong and Sylhet. Resembles the description by Shaw of Vaillant’s Calao Javan. The reading of Dr. Francis Hamilton’s Commentary on the 2d part of the Hortus Malabaricus was continued. HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. June 3.—His Majesty the King of the Netherlands was elected a Fellow of the Society. The following communications were read : On the Treatment of Orange Trees; by Mr. John Newman, Gardener to the Hon. Robert Fulk Greville, F.H.S. On the beneficial Effects of liquid Manure when applied to the Vine; by Sir George Stewart Mackenzie, Bart. F.H.S. Some Remarks on the supposed Influence of the Pollen in Cross-breeding, upon the Colour of the Seed-coats of Plants and Qualities of their Fruits; by the President. June 17.—The following communications were read : On a Method of forcing Grapes; by Mr. Peter Lindegaard, Gardener to His Majesty the Kimg of Denmark at Copen- hagen. SG iaeetins for a Mode of heating Forcing-houses and other Buildings; by the Hon. and Rev. William Herbert, F.H.S. On the Construction of temporary Forcing-houses; by Mr. Wade, Gardener to Gregory Gregory, Esq. F.H.S. Description of two Pine Pits upon a new Construction; by Charles Holford, Esq. F.H.S. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. June 13.—This was the last meeting of the Society during the present session. Several valuable presents were received. The reading of Mr. Baily’s paper ‘‘ On the Mercurial Com- pensation Pendulum” was concluded. The author com- mences his paper with an account of the experiments made for the purpose of determining the rates of expansion of the va- rious substances used in the construction of such pendulums : and has given a table, whereby the results of those experi- ments may be readily seen. He has brought forward upwards of 30 different values for the expansion of mercury only, as stated by different authors; and has shown that none of these can be safely applied to experiments with the compensation pendulum, Astronomy. 467 pendulum, without certain modifications which he has pointed out in the paper. He then investigates the principles of the compensation pendulum, and deduces a formula for determin- ing the height of the quicksilver in the cylinder; the result of which is different from those given by preceding writers on this subject. After this, he suggests some improvements on the usual mode of constructing and ‘regulating this pendulum. He proposes the adoption of a slider on the rod, for this latter purpose, similar to the mode recommended by Huygens; and he has given a table for determining the effect of a slider of this kind, which need not be more than 1-1000dth part of the weight of the mercury. By means of such a slider the clock can be regulated to a much greater degree of accuracy, than by means of the usual fine screw at the bottom of the rod.— The author closes his paper by suggesting an ceconomical pendulum made of wood and lead, which would cost but a few shillings, but which might be made available for many useful purposes. The Society adjourned its meetings to the 14th of Novem- ber next. [We understand that this Society has awarded its gold medal to Charles Babbage, Esq. for his very ingenious and important invention of the application of machinery to the computation of tables; an invention which we have alluded to in various Numbers of our Magazine; and which the Society are fully aware will be found of singular utility in most of the computations and tables connected with astronomy. We also understand that gold and silver medals have been awarded to some foreign astronomers for discoveries which have been made by them: and likewise that the second volume of the Memoirs of the Society is in the press. ] XCV. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. . ASTRONOMY. M SCHUMACHER has just published and forwarded to * us his Astronomical Tables for 1823, with a preface, writ- ten in the French language: and theyare now to be purchased in this country. It is with much age that we have still to com- plain of the lateness of the period at which this valuable work appears: and we cannot avoid again expressing our earnest wish that M. Schumacher (who has already conferred so many valuable services on astronomy, and who is constantly adding to our obligations on this subject) would endeavour to make 3N2 them 468 Astronomy. them appear more early in the year. ‘There is no man, to whom the world is more indebted for astronomical informa- tion, than to M. Schumacher: and we are persuaded that from his known liberality of sentiment, he will excuse these remarks.—The work in question contains the apparent places (both in right ascension and declination) of the 36 principal stars, for every 10th day in the year; together with the ap- parent place of the pole-star and of § Urse Minoris, for every day in the year, at the time of their upper and lower culmina- tions. Likewise the geocentric position of Mercury, Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus for every day in the year: and their pa- rallax and semidiameter at given portions of the year. There is also given for every day in the year, not only the sidereal time at apparent noon, but likewise the sidereal time at mean noon; and a logarithmic number (denoted by ») which is very useful in computing the time by equal altitudes, from a for- mula given originally by Gauss, and from which some very useful tables have been computed by M. Gerling. The longi- tude of the sun, for every day in the year, and the logarithm of its distance (to seven places of figures) are also subjoined : and the work closes with a small table of the logarithms of A and B for every 10th day in the year, for computing the precession, aberration and nutation, agreeably to the method alluded to by Mr. Baily in our Number for March last. M. Schumacher is also publishing another work, entitled Astronomische Abhandlungen, the first part of .which contains a list of all the comets that have been recorded; with the com- putations of their elements, by Dr. Olbers. In this list we notice the periodic comet observed last year by Mr. Rumker at New South Wales. Its first recorded appearance was in 1786, afterwards in 1795, 1805, 1819, and lastly in 1822: its revolution is performed in about 1205 days. The re-discovery of it, last year, by Mr. Rumker, has confirmed the fact of its revolution; and the result is certainly one of the proudest triumphs of modern science. In the Milan ephemeris for 1823, which has also just reached this country, the editors have studied the convenience of those practical astronomers who observe the moon, by giving her right ascension and declination, at the time of her passing the meridian. In M. Schumacher’s Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 29, are inserted upwards of 300 observations of the moon and certain stars within a short distance of her, when on the meridian, by M. Bouvard of the Royal Observatory at Paris; for the pur- pose of determining the difference of longitude from other ob- servatories, where similar observations have been made. This new Minor Planets.—Sub-carbonate of Soda in India. 469 new method, of confining the observations to those stars which are nearly on the same pa@llel as the moon, and not Jar di- stant from her in right ascension, is capable of great precision ; and must not be confounded with the old and inefficient mode of comparing the moon with avy stars that happen to pass the meridian on the same day. We know not whether any thing of this kind is attempted at the Greenwich Observatory. Such a measure might perhaps have saved much of the expense which has been incurred in determining the difference between the meridians of Paris and Greenwich: an expense which has recently been increased (we know not why) by a fresh trian- gulation of the intermediate country. MINOR PLANETS. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. May I take the liberty of inquiring through the medium of your excellent Journal, whence I may derive the best infor- mation respecting the four new planets, Juno, Vesta, Ceres and Pallas. I understand that tables of their motions have been published, but I have in vain endeavoured to discover by whom. Bode’s Jahrbuch gives the longitude, latitude, &c. of Ceres, but the others are not noticed. The Connaissance des Tems seldom mentions them, and the Nautical Almanac never, I believe. I must apologize for this liberty, and am Sir, Your most obedient Servant, A SupscriBer. [Tables of Vesta are given in the Connaissance des Tems for 1820: but as to the other new planets, we believe that no tables have yet been published. We are indebted to private com- puters for the positions of these stars, at the most interesting points of their orbits.—Enrr. | OCCURRENCE OF NATIVE SUB-CARBONATE OF SODA IN THE PROVINCE OF MALWA IN INDIA. The following particulars on this subject are given by Capt. John Stewart, in the Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay, vol. iii. p. 53. ** In the course of our military operations we happened to encamp for a few days on the banks of the Chumbul, near the village of Peeplouda, situated where the Chaumlee and Chumbul rivers join and form one stream under the latter name. The banks of the river are here steep and broken, composed of a kind of friable clay rock, mixed with loose limestone; the bed of the river consists in many places of basaltic rock, sometimes forming a smooth surface exhibiting the pentagonal form of the columns like a regular pavement. ‘The tops of the bank are 470 Galvanic Apparatus. are covered with a variety of brushwood common to other parts of the country, interspersed by a great number of date trees (Phenix dactylifera). At this season (April 1819) the river was very low, with scarcely any stream, and in many parts the water had formed large stagnant pools. In the course of a walk along the bed of the river, I observed that on the margin of one of the above pools the ground for a considerable space appeared beautifully white: on examining it closely, I found it covered with a fine pure saline efflorescence, in ge- neral about 2-10ths or 3-10ths of an inch in depth, covering a soft, wet, and slippery mud; the taste and appearance of this salt induced me to conclude that it was carbonate of soda, which I found to be the case on taking some of it to my tent. I was naturally anxious to make some search to discover the extent of this bed, and whether similar beds might not be found in other places of the river; but an order, soon after received, to march at midnight, called my attention to objects of a dif- ferent kind.” ‘* From the quantity and apparent purity of the salt on the surface (where I am convinced that with a little care a pound or two might have been collected perfectly clean), there is no doubt of the earth being very richly impregnated with it, and it would only require to be washed and filtered to produce the carbonated alkali in great abundance; and there is every rea- son to believe that there are numberless places in the bed of the river, beside the one I have discovered, equally productive and of greater extent, which might be worked annually in the dry season. I may state that, from the remarkable whiteness of the bed I have mentioned, it is reasonable to conclude that the alkali is here in its native state uncommonly pure.” GALVANIC APPARATUS. A new and powerful apparatus has been constructed at the London Institution by the ingenious W. H. Pepys, Esq. It consists of a single sheet of copper and one of zinc, each 50 feet long and 2 feet broad. They are wound round a wooden centre, and kept apart by pieces of interposed hair-lines. The coil and its counterpoise are suspended by a rope over a tub of dilute acid. When lowered into the tub, its electricity is so low as not to affect the electrometer; even a bit of charcoal serves to insulate it, and it can hardly ignite an inch of pla- tinum wire of 1, of an inch diameter; but when the poles are connected by a copper wire 3 of an inch diameter and 8 inches long, it becomes hot, is most powerfully magnetic, and admi- rably adapted for all electro-magnetic experiments. HIGHLY Beneficial Effects of Vaccination in India. 471 HIGHLY BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF VACCINATION IN INDIA. The subjoined gratifying statement of the effects of vaccina- tion in the Pergunna of Broach, in India, terminates “ A Sta- tistical Account of the Pergunna of Jumboosur, by Thomas Marshall, Esq.” just published in the third volume of the Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay. We ardently hope that the same blessing will, ere long, be extended to the whole native population of Hindustan, according to Mr. Mar- shall’s suggestion. «« No malady, generally incident to the native population of India, is more deserving of notice than small-pox, whether we regard the extent of its ravages, or the value of the check which they have received, and may still further receive, by the introduction of vaccination. This contagion seems to make a sweeping visit throughout the country about once in three years ; five years are a very long and very unusual exemption. At each visit it is supposed that about two-thirds of all capable of receiving the infection are attacked, and of the attacked nearly one half dies ; of the other half, a considerable propor- tion, perhaps one-sixth, is left unfit for the ordinary duties of life, by total or partial loss of eyesight, contraction of joints, incurable ulcers, or mental fatuity. Since the vaccine infection was introduced, in 1812, into the neighbouring Pergunna of Broach, by my predecessor, the small-pox may be said to have altered the habit of its march altogether. It has in that in- terval appeared twice, and the latter time very fatally, on the eastern boundary ; but it made very little progress throughout the vaccinated villages, and never attained the force of a ge- neral contagion. In 1817 and 1818 I re-visited the greater number of the villages where vaccination had been effected four or five years before, and made the most accurate inquiries I could regarding the exemption experienced by the vaccinated subjects during the subsequent visits of the epidemic small-pox; I did not hear of a single instance of such a subject having been attacked, though the numbers regarding whom inquiry was made were not below seven thousand. The people seemed not to entertain the slightest doubt of the vaccine affection im- parting the same immunity to the constitution as it acquires by one suffering the natural disease itself, though their suspi- cious reluctance to the introduction of any novelty would have led them loudly to proclaim any failure in the assurances held out to them, had any such occurred.” « It is much to be wished that some general plan should be adopted, which would ensure to our native village population the benefit of this most important of modern discoveries, once in four or five years. We have made them acquainted with its 4°72 List of New Patents. its value once, and now leave them just where they were. Such a scheme, to have any effect, must be a Government ordinance, and at Government’s expense: the people are far too indiffe- rent, and too poor, to make any advances in such measures of their own accord.” LIST OF NEW PATENTS. To Edward Ollerenshaw, Manchester, Lancashire, hat manufacturer, for a method of dressing and furnishing hats, by means of certain machinery and implements to be used and applied thereto.— Dated 27th May, 1823. To Thomas Peel, of Manchester, Lancashire, Esq. for a rotary engine for the purpose of communicating motion by means of steam or other gaseous media.— 27th May.—6 months allowed to enrol specification. To Stephen Wilson, of Streatham, Surry, Esq. who, in consequence of his own discoveries, and communications made to him by foreigners residing abroad, is in possession of certain improvements in machinery for weaving and winding.—31st May.—6 months. To John Mills, of St. Clement Danes, Middlesex, and Silver-street, Lon- don, and Herman William Fairman, Silver-street, London, merchants, in consequence of a communication made to them by a certain foreigner resid- ing abroad, for certain improvements in rendering leather, linen, flax, sail- cloth, and certain other articles, waterproof.—3lst May.—2 months. To Richard Badnall, of Leek, Staffordshire, silk manufacturer, for certain improvements in dyeing.—3rd June.—6 months. To Thomas Attwood, of Birmingham, Warwickshire, banker, who, in con- sequence of a communication made to him by a person residing abroad, is in possession of certain improvements in the making of cylinders for the print- ing of cottons, calicoes, and other articles.— 3rd June-—6 months. : To Thomas Mills, of Dudbridge, near Stroud, Gloucestershire, cloth dresser, who, in consequence of communications made to him by certain foreigners residing abroad, is in possession of certain improvements in ma- chines for shearing or cropping woollen cloths.—3rd June.— 6 months. To Jacob Perkins, late of Philadelphia, in the United States of America, but now of Fleet-street, London, engineer, who, in consequence of com- munications made to him by certain foreigners residing abroad, and disco- veries by himself, is in possession of an invention of certain improvements in steam engines.— 5th June.— 6 months. To Edward Cowper, of Kennington, Surry, mechanist, for certain im- provements in machines and apparatus for printing calico, linen, silk, wool, paper, and other substances capable of receiving printed impressions.—10th June.—6 months. To Robert Mushet, of the Royal Mint, Tower-hill, Middlesex, Gentle- man, for his mean or means, process or processes, for improving the quality of copper and alloyed copper applicable to the sheathing of ships and other purposes.— 14th June.—6 months. To Richard Pew, of Sherborne, Dorsetshire, Esq. for a new composition for covering houses and other buildings, which will be of great public utility. —17th June.—2 months. To Charles MacIntosh, of Crossbasket, Lanarkshire, Esq. for his process and ‘manufacture whereby the texture of hemp, flax, wool, cotton, and silk, and also leather,paper,and other substances may be rendered impervious to water and air.—17th June.—6 months. To James Smith, Droitwich, Worcestershire, civil engineer, for an appa- ratus for the applying steam to the boiling and construction of solutions in the general crystallizing the muriate of soda from brines containing that salt, melting and refining of tallow and oils, boiling of sugar, distilling, and other similar purposes.— 19th June.—6 months, METEORO- Ee —— ee ee eer a ee Se a UE | C066]. GR eT Pe eer 86 _| LI | 9% (062.1 |S0-F | (6-67 |98-6F) F-6S | 00-08 | :s aunt} Apno[D! ¢P.6z| 69. SS\PS|t9/ZS} t |r | 4 “TT To" TT fees 6g. | ms | bP | fos | 09 | ¥8-62 Apno[) WMA} $9.68 | 66.60} €S|PS|\z9loS] | rt |r | see fee fee dy “ LMN] Sh] oe | Lo 100 pwd rey purer op} Kpnoig|} ¢9.6z | or. 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Esi6veoes} 1 |} 1 11 Po fd OL ae eg | Grd i lkee tora auny MWA! $9-66| OL-0f} 9S/0S9909) 1 |r |r | weft fee |p freee Se- | «nw | 0S | ** |-z9 100.08 Apnojg UT! 19.62 | F6- LoisSigoiso} tr fa lat jsf a fa fg fests [eee ‘N | OS) *** | 99 | $6.62 ound 4A! 09-62 | 26:60] 09 SOOLILG) se) see fog forte] pf cee | po fecesee Joes ‘'N | PF | 0S | 99 | 96.62 auLy WPA) GL-6G| O1- | 9-99) 9G 99|PS] vs fee fp feet fee dy ‘N | 8P | * | zo | Lo.o€ auny WET! 08.6} 11: Csi PSieolts} 1 | 1 [ ea eee on ‘N | TS] ** | 69 | o1-0€ ‘ue durerkavay outs Wt) LS-6% | g0-0€ | S-1S) TSo9zs} tr Ja la festa ii lt ‘N | SG | ** | 96 | Z0.0€ urey! Apnol} 09.62 | g6- PE OOBOCS) + at siete eet ye Slot Slag “m | 4S] ** | 09 | 96-62 eur) Apnold] g¢.6z| 66-6z| 09/PSio9iss] t | y |t |e |_ ta I “mM | OS | “| 19 | 96.62 qy Siu ye ures ‘op MT) GL.6Z| Zt-o¢| 8S) SsiSolccs] ¢ | 1 | 1 Sag at ‘MS | IS |.°** | 69 | 11-0€ ‘ ouny meq! $6.62 | 96. oS SSPOGH TT ler fete "AN | 1S |$6P | 9S | £9.62 ‘wd Fg ures} ourg| Lromoyg S1-6Z | 99. BA SPOTS Gat Shar. leew Be 2] Bek) 7 “MS | &S 1 °° | 9¢ | 26.62 a (IM puny ‘Kpnopy| AUxx09g} 01.67 | Gp. OSLGVIOSOS: & Ter |= al Bae Slt "MS | 8S | ** | PS | SP.6z aN aul med! $6-66) Go. | S2S/esiroice ¢ |r ft feta fa ly “M | 6C | ** | LS | 00.62 bes ‘wd urer ENGRAVINGS. Vol. LVI. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Issetson’s Paper on the Phy- siology of Botany.——A Plate illustrative of Mr. Hatv’s Percussion Gun- Lock; of Dr. Kircuiner’s Pancratic Eye-Tube; and of Mr. Parx’s _ Mooring Blocks.—A Plate exhibiting Sections, &c. of Mr. Mavam’s im- _ proved Gas-Meter.—A Plate exhibiting the Discoveries made by Capt. _ Parry in the Polar Sea, ’ Vor. LVII. A Plate illustrative of Mess. Cixsrep and Ampere’s } Electro-magnetic Experiments, and Mr. Perxins’s Paper on the Come _ pressibility of Water.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Jamtzson’s Marine _ Thermometer Case, and Mr. Jennincs’s Mercurial Log-Glass.—A Plate illustrative of Dr. Hare’s new Modification of Galvanic Apparatus.—A _ Plate representing a Double Canal Lock, originally proposed for the Re- _ gent’s Canal, by Mr. R. H. Gower ; and a Modification of Electro-Mag- netic Apparatus, by Mr. Tatum. Vol. LVIII. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Geo. Innes’s Calculations of _ the Annular Eclipse of the Sun, which will happen on the 15th of May _ 1836.—A Plate descriptive of the Hydrostatic Balances of Isatau Luxens and Dr, Coares.—A Plate illustrative of “An Introduction to _ the Knowledge of Funguses.”—A Plate illustrative of Professor Davy’s _ Lactometer, and of Mr. Joun Murray’s portable Apparatus for restor- _ ing the Action of the Lungs.—A Plate by Porrer, illustrative of Mr. a Scuootcrart’s Account of the Native Copper on the Southern Shore of _ Lake Superior ; and of Dr. Mitrar’s Observations and Experiments on the Rose of Jericho.—With a Porrrait of the Epiror, engraved by Txomson from a Painting by Frazer;—and a Plate by Portsr, illus- trative of Mr. Lerson’s Appendage to Torrt’s Blowpipe. Vol. LIX. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Inperson’s Paper On the _ Flower-buds of Trees passing through the Wood.—A Plate descriptive __ of the Instruments employed in determining Altitudes from the Trigono- _ ™metrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire.-—A Plate illustrative of _ Mr, Ivory’s Theory of Parallel LinesinGeometry; Mr. Leeson’s Safety _ Blowpipe Appendages; Mr. Moore’s new Apparatus for restcring the _ Action of the Lungs in Cases of suspended Respiration ; and Dr, Reape’s ~ Communication on Refraction.—A Plate illustrative of a curious Electro. Magnetic Experiment by Mr. Bartow; and Mrs, Isserson’s Paper on _ the Perspiration alleged to take place in Plants.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Maxsu’s Paper on a particular Construction of M. Ampere’s Ro- * _ tating Cylinder. Vol. LX. A Plate illustrative.of Mrs. Issetson’s Paper on the Pollen of Flowers——A Plate illustrative of a Paper by Mr. R. Tayvor, of Nor- _ wich, on Fossil Bones from the Norfolk Coast.—A ‘Plate illustrative of a _ Paper by F. Barry; Esq. on the Stars forming -the Pleiades——A Plate : illustrative of Prof. Amici’s New System. vos y i . a” . Rae. Uma iF , Shoeelaane,, will meet with every attention. 2 afiet OUR “SO ae ae e a> = Vou.61. . Philosophical Magazine. Jan. 1823, , . ConTENTS OF Nombre 207. I. On Animals receiving “their ‘Nutriment from Mineral ‘Sub: stances. By the ReveW. Kinsy, M.A. FR. 5. F.L.S. .. 0. eee Be II. Thermometrical Experiments in ascertaining the Strength Of Cad the Sun’s Rays ina keen frosty Day, &c. &c. ‘By Dr. W. Burney. © 4s II. Dipamerinl Navigation. 0.3.5 400.53. dees WereMbeweaeld av oe wwe LY. On the Ornithorhynchus paradoxus or Mullingong, its ve- , nomous Spur, and general Structure. By Mr. Parrick Hitt, Sur- eam inthe Royal Navyuy. .. esos sss ssieidvinnec o& cs eau D V._ Observations on the Flexure of Astronomical. Instruments, By Mr. Tuomas Trepcotp, Civil Engineer,.........0eeesee+es+- 10 VI. On certain Species of Carduus and Cnicus which appear to be dicecious. By Tuomas Smirn, Esq. F.RiS. & LiS. .....-. cece es 14 VII. On the Crystallization of Cast Iron. By Mr. Davin Musuet. 22 VIII. On the Declination of the Fixed Stars. By Professor BessEt. Sent from Konigsberg, 29th August 1822. .......cceccecccoses 25 IX. A comparative Statement of some of the different Features in Pillar Work and Way-going Work, in Coal-Mines.—On the Venti- _ lation Of Coal MGnhseeo 68s. bse eee eee vccesersceeess ee SU—oe X, Observations on the Vinous Fermentation ; with a Description of an Apparatus for the Improvement of the Process according to the Method invented by Madame GErRvAIS.........-..+ Sheree oe CORK | XI. A Defence of the New Theory of the Tides, in reply to Mr, v Henry Russevw’s Observations. By Captain ForMAN. ........ 42 XII. Method of determining the Proportion of Carbonic Acid in Mineral Waters. MRR Tet Se Mister ete tice ied syed gates re eeeresveee ee eer eave XIII. On the Application of Potassium in Eudiometry.. By Joun Murmay, FES. MoWiS.'&C, seccecacncesccesceucscomempses OS XIV. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. MaskrLyne's 36 § Stars for every Day in the Year 1823, at the time of passing the Me- ridian of Greenwich, Calculated from Bessex’'s Tables of 1820... 53° On the combined Action of Heat and Pressure on Water, Sui - ZEther, and rectified Oil of Petroleum. By the Baron DE LA Tour. pe bew eens eeees Be Sine muareie a en XV ; tion of a Barometer for measuring Altitudes, con- structed an pe of He sae ote of included Air. By Joun Met cas SC. shrew emcee wercereeeeereese eis. Books : : Entomographia. Ruthe= cat? Works on Zoology and Botany. ..., 63-68 : aened ‘Societies. eevee eoeoerere Dr, vee the 63 iseellanieous Articles,—Obituary.—Dis- si él. ‘IC —~AMalysis of Lava from Vesuvius. Coe Norte Expedition Sk ammary of Meteorological Obser- _ vations for the year 1822.--List of New Patents. —-Meteorological Table. Picseancere since AMnragers nda tae senda oa % Communications for this Work, received by the Editors; q ut Hl “E it & ya » sale ian erect PRINTER, SHOE-LANE, LONDON, ENGRAVINGS. Vol. LV. A Plate exhibiting Sketch of the Comet’s Path of July 1819. —A Plate illustrative of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun on the 7th of September next.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Lane’s Instrument for gathering Fruit; Mr. Youne’s Mode of preparing Opium from the Papaver somniferum; and of Captain Forman’s Essay on a Property in _ Light which hitherto has been unobserved by Philosophers.—A Plate de- scriptive of Mr. CuruBert’s improved Hydro-pneumatic Apparatus, &c. —A Plate illustrative of Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, Refrac- tion, and Inflection of Light, &c.; and Mr. Cuarigs Bonnycastve’s Communication respecting the Influence of Masses of Iron on the Marie ner’s Compass. : Vol. LVI. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Ipsetson’s Paper on the Phy- siology of Botany.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Haxu’s Percussion Gun- Lock; of Dr. Kircuiner’s Pancratic Eye-Tube; and of Mr. Parx’s Mooring Blocks.—A Plate exhibiting Sections, &c. of Mr. Maram’s im- proved Gas-Meter.—A Plate exhibiting the Discoveries made by Capt. Parry in the Polar Sea. «Vor. LVII. A Plate illustrative of Mess. CErstep and Amrere’s Electro-magnetic Experiments, and Mr. Perxins’s Paper on the Com. pressibility of Water.—A. Plate illustrative of Mr. Jamieson’s Marine Thermometer Case, and Mr. Jennincs’s Mercurial Log-Glass.—A Plate illustrative of Dr. Hare’s new Modification of Galvanic Apparatus—A Plate representing a Double Canal Lock, originally proposed for the Re- gent’s Canal, by Mr. R. H. Gower; and a Modification of Electro-Mag- netic Apparatus, by Mr. Tatum. | ays Vol. LVIII. A Plate illustrative of Mr, Geo. Innes’s Calculations of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun, which will happen on the 15th of May 1836.—A Plate descriptive of the Hydrostatic Balances of Isa1an Lukens and Dr. Coates.—A Plate illustrative of « An Introduction to the Knowledge of Funguses.”—A Plate illustrative of Professor Davy’s ° Lactometer, and of Mr. Joun Murray’s portable Apparatus for restor- ing the Action of the Lungs.—A Plate by Porter, illustrative of Mr. Scuooicrart’s Account of the Native Copper on the Southern Shore of _ Lake Superior ; and of Dr. Miixar’s Observations and Experiments on _ the Rose of Jericho.—With a Porrrait of the Epiror, engraved by Txomson from a Painting by Frazer ;—and a Plate by Porrsr, illus- trative of Mr. Leeson’s Appendage to Torrt’s Blowpipe, e Vol. LIX. A Plate illustrative of. Mrs. Inserson’s Paper On the Flower-buds of Trees passing through the Wood.—A Plate descriptive of the Instruments employed in determining Altitudes from the Trigono- _ metrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire.—A Plate illustrative of - Mr. Ivory’s Theory of Parallel Lines inGeometry; Mr. Leeson’s Safety _ Blowpipe Appendages; Mr. Moore’s new Apparatus for restoring the _ Action of the Lungs in Cases of suspended Respiration ; and Dr. Reave’s _ Communication on Refraction.—A Plate illustrative of a curious Electro. _ magnetic Experiment by Mr. Bartow; and Mrs. Inserson’s Paper on _ the Perspiration alleged to take place in Plants.—A Pilate illustrative of Mr. Marsn’s Paper on a particular Construction of M. Ampere’s Ro- _ tating Cylinder. fier OP ACE RES Me : Vol. LX. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Ispetson’s Paper on the Polien _ of Flowers.—A Plate illustrative of a Paper by Mr. R. Taytor, of Nor- wich} on Fossil Bones from the Norfolk Coast.—A Plate illustrative of a Paper by F. Barry, Esq. on the Stars forming the Pleiades.—A Plate illusirative of Prof. Amici’s New System. Vol. LXI. Engravings—1. Illustrative of Mr, Trepcoxp’s Paper on _ the Flexure of Astronomical Instruments.—2. Drursroveg and Ni- _cxoxs’ Apparatus for Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. Vot.61. Philosophical Magazine. —- Fen. 1823. rh , - Contents or Number 298. ~ XX. Geological Section of Hunstanton Cliff, Norfolk. By. Mr. Ricuarp Taytor of Norwich. Cec ew ec ce es esecacsscceses -- Page 81 Me cess in Ft oN ¢ ae XAL ‘On the Crystallization of Iron. By Mr. Davin Musuer. . 83 “XXIL Memoir on the different Species, Races, and Varieties of the Genus Brassica (Cabbage), and of the Genera allied to it, which ‘are cultivated in Europe. By M. Aucustin Pyramus Dz Can- vous, Professor of Botany in the Academy of Geneva, &c, &c..... 87 XXIII. On different Modes of working Coals, and of ventilating a the Works.’ By Mr. Joun Farry, Mineral Surveyor.........22. 99 XXIV. On the Nomenclature of the Cornish Rocks. By Joun Hawkins, Esq. F.R.S, &c. Honorary Member of the Royal Geolo- © gical Society of Cornwall... .......0.00e-- sere A 5 53 rthape XXV. On the Knowledge and Commerce of Tin among Ancient Nations, By the Rev. SAMUEL GREATHEED.s.....e0e.eeeeee04 109 © XXVI. Remarks on Jridina, a Genus of Fresh-water Bivalve Shells; _ with the Specific Characters of three Species. By WiLLIAM SwalIn-> SON, Esq. F.BS.F LS. 820.80. vcns oan giv dieitis «0 Se hocgtnmeks ea Es XXVII. Report made to the Academy of Sciences, Paris, on a_ Paper of M. FLourens entitled « Determination of the Properties — of the Nervous System, or Physical Researches concerning Irrita- bility and Sensibility.” By M.G. CUVIER .......++sseeeseeee-. 114 XXVIIL On Maps of the Moon. ......0.sceecceeeteseseens 125 X XIX. On the North Polar Distances of the Principal Fixed _ Peres as etd eS Stars..s:..5 eeereeeaeeeee eeeeerees eee @eecereevece “XXX. Ona proposed Society for Scientific Information......... 133 XXXI. Notices respecting New Books: Analysis of Periodical F tars Works on Zoology and Botany. .......-+0+ee.e0es vaso «'oaip pope FOO XXXII. Proceedings of Learned Societies. .............. 137-142 XXXII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles: —Capt. Parry's. | Expedition.—African Expedition to discover the Course of the Niger. : —Cinnabar.— Yeast.—Preservation of Grain, &c. from Mice.—New. Literary Institution. — Chinese Sheet Lead.— Antiquities—Mock + — Suns.—New Electro-Magnetic Experiments.—Weights and Mea-- * sures.—Oil Gas in France.—Meteorological Summary for the year’ » * 1822.On portable Barometers.—List of New Patents.—Meteorolo-- © gical Table. ....... ay Aes aa i Ag visipieba stelentakte iets . 142-160 tate - *,* Communications for this Work, received by the Editors, $8, Shoe-Lane, will meet with every attention. _ RICHARD TAYLOR,, PRINTER, SHOE-LANE, LONDON. | — ENGRAVINGS. Vol. LV. A Plate exhibiting Sketch of the Comet’s Path of July 1819. —A Plate illustrative of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun on the 7th of September next.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Lane’s Instrument for athermg Fruit; Mr. Youne’s Mode of preparing Opium from the apaver somniferum; and of Captain Forman’s Essay on a Property in Light which hitherto has been unobserved by Philosophers.—A Plate de- scriptive of Mr. Curusert’s improved Hydro-pneumatic Apparatus, &c. —A Plate illustrative of Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, Refrac- tion, and Inflection of Light, &c.; and Mr. Cuarues Bonnycastie’s Communication respecting the Influence of Masses of Iron on the Mari- -ner’s Compass. Vol. LVI. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Izpserson’s Paper on the Phy- siology of Botany.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Hauv’s Percussion Gun- Lock; of Dr. Kitcuiner’s Pancratic Eye-Tube; and of Mr. Parx’s Mooring Blocks.—A Plate exhibiting Sections, &c. of Mr. Maram’s im- proved Gas-Meter.—A Plate exhibiting: the Discoveries made by Capt. Parry in the Polar Sea. & lew Vou. LVII. A Plate illustrative of Mess. CErstep and Amrere’s ‘Electro-magnetic Experiments, and Mr. Perxins’s Paper on. the. Com- pressibility of Water.—A_ Plate illustrative of Mr. Jamirson’s Marine Thermometer Casé, and Mr. Jennines’s Mercurial Log-Glass.—A Plate illustrative of Dr. Hare’s new Modification. of Galvanic Apparatus—A Plate representing a Double Canal Lock, originally proposed for the Re- . gent’s Canal, by Mr. R. H. Gower ; and a Modification of Electro-Mag- netic Apparatus, by Mr. Tatum. t . Vol. LVIII. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Geo. Innes’s Calculations of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun, which will happen on the 15th of May 1836.—A Plate descriptive of the Hydrostatic Balances of Isatay Luxens and Dr. Coares.—A Plate illustrative of * An Introduction ta the Knowledge of Funguses.”—A Plate illustrative of Professor Davy’s ‘Lactometer, and of Mr, Joun Murray’s portable Apparatus for restor- ing the Action of the Lungs.—A Plate by Porrer, illustrative of Mr. Scuoorcrart’s Account of the Native Copper on the Southern Shore of _ Lake Superior ; and of Dr. Mitxar’s Observations and Experiments on the Rose of Jericho.—With a Portrait of the Epitor, engraved by Tuomson from a Painting by Frazer ;—and a Plate by Porrsgr, illus- trative of Mr. Leeson’s Appendage'to Torrr’s Blowpipe. Vol. LIX.: A+ Plate illustrative: of Mrs. -Insetson’s Paper On the Flower-buds of Trees passing through the Wood.—A_ Plate descriptive of the Instruments employed in determining Altitudes from the Trigono- metrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire.—A Plate illustrative of Mr.Ivory’s Theory of Parallel LinesinGeometry; Mr. Leeson’s Safety Blowpipe Appendages; Mr, Moore’s new Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs in Cases of suspended Respiration ; and-‘Dr. Reape’s Communication on Refraction.—A Plate illustrative of a curious Electro- magnetic Experiment by Mr. Bartow; and Mrs. Isserson’s Paper on the Perspiration alleged to take place, in Plants.—A Plate illustrative of ‘Mr. Marsn’s Paper on a particular Construction of M. Ampere’s Ro- tating Cylinder. Vol. LX. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Issetson’s Paper on the Pollen of Flowers—A Plate illustrative of a Paper by Mr. R. Taytor, of Nor- wich, on Fossil Bones from the Norfolk Coast.—A Plate illustrative of a Paper by F. Barzy, Esq. on the Stars forming the Pleiades:—A’ Plate illustrative of Prof. Amici’s New System. Vol, LXI. Engravings—1. Ilustrative of Mr. TrepGoxp’s Paper on the Flexure of Astronomical Instruments.—2. Drursrovuce and Ni- exovs’ Apparatus for Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. —A Plate illustrative of Mr. R. Taytor's Geological Section of Hun- stanton Cliff, Norfolk. - Vou.61. — Philosophical. Magazine. MAnrcii 1823. ContTents or NumBer 299, “MHL XXXIV. On the Orbit of the Planet Vesta. By A Corresron- » DENTs se seeeeeee ER OCR = SIT ee ie Via tN Rie nidie siaeabrs .. Page 161 E’"- XXXV. On a Property of Polygons. By Mr. T, Drummonp... 162 _, XXXVI. On the Causes of the Variation of the Magnetic Pole. — Ny & } By Mr. RICHARD WEBSTER. © BrP. B, ©.0.0: = genes Cece eeeeeereeetessee 165 | °° XX XVIT, Some Account of M. Bicuaa’s Theory of Life....... 168 XXXVIIL. On Chronometers. With Remarks onthe Trial just. terminated at Greenwich, under the Direction of the Right Honour- able the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. By Mr.G. F.Hut- _ TON 6s o/ave ¢ stet@tere a oa la se selelare eeerecseser Ce et ee ed eeceersecrsee © vith grr XXXIX. Memoir on the different Species, Races, and (Vaeloties of 4 ‘the Genus Brassica (Cabbage), and ofthe Genera‘allied to it, which ace cultivated in Europe. By M. Auvcustrn Pyramus Der Can- » potte, Professor of Botany in the Academy of Geneva, &c. &c..,.. 181 XL. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. Masketynr’s 36 Stars for every Day in the Year 1823, at the Time of passing the Me- ridian of Greenwich. ...+sseerssseeceeceeecceceeeseensces Pode Rare ce XLI. On the Structure of the Earth, and the Changes which are continaally passing upon it by the constant Operation of the Laws of , Nature. Read before the Glasgow Philosophical Society on the 29th of July 1822. By Mr. JAMES BOAZ «.eee..neeceeeees vee 4i200 XLIU. On the Measurement of Timber. By Mr. WisEMAN... «+ 204 re . On the same Subject, By Mr, NewTon. .............. 206 . XLIII. Some Experiments connected with the Relations of Calo- ric to Magnetism. By Joun Murray, Esq. F.L.S. M.W.S. &c... 207 XLIV. Remarks on Fermentation. _By Joun Murray, Esq... — F.L.S. M.W.S. &c. ee ee ee ewe ce ccee eres rs eseseers 208 XLV. Determination of the Altitude of Great Whernside: with Remarks on terrestrial Refraction. By A CoRRESPONDENT....... 209 XLVIL. Supplementary Table for computing the Precession and ‘Natation of the Fixed Stars. By F. Bairy, Esq. F.R.S. and LS... 27 XLVIIL. Strictures on Dr, Younc’s and La Piace’s Theories of ‘ ' the Tides. Ina Letter to Dr. Youne. _ By Captain Forman, R.N. 219 | XLIX. Notices respecting New Books: Analysis of Periodical... < Saori on Zoology and Botany. .......-+2eeeeeeseeeeees . 228-233 *{,. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ...........- cove pe eOeZOd L¥. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles : Earthquake at Gre- . nada,—Asiatic Society of London. — Steam Navigation to India. , Fruit Trees.—Osituary—Lieut. Col, Wilford —Mr. Sowerby’s , Museum.—List of New Patents.—Meteorological Table ..... 237-240" 2 wee fi r ; ; * . * ? ¥ . 38, Shoe-Lane, will meet with every attention. . Cag . i; oe eR ry bce ee Ae oS HOE ft SDE Y P RICHARD TAYLOR, PRINTER, SHOE-LANE, LONDONe =) } *,* Communications for this Work, received by the Editors, * PS e reas ca aoe ENGRAVINGS, Vol. LV. A Plate exhibiting Sketch of the Comet’s Path of July 1819. —A Plate illustrative of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun on the 7th of September next.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Lane’s Instrument for gathering Fruit; Mr. Youne’s Mode of preparing Opium from the Papaver somniferum; and of Captain Forman’s Essay on a Property in Li eht which hitherto has been unobserved by Philosophers.—A Plate de- scriptive of Mr. CuruBert’s improved Hydro-pneumatic Apparatus, &c. —A Plate illustrative of Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, Refrac- tion, and Inflection of Light, &c.; and Mr. Cuaries Bonnycaste’s Communication respecting the Influence of Masses of Iron on the Mari- ner’s Compass. ‘Vol. LVI. A Pilate illustrative of Mrs. Insetson’s Paper on the Phy- siology of Botany.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Haxt’s Percussion Gun- Lock; of Dr. Kitcuiver’s Pancratic Eye-Tube; and of Mr. Parx’s Mooring Blocks. —A Plate exhibiting Sections, &c. of: Mr. Matam’s im- proved Gas-Meter.—A Pilate exhibiting the Discoveries made by Capt. Parry in the Polar Sea. Vor. LVII. A Pilate illustrative of Mess. CErstep and Ampere’s Electro-magnetic Experiments, and Mr. Perxins’s Paper on the Come pressibility of Water.—A_ Plate illustrative of Mr. Jamrzson’s Marine Thermometer Case, and Mr. Jennines’s Mercurial Log-Glass.—A Plate illustrative of Dr. Hare’s new Modification of Galvanic Apparatusy—A Plate representing a Double Canal Lock, originally proposed for the Re- * gent’s Canal, by Mr. R. HH. Gower ; and a Modification of Electro-Mag- netic Apparatus, by Mr. Tatum. : : Vol. LVIII. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Geo, Innes’s Calculations of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun, which will happen on the 15th of May 1836.—A Plate descriptive of the Hydrostatic Balances of Isa1an Lukens and Dr. Coarres.—A Plate illustrative of «An Introduction to the Knowledge of kunguses,’’—A Plate illustrative of Professor Davy’s _ Lactometer, and of Mr, Joun Murray’s portable Apparatus for restor- ing the Action of the Lungs.—A Plate by Porrer, illustrative of Mr. Scuoorcrarr’s Account of the Native Copper on the Southern Shore of: Lake Superior ; and of Dr. Miixar’s Observations and Experiments on the Rose of Jericho.—With a Porrrair of the Epiror, engraved by Txomson from a Painting by Frazer;—and a Plate by Porter, illus- | trative of Mr. Lerson’s Appendage to Torrr’s Blowpipe. Vol. LIX. A Pilate illustrative of Mrs. Inperson’s Paper On the _ Flower-buds of Trees passing through the Wood.—A Plate descriptive of the Instruments employed in determining Altitudes from the Trigono- | metrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire.—A Plate illustrative of _Mr,Ivory’s Theory of Parallel LinesinGeometry; Mr. Lesson’s Safety _ Blowpipe Appendages; Mr. Moore’s new Apparatus for restoring the | Action of the Lungs in Cases of suspended Respiration ; and Dr. Reape’s / Communication on Refraction.—A Plate illustrative of a curious Electro- "magnetic Experiment by Mr. Bartow; and Mrs. Isuerson’s Paper on the Perspiration alleged to take place in Plants.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Marsn’s Paper on a particular Construction of M. Ampgre’s Ro- tating Cylinder. Vol. LX. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Insetson’s Paper on the Pollen § of Flowers.—A Pilate illustrative of a Paper by Mr. R. Taytor, of Nor- wich, on Fossil Bones from the Norfolk Coast.—A Plate illustrative of a | Paper by F. Barry; Esq. on the Stars forming the Pleiades.—A Plate }illustrative of Prof. Amici’s New Sextant. } Vol. LXI. Engravings—1. Illustrative of Mr. TrEpGotp's Paper on the Flexure of Astronomical Instruments.—2. Drursrovce and Ni- ‘cuoLs’ Apparatus for Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. —A Plate illustrative of Mr. R. Tayton’s Geological Section of Hun- ttanton Cliff, Norfolk. , : . ContTeNtTs oF NomBER 300. LU, On Electro-Magnetism. By Mr. J. Tatum ....... . Page 241 LIT. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. Masketyne’s: 36 Stars for every Day in the Year 18 23, at the Time of passing the Me=. ridian of Greenwich ...... Bee ois 6 8 teas Teg tane tara Anabe ohe a ae 245. LIV. Queries relative to the Mode of using M. SCHUMACHER’S: Vou. 61. Philosophical Magazine. Apri 1823. Tables of Aberration and Nutation,.... owe ate Uw eee wie era rine 248 i LV. On the late Opposition of the Planet Vesta. By S. Gnoome. i BRIDGE; Esq. FRS. Keke. 2 cece eben, aes, 8 spas, ene vin 249 LVI. Observations on the Experiments of Mr. MuAnas on the » supposed Relation between Caloric and Magnetism. By An Exre-— ! RIMENTER...... Bale o chah Sia ah at ariceteracly bras ASG SPE Sota e cel et ame an Ate oes 951. LVII. On the Cause of the Magnetic Power of the Poles of ‘the — Earth, By Mr. WILLIAM Donets peer org os sp epngeek eae LVIII. Description of the Methods employed in determining the Altitudes of several of the principal Mountains and other remarkable Objects visible from the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. By A CORRESPONDENT... 0....... 06. di (elic'e nop h aes 256 LIX. Inquiry relative to the Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars....... i 265 LX. Announcement that a Discovery has been made which will render Pot- and Pearl-ashes no longer indispensable to Bleachers. By Gavin Inatis, Esq... 2.5.0... cece tee eee eee es Baty «yO LXI. Proposal for a new Method of determining a Fixed Unit of Measure, by deducing the same from the Curvature ‘of the Earth. By James Boaz, Esq. of ASE OW Seales Geubaiie cenecuieate halk Cen: LXH. Abstract of an Essay by M. Givin ‘on the Resistance of Cast-Iron in relation to its Use for Conduit Pipes, and the Boilers of Steam-Engines.” Communicated by Mr. TREDGOLD ...-.....- ox 20 Px On Excre’s Comets 2. ci osha easing aie eae Faas Pe, LXIV. Sketch of a Course of Lectures on ‘Metallur gy delivered at. © the London Institution, February 1823. By Joun Taytor, Esq. Treasurer of the Geological Society ............-.- 00s ese ee eee i 283 LXY. Notices respecting New Books: Analysis of Periodical — i ~ Works on Zoology and Botany. .... hall siatnlerciahs 4 «se brbiautenog 292-302 F LXVI. Proceedings of Learned Societies .........+-... 303-313 LXVIL. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles: —Mr, Perkins’s . . Steam-Engine.—Condensation of Gases. into Liquids.—Mr. Telford's... Report on London Bridge.—New University in Virginia— Natural History Society of Auvergne —Volcano.— Earthquakes. — List of New Patents. itcteorolopicals lable... sy.2:. cc ene cca ds ove wie 313-320 ——_ — vo ag Cake. " -. _*,* Communications for this Work, received by the Editors, f Wi: | 4 : . > - 4 - ‘ * a , bh ———— ee Ue HETTON COLLIERY IN THE COUNTY OF DURHAM. This day is published, price 7s. 6d. elegantly printed upon a sheet of F drawing paper, PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE WORKS OF THE COL- LIERY, the Horizontal, Inclined, and Self-Acting Planes, with the Loco-Motive and other Engines used on the Railway, and the Straiths, and Self-Discharging Depét on the Banks of the River Wear, near Sunderland ; with a Section of the Pir and Srrara. London: Sold by Thomas Sotheran, No. 2, Little Tower-street ; and Baldwin, Cradock and Joy, Paternoster-row. CATON’S POPULAR REMARKS ON NERVOUS DISEASES, &c. This Day is published, Price 3s, 6d. OPULAR REMARKS, Mepicar and Literary, on Nervous . Desirity, Revaxation, Hyrocuonpriac and Hysrericat Dis- EASES; containing an Inquiry into the Nature, Prevention, and Treatment of those Diseases called Nervous, Bilious, Stomachic, and Liver Com- plaints; with Observations on Low Spirits, and the Influence of Imagina- tion on these acute and distressing Diseases, &c. &c. By T. M. CATON, Surgeon, No. 10, Stanhope-Street, Newcastle-Street, Strand, late of the united Hospitals of St. Thomas and Guy. , Printed for N eely, 22, Change-Alley ; and C. Chapple, 59, Pall Mall. Where may be had, Caron on Invicestion,~Scroruta, and Cura- weous Diseases; Osservations on Eruptive and Scorsutic Pim- pues of the Face and Skin. Price 3s. EES ————— eee ENGRAVINGS. Vol. LIX. A Pilate illustrative of Mrs. Insetson’s Paper On the Flower-buds of Trees passing through the Wood.—A Plate descriptive of the Instruments employed in determining Altitudes from the Trigono- metrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire.—-A Plate illustrative of Mr.Ivory’s Theory of Parallel LinesinGeometry; Mr. Leeson’s Safety Blowpipe Appendagess Mr. Moore’s new Apparatus for restoring. the Action of the Lungs in Cases of suspended Respiration ; and Dr. Reave’s Communication on Refraction.—A Plate illustrative of a curious Electro- magnetic Experiment by Mr. Bartow; and Mrs. Isuerson’s Paper on the Perspiration alleged to take place in Plants——A Plate illustrative of Mr. Marsn’s Paper ona particular Construction of M. Ampere’s Ro- tating Cylinder. Vol. LX. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Insetson’s Paper on the Pollen of Flowers.—A Pilate illustrative of a Paper by Mr. R. Tayxor, of Nor- wich, on Fossil Bones from the Norfolk Coast.—A Plate illustrative of a Paper by F. Baty, Esq. on the Stars forming the Pleiades—A Plate illustrative of Prof. Amici’s New Sextant. Vol. LXI. Engravings—1. Illustrative of Mr. TrepGoup's Paper on _ the Flexure of Astronomical Instruments.—2. DreursBrovee and Nt- 5 ] euoLs’ Apparatus for Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. —A Plate illustrative of Mr. R. Taytor’s Geological Section of Hun- stanton Cliff, Norfolk.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Tarum’s Communi- cation on Electro-Magnetism. : ih © ~ so ‘a a Von. Oil. as - Pulivsupuica Magazine. ; Max 1823. ConTENTS oF NuMBER SOL. LXVII. On the Quantity of Rain collected in two Rain-gauges is # placed at different Heights from the Ground, for a Period of ‘Twelve Months; with Remarks on-the probable Causes of the Increase in the lower Rain-pauge ...cf. ee see elec cc wccqeccescecss est age S21: LXIX. On Short-hand Writing. By H. Upineron, Esq..... i. S20, LXX. On Electricity etited in Paper ....0...0.ccecesecesee 930 LXXI. An alphabeticgl Arrangement of the PLacgs, from whence - the Fosstt Suevis have been obtained, which are engraved, co- loured and described by Messrs. Sowersy, in Vol. 1V. of their *¢ Mingrat ConcHotoey,” with the geographical and stratigraphical ~~ Situations of the Places, and the Species of Fossil Shells, &c. By ~ Mr. Jonn Farey, Mineral Surveyor..............-- oe hate alas 333.4 LXXII. An Account of the Observations and Experiments on the ‘i Temperature of Mines, which have recently been made in Cornwall, and the North of England; comprising the Substance of various Pa- pers on the Subject lately published in the Transactions of the Royal ~_ Geological Society of Cornwall, and in other Works ........ A atc a fl LXXIII. On Repeating Circles. By the Baron de Zacn.....- 353 LXXIV. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. MaskELyne’s 36. Stars for every Day in the Year 182%, at the Time of passing the Me- __ ridian of Greenwich .........+... EA, Sick GL ROC MEN Oe 363 LXXV. On the new Tables of Aberration, Nutation and Precession 366. LXXVI. Sketch of a Course of Lectures on Metallurgy delivered at the London Institution, February 1823. By Joun Taytor, Esq. | ” Treasurer of the Geological Society .............-..2008 s e.alste es OO LXXVII. On Mr. GroomsBrince’s Tables of Vesta. By W. M. © PSEA Se an cd re ease. st in ay oop wise Said ape eeteeitesiele scene gone LXXVIII. The Characters of several rare and undescribed Shells. + By Wn. Swanson, Esq. F.R.S.F.L.S. M.W.S. &........0 wees OCOn om LXXIX. Notices respecting New Books: Analysis of Periodical — Works on Botany... .....2seeeeeeeeeeceseececeeseccesee 319-382 i LXXX. Proceedings of Learned Societies ........ woee-. 382-390, . + LXXXI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous\Articles:—Capt. Parry’s Expedition —Structure of the Belemnite —Mr. Murray on a Phe- nomenon developed in Chemical Action, &c.—New Hluid discovered in the Cavities of Minerals—Natural History Collection from India. —Motion of Gases through Conduit-pipes—On Uric Acid and Borax.—Siam Mission,—Earthquakes.—Earthquake and Volcanic © Eruption in Java.—List of New Patents.—Paraselenz seen at Gos- + port.— Meteorological Observations at Great Yarmouth.—Meteoro- ~~ . oe the esee .- 890-400 - od logical Table .......- Bitesake sist saahete ue Mervetetererete «6 *,* Communications for,this Work, received by the Editors,, ‘ $8, Shoe-Lane, will meet with every attention, tbe nic nae RICHARD TAYLOR, PRINTER, SHOE-LANE, LONDON. This day is published, in 8vo. price 6s. boards, ESCRIPTION of an ELECTRICAL TELEGRAPH, and of some other Electrical Apparatus: with Eight Plates, engraved by OWRY. : By FRANCIS RONALDS. “ Volenti nihil difficile.” Printed for R. Hunter, 72, St. Paul’s Churchyard, ENGRAVINGS. ‘Vor. LVII. A Pilate illustrative of Mess. CErstep and Ampere’s flectro-magnetic Experiments, and Mr. Perxins’s Paper on the Com- ressibility of Water.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Jamizson’s Marine thermometer Case, and Mr. JenninGs’s Mercurial Log-Glass.—A Plate ustrative of Dr. Hare’s new Modification of Galvanic Apparatus —A ate representing a Double Canal Lock, originally proposed for the Re- ent’s Canal, by Mr. R. H. Gower ; and a Modification of Electro-Mag- etic Apparatus, by Mr. Tatum. Vol. LVIII. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Geo. Innes’s Calculations of e Annular Eclipse of the Sun, which will happen on the 15th of May 636.—A Plate descriptive of the Hydrostatic Balances of Isa1au uKeEns and Dr. Coares.—A Plate illustrative of An Introduction to ne Knowledge of Funguses,”—A Plate illustrative of Professor Davy’s actometer, and of Mr. Joun Murray’s portable Apparatus for restor- ng the Action of the Lungs.—A Plate by Porter, illustrative of Mr. BcHOoLcRAFT’s Account of the Native Copper on the Southern Shore of ake Superior ; and of Dr. Mittar’s Observations and Experiments on ae Rose of Jericho.— With a Portrait of the Epiror, engraved by i HOMSON from a Painting by Frazer ;—and a Plate by Porter, illus- ative of Mr. Leeson’s Appendage to Torrt’s Blowpipe. f Vol. LIX. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Isserson’s Paper On the plower-buds of Trees passing through the Wood.—A Plate descriptive f the Instruments employed in determining Altitudes from the Trigono- Whetrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshiree-—A Plate illustrative of fr.Ivory’s Theory of Parallel LinesinGeometry; Mr. Leeson’s Safety jlowpipe Appendages; Mr. Moore’s new Apparatus for restoring the ion of the Lungs in Cases of suspended Respiration ; and Dr. Reape’s ommunication on Refraction.—A Plate illustrative of a curious Electro. agnetic Experiment by Mr. Barrow; and Mrs. Issetson’s Paper on ie Perspiration alleged to take place in Plants.—A Plate illustrative of fr. Marsu’s Paper on a particular Construction of M. Ampere’s Ro- ting Cylinder. Vol. LX. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. lsserson’s Paper on the Pollen Flowers.—A Plate illustrative of a Paper by Mr. R. Taytor, of Nor- fich, on Fossil Bones from the Norfolk Coast.—A Plate illustrative of a er by F. Baty, Esq. on the Stars forming the Pleiades.x—A_ Plate lustrative of Prof. Amici’s New Sextant. Vol. LXI. Engravings—1. Illustrative of Mr. TrevGotp's Paper on Flexure of Astronomical Instruments —2. Deursrovece and Ni. #0Ls’ Apparatus for Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. ‘A Plate illustrative of Mr. R. Taytor's Geological Section of Hun- anton Cliff, Norfolk.—A Plate illustrative of Mr, Tarum’s Communi- on on Electro-Magnetism, a Vou. 61. Philosophical Magazine. June 1823, Contents or Numser 302. | LXXXII. On Phenomena observed in the making of Oil-gas. By Mr. Joun ELLIOTT -.......4 6% evieeetenddedciccsccs -... Page 401 LXXXII. On the Velocity of the Waves of the Sea. By Capt. - Davin THOMSON weeoren ee eseeeenaeee ee ee ee oe ey e@eee 405 | LXXXIV. On Repeating Circles. By the Baron de Zacu..,,,.~407 LXXXY. On Celestial Globes. By J. W. Woottear, Esq. .. 421 -LXXXVL. On Opake Crystallized Carbon. By WittfAm He- RAPATH, Esq. wees wet are te wees wwe il abe 3 eit elas we eeeene 423 "LYXXVIL. Experiments on Oil and Coal Gas. By Wiit1am He- RABAEH, DS: oie cv ots. vote Si diateie inca ele iaie’ i burs, aot ew Sg ere ae asah aa, Soe LXXXVIII. M. Besset on the Declination of the Stars ...... 431 UJ LXXXIX. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. MASKELYNE’s 86 Stars for every Day in the Year 1823, at the Time of passing the _ Meridian of Greenwich ........ ia )sisn aie woteu dite. 53h 7 salpp (olan tmtauataneteye PS: XC. An Account of the Observations and Experiments on the - Temperature of Mines, which have recently been made in Cornwall, aud the.North of England ; comprising the Substance of various Pa- pers on the Subject lately published in the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and in other Works ............ 436° XCI, Sketch of a Course of Lectures on Metallurgy delivered at the London Institution, February 1823. By Joun Taytor, Esq. _ Treasurer of the Geological Society ,.........2.+e++eeee eves 448) XCII. Apparent Places of the four minor Planets at and about the » . 4 Time of their ensuing Opposition. By S. Groomprince, Esq. .... fia XCIII. Notices respecting New Books: Analysis of Periodical Works on Botany........ ia 6:6 bins Ask alp bw Rw Uh eats a 9 eae a ae XCIV. Proceedings of Learned Societies ....... secese. 464-467 a XCV. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles :—Astronomy.— Minor Planets,—Sub-carbonate of Soda in India.—Galvanic Ap- paratus.—Beneficial Effects of Vaccination in India —List of NewPa- tents.—-Meteorological Table .... 6.04. eeceeerecscecsee 467473, *,* Communications for this Work, received by the Editors, __ _. 88, Shoe-Lane, will meet with every attention, © ——_ RICHARD: TAYLOR, PRINTER, SHOE-LANE, LONDON. a4 : > As © he