UC-NRLF B 3 3ED 055 . BIOLOGY LIBRARY G • . • LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA, BY Thomas G-. Gentry MEMBER OK THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILA- DELPHIA, CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF TORONTO, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF NUTTALL ORNITHOLOGICAL CLUB. VOLUME II. SALKM, MASS. IALIS1 '877- COPYRIGHT. BY XATTKAMSTS' ACJKNVY 1- Family STRIGID.E. Owls, . • i"- Family FALCONID^E. Diurnal Birds of Prey, --' Family CATHARTID.E. American Vultures. Order COLUMB.E. Columbine Birds. -9.> Family COLUMBID.E. Pigeons. . • -•>:-, Subclass II. AVES TERRESTRES, or Cursores. .V><; Order GALLIX/E. Gallinaceous Birds, . . 3°9 Family TETRAOXID.E. Grouse, etc, . Subfamily TETRAONIX.E. Grouse. • .>'<» Subfamily ODOXTOPHORIN.K. American Partrid^vs. ;i; LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. CHAPTER VII. Sub-class I. AveS Aurese, or Insessores. Aerial Birds, or Perchcrs. Order Passeres. Sub-order Oscines. Family CorvidaB, Crows, Jays, etc. This somewhat large and important family embraces the ravens, crows, magpies, and kindred types, besides a few diverging species not so well known. It is closely related to the Family Paradiseidce. The following are its charac- ters : — ten primaries, the first somewhat abbreviated and nearly one half the length of the second, the outer ones being more or less sinuate and attenuate on the inner web towards the extremities. As is usual among higher birds, the tail possesses twelve rectrices ; but it varies in configuration, being generally rounded, sometimes extremely graduated, but never forked in any of our forms. The tarsus is scutel- lated anteriorly, separated by a groove on one or both sides from the residue of tarsal covering, sometimes naked, and as often filled in by small scales. The bill is stout, as long as, or shorter than the head, tapering, rather acuminate, usually notched, and with convex culmen. The commissu- ral angulation of the Fringillidcc and Icteridce, the deep cleavage of the Hirnndhiidtc, and the remarkable attenua- tion of the Certhiidce and most small insect-eating birds, are wanting. The rictus ordinarily possesses a feu stitrish bristles, which also exist about the base of the bill. The dense covering of the nostrils, with its closely pressed an- trorse bristle-like feathers, is an essential character, which has 2 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS but a few exceptions, among our types. By the above feature. we can discriminate the Corvidtc from all our other species. excepting the Paridcc; but even here the mutual resemblance is so close that no obvious technical character of external form can be pointed out as a distinction. Sixe is clearly distinc- tive, for it is well known, all Corvldcr* without exception. are much larger aves than the Pariihc. The number of species is quite difficult to settle, being differently computed by various ornithologists. This is owing to the uniformity of color which prevails in the prominent family-groups, as well as to an apparent plasticity of organization in many forms. Mr. G. R. Gray estimates fifty genera and sub-genera, embracing two hundred species, \vhich Dr. Cones deems too excessive, and thinks should suffer a reduction of one-third in both cases. They have been classed in five subfamilies, three of wdiich pertain to the Old World, being represented most largely in the Indian and Australian regions ; while the remaining two. which embrace the great bulk of the family, may be con- sidered more nearly cosmopolitan. These are the Cor-chnc and GarrulincB) which, so far as our own forms are con- cerned, are easily distinguishable. Subfamily CorvinaB. Crows. The wings are long and pointed, and much longer than the tail. The tip is formed by the 3d, 4th, and 5th quills. The legs are stout, well adapted both to walking and perch- ing. The color, as a rule, is sombre or un variegated, blue being exceedingly rare. The sexes are not dissimilar, and the alterations of plumage, scarcely noticeable. These birds are quite unmusical ; the voice of the larger species being- raucous ; that of the smaller, strident. They have no choice of localities, walk firmly and easilv on the ground, and are the most nearly omnivorous of birds, which, combined with their robust and hardy nature, render them seldom if ever truly migratory. Their nidification varies according to sur- roundings ; the fabric being ordinarily rude and cumbersome. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. The eggs are commonly bluish or greenish, and diversified with speckles. Although not properly gregarious, these birds are often drawn together in vast numbers, by a common in- terest. Corvus Americanus, Audubon. This species, the common Crow, is quite abundant through- out the entire summer, in this section of the country ; and, even during extremely severe weather in winter, we have ob- served numerous individuals roosting in the junipers and cedars of the Wissahickon Hills, when the ground is covered with snow. Early in April, at day-break, immense flocks may be seen, at considerable heights, flying westward from the dense pine- forests of New Jersey. Their presence is announced by the deafening and discordant cries which they emit almost con- tinuously. They move with the utmost precision and regu- larity, as though their movements were directed by leaders of superior intelligence and fine executive abilities. Fifteen years ago, the numbers which passed daily over the village of Bustleton, in Philadelphia, were truly miraculous. It was one continuous steady stream for more than an hour in the morning, which, when evening approached, was renewed in the opposite direction. During the past five or six years, their numbers have surprisingly diminished. The range of the common Crow, although somewhat ex- tensive, is surpassed by that of many other species. It is found in great numbers in all the New England stairs, from Texas to Florida, and from the Missouri River to Nova Scotia. In summer, a few are found beyond the Great Plains, and even migrate into Arctic latitudes. They have been noticed as far north as the fifty-fifth parallel by Rich- ardson ; at Cross Lake and at Lake Winnipeg by Kennicott ; at Fort Rae by Clarke ; and on the Lower Anderson River, they have been discovered breeding by Mr. MacFarlane. In California, it rarely if ever occurs, according to Dr. Cooper. In the interior, it is exceedingly rare. Mr. Kidgway ob- 4 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS served quite a few in the Truckee meadows, in November : and, in the preceding- month, others, in the Humboldt marshes. These birds were quite tame and unsuspicious ; and, in the latter place, moved about with the familiarity due to domestic pigeons ; carelesly hopping aside when approached. Strange to say, none were seen either in spring or summer. Mr. Allen saw very few in Western Iowa, and even in Northern Illinois, it did not appear to be common. Its western reputation is that of a benefactor. It is not known to disturb the corn, and. consequently, merits and receives suitable treatment. Passing from the latter state into Indi- ana, it becomes a more common species. On the Labrador coast, but a single individual was seen by Dr. Coues ; whereas in Nova Scotia, it is more plentiful, and manifests the same good qualities which we have seen to mark its character on our western prairies. It is very abundant in all the states situated east of the Missisippi river. In South-eastern Texas, it is somewhat scarce, but becomes very abundant in the north-eastern part, according to Dr. Dresser, and is found throughout the entire year. Mating generally commences about the last of April ; sometimes, as early as the fifteenth, but never earlier. But a day or two elapses, and nidification commences. The nest is ordinarily built upon the various species of ^jiercus, and, but occasionally upon Plmts. It is the joint labor of both sexes. The period of nidification varies from three to four days, according to the diligence and skill of the builders. The nest is composed externally of dried sticks, mostly of Qucrcus and Castanea, of moderate thickness. Within, there is a lining of small twigs, somewhat rudely though comfortably covered by dried leaves of Quercus and Fagus. It measures eighteen inches in diameter at the base, and from eight to ten inches in depth ; the thickness of the walls is from three to four inches, which makes the width of the cavity about fourteen inches. In Massachusetts, according to Dr. Brewer, this species builds a large rude nest of sticks, bark. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 5 and moss, which is lined with finer mosses, and, sometimes, with hair. This difference of structure and of composing- materials, is certainly due to the difference of enmroiniioit. The site of the nest depends upon circumstances. When the birds are encouraged and unmolested, they have been known to nidificate in close proximity to human habitations, thus manifesting confidence and a friendliness of disposition. In Eastern Pennsylvania, places but seldom frequented bv man, are chosen for building. This shyness is due to the un- warranted persecution which the species has been subjected to through the ignorance of man. On the day succeeding nest-completion, oviposition com- mences. This requires fiom three to four days, according to the number of eggs which is to constitute the sitting. But a single egg is deposited daily. The period of incubation varies slightly from eighteen days. While the female is incubating, for the labor is entirely borne by her, the male is extremely vigilant and attentive. On the approach of danger, he does not unmanfully sneak away and leave his partner to the cruel mercies of a relentless en- emy, but, like a faithful husband, he battles for their com- mon rights, and does not yield the struggle until disabled, unless he has repelled the invader. He is not only a gallant and able defender, but is also a most willing provider. Dur- ing the long and arduous task which his mate has voluntarily imposed upon herself, he encourages her by his presence, and repays her services by some dainty article of diet. When with young, the jealousy and watchfulness of the par- ents, know no bounds. No intrusion is permitted save at the peril of the intruder. Both parents vie with each other in the most endearing attentions, and even imperil their own lives in their efforts to contribute to their suitable maintenance. Then- dietary consists of frogs, mice, earthworms, lan:v of Lach- nosterna quercina, Anisopteryx vernaia, Gortyua ;r attest to its truth. The robbing of liens' nests of eggs, the killing 8 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS of their young, and the destruction of the eggs and young of other birds, have doubtless awakened the prejudice against them which prevails ; yet the innumerable benefits which they confer upon agriculturalists, which are nowhere equalled, should waken tender sympathy and gratitude in the bosoms of their persecutors. The evil which they perpetrate, is ex- ceedingly limited, and lasts but for a short period ; whereas, the good which they accomplish, is enormous, and continues during their entire sojourn with us. That wariness and distrust which the Crow evinces, are strangers to its nature, and have only been developed by the long and bitter persecutions to which it has been subjected. In some localities, the happiness of its existence is consid- erably marred by the extreme and constant vigilance which has to be kept up in view of the dangers to which it is ex- posed ; and by the new mental attainments which have to be acquired in order to adapt the conditions of life to envi- roning circumstances. We have often been amused at the precaution which is always taken, when a large flock of crows takes possession of a field of newly-planted corn ; and, also in the autumn, when the corn is ripe and gathered into shocks. Everything seems to bear the clearest evidence of preconcerted action. The pillaging party alights, although not en masse, but con- siderably diffused, while upon the outskirts are stationed sentinels at regular distances. These guards are placed so as to command a wide field of view, and are constantly on the alert for dangers. As soon as anything is seen to create alarm, a hoarse caw announces its presence, and the signal is taken up by the dense throng, in one vast chorus. In obedience thereto, the wary band of pilferers beats a hasty retreat, and retires to more peaceful quarters. As long as danger is im- minent, the attack is not renewed ; but let the cause of the alarm disappear, and information of the fact is soon known to a fewr venturesome fellows who constitute a reconnoitring party, and, instantly, the vast body of plunderers is upon the OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 9 scene, and devastations are again begun \vith wonted vigor. In connection herewith, we should not allow an interest- ing fact to escape attention. If the cause of the alarm should be two men, whether armed or not, the disappear- ance of one man after the flock has taken Might, is at once recognized by the scouts, and nothing will induce them to signal the return of their comrades, however artfully con- cealed the remaining man may be. But let the latter depart, the intelligence is immediately communicated, and the flock silently appears and renews operations. It is evident from the foregoing facts that the crow possesses some knowledge of numbers. We have it from a reliable source, that its knowl- edge of counting is very limited, and does not extend beyond the number five. This information was determined in this wise. A tent was erected in the middle of a cornfield which was daily visited by these birds. At first, a couple of men entered it, thus frightening the crows away. After the lapse of a half-hour, one of the men retired, thinking thereby to deceive the crows. An hour passed and none made their appearance. The second man then left, and after hav- ing vanished from view, the birds settled down in immense O numbers. At this moment, a trio of men appeared and entered the tent. Shortly afterwards, one left ; then, another ; the third remaining closely hid from view. But it was not until after the third man had departed, that the crows re- turned. Four men next entered, and, subsequently, five, with like results. Finally, a party of six men went into the enclosure, and all left excepting one. After the fifth man had disappeared, the crows began to settle down upon the field in great numbers, evidently unconcious of any hidden danger, when to their utter dismay and confusion, Hie sixth man appeared. From the foregoing facts, there seems to be but one conclusion that can be rationally drawn : — vix., that five expresses theextremelimit of the crow's ideas of numbers. Somewhat akin to these facts, is the fact that CTOWfi come to reard unarmed men in a different light from those who arc 10 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS armed. Even when the weapon is carefully concealed, the same distrust is manifested. There is no doubt that the smell of gunpowder in this case discloses the presence of the gun. We are strengthened in this belief bv the fact that a piece of wood having the semblance of a gun, or even an unloaded gun, has been carried in the midst of flocks, without exciting distrust. When taken young, the Crowr is readily tamed, and be- comes a verv interesting, as well as a mischievous pet. It seemingly delights in mischief, often secreting objects of no value to itself. It manifests surprising intelligence, and seems to comprehend and to obev certain orders. Dr. Brewer mentionsin tk Birds of North America," the case of an individual belonging to a family residing near Boston, which was allowed to roam at large, and which manifested wonderful attachment. He affirms substantially that it particularly delighted in the children's society, amused itself by playing hide and seek with them, whom it often sur- passed by its readiness in discovering the hidden object. For the mistress of the house, it manifested especial attachment, living to her when she came near, hovering over her head, and alighting upon her shoulder. Strange as it may seem, it is well known that our common barnyard fowls thoroughly despise the introduction of stran- gers into their midst. This contempt is especially noticeable when a semi-domesticated bird of an entirely different spe- cies, is introduced. On the other hand, the same dislike is manifested, when a tame bird is let loose among a flock of its wild and untamed brethren, or when it attempts to con- sort with them. A friend of ours has a pet Crow which is allowed the greatest freedom. It frequently stravs from home to a considerable distance, when it is often beset by a score of its feral brethren, and with the greatest difficulty saves itself from destruction. When closely pressed, it calls for assistance by the most vigorous and distressing cries. When relieved from its great terror, by the appearance of OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 11 its master, it repays the kindness shown, by the most en- dearing attentions. Perched upon his shoulder, it greets its cruel companions with a triumphant caw, which it repeats anon, much to their discomfort. The natural language of the Crow, is a simple hoarse caw, which is repeated vehemently and quickly, when irritated or surprised. In a few instances, it has been trained to im- itate articulate sounds. In Grafton, Mass., according to Dr. Brewer, an individual was known to speak a single mon- osyllable repeatedly, but would sometimes enunciate a brief sentence of five syllables. The eggs vary surprisingly in their markings. The gen- eral color is ordinarily a light sea-green, thickly scattered with dark brown, almost black blotches, which often exhibit purplish reflections. These spots are both large and small, and mainly exist about the larger extremity. Another very common variety to be found in Eastern Pennsylvania, pos- sesses fine clottings of brown, uniformly and thickly sprinkled upon a deep green-ground work. A third variety found in this latitude, consists of a nearly white ground with a green tinge, sparsely scattered with light purplish-brown blotches. Dr. Brewer mentions a nest which was found near Spring- field with eggs having a pinkish-gray ground color on one side, while the rest was greenish-white, all being spotted with brown. The same writer has referred to another set of eggs from Hudson, Mass., which were a light bluish-given, spotless, and resembled large Robin's eggs. And, finally. Dr. Wood mentions a set of four which had red spots upon a flesh-colored ground. In Eastern Pennsylvania, the eggs measure 1.75 to 1.60 inches in length, and i.iS to i.io in breadth. Corvus ossifragus, J/V/W. The Fish Crow is mainly restricted to the South Atlantic and Gulf States. It is found in the States of New Jer- sey, Pennsylvania. Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, the Car- 12 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS olinas, Georgia, Florida, and thence to the mouth of the Mississippi, according to Audubon. Farther west it has not been taken. Dr. Wiirdemann found it at Calcasieu. La., and Mr. Allen alleges it to be an occasional visitor along the southern shores of Massachusetts, but Dr. Brewer be- lieves this statement to be a mistake, from his inability to find any corroboration thereof. Dr. DeKay, in his Report on the birds of New York, gives it as an occasional visitor to the shores of Long Island, but Mr. Lawrence confidently asserts Squaw Beach, N. J.,tobe its most northern limit. Dr. Boardman is given by Audubon and Nuttall as authority for asserting its appearance on the banks of the Columbia River. but this statement also lacks confirmation. Although desig- nated by Dr. Cones as a maritime species, it is only to be considered partially so, for we have observed it during the past five or six years, nidificating along the water-courses in the rural districts of our city. Wilson, who was the first to describe this species, affirms its habits to be the reverse of those pf the common Crow, in many particulars, as the former regularly repaired to the for- ests to roost, and returned to the shores of the Savannah, to feed at the dawn of day. Its manner of procuring nourish- ment, and also the kind, were vastly different. From its favorite haunts along the banks of rivers, up and down which it soared, it would dexterously seize in its claws any dead fish or garbage that was floating upon the surface. Like its European cousin, the Jackdaw, it was frequently observed to perch upon the back of cattle. He still further asserts that it never mingles with the common species, and never roosts among the reeds and marshes, but always seeks the shelter of thickets in which to spend the night. In Eastern Pennsylvania, we have frequently observed it associating with the common Crow, in similar situations; and, as the latter iskno.wn to prefer dense forests, chiefly pine, for roos- ting purposes, there can be no difference in this respect. The Might of ossifr&gus is entirely different from that of OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. i:-j Amcricaans. The former frequently soars after the fashion of the Raven and the Falconidcv, with apparently motionless wings which the latter has never been known to do, and is possibly unable to execute. The flight of the common Crow is firm, heavy, slightly undulating, and remarkably elevated and sustained. The voice of the Fish Crow is more hoarse and than that of its near relative, and possesses vastly greater mod- ulation. Nest-building commences about the fifteenth of April. Unlike that of the common Crow, the nest is built upon a willow tree by the side of a stream, where its authors can ply their piscine trade with comparative ease. Externally, it is composed of a basis of rude sticks, upon which a neat and comfortable superstructure of the inner fibrous bark of the red cedar is placed, somewhat loosely arranged, the en- tire fabric presenting a more cozy and a more fastidious ap- pearance than that of the common Crow. The nest measures fifteen inches in diameter,. and five inches in depth. The diameter of the cavity is seven inches, and the depth three. In the South, according to Mr. Audubon, it builds on moderately sized trees of the loblolly-pine. The nests are placed towards the extremities of the branches, and are built of dried sticks, with a lining of dry grasses and mosses, over which is placed a neat layer of fine roots. They are smaller than those of the Crow, and are located about twenty feet from the ground. The period of nidification varies from three to four days. The nest being completed, which is the joint labor of both sexes, oviposition commences on the ensuing day. and pro- ceeds at the rate of one egg per diem, for tour days. This task being over, incubation next succeeds, and is the exclu- sive labor of the female for a period varying from seventeen to eighteen days. The male constitutes a very jealous hus- band and most willing provider. When the nest is assailed. though displaying commendable courage, he yet lacks that U LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS pugnacity of disposition and pertinacity of character, which characterize his near cousin. When the young- are hatched, they are objects of the most earnest devotion and deepest solicitude upon the part of the parents, who labor to outdo each other in deeds ot love and acts of attention. The young are fed upon earthworms, the larva? of ephe- merids, I^acJinostcrua qucrcina^ and Zerene catenaria; and when older, upon mature forms of OEdipoda uebnlosa* CK. sulphttrea, Acheta nigra* various dragon-flies, and moths of the family Noctnidcz. In about three weeks the young are able to quit the nest, and in fifteen days more, sever their connection with the family-circle and seek their own living. But a single brood is reared in a season In some points of character, this species resembles C. America/ins, but lacks its thievish propensities. This has been our expeiience, although Audubon accuses them of stealing the eggs and young of other birds, and especially was this noticed on the Florida Keys, where they even had the courage to plunder the nests of the Cormorants and those of the Ibis alba of Vieill. Its bill of fare is voluminous and various, and both vegetable and animal in character. A fisher by trade, it holds all other occupations at a discount. We have detected remains of the following insects in our numer- ous stomach-examinations : — CEdipoda Carolina, CE. neb- •nlosa, CE. sulpJnirea, Acheta nigra, Pangus caliginosus, Rhynchcenus strobi, Stomoxys calcitrans, Culex t&nior- . hynchus, Anisopteryx vernata, Zerene catenaria, Spilo- soma -cirginica, Callimorpha Lccontei, and many neurop- terous and lepidopterous forms. Among vertebrate types, remains of Rhinichthys atronasus, Plargyrus americanus, Hypsolcpis cormitus, and others among fishes ; with Pseudot- riton rubcr and Spelerpes longicauda. Wilson found them feeding upon the reptiles that frequented the various rivers and ponds of Mississippi. The cow-yards were also visited. During the shad and herring fisheries OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. i:» from March till June, great numbers were observed in Cape May Count}, N. J., and along the Schuylkill and Del- aware rivers, near Philadelphia. Mr. Audubon says they teed largely upon the fiddler-crab which they pursue and sd/e in their hiding-places ; and. further, that they assail and pursue small terns and gulls, and strive to force them to dis- gorge their piscine prey ; but in this, they are frequently unsuccessful, owing to the swifter flight of these birds. The Fish Crow can capture living fish with remarkable skill, but is utterly unable to feed while in flight. In the District of Columbia, Dr. Cones affirms this species to be an abundant permanent resident, and to manifest less wariness and suspicion than its nearest congener ; and also to be more generally restricted to the margins of rivers. Our ex- perience as to its general disposition, agrees therewith, but we have frequentlv observed it both feeding and breeding along the borders of streams of very little note. The Fish Crow seems to have commanded, whether justly or otherwise, greater popular favor than any of its race. It •s generally esteemed a harmless creature, and in its whole- sale destruction of vermin and reptiles, as beneficial to im.n- kind. As an offset to its good character thus depicted, it is accused by Audubon of entering gardens and plucking the richest and best fruits, and also of committing similar dep- redations upon the ripe figs to such an extent as to render it necessary to destroy them. Such has not been our expe- rience, and we cannot say aught derogatory to its good character. In speaking of their habits, Audubon says they ascend the Delaware river for a considerable distance, some venturing into New Jersey to breed, but all retiring to the South on the return of cold weather. In East Florida, they are quite plentiful, and were discovered breeding in February by Mr. Audubon; in South Carolina on the twentieth of March : and a month later, in New Jersey. In Florida on the St. John's river, immense flocks were seen in February, all being 16 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRD mated and moving in pairs, at considerable heights, after the fashion of Ravens. These aerial flights being ended, they would descend to the borders of the rivers to feed, and when their fishing was over, would alight upon the live oaks close by, where they would keep up an incessant gab- bling while pluming themselves. This being over, they would descend and feed until near sunset, when they would silently move into the interior to roost upon the loblolly-pines. Their return next morning was marked with vociferous and animated demonstrations. The eggs have a light blue ground-color, and are marked with a few dots and blotches of amber-brown on the small end, which are more or less confluent on the larger, obscuring largely the back-ground. Their size is but little superior to the eggs of the Purple Grakle, measuring about i .40 inches in length and .89 in width. In configuration, there is a very close resemblance to those of Myiarc/uts crinitus in being almost perfectly oval. Between the eggs of ossifr&gus and those of Americcutits, there are marked contrasts in size, shape, and markings, sufficiently striking to convince one of the dis- tinctness of the two species, though other details should be wanting. Dr. Brewer describes two eggs of this species from St. Simon's Island, which have a light blue ground-color with a slight greenish tinge, and marked with small light brown blotches over the entire surface. One of these eggs measured 1.50 inches in length and i.io in breadth ; and the othei , T .52 inches in length and 1 .09 in breadth. An egg originally obtained from Great Egg Harbor, which was procured by Wilson from the old Peale Museum, says the same author, has a pinkish-gray ground, with smaller blotches and cloud- ings of dark drab. There is no tinge of blue or green, which led Dr. Ifrcwer to suppose it to be a faded specimen. Sub-family Garrulin8e, Joys. Wings shorter, or equalling the tail in length, both being rounded. The tip of the wing is formed by the 4th — yth OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 17 quills. Both feet and bill are generally weaker than in the Corvince, and the birds are less terrestrial, and more strictly arboricole. Upon the ground, they advance usually by leaps. The Jays constitute a striking contrast to their near allies, the Crows, in usually possessing brighter and more conspic- uous colors, blue being the most prominent ; and, in frequent- ly having crests upon the head. The sexes differ but slightly in plumage ; the changes therein being not as remarkable as is customary among highly-colored birds. The ordinary Blue Jay affords a well-known illustration of the habits and traits common to the family. The Garr/di/itc, although they obtain their highest de- velopment in the warmer portions of America, are discovered in most parts of the globe. The genera of the Old and New World entirely differ from each other, with the single boreal exception of Pcrisoreus. The above characters will readily distinguish the American Corvince and Gamtlincc, but may require considerable modification in their application to the entire family. Cyanurus cristatus, Swain so it. The Blue Jay is nearly cosmopolitan in its distribution. It is found throughout our continent, ranging from the Atlantic Coast to the Mississippi Valley, and from Florida and Texas on the south, nearly, if not quite, to the 56th parallel. Its habits are strikingly peculiar, and pregnant with interest. For sagacity and a half-reasoning intelligence, it is scarcely unsurpassed by any other bird. In its natural haunts, it is exceedingly shy and suspicious, and can be approached only with the greatest difficulty. But frequent intercourse with man, in some parts of our section, has considerably modi- fied its disposition, and confidence has usurped the place of distrust, which is shown by nest-building sometimes occur- ring in close proximity to the habitations of man. Some fifteen years ago, in the rural portions of Philadelphia, near the village of Bustleton, we frequently took nests in 3 18 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS such positions. The birds were then more abundant than at present. Latterly, but few pairs are met with, and only in sequestered localities, seldom visited by man. In the groves of Iowa, Mr. Allen found this species manifesting all the confidence of Parus atricapillus; and in Illinois, he speaks of it as being in a semi-domesticated condition. In the for- mer State, he found it nidificating under the window of a dwelling, in a lilac-bush, in one of the most prominent streets of Richmond. Its first acquaintance with man, is characterised by a most curious behavior. It follows his every movement, with remarkable pertinacity, carefully scanning the slightest action, but always remaining at a respectable distance. When persecuted, it shuns the society of man. But when the hunter intrudes into its chosen retreat, it seems to de- light in annoying him as much as possible, and by its seemingly distressing cries, endeavors to warn its feathered brethren of approaching danger. In habits, the Blue Jay is mainly arboricole, preferring the shelter of dense forests to open and exposed situations. The pine-clad hills of the Wissahickon with their dense under- growth, are favorite places of resort. In such covers they delight to dwell during the dreary winter months, and there they may be frequently surprised in the dead of winter. Like the Crow, it is pre-eminently omnivorous, feeding either upon animal or vegetable matter, though having a seeming preference for the former. The eggs, larvae, and imagos of insects, are eagerly devoured, when procurable. When there is a scarcity of insect-diet, the fruits of the oak, beech, birch, and Conifera, are accepted. In the winter it feeds upon the following beetles : — Chlcenius sericeus, Eumol- pus pint, Harpalus compar, H. pexnsylvanicus, Pangus caliginosus, Harpalus carbonarius^ Platynns cupripennis^ Dicer ea lurida, Cratouychits cinereus, and C. pertinax. The seeds of Betula cxcclsa, Pinus inops, P. rigida, and the berries of yuiiiperns J 'irginiana, J. COtnmunis, and OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 19 Lonicerapericlymenum, are eaten with a gusto. As spring approaches, and insects become more numerous, its hill of fare is considerably enlarged. In addition to the foregoing insects, we have detected the remains of CEdipoda Carolina, CE. uebulosa, CE. sulphured, Caloptenus femur-ruhrum, Acheta nigra, Lachnosterna quercina, L. hirticula, Sea- rites subterraneus, Rhynchccnus strobi, in our several stomach-examinations. Later, immense numbers of cater- pillars, injurious as well as otherwise, are destroyed, as shown in the following list: — Clisiocampa Americana, Anisopteryx vernata, A. pometaria, Zerene catenaria, Orgya leucostigma* Limacodes scapha, Hybernia tiliaria, and Hales idota tessellaris ; in addition to the above, mature individuals of the Noctuidce and Tortricidce, with ants and earthworms. The Jay possesses one trait which detracts largely from its general good character. It has a propensity to destroy the eggs and young of smaller birds, and we have even known it to kill full-grown birds. The good which it accom- plishes in the destruction of insects, outweighs tenfold the mischief which it commits, and should encourage us to de- sist our persecutions, and accord to it a most generous welcome. The depredations which it commits upon the garden or the farm, are too trivial to mention. To give our readers some idea of the good which this species has accomplished in some portions of the country, we cannot do better than to give substantially Dr. Kirtland's estimate of its character as given by Dr. Brewer in "North American Birds." When he first settled upon his farm, he observed that every wild-cherry and apple tree was well- nigh denuded of its leaves, by the larvae of Clisiocampu Americana. The evil was so widespread that all efforts to counteract it seemed utter hopelessness. At this crisis, the Jays made their appearance, and established colonies. The tent-caterpillar constituted a ready diet for their youag, and was preyed upon so extensively, that in two or three yean i>() LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS afterwards, not a single individual was to be seen in the vicinage. The song of the Bine Jay exhibits a variety, beauty, and harmony, \vhichare truly creditable. Among singing-birds, . h£ has been likened, by Wilson, to the trumpeter of the band. His notes are varied to an almost infinite extent. At one time he screams with all his power, then rivals the soft- ness and modulation of the Bluebird's tones, and anon shocks the ear with a harshness unutterable. Its power of mimicry, which differs from that of Mini us polyglot t us, is hardly excelled by that of the latter. It es- pecially delights t;> mimic the cries of the Sparrow- Hawk, and its imitation of those of Bute:) bore.il is and /?. Jineattts are so accurate, that the small birds seek their coverts, and the poultry are thrown into the greatest consternation. When reared from the nest, these birds become exceedingly tame and docile. They make interesting pets, and in course of time, learn to simulate every sound they hear, not except- ing the human voice. Wilson mentions an individual that had O been reared by a South Carolinian, which showed remark- able intelligence, and possessed nearly the loquacity of some of the Psittacidcc . It coidd pronounce several words with remarkable distinctness, and would respond to its name when called, in a highly sociable manner. The Blue Jay. we are informed by experienced bird-fanciers, is the most in- genious, artful, and teachable species, which they have ever had under instruction. The flight of this species, in its accustomed haunts, is mostly low, firm, and but slightly elevated and protracted. When disturbed, it makes frequent short flights from tree to tree, until beyond the reach of danger. During the winter, these birds are mostly met in pairs, male and female together, In this latitude, they are never gregarious. Mating begins early in April, but never later than the i^th. But a few davs elapse, and nidification is entered into with commendable /eal. For this purpose, a OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 21 forest or orchard tree, or even a low bush, is chosen. In retired situations, a pine-tree is ordinarily selected. The nest is a strong, coarse structure, placed upon a branch, and composed of twigs rudely and firmly interwoven externally. Within, there is a lining of dark fibrous roots. In size, it is alm:>stequal to the nest of Quiscatus purp&reus. Both birds labor together in its construction, working diligently thereat until completion, which requires a period of three days. On the succeeding day, the female begins to oviposit, at the rate of one egg per day. The usual complement of eggs is five, although nests have been found with six eggs, and more rarely with four. Incubation is closely attendant upon oviposition, and "generally commences on the ensuing day. This task is wholly accomplished by the female, while the mule is close by to encourage by his presence, or to protect from danger, save when foraging for both himself and part- ner. He is a very jealous husband, and will allow no in- trusion by any of the feathered denizens of the woods, without resenting it in the most determined manner, and Inflicting summary punishment upon the rash intruder. The period of incubation is about 17 days. In Texas, according to Dr. Lincecnm, the nest is built of mud, which is rarely if ever utilized in more northern local- ities. It is lined with rags of calico, cotton thread, and similar materials, when removed but a short distance from human habitations. These latter situations are apparently chosen for the protection which they secure against Hawks. They have but a single brood in a year, and lay only four eggs fora setting. A female which he dissected, contained one hundred and fifty ova, and from this and the preceding data, he was led to the inference that the natural life of the species wras thirty years. The young birds are objects of more than wonte:! solicitude by the parents, who are extremely sedulous in their de- votion to them. They watch over them with a never weary- ing, vigilance, and actually imperil their own lives in their 22 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS behalf. They are fed upon earthworms, and the caterpillars of Clisiocampa Americana, Anisopteryx vernata, Zerene catenaria, Hybernia tiliaria, and mature forms of Limaco- des scapha, Hales idota tessellaris, Anisopteryx pometaria, and many of the Nbctuidtz. As they increase in size and strength, coleopterous and orthopterous insects, such as Cra- tonychiis cineretts, C. pertinax, Cymindis viridipennis, GLdipoda ncbulosa, '(E. sulphurea, CE. Carolina, and Ach- eta nigra, are added to their already voluminous bill of fare. In about three weeks after hatching, they are ready to quit the nest, and in a fortnight more, are able to shift for them- selves. The eggs are rounded-oval in configuration, obtuse, and pretty generally equal at each extremity. They are brown- ish-olive on the ground, and occasionally an olive-drab, with a sprinkling of darker olive-brown spots. The average size is 1.16 inches in length and .85 in width. CHAPTER VIII. Suborder Clamatores, Non-melodious Passeres. The essential character that distinguishes this group from the O seines, is purely anatomical, and consists in the non- development of a singing apparatus. The vocal muscles of the syrinx are small and weak, or consist of a large fleshy mass not separable into individual muscles. This character is somewhat uncertain in its determination, and probably does not alwavs correspond with a certain condition of the tarsal envelope which is seldom if ever observed in the higher Passeres. The leg of a Kingbird being closely ex- amined, will be found to be covered with a row of cylindri- cal plates, which envelope the tarsus like a segmented scroll, and which displays on its postero-internal aspect, a groove of considerable depth, where the margins of the envelope meet. This groove expands into a denuded space supe- riorly, and is partly filled in, posteriorly, with a row of small plates. This condition. writh some minor modifications, characterizes the clamatorial birds. It differs somewhat tan- gibly from the ordinary oscine tarsal character, in the presence of entire lateral corneous plates, which meet in a sharp ridge, posteriorly. Even when there is an extensive subdivision of these laminae, both latterly and posteriorly, instance Ampelis and Eremophila, the arrangement does not strictly conform to the above description. The Clamatores repre- sent the lowest Passeres, approaching, yet clearly separated from Picarian birds. The families constituting the sub- order are few in number. But a' single family is found in North America, north of the Mexican boundary. 24 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS Famil TrannidSB Fl-catchers. The North American representatives of this family will he immediately distinguished from the foregoing Passercs^ by the afore-mentioned tarsal character ; and from the suc- ceeding order, by the possession of twelve rcctrices. and in having the primary wing-coverts, one half the length of the secondaries, and posterior claw not smaller than the middle claw. This family is one' of the most extensive and characteristic groups of its kind in America, and is peculiar to the New World. In these particulars, the Tanagridcc and Trochil- id<.c alone, approach it. It embraces more than four hun- dred current species, divided among a hundred genera and sub-genera. At least two-thirds of the species are genuine, or strongly marked geographical races ; whilst the residue are equally divided between slight varieties and mere synon- ymes. They are mostly found in tropical America, where they assume manifold and singularly diversified species ; a small fragment only, being represented within our limits. A strict definition of the Tyrannida becomes very difficult, owing to the close grading toward other families. Our spe- cies are intimately related to each either, and with a possible exception, belong to the Sub- Family TyrannitlSD, True Tyrants, which presents the following characters : — wings composed of twelve primaries. The first primary is never spurious, nor very short, while one or more are often emarginate, or atten- uate on the inner web near the extremity. Feet small, weak, exclusively adapted to perching ; the tarsus barely longer than middle toe and claw. The anterior toes, particularly the external, quite coherent at base. Bill quite broad, with greater or less width at base, sharply acuminate, and pre- senting a triangular contour when \ iewed superiorly ; tip abruptly bent downward, and perceptibly notched just back OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. •>:> of the deflection ; culmen smooth and rounded transversely, straight or nearly so longitudinally, excepting towards the ex- tremity ; the commissure straight, or delicately curved except toward the end ; gomys long, flat, and devoid of keel. Nos- trils small, circular, truly basal, and overhung, but not hid- den, by bristles. Mouth large, roof somewhat hollowed ; rictus full and profoundly cleft ; commissural point, just be- low the anterior margin of the eye. The rictus is beset with long, rigid bristles, occasionally, but not always, which extend nearly to the end of the bill, and flare outwardly on each side. About the base of the bill, exist other bristles, or bris- tly-tipped feathers. Dried specimens of the bill when tap- ped, produce a resonant sound, which is probably due to the concavity which the upper mandible reveals when broken open. These obvious and striking features will enable us to clearly distinguish our smaller olivaceous fly-catchers from the insectivorous Oscines^ as the warblers and vireos. with which they are likely to be confounded. The structure of the bill is eminently fitted for the sei/ure of winged insects. The wide and profoundly fissured man- dibles, constitute a capacious orifice, while the long rictal bristles serve to entangle the creatures and check their strug- gles to escape. The configuration of the alar and caudal appendages, confers that power of rapid and varied aerial movements, necessary for the successful pursuit of agile fly- ing insects. Their peculiar habit of perching upon some conspicuous outpost, with the wings and tail drooped, and waiting in readiness for immediate action ; their dashing into the air, seizure of the passing insect with an astonishing celerity of movement and a sharp click, and their speedy re- turn to the same position, are so familiar that even at a long- distance, the sharp eye of the practised ornithologist cannot mistake their identity. Although some Oscincs have simi- lar habits, these pursue insects from place to place, but \\ilh less dexterity. The species are necessarily migratory, their vernal coming and autumnal departure, being wholly depen- 4 26 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS dent upon insect-food. They are pretty generally distribu- ted over the temperate regions of North America. Their voice is usually harsh and strident, though some species possess an agreeable whistle. The sexes are not generally distinguishable, and display but little alterations of plumage, either seasonal, or otherwise. The larger species are readily identified, while the smaller resemble each other so closely, as to require no little tact and patience in their discrimination. Tyrannus Carolinensis, Baird. The Kingbird, or Bee Martin, as this species is not insig- nificantly designated, has an extensive range, being found as far south as Texas and Florida, and northward to the paral- lel of 57°. From the Atlantic to the Pacific, north of the 44th parallel, but south of this line, only as far west as the Rocky Mountains. Dr. Cooper includes it among the birds of California, but Mr. Allen considers the eastern declivity of the Rocky Mountains, as its farthest western limit. Mr. Ridsfway, however, claims to have discovered it in different O J ' portions of the Great Basin, but always less abundantly than the Arkansas Flycatcher. Among the cotton-woods of the Truckee valley in W. Nevada, in the fertile Salt Lake Val- ley, and also in the productive ''parks" of the far distant Wahsatch Mountains, it has been met with in greater or less abundance. Throughout Nova Scotia, and even on the banks of the Saskatchewan, it is quite abundant. In eastern Pennsylvania it is a common migrant. It reaches this latitude during the latter part of April, usually from the i5th to the 3Oth. For a short time after its arrival, it seems to have a decided predilection for waste fields and pasture-grounds, where it may often be seen in pairs, con- stantly on the alert for winged insects. But as the season advances, and the mating period draws near, the foregoing •ocalities are deserted for the more congenial habitations of nan. Its busy life, unsuspicous nature, and friendly dispo- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 27 sition at these times, are highly commendable, and should naturally waken in the bosoms of its most inveterate perse- cutors, a generous sympathy in its behalf. It pursues the even tenor of its life without the slightest manifestation of that ugly jealous temper, which amatory influences are wont to excite. During the breeding-season, it displays a pugnacity of disposition, truly remarkable. The audacious boldness with which it will attack superior strength, the pertinacity with which it will continue the assault, and the reckless bravery with which it will maintain the unequal struggle, should command our admiration. Trie appellation of Kingbird is given to it, on the supposition that it is superior to all other birds, in these contests. Its attacks are mostly confined to the larger birds, and are prompted by an instinctive desire of self-preservation. Hens, Owls, Eagles, Crows, Grakles, Jays, and others, are the ordinary objects of its vengeance. The smaller birds, many of which are exceedingly mischiev- ous, have either profited by bitter experience not to molest the subject of the present sketch, or else have taken warn- ing from the fate of others. We have often watched these attacks, and have been sur- prised at the intrepidity with which a single individual would pounce upon and harass a vastly superior enemy. Ever on the alert, they are not slow to perceive an enemy's approach, even daring to rush out, as if courting an encounter. In these attacks, they will fly above their antagonist, pounce down upon his back, which they speedily forsake for his more exposed flanks, and only leaving them, to repeat the same manoeuvres, with the most determined animosity. In all these encounters, the Kingbird comes oft' victorious. The Purple Martin is its implacable enemy. Its superior flight and equal strength and courage, give it a decided advantage. Audubon cites an instance in which the Kingbird was killed in one of these encounters. Again, Wilson mentions a case. of which he was an eye-witness, in which r/'ciis crythrocc- 28 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS phalns was the object of its vengeance. The Woodpecker seemed to amuse itself while clinging to a rail, in playing bo-peep with the Kingbird ; while the latter, considerably vexed, made frequent desperate attempts 10 revenge the insult, but without avail. This species must be considered songless. Its only notes are a brief succssion of twitterings, which vary in intonation with emotional promptings. The flight of the Kingbird, when searching for food, is very peculiar. It flies slowly over the field, moving its pin- ions after the fashion of the Hawks, and sometimes sailing through the atmosphere on motionless wings, in a similar manner. Again, it flies with great celerity, and dives about in the manner of the Hinindiuidce* Its encounters with the Eagle or Hawk, are characterized by great firmness and rapidity of flight. The Kingbird is highly insectivorous, feeding forthe greater part upon winged insects. For its wholesale destruction of man's worst enemies, it merits his unstinted praise. But, unfortunately, it lacks the power of discrimination, and de- stroys immense numbers of bees. Its destruction of honey- bees has detracted much from its general behavior and gained for it a bad name in certain localities. Wilson has endeavored to fling a veil over its bad habits, by intimating that its ravages are mostly confined to the drones, the neuters being rarely, if ever, meddled with. Speaking from our own experience, we can say that the Kingbird is no respecter of kinds ; as many, if not more, of the working bees, are destroyed, than of the others. The following insects have been noticed in our numerous stomach-examinations : — Caloptenns femur-rubrum, CRdipoda sulphured, CE. nebulosa, AcJieta nigra, (Ecanthus tii~cicu$, Xiphidium fascia t 21 m, Carabus ligatus, Scarites subt erratic us. Pan- giis caliginosus, AUorJiina nitida^ Lachnosterna qucr- c/'/ia. L. hirticula, Diced us dilatatus* Chrysomela caru- ieipennis* Cetojiia hida. Dicerea drcaricaia* Cicindela OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 21) scxguttata* Cratonychns cincre.ns* C. pzrtinax, P/atvnns cupripennis, ffarp&lus carbonarins^ //. compar* //. pen- sylvanictis. Miisca domeslica, Tabanus l/;ic >/a, T. c/ncti/s. Asi/us sericeus, A. cestnans, Cnlex tceniorhyncJnis, and Utetheisa beUa* Zerene catcnaria, Pcnthhia pomnticUa* Anisoptcryx vcrnata, Scapha limacodcs. P/itsia precat- ioiiis, Hybeniia tiliaria^ and Halesidota tcssollaris, ;unon^ lepidoptera^ both in the perfect and larval stages. The Bee Martin, as this species is sometimes appropriately designated, shortly after its arrival, commences to build. The nest is ordinarily placed between the forked branches of a pear-tree, generally in an orchard, or in close proximity thereto. Why the pear should be preferred to the apple or cherry, it is difficult to imagine, unless the density of its foliage, and the short spine-like twigs with which the branches are armed, afford greater security from the keen gaze of rapacious birds and mischief-loving boys. The nest is usually built in the top of the tree, where the denser foliage abounds. Although instances have come under our observation, where nests were placed not more than seven feet from the ground. These nests were in localities where the species had won the favor and esteem of man, and were protected from harm. Occasionally, we have taken nests in situations remote from human habitations, on the borders of dense forests, facts which seem to indicate quite clearly that the habit of building in orchards was acquired and brought about in obedience to a change of specific character. A> this species has a fondness for the little Apis lucUijica. whose hives are placed in close contiguity to the domicile <>t man, a desire to be near such articles of luxury, may have prompted a change of habitat. It is true that the specjes is proverbial for courage, not even fearing to attack the largest birds of prey, when led within its jurisdiction ; and, therefore, the securities which a pear-tree affords, are not absolutely necessary. Hut birds <>t the least sagacity would not be slow to discern the advantu- O J 30 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS ges which would result from a judicious selection of locality. In the vicinity of forests, these protective objects are in a measure denied ; consequently, the species is characterized by a more indomitable courage. Perhaps, a deep conscious- ness of the danger to which their young are exposed, has led the parents to take advantage of everything protective, that wisdom and ingenuity could devise. The nest is the result of the joint labor of both sexes ; the male being chiefly employed in gathering materials, whilst the female is busy in adjusting them. The work is not con- tinuous, but intermittent in its character. The period re- quired for nidification, ranges from four to five days, and is dependent upon the skill of the architects. The nest being completed, scarcely a day intervenes preparatory to oviposition. The usual complement of eggs is five, although we have known instances where but four eggs were deposited. The eggs are laid on successive days, never more than one per diem. Incubation commences on the ensuing day, and is the sole task of the female. Whilst the latter is thus occu- pied, the male becomes a very attentive and jealous husband. Every moment is fraught with kind and endearing attentions, strikingly indicative of his profound regard and affection. He is a willing provider, often repairing to immense distan- ces in search of articles of nourishment. When released from this voluntarily-imposed obligation, he does not forsake her presence, but remains in the immediate neighborhood. He often stations himself upon the topmost branch of the tree on which the nest is built, directly above his partner, and for a long time makes rapid and repeated surveys of the surrounding country. His alertness and vigilance are truly remarkable. The look of defiance which he gives every feathered creature, both great and small, which is rash enough to venture into his territory, is sufficient to insure im- munity from assault. The period of incubation varies from 13 to 14 days, according to climatic conditions. The nest is rather loosely arranged outwardly, but in- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 31 creases in compactness towards the centre, where the materials are firmly and closely intermingled, producing a beautiful and symmetrical structure. External! y, the fabric N composed of herbaceous stems chiefly of Triticiim vulgar i\ Chenopodiitm albiu)^ leaves of deciduous trees, and a profusion of white fibrous bark of a satiny lustre, plucked from Li mini and other plants, which serves to bind the denser materials together. Interiorly, there may be said to be an inner structure composed of fine culms of Pan- icum and Poa* most intricately and durably interwoven. The cavity is beautifully symmetrical, and measures three Inches in diameter every way, and nearly two and one half inches in depth. The ground- work of the nest measures five inches in diameter, which contracts to four and one half inches at the mouth. The height is about four inches. Another nest which was found in Germantown, at no great distance from the one last described, varies from it slightly in structure, but rather largely in materials of com- position. This nest is composed, externally, of the compress- ed culms of Secalc ccreale in abundance, with large fragments of newspaper, which constitute a noticeable feat- ure, a fewr herbaceous stems, all closely compacted and variously intermingled. Within, is to be found a finely built fabric, neatly and substantially conjoined with the outer structure, and composed of the darkened stems and leaves of various grasses, besides a modicum of fine rootlets. The cavity is less uniform than that of the preceding nest, and is conspicuously shallow. It measures three inches in di- ameter, and not more than two inches in depth in the deep- est part. The basal diameter of the complete nest, measures five inches, which is nearly the dimension at the mouth. The vertical thickness is three and one half inches. A conspicuous feature of a few nests which we have met with, in situations remote from human habitations, is a pre- dominance of divers weeds, with their exploded seed-vessel- still adherent, on the exterior, and a large moiety of leathers ?>-> LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS and hairs constituting" the inner fabric. The perfect i with which these articles are obtainable, and the entire ab- sence of them in nests which are found in close proximity to the residence of man, their places being supplied by fine grasses, are facts which seem incapable of explanation. It is true that the above articles being non-conductors of heat, would retain the maternal warmth, and thus materially facili- tate incubation ; while the lining of grasses, from its read\ conductibility , would equally retard the operation. However, a plausible theory can be given to account for this anomal- ous condition of affairs. In its natural haunts, the forests, feathers and hairs are still utili/ed in the lining of nests. Being non-conductors of heat, they retain the warmth imparted to them much longer than most vegetable substan- ces. In situations remote from man's influence, the necess- ity would doubtless sometimes arise for the female to quit the nest while with eggs, to aid her partner in conquering a common foe. During this absence, if not too protracted, it is obvious that but little detriment would be experienced by the developing embryo. Were the lining of a vegetable character, but a few minutes of absence would suffice to chill 'the eggs, and destroy the vitality within. But in situations contiguous to the residence of man, such molestations would be of rare occurrence ; the necessity for vacating the nest by the female, seldom, if ever, occurring. Consequently, the mother-bird becomes a more constant sitter, and supplies that uniformity of heat which is essential to germ-develop- ment. That the upper surface of the egg receives more heat than the lower, and is kept at a more uniform temper- ture, is a truth that admits of no doubt. But this difficulty is obviated by the mother-bird, who with true instinctive feeling, turns and shifts the eggs at regular intervals, so that the upper and lower surfaces shall receive their due propor- tion of heat. Considerable experience in rearing poultry, has taught us that incubation can be perceptibly shortened OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 33 by supplying the nest, as far as practicable, with materials that are non-conductors of heat. Though the Kingbird usually nidificates in trees, it dors not always choose such localities. Dr. Brewer mentions a nest which he noticed in the summer of 1851, while crossing a bridge near the village of Aylesford, in Nova Scotia, which was placed upon the kk projecting end of one of the planks of which the bridge was made." This nest was consider- ably exposed, and placed on a level with the highway, and but a few feet from it. The young birds when hatched, are objects of more than ordinary parental solicitude ; both parents vying with each other in deeds of self-sacrifice. The most endearing atten- tions are lavished upon them, and no effort is spared to sat- isfy the eager demands of appetite. Their bill of fare con- sists mainly of caterpillars and diptera at first, to which coleoptera, orthoptera, and mature lepidoptera, are added. as they increase in age. The following caterpillars arc sacrificed to their greedy appetites: — Hybernia tiliaria. Anisoptervx vernata, A. pcmctaria, Zcrcne catena na^ Lima codes scapha, and Agrotis tessellata. Among diptera, vast numbers of Cii/ex taniorhynchiis, Mnsca domcstica, Tabanus Uneola, and T. cinctus, are devoured. Later. Coliasphilodice, Pier is olcracea, Utethaisa bellci, Ennonio* snbsignaria, Agrotis tcsscllata, Plusia precatioui , among mature lepidoptera ; Caloptenns fcnuir-rnbrum, (Edipoda Carolina, ffi\ nclutlosa, CE. sulphured, and other orthop- tera ; Apis mcllifica, and many hymenopters of the genera Hale it us, Andrcna, Anthomyia, and Formica. On the fourteenth day after incubation, the young are able to quit the nest. A fortnight longer elapses, however, before they are fitted to take care of themselves. For a brief period they now enjoy the association of the parents, but finally sever this relationship, and each individual shifts for itself. Their departure for the South takes place about the i5th of September, seldom later. 34 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS The esfgfs of the Kingbird vary considerably in size. The oo O *> ground-color is white, with a somewhat roseate tinge, and is beautifully spotted with brown and reddish-brown blotches and markings, which are confluent about the larger extrem- ity, in some specimens, and irregularly scattered over the entire surface of the egg. in others. In length, they vary from i .02 to .87 of an inch ; in breadth, from .7^ to .72 ot an inch. . Myiarchus crinitus, Cabanis. The Great-crested Flycatcher is very abundant in the lat- itude of Philadelphia, arriving from the South during the early part of May. It has a more extended northern distribution than earlier writers have been disposed to grant. Wilson would confine it solely to Pennsylvania, while Audubon would restrict it to the mountains of Wes- tern Massachusetts. Nuttall considered it to be a rara avis in New England and as never appearing near the coast. Recent discoveries have shown it to be quite a regular, but a somewhat rare summer visitant as far to the north-east as latitude 45° north, and longitude 67° east. It has been found as far north as Randolph, Vt. and at Hamilton. Can- ada, in latitude 44° north. Mr. Boardman has discovered it breeding in small numbers near Calais, Maine ; and Prof. Verrill has found it a rare visitor in the western part of the State. According to Mr. Mcllwraith, it is quite a common summer resident of Hamilton, Canada West, arri- ving there about the roth of May. In Eastern Massachu- setts, Dr. Brewer saj^s it is not common, and that scattered pairs have been met with in Concord, Newton, Hingham. and other localities. Dr. Cones gives it as a common sum- mer resident in Washington, but affirms it to be more abun- dant in the spring and autumn. It arrives about the third week in April, and is chiefly a denizen along the margins of open woods, its presence being betrayed by its peculiar notes. In Western Massachusetts, it is a lare species accor- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. :',;, ding to Mr. Allen, being found from May i^th to September i. 7th ; but it has been found by Mr. C. W. Bennett breeding on Mt. Tom. In the Middle States, and also the Southern States as far south as Texas and Florida, it is quite abundant, and even occurs westward to the Missouri River. In the In- dian Territory and in Texas, Dr. Wooclhouse discovered it to be quite common. This species manifests a decided predilection for the bor- ders of thickets and waste fields. It shuns rather than courts the society of man. In this particular, it strikingly contrasts with Tyrannus carolincnsis. Though partial to such sit- uations, it cannot be said to be exclusive occupants thereof. On its arrival in the early part of May, most of its time is spent in such retreats ; but as the season for nesting ap- proaches, an occasional pair will often take up its quarters in an orchard, in close proximity to the residence of man. Frequent instances of similar action during the past five years, have come under our observation. That feeling of shyness and distrust which is so characteristic of birds in their natural haunts, is a complete stranger to it Fre- quent intercourse with man for a few generations, and th;it of the most friendly character, has engendered the most happy results. Courage has given place to timidity, and confi- dence to distrust. The males are the first to arrive from the South. They precede the females by at least three days, and their coming is unheralded by cry or song. The appearance of solitary individuals, seems to indicate that the long journey is accomplished singly, and not in small flocks ; although it is highly probable that a few individuals may jour- ney together, and, subsequently, disperse. But it is a ver- itable fact that during no time of its short stay with us, is the species gregarious in the strict sense of the term. Unlike the Kingbird, this species is not prone to attack birds larger than itself, but it is harsh and vindictive to smaller birds, and even to impotent individuals of its own species. 36 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS The flight of this Flycatcher is steady ;>nd swift, and when in pursuit of prey, is somewhat prolonged. For remarkable zeal and perseverance in this direction, it is scarcely unsur- passed by any other of our smaller species. When any prey is captured, if it happen to be a large insect, it is immedi- ately carried by the captor to its perch, and beaten to death against the limb. Its ordinary call-note is a sharp unpleasant squeak which is difficult to express in syllables. Its song, if it can be so characterized, is a monotonous succession of harsh squeaking notes, which produce any thing but music to the ear of the listener. The call-note, according to Mr. Mi not, is a "sin- gle loud brusque note (not unlike the ordinary call of the Quail"), which may be imitated "by whistling and suddenly drawing in the breath." Our experience in Eastern Penn- sylvania, and we have had abundant opportunities of testing its accuracy, is certainly in favor of the great mass of writers who have given a description of the vocal powers of this species. In about two weeks after their arrival, the sexes begin to pair. A short time ensues, before they are ready to breed. Nidification is entered into with comparative vigor during the last week in May, and, occasionally, this important busi- ness is deferred until the first week of June. The nest is the result of the joint labor of both sexes. It is constructed in a hollow tree. When built close to human habitations. :i pear or an apple tree is mostly chosen. The cavity is often the previous labor of some hard working wood-pecker, pos- sibly Colaptcs auratus. Mr. Samuels says "the nests are composed of straws. leaves, feathers, and the cast oft' skins of snakes." He fur- ther affirms "it seems a distinguishing characteristic of the nests of this species, to have the skins of one or more snakes woven into the other materials." This has been the exper- ience of others. Dr. Brewer says the species "nests alto- gether in hollows in trees, stumps, or limbs." These hoi- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 37 lows he affirms to be lined with miscellaneous materials in great variety, the quantities of which vary with the si/c and configuration of the cavity to be occupied ; the com- posing materials being feathers, loose hay. the hair of small quadrupeds, etc., and the exuviie of snakes which are sel- dom absent. In Eastern Pennsylvania, we have had a different exper- ience. Among the many nests which we have yearly ex- amined, there has been noticed considerable diversity in the elements of composition. The cavity is lined with a heterogeneous medley of materials, loosely aggregated, without the slightest evidence of design. To an observer, it would seem as if the materials had been precipitated into the cavity by the birds, until a sufficient quantity had been accumulated, when the contents would be shaken up until all the ingredients had become throughly commingled. Dried grasses, liber of trees, rotten \vood, and feathers, are the chief constituents ; the slough of snakes being an unnotice- able feature. In lieu thereof, we have always found the feathers of the common barnyard fowl to be a characteristic feature of the typical structure. That this species does not exclusively nidificate in hol- lows, is an actual fact. A few years ago, on the outskirts <>t Germantown, we once found an occupied nest placed be- tween the bifurcated branch of an apple-tree. It was com- posed almost entirely of the feathers of our common Gaf/t/s. which were held together by long grasses. This fabric, though lacking compactness, was sufficiently strong to en- dure the season, although it is very doubtful that it could withstand the peltings of winter. The habit of building in hollow trees is certaiijf y an ac- quired one, rendered necessary by various circumstances. Instances have been recorded of similar changes of habit in other species. It is highly probable that this species built just such a nest as we have described, in primitive ;'>«s LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS times. If so, the case in point, s-jems t;> he a reversion to a long lost habit. Why this species alone should seek shelter and protection tor its young in the hollows of trees, when all its family re- latives build open and comparatively exposed domiciles, is hard to explain. We should naturally expect to witness a family resemblance, however slight, in its structure. Its quarrelsome disposition must necessarily gain for it many enemies, and in exposed situations, the sins of the parents would doubtless be visited upon the heads of the unoffend- ing children. To insure the hitter's protection against the provoked assaults of enemies, the parents have doubtless hit upon the happy expedient of hiding them away in the hollows of trees. We have often wondered \vhv white feathers, for such is the fact, should be selected for nesting purposes, in prefer- ence to others. May it not be that the white color of the feathers, combined with the characteristic hue of the inner bark of trees and decayed wood which oonstitute such important elements of composition, so beautifully harmonizes with the ground-color of the eggs and their brown markings, as to be protective in their tendency? Example after example might be cited to prove the harmony which exists be- tween the colors and markings of eggs, and the colors of the materials which enter into the compositions of certain nests. The only rational conclusion that can be drawn from such facts, is that the different materials are selected by birds with the ultimate view of harmonizing with the characteristic colors, tintings, and markings of their eggs. Admission of this fact would seem to imply that birds are connoisseurs of colors. In the generality of cases, we believe that the se- lection oi materials of suitable colors, is purely instinctive in its character. But at the same time we cannot help thinking that the ability to discriminate colors, exists with many, if not all, species. If bees possess this capa- city, which Sir John Lubbock assures us to be the fact, we OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. :',«.i cannot reconcile its presence in the one and absence in the other, with the doctrine of progressive development. Let us go back from this digression, to the subject of nest-building. The proper locality being chosen, both birds labor diligently until the requisite materials are accumulated, when the female enters the cavity, and by a few bodily evolutions, gives the finishing touches to the nest, which at the best is a very rude structure. The female commences on the following day to deposit her complement of eggs to the number of four or five. Oviposition proceeds at the rate of one per day. On the day succeeding the last deposit, incubation occurs, and continues for a period rang- ing from 13 to 14 days. This labor devolves exclusively upon the female. While she is thus engaged, her partner becomes a very jealous and attentive husband, carefully guarding the home from intrusion, and administering the choicest articles of diet to the patient occupant with a xeal and perseverance that know no bounds. The young are nurtured with the tenderest care until they are able to feed themselves. Even then they are not driven from home bv merciless parents, but continue to dwell in the family, among the individual members of which the most intimate love seems to exist. In this happy condition, parents and children repair together, during the last week in September, to the tropical climes of Central America and the Isthmus of Panama. At the age of 14 days, the young quit the nest, and after the lapse of a similar period of time, they are able to shift for themselves. In this lati- tude, but a single brood is raised in a season. The young are fed upon the larvae of Anisopteryx -ccniata. A. pomctaria, Zeroic catcnaria, Procris Americana* Hy- bcrnia tiUaria* Pieris oleracca, and various mature dip- tera, such as Musca domestica, Tabanus duct us. 7\ ////- cola, Culex tceniorhyucJ/n^ and Anthrax clotigata. The ordinary earthworm {Litmbricus tcrrestris} i^ readily devoured. The fruits of the following plants are eaten with 40 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS a gusto : — Fragaria \~irgiuiana, Rubn$ -cillosns* I'm urn; Cerastes, and others. For a few weeks after the arrival of this Flycatcher, the following coleoptera constitute an important part of its diet: — Elater inqn hiatus, Cr atony chits ci tier ens, C. pcrtinax, Anisodactyhis rusticus^ A. lactnosus* Har pains pcnsyh'anicits, Platyniis cupripennis, Chrysomefa carulci- is, Eumolpuspini, Scaritessubterraneus, Pangus cal- S) Lachnosterna qiiercina, and others. The foregoing l)ill of fare is somewhat varied with a few diptera and hv- menoptera. Traces of Mitsca domestica, Tabauits lineola, T. cinctus, Stomoxys calcitrans* Syrphus obliquus* Formi- ca sanguinea, and F. subterranea^ the last two in great abundance, have been observed in many stomach-examina- tions. From the vast numbers of ground-beetles which have been noticed in the numerous stomachs which we have examined, it is obvious that the species leads almost wholly a terrestrial existence for a week or so after its arri- val. As the season advances, and the higher types of in- sects swarm into existence, it becomes more exclusively- arboreal, and aerial so to speak. \Ve have watched these birds for hours, while perched upon a dead branch of a tree, in the active enjoyment of procuring a full meal. Their movements are perfectly ludicrous. There they sit, bobbing the head this way and then that way, now up and then down, ever on the alert for the caitiffs which form their appropriate diet. Hosts of lepidoptera, both larvae and imagoes, are greedily devoured. The following list constitutes but a very small variety of its voluminous bill of fare : — Agrotis tesscl- lata, ITtetheisa bella, Procris Americana, Pier is oleracea, Colias philodice, Zer-ene catcnaria, Anisopteryx vernata, A. ponietaria, Auisota rubicunda, Euuonios snbsigiiaria, Penthina pomonella, Gortyna zea, and many others, be- longing to the families Lyccenidce, Tortricidic, J^octuidtz, and Tincidcc. A few hymenoptera and orthoptera such as Apis meJJijica and Selandria roscc, of the former, and Cat- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. H • optcuns femur-rubnun, (Edipoda ticbulosa, and (1L. snl- p/nirea, of the latter. The eggs vary considerably in looks, shape, and markings. In some instances, they are nearly spherieal, and in others, oblong oval, with one extremity considerably smaller than the other. The ground-color is a light buff, and is marked with wavy lines, marblings, blotches, and dots of a rich am- ber brown, which are equally distributed over the entire surface in some specimens, while, in others, they are mostly con- "resrated about the larger end. The wavy lines, in some O O ?"> J instances, intercross each other, and stretch from one pole of the egg to the other. So beautifully and uniformly are they arranged, that it seems as if they were laid on with the delicate touch of an artist. An oblong oval egg from Eas- tern Pennsylvania, measures i inch in length, and .75 in width. A more nearly spherical one from the same locality. measures .87 by .75 of an inch. Sayornis fuscus, Jtaird. The Pewee or Phcr.be Bird is quite a common denixen of the eastern parts of the United States, ranging from the Rio Grande in the southwest, to Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick on the northeast, and as far west as the Missouri River. In Texas and the Indian Territory, Dr. Woodhouse found it to be very abundant. In the Mexican Department of Vera Crux, Dr. Sumichrast took specimens, but was unable to say whether it was a common resident, or only a migrant. By Dresser and Hermann it was observed to be migratory at San Antonio in Texas, but in Houston of the same State. it certainly breeds according to the first-named authority, as individuals were met with in June. Lieut. Couch took spec- imens at Brownsville, Texas, in February: and. on the op- posite side of the Rio Grande, at Tamaulipas, Mexico. shortly afterwards, in March. Dr. Cones discovered this species to be most abundant in South Carolina, in the months of February and March, and. subsequently, in October and 6 \'2 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS • November. This distinguished ornithologist is impressed with the belief that a few pass the winter theie. and that others are only resident during the breeding-season ; but that the greater part retire farther north for this essential business. In Eastern Pennsylvania, this species is among the earliest of our migrants. We have known it to arrive as early as the first week of March ; but, ordinarily, its arrival dates from the i^th of this month, and has actually been delayed as late as the beginning of April. On its first appearance, it is quite a common occupant of waste fields, and often de- lights in the borders of thickets, or the margins of rivulets. But, later, it forsakes these haunts for* the residence of man : and manifests a seeming fondness for the barnyard and the presence of the cattle. In sequestered situations, it is char- acterized by greater shyness than is manifested in less quiet retreats. But at no time is this feeling carried to the same degree as in the case of its near relative, Contopns ~cirens, When hungry, the Pewee perches upon a rotten branch, where it remains for hours together, patiently waiting for its prey. Its unerring vision, in its numerous wanderings from side to side, and in up arid down directions, will not permit the smallest winged creature to escape. Not only for hours has the same individual watched for its prey from the same commanding position, but we have also reason to believe that the same twig is occupied da}' after day. during the hours of feeding. While sitting, it occasionally flirts its tail, and utters its simple song with a look of self-satisfac- tion, particularly after having feasted upon a juicy beetle. The ordinary call-note of this species \* pee-wec which to some ears sounds very much \fa&phcebtc, although we must confess that we have never been able to perceive any resem- blance to these sounds. Its well-known, monotonous, though not altogether unpleasant syllables, are uttered with considerable emphasis, and frequently during the early spring: but with less firmness and frequency as the season progresses. Besides the above call-note, from which the spe- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 4:5 cies derives its appellation, a low twittering song is uttered by the male, while the love-season lasts, with a view to enter- tain his mate, and only in the presence of the latter. The flight of this species is truly remarkable. It consists of a soaring movement alternating with a series of light fluttering movements, and is marked with greater rapidity when in pursuit of prey, than ordinarily. When in motion, as on the lookout for insects, its crest is generally erected. For at least a fortnight after its arrival, this Pewee leads a solitary existence. Its chief concern seems to be the grat- ification of a most ravenous appetite. Indeed, the scarcity of suitable insects at this early period, would necessarily preclude the assumption of matrimonial relations ; besides, the serious detriment which would result to the young if bred so early, the male-bird, who is often compelled to eke out a precarious existence when the season is unusually back- ward, would find his powers greatly overtaxed to obtain suffi- cient food for both himself and mate during the critical period of incubation. When insect-life becomes more plentiful with increased temperature, the sexes come together, and mating is accomplished. This happens in favorable seasons about the middle of April ; but, when the weather is very inclement, the sexes seem loath to associate. Shortly after pairing, but little time is wasted in the prelim- inaries of place-hunting. With young birds, this ma}' be other- wise ; but with those that are old, it is unnecessary, as the latter entertain the strongest feelings of attachment for accus- tomed haunts. The places selected for nidification, are as numerous as they are curious, and exercise a marked influence upon the character of the nest. Wilson speaks of the nests as being found in caves, and sometimes among the intersti- ces of the side-walls of uncovered wells, at a depths varying from five to six feet. Nuttall has known these birds to nid- ificate in an unoccupied kitchen ; and, in one instance, in a boathouse. at Fresh Pond, Cambridge. Dr. Brewer has known them to build under bridges, projecting rocks, and 44 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS porches; against the wall of a railroad station, easily accessi- ble to passengers ; and under the projecting ledge of a window- sill, in full view of the occupants of the domicile. In Eastern Pennsylvania, we have discovered nests in similar situations. The most frequent places of resort for the purposes of nidification, are the piers of bridges. porticoes, overshoots, wagon-sheds, and empty dilapidated spring-houses. A rather singular situation came under our observation during the month of May, i8y6. The nest alluded to, was placed upon the centre of a flat stone under- neath an overhanging bank. The nest is the work of both birds, who labor with com- nendable dilligence and zeal until the fabric is constructed. The time required for the completion of the task, ranges from five to six days. The utmost harmony and good- nature prevail during the entire period. It is the commonly received opinion that birds of the same species uniformly build their nests of the same mate- rials, in the same situation and manner, even though they inhabit different climates. This, however, is not invariably the case, as a few observations will clearly show. On the AvVest Branch of the Susquehanna, a few years ago, we pro- cured nests of the Phoebe Bird, which, in si/e, structure, and materials, might have been taken for nests of species entirely distinct from the one under consideration. As these nests wrere built upon the horizontal beams of a wagon-shed, they would seem to require less compactness of structure, than in more exposed situations. The typical nest is composed, externally, of fine roots, grasses, fine mosses, and hairs, and is held together, and to the object to which it i$ attached, by pellets of mud. In- teriorly, there is a warm and cosy lining of meadow grasses, lint, hairs, and, occasionally, feathers and wool. By meas- urement we obtain the following dimensions: — Diameter Irom side to side, 3 1-2 inches, depth, 3 inches; diameter of cavity, 2 1-2 inches, making the thickness of the lateral OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 4:, \valls. 1-2 inch ; depth of cavity, I 1-2 inches, indicating a thickness at the bottom of i 1-2 inches. No. i of the deviations alluded to above, is nearly circu- lar in outline, somewhat flattened, and has an average diam- eter of 4 inches, and a depth of 2 inches. Diameter of cavity, 21-2 inches, depth, i inch ; thickness of lateral walls. 3-4 inch, and at the bottom, i inch. This nest is constructed entirely of the silk of corn, externallv ; and is lined with small pieces of string, and a few hairs. The ab- sence of moss and clav pellets, is a noticeable feature ; such ordinarily indispensable materials, evidently not being re- quisite, if the site of the nest affords anv criterion. No. 2 of these anomalous forms, has a circular contour, with a diameter of 5 inches, and a depth of 2 1-2 inches on the outside. The diameter of the Cavity is 2 1-2 inches, and the depth 2 inches. The lateral walls are i 1-4 inches thick. and basal walls, 1-2 inch. The entire nest is composed of the inner bark of the chestnut, plucked, doubtless, from fence rails, and reduced to very fine strips for the inner part of the fabric ; these gradually attain to a width of one-fourth of an inch, outwardly. In a form, intermediate between the typical structure and the first deviation therefrom, we find the diameter to be 4 1-2 inches, and depth, 2 inches; diameter of cavity. 2 1-2 inches, and depth, i 1-2 inches ; lateral walls each i inch, and basal, 1-2 inch. The exterior of this nest is built of fine grasses, hair, wool, and. an abundance of mosses, envel- oping the foregoing materials. Within, it is lined with solt grasses and hairs, in equal proportions. The absc-nce of clay would seem to imply an unexposed locality, to which supposition, its comparatively loose structure, does certainly add weight. A very beautiful nest, which we lately procured from the outskirts of Germantown, is composed, exteriorly, almost wholly of Dritmmoiulia cla-ccllata which grows exuber- antly in our midst. It is intricately interwoven, but 1C LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS slightly held together, and is agglutinated to the supporting surface, by a tew pellets of mud. Interiorly, there is a soft and warm lining of fine strips of the inner bark of Linum \ 'irgini.a-HitM* with a few dichotomous branches of ]^au- icuni capillarc situated on the exterior, for the nest appears double. Diameter of the outer fabric, ^ 1-2 inches; and height, 2 inches. The inner nest is 3 1-2 inches in diameter, and i 1-2 inches in height. The cavity is i 1-2 inches wide, and i 1-4 inches in depth. Another nest which was procured by a young man on the Wissahickon hills, was, at the time of its discovery, found reposing upon the centre of a huge Mat stone, under- neath an overhanging bank. The authors had just completed the structure. It is by far the most beautiful and symmet- rical nest of the Pewee, that we have ever noticed. Between it and the tvpical nest, a marked contrast exists. It is cer- tainlv the work of superior mechanics, and betrays the nice taste and preeminent skill which were necessary to produce such a structure. Young birds could scarcely have attained to such architectural skill. The only inference which we are allowed to draw is that the nest is the inevitable result of skilled and experienced builders. That birds are capa- ble of improvement in this particular, and that the nests of young birds (both sexes being young), display less skill and taste than those of old birds, exceptional cases being granted, are facts which cannot be gainsayed nor denied. An impor- tant feature about the nest under consideration, is worthy of notice. Unlike the one last described, the double character is wanting. In outline, it is perfectly circular. The periph- eral walls maintain the same diameter from base to summit. The diameter is 4 inches, and the height 2 inches. The di- ameter of the cavity is 2 inches, and the depth in the centre, i 1-2 inches. Externally, the nest is composed of different species of J//V.ST/, among which we have been able to iden- tify with perfect ease the following common species : — Drummondia cJaveUata* Funttria hygrometrica^ and OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 47 Sphagnum squarrosiim ; the two former in great abundance. Proceeding inwardly. we find fine rootlets and grasses in- tricately interwoven, and with the roots of the mosses which compose the exterior. These particles occur accidentally, but not designedly. The interior of the nest is lined with a few herbaceous stems and leaves, mostly graminaceous in character, besides a slight sprinkling of black horse-hairs. From the position of the nest upon a flat surface, we natur- ally expected to find the small mud-pellets upon the inferior aspect, to fasten the nest upon the reposing surface. But we were disappointed in this expectation. In the case of 7}/r- d/is migrator ins* when the nest reposes upon a flat surface, the mud on the bottom is always a noticeable feature, even when the marginal rim is absent. We have recently come into possession of a nest of the Robin, which is entirely de- void of mud. The location of this nest, in a crotch of the common juniper, closely surrounded by nearly vertical branches, utterly precluded the necessity for the use of mud. The nest of Sayor)iis fiisctis* about which we write, comes under the same category. Reposing upon a plain solid sur- face, carefully protected from the wind by an overhanging bank and by local position, mud was entirely unessential. The absence of mud is certainly an advantage, in an eco- nomical sense. To procure the amount of mud necessary for a typical structure, does certainly consume a vast deal of time, and entails much physical labor, without adding anything to the beauty of the nest. It is true that in some situations it is a highly indispensable article. The selection of a position where its use can be dispensed with, bespeaks intellectual improvement, and an ability to reason in details. The mud-plastered nest is certainly a primitive structure. The passage therefrom to the model nest is truly a decided pro- gression. There is another advantage which the species has gained, which should not l;e lightlv passed over. Mud. particular! \ of the clayey kind, is very absorbent in its nature. When 4S LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS the atmosphere is surcharged with moisture, the mud-pellets absorb a certain quantity thereof, and thus tend to keep the nest damp, much to the discomfort of the sitting-bird, and to the detriment of the eggs and young. This is particu- larly the case in quite exposed situations ; and even in the customary haunts, this tendency to absorption by clay- pellets, is not prevented. On the other hand, dried veg- etable and animal materials, possess this power of absorption in a low degree, and part with the received moisture, quite readily, under favorable conditions. That a species, which has always been known to build a nest so characteristic and so peculiar as the Pewee, should deviate so considerably and suddenly, as it seems to have done, from its ordinary habit of building, is truly remarkable. In the absence of facts, we coidd hardly credit the foregoing statement. It has been suggested that possibly numbers one and two of the deviations given above, were the nests of other species, and not the work of the species under notice. This cannot be, as the mother-birds, in these particular instances, were engaged in sitting at the time the discoveries were made. The individuals of some species do take forcible possession of the nests of others, or the cavities in which they are secreted ; but we have never known the intruders to occupy the same, except in the case of ^foJotJirus pecoris of America, and Cucithts can or us of England. As these birds never build, but deposit their eggs in the nests of other species, we are hardly disposed to grant the propriety of considering them in this character. It is well known that Troglodytes ccdon, when prompted by a mis- chieyous spirit, drives away Icterus Baltimore and Savor n is fusctts from rightful property, and takes up its abode therein ; but never without having previously constructed its rude and simple nest of coarse sticks, well-lined with feathers and down on the inside. So strong is the attachment of birds to the nests of their own construction that the parental instinct is often lost sight of. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 49 Innumerable proofs could be cited in confirmation of this assertion. One, however, must suffice. A few years ago, near Elwood, Atlantic Co., N. J., we discovered a Robin's nest, which, on account of its most curious structure, we were desirous of possessing. rnwilling to wait until the un- fledged brood had taken their departure, the plan was con- ceived of removing them to another nest of the same species, neither so neatly, nor so tastefully constructed. But as we anticipated, the mother cruelly deserted her offspring ; the love for home apparently predominating over every other feeling. These deviations from the ordinary style of nest-building by the Pewee, would seem to argue against the belief gen- erally entertained, that instinct, being a positive determina- tion given to the minds of animals for certain purposes, must necessarily be perfect, when viewed in connection with those purposes ; but to say that they doubtless imply a change of instinct, is to perplex the understanding by a perversion of language. But to ascribe these changes to the operation of reason influenced by motives, does seem to be the most rational view to take of the subject. That reason does enter into the inferior creatures, and dictate many of the changes of habit which mark their career, has been proved in repeated instances, but we cannot forbear to record another, which came under our immediate observation in the spring of 1871. While watching a pair of Ampclis ccdro- rum, engaged in the construction of a domicile upon a branch of an apple-tree, the thought occurred that by supplying the birds with materials, we might obtain a nest much neater and more compact than what is ordinarily built. The birds entered into the project with readiness, and eagerly carried away every piece of colored string and cotton fabric with which we supplied them. After we had ceased to furnish materials, they would frequently fly to the branch where the articles were deposited, as if imploring further supplies. The result of our labor was a nest much firmer, more symmet- 7 :>(> LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS rical, and more elegant than any previously met with. It" the actions of birds are always controlled by the principle of instinct, it is obvious that no regard would have been paid by ccdrorum to our kind intentions. But the simple admission that reason was at work in controlling their actions, much of the mystery which seems to envelop them. is readily explained away. Instinct is always the same ; it never advances, never retrogrades ; but reason tends to im- provement, when it can serve a wise purpose. As the nests which constitute the chief part of the subject- matter of the present sketch, were found in close proximity to each other, it would seem that circumstances peculiar to the neighborhood, had rendered these deviations from the common tvpe, necessary. Observation teaches us. that when danger or some other circumstances render a change in the character of a nest necessary, that deviation is made in an equal degree and in the same manner, bv all the individuals of a species ; and that it does not extend beyond the limits of the region where alone it can serve a good intention. But a truce to this lengthy digression. The nest being- completed, the female bird in a day or two afterwards, be- gins to oviposit. The usual complement of eggs is five, although we have met instances where but four eg^s con- stituted a sitting. But a single egg is daily deposited. The labor of incubation, which usually commences on the day following the last egg-deposit, is solely performed by the female, and continues for n days. Whilst she is thus occu- pied, the male is one of the most faithful and attentive of husbands. When not busy in foraging for himself and most patient mate, he is her constant companion, cheering by his presence and demeanor the ennui of her task. Should an assault be made upon his home by a feathered foe, he makes no loud demonstrations of grief, but quietly retires to a safe distance and contemplates the sacrilege in moody silence. The presence of human beings within reaching distance of the nest, does not apparently disturb OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 51 the female, nor deter her from the successful prosecution of her loving task. But when an effort is made to seize her. she quietly slips out of the nest, and retires to a short distance, where, in contemplative silence, she eagerly watches the intruder in his every movement, and, on the dis- appearance of the danger, as silently re-enters the nest, and continues her labor as though nothing had happened. An instance is related by Nuttall of a pair of these birds that once built a nest in a boathouse at Fresh Pond, Cam- bridge, a common place of human resort. This nest with its brood was destroyed bv ruffian hands. Immediately after- wards the female constructed a nest upon the same site, and laid five additional eggs. This second nest is described as being lined with shreds of manilla rope, taken from a loft above the boathouse. This species has two broods in a season in this latitude, one during the latter part of April or the early part of May, and the other in June. Dr. Brewer believes it to be triple-brooded in Massachusetts, as fresh eggs have been taken in the middle of August. May it not be that these eggs were deposited by birds whose early efforts had been frustrated by unknown causes? The first brood being hatched quite late in the season, say about the middle of July would cer- tainly bring the second deposit of eggs about the middle of August. Or, the matter may be explained by suppos- ing that the sexes, in the particular locality referred to by Dr. Brewer, may have been unequally paired. There may have been an excess of males, or vice versa. In the latter case these solitary individuals would have to wait until something turned up, the death of an already mated individual, or the straying of one unpaired from some other locality, before entering into conjugal relations. Some such course of events, would, it seems to us, explain the phenomenon, in a satisfactory manner. The young birds are objects of special devotion and more than ordinary solicitude, by the parents. No efforts are ')'2 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS spared to satisfy the demands of appetite. When nests are built in out-of-the-way situations, where suitable kinds of insects are scarce, the birds have been known to wander to great distances for food. The labor of feeding- is alter- nately performed, one parent remaining to guard the tender fledglings, while the other is hunting. In accustomed haunts, absence from the nest by either parent, is of extremely short duration, owing to the abundance of suitable diet, and the ease with which it is procured. The young are able to leave the nest in about thirteen davs, but two weeks longer are required to mature them for the active duties of bird-life. The breeding-season being past, and the young being sufficiently matured for self-maintenance, the parent-birds mutually dissolve the domestic ties, and spend the residue of their stay in solitary existence, with no object in view but the gratification of appetite. Their departure for wanner latitudes takes place during the last week of Oc- tober, although a small number still linger into November. The food of the young consists mainly of diptera and lep- idoptera, to which a few berries are added by way of variety. The following dipterous insects form an important part of their diet : — Musca domestica, Tabauus lineola* T. cinctits, Syrphus obliquus, Anthrax elongata, Tipula ferruginca. Culex tceniorhynchus, and others. Vast numbers of lepi- doptera,both in the larval and adult stages, are devoured witli avidity. The principal of which are Procris Americana. Utetheisa bella, Zerenc catcnaria, Anisoptcryx -cernata. A. pometaria^ Gortyna zece, Eufitchia ribcaria, Pcnthiita pomonclla, Colias philodice, Hybernia tiliaria. Ennomos subsignaria, Anisota riibicunda, and many o/"the Lvacui- dce, ^'Egeridtc, and Tineidce. The fruits of Fragaria Vir- giniana, Rubus villosus, and l^rumis scrotina, are esteemed great luxuries. In the early spring-time, vast numbers of beetles are de- voured, many of which are strictly terrestrial in their habits, and prove the species to be likewise. We have detected the OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA, r>H remains of Passdlus cornntns* Ccirabns ligatus^ Sect rites subterraneuS) Paugus caliginosus, Allorhina nitida* Lach~ Ji-osterna qiicrciua* Dic&hts dilatatnx* Dicerea divarieata. dcindela sexguttata* Platynus eiipripennis* Crdtonychus eiiiereus. ( . pertiiidx and C. brevicalis. At the same pe- riod, a few orthoptera such as Caloptenns fcmur-rnbruin. CEdipoda Carolina, CE. iiebnlosa, CE. sulphured* AcJicta jiigra. GrvUotalpa bo real is * CEc&nthUs iii'vcciis* and l>lat- taria orient alls* are consumed. As the season advances, such fare is exchanged for diptera and leptdoptera. In^addrtion to the foregoing insects which are fed to the young, Asilits sericeus, A. ccstuans. Jtowbv lius ccqnalis, among diptera, are greedily eaten ; together with the additional lepidopterous insects of Chcerodes trans- versata, Acronycta obllnita^Orgya leucostigma* Eudryas grata, and others in the adult stage. The species is also somewhat frugivorous, subsisting upon the fruits of Fra- garia Virghiiana, I\ubns ~cillosus* Kibes rnbntiu* Priurnt scrotina, and, late in the season, the berries of Junipcrus Virginiana and Lonicera periclymenum. Wilson de- scribes them as feeding upon similar berries in the lo\v swampy forests of the Carol inas, during the month of Feb- ruary. In the spring of 1868, Mr. Maynard found some Individuals with stomachs filled with hawthorn berries. The eggs are round-oval in configuration, acuminate at one extremity, and larger and obtuse at the other. The ground-color is mainly a pure white, and is mostly devoid of spots ; although specimens are occasionally found with red- dish-brown dots at the larger extremity. They measure .Si of inch in length, and .60 in width. Contopus borealis, The Olive-sided Flycatcher is a comparatively rare species. It was first obtained by Richardson on the Saskatchewan and described by Swainson. Only a single individual was pro- cured. The next individual appears to haye been met in the :>J LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS woods of Mt. Auburn, bv Mr. John Bethune, according to Dr. Brewer1, in June, 1830. Subsequently, a second individ- ual was obtained, which, like the preceding, was also a female. A third female was taken shortly afterwards. Mr. Xuttall. supposing the species to be new, described it as Tyrannus cooper!. In 1832, Messrs. Audubon and Xuttall, obtained a specimen in Brookline. Mass. Journeying eastward, the former found it in Maine, in the Magdaleine Islands, and along the shores of Labrador; and, subsequently, in Texas. Mr. Boardman has latterly discovered it to be quite abun- dant in the summer, about the lakes weK of Calais ; and Mr. Yerrill gives it as a rare summer visitant and breeder in Oxford County. In the vicinity of Lake Umbagog, it is said to be tolerably abundant. Mr. Allen speaks of it as by no means rare in Western Massachusetts, during the breed- ing season, where it arrives about the 1 2th of May. but restricts itself mostly to high, open woods. But two speci- mens have been taken in Canada West, according to Mr. Mcllwraith. In Wisconsin, they were formerly quite com- mon, but have latterly become very scarce, according to Dr. llov. In Washington Territory, Drs. Suckley and Cooper affirm it to be more abundant than elsewhere in the United States. In California, the latter gentleman found the species to be tolerably common in the Coast Range in the direction of Santa Cruz, where they nidificate in May. on high, almost inaccessible, branches. In September, he also found it at Lake Tahoe. Mr. Ridgway only met with the species in pine-forests, at considerable elevations on the East Hum- boldt, Wahsatch, and Uintah mountains. Dr. Dresser states it to be common during the winter in the vicinity of San Antonio. Dr. lleerman has knowledge of two speci- mens being obtained on the Cosuinnes River, in California. Mr. Boucard has taken it during the winter in the Mexican vState of Oaxica ; and it has actually been discovered at Ja- lapa, and as far south as Guatemala. The most northern limit of its capture is Xenortalick. Greenland, a single speci- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. ;>•"> men having been shot there August 2o,th. 1840, which sub- sequently found its way to Copenhagen. In Eastern Pennsylvania, this species usually arrives about the first of May, and remains from ten to twelve davs, when it retires to more northern habitats for the purposes of breeding. During its short stay, it is a solitary feeder, and confines its foraging mainly to high open woods ; it is only occasionally seen remote from such situations. Its hab- its resemble those of our ordinary Wood Pewee in many particulars. Whilst perching upon a rotten twig, on the alert for insects, its silence is occasionally broken bv notes which resemble /» ///. Unlike the subject of the preceding- sketch, it betrays considerable fear when approached In- human beings. The flight of this species is never lofty, nor remarkably protracted. Its movements, whilst engaged in the capture of insects, are very quick, and bear a close resemblance to those of Contopns -circus. From its station upon a dead branch, it will dart forward with unerring precision when it espies an insect, (seldom missing its prey), and, having secured it, will return to its post. When insect-life is very abundant, it will make repeated captures before resuming its watch. Mr. Nuttall details with considerable minuteness, the habits of a couple of individuals of this species, which came under his immediate observation. lie says they were quar- relsome and tyrannical towards each other. Their assaults were accompanied by a whining, complaining twitter, and seemed to arise from disputes about territorial possession. One of these birds, a female, apparently confined her foraging to a clump of red cedars which grew in the midst of a sandy patch of woods. From the tree-tops, she maintained a sharp watch for flitting insects, which she pursued with determined vigor, even chasing them to the ground. When successful, she would return to her favorite perch, and devour the victim at her leisure. She would now flutter her win/s wcUifica. The number of eggs constituting a sitting, ranges from three to four, as far as\ve have been able to ascertain. Thcv are rounded at one extremity, and acutely tapering at the other. The back-ground is a rich cream-color with a rose- ate tinge ; the larger end is beautifully marked with a ring of lilac and purplish-brown spots, which are confluent. These markings are invariably placed about the larger end. as is well-known to be the case in the eggs of Coiitopiis :•/- rcns. They measure .87 of an inch in length, and .62 in width. Contopus virens, The Wood Pewee of Eastern North America is quite a common species. It ranges from the Atlantic westward to the Plains, and from Texas on the southwest, to New Bruns- wick on the northeast. In Central and Southern Maine, it is found somewhat sparingly, and such is also the case in the vicinity of St. Stephens, New Brunswick, where it is known to breed. Prof. Verrill states it to be a summer visitor at Norway, Me., but less common than in Massachusetts. Mr. Mcll wraith "fives it as an abundant summer resident at O Hamilton, Canada, which it reaches during the middle of May. With the exception of one individual that was found at Red River, Minnesota, and another at Fort William. Dr. Brewer has no knowledge of its being found farther north than the 45th parallel of latitude. Dr. Cones gives it a sum- mer resident of South Carolina, from the middle of April to the middle of October; and Mr. Dresser affirms it to be- quite common in the timbered river-bottoms, in the vicinity of San Antonio, during the summer, where it arrives late in April, or early in May. In Texas and the Indian Terri- tory, it is quite common, according to Dr. Woodhouse. and even in the Department of Vera Cruz. Mr. Sumichrast OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 39 found it quite abundant in the mountains of Orizaba, between the altitudes of 3,600 and 7, 500 feet. The Wood Pewee is rather common in Eastern Pennsyl- vania during the breeding-season, arriving about the last of April, never earlier. On its arrival it frequents high-timbered woods, where there is a paucity of undergrowth, but an abundance of dead branches. In very rare instances, indi- viduals have forsaken these shady retreats for the com- panionship of man. In sequestered situations, there are lacking that friendliness and confidence which the species is wont to manifest in places contiguous to human habitations. Timidity and a marked feeling of distrust are prevailing traits in these localities. Like all its family-relations, this species is quite an expert insect-catcher. It is remarkable for the ease with which it can perceive its prey, however small, at a great distance. In the dusk of evening, or in the uncertain gloom of dense woods, it plies its task with unerring precision and unfailing results. It stations itself upon the extremity of a dead twig, and on the appearance of an insect, darts forth with all pos- sible speed, seldom missing its mark which is evidenced by the sharp click of its bill, seizes its prey, and then returns to its favorite perch to resume operations when the occasion occurs. It is no uncommon thing for it to encounter several insects in its short flight, which it seizes with great eager- ness, producing all the while the same sharp clicking sound. When on the look-out, it occasionally utters a feeble twitter, which is accompanied by a quivering movement of the wings and tail. On these occasions a louder but still feeble call- note is enunciated, though rarely, which sounds like pee-e, and sometimes like pee-u-e. These notes are heard daily during the entire season, but always cease when it becomes dark. This species possesses several notes besides those enum- erated, which are uttered in a plaintive and somewhat drawl- ing tone. Some of these notes are seldom heard, but then 60 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS so softly as doubtless to escape the hearing of persons of uncul- tivated ears. Mr. Minot in "Land-Birds and Game Birds of New England," has expressed in rather felicitous language a few of these notes, which, we cannot do better than to quote as they are in perfect accordance with our own ob- servation. They are (ch) pe-o-e, whit* whit-pee and pu pit pti pu, produced with a very soft intonation. There arc- other notes chiefly of a querulous character which are heard during the mating-period, which we have not been able to identify with sufficient accuracy. Mr. Nuttall characterizes this species as being of a tyran- nical disposition betimes, which agrees with our experience. He instances the case of an inoffensive Sparrow which had been chased to the ground, for no other cause than that of happening to venture upon its territory in quest of food. We have observed many cases of a similar character, which strongly attest to the jealousy, selfishness and tyranny of its character. By earlier writers this species is described as being more retired in its habits than its cousins, as well as more suspi- cious. In our early ornithological rambles we had always encountered it far from the busy scenes of active life, its nest being invariably found in dense forests saddled upon the horizontal branch of some gigantic high-towering oak. Lat- terly, we have been somewhat surprised to meet with several nests in close proximity to occupied dwellings, in rather thickly-settled towns. These nests were built upon the hor- izontal branch of an apple-tree, at elevations less than ten feet above the ground. The tree had often been visited by the school children of the neighborhood, who whiled away their leisure moments beneath its sheltering boughs, while the mother-birds sat within their cosy nests overhead app- arently unmindful of what was going on below, in the en- joyment of calm satisfaction and perfect security. It is well known that many birds upon their first acquaint- ance with man, eye him askance, conceive very unfavorable OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. Gl impressions of him, and seek immunity from his presence in dense forests and impenetrable undergrowth. But through the habit of association or accidental intrusion upon his premises, they soon acquire a better knowledge of his char- acter, and from holding him aloof as a being to be despised, they see his good qualities, draw near his dwellings, and render him manifold services. To be sure there are local- ities in which the habits of many species which are quite tame and unsuspicious in others, are rather primitive. We cannot expect to civilize these feathered pets where man needs to be civilized himself. A generous humane course of treatment towards these inferior creatures, will be readily appreciated by them, who will take up their abodes in our midst, and contribute to the general well-being of human soci- ety by their invaluable services. Man, by his own wilful ignorance, often disarranges the harmony of creation, and is made to suffer the consequences of his folly. Nuttall's description of this species which has the credit of being the best recorded, may have been a faithful portraiture in his day, and no doubt will be found to hold good in some sections, New England for example, according to Mr. Sam- uels ; but it certainlv needs some modification as far as Penn- sylvania is concerned. Instead of being " unusually saddled upon an old moss-growrn and 'decayed limb," we have fre- quently observed nests reposing between the forked twigs of a living oak. " The body of the fabric" occasionally con- sists of "wiry grass or root fibres," but we have yet to see a nest with " small branching lichens held together with cob- webs and caterpillars' silk, moistened with saliva." In a nest before us which is typical in its character, the great bulk is composed of small strips of liber, plucked from trees and fence-rails, chiefly of Qtiercus and Castanea, tow, and wool arranged in a circular manner, and pressed compactly together bv the body of the builder. Externally, it is closely invested with the bluish-gray crustaceous lichens, so com- mon upon the trunks of some trees and fence-rails, which C>-2 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS give it a very close resemblance to the nest of 'froc/iilns coJnbrh which it nearly rivals in symmetry and beauty. It measures three and a half inches in external diameter, and one and a half inches in height. The diameter of the cav- ity is about two inches, and the depth in the centre, three- fourths of an inch. The most beautiful nest, as well as the most perfectly unique, was procured during the spring of 1876. It was built between the horixontal branch of an apple-tree, in close contiguity to a farm-house. Externally, it is closely covered with bluish-gray crustaceous lichens, which are held in situ by a few cobwebs, and fragments of the silk of caterpillars. The bottom of the nest consists of dried stems of grasses, upon which reposes a beautiful and cosy super- structure of the fibres of Li num. Virginia mini and L. usi- tatissimum, with a slight sprinkling of wool, variously interwoven, but presenting a somewhat circular arrangement on the internal walls. This fabric measures 3 1-2 inches in external diameter, and i 1-2 inches in height. The diame- ter of the cavity is 2 inches, and its depth in the centre, 3-4 of an inch. When nests are saddled upon branches, there is consider- able saving of material, economy being doubtless practised at the expense of comfort. In some cases, the bottom of the nest is so thin, that on being detached from the supporting surface and held to the light, it presents a sieve-like appear- ance. But those which are constructed in forked branches, are provided with an abundance of material, thus constitu- ting a warm and comfortable nest for the tender brood. The habit of building upon the superior surface of a limb, was doubtless acquired at a very remote period in the history of the species. The nest's resemblance to an anomalous growth overgrown with moss, such as is commonly observ- ed upon the diseased brandies of the different species of .Qttcrnis. is certainly protective in its character, and as such, of considerable advantage to the species. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. r,:', Wilson's description of the nest of the Wood Pewce though brief and verv unsatisfactory, agrees with our own. He in- forms us that the nest is placed on the upper surface of a branch, and composed outwardly of moss, and lined with a variety of soft materials. In Massachusetts. Dr. Brewer says it may he generally found ki in anv open woods, or in an orchard of large spreading trees," often breeding in the latter situations. Usually, a dead limb, from ten to thirty feet high, is chosen. but more rarely a living moss-covered branch. One that, is lichen-clad is invariably selected, upon the superior surface of which the nest is saddled. The fabric is cup-shaped, and is composed of fine root fibres, lichens, fragments of cob- webs, and similiar materials, closely invested exteriorly with lichens and mosses which are glued to the nest proper bv the saliva of the birds. A nest of this bird which was taken in Lynn, by Mr. Welch, was constructed upon a dead limb of a forest-tree. The base was somewhat flattened, and the walls were com- posed of fine dry stems and vegetable down-, finely inter- woven, and covered on the exterior with lichens which were cemented to the structure by a viscid secretion, apparently supplied by the builders. The base was thinner, and built ot much softer ingredients. The external diameter was 3 inches, and the height i 1-2 inches. The cavity was 21-2 at the rim and i inch in depth. The labor of nidification is jointly performed by both sexes. The duty of the male being to fetch the necessary materials, while the female busies herself in their suitable adjustment, and also in giving shape and symmetry to the structure. The period required to build a nest varies with the industry of the builders, the character of the nest, and the character of the neighborhood. A nest, perfect in all the details of its structure, requires about five days for its com- pletion. It is not to be presumed that the labor is continu- ous, but rather intermittent in character. 64 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS Oviposition commences on the day following the comple- tion of the nest. The usual complement of eggs is four, which are laid on consecutive days, at the rate of one egg per dic'iu. On the day succeeding the last deposit, the female begins the all-trying duty of incubation, which continues for eleven days. This labor devolves directly upon her, while the male contributes his share to the success of the undertaking, by guarding his partner from danger, and sup- plying her with the necessary articles of diet. When his home is assailed by feathered enemies, if less than a match for his strength, he is not slow to wreak instant vengeance upon their temerity. But in the case of human depredations, where all effort would be inutile and hopeless, no extra- ordinary exertions are put forth to cause desistance from at- tack, save a little scolding and fluttering. The young are objects of more than ordinary parental so- licitude. They are amply fed by the parents who alternate in fetching food for the gratification of their rapacious appe- tites. We have known instances where both birds were absent from the nest at the same time ; but one was only a few paces away, and within seeing distance ; and could come to the assistance of the helpless brood, in the shortest possible time. In these cases, the nests were placed close by human habitations, and the necessary vigilance could be in a measure relaxed. The young are able to leave the nest when two weeks old ; and, after the lapse of a similar period, are endowed with the ability necessary to self-maintenance. But a single brood is raised in a season. Their food at first consists of the larvae of Anisoptcryx vernata, A. pomctaria, Zcrene catenaria, Anisota rubi- cunda, Eujitchia ribearia, Eudryas grata, Procris Amer- icana, and mature forms of the following diptera ; — Mttsca domestica, Tabanus lineola, Syr pints obliquus, Culcx t&niorhynchus, and others. Later, they are fed upon Aphis malt, A. rosce, and the various lepidopterous and coleopterous imagos of Pcnthhia pomoncUa, Colias phil- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. Gf> odice, ^-Kgeria tupuliforme^ Gortyna zece. Orgy a Jeucos- tigma, many of the Lvcicnidce, Noctuidce, and Tortricida , and Cratonychus ciiiereus* I/arpalus compar, H. pensy-- ran/ctfs* and other beetles. An examination of the stomachs of many adult birds short- ly after their arrival, revealed traces of the following beetles : PervpliHs scopu-linus Ha r pal us compar, //. pensylvan* /'ens. Ptitms humeral 7.v, Jlostrichus pini, Scarites subter- raiH'us* Platvniis cupripennis, Cratonychus cinereus, Donacia pnsilla, besides the following orthopters, CEdipoda iicbulosa* CE. sulphured, and Acheta iiigr'a. Later in the season, remains of Muse a domcstica, Tab an us lineola, T. cinctus, Anthrax elongata* and other diptera. But when the warmth of summer has brought into existence the vast army of lepidoptera, numbers both in the larval, and perfect stages, are eaten. In addition to those given above, which are fed to the young, we have known them to subsist upon CtctJieisa bella, Argynnis mvrina, Grapta inter roga- tio-uis, Chrysophanus amcricana. Satyr ida, LyaFiiidce, SpiJosonia -cirghrica. S. text or, Lithosia mhiiata, Kn- uonws subsignaria, Acrouvcta obliuita, Perophcra JMel- sheimerii, Clisiocawpa americana, and others ; of hymen- optera, Apis mellifica, Lophyrns abietis* Selandria vitis, S. rosia . The fruits of Fragaria \ irginictna^ Rubus villosns, Primus serotina* Gayiussacia froiidosa* G. resinosa^ \ ac- cininni sta»iii/ciini: and in the autumn, ^fnnipcrns \ irgitii- ana and I^onicera periclyniai /////. About the middle of May, the males cease their solitary Wanderings, grow amorous, and begin to seek their mates. The period of courtship is of short duration, seldom lasting more than two or three days. At the expiration of this time- both birds set out together in quest of a suitable nesting- place ; this is not chosen at random, but is apparently the result of deliberate consideration. Several days are frequent- ly spent in making a tour of the surrounding country, when every available spot seems to be examined with a business-like intention. At times, the locality is apparently selected with- out any preliminary examination. As birds commonly resort to accustomed situations, on their successive returns. when unmolested, except in cases where a change of situa- tion seems both necessary and obligatory by reason of un- friendly and dangerous surroundings, the preliminaries of place-hunting are not unnecessarily dispensed with. In this latitude, the tree selected is either a cedar or a maple. In sequestered places, mostly the former, and in less quiet retreats, the latter. The nest is the result of the joint labor of both birds. It is never saddled upon a limb like that of Contopus virens. nor is it pensile like that of a / ireo ; but is placed between a forked branch, and firmly secured thereto byr a peculiar arrangement of the composing materials. In West Chester, Pennyslvania, Mr. Thomas H.Jackson says the nests are built upon a drooping branch of a beech or dog-wood, at elevations varying from six to ten feet above the ground. They are usually composed of fine strips of bark or weed-stalks, woven together with little regard to neatness and durability, and so loose and tenuous in the bot- tom, that their contents mav be readily discerned from be- 01- KASTKRX PENNSYLVANIA. r><> lo\v. At times, they are neatly and prettily made out of the blossoms of the hickory-tree. In the vicinity of Philadelphia two styles of nests occur. The one is loosely yet prettily built, as Mr. Jackson says, en- tirely of the blossoms of the hickory. The bottom is some- times moderately compact, and, at others, the materials are so loose, that the eggs are seen through the interstices. The second style of nest is composed entirely of the fine stems of various grasses compactly and firmly interwoven, and made to embrace in a curious manner the bifurcated twig between which it is deposited. The external diameter measures about 4 inches, and the thickness less than i 1-2 inches. The cavitv is a trifle less than 21-2 inches at the rim, and 3-4 of an inch in depth. A rather curious structure is described by Dr. Brewer in the work entitled " North American Birds." which was dis- covered by George O. Welch, Esq.. in the vicinity of Indi- anapolis. Indiana, which we do well to give in this connec- tion. This nest was a double structure. The basis was largely composed of dried stems, with an intermingling of the withered blossoms of divers herbaceous plants. Up- on this was reared a superstructure of long, wiry stems of grasses, rather rudely interwoven. This nest measured 4 inches in diameter, and 2 in height. The cavitv was 2 inches wide at the rim. and less than i inch deep. On the completion of her home, the female on the ensu- ing day, deposits her first egg. The operation is continued daily until the entire complement of three is deposited. Dur- ing the intervals of her absence from the nest, advantage is taken thereof by the female Cow-Bird, who is ever on the lookout, to deposit her own egg to be left to the mercv of a stranger. I Jut these unsolicited favors are not as freelv be- stowed upon the present species, as upon other species. Per- haps, the situations in which these Fl\ catchers are accustom- ed to nidificate, not being often resorted to by the Cow-Bird, mav account for the fewness of her visits thereto. Or, the 70 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS extremely fragile character of the Flycachtcrs nest, may strongly operate in its favor. That birds are capable of judging of strength by external appearances, we are disposed to allow, from a careful consideration of many facts closely hearing upon this subject. Incubation follows closely upon oviposition, sometimes happening on the day of the last laying, but, generally, on the following day. The female has to endure the brunt of this labor, which she faithfully and uncomplainingly per- forms; while her partner relieves the weariness of the task by his delightful presence, seldom leaving the vicinity of the nest, save to procure food for himself and her. The eggs hatch in about twelve days. The young are faithfully and jealously cared for by their parents, who vie with each other in the most endearing attentions. None of our smaller birds are permitted to intrude upon the premises, without meeting their provoked vengeance. The male appears to be more courageous on these occasions than his partner, and often exhibits exploits of the most reckless daring. Kven human intruders are received with the same discourtesy, and made to feel that they have no better claims to the mercy of these little crea- tures, than their feathered brethren. No pains are spared to provide the young with ample and suitable nourishment. Instances are known to us where one or the other parent has strayed for nearly a mile from home, in quest of a particular article of insect-diet. One of the parents always remains at home to stand guard over the nest and its inmates, while the other is thus engaged. This is always the case when nests are built in secluded situations ; but when a site is selected contiguous to man, as is occasionally done, it is customary to find both parents absent; but then one is always within seeing distance, and can hasten to the nest in a very few sec- onds, on the approach of danger. The food of the young consists of various caterpillars, and some of our commonest diptera. The principal of which are Anisopteryx -cent at a, OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 71 A. pometaria^ Zerenc catcnaria^ Hybernia tiliaria*, An- isota rubicunda^ Utetheisa bella^ Lithosia miniata, among lepidoptera, and Tabanus lineal a ^ T. cinctus^ JMtisca domes- tica, Syrphus obliquus* Anthrax elo-ngata^ and other dip- terous insects. When older, mature lepidoptera, of Enncmios subsignaria, Penthina pomonella, Gortyna zcw/v. Traill's Flycatcher was originally found in Arkansas, and described bv Audubon. It has a tolerably wide distribution. Dr. \Yoodhouse found it quite abundant in Texas, and in the Indian Territory. Near San Antonio, Dr. Dresser dis- covered it to be a common summer resident, and observed its eggs and small pensile nest. In South Carolina, Dr. Cones observed it, but whether as a migrant, or a resident species, he does not say. Mr. Mcllwraith gives it as rare during the summer, in the vicinity of Hamilton, Canada West. Mr. Boardman found it in Calais, and Prof. Verrill, a regular but by no means a common summer resident, in Western Maine. In the summer of 1872. Mr. Brewster discovered it to be quite abundant near Lake Umbagog. In Massachusetts, it occurs very irregularly as a migrant, and in but a single instance, has been known to breed. Mr. Allen found it very rare near Springfield, from the roth to the 1 5th of May, and thought it bred there. Several indi- viduals have been shot in Lynn by Mr. Welch, but their stay seemed limited to a day or so. It has been found to be a very common species at Randolph, Vt., where its habits have been slightly examined bv Mr. Charles S. Paine. Near Washington, Dr. Cones found it to be a rare visitant both in the spring and in the fall, and supposed a few remained to nest. Prof. Baird frequently encountered it in the vicin- ity of Carlisle, Pa., and Mr. Ridgwav has observed it to be a very common species in Southern Illinois. In Eastern Pennsylvania, this Flycatcher is both a rare spring and autumnal migrant. It arrives during the first week of May. and is mainly found in dense thickets border- ing streams of water. It delights in retirement, and is exceedingly shy and distrustful. Upon the romantic hills of our Wissahickon, isolated individuals have been met with, but never more than one or two during a season. Its habits ot feeding are similar to those of acadicitt. Though lack- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 73 ing the fierceness of disposition which characterizes this last-mentioned species, it is nevertheless very selfish and somewhat tyrannical ; often pursuing with an inveterate hat- red, our smaller aves* when they unwittingly stray into its territory. Its stay with us is of short duration, seldom exceeding a period of three days, at the utmost. We have never heard its song. Its feeding appears to be conducted in perfect silence Perhaps, it is only during the mating-period that it essays a song. With us, its whole time is exclusively occupied in satisfying the cravings of appetite. Mi1. Paine describes its song as simple, and as composed of two syllables, which it sometimes changes to a kind of twitter while dallying with its mate. Mr. William Brewster of Boston, who has paid consider- able attention to the subject, speaks of the male as a vigorous singer. He says his song is uttered in a harsh fretful tone, and consists of a single refrain of two syllables, which are repeated after an interval of thirty seconds. Its syllabic language is happily expressed by he-wing, which is occa- sionally varied to kc-ivink or kc-uuincJi. At each utterance, the head is thrown back with a jerk. Mr. Minor's description of its song differs very materially from the above. He describes its usual call-note as a slight- ly querulous PH, which is often repeated, and bears some resemblance to that of Myiarchus crinitus. Another note, which is produced in a very peculiar manner, sounds like pu-ee: but it is quite distinct from the well-known note of Con- topus virens^QftA is supposed to resemble the plaintive note of the Goldfinch. Its son^-note. which is delivered with O considerable force and vehemence, is expressed by the syl- lables cJicc-bcc-n. During their utterance, the head is thrown back, and the tail pressed downward. The food of this Flycatcher, during its brief stay, consists mainly of coleoptera, although a few diptera are eaten. We have detected remains of I far pal us com par. H. pensylvani- ctts. ( ra ton vc Jius cine re us* rtnuts Jritniercilis* l\Jivnc/uc- 10 74 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS strobi* Donacia confine nta* among the former ; and. M-usca dottiest ica and Tabanits litieola, among the latter. Mr. Paine says this species always nidificates in low alder- hushes by running streams, and never higher than three or four feet from the ground. Mr. Brewster met it breeding at the base of Mt. Washington, in the Glens, in August, 1869; and in Xewrv Township, Maine, in June. 1871 ; but has placed no description of its nest upon record so far as we are aware. Dr. Brewer has found this species breeding on the banks of the Androscoggin and Peabody Rivers, in Gorham. The nests were all placed in similar situations, and bore a close resemblance in structure to the nests of Cvanospiza cvanea. They were composed of dry grasses and fine strips of bark, exteriorly ; and were lined with fine grass-stems. The same distinguished writer has observed its nests among the foot- hills at the base of Mt. Washington, whose wooded sides were covered with snow to the depth of several feet. Mr. Kennicott procured a nest, July o,, at Fort Resolution. which was built in a small spruce in the midst of a thick clus- ter of low. bushes, at an elevation of three feet above the ground. The female was killed upon the nest. The latter contained two young birds and two eggs. Mr. H. W. Henshaw, in the "Quarterly Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club," for April, describes a typical nest which was taken near Columbus, Ohio, by Dr. Wheaton. This structure resembled that of Dendrceca cestiva, but lack- ed its neatness and compactness. Exteriorly, this nest was built of hempen fibres, and was lined with fine grasses and an admixture of thistle-down. It was placed in an upright fork, and was surrounded by small twigs, to which it was firmly secured by stringy fibres. Dr. Henshaw ascribes this particular position as common to all the nests which he has observed of this species, as well as to those of pnsi?/ns in the west. According to Mr. H. A. Purdie, of Boston, the nest, its OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 7f> situation, and the egg's of Traill's Flycatcher as found in Maine, are quite different from Mr. Henshaw's description as given above. The nest is placed between vertical branches of low bushes, at heights, above the ground, varying from one to five feet ; it is Iposely built of grasses throughout. This structure is smaller and less compact than that of Cv- anospiza cyauea. says the same close observer. Having obeyed its natural instincts, this species returns to our neighborhood, during the middle of September, on its way to its more southern home. It now revisits its former haunts, and preys upon divers coleoptera and lepidoptera. A few berries of Jttnipcrus \ 'irginiana and Loniccra peri- cIy!)2c)2H))i. which it discovers in these situations, are also eaten. It still manifests all its former shyness, And flees from the presence of man. During the last of September, it takes its departure. The eggs of this species, says Dr. Brewer, have a white ground with a distinctly roseate tint. They are oval in con- tour, more slightly obtuse at one end than at the other, and have well-defined blotches and spots of purplish-brown about the larger extremity. Their measurement is .63 by .^6 of an inch. Mr. Henshaw says the eggs of this species, are often discovered with a decided cream color approxi- mating buff; which differ from those of acadicus in being less buflV ; but admits that specimens of the latter are occa- sionally found, quite as pale as some of the former. Dr. Wheaton remarks that while he is unable to note any spe- cific difference in the eggs of the two species, he thinks that the eggs of acadicus are, on an average, somewhat longer and slenderer than those of TrdiUii^ and possess a yel- lower buff tinge. Mr. Purdie describes the eggs from Maine as having a pale creamv white ground-color, and marked with two shades of reddish-brown, dots, spots, or blotches, which are chiefly disposed about the larger ex- tremity. 7(5 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS Empidonax minimus, The Least Flycatcher is very common throughout Eastern North America. It is migratory from the Atlantic to the Great Plains, and breeds over an extent of country, though inaccurately defined, which stretches from the 4Oth parallel northward to probably within the Arctic Circle. This Flycatcher reaches Washington about the last of April, according to Dr. Coues, where it remains nearly a fort- night ; and thence retires to its more northern habitat. The same distinguished writer mentions it as a migrant in South Carolina. Mr. Dresser gives it as a common summer resident O near San Antonio, although no mention is made of it by Dr. Woodhouse, nor by the Mexican Survey. Mr. Sumichrast did not even observe it in Vera Cruz. Mr. Boardman speaks of it as occurring at Calais, and Prof.Verrill found it quite com- mon in the western part of the State, where it breeds in con- siderable numbers. At Hamilton, Canada West, Mr. Mc- II wraith affirms it to be quite a common summer resident. In Massachusetts, it is one of the most abundant species. and arrives from the zoth of April to the ist of May. This Flycatcher is rather rare in Eastern Pennsylvania, arriving during the last week of April, and, occasionally, as late as the first week of May. Its stay is rarely, if ever. prolonged beyond a week. At the expiration of this time, it seeks more northern latitudes, for the purposes .of breeding. Unlike the species last described, it is far from being unnecessarily shy, and seemingly courts rather than shuns the society of man. It delights in open grounds, and will not hesitate to visit gardens in close proximity to houses. when in quest of food. The borders of small streams are also favorite resorting-places. During its short stay, we have never noticed the slightest indication of the quarrelsome disposition wrhich is so strik- ingly characteristic of acadicus, and in a less degree, of Traillii. When foraging, our smaller species are permitted OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. i • to approach without the least fear of being molested. Its habits of feeding, in some particulars, resemble those of Trail/it. It will perch upon a dead limb overhanging a stream of water, or in an open field or garden upon a weed or the fence, and await its prey with the most commendable- patience. Its feeding is performed almost in silence, being now and then interrupted by a -simple tu'it. Mr. Minot describes the song-note as being loud and un- musical, and as delivered with emphasis. lie says it resem- bles the syllables chebc.c. This song is often heard at night, for a half hour together. Its other notes are a single ivhit. and a few guttural and somewhat subdued exclamations, which may be expressed by the syllables ivlteu, when* ^vheti. The food of this species consists mainly of beetles and diptera. During its brief stav, we have only been able to make a comparatively small inventory of its articles of food. Being less expert upon the wing than most of its congen- eric relatives, much of its food is procured from the leaves of trees, among which it devotes at least a portion of its time. The few strictly terrestrial coleopters which we have noticed in the stomachs which we have examined, convince us that its habits are slightly terrestrial. Among the partially-di- gested remains of insects, from several stomachs, have been identified Cratonychus cinereus, C. pcrtinax* liar pal us compar* If. carbonarius, Donacia conjluenta, Cymindis mridipennis, Ptinus humeralis, Bostrichus pint, and Pla- tynus cupripennis, among coleoptera ; and Tabanus lineola, \hisca domes tica, and Stomoxys calcitrans. among diptera. In one instance, a single specimen of Apis nicUijica was noticed. A very thorough exploration of the rural portions of Phil- adelphia, has satisfied us that it does not breed in our limits. Naturally sociable in its ways, it would be likely to breed, if at all, in places close by human habitations. Such has never been observed to be the case. More sequestered localities are certainly not chosen, as our frequent rambles through 7S LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS forests for miles around, particularly, in such places as the species has been known to visit on its Mrst arrival, would have brought some evidence of the fact. Mr. Turnbull gives it as an occasional breeder in this latitude. If such was the case in his day, and we have no disposition to doubt such eminent authority, we can only say that either the species has changed its habitat for more congenial quarters, or else. still breeds in some obscure nook which has always escaped our scrutinizing gaxe. In Massachusetts, according to Dr. Brewer, it is a fre- quenter of gardens, orchards, and open grounds ; but is mainly to be found on the borders of thickets. Says the same writer. they manifest a strong attachment to particular localities, which they yearly visit when not disturbed. He cites the case of a pair which had established their hunting-grounds close by a dwelling in Roxburv. which were wont to visit the same spot for several successive years. These birds would show their confidence, by daily repairing to the piaxxa of the house, where fragments of cotton were exposed for the ben- efit of such feathered creatures as would avail themselves of them. They soon appreciated the kindness of their human brethren, and yearly approached nearer and nearer to the dwelling, until they ultimately regarded the premises as common property and began to erect their home in a honeysuckle-bush near the corner of the piazza, from which they would emerge in quest of food without being the least mindful of the near presence of their human neighbors. The friendliness of their character was most strikingly man- ifested in the perfect good will which they showed towards the Summer Yellow Birds and the Chipping Sparrows which nested in the same bush. Mr Kennicott found this Flycatcher breeding at Fort Reso- lution as high north as latitude 62°. Its nest was placed in an alder bush, about five feet from the ground. Messrs. Ross & Lockhart. also found it nidificating. in the same place. Mr I OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 71) .McTavish discovered its nest at Lake Manitobah, and Air. Ross at Fort Simpson. In nest-building, this species has been undergoing consid- erable modification, consequent upon the habit of association with man. Nests built on the margins of woods, or in remote orchards, according to Dr. Brewer, are wrought out of hemp- en fibres, feathers, fragments of insect-cocoons, fine strips of the bark of deciduous trees, and other materials, closely felt- ed and impacted ; within, is a lining of woody fibres, strips of vegetable bark, fine lichens, and soft feathers, which are occasionally varied by an exclusive lining of pine needles, or the pappus of compositaceous plants. These structures are never large, and measure about three inches in diameter, and two in height. Those which are constructed in close proximity to human habitations, are composed of a miscel- laneous collection of materials which are gathered according to convenience, such as rags, cotton, fragments of paper, and, mainlv, the feathers of chickens. When the birds are furnished with an ample supply of raw cotton, Dr. Brewer has known the nest to be constituted, exteriorly, of thism a- terial, excepting a few binding materials in the shape of woody fibres and straws. In such cases, the interior is lined with feathers. Another nest, which was found in Wisconsin, built in a dense tamarack swamp, is composed, exteriorly, of a thick compact mass of a dingy white vegetable wool, which is variously interlaced at the basal part with strips of bark, vegetable stems, and black rootlets. The inner margin and frame-work are composed of black, shining rootlets, with an intermixture of narrow stems and the dried culms of sedges. The interior is lined with pappus of a composita- ceous plant, and a modicum of feathers. The eggs are round-oval in contour, and equally blunted at each extremity. They are pure white in color, never spotted, and measure .60 by .^o of an inch. . 80 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS Empidonax flaviventris, The Yellow-bellied Flycatcher was first obtained in Car- lisle, Pennsylvania. It was described by the Bairdsin 1843. Very few individuals of this species have been met with. and those only in scattered parts of the country. Dr. Brew- er found it breeding among the Grand Menan Islands, and also in the neighborhood of Halifax, where he was able to procure nests and eggs. Mr. Boardman obtained its nest and eggs in the vicinity of Calais. Dr. Slack discovered it breeding near Trenton. X. J. ; and Dr. Abbott, not very far from this locality, in the same State. Dr. Cones speaks of it as a rare spring and fall visitant at Washington, and thinks that occasionally breeds there, as specimens were taken as late as July 28. In Vera Cm/, this species has been met with by Mr. Sumichrast, but whether as a resident or a migrant, it can not be determined. Mr. Dresser has discovered it as a common summer resident near San Anto- nio, which it reaches in April. In Western Maine, Prof. Verrill found it a not very common summer occupant. Mr. Mcllwraith found it in Hamilton, Canada, though exceeding- ly rare. In South Carolina, it is a migrant, according to Dr. Cones. Mr. Allen speaks of it as being rather rare in Western Massachusetts, where it remains from May I5th to June 5 ; and Messrs Maynard & Welch havejquite a number of specimens from the eastern part of the State. In Wiscon- sin, Dr. Hoy has met the species during the summer, but lias been unable to discover its nest. In Eastern Pennsylvania, this Flycatcher is quite rare, but tew individuals having been met with by us. It arrives dur- ing the last week of April, nearly about the same time as mini nni a. During its brief stay of a week, it affects a fondness for high open woods, and is occasionally to be seen by the side of small streams, particularly, when contiguous to such localities. Unlike its nearest cousin last described, it shuns the society of man. That exceedingly familiar dis- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. HI position which is so characteristic of minimus^ has no part . of its being. When approaching its perch, attracted by its loud and distinct, vet monotonous, trill. \ve have always beer compelled to observe the utmost caution and silence, for fear of creating unnecessary alarm ; the bird being exceedingly shv and suspicious. Even while busv in the procurement of food, it seems to be on the alert, ever and anon remitting its task to take a careful survey of the surrounding prospect. The merest rustle of the leaves by the wind, or a squirrel, awakes a momentary surprise, which, in some instances, amounts to an utter stampede, when the cause thereof is not apparent. Rut, usually, a few hast\ glances reveal the cause of the noise, and, if danger is not imminent, it goes on feed- ing as though nothing had happened. Whilst foraging, it is never found upon the topmost branches of trees, but seems to prefer the low branches. We have occasionally observed it upon the ground, in active pursuit of insects, which contribute to its bill of fare. Like all the EmpidonaceS) it has the peculiar habit of flirting its tail, after it has made a capture, which is either intended to show its delight and satisfaction, or impatience, in not finding a readier and fuller supply. We have often been greeted with its song, in our reconnois- sances. which is heard at comparatively regular periods, in the intervals of feeding. From early morning until sunset, it is a vigorous feeder, and during the livelong day we enjoy its simple, pleasing, yet trirlingly monotonous ditty. Its syl- labic language may be happily expressed by pea-wavk* pea wa\ot\ repeated with moderate softness, and with a somewhat pleasing intonation. The plight of this species is never protracted whilst feed- ing : even when fleeing from the- pursuit of an enemy, it makes short yet rapid Mights from tree to tree. The same general flight, with its slight undulating movements, is char- acteristic of the entire family of Flycatchers. The- food of this species consists of beetles, orthoptera. 1 I «2 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS and diptem, mainly. We have detected remains of C 'rafoi/ v- chuscinereus* C. pertinax, Donacia confluent a ^ Hen-pain* . par^ H. carbonari its. d'vniiiidis viriili poinis. R/ivncJuc- strobi* Ptinits hunieralis* Pangns caliginosus, Platy- uus cupripennis, among coleoptera ; the young of CEdipoda nebul0sa,(E. sulphured, Caloptenus femur-rub rum ^ Achc- ta nigra, among orthoptera ; and Tabanus lineola, T.cinc- tus, Musca domestica, Stomoxys calcitrans, and Culcx taeniorhynchus, among diptera. The few moths of the Fam- ily Noctuidce which are common at this season, are eaten with avidity. The nest of this species is placed in the fork of a bush, at an elevation of two feet from the ground. It bears an inti- mate resemblance to the nest of the Indigo Bird. Dr. Brewer describes it as being composed, exteriorly, of soft strips of the liber of deciduous trees, loosely interwoven, and lined with the yellow culms of grasses. It was small for the size of the bird, and was rendered conspicuous by the colored mate- rials which immediately betrayed its presence. It is evident from what the Doctor says, that the female is remarkably timid, for she instantly slid out of the nest on their approach, and never returned again ; while her partner was more courageous and self-possessed in the midst of con- templated danger. Other nests were obtained by the Doctor and his party at Halifax, on the borders of swampy woods, which were built in low bushes, out of stubble. As the writer has expressed in the first volume of his work on Birds, the situation of a nest and its height above the ground, depend, in the generality of cases, upon the habits of species while feeding. Birds that frequent low branches of trees and small bushes, in quest of articles of food, almost invariably nidificate in similar situations. Those strictly terrestrial in habits, either build upon low bushes, within tussocks of grasses, or upon the bare ground. While those that visit the tall treetops for this essential purpose, most OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. H3 generally nest at high elevations. In addition to the facts which we have already adduced, the case of jla~jhentris, affords a most striking confirmation of the same truth. During the last week of September, this Flycatcher returns from its more northern habitat, remains a few days with us, then retires to its winter home in Mexico, and Guatemala as far south as Panama. The eggs are rather oblong, and. in some instances, are sprinkled with minute reddish-brown dots. They measure .67 bv -S2 of an inch. CHAPTER IX. Order PicariSO. Picarian Kinh. The above polymorphic group consists of birds of highly diversified types, which are grouped together more on ac- count of their difference from other birds, than on any re- semblance to each other. In its common acceptation, this order embraces all non-passerine Inscssores down to those which possess a cered bill. Exclusive of the parrots, the Picarue correspond to the Strisores and Scansores, and em- brace some that are frequently referred to the Clamatores. This order Zygodactyli, which contains all species that have the toes arranged in pairs, two in front and two behind, be- sides a few that are not thus characterized, is thoroughly un- natural, and is pronounced by Dr. Cones to be one of the <•' most unmitigated afflictions that ornithology has suffered." The Picarice are at present not susceptible of satisfactory definition ; but a few leading particulars of a negative char- acter which they have in common, may be briefly indicated. The sternum, which seldom conforms to the true Passerine model, if it ever does, has eitheran entire, or a doubly notch- ed posterior margin. The vocal apparatus does not attain a high development, consequently, these birds are never very musical ; it never has more than three pairs of internal mus- cles. There are some modifications of the skull-bones, and likewise, a peculiar specialization of the flexor muscles of the toes, according to Sunderall, which are not observed in the Passeres. The feet are variously modified : one or »ther of the toes, excepting the middle toe, being suscep- tible of being turned in a direction directly opposite to the customary direction. The fourth toe. in some cases, is capa- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA, ble of being turned either way. In two genera, the first, and. in two others, the second toe. is lacking ; and. more- O over, the tarsal envelope is never placed posteriorly as in the more highly developed Passeres. Another strange pe- culiarity is that the claw of the posterior toe is smaller, or. generally, not larger than that of the third toe. The wings, which are of endless variation, possess ten developed prima- ries ; the first being seldom spurious, or very much abbrevi- ated. The greater wing-coverts are generally at least one- half as long as the secondary quills which they cover, and occasionally reach nearly to the extremities of these quills. This is particularly noticeable among the least developed birds, and distinguishes many of the Picaritc from Passcrcs : but. in the Picidte. and some others, it is not exhibited. The tail varies almost indefinitely in configuration, but the number of feathers nevertheless affords a good clue to the orders. Ordinarily, there are ten perfect rectrices, and, oc- casionally, but eight; the woodpeckers possess twelve how- ever, one pair being abortive ; while in the kingfishers and some others, this is the invariable number. The slight sketch given above of the characters of this order, will enable the student to identify any J^icarian bird which may be found in this country. The Pica rice naturally fall into three subdivisions, which Dr. Cones ranks as sub- orders, without, however, insisting upon the question of tax- onomic rank, but in conformity to his established usage : these three groups are thus tabulated and characterized : — i. CypscJi: — embracing the three families Gypselidise^ Caprimulgidtt, and Trochilida* They are birds of remark- able powers of flight, the feathers of the wings being»quite long and pointed, though the upper arm is verv much abbre- viated. The feet are quite small and weak, and eminently disqualified for serviceable progression. The posterior toe among the swifts, is occasionally versatile, or somewhat ele- vated in the goatsuckers, and a few swifts ; while the anteri- or toes are often connected at their base with a movable 86 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS web, and sometimes lack the complementary phalanges. The tail has ten rectrices. In the humming birds, the ten- uirostral type of bill prevails ; while in the other two groups, the fissirostral, which was formerly supposed to relegate them to the ffirundinidce. The breast-bone is broad, with a deep keel which is either entire or doubly notched, poste- riorly ; rarely, singly notched. The syrinx never possesses more than a single pair of intrinsic muscles. 2. C-Hcifli: — contain about fifteen families, the great bulk of the order. The sternum is ordinarily notched on the pos- terior margin ; the muscles of the syrinx are mostly in pairs. The feet are commonly small, and the toes vary remarkably in their arrangement. TheCucuJidtc, the near relatives of the Indicatorida or guide-birds of Africa, have the feet permanently zygodactylc* by complete or partial reversion of the fourth toe, the outer one being versatile. The AJce- dinidce have the middle and outer toes completely coherent for a considerable distance, representing the svndactyle or anisodactylc type of foot. 3. Pici\ — comprehend three families, the lytigidiC of Europe, Asia, and Africa ; the Picttmnida mainly Amer- ican, and the Picidce or true Woodpeckers. The digits are permanently paired, except in the two tridactyle genera. The lower end of the metatarsus is modified, producing a correspondence to the reverse position of the fourth toe ; and the superior portion of this bone is perforated by canals for the accommodation of the flexor tendons. The basal phal- anges of the toes are short. The wing possesses ten prima- ries with short coverts, which is exceptional in this order. The tail has ten rectrices, which are soft and rounded in some families of this group, but, which are stiff and pointed in the Picidcc+ where a supplementary pair of spurious feathers exists. In the lyngidcc, the nostrils are large and peculiarly shaped ; while in the Picumnidtc and Pic/da* they are or- dinarily covered with antrorse plumules. The bill is hard and powerful, sharp or truncate ; the mandibles being equal. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 87 The tongue is worm-shaped and quite extensile to a great degree, bv a peculiar lengthening of the bones and muscles. In the typical species, the salivary glands attain an unusual development. The breastbone is doublv notched. Suborder CypSOli. Cvpscliform Birds. Family CaprimulgidSB. Goatsuckers. This group, so called from a traditional superstition, repre- sents fissirostral Picarice. The head is broad and com- pressed ; eyes and ears large : bill very small, depressed, triangular when viewed superiorly, and remarkable for its enormous gape, which reaches below the visual organs. It is generally armed with bristles of extraordinary develop- ment. Nostrils basal, exposed, roundish, with an elevated margin ; sometimes tube-like. Wings, elongated and pointed to a greater or less degree, and composed of ten primaries, and more than nine secondaries ; tail variable in form, and constituted of ten rectrices. Feet very small, tarsus ordina- rily short and feathered ; posterior toe, elevated and turned sideways, commonly ; anterior toes, conjoined by a basal movable web, and exhibiting abnormal proportion of phalan- ges ; middle toes, reaching beyond the lateral toes, and arm- ed with a claw which is pectinate. This group embraces about fourteen genera and more than a hundred species, which are to be found in the temperate and tropical regions of both hemispheres. It is divisible into two subfamilies ; Podargina, mainly of the Old World, with the phalanges of normal proportion ; and the Caprimulgince or goatsuckers. Dr. Cones basing his classification upon the shape of the sternum, considers a division into Podargina, NyctibiiiiiC, Steatornithince , and Caprimulgina, a more elaborate divi- sion. The last mentioned alone, particularly concerns us in the present work. Subfamily CaprimulginSB. Trite Goatsuckers. The sternum is singly notched on each side, posteriorly. ,S,X LIFK-IIISTORIKS OF HIRDS and with body, not quadrangular. Outer toe four-jointed, middle claw pectinate; posterior toe quite short, raised, and turned to the side : front toes, with a movable web at base : tarsus \ erv short and. ordinarih , much feathered. Besides the semi-palmation of the feet, another curious analogy to our wjiding birds, is observable ; the young are downy at birth as in the /'rtecocrs. and not naked, as is the invariable rule, among A/frices. The mouth is large, and the rictus strmiglv bristled as in the Flycatchers. The plumage is soft and loose, like that of the Strigida. In this country, this group is represented by two genera. A-ntrvstoinu.s and (.'/it>njc//cx: the former has very large rictal bristles, rounded tail, and comparatively short wings ; while the latter has slight bris- tles, forked tail, and long pointed wings. The feet are ex- ceedingly short, which interfere with the ordinary manner of perching ; they being necessitated to sit lengthwise on a large branch, or crouch upon the ground. The sexes are nearK alike, yet distinguishable. Antrostomus vociferus, />w<7/>. This well-known species, the \Vhippoorwill. has a some- what extended range in Eastern North .America, being found from the Atlantic westward to the valley of the Missouri, and from Florida on the south to the soth parallel of north lati- tude. It was met with by Dr. Richardson on the northern shores of Lake Huron, but never farther north. Through- out New England, it is rather common ; but in New Bruns- wick and Nova Scotia, it is quite rare. In the vicinity ol Calais, it is never abundant. Mr. Say observed it at Pembi- na. Its limit evidently does not reach as far west as Texas, as it is unknown from this quarter. Dr. I lall affirms it to be rather abundant near Montreal ; and. also around Hamilton. Canada, according to Mr. Mcllwraith. it is by no means a rare summer visitant. Dr. Lembeye says it is a resident of Cuba : and. according to Dr. Gundlach. the eggs of this species have been taken within that island. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. HJ) This bird is nowhere a permanent resident in any part of the United States. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it most com- monly arrives during the first week in Mav, already paired. It seldom appears earlier, never later. It is of a shy and retired disposition, concealing itself during the daytime, in close forests, among the leaves or underbrush: and only venturing forth in quest of food during the shadowy twilight. Such a decided partiality has it for the covert of woods, that we have rarely met it in open fields. The som- bre shadows cast upon the ground by the quivering leaves above, and the faint streaks of light that pass through their interstices, combined with the dark colors of the leaves that repose upon the soil, create a sort of grav light which beau- tifullv harmonizes with the sober tints of these birds, and thus renders them safe from danger. Few of the common people are sufficiently acquainted with this bird, to discriminate it from its closely allied rel- ative, which often frequents similar situations. The unusual places to which it resorts, together with its peculiar habits, operate to prevent that familiarity which less retired species enjoy with man. We have often in our travels observed an individual of this species to start up within a few paces of us. and on swift and noiseless wings alight directly in front of us. and scarcely more than fifteen paces distant. After in- dicating the spot bv an adjoining bush or a fallen log. we have stealthily approached, straining the vision to its utmost capacity to gain a glimpse of the squatting bird, but before this desire could be gratified, the object of our search was up and oft* again. Time after time has been thus spent, but Seldom has it been our good fortune to consummate ibis desire. Even when the greatest caution is observed to avoid giving alarm, its detection of danger is both remarkable and wonderful. Its visual organs being ill-adapted to the broad glare of day-light, and even the mellowed light of the woods seemingly being too powerful a stimulus, it certainly depends upon other means for the detection of danger. The organ 12 !M) LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS of hearing, which is well developed, is the only one that is doubtless called into requisition on such occasions. The flight of this species is noiseless, never very high, and but poorly sustained. Its pursuit of insects differs slightly from that of Chuck-Wills-Widow ; its flight on such occasions being without any noticeable sailing, but after the fashion of the Muscicapidce . This species receives its common appellation, from its noc- turnal cry, which has a slight resemblance to whip-poor-will. but which a fertile fancy can construe into a variety of sounds. These words are rapidly enunciated and almost incessant!} repeated, and are only uttered when the bird is reposing on a bush or fence, or any other object near the ground, but never while in flight. Its song is heard during the night, but measurably diminishes in frequency and intensity as the day begins to dawn. Being a nocturnal species, the livelong- day is spent in quietness in the dark recesses of its chosen retreats. When twilight has settled into dusky night, these birds issue from their gloomy retreats, and take to more open quarters in quest of the winged insects which constitute their favorite food, and which are attracted by the lights of our dwellings. Similar situations are visited year after year. The food of the species consists mostly of coleoptera, or- thoptera, and lepidoptera, which it encounters in its noc- turnal peregrinations. Few species are more decidedly in- sectivorous. The immense good which it accomplishes, is deserving of unstinted praise, which I fear, in some sections, is not accorded to it. Our numerous stomach-examinations have revealed indubitable evidences of the following bee- tles : — Passalus cortiutus* Pangus caliginosus^ Dic<.cliix dilatatus* Lucana dama, Lachiwsterna querchia* L. hir- ti'cuta. Cotalpa lanigera, Pelidnota punctata, Cratony- cJnis cinereus, Harpalus pensylvanicus* If. cotnpar, J3u- p rest 'is -cirghiica, Stcnoconis villnsus. and Ckrysomela sca/aris. A few orthopters which inhabit bushes, CEcaii- ////Y.V ;//:'oth extremities. The ground-color is a pure creamy-white. which is irregularly spotted and marbled with reddish-brown and purplish-lavender lines and patches, the former predom- inating'. They measure 1.26 inches in length and .89 in width. In many particulars, they resemble those of carol in- aisis* but are purer and more beautiful. There is also no- ticeable a very close resemblance to the eggs of the two Eu- ropean C aprliuiilg'i . Chordeiles virginianus, The common Night Hawk, as this species is very inappro- priately designated, is quite widely distributed throughout the United States, and breeds wherever found. It ranges from Texas and Florida on the south, to high northern lati- tudes ; and from the Atlantic Ocean westward to the Great Central Plains. At Matamoras, Mr. Dresser discovered it to be a rather abundant summer resident. Throughout the fur countries, Dr. Richardson found it to be an abundant and well-known species. By many, this species is often mistaken for the subject of the preceding sketch ; but it differs from it in so many of its habits, as well as in its well-known generic distinctions, as not to be confounded therewith. It is crepuscular rather than nocturnal in its habits, which is mainly due to the flight of particular kinds of insects upon which it feeds. It arrives in Eastern Pennsylvania about the last week ot April, and is chiefly a deni/en of open fields, and waste grounds along the borders of woods. Unlike vociferus^ it does not hesitate to visit large cities, where from early morning until nightfall, it may be seen upon the wing in fM . LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS pursuit of insect prey. When upon the perch or upon the ground, it is quite easily approached : it does not seem to be endowed with that quick perception which warns its nearest kin of the approach of danger. Its various and curious evolutions while upon the wing, bear but little resemblance to those of vociferus, being more closely allied to those of the Falconidce. After becoming nearly invisible, it traverses the atmosphere backward and forward like a hawk, remains stationary for a few sec- onds, and then suddenly darts off. producing a peculiar vibra- tory noise by its wings. As it Hies, it is heard to utter n loud and shrill cry which is difficult to express in language, and which seemingly comes from a short distance, when the author is certainly at an immense height. Dr. Richardson likens this sound to that produced by a tense cord set in vi- bration by a sudden gust of wind. This extraordinary and inexplicable sound is mainly produced by the male during the season of courtship, when he has been observed by us to mount to a great height and then tumble head foremost towards the ground* when he would suddenly check his O descending course. It is at this moment the peculiar ••boom- ing" is heard. Wilson ascribed its formation to the mouth, but Audtibon was impressed with the belief that it was pro- duced bv the concussion arising from the altered position of the wings. The food of these birds consists principally of diurnal and crepuscular insects. The vast abundance of such creatures to be found in the vicinity of large cities, has attracted them thither, where all day long they mav be seen or heard above the crowded streets, in active pursuit of prey. Their bill of fare is quite voluminous. Undoubted remains of the follow- ing insects have been identified in our many stomach-exami- r"» nations: — Cetonia inda* Allor/ihia m'tida* Lachnosterna ijucrciiia. /.. tiirticnla. Mdcrodactyla s/(bs/>//tosa* Crato- n\>chus chic re us. I far pal us com par, Pelidnota punctata. among beetles : Tabanus liucola * 7\ ctticttfs. Mii^ca tf<>- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA, *>;, mestica, Asilussericeus, and others, among diptera ; CKdip- -)Ja sulpkurea and (I£, uebuhsa* among orthoptera ; and Argyunis aphrodite* I'tetheisa bctta* Pyratnc/'s cardie i\ Chrysophanus cimcricana* Spilosoma, I'irginica, Zereuc catenaria, and many of the Satyr/dee, Lyacnidce, besides a few of the Nociuidce. Oviposition takes place about the middle of May. often as late as the last of the month, or the beginning of June. There is not the slightest indication of a nest. The eggs are deposited upon an open rock, an uncultivated field, or an ex- posed hillside. Not unfrequentlv have \ve found them care- lessly dropped in an old stubble field, in a slight concavity of the soil, the dark, weather-beaten stubble harmonizing so accurately with the natural colors of the female and eggs, as to screen them from observation. The eggs are occasionally deposited in a slight hollow of an exposed rock, whose weather-beaten surfaces. combined with the slate-colored lich- ens and mosses with which they are lined, are well adapted to insure protection. In open grounds, the female has been observed upon the nest, with the hot. scorching rays of the sun pouring down upon her. seemingly unmindful of its in- tense brilliancy. In Boston, the modern style of house with the fiat Mansard roof, according to Dr. Brewer, affords a safe and suitable shelter at night, as well as a place of deposit for its eggs. In 1870 and 1871, a number of instances fell under the ob- servation of the same distinguished writer. Dr. Turnbull affirms that the flat roofs of extensive warehouses in Phila- delphia, near the river, were employed for similar purposes. However true in Dr. Turnbull's day. we have no knowledge of such places being chosen, latterly. The usual complement of eggs is always two. which are deposited on consecutive days. Incubation instantly succeeds oviposition, and is the exclusive labor of the female, who plies her arduous task with unwearied patience and /eal. for at least fourteen or fifteen days, when her willing labors are M LIFE-HISTORIES OF 1JIRDS rewarded by the appearance of the young. On tlu^e occa- sions, she provides her own nourishment. We incline to this opinion for the following reasons ; — the occasional absence of the female while incubating under circumstance^ which we are assured were optional : and, finally, the failure to observe the male either engaged in feeding his partner, or in such proximity to her, as would naturally lead to the impression that he had been thus occupied. His absence »>n such occasions mav be purely intentional. While incubating, the female will permit a very near approach. and will actually suffer herself to be nearly step- ped upon, before quitting the eggs. When obliged to leave, she will tumble at the feet of the intruder, and by a \\ ell-- feigned lameness, endeavor to lead him away from the treasures. Her imitation of a disabled bird is so well char- acterized, that the person uninitiated in such devices, i^ easily deceived thereby. The young are very properly cared for by both parents, who vie with each other in unremitting attention during their brief period of dependence. Their food consists of the larvae and imagos of Zerene catena riot. Anisoptervx rer- nata* Ilybernia tiliaria* Anisota rubicunda, with mature forms of Chrysopkantfs amcricana* Pier is olcracea. l\>'a- nieis cardni, t'tethei^a bclla* and others among lepidop tera ; various dipterous species, such as Musca domestica. Ta ban us liu col a, 7\ci?ictus* Anthrax elongata* etc.: Ilar- palns con/par, l^angns cctliginosus ^ Scaritcs subterraneits^ and riatytuts cttpripeitith* among coleoptera : besides the hymenopterous Formica sangnhica* and earthworms. At the age of eight or nine davs, the voung cjuit the nest. being able to move with considerable celerity : but they still Continue to associate with the parents for a fortnight longer, when they forsake them altogether. This species is single-brooded. After the duties ot breed- ing are discharged, the sexes manifest little or no concern for each other. During the middle of September, both young OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA, 07 and old retire to their winter quarters in Mexico, Central America, and the northern parts of South America. The eggs are elliptical in contour, and equally obtuse at each extremity. Their ground-color varies, being different shades of stone-color : in some, a dirty white ; in others, a clay-color; and, again, in others of a yellow or blue tinge. The markings, which are varying shades of yellowish-brown and slate, are pretty generally diffused over their entire sur- face. Their resemblance to oblong-oval, dark-colored peb- ble-stones, is so accurate, as readily to deceive the most acute observer. This resemblance is very much heightened by the small stones among which they are not uncommonly placed. It is evident from the foregoing facts, that their safety is in a great measure dependent upon these natural surroundings. Specimens vary in length from 1.28 to 1.12 of an inch, and in breadth from .82 to .93 of an inch. Family Cypselidse. Swifts. In these fissirostral Pica-rite, the bill is quite small, flatten- ed, and presents a triangular outline when viewed superiorly : it is remarkable for its immense gape which reaches below the eyes. The wings are extremely elongated, often as long as the entire bird, thin and pointed ; the secondaries very short, and probably nine in number. The feet are small and feeble ; the tarsi nude, or feathered ; the posterior toe, often elevated, or versatile, or permanently turned towards the side, or even forwards : the front toes are perfectly cleft, with extremely short basal phalanges, and very long penultimate ones ; claws acute and curved, but never pectinate. The sternum prominently keeled, widening posteriorly, and with the hind margin entire. The great development of the sali- vury glands is one of the most remarkable structural pecu- liarities of the Cvpselidtc. The secretion of these glands is of great service to these birds in nest-building, in all the species whose nidificating habits are known. In the gener- ality of cases, a gluey substance is formed, by which the 18 98 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS composing materials are joined together, and to their sur- faces of attachment. In some species of CaUocaJia^ the entire nest is composed of thickened saliva, constituting the " edible bird's nest" which is esteemed such an article of luxury in the East. This family comprehends about fifty species which are assigned to from six to eight genera. They are denizens of temperate and warm climates, are mostly small birds, and superficially resemble the Hirundinida ; but their affinities are certainly not related to these Oscines. There are two subfamilies which are clearly defined by the structural char- acters of the feet ; viz. : — Cypselinte, or typical Swifts, and CJHBturtniz, or Spine-tailed Swifts, which are represented by only a single species in Eastern Pennsylvania. Subfamily ChseturinSD. Spine-tailed- Swifts. Toes with phalanges of the normal number ; posterior toe. never reversed, but occasionally versatile ; in a single species, clearly elevated. Tarsi unfeathered. The principal genus of this group is Ch&tura, which embraces fully one half of all known species belonging thereto ; it has the tail feath- ers stiff' and armed with a point which is formed by the pro- jecting rhachis. Chsetura pelasgia, Stephens. The Chimney Swallow ranges through the eastern parts of North America, from the Atlantic to the 5oth. parallel of north latitude. Dr. Richardson failed to meet it in the fur-bearing countries, but it was observed by Mr. Say at Pembina, on the Red river, in Northern Minnesota. Its western limit is supposed to be terminated by the Great Plains, specimens having been captured as far west as Bijou Hill in Nebraska. Mr. Allen found it quite common *in Kansas ; and further to the south and west, Dr. Woodhouse discovered it to be very abundant, especially throughout the Indian Territory, and in portions of Texas, New Mexico, OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 99 and even California. Mr. Dresser, however, was not able to take it in any portion of Texas, and it appears not to have been met with by any of the naturalists of our Western ex- peditions. Its appearance in Eastern Pennsylvania dates from the sec- ond week of May. On its arrival it frequents its old accus- tomed haunts, the chimneys of occupied dwellings, where it discovers greater conveniences than it formerly enjoyed. By its extremely sociable nature, it has won our esteem, and has so intimately associated its fortunes with man's, that its loss would be keenly felt and universally bewailed. Its habits are in striking contrast with those of its European congeneric brethren. These display considerable shyness, and shun the society of man, preferring to breed in caves, or in ruined or deserted dwellings. Since the occupation of this county by civilized beings, this species has changed most wonderfully in habits. *Its primitive breeding-places have been exchanged for the cosy, vet soot}- chimney ; the protection which such quarters af- ford under the immediate supervision of man being the chief inducement. There are localities where they still breed in hollow trees as in bygone days, but such places are now only occasionally occupied for roosting-purposes, in the older parts of the country. In some parts of New Brunswick, according to Mr. George A. Boardman, these birds still con- tinue to breed in these latter places. On one occasion, the same individual observed a nest constructed against a board in an old winter log-house, considerably removed from any chim- ney. Mr. Ridgway has found the nest in a hollow sycamore tree, and also fastened securely to a plank of an outbuilding, in Southeastern Illinois. In Kansas, Mr. Allen discovered it breeding in hollow trees in forests, for which it manifested a preference. In long-settled parts, it was compelled to re- sort to chimneys, or else to abandon the country. In a single instance, we have known the nest to be constructed against the rafter of a deserted dilapidated outbuilding, at no 100 LIFE-HISTORIES OF HIKDS great remoteness from an occupied dwelling. Xidification commences within a week, ordinarily, after the arrival of these birds. Whether mating is accomplished before their arrival, or subsequently, we cannot positively assert; but incline to the belief that the birds arrive alreadx paired, since we have never been able to witness those pecu- liar maiidHivres. which are characteristic of most species at this all important and critical period. The nest is the result of the united efforts of both birds. It seldom requires more ihau three days for its completion. It is a rather curious and remarkable structure, and is composed of small twigs of near- v uniform dimensions, which are severed from the living branches of trees, with considerable dexterity and adroit- ness, by the birds, while upon the wing. They sweep upon the coveted twrig, much after the fashion of a hawk in rush- ing upon its prev. These twigs are fastened to each other by the saliva of the builders ; and by the same cement, the entire structure is made to adhere to the side of the chimney in which it is placed. This saliva, after a slight exposure. hardens into a glue-like material, which becomes as fir in as the twigs which it joins together. In separating these nests from their reposing surfaces, we have known frag- ments of the brick to give way, rather than the cementing substance. When rendered moist by long-continued rains. these nests are often precipitated to the bottom of the chimney solely by the weight of their own contents. In such emergencies, the young cling with considerable ten- acity to the chimney-side, by means of bill and claws. The structure resembles a neat, semi-circular basket, and meas- ures three and one half inches in diameter, one and a half in width, and about one inch in depth. Building operations are mostly entered into during the early morning, the birds then working with commendable /eal and perseverance. A few days elapse, not usually more than two. before the female begins to oviposit. The eggs are laid to the number of four, at the rate of one egg. on each consecutive day. OF EASTERN PENN^VLVA^lA. 1'>< Incubation immediately succeeds, and continues for a period of eleven days. The labor is performed by the female who sits with unwearied patience, only venturing from the nest for brief periods in quest of food. The male, we have been informed, occasionally relieves her, but this has not fallen under our observation. Hie young are objects of more than wonted parental solicitude. They are able to leave the nest in about twelve days after hatching, when they climb to the top of the chimney, and there receive their food. This always happens a few days before their wings are sufficiently developed for flight. Even when quite young, in case of accident to the nest, they are able to work their way to the top of the chimney. It sometimes happens that they are thrown beyond the reach or notice of their parents. On these occasions, they utterly refuse food from the hands of human beings, although uttering the most pitiful cries of hunger. When placed upon the roof contiguous to their native chimney, Dr. Brewer has known them to climb to its base, and there receive parental attention. In less .than a fortnight after leaving the nest, they are able to feed and take care of themselves. As the species is double-brooded in this latitude, the young are necessarily forced to self- maintenance at an early period, as parental attention is en- grossed with preparations for the second brood. These ar- rangements are completed about the middle of June. The young are fed upon caterpillars, diptera, and, also, upon various species of lepidoptera and coleoptera. The larvae of Zerene catenaria, Anisopteryx vernata* Hyber- nia tiliaria, Anisota rnbicnnda, Eudry as grata, and oth- ers, among lepidoptera ; with the dipterous insects of .l///s- ca domestica. Tab anus lineola, Syrphnsobliijuus. and Cit- Icx t&niorhynchuS) are favorite articles of diet. As the birds grow, they are fed upon the imagosof Penthina poni- oncUa, Gortvua zca. Orgy a lencostigma* LitJiosia mini- ata, Utctheisa bell a, and many of the Noctnidic and /,r- * among lepidoptera ; and ^lacrodactvla subspinosa, 1 02 I IFH-iHSTORIES OF BIRDS liar pal us com par, //. pensy Ivan f cus, among beetles. In addition to the above, the old birds subsist upon such coleoptera as Pangus cctliginosus ^ Platynus cti pripcnuis* liar pal us pensyfoanicus ^ //. carbonari us, CratoiiycJins ciucreiis, C. pcrtinax, and Donacia cwijlucuta: and such lepidoptera as Argynnis aphrodite, Pyrauieis card id, Pro- cris amcricana. Riniomos subsignaria* Cdllimorpha 1c- contei, and others. In habits, the Chimney Swift is crepuscular rather than nocturnal, preferring to hunt for its prey early in the morning and late in the afternoon, or, in obscure, cloudy weather. At times, it is frequently observed on predatory excursions in the broad glare of noon ; its time being apparently regulated by the abundance or scarcity of insects. When with young, a brief period is spent in the procurement of food for the latter, even long after night-fall. The flight of this species is considerably varied and diffi- cult of description. It consists of rapid sailing, and sudden turnings in divers directions, with occasional quickly repeat- ed strokes of the wings. Their manner of entering a chim- ney by falling head-foremost, without any apparent concern, is truly astonishing. They never rest except in their roost- ing-places, to whose walls they cling with great tenacity, being partially sustained by their rigid tail. Its only note is a simple chip which is uttered with con- siderable force, and at times so quickly as to give rise to a confused twittering. These Swifts continue to dwell in our midst until the middle of September, when they retire to their southern homes with as much silence as marked their advent, for it must be remembered that their coming is both sudden and mysterious. Their eggs are somewhat elliptical in outline, rather less obtuse at one extremity than the other. The ground- color is a pure unspotted white, varying but slightly in di- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 10:1 mensions, and measure .77 of an inch in length, and about ,^2 in width. Family TrOChilidSD. Humming Birds. These tenuirostral Plcarlce are beautiful little creatures, which are peculiar to America. They range from Alaska to Patagonia, being more abundant in tropical South America, particularly the United States of Columbia, than elsewhere. In this country, they are found in very small numbers. These birds apparently fall into two natural groups, Phcethorni- thina, which are dull-colored species inhabiting the wooded plains of the Amazon ; and the TrochiUncc* to wrhich our common Ruby-throated Humming-bird belongs. The num- ber of genera varies from fifty to one hundred and fifty, accor- ding to authors, and embraces nearly five hundred current species. Dr. Cones considers the number of eligible genera to be about seventy five, containing about three hundred species. Subfamily TrochilinaD- This group is known to be represented in North America by about six genera, comprehending about eleven species ; the genus Selasphorus including nearly as many as all the others combined. TrOChiluS COlubriS, Linnaus. The Ruby-throated Humming-bird is found throughout the eastern portions of North America, westward to the Missouri valley, and breeds from Florida and Western Texas, to high northern latitudes. Dr. Richardson found it as far north as the 57th parallel of latitude. Specimens were obtained by him on the plains of the Saskatchewan. A Mr. Drummond found it nesting near the head-waters of Elk River. Mr. Dresser found it breeding in the south- western parts of Texas, where it is a common winter resi- dent. Dr. Brewer received both nests and eggs from Georgia 104 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS and Florida. Mr. Skinner found it a not uncommon wintei occupant on the southern slope of the great Cordillera in Guatemala ; and Mr. Salvin noticed its first arrival in that country as earl}' as August 24. increasing quite rapidly in numbers until the ist of October, when it was the most common species in the vicinity of Duenas. In Eastern Pennsylvania, the Ruby-throat makes its ap- pearance during the first week of May. seldom earlier, about the time the horse-chestnut {./Esculus hippocastanum} spreads its rich clusters of fragrant blossoms to the vernal breezes. During some seasons it is more abundant than at others. Once, as man}' as fifteen nests were taken in a scope of country scarcely exceeding one mile in diameter. The Might of this species, which is common to the entire family, is one of its peculiar characteristics. It is of two kinds : — a horizontal movement, which is so rapid as to be scarcely followed bv the eve and which is necessarily accompanied by a hissing sound ; and another, which seem- ingly sustains the bod} in mid-air in an immobile state : in this case, the bird assumes a nearly vertical position by beating its wings with considerable intensity. In feed- ing, their motions are insect-like ; they pass from bush to bush, pausing before each Mower after the fashion of the Sphingidtz, and with constantly vibrating wings, produce the same humming sounds. Xo species is more decidedly 'and strictly aerial. They puss with the swiftness of an arrow, stopping ever and anon to rest upon a small dead twig or branch, and almost in the same instant, darting oft*, one knows not whither. During this brief repose, the}' dress their feathers and clean their bill, all the while keeping up a continual jerking of the wings and tail. Notwithstanding its diminutiveness, it is notorious for its quarrelsome and aggressive disposition. When excited, it assails with desperate fury, anything that comes in its way. The Sphinxes, which are common visitors about flowers, par- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 100 ticularly the Diurnals, arc objects of its unprovoked vengeance, When one of these inoffensive creatures is encountered, it is attacked with great fury, and compelled to beat an inglo- rious retreat. Should it return, it is again assaulted, by its infuriated enemy. Nor arc these Hawk-Moths the sole ob- jects of its unmerited assaults. It often attacks birds much larger and more powerful than itself, which are compelled to give way before its rapid advances. Even man himself is not entitled to the respect which his position deserves. Mating commences during the latter part of May, but it is not before the first week of June that building operations arc commenced. The. nest is the result of the joint labor of both birds, who work with unwearied patience aifd assidu- ity, until the domicile is completed. The situations chosen for nest-building, vary considerably. Sometimes a high, open woods is selected ; at other times, a low. dense woods : but more frequently an orchard in close proximity to a hu- man dwelling. A rather singular place has been noticed by us during the past three years ; viz. : — a small horizontal branch of the common red maple, within reaching distance, along :» road where travel is quite common. This place has been selected for several \ ears, apparently by the same pair or their offspring, as the uest is invariably found in the same tree, and always on the identical branch. The nests are occasionally saddled upon the moss-covered branches of an apple or pear-tree, but more frequently upon the various species of .Q/fcrc//s* particularly rubra and alba . They are mainly composed of a wooly substance of vegeta- ble origin, plucked from the leaves of \ 'crbascHin thapstts. It is doubtful that the soft down which appears upon the unexpandcd leaves of the poplar, is always utili/ed since the leaves are already developed, in most cases, when niditication commences. The. exterior of the nest is com- pactlv covered bv a thatching of bluish-colored lichens. probably a Parmelia^ which are glued thereon bv the viscid saliva of the builders. The small woody fibres which havr 11 106 LIFE-HISTORIES OF IURDS 'been said to be used to strengthen the exterior of the fabric, have never been observed by us. In lieu thereof, a few cob- webs are occasionally noticed. The nests are ordinarily i . ^o of an inch in diameter, anid nearly i./> of an inch in height. The cavity is 3-4 of an inch wide at the rim, and equally as deep ; although specimens have been met with which were exceedingly shallow, measuring less than 1-2 inch in depth. A few specimens have been found which measured fully 2 inches in height. Nests with eggs have been taken as late as the third week of July, which were possibly the work of birds whose early labors had been frustrated. It is well known that many birds deviate considerably from the typical structure, in nest-building. In some cases, this concerns the shape of the nest ; but most generally, the ma- terials which enter into its composition. The nest of the Humming-bird sometimes betrays a want of conformity to the normal type in this particular, as that of Savor //is fus- cus and others that might be instanced. In the spring of 1876. a nest was built upon the horizontal branch of an oak which overhung a by-road and within a few feet of a woollen factory. Scattered upon the ground in considerable quantity was a lot of reddish shoddy which had been cast away. These birds were not slow in perceiving the use which could be made of this material, at the saving of a deal of labor and valuable time. It was not because there was a dearth of customary materials in the immediate locality that this shoddy was utilized, fora careful survey of the grounds sat- isfied us that they could be found with not more than the ordinary trouble. In view of these facts, it is evident that the builders were guided not by .a mere blind instinct, but by by a reason akin to our own. The nest was composed entirely of this reddish shoddy, and was covered extern- ally with the usual bluish-colored lichens. It measuied fully 2 inches in height, and had a diameter of 1.75 inches. The cavity was 3-4 of an inch wide, and nearly as deep. The time spent in building a nest varies from five to six days. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 107 The nest being finished, but a day or two elapses 'before the female is ready to begin oviposition. The eggs to the number of two are laid in as many days. Incubation im- mediately ensues and continues for a period of about eight days. Its duties devolve exclusively upon the female-bird who sits with commendable perseverance until her task is accomplished. While thus occupied, her mate stands guard, save when abroad in procuring food for himself and her. If any attempt is made to interfere with the nest, he is fore- most and loudest in his cries of indignation, and even darts into the intruder's face seeking to deter him from any con- templated attack ; it often requires considerable effort to beat him oft'. His mate, however, is of a more passive disposi- tion, quietly sitting upon her nest not unmindful of the proceedings, and only deigning to leave when danger seems threatening, when she rushes to the help of her partner, and exerts her utmost to preserve the home. These movements continue while the nest is endangered, and even after it has .been taken, for a limited time ; when the birds quietly retire to a short distance to brood over their mishaps, and to con- sider what is best to be done. The young are objects of the tenderest solicitude. Both parents vie with each other in rendering them attentions. When one is absent for food, the other remains to prevent them from coming to ill. Their food possibly consists of a prepared substance of nectar and fragments of soft insects which they procure by thrusting their bills into the throats of their parents. At the age of eleven days they are able to leave the nest : but a week more transpires before they arc fitted to support themselves. The food of the old birds consists of the honey of flowers, and largely of quite small spiders which they gather from blossoms. The flowers of the trumpet vine, honey- suckle, and common horse-chestnut, are preferred to others. A careful examination of the stomachs of many specimens showed perfect spiders, among which we were able to identify 108 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS the following species : — Epeira hortorum, /: . fasciata, ThomisiiS fartns, 7\ celer,Theridion boreale, and 7'. :•///- 4'v?/v, all of which were comparatively voung. It seems to be almost impossible to keep these birds in confinement for a great length of time. The experiment has been tried, but proved only partially successful, the birds living but a few months. Unsuitable diet, imperfect nourishment, and insufficient warmth, all combine to bring about this failure. So susceptible to cold are these birds that we have known them to retire to their winter homes as early as the loth, of September. By an inexplicable circumstance, the voung do not leave until some time after the parents have departed. But a single brood is raised in a season. The eggs are two in number, elliptical, and with both extremities equally obtuse. The ground color is a pure dull white. Their measurement is .50 by .34 of an inch. The only note of the Ruby-throat appeal's to be a feeble chirp, which recalls the sound produced by some species of insects. /•''an nly AlcedinidSB. Kingfishers. The feet of these birds are syndactyle by cohesion of the third and fourth toes. Bill long, straight, sharp, and rather hooked. Fissirostral gape wide and deep ; tongue rudimen- tary, or quite small. Nostrils basal and reached by the frontal feathers. The feet are quite small and scarcely adapt- ed to walking. Tarsi short and reticulated anteriorly ; hal- lux. short, flattened superiorly, having its sole more or le>s continuous with that of the inner toe. The soles of the ex- ternal and median toes are united for nearly one half their length. The inner toe is invariably short : in one genus a mere rudiment exists, while another has it entirely wanting. The wings are long, and possess ten primaries; while the 'ail is variable, and has twelve rectrices. The nearest allies of these birds are thought to be the horn- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 101) bills and bee-eaters of the Eastern Continent, and the todies ;ind sawbills of America. Mr. Sharpe. a distinguished au- thority, estimates about one hundred and twenty-five species in nineteen genera, which are unequally distributed. The genus ('cr\'/c is most nearly cosmopolitan, and is only want- ing in the Australian region. The same distinguished writer recogni/.es in this group but two subfamilies. DaceJoniinc which embraces fourteen genera and eighty-four species having the bill more or less depressed, and culmen either smooth, rounded, or sulcate ; and the Subfamily Alcedininae. Bill compressed and culmen connate. The species of '.his group as confined to America, are mainly piscivorous : while the former subsist upon insects, land mollusks, and reptiles. Ceryle alcyon. note. The Belted Kingfisher is a widely distributed North Amer- ican species. It ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, and even to the Arctic on the north. In 1857, Capt. Blakiston discovered it in the lower parts of the Saskatche- wan River, until Oct. 7 ; and. subsequently, at Pembina, Max i. 1859. ^'- Macfarlane obtained skins from the Es- quimaux on the Arctic coasts, and Dall observed it breeding at Fort Yukon. Dr. Richardson met it as high north as67° along the large streams of fur countries. In California, a larger race «is said to exist, which frequents the seashore, ind also ponds and streams where the waters are not muddy. Mr. A. Newton gives it a winter occupant at vSt. Croix, where it frequents mangrove-swamps, and says it is often found more than one-half a mile at sea engaged in its favorite occupation. Two specimens have been taken in Ireland as recorded by Mr. Thompson. This species arrives in Eastern Pennsylvania early in March. During moderate winters, we have observed it 110 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS throughout the months of January and February, along streams in secluded, sheltered localities. It is eminently un- social, and is always to be found in pairs, though the sexes are seldom together. Its favorite resorts are our small streams and ponds, where perched upon a rotten limb close- by, it awaits with anxious expectation its finny prev, which it captures with considerable skill, and instantly swallows on emerging from its bath : the indigestible parts, such as the scales and bones, being ejected from the stomach. Un- like the same species in the East, it has never been known to place itself on a familiar footing with man. by breeding along his principal thoroughfares. The crv of this bird is loud and harsh, and greatly re- sembles the noise made by a watchman's rattle. It is uttered while moving from place to place, always oil being disturbed, and even sometimes when he is about to plunge into the water for a fish. But especially is it heard at night, when the male-bird is returning to the nest with food for his mate and young. Although this Kingfisher is decidedly piscivorous, an examination of its stomach shows that it is insectivorous to a slight degree. The remains of Hyrsolepis cornittns* and other fishes, with those of Formica sati guinea, ('ambus ligatus, Than crocl cms sanguineus, ( ratoiivc/ms cinereus^ and a caterpillar which I took to be Arctia Isabella,, or one closely allied thereto. They nest in holes which they excavate in the sides ot ponds, streams, or cliffs, in close proximity to water. A very common place with us, is in sandy cuttings along railroads, where we have often seen them in the spring-time, feasting upon small tadpoles and the black-nosed dace which are denizens of the small streams which are occasionally found along the sides of the track. These burrows are ordinarily placed in dry ground sufficiently high to be beyond the reach of inundations. They are the labor of both birds, who work by turns, with remarkable diligence and rapidity until the (.W EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. Ill task is accomplished, often making a deep excavation in a single night where the bank is soft and sandy. These holes vary in direction and depth ; some being less than four feet, while others are more than fifteen feet deep ; some being straight, and others turning either to the right or to the left, before terminating into the enlarged space which is construc- ted for the eggs. The time spent in constructing a burrow varies from two to three and even to four days, and depends upon the character of the soil and the depth of the excavation. In most cases, the eggs are placed upon the bare sand ; but, in many instances, we have known them to be' deposited in a warm and cosy nest constructed of dried grasses and feathers, which necessarily protect them from the humidity of the ground. In 18^5, Dr. Brewer discovered a nest of this species along-side of a carriage path on Mt. Washington, about one mile from any water shallows. Another nest was found in a sand bank in the midst of the village of Hingham. near to a dwelling, and quite remote from water. During the dav, the authors of the latter nest were very cautious and retiring, seldom venturing from home, but were known to be continually moving backwards and forwards at night, as evidenced by their loud rattling cries. When with young, these nocturnal excursions are rather frequent. So strongly attached are these birds to the scenes of former associations, that they have been known to visit them year after year. We have known nests to be robbed, and the builders to re- turn and commence operations anew. Mr. Dall cites a curious fact in the history of this species. On one occasion, he witnessed a male-bird engaged in dig- ging holes by the side of his nest, which were two feet in depth and eight inches in diameter, apparently for no other purpose than that of pleasure or occupation. They were always abandoned as soon as constructed. Once, he entered one of these burrows, to eat a fish which he had captured. The eggs are laid as soon as the nest is completed. They are laid to the number of six, one on each consecutive day. 112 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS This task being over, the female begins the duties of in- cubation, which she exclusively and successfully accomplish- es in about fourteen days. While she is thus occupied, the male is a very faithful and attentive husband, amply provid- ing for her sustenance. The young are able to leave the nest in about fifteen da\s from hatching , but usually remain for a brief period longer, when they quit their home, and try their fortunes in tin wide world' around them. They are fed. at first, upon the macerated food of their parents. These birds usually retire south during the last of October, often as late as the fifteenth of November; when the season is remarkably propitious, they take up their winter stay with us. The eggs are nearly spherical, of a beautiful crystal white. and measure 1.31 of an inch in length and I .06 in width. Family Cu.CUlid.86. ( 'uckoos. The feet of these birds are /vgodactvle. They constitute an extensive and important family, which embraces main leading forms, corresponding with certain geographical areas of faunal distribution. Two subfamilies are generally held to exist. vi/.. ; ( ucnlhuc or typical cuckoos, of which (. canorns is a good example; ( occvziiuc or American cuc- koos ; Crotophagince or Aids : and Saurotherince or Ground cuckoos. Subfamily COGCyzinSB. American Cuckoos. In this group, the tail is considerably graduated, slightly longer than the wing, and is composed often soft feathers. Wings short, pointed, the- first and second quills much ab- breviated. Hill equal, shorter than head, short at base, then considerably compressed and curved through entire length to a rather acute tip. Nostrils, basal and elliptical. Feet Comparatively small ; tarsus naked, and equal to toes in length. This subfamily contains four or rive genera OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. .11:5 with about twenty species. Plumage, subdued in color ; head not crested : tibiul feathers, hawk-like in character. Sexes similar, from which the young scarcely differ. Nev- er parasitic. From the loud jerky notes which these birds are heard to utter during rainy weather, they are popularly designated k>rain crows." Coccygus erythrophthalmus, Bonap. The Black-billed Cuckoo is less abundantly distributed than its more common relative to be shortly described, but is generally to be found in similar localities. It ranges as far west as the great plains of the Missouri. Dr. Wood- house found it very scarce in Texas and in the Indian Territo- ry. De la Sagra and others have met it during the winter months in Cuba. Mr. Audubon, in his extensive travels, seldom observed it in Louisiana, and never in any of our Western States, excepting Ohio. Nuttall considered it fully as abundant as Americanus^ and affirms that it is found in the tropical regions, of St. Domingo and Guiana. Dr. Gerhardt discovered it breeding in Northwestern Georgia. It has never been obtained bv any of our Western expedi- tions to the Pacific, beyond the Indian Territory. Its breed- ing limits seem to extend from Georgia to Canada in the east, and from Texas to Minnesota in the west, with all the intermediate country. In Eastern Pennsylvania, this species is bv no means com- mon. It reaches our latitude during the early part of May, occasionally on the last of April when the season is not back- ward. It is a less retired species than its nearest congener, and manifests a strong predilection for the borders of thick- ets, in which it delights to breed. The flight of this species is in undulations, never high, but comparatively light, and moderately protracted. Its note is very peculiar and characteristic, resembling very closely that of AtHcricamis, and when once heard, is seldom forgotten. It is an uncouth guttural, and is seldom 15 114 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS heard save when the weather israinv, and when the birds are breeding. We have occasionally heard it when the condition of the atmosphere portended a coming storm. To our ear. there seems to be a kind of pensive sadness in the sound. which vibrates a sympathetic chord in the bosom. Whilst foraging, it frequents the borders of thickets, waste fields in damp situations, and not unfrequently strays beyond these localities, into the territory of civilized man. Its food consists mainly of insects, although a few seeds and berries are eaten, when a full supply of its favorite articles is not to be had. An examination of many stomachs early in the spring, gives evident traces of the following insects, both col- eopterous and orthopterous : — Pangus caliginosus, Har pa- ins compar, U. perisylvanicus, II. carbonarius, Platynns cupripennis, Haltica cJialybea, Diccelus dilatatus, Scar if es subterraneus, Acheta nigra, CEdipoda nebulosa, CE. sul- phurea, and others. Later, caterpillars of Anisopteryx ver- nata, A. pomctaria, Zerenc catenaria, Hybernia tiliaria, Ennomos subsignaria, Utetheisa bella, and mature Nocin- idce, Lyccenidce, and Tortricidce. Its vegetable food is chiefly the seeds of grasses, and the berries of Juniper.us Virginiana. Shortly after their arrival the sexes pair, say about the tenth of May, and are ready to construct their nest. But a little time is spent in preliminaries. The nest is usually placed in a cedar-tree, sometimes a low bush being selected, but never at a great height. In building low, it imitates Americanus. The labor of building is performed by both birds, who work with considerable /eal, scarcely abandoning the task in the daytime save to procure food, until the struc- ture is completed. So comparatively rude and unfinished is the fabric, manifesting but the slightest evidence of design. that the birds are seldom longer than two days in preparing it for occupation. A typical nest is composed of a basis of small rotten sticks, upon which is reared a superstructure of roots, strips of bark. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 115 and blossoms of herbaceous plants. It is exceedingly loose and scarcely survives the season for which it is designed. The external diameter measures about seven inches, and the height about three. The cavity is about five inches wide, and quite shallow. Dr. Brewer says the nest is built in low bushes in damp places, and never more than two or three feet from the ground ; it is composed of roots, twigs, strips of bark and moss woven together, and is lined with blossoms and catkins of various kinds. Ovi position usually takes place on the day following the completion of the nest, but instances have been met with where eggs were deposited on the same day. But a single egg is daily deposited ; as the number laid usually varies from three to six, the period varies likewise. The necessary complement being furnished, incubation immediately suc- ceeds. In this business the male does his part. When not thus engaged, he occupies a limb close-by, and holds him- self in readiness to defend his home and partner ; or, strays off for a short distance in quest of a juicy caterpillar for his mate. Incubation is ordinarily completed in a period of fourteen days. But, as the eggs are occasionally deposited at irregular intervals, it happens that the same nest often contains both eggs and young birds, which seems to be a wise provision of Nature, in strengthening that degree of warmth which is denied by the shallowness and looseness of the nest. Both parents are assiduous in incubation, and also in furnishing each other with food. They manifest a strong- er fidelity and a greater affection for each other, than any other bird belonging to their family. Dr. Brewer cites an instance in which a female was wantonly destroyed while with eggs, where the male immediately assumed the all-essential duty of incubation, and successfully reared the brood. So de- voted was he to the task, that he would almost suffer himself to be captured, rather than abandon his charge to the cruel mercies of a human intruder. These nestlings under his vigilant care throve splendidly. lir, LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS The young arc objects of more than ordinary solicitude bv the parents. While one parent is absent in search of cater- pillars to satisfy their voracious appetites, the other exercises the closest surveillance over the tender creatures, and exerts his utmost endeavors to lead the intruder away, by drawing attention to himself. On these occasions he has been observ- ed to drop from the branch, and by simulating a wounded bird with the greatest nicety, has often acomplished his pur- pose. This ruse is so skilfully performed, that the umvarv are often deceived thereby. The food of the voung consists chiefly of caterpillars, at first, but other articles of an insect character are added to their bill of fare, as they increase in age. The caterpillars of Anisopteryx vernctta* A., ponic- taria, Zercne catenaria, Hybernia tiliaria. Anisota rnb- icunda. mature forms of Noctuidce, Tortricidte, and other lepidoptera, with divers beetles, and the common earth worm {Lumbricus terrestris}, constitute an important part of their varied and voluminous bill of fare. At the age of fifteen days the young birds are able to leave the nest, but they still continue to be fed and cared for by the parents until the lapse of nearly two weeks, when they are so far matured as to be able to shift for themselves. We have never known more than a single brood in a sea- son. The period of breeding being over, both parents and young separate, and concern themselves exclusively with the gratification of appetite. Their stay does not seem to be regulated by the scarcity or abundance of food-stuffs, for they retire to their warm winter homes as early as the middle of September. The eggs are somewhat spherical, of a bluish-green color, and measure 1.12 inches in length, and about .90 of an inch in width. They resemble very closely those of Americaints. The color being exceedingly fugitive, cabinet specimens can only be distinguished from those of the latter, by sixe and shape. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 11 Coccygus Americanus, The Yellow-hilled Cuckoo is more abundant than the preceding, and is found from Florida to Canada, and from the Atlantic to California. Auduhon found it along the Mississippi River, the upper branches of the Arkansas, and also in upper Canada. Newton found it upon St. Croix Island ; Gosse in Jamaica ; Salvin in Central America ; and Lem- bove in Cuba. Its breeding-quarters certainly extend from Florida and the West Indies to Minnesota, and from Texas to New Brunswick, embracing the interjacent country. Dr. Woodhouse found it quite common in New Mexico, Texas, and in the Indian Territory. In June, 1867, Mr. Ridgway met it on a single occasion in a thicket of willows, and, sub- sequently. in July, along the Truckee River in Nebraska, where it appeared to be exceedingly rare. Wilson traced it north to Lake Ontario, from the Choctaw and Chickasuw nations. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it cannot be said to be very abundant, although more so than the preceding species. It arrives during the first week of May, sometimes as early as the last week of April. Unlike its cousin, it is less retired and more eminently social ; being seldom found in situations which it delights to visit, but seeming to prefer hedges along public roads, or a solitary pine or apple tree in an orchard or garden. The flight of this species is the exact counterpart of the Black-billed Cuckoo. Its general behavior resembles the hitter's so closely, that an inexperienced person would have considerable difficulty in discriminating one from the other, particularly at a distance. There is also to be noticed the closest resemblance in the notes of the two species. The same uncouth guttural notes are uttered in the same plaintive tone, and on identical oc- casions. The food of these birds is chiefly insects, although the 118 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS ' seeds of grasses and a few berries are eaten, when the; a scarcity of appropriate food-studs. Early in the season, beetles and grasshoppers are mostly eaten ; but, as the weather becomes warmer, these are abandoned for the more edible caterpillar and moth, and the juicv earthworm. Its bill of fare is made up of the following insects : — Pang'iis CaltginosvS) Harpalus compai\ ( 'raton vcJnis cuicreus* Lach- nostcrna quercina,Scariies subterraneus, and other beetles ; (Kdipbda sulphured, CE. ucbulosa, and Achcta uigra, among orthoptera ; Anisopteryx rcniata, A. pometaria^ Zcrcnc catciiaria, An i sot a rubicunda, Hybernia tiUaria, Pieris rapcc, both in their larval and perfect stages ; and I\'iithina pomoncUa, Eudryas grata. ^Rgeria tipuli- forme, Orgyia leucostigma, Prccris americana, and others, chiefly Noctuidce and Lycccnidce, among lepidoptera ; be- sides aphides, ants, and the common earthworm. The nest is generally placed upon some species of con- iferous tree, but not imfrequently between a forked branch of ^faclura aurantiaca, at an elevation of about ten feet from the ground ; sometimes not more than five feet. It is composed, externally, of small sticks and grasses which con- stitute a foundation, and is lined with fine grasses. It is rude in structure, loosely put together, and seldom withstands the storms of winter. The cavity is rather small, and it is often with the greatest difficulty that the eggs are prevented from rolling out. In dimensions, it is seven inches in diam- eter, and about three inches in height ; the cavity is nearly four inches wide, and less than one inch deep. The nest is the result of the united efforts of both birds, who work with commendable zeal and patience until it is completed ; only allowing themselves sufficient respite from labor to satisfy the cravings of hunger, and the usual demands for rest at the close of the day. Never more than two days at the far- thest are spent in nest-building. As soon as the fabric is finished, usually on the following day, the female begins to oviposit. This business continues OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 110 for a. period of several days, but varies according to the number of eggs laid, and the irregularity of the time of laying, eggs being frequently laid about the time that others are hatching. But, as a rule, only a single egg is daily de- posited. Incubation often commences when but two eggs, are in the nest, the female depositing others as the process goes on. This would seem like an extremely odd fancy of hers, but it is evidently the result of great forethought and prevision. The necessarily rude structure which is built for the accommodation of the eggs, does not contain suitable materials to protect them from cold, and thus necessitates very close and arduous labor upon the part of these birds. The hatching of a few young birds at the time when other eggs are being laid, secures the requisite and continual warmth which the parents are compelled to supply at great 'detriment to themselves. This plan relieves the parents from too close application, while at the same time, it does not materially interfere with the grand object which under- lies all others. In most instances, we find, in this latitude, the full complement of eggs deposited before the birds have commenced the incubating process. The period of incuba- tion is about fourteen days. During this business, the male-bird when not upon the nest, seldom forsakes his mate, save to procure himself and her, food. Perched upon a small limb close-by, he seems all vigilance, and is in constant readiness to reply to her calls: Feelings of the most devoted affection are mutually exhibited. Mr. Newton, in his paper on the habits of the birds of St. Croix Island, testifies to the conjugal affection which is evinced bv these birds. On one occasion, a male had been killed: The female, attracted by his shriek as he fell to the ground, ap- peared upon the scene, and with wings fluttering along the ground, after the manner of the Partridge, endeavored to lead the pursuer of her young astray. In the spring of 1872, a nest of this species was placed within full view of our window, from which the minutest details of the every-day life of these birds could be closelv I -jo LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS studied. Children in their amusements would frequently pass under the tree, while the birds were engaged in build- ing, but the latter were so intent uponN work that their presence was unheeded. 'The nest was completed, egg- \vere deposited and hatched, and the young matured, the parent-birds evidently feeling as secure as in more sequest- ered situations. \Vhcn the young are all hatched together, the duty of feeding devolves upon one or the other parent, both birds never being absent from the nest at the same time : although we have often seen one or the other move from its perch to pursue a passing insect. Hut, on the other hand, where the voung are hatched at irregular intervals, the non- incubating bird assumes the duty of feeding both his mate and the early-hatched young, while the other is occupied with the duties of incubation. The young are able to quit the nest, in little more than a fortnight after being hatched. The joy of the parents at this period is apparently unbounded. Their efforts to in- duce them from the nest for the purpose of trying their un- trained wings, evince extreme patience and perfect good- nature. Hut, when the step is taken, their various odd ges- tures are significant of the highest satisfaction and delight. An expiration of a similar period finds the young birds ready to enter upon the varied duties of bird-life. Their food consists of divers caterpillars, such as Anisopteryx vernata, Zcrct/c catcnaria, Anisota rnbiciiinla , and many of the moths mentioned above, with aphides, small beetles, and earthworms. In this latitude this species is single-brooded ; at least we have never been able to find more than one brood in a season. Mr. Xuttall affirms that several broods are raised, and appears to have based this opinion upon the discovery of eggs as late as August 28. The same distinguished writer has recorded the finding of its egg in the nest of a Catbird : and another, as late as the i ^th of July, in a Robin's nest. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 121 These certainly are very rare instances, and have never been confirmed bv subsequent writers. These observations, coupled with others of equal impor- tance which have been recorded, evidently show the close relationship which subsists between our American species of Cuckoos and their not very distant European brother. The Cuculus canorus of Europe is eminently parasitic in its habits, and deposits its eggs in the nest of other birds. If NuttalFs observations should be substantiated by future observers, which we have every reason to believe will be the case when the history of our birds shall be more gener- ally and better known, one important step will have been gained towards proving the community of habit. But it seems to us, in view of the well-ascertained fact that both our species rely partly upon the early young to hatch their subsequent deposits of eggs, thus partially shirking a duty which belongs to them, somewhat after the fashion of their trans-Atlantic cousin, no other facts are necessary to show the intimate alliance. In the fall, these birds feed upon small beetles, lepidoptera of various kinds, the seeds of grasses, and the berries of Juniperus Virginiana. They retire to their southern homes during the last week of September, or the early part of October. The eggs are less spherical than those of crythrophthalmus, equally obtuse at each end, and of a light greenish-blue color, which, like those of its nearest kin, are quite apt to fade, thus rendering them difficult of distinct- ion. They measure 1.13 inches in length and .91 in width. Suborder Pici. Piciform Birds. Family PicidSD. Woodpeckers. This family embraces about two hundred and fifty well- determined species, which are found in all parts of the world except Madagascar, Australia, and Polynesia. It is com- monly separated into three divisions which seemingly man- ifest but little diversity, as evidenced by the ivory-bill and 10 122 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS flicker, which stand nearly at its extremes. A single genus is characterized by the tongue, thus differing from the ordi- nary Pici, which have the horns of the tongue produced posteriorly, as slender jointed bony rods, which curve over the cranium behind, and pass between the skin and bone. to the eyes, and even, in some instances, further. These bonv rods are enfolded in highly specialized muscles, by \\ hose- action the tongue is protruded several inches beyond the bill. In Sphyrapicus, this is not the case ; the hvoid bone does not reach beyond the base of the skull, and, in consequence, the tongue is but a trifle more extensible than in other birds. In this species, the tongue is rather closely studded with many bushy filaments, in the place of the sharp barbs which commonly exist. In the majority of species, the bill is perfectly straight. with a stout and expanded base which tapers uniformly to a flattened and vertical tip which is truncate ; it is chisel-like, and strengthened by acute ridges on sides of upper mandible. The nostrils are concealed by thick tufts of antrorse feathers. In others, the flicker for example, the bill is smooth, and but slightly curved ; tip acute, and nostrils, open and exposed. The claws are invariably large, much curved and sharp. The feet are not peculiarly striking, except in the three-toed genus Picoides. The wings are remarkable for the brevitv of their coverts, which is an exceptional feature in the Pica- rice, and also for the shortness of the first primary, which might with propriety be considered spurious. The tail is furnished with, stiff quills for supporting the bird against a tree, and with highly developed muscles wrhich are attached to a large and peculiarly shaped bone called the vomer. Unlike the Sittidcc, these birds rarely suspend themselves head-downward ; nor do they ever support themselves by means of the tarsi. They are highly insectivorous, and quite hardy birds. They nest in holes which they excavate to great depths, at infinite pains and labor; and lay rounded, pure white eggs. Their voice is loud and harsh, and incap- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 123 able of much inflection. Their plumage generally presents large bright-colored areas, and is frequently very lustrous ; the sexes have usually their distinguishing color-markings. Hylotomus pileatus, Baird. The Pileatecl-Woodpecker, or Black Woodcock, as this species is sometimes popularly called, has a wide distribu- tion. It ranges from the gulf of Mexico to the extreme limits of northern forest-vegetation, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Sir John Richardson found it a permanent resident in the interior of fur regions, as high north as the 62 or 63 parallels ; but, near Hudson Bay, it was conspicuous for its rarity. Dr. Woodhouse found it to be quite common in Texas, New Mexico, and the Indian Territory ; but, in Cali- fornia, it has not yet been observed. In the vicinity of Fort Steilacoom, Washington Territory, it is an abundant summer occupant, according to Dr. Suckley. Dr. Brewer has ob- served it in the wilder parts of Maine and New Hampshire. We have never met it within the limits of Philadelphia, but westward as far as the Blue Mountains, it has been found in small numbers. Dr. Turnbull has recorded it as a resident of Eastern Pennsylvania, and stated that in his day, it was rarer than formerly. It delights to inhabit dense forests, chiefly of pine, and manifests such shyness that it is quite difficult to approach within shooting distance. Every attempt that is made to surprise it, is instantly noticed, and greeted with a somewhat derisive cackling cry. Audubon says they are found in the interior of forests, and not infre- quently in trees in the midst of deep swamps, where they excavate a cavity chiefly on the southern side, into which they retire in winter and in stormy weather. Their flight is heavy and laborious, and performed in un- dulations. They are principally arboricole in their habits, although \vc have occasionally observed them upon the ground, search- ing about for insects. Their food consists principally of the 124 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS larvae and pupae of beetles, which they obtain by boring into the bark and woody parts of trees, and which are skilfully extracted by their long, barbed, extensile tongue. The pre- cise whereabouts of which, is seemingly determined by the few loud taps which are made, preparatory to dislodging their victims. We have often noticed this movement, which is always followed by an attitude of intense listening. In our examinations of the stomachs of these birds, we have discovered complete specimens of several species of ants, prominent among which was Formica sanguinea; and various beetles, such as Cratonychus cinereus, C. pertinax. Bostrichus pini, in their larval and perfect stages ; besides. Harpalus compar, H. carbonarius, Pangus caliginosus. and others. A few small spiders, which commonly harbor in creviced bark, were also noticed. We have no personal knowledge of its breeding habits, and, consequently, are compelled to borrow from other sources, to complete its biography. Wilson says the eggs are laid in the hole of a tree, which the birds excavate them- selves, and upon a few soft rotten chips which subserve the purposes of a nest. Audubon asserts that these holes are sometimes bored perpendicularly, and, at other times, after the manner of Campephilns principalis, at depths varying from twelve to eighteen inches, and from two and a half to three inches in width at the mouth, and from five to six inches at the bottom. Rev. Dr. Bachman, on the authority of Dr. Brewer, discovered a nest built in an old elm-tree in the midst of a swamp, and has recorded some very interesting facts connected therewith. During the early part of the subsequent spring, a pair of Bluebirds took possession of the hole, and prepared to raise a brood of young. The Wood- peckers returned before the young were fully matured, and in spite of the remonstrances and repeated assaults of their parents, took them out of the nest, and bore them to some distance. The nest was then destroyed, the hollow cleared out, and a brood of young Woodpeckers successfully reared. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 12f> Before the incubating process had commenced, the eggs were taken by the Doctor, for the purpose of finding out what the birds would do under the circumstances. The birds seemed undecided in their actions for a few days, but at the expiration of this period, the female set to work, deepened the hole, enlarged it considerably at the bottom, and deposited her complement of eggs. The duties of in- cubation were performed by both birds, each visiting the nest when thus occupied, to see that everything was right. The Doctor endeavored to rear the young, two of which died of starvation ; and the remaining three living to grow up, be- came such mischievous and troublesome pets, that he was only too glad to rid himself of their possession. Dr. Cooper met this species on Whitby's Island, Wash- ington Territory, engaged in digging a hole in a dead trunk, at an elevation of thirty feet above the ground. The place was discovered by the loose chips that were scattered around. The labor was alternately performed by both birds, who, before dropping the chips which they had detached, would slowly protrude the bill from the opening, and take a cau- tious survey of the surrounding country. At the slightest noise- they would remain perfectly still, and only resume op- erations when reassured that danger was not imminent. Fifty years ago, this species was quite abundant, and very unsuspicious, in Vermont ; but, according to Mr. C. S. Paine of Randolph, it is now very rare, and so shy, that it can be approached but with the greatest difficulty. It seems to be a very pugnacious bird, for, on one occasion, Mr. Paine hav- ing wounded an individual, essayed its capture while attempt- ing to escape, when the bird being overtaken, turned furi- ously upon its pursuer, and inflicted a wound. This close observer, has never been able to discover its nest, but has seen young birds just after leaving it. Mr. Dresser has found it on the Medina River in Texas, and also on the Colorado and Brazos, where it appears to be quite a common species ; several nests being observed in 126 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS huge cotton wood trees, which were perfectly inacessible. Mr. J. K. Lord has met with this species in Vancouver's Island, and southward through Oregon and California. At Colville, British Columbia, near the Columbia River, he has observed it in winter. According to this author, it nests at immense heights, in tall dead pine-trees, during the month of May. •The eggs of this species seem to vary from five to six in number. Dr. Brewer obtained specimens from Cheraw, S. Ca., which were taken from excavations made at a height of t\venty-five feet, and in rather close proximity to inhabit- ed parts of the country. These eggs were rounded-oval in outline, of a beautiful crystalline whiteness, and measured 1.25 by i. 02 inches. Picus borealis, VieiU. The Red-cockaded Woodpecker is a denizen mainly of the South-eastern Atlantic States, where, among the pine barrens of Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas, it attains its greatest abundance. In Texas, and in the Indian Terri- tory, it was commonly observed by Dr. Woodhouse. Wilson met with them in Georgia and the Carolinas, but appears not to have studied their habits. Audubon traced it from Texas to New Jersey, and even in the latter state, in the vicin- ity of Hoboken, it has been found by Mr. G. N. Lawrence. That it is a rare visitant in Eastern Pennsylvania, cannot be doubted, as an individual was taken a few years since, and is now deposited with the writer. This specimen was shot in Delaware Co., just beyond the southern border of Philadelphia. The Red-cockaded Woodpecker delights in pine forests, where it is observed to be a very industrious worker, tap- ping the trunk and branches of trees for the hidden worm, and, occasionally, thrusting its barbed tongue into the fissured bark and transfixing some frightened beetle or spider that lias sought to hide itself from persecutors, or to seek shelter OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 127 and warmth. It is exceedingly restless and active, and in its rapid journeys from tree to tree in quest of food, utters its sharp and querlous note. It is unequalled in the quick- ness of its movements by any of its family. It moves up- wards and sideways in a somewhat circuitous manner, along the trunk and branches, and is as frequently seen upon the in- ferior surface of a branch as upon the upper. Though not easily approached by man on account of its exceedingly restless nature, it cannot be accused of more than ordinary shyness. Its flight is undulating, and like that of most Woodpeck- ers, somewhat labored and poorly sustained. It is eminently arboreal in its feeding habits? -and subsists upon the small spiders, ants, and beetles which it encount- ers, as well as upon the larva? and pupae of the former. Au- dubon says that it occasionally feeds upon grain and small berries.- The nest, according to Audubon, is not unfrequentlv found in a decayed stump, about thirty feet from the ground. Mat- ing occurs often as early as January, and preparations for breeding are entered into during the succeeding month. The young are said by the same writer to leave the hole before they are able to fly, and to station themselves upon a branch where they receive their food until sufficiently ma- tured to take care of themselves. During the breeding-period these Woodpeckers are quite fretful and pugnacious. Mr. Audubon kept one of these birds, which had been wounded, in a cage. Having released itself from confine- ment, by cutting the bars of the cage, it ascended the walls of the room, and began to feed upon the spiders and insects which it was able to procure. It utterly refused to take- any other subsistence until liberated. During the winter, and also in stormy weather, these birds seek shelter in the holes of trees. The number of eggs laid, apparently varies. Mr. Audu- 128 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS l)on gives the ordinal*}7 complement as four, although he has sometimes met with six in a nest. They are described as being smooth and of a pure white color. Dr. Brewer in "North American Birds," in his description of an egg which was sent to him by N. Giles, of N. Ca., says it is more elliptical and less glossy than the eggs of Woodpeckers usu- ally are. and measures .9^ of an inch in length and .70 in width. Another, which he received from Monticello, Flor- ida, was even less oblong than the former, and was similar- ly characterized by its lack of polish. It measured .98 of an inch in length and .70 in breadth. PiCUS VIIIOSUS, Li tin. The Hairy Woodpecker, or Larger Sap-Sucker, has quite an extended range in the eastern parts of North America, and is found almost everywhere east of the Rocky Moun- tains. Wilson found it exceedingly common from Hudson Bay on the north to Georgia and the Carolinas, and Audubon, a permanent resident in maritime and inland regions, from New Hampshire to Texas, and throughout all wooded tracts, from the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers to the northern limits of the chain of Great Lakes. Rich- ardson observed it as high north as the 6v^rd parallel of lati- tude, and throughout the fur countries to the 56th parallel, where it is the most common species, as the three-toed is in the country beyond. Dr. Woodhouse met it in considerable numbers in Texas and in the Indian Territory, and north- westward along the shores of British Columbia which it ap- parently reaches without crossing the Rocky Mountains in the United States. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it is resident throughout the year, and is quite abundant. It is to be seen almost everywhere, and manifests a greater fondness for the haunts of man than for more sequestered situations, although waste grounds and dense forests occasionally resound with its characteristic note, and the loud drumming sound which it produces by OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 129 tapping on the trunks and branches of trees. It is less wild and more domestic than most of its kin, entering our or- chards and gardens in its foraging excursions, and even gleaning in the maples that line our principal thoroughfares. With indefatigable diligence, it pursues its laborious task almost unintermittingly from morning until night. So in- tent is it upon this business, that it scarcely heeds the pres- ence of human beings when but a few paces away, and can only be deterred therefrom by threatened danger. But then, we have known it instead of flying to a great distance, con- fidently settle upon an adjoining tree, and pursue its wronted task as though nothing had occurred. A fewr minutes subse- quently it has been seen to repair to the identical tree from which it had been cruelly driven. During the dreary winter months, these birds are more generally noticed as isolated individuals ; and it is only on the approach of warmer weather that the sexes begin to consort with each other. At this period, it is not uncommon to meet with individuals both of pubcsce ns and Sphvrapicits varius upon the same tree, within a short distance of each other. The utmost good feeling invariably prevails. This meeting, although acciden- tal, is sufficient to show the perfect harmony which exists among these three species. In gleaning for food, these birds are chiefly arboreal, although we have occasionally noticed them upon the rails of fences to which the bark is still adherent, and also upon the ground. Like most of its family relatives, its movements along the branches and trunks of trees are performed in a somewhat circuitous manner: the birds stopping at some- what regular intervals to tap upon the bark and even the solid wood, or to thrust their tongue into the creviced bark. Like the Nuthatch and others, it often hangs head-downwards from the under surface of a branch, and performs its accus- tomed labors with as much ease and skill as in comparatively safer situations. Its food consists of the larvae and pupae of insects which eke out an existence in the outer woody 17 130 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS layer, or lay dormant underneath the bark. The small spi- ders, which also occupy the latter situations, contribute no mean part of their diet. When there is a scarcity of insect food in winter, the seeds of grasses and various kinds of berries are greedily eaten. It is often supposed that the various Picarian species invari- ably seize their prey while stationary, but this is not always the case, as we have frequently seen them while searching along the branches of trees, seize with considerable dexterity a passing insect. In the winter, they feed upon the seeds of grasses, often visiting our barnyards for their share of the grain which is fed to the poultry ; the fruits of Juniper us Virgin! ana, Lon- icera pcriclymeiium, and others, which are found in their accustomed haunts ; besides the following beetles ; — Cra- tonychus cinereus, C. pertht ax, Bostrichus pint, Harpalus compar, H. pensylvanicus, etc., and the small spiders which infest the bark of trees. Early in the spring, vast numbers of ants, Formica sanguinca chiefly, are eaten, besides the additional coleoptera of Cymindis viridipennis , RJiyncJuc- uus strobi, Platynus ciipripcnnis, and Haltica chalybea. Later, the larvce of Anisoptervx vernata. A., pome tar ia, Zerene catenaria, Anisota rubicunda, Eudryas grata* and others ; besides mature forms of Noctiiidce, TortrcidiC and Lyccenidcz. In the fall, its bill of fare consists of beetles. lepidoptera, ants, small spiders, and the fruits of Juniper us Virginiana, J. communis, Vacciniuni stamineiun « and the seeds of grasses. Mr. Audubon says, in the Southern States, during the winter, they may be often seen clinging to the stalks of the sugar-cane, which they perforate for the juice, and seemingly enjoy. The flight of this species is rapid, slightly protracted, and in undulations. Its note is a loud sharp monosyllable, which it repeats at irregular intervals, while upon the wing, and occasional!) OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 131 when disturbed whilst feeding. It may be somewhat accu- rately expressed by the syllable tchitck. About the beginning of May, and occasionally during the last week of April, when the season is unusually forward, the sexes consort together and may be seen perching upon the same branch, chasing each other around the trunk, or pursuing each other in their short flights from tree to tree. The peculiar tapping noise which greets the ear in one's journey through the woods in the winter, and which is evi- dently associated with the feeding process, now becomes ap- parently louder and more frequent, and certainly serves to note the whereabouts of the male. This is the season of mating. This essential business being over, both birds evidently look around the country for a suitable tree in which to con- struct a nest. On these occasions, they separate and pursue different directions. Should a favorable site be selected by one of the birds, the attention of the other is called to the spot by the aforementioned drumming sound, but in some cases, the joyful news is conveyed in person. Both birds in- stantly repair to the spot, and after a brief consultation, de- cide whether or not to avail themselves of it. Should the conference result favorably, immediate operations are at once begun ; or, if unfavorably, the search is continued until a place is found which is mutually satisfactory. Sometimes a branch already hollowed is made use of. The labor of digging a hole devolves not more upon the male than upon the female ; although the female is generally the first to commence oper- ations. The hole is excavated horizontally for nearly five inches, and then vertically for twice the distance. The place selected for nesting is mostly an apple-tree in an orchard, sometimes a pear or a cherry being chosen for the purpose, and, occasionally, an oak or a poplar in the midst of high open woods, or even in dense thickets. It has been said that these birds sometimes construct holes in the rails of old fences, but such unusual places have never fallen under 1:32 -LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS our notice. Whilst the digging process is going on, the chips are not allowed to accumulate, but are carried out by the bill, or scraped out by the feet, nearly as fast as they arc made. The excavation being made, which usually requires from seven to eight days, the female begins as early as the ensuing day to deposit her complement of eggs, either upon the bare though highly smooth ened bottom, or upon the feu chips which have been inadvertently or purposely left behind. The number of eggs laid varies from four to six, most gen- erally the former. These are deposited upon consecutive- days, at the rate of one egg per day. As soon, as the full set is laid, the female begins to incubate, and thus continues for a period of about twelve days, when her wearied services are repaid by the appearance of the young. The male does not appear to render her any assistance in these trying duties, save to furnish her with the necessary articles of diet. As a usual thing, he is at some distance from the nest, and only makes his appearance when needed in times of danger, or when summoned by the call of his mate. The young remain in the nest until they are able to fly. which is usually the case in about four weeks after hatching. They are objects of particular solicitude on the part of the parents, who exert themselves with no little zeal to provide sufficient food for their voracious appetites. Their food consists, at first, of the caterpillars of Zci'cnc catena ria. Anisopteryx vernata, A, pometaria, Anisota rnbi- cunda, Eudryas grata, Clisiocampa americana, small butterflies, aphides, small spiders, and later, beetles, and larger lepidoptera. They remain with the parents for a short time after leaving the nest, but soon separate and scat- ter themselves over the surrounding country in pursuit of subsistence ; the parents doing likewise. In the Middle States, this species appears to raise but a single brood ; while in theCarolinas and Georgia, it is double- brooded, according to the authority of Audubon. The eggs are oblong and equally rounded at each extrem- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. i;tt ity. The ground-color is a pure crystalline white. They measure 1.02 of an inch in length and .74 in width. Picus pubescens, Linn. The Downy Woodpecker, or Lesser Sap-Sucker, breeds wherever found, and has nearly as wide a distribution as the preceding species. Dr. Woodhouse met with it in Texas. New Mexico, and the Indian Territory, and affirms it to be a very common species throughout the maritime parts of Alii ska, exclusive of the Aleutian Islands. In the Yukon Valley, it is also quite abundant. Audubon found it gener- allv quite common from Lower Louisana to Labrador, and westward as far as he travelled; Richardson, in the fur countries of the 58° of north latitude, where it seeks its food upon the birch and aspen. In Eastern Pennsylvania, we have found it to be more abun- dant than villosus, and fully as familiar. It delights in sim- ilar situations, and if anvthing, manifests a stronger predilec- tion for the habitations of man. At all seasons, but particularly during the continuance of the cold weather, it may Lie often seen gleaning among the apple-trees of the orchard, the maples of our lawns, and along the streets of populous towns, for whatever of insect-life has chanced to hide itself beneath the bark. Accustomed to man from lono- years of O J experience, it forages in his presence with a confidence which is seemingly fixed and unshaken, as any attempts to interfere with its feeding, or to drive it away, are certainly not con- strued as manifestations of ill-will or repugnance, for it leaves but to return almost the same instant. Its general movements are a perfect counterpart of those of vil/osiis. Its flight is rapid, and accomplished in short undulations. The call-note of this bird is a simple tchink, which is pro- duced with a sharp intonation, and uttered at irregular in- tervals whilst passing from tree to tree, and. sometimes, while i;U LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS clambering up the side of a tree, as if expressive of a feeling of delight at the capture of a juicy insect. Like its near relative, it is a comparatively selfish and unsocial creature during the famine winter months, seem- ingly oblivious of its fellows, and caring onlv for self. In this particular, it does not stand alone, as most of our winter denizens, during this period of the year, lead a solitary exis- tence. Even where the birds are more or less gregarious. as in the cases of A. mpcUs cedrormii and Passer domesticus, this selfish spirit does not fail to manifest itself. Where a rich repast offers itself, each bird endeavors to sjcure the lion's share, so to speak, and will even contend with his fellows. The Downy "Woodpecker, though a highly insectivorous species, will not hesitate to eat seeds and fruits when there is a scarcity of its favorite food-stuffs. In the winter, it sub- sists upon the larvae and pupae of divers beetles as well as the mature insects themselves; small spiders which harbor beneath decayed bark ; berries of yuitipcrus Virginia net and Lojiiccra pc.ric1yinc.nnm: and seeds of grasses. Its bill of fare then consists of the following beetles : — Cratonychus cinerens, C. pcrtinax. Rhynckcenus strobi, HarpaJns coin- par and //. pensylvanicus* Later, Platynus cnpripcnnis, Chrysomela caruleipennis, Scarites subterraneus, among coleoptera ; and caterpillars of Anisopteryx vernata, .1. ponicta /'/ gives ample opportunity for the cultivation of the social and amiable qualities of their being. The males, which are the most selfish of the sexes, about the first of Muv, some- times earlier, go in search of the females. This is the sea- son of courtship. The amorousness of the males, gives rise to the most uncouth actions, which are quite amusing and ludicrous. We have often observed a pair of males engag- ed in making love to a single female. Sometimes, the one would triumph, and the most devoted affection be mutually reciprocated ; then events would take a turn, and the rival claimant would enjoy for a brief season the taste of antici- pated joys, but to be doomed as his predecessor had been. This would often last for hours, when the female as if tired of such flirtations, would accept the partner of her first choice, and hie away to the woods to enjoy a brief honey- moon before entering upon the trying and responsible duties of wedded life. Occasionally, a pair of of both sexes would happen to meet upon the same tree, when similar scenes, though equally amusing yet more complicated, would be enacted by the jolly females, much to the chagrin and vexation of their respective suitors. The period of courting has been known to last for nearly a week, but it rarely exceeds a couple of days. This being over, the happy pair make due amends for the time thus dallied away, and ransack the orchards and woods, with the greatest diligence, for a suitable tree in which to ex- cavate a nest. The apple is ordinarily chosen for this pur- pose. Nidification commences about the middle of May, by the male, who is the first to commence the process of exca- vation. He is subsequently relieved by the female, both birds working by turns with an industry and patience that are quite praiseworthy. The opening is perfectly circular, and as accurate as a skillful mechanic could do with a pair of compasses. The hole is directed dowmvarcls, at an angle of 40 degrees, for the distance of 5 inches ; thence, perpendic- ularly, for nearly 10 inches. The bottom is quite capacious. 18G LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS and the external orifice just large enough for the bodies of the birds. The chips which are made, are generally car- ried to a great distance, so as to leave no traces that would lead to its discovery. The period required to complete such a task, materially depends upon the diligence of the birds, and the hardness of the wood. When the latter is in a partial state of decomposition, the period does not exceed five days at the farthest ; but when the material is perfectly sound and quite solid, the work is scarcely completed before the expiration of a week. On the completion of the excavation, the female, on the following day, begins to oviposit. The eggs, to the number of four or six, are deposited on consecutive days ; never more than one egg daily. Incubation then follows, and is the exclusive labor of the female. While she is thus occupied, the male supplies her with the necessary articles of food, with a hearty willingness. When not thus employed, he is foraging the fields and woods for food for himself, or is other- wise occupied : he is never seen, except while feeding or in times of danger, in close proximity to the nest. Mr. Paine, in writing to Dr. Brewer from Vermont, says that the male occasionally constructs a hole for himself close by that of his mate, for he has taken males in such apartments, which were always unoccupied by nest or eggs. He thinks that they repair thither for the purpose of shelter. The period of incubation lasts for nearly twelve days. As many as two broods are reared in certain seasons; one in June, and the other towards the beginning of August ; but usually a single brood. The young do not leave the nest until ready for Might, which is the case in about four weeks after hatching. They are fed by both parents, who manifest the greatest concern for their well-being. They are fed upon various caterpillars, such as Anisoptcrvx -ccrnata. A. pometaria* Zercuc catc- naria. besides small moths, aphides, and beetles. On leav- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 137 ing the nest, they keep together for a brief period, then scatter, each one caring only for itself. Wilson cites a rather interesting incident in the life of this species. A pair of House Wrens once took a fancy to the nest which a pair of Woodpeckers had worked at a great expense of time and labor. They instantly commenced an attack upon the latter, who, after a brave resistance, were compelled to abandon their home. The Woodpeckers then commenced another nest close-by, which they were also forced to leave, after having laid one egg. Their frequent visits to our shade and fruit trees in quest of the vermin that lurk beneath their bark, has led ignorant persons to imagine that they were attracted on account of the sap ; hence the common appellation of Sap Suckers which is applied to them. Instead of being an injury to the trees, they are of incalculable benefit to them, as those trees which are punctured by Woodpeckers, are the most thriving. This fact was first investigated by Wilson. Our experience happily confirms the truth thereof. The im- mense good which they thus accomplish, should induce ag- riculturalists and fruit-growers to secure for them that protection which they eminently deserve ; but, alas ! there is a disposition upon the part of their rightful protectors to persecute them. The eggs of this species are nearly spherical, of a crystalline whiteness, and measure .82 of an inch in length and .71 in width. Spliyrapicus varius, Band. The Yellow-bellied Woodpecker ranges from the Gulf of Mexico to high northern latitudes, and from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains. Richardson found it quite abundant in the fur regions, where it is the only species that moves in flocks. Swainson recorded it among the species from Mexico ; and Dr. Gundlach and De la Sagra, as a non- breeding denizen of Cuba. Gosse found it a winter resi- 18 138 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS dent in Jamaica, and Sclater in Central America. Two spec- imens have been taken as far north as Greenland. Wilson gives it a range from Cayenne to Hudson Bay, but found it quite common in Ohio and Kentucky. Audubon gives it a winter resident in the Southern States, where it arrives in October, and retires thence in April, a few breeding in Ken- tucky. Farther north, in Maine and the British Provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, he found it to be ex- ceedingly common. In Vermont, it appears in considerable numbers about the loth, of April, -and makes the woods resound with its peculiar drumming noise. Mr. Dresser ob- served it near San Antonio in Texas, in small numbers, during the entire year. It evidently breeds in this State, because- Dr. Heerman procured eggs in close proximity to the Medina River. In Southern Illinois, it arrives from September to October, and remains until April, according to Mr. Ridgway : while in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, it is only rarely met with. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it is by no means as rare a bird as in New England, as a year scarcely passes without a few being observed. In some seasons, we have been able to pro- cure as many as three specimens. Its habits, in some par- ticulars, resemble those of villosus 'dn&pubescens, with whom it is occasionally found associated. It is seldom to be ob- served in the vicinity of farm-houses, or along our principal streets, but seemingly manifests a strong predilection for more quiet and retired places. Along the hills of the Wis- sahickon, we have met it during the winter months, busily foraging for insects, and for whatever could be obtained to satisfy the demands of appetite. It seems to prefer hills that have a southern exposure, and restricts its feeding al- most wholly to the different species of Qucrcus and Piuiis. although the birch does not fail to receive a share of its at- tention. It evinces considerable shyness, and beats a hasty retreat on the approach of man. Like most of its family, it prefers a solitary to a social life, OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 139 while winter prevails ; and it is only when the season of plenty has begun to reign, that, influenced by amatory in- fluences, the males go in quest of the females, or attract their presence by their curious drumming. The flight of this species is in undulations, poorly pro- tracted, but much more rapid than either of the preceding. Its general movements, whilst gleaning for food, differ in no essential particulars therefrom. Its call-note is a loud and sharp tchink which is repeated during its short flights from tree to tiee, and at irregular in- tervals whilst feeding ; it is seemingly expressive of de- light at having discovered a rich morsel of food. It differs but slightly from those of the downy and hairy. We have often heard the same sound uttered with a slight but inex- pressible modification, in early spring, when the sexes are consorting together, which seemed to be indicative either of pleasure or disgust, possibly the former if the actions of the birds afforded any criteria. This note, with its various minor modifications, and the peculiar drumming previously men- tioned, seem to complete its only audible sounds. Other feelings are most probably expressed by a characteristic gesticulative language, which as yet appears almost entirely inexplicable to us. The food of these birds is less of an insect character than that of any other of the Picarian family. Although a great de- stroyer of insects in their most destructive 'stages, yet the un- told mischief which they achieve in the perforation of the in- ner bark of many trees to such an extent as to kill them, fairly outbalances the immense good which they accomplish. In some parts of Wisconsin, this destruction is perpetrated on a grand scale. In 1868, Dr. Brewer in company with Dr. Hoy, visited Racine, and witnessed the results of this per- foratory process. The punctures were made into the inner bark of the trees, and were so close together, that the bark eventually became stripped oft', causing a complete girdling and final destruction of them. In one garden, all the mount- 140 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS ain ash and white pine trees were entirely killed. It is evi- dent from the foregoing statements, that these birds manifest an ungovernable and decided taste for the inner bark. As these attacks were made in the spring, it is probable that the sap which had begun to circulate, was the chief source of attraction. We have observed them to attack trees in this neighborhood, but never to such an extent. In the winter, tne seeds of grasses and of B etui a exccha* and the berries of Junipcrus com mini is. J. I rirginiana^ and Lonicera periclymennm, are the chief vegetable articles of diet. The larvae and pupae of beetles, small spiders. with the following mature coleoptera, Cratonychus cinereus-^ C. pertinax^ Harpaliis compar, BostricJnts piui* and others, constitute the insect portion of its bill of fare, during the above season. Later, the common red 3Lnt(JFbrmica san- guined) , Pang-us caliginosus, Chrysomela caruleipcnuis* Donacia confluenta, and the caterpillars of Anisopteryx yernata, Zerene catcnaria* and other geometers, Auisota rubiciinda, Hybernia tiliaria, and many mature noctuids. tineids, and tortricids, are destroyed in vast numbers. We have never observed this species nesting in Eastern Pennsylvania, but have met wTith individuals during the last of May and the beginning of June, on the hills of the Wissahick- on, which would seem to indicate that a few remain to breed. The only nest which Wilson met with, was excavated in an old pear-tree, from ten to eleven feet above the ground. The opening was circular, and barely large enough for the entrance of the birds ; the hole descended quite suddenly and widely at a small angle downward, for a depth of fifteen inches. The eggs were deposited upon the solid wood. Audubon affirms that the hole is bored into an undecayed tree just beneath a large branch, invariably facing southwardly and is the result of the united efforts of both birds. The eggs are laid upon a fe\v chips which are purposely left in the bottom. Mr. C. S. Paine says these .birds nest in Ver- mont, from the 2oth. of May to the ist. of June. Their nests OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 141 arc constructed in the tops of large decaying trees. The young are said to keep together for some time after leaving the nest, four or five being often seen playing about the same tree, awaiting food. Decidedly the best description of the breeding habits of this species we remember to have seen, is from the pen of Mr. William Brewster of Massachusetts. This close ob- server has found these Woodpeckers throughout the White Mountains of New Hampshire, and in Northern Maine, where they outnumber all other species in the summer sea- son. Their arrival in these northern latitudes, varies from the middle to the end of April ; pairing is soon effected, and closely followed by the excavation of their nests. Large dead birch-trees are ordinarily selected, in the vicinity of water, for which a strong predilection is manifested, al- though nests frequently occur on elevated ground in the midst of forests. The labor is performed by both birds, who relieve each other at brief intervals. The bird that is disengaged, is usually found clinging close by the hole, and encouraging its busy partner by an occasional note. As the hole deepens, the accumulating debris is removed at frequent intervals, the bird appearing at the entrance with a mouthful of chips which it drops, and then resumes its work. The time occu- pied in boring, varies according to the relative . hardness of the wood, and continues for a week, or even a greater period. The bottom of the nest is covered with a few of the finer chips, which serve as a bed for the eggs. The birds are said to take a vacation for awhile, which they spend in roaming together through the surrounding woods, in quest of food : although, ordinarily, one or the other stays at home to guard the premises. Laying usually commences about the 2Oth of May ; the complement of eggs varying from five to seven. The labor of incubation is equally divided between the sexes. In his description of several nests, wrhich he encountered in a recent trip to Maine, Mr. Brewster says they were all of a "uniform gourd-like shape with the sides very smoothly 142 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS and evenly chiselled." The average depth was about i^ inches, diameter 5 inches at the most extended part, while the external diameter varied from 1.25 to 1.60 inches. The entrance was so small, proportionally to the size of the bird, that a somewhat lengthy and violent struggle was frequently made in entering or retiring. In one case, the nest was loca- ted at a height of fifty feet above the water. The nests are easily discovered, as the non-sitting bird is nearly always in the immediate vicinity, and, on the tree be- ing approached, flies to the hole, and by a few calls brings out his mate, when both fly backward and forward, uttering cries of anxiety and alarm. The non-incubating bird has also a peculiar habit of clinging motionless to the trunk just underneath the hole, and ever and anon gazing, as it were, with a somewhat pensive expression into the interior, al- though the conformation of the latter utterly prevents the mate or eggs from being seen. The anxiety manifested on these occasions varies most remarkably ; some pairs exhibit ing the deepest concern, as evidenced by their continual cries, while others seek the nearest tree and watch with si- lence and the utmost coolness the destruction of their home. The birds appeared to relieve each other duringthe incubat- ing process at average intervals of a half hour ; the absent bird appearing before the hole, would utter a lo\v call re- sembling yew-tck twice repeated, which would be respond- ed to by the mate within, when, a few notes of endearment being interchanged, the sitting bird would yield her arduous duty.. Mr. Brewster mentions having found several newly finish- ed excavations in nearly every tree which he noticed. On one occasion, four of these were cut open, which bore evi- dences of having been newly constructed. They were all as neatly finished as the one that contained the eggs. A num- ber of dark-colored cavities were observed in addition to the above, which were obviously made in former years. The repeated failure to find more than one of these excavations OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 143 inhabited, and more than a single pair of birds in the vicinity, led our author to suppose that they were designed for the accommodation of the young after quitting the nest. These holes most generally occupy the same side of a tree, and are placed one above the other ; but instances were met with where the entire trunk was perforated at irregular distances. Although these nests were situated very high, the average elevation being about 40 feet, and often much higher, a single nest was discovered not over S feet above the water, which occupied a notably exceptional site. This was con- structed in a large poplar-tree at a point where a limb had rotted out. The boring was irregularly carried into the heart of the tree through the partially decayed wood, thence proceeded downwards to a depth of 12 inches, being bound- ed on all sides by healthy wood with an average thickness of 6 inches. After the hatching of the young, the habits of this species suffer a most marked alteration. No longer a delver after worms, it rises above such comparative degradation, assumes the dignity of a Flycatcher, and captures its prey upon the wing with equal dexterity. Perched upon the summit of a tall stub, it makes a series of attacks upon its numerous victims, and with bill and mouth crammed with its trophies, which consist mainly of the larger diptera, repairs to the nest to feed the hungry brood. Both parents thus labor unremittingly for the well-being of their progeny. The young retire from the nest in July, but remain together fora long while, receiving food from their parents. They are exceedingly playful creatures, and may be seen sporting about the trunks of trees, or chasing each other. Both young and old frequently utter a low snarling cry, which closely resembles the well-known mew of ^limtis caroUnensis. In addition to the last, and the one already mentioned as being heard when opposite sexes meet, the adults utter, in the spring, a clear ringing cleur, which is repeated five or six times in succession. 1 U ( LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS The peculiar drumming sound which these Woodpeckers produce, is often undertaken for no other purpose than that of entertainment, or with the view of pleasing- their mates. Mr. Paine, as cited by Dr. Brewer, gives apparently an ex- emplification of this fact. On several occasions, while en- gaged in the process of preparing maple sugar, lie purpose- ly left several wooden buckets suspending from the tree- branches, until they should again be required. These were taken possession of and used for this very purpose. At times, the tin pails were experimented upon, but not affording suitable standing-ground, were eventually abandoned. Specimens of eggs from Vermont are described by Dr. Brewer as being of an oval shape, and slightly more round- ed at one extremity than the other. They measure .95 of an inch in length and .70 in width. Audubon describes the eggs of these Woodpeckers as having a pure white ground- color which is tinged with a light blush. Centrums carolinus, The Red-bellied Woodpecker extends throughout North America, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains, being, however, more common in the more southern and western portions. It very rarely occurs north of Pennsvl- vania on the Atlantic coast, and in Eastern Massachusetts, it has never been met with by Dr. Brewer, although record- ed as breeding from Maryland to Nova Scotia by Mr. Audu- bon. Wilson gives it as an abundant species of Upper Can- ada and of the northern counties of New York, and also as being a denizen of the Atlantic States as far as the south- ern extremity of Florida. In Eastern Massachusetts, Mr. Nuttall noticed its absence. In Vermont, it is un mentioned by Thompson and Paine ; in Nova Scotia by Lieut. Bland ; and by Richardson in his Fauna Boreal i- Americana. In the Indian Territory and in Texas, Dr. Woodhouse discov- ered it to be a not uncommon bird. In Eastern Pennsylvania, a few individuals have been ob- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 145 served by us from November until the latter part of April. It is mainly an occupant of high-timbered forests, where in the tallest decayed trees it may be seen busily gleaning for insects. Unlike the Downy Woodpecker, it seldom, if ever, visits orchards or waste fields ; and is quite as rarely found upon fences, or near the ground. It is more shy than any of the other Spotted Woodpeckers, which will readily account for the great height at which it feeds. On one oc- casion, we met an individual feeding at not more than twenty feet from the ground, and endeavored by the exercise of the greatest care to approach within a few paces thereof, but it was useless, as the bird, which appeared to be ever on the alert, descried our presence before we had advanced a half dozen paces, and betook itself to a tall tree in the distance, quite out of the reach of danger. The general movements of this species differ but slightly, if any, from those previously described. Its flight is in undulations, and more rapid and better sustained, if any- thing, than theirs. Its only note which it essays to utter in its flight from tree to tree, and occasionally in the midst of its feeding, is a simple monosyllable, which is pronounced rather quickly, and with a sharp, somewhat guttural intonation. It bears a slight resemblance to the characteristic note of Sphyra- picus var ins. The food of this Woodpecker, consists principally of insects. Besides the lame and pupie of coleoptera which it procures with considerable adroitness from the decayed wood, and underneath the trunk of trees, the small spiders and beetles which lurk in the crevices of the bark, constitute a no mean part of its diet. The following beetles have been found in the several stomachs which we have exam- ined : — Cratonychus cinereus* C. pertinax, Rhynchcznus sfrobi, Harpalns compar, H. carbonari us, H. pensylva- nlcns, and many others which we were not able to identify. In the spring, vast numbers of Formica sangninca, and 1!) 146 m LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS other species of ants, are greedily eaten. A certain peculiar- ity, which we witnessed during the feeding process, deserves a brief but cursory notice. After making a circuit of the trunk, when a place was observed which apparently gave indications of the presence of a grub, the bird would make a quick yet careful survey, then after a few loud and ringing taps with the bill, would turn one ear, then the other, in t In- direction of the sounds, as if in the attitude of listening. If a favorable response from beneath was received, the victim was soon dislodged from its secret home, and speedily dis- patched. On the contrary, if no sound was returned, the bird would continue his diligent search. There is no reason to believe that these birds remain with us to breed. Their absence is always noticed about the last of April, and, sometimes, not before the first week of May, when the season is unusually backward. Audubon was un- able to meet with its nest in Louisiana or South Carolina, and rarely in Kentucky ; but gives its breeding limits from Maryland to Nova Scotia. In Pennsylvania, he had found its nest in orchards, where it was generally placed at a short distance from the union of a branch with the trunk. The hole is said to be bored in the usual fashion of Woodpeckers. Wilson says the excavation is made in the lower side of a high branch that makes a large angle with the horizon ; it is bored into solid wood, or more frequently in a hollow limb at a point about fifteen inches above where it becomes solid. This cavity is circular, and is the result of the com- bined labor of the sexes. Building operations ordinarily commence in April. It possibly breeds in Western Massa- chusetts, as an individual was seen by Mr. Allen as late as the i3th of May, 1863 ; and also in Western Connecticut, as individuals were obtained there by Prof. Emmons during the breeding-period. The eggs, according to Mr. Audubon, are seldom more than four in number, elliptical in outline, smooth, and of a pure translucent white. They measure 1.06 by .75 of an OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 147 inch. According to this writer, only one brood is reared in a season. Wilson says the eggs are five in number, of a pure white, or a nearly semi-transparent color. The young usually ap- pear towards the latter'part of May, two broods being raised in a season. Dr. Brewer describes the eggs as varying from an oblong to a slightly rounded oval shape. Their ground-color is a bright crystalline white, and average measurement 1.02 inches in length, «md .88 of an inch in width. Melanerpes erythrocephalus, s™. The Red-headed Woodpecker is pretty generally distrib- uted in North America, except where it has suffered perse- cutions and destruction at the hands of indiscriminate and merciless persons. In Boston, it was informer years quite abundant, but is now rarely observed ; but in Western Mas- sachusetts, it is still found. Richardson has met it in summer as far as the northern shores of Lake Huron ; and says that specimens from the banks of the Columbia River are depos- ited in the Hudson Bay Museum. Dr. Gambel includes it in the list of birds of California, which is probably a mis- take, as it has never been observed by others. Dr. Wrood- house gives it as a resident of Texas and the Indian Territory, which is also probably a mistake, as none of the parties connected with the different government expeditions appear to have noticed it. Its limits may be defined from the Gulf of Mexico northward to Labrador, and from the Atlantic to the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, being, however, less abundant in the Southern States during the breeding season, than in Pennsylvania. In Eastern Vermont but a Dingle specimen has been taken by Mr. C. S. Paine; but west of the Green Mountains, it is quite common. Accord- ing to the statement of some of the oldest inhabitants, it was formerly quite abundant in all parts of the State. In Eastern Pennsylvania, though considerably less com- 148 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS mon than Cot apt es aurattis, during the past two years. we have observed quite a number, in comparison with the few which were formerly to be seen. The wise and s duturv laws which our legislature has enacted for the protection of all in- sectivorous birds, have had a beneficial effect, as evidenced by their increased numbers. Three or four years ago, it was a rare occurrence to meet with a single nest in a season : but now, particularly during the year that has passed, we have met with several. But it is nearer the centre of our State, especially in the counties of Union and Northumber- land, that the greatest numbers are to be found. Xo later than the loth of August, we have seen immense flocks, numbering hundreds, in orchards, gleaning among the trunks and branches of apple-trees, for the insects which lurk in their creviced bark. So tame and confiding were they, that it was possible to approach within a few paces of them, without exciting suspicion, or creating alarm. In the vicin- ity of the White Deer Mountains, in the county of Union, they exist in great abundance during the breeding-period, and are the objects of special protection by the farmers, for the immense good which they accomplish in the destruction of myriads of noxious insects. Their arrival occurs during the first week of May, occa- sionally, as early as the last week of April, when the season is unusually propitious. Even in this section of the countrv. where the species once suffered the most terrible persecution which the ignorance of man could inflict, it manifests that confidence and familiarity which are its habitual traits further west. Considerable experience has convinced us that it is remarkably unsuspicious, and courts rather than shuns man's society. During its first appearance, it is chiefly a denizen of high open woods, where it manifests a fondness for the oak. among whose branches, generally at great heights, it pursues Us feeding occupation. But, later, it deserts these localities for the habitations of man, in whose orchards it gleans a ready subsistence. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 141) The flight of this species is seldom high, and is performed In short, rapid undulations. Its general movements bear a close resemblance to those of auratiis. Like the latter, it not only punctures the bark of trees, but seemingly evinces a greater predilection for a decayed branch than its cousin : it will frequently remain for minutes, unless disturbed, perforating the rotten wood for the lame that lay concealed within. Its motions along the trunk and limbs, performed in a somewhat spiral manner ; its sudden tappings, invari- ably followed by an attitude of intense listening, the head being rotated from side to side ; its inverted suspensory po- sition from a tree-branch ; and the perfect ease with which it descends the trunk, head foremost, are all eminently characteristic of the Flickers, and closely ally it to the latter. But its movements are obviously marked by greater agility and skilfulness. Its call-note is a simple monosyllable, which is pro- duced with a sharp, guttural intonation. It is generally heard when the bird has been disturbed whilst feeding, and is expressive of anger ; and, also, in its flight from tree to tree, to escape any fancied danger. During the mating pe- riod, which happens about the second week of May, maybe heard its song, a loud and rapid succession of gutturals, which, even to the cultivated ear, is not lacking in a certain measure of harmony and euphony. Its syllabic language may be represented by //7&7, sharply and loudly uttered with a rising intonation. The movements of the sexes when pairing, are most amusing and ludicrous. This is pre-eminently the case, when a pair of males are engaged in wooing a single female : or, when there are pairs of both sexes on the summit of a tall oak. We have watched these curious movements and antics for hours together. The attention of the female is not attracted to the whereabouts of the male by the peculiar drumming which both Picus and Sphyrapicus are known to emit, but, by a loud shrill monosyllabic note, which differs ir>0 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS but slightly from the note of alarm or anger. Perched upon a rotten limb, in an open and exposed locality, the familiar note is uttered, which reverberates through the forest for an immense distance. After the expiration of a suitable time, the note is reiterated, and, if no reply is forthcoming, the male deserts his conspicuous eminence for another in the far distance, where he repeats the identical notes and movements : even changing his position for another, until the summons is answered by one or more females. At this juncture, when a reply is heard, he makes short and rapid flights from tree to tree, in the direction of the returning sound, ever and anon halting to resume his call and to await a response, when his movements are renewed, with occasional pauses, until he meets the object of his search. Instead of approaching instantly, he maintains a modest reserve, surveys his intended partner with a jealous, anxious look, from a near standpoint, and, after reading approval in her eyes, ventures nearer, occasionally pausing to utter a love-note, and to show off his gaudy colors and graceful movements. At the moment he fancies that he has gained her affection, a short flight brings him by her side, when the apparently timid and fickle creature, deserts his presence, and moves to an adjoining branch or tree, leaving him in the attitude of perplexity and amaze. Nothing daunted, he re- news the attempt, to be similarly treated. At length, tired of such flirtations, the female accepts the proffered love, and the happy pair, after a brief time spent in celebration of the great event, set about to find a suitable place for a nest. It often happens that a pair of males, and also of females, meet in the same tree. The movements are now more varied and interesting. The female of the one pair will often lav- ish her attentions upon the opposite male, much to the jeal- ousy of her plighted lover, and vice versa . Such an un-look- cd-for condition of affairs is sure to bring the males in open conflict with each other, which often results in one or the other being driven from the tree. In frequent instances, OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. ir>l we have known the female to follow her vanquished suitor. Wheretwo males endeavor to woo the same female, the suc- cessful mate, in these encounters, is always sure to be the ob- ject of her choice. The place selected for a nest i.s ordinarily an apple-tree, close by the habitation of man ; but, occasionally, a more retired locality. We have sometimes discovered the nest in the hollows of partially decayed willows, upon the margin of ponds, which the birds had excavated for themselves. The cavity ranges from 10 to 12 inches in depth, has a slightly oblique descent, and is remarkably capacious and roomy at the bottom. The entrance is just large enough to admit the body of the bird. The labor of excavation is jointly per- formed by both birds, who relieve each other by turns. The one who is disengaged, most generally being close-by to en- courage the other in the difficult task. Both birds work with a perseverance and a will that are truly astonishing. The time thus spent, varies from six to seven days, and de- pends upon the hardness of the wood to be perforated, and the diligence of the architects. In 1808, Mr. Wilson found seven nests of this species within the limits of Philadelphia city, two of which were constructed in button-woods, and one in the decayed branch of an elm. The parent-birds would make regular excur- sions to the forests beyond the Schuylkill, but would mani- fest a greater silence and circumspection, than in more sequestered places. According to this writer, the nests are almost exclusively excavated in dead wood, rarely in living wood, which has also been our experience. The nest being finished, the female after a brief vacation of some two or three days, in which she is joined by her partner, celebrates the occasion by a ramble through the surrounding country, not so much for food, as for recreation and enjoyment. After this brief tour is over, she returns to the nest, and deposits her complement of eggs to the num- ber of six, upon the bare bottom, or the few decayed chips 152 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS which have been expressly left behind. Never more than a single egg is daily laid, and always on each consecutive day. The period of incubation immediately commences, and is entered into bv both birds, who relieve each other at some- what regular intervals. The female almost invariably takes the lead in this essential business. After she has devoted one half the day thereto, her partner appears before the mouth of the nest, and, by a feeble note, announces his presence, which is feebly responded to from below. The female, after receiving a few caresses from the male, and lavishing an equal share upon her partner in return, Hies away to recuperate her exhausted vigor, by a little food and appropriate exercise. When not thus engaged, she re- turns to the immediate vicinity of the nest, announcing her presence by a peculiar cry, where she remains until ready to relieve her partner ; the male does likewise. We have occasionally observed the non-sitting bird to bring a juicy insect to the nest for the one within, but these instances are merely exceptional. Should the nest be approached by persons with hostile in- tentions, the bird which is standing guard, flies at once to the hole, clings tothe sides, and if danger is imminent, signals the incubating- bird to leave; when both flv about with un- O J certain, worrying movements, uttering cries indicative both of indignation and anxiety. When all effort is inutile, the two together repair to a short distance, and watch in sullen silence the coming destruction. Such feelings are not always manifested. Individuals have been met with, whose chief anxiety seemed to be the preservation of themselves, who would escape to a safe distance and contemplate the ruin of their household with a silence that was felt. Their attitude and looks would often betray the deep feeling of sadness that existed within. The young are hatched in from fourteen to fifteen days. They are tenderly cared for by their parents, who are busy almost from morning until night, in their efforts to procure for OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. lf>a them a plentiful supply of suitable diet. When one parent is absent on this mission, the other is near by to guard the ten- tier fledglings from danger, seldom deserting the vicinity un- less to sei/e a passing insect. Their food consists of the larva? of beetles, which are extracted from decayed wood and the bark of trees ; caterpillars of various kinds, aphides, ants, small moths, and beetles. The chief articles which contri- bute to their bill of fare, are the larva; of Cratonyckus eincreus. ( . pert i net x* among coleoptera ; caterpillars of Anisoptcrvx 'ccrnata, A. poj)?etaria, Zerenc catoiaria, Anisota rubi- cttnda* among lepidoptera ; many of the smaller Noctuidce, L yccenida* and Tortricidce ; Formica sanguined and other ants ; and Harpaliis pcnsv]~cj.nicu$, H. carbonarius, Pan- gus caliginosus, and other beetles, when sufficiently ma- tured to receive such diet. In about three weeks from the time of hatching, the young quit the nest, climb out up the tree-branches, and there receive food from their parents. Their gambols among the branches during the intervals of feeding, are rather amusing and interesting to behold. In less than a week afterwards, they are able to forage for themselves, but still continue with the parents, constituting the small flocks which we see in Eastern Pennsylvania, and the large ones farther to the north-west. In this latitude, we have never found more than a single brood in a season ; although in o o Texas, Louisiana, Kentucky, and the Carolinas, it raises as many as two broods. Parents and young retire to the south during the month of October. The food of the adult bird consists of the grubs and pupa?, of beetles, which it is able to procure from its accustomed haunts : besides various beetles, caterpillars, ants, plant-lice and moths, which are to be found later in the season. The following list embraces a few of the many which constitute its bill ot tare: — Cratonyckus ciiiereus, C '. pertiiietx* Do- nacia confluenta, Rkynchanus strobi\ and other coleopters : caterpillars and imagos of Zcrcne eatenaria. Auisopterv\ 20 l.YI LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS An hot a rubicunda, Endrvas grata. pomonella«jm<\ various noctuicls and tortricids among lepi- doptera ; Formica sauginnca. P. rnfa* F. subtcrranca. and other hymcnoptera ; Aphis mali and A. roscc. Whilst feeding, we have occasionally observed these birds to sei/.e their prey on the wing, but it is not customary, and is only accomplished by dint of considerable effort. Although a highly insectivorous species, it has often been seen to eat different kinds of fruits. The berries of ^unipcrns } 7r- giniana, Lonicera periclymenum^ the jtiicv cherry, and the mellow apple, are favorite articles of luxury. Wilson describes the eggs as of a white translucent color when fresh, varying slightly in configuration, and as being more oval and less spherical than some other species. Xut- tall describes them as being marked with reddish spots about the larger extremity, which is also re-stated by Dr. Thomp- son in his "Birds of Vermont." According to our experience, the eggs arc more or less spherical, of a pure white color, and measure 1.12 of an inch in length, and .88 in width. Colaptes auratus, s™. The Yellow-shafted Woodpecker is the most widely dis- tributed, as well as the most common species of our North American Picidce. Richardson found it in the fur countries during the summer months, and a migrant as far as Great Slave Lake in the north. On the plains of the Saskatche- wan, he met with it in vast numbers. In Texas and in the Indian Territory, Dr. Woodhouse discovered it to be quite common ; and even far to the north-east, specimens have been taken in Greenland, according to Reinhardt. At Fort Anderson, it has been taken by Macfarlane ; at Forts Reso- lution and Simpson ; by Ross and at Fort Yukon by Kennicott. It ranges from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, and ii the Atlantic Coast to the Rocky Mountains. In the •orthern parts of the continent, it is only a summer occupant ; OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. ir>f> but in the Middle and Southern States, and slightly in the New England States, it is a permanent resident. In Eastern Pennsylvania this species is met with in every month of the year. During the winter months, even when the weather is unusually rigorous, small numbers seek shelter in the dense pine thickets that clothe the sides of the small valleys along the Wissahickon. These valleys are carefully hemmed in on all sides by high hills. Though a very common summer resident, it is never found in such abundance during the autumnal and winter months, from which we infer that it migrates in considerable numbers to warmer regions o O farther south. It may be possible, owing to the scarcity of suitable food-stuffs, and the great disadvantages under which it labors in procuring a necessary supply, that this species, like all others that take up their permanent residence, is compelled to scatter itself over a wide extent of territory ; this will account for the extreme paucity of its numbers. When the weather becomes warm, and there is a conse- quent increase of insect-life, it comes out of its hidden retreats. and visits the orchards of man in great numbers, where it gleans a ready and ample subsistence. Its familiarity of manners, and the immense good which it accomplishes in the destruction of insects, render it, with some exceptions, a general favorite . Its flight in early spring is somewhat lofty, and tolerably protracted. Later, it is low, and in short, rapid undulations. Its general movements, though closely related to those of the last-mentioned species, are not executed with the same rapidity and adroitness. Although its movements, while in search of food, are mainly arboreal, we have occasionally observed individuals to seize their prey on the wing, though With but slight address ; and even upon the ground itself. As early as the nth of April, the birds begin to collect from their rambles, and mating is at once commenced. It is not an uncommon thing to find several pairs upon the same tree, wooing each other. The females, like those of the last 156 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS species, seem at first to be rather shy of the males, and can he won only with the greatest difficulty. But in a short time. this feeling of reserve has dissappeared, and their whole at- tention seems to be fixed upon devising plans to worry and fret their suitors. The character of a flirt is personated with the greatest exactness. After her wooer has been doing his best to please her by the elegance and grace of iiis movements, and the sweetness of his song, for it must be confessed that there is something about it which is pe- culiarly fascinating according to our standard of taste, she turns away from his endeavors, and instantly begins to lavish her caresses upon another. This unhappy event is the pre- lude to a fierce encounter between the rival females, in which the males are eventually forced to act as accomplices on one side or the otheV. But the quarrel soon over, the contending males again resume their courtship, but with better success than before. The recent events have rendered the respective females, less fickle, and more disposed to treat with favor the attentions of their respective suitors. The advances are now more easy and rapid. And, after an eventful courtship, varying from three to five days, accordingto the fickleness, or remarkably staid character of the females, matrimonial re- lations are assumed, and the wedded pair start oft' on a tour of pleasure and recreation. After two or three days thus spent, they return and look about for a suitable tree in which to excavate a nest. Sometimes the hole is excavated at a great height, but usually less than six feet from the ground. Instances are known where the perforation was more than forty feet high. When such an altitude is reached, the tree is invariably situ- ated in a high-timbered forest. In localities in close proxim- :tv to human habitations, the apple-tree is mainly chosen. The nest is generally built in a hollow trunk or branch, and occasionally in the solid wood itself. The astonishing sagacity with which a hollow limb is discovered under a sound bark, is seldom equalled by an}' of our feathered OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. lf>7 creation. Where the hollow is covered by a great thickness of solid wood, the boring is persevered in until the end is gained. The labor of constructing a nest is mutual, and is often continued with indefatigable industry until late at night. The bird that is not occupied, does not fly away as if glad to be released from such laborious work, but remains close- bv and encourages his partner by gentle caresses. Wilson mentions a case where a pair of these birds once dug a nest in a solid black oak. The perforation extended forward for five inches, and then downward for the space of ten inches more. The time spent in this work varies from four days to a week. The bottom of the cavity is slightly covered with a few chips, which constitute the only nest. In some cases, even these do not exist, and the eggs are deposited upon the hard and highly smoothened bottom. The number of eggs varies somewhat in different localities. In Eastern Pennsylvania the usual complement is six. Mr. Audubon cites, on the authority of Mr. MacCulloch, a single instance of a nest in a rotten stump, which contained no less than eighteen young birds of different ages, besides two unhatched eggs. It is highly possible that several females, two at least, were con- cerned in this remarkable contribution. Mr. C. S. Paine, writing to Dr. Brewer, Oct, 1860. mentions a nest that occupied the decayed summit of an old tree, which contained twelve eggs. These were not disturbed, but on visiting the nest a few days subsequently, the excavation was found to have been deepenedfrom 18 to 24 inches. In some instances, Mr. Paine has observed seven eggs in a nest, and in one particular case, but three eggs. These were reached by cutting down the limb on a level with them. After taking the eggs, the place was visited on the following day, and found to be deepened an entire foot, and another egg deposited. The same writer has never known these birds to breed in dens,- lf>8 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS forests, but always on their outskirts ; never in old cavities ; and but once in a partially decayed stump. In the fall of 1870, a pair of these birds sought shelter in Dr. Brewer's barn, and notwithstanding the main openings which existed as modes of ingress and egress, others were wrought in the most solid sides of the building. In the following spring they took possession of a large cavity in an apple-tree, but, notwithstanding its close proximity to the house, they seldom suffered themselves to be seen. In this nest, a brood of six young birds were hatched at somewhat irregular intervals ; the last leaving the nest a full fortnight after the departure of its oldest companion. When suffi- ciently matured, the young birds climbed to the mouth of the nest to receive their food ; but when approached, gave vent to a loud hissing sound. When they became able to use their wings, they were removed to places of seclusion, and fed by their parents. The eggs being deposited at the rate of one egg per diem on each succeeding day, as soon as a nest-full is laid, the fe- male commences the trying duty of incubation. In this she is assisted by the male, who contributes his full share of time to this important work. The non-sitting bird, when not engaged in feeding, is to be seen close-by, sometimes on the same tree, but oftener at a short distance away, carefully guarding every avenue of approach, and uttering the accus- tomed signal when danger is imminent. He maintains his position until affairs assume a somewhat serious aspect, when he repairs to the nest, alarmed for the safety of his partner. After the latter is safe, the two flutter over the head of the depredator, uttering loud and vehement cries of commingled grief and indignation. When satisfied that all effort is vain, they retire to a short distance to brood over the miseries of bird-life. So attached are some individuals to their old familiar haunts, that we have known the same pair to renew their attempts of raising a family twice in succession, after having been robbed. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. ir>!) When the proper time arrives for relieving his mate, the male repairs to the opening, and by clinging to the side, thrusts his head inward ; then in a low note, signifies his readiness to release her from confinement, for a temporary period. Obedient to his call, the latter comes forth, receives a few caresses, and retires for a brief spell to satisfy the demands of hunger ; quickly returning, however, to exercise a surveillance over the nest and the inmate within. It is not often that the birds feed each other while incubating, but we have occasionally noticed the male engaged in feeding his mate. The period of incubation varies from fourteen to fifteen days. The young are objects of more than ordinary paren- tal devotion and solicitude. Their vigorous and ravenous appetites make a constant drain upon the energies and time of their parents. Both birds are seldom absent from home at the same time, usually one stands guard over the nest, while the other forasfes for suitable insect diet. Should the c? nest be approached with hostile designs, the former exerts herself to the utmost to save it by menacing cries and gestures, until the arrival of the absent one, when their infuriated in- dignation is wreaked upon the head of the daring intruder. Occasionally, these birds are not so venturesome, but submit to assaults without making more than a few faint and ineffec- tual sallies. The young, when about two weeks old, climb to the month of the nest, and receive their food. But in a week more, they quit the hole, and betake themselves to the upper branches where they are fed, and where they gambol around the trunk and boughs after tne fashion of children playing hide and seek, in the intervals of feeding. When they are able to use their wings with considerable freedom, they for- sake their parents, and provide for their own sustenance. Usually but one brood is raised, although cases are known to us where a second brood was successfully reared during ICO LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS the last of July, or the beginning of August, when the season was remarkably favorable. The food of the young consists, at first, of caterpillars of Anisoptcryx -ceniata* A. ponietaria, Zcrcnc catcnaria* Hybcrnia tiJiaria, Clisiocampa anicrtcctiia, and the larva- of Cratonychus cincrcus* Lachnosterna qncrciiia* and I., hirticnla which are occasionally picked up from ploughed soil, and other beetles; Aphis rostz* A. mail, and other aphides : besides ants, and smaller lepidoptera such as Pcti- thina porno n ell a, Orgy i a leiic'ostigtua, Spilosoma ~cirgin- ica, Lithcsia miniata, Procris anicricaua, and numerous tortricids and noc^iids. Later, Harpahis compar, II. carbonarius, Pangus caJiginosns^ IfaJtica chalybea. Macrpdactyla subspinosa, and other beetles. When the nest is placed in a tall oak, at a considerable height, but perfectly secure from human intruders, the bird which is not engaged, may be often seen clinging to the mar- gin of the cavity, or busy puncturing the bark for the insects beneath. The adult birds, during the drearv winter months, eke out a precarious existence, by subsisting upon the few coleopterous larva?, pupa:, and imagos. which they find in their chosen retreats. Nor is their diet entirely of an insect character, for we have observed them feasting upon the berries of Juniperus \ irginiana^ % communis, Loniccra periclymenum, Vacciniitm staminaim, and Gaultheria procttmbens, which are met with in small numbers in the places which they frequent. The seeds of grasses, and the corn of our cribs which they often procure through their open sides, serve to keep them from starvation. The stomachs of specimens examined in the winter, revealed indubitable traces of IIarpaltt$ pens\l~canicns* II. conipar, Crdtonychus cincrcus. and other coleoptera. Early in the spring, vast numbers of ants, chiefly Formica sanguined and F. subterranea^ fill their crops. But. later, the larva1 and imagos of most of the foregoing insects. The song of the Flicker, which is heard in all its force OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 161 and beauty about the pairing season. April n, is not with out its etVect upon the human ear. To some, it may lack the most needed essentials of harmony ; but to us, there are a sweetness and sublimity in the strain, which thrill while they enrapture. It is pronounced in a loud sharp key, which can be heard for nearly one-fourth of a mile, it is a simple dissyllable, somewhat forcibly aspirated on the initial con- sonant, and pronounced in quick and rapid succession ; but ends abruptly in a short dissyllabic unaspirated sound. The following is its expression : — W wit-ah-W wit-ah-tt wlt-ah, ht-to. At a distance, these notes resemble wick-a-wick-a-wtck-a, but on a near approach, the delusion vanishes. For nearly four hours we listened to this melody, separating the closely blended sounds, which became so familiar, eventually, that we were astonished at our utter inability to distinguish the parts, at first. The call-note may be represented by the syllables kikikikiki, pronounced sharply and in extremely quick succession ; occasionally, a very sharp sound is heard, indicative of vexation and disappointment combined. It may be quite accurately denoted by ske-er. When disturbed while nesting, a few shrill squeaking notes are uttered, in- termingled with certain gurgling tones which are incapable of expression. The eggs when fresh are oblong-oval in shape, ot a beau- tiful white color, and measure i.o^ inches in length, and .88 of an inch in width. CHAPTER X. Order RaptorGS. />//-<& of Prev. In these birds, the bill is epignathous and cered ; feet not yygodactyle. There are several other osteological and other anatomical peculiarities which they present: — vix, two carotids,- syrinx with but a single pair of internal muscles when developed. The alimentary canal varies in the differ- ent families, and in being adapted to animal food ; it differs most strikingly from that of birds of vegetarian habits. In the most highly specialized types, the entire structure is built for strength, activity, ferocity, and carnivorous propensities. The weaker species subsist upon insects, but more especially upon reptiles and fish ; some, upon carrion ; but the major part, upon other birds and small mammals. These birds are found in nearly every quarter of the globe. They are comprehended in four families, one of which, the Gypogeranidce, contains the remarkable serpent- eater of Africa, which exhibits a marked and curious gralla- torial analogy in the possession of long crane-like legs, and in other structural peculiarities. The remaining three families have representatives in this country. Family, StrigidSB. Owh. The head of these birds is large, rather broad in a lateral direction, but shortened longitudinally. The face possesses a circle of radiating feathers on each side, which are of rather peculiar texture. External ears quite large, and furnished with a movable flap. Eyes very large, directed forward, encircled by radiating bristly feathers, and over- arched by a superciliary ridge. Bill of the ordinary rapa- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. Ki:i cious character, with thickly-set, antrorse, bristly feathers at base. Nostrils large, but opening on the margin of the cere. Hallux of the average length, but slightly elevated ; external toes more or less versatile, and shorter than the internal toes ; middle toe considerably pectinate in some species ; tarsi, as a rule, more or less feathered ; claws long, much curved and verv sharp. Other characters, which more clearly define this family, are the separation of the inner and outer tablets of brain-case by intermediate light spongy diploe ; the existence of four notches in sternum, and the tarso-metatarsal structure. The gullet is large, but not expanded into a special crop ; giz/ard moderately muscular ; intestines, short and wide ; c!» digestible, and there did not seem to be any indication of small pellets of refuse materials being disgorged, which can only be accounted for, from the fact that its owner, being a taxidermist, invariably fed it upon the bodies of animals divested of their natural clothing. It has been frequently asserted that these Owls are incapa- ble of being trained, and invariably resent all advances which are made by persons. In reply we would say that the ex- periment has been thoroughly tried, even with adult birds, by some of our friends, and has proved eminently successful. The success of the experiment, however, depends upon the disposition of the person who makes it. A deal of patience, combined with the gentleness of a forbearing nature, are the essential attributes of a successful trainer. Most people fail, for want of these most enviable traits. Besides the hissing and clicking sounds alluded to above, which are seemingly indicative of commingled disgust and anger, there are other sounds which are emitted when oc- casion demands. At night, when emerging from its hidden retreat, is heard a loud lugubrious note which approximately resembles wawhoo* and is apparent!} the signal for commenc- ing operations. This alarming note is not uttered while in quest of particular kinds of prey, which would assured!} defeat the object of the bird ; but appears to be a signal of warning for other individuals of the same, or different spe- cies, not to encroach upon already occupied territory ; or else a cry of delight for the return of night, and with it, a full supply of appropriate food-stuffs. When nearing a barn or a meadow, wherein dwell many of the creatures which contribute to its diet, the most perfect silence is maintained ; while, on the other hand, when in quest of birds and insects, the same precaution is not necessary. As these beings are either captured upon the wing, the flight of birds being ex- ceedingly uncertain and bewildering at night, or, in the case of the latter, in a stealth}" manner upon the perch, the frequent repetition of this inharmonious note is but of 170 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS trifling moment. The cry of hunger is similarly expressed, with a slight modification in intonation. The young birds have a rather peculiar note, expressive of hunger ; and another, indicative of anger and disgust, which is represented by a loud hiss. The question has often occurred to many minds, why should these birds prowl about in the uncertain light of the evening, or in the dusk of night, in quest of food? There is certainly but little in the structure of the eyes and their appendages that can interfere with diurnal missions of this character. A careful study of the nictitating membrane has acquainted us with the fact that the most dazzling light can be confonted without disadvantage, and with the full unprotected eye exposed. The only change manifested is a contraction of the pupil proportionate to the quantity of light received. In the twilight and in the dark of night, there is a manifest dilatation of this organ, corresponding to the diminution of light. These facts are incontrovertible. The only explanation seems to be this : in the twilight and in the night, the small mammals which constitute such a prominent part of their diet, are abroad in the greatest num- bers ; also the various small birds upon which they subsist to a certain extent, are the more easily surprised and cap- tured ; consequently, the habits of these- birds are modified in conformity with the peculiar habitudes of the animals upon which they feed. The sleepy look which they often exhibit during the day, and the consequent bewildering movements which characterize their flight, are certainly due to the above conditions of their existence. Human beings would act likewise under similar circumstances. In the selection of a place for nesting purposes, these Owls vary in different localities. In Eastern Pennsylvania, generally a hollow tree, chiefly an apple or an oak, is cho- sen : but occasionally, a dilapidated and unoccupied barn ; but more rarely, an occupied building in close proximity to man. When the former situations are chosen, the hollow OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 171 is lined with a few dried grasses and feathers, although instances are not unfrequently met with where the eggs are deposited upon the bare bottom. In the latter places, a few rude sticks constitute a framework which is lined with a few fine grasses and feathers. It is deposited upon a stout timber in a somewhat inaccessible part of the building. Nesting ordinarily takes place early in March, although we have ob- served newly-built nests in the latter part of February. Oviposition commences about the second wreek of March. The number of eggs laid, varies from three to four, very rarely more. Mating is of short duration, and is attended with but little ceremony. Very little affection is manifested by the sexes towards each other, and in the part of the year unoccupied by such duties, a bitter feeling of animosity often prevails among them, which often breaks out into bitter conflicts when they approach each other. As soon as the eggs are laid, which, on the average, amount to one a day, the female commences the trying duties of incubation. This task devolves exclusively upon her, as we have never observed the male in the vicinity of the nest during" the day-time. It is true that the former occupies the nest while the day prevails. But when she vacates it at night in quest of food, it is pos- sible that her partner may relieve her during her temporary absence. The period of incubation is about twenty-four days. The young are fed by both parents, wrho attend to their demands with unwearied patience. Their appetites are so rapacious that one or the other parent is compelled to for- age even at mid-day. Their food consists of fragments of small quadrupeds and birds, and the various insects, both coleopterous and lepidopterous, which they are able to find in their nocturnal raids. The young leave the nest when they are about four weeks old, and conceal themselves among the branches and foliage of trees. At this time they are able to make short flights from branch to branch, and -are still fed by. one or the other parent. During the day they 172 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS seldom venture from their burrow, but come out when the sun has gone down, and gambol among the foliage. \Yhen approached, they utter a hissing sound, which is exchanged for a sharp click when confronting an unfamiliar object. They assume also an erect attitude and often strike with their claws. They also give expression to two other sounds, one of which seems to indicate hunger or loneliness, and the other, anger. When they have attained the age of live or six weeks, they desert their parents, and shift for them- selves. The peculiar hooting which is characteristic of the adult birds, is not assumed until they are about three and a half months old, just at the time they take on the character- istic adult plumage. The eggs are somewhat sub-spherical, scarcely more pointed at one extremity than the other, unless in exceptional cases; of a bluish white color, and measure 1.67 inches in length, and 1.37 in width. They vary, however, in size, in different localities. Dr. Brewer describes a specimen from Louisiana which measured 1.69 by 1.38 inches, and another 1.69 by 1.25 inches, from New Mexico. Bubo virginianus, The Great Horned Owl is distributed from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, and from Central America northward so the shores of the Arctic Ocean ; in all of which country it occurs in greater or less abundance, except where driven away by the rapid spread of civilixed man. In different parts, it is designated by various geographical appellations. the propriety of which is very much questioned by Dr. Coues. In the Arctic Regions, it was found to be quite abundant by Richardson, as well as in all parts of Canada and the United States. In the wooded-regions of Upper California, it occurs in great numbers, according to Dr. Gambel, and in the vicinity of Sacramento it was once very plentiful, but since 1849. ^ nas n°tably diminished in num- bers. In Mexico, Indian Territory, and New Mexico, it OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. \7:\ has also been procured by various parties. Kennicott found it breeding in the territorv north west of the Yukon River, as earlv as April 10 ; the nest being placed near the summit of a large flourishing spruce in the midst of a thick forest. In the vicinity of Great Slave Lake, it is very common ac- cording to Ross, but grows more rare towards the north. Throughout the Hudson Bay Territory, particularly in wooded regions, it is very abundant, even frequenting its shores in the summer, but retiring inward on the approach of winter. Dall has observed completely fledged young birds as early as June 18, on the Yukon River ; at Nulato, he found it to be a not uncommon species. In August, Salvin observed it in Guatemala, where it is probably resi- dent ; in Texas, Kennedy met these birds in high trees, and on precipitous din's, and in both the latter State and New Mexico, wherever tall trees and deep canons abound, its hid- ing places may be discovered. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it is less abundant than in New Jersey, and also considerably more so than the species last described. In the vicinity of Germantown, it was in past years more common than at present, but like many other birds that have an abhorrence of man, they have deserted our limits and retired to more congenial quarters, where there is, for the present, temporary immunity from the in- trusion and persecutions of man. Nor is this feeling of dis- like wholly restricted to birds, but is more or less deeply inrooted in the bosom of man. Many of its kindred are permitted to roam at large, and even to build in close prox- imity to man, without being molested ; while the hands of everybody are raised to wreak instant vengeance upon the sub- ject of our sketch, should it have the temerity to venture with- in occupied grounds. This feeling of intense bitterness and hatred is mainly due to the destructive propensities of the species. The poultry-yards are not safe from its nocturnal ravages. Instances are known, where, in the course of a few nights, entire roosts have been completely decimated. Not 171 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS so with its more favored brethren, who have gained the con- fidence and esteem of man, not only by their wholesale de- struction of both noxious insects and animals, but also bv the possession of nobler and better traits. Along the hills of the Wissahickon, in the gloomy recesses of dense pine thickets, or in the darksome hollows of tall and jagged rocks that line its borders, or nestle drearily amid the forests that stretch inwardly this species abounds. None of the species of Owls which are deni/ens of this latitude, betray such fear of man, and seek safety from his approach with a more eager readiness, than the one under consider- ation. Unlike others, it is seldom seen about our farm-yards and orchards, not even at night, when there is little risk of danger. Notwithstanding the prevailing opinion that this species is strictly nocturnal in its habits, evidence both of a personal and of a borrowed character is not wanting to prove the contrary. Not only in cloudy weather, and late in the after- noon, is it to be observed in its immediate haunts in quest of prey, but we have actually encountered it in the broad glare of noon, occupied with such important business. During the breeding-period these predatory expeditions are more frequent, the urgent demands of the young for food neces- sitating such action. It is seldom that the sexes are found together, except during the season of mating. They prefer a solitary existence. But wrhen they chance to meet in their nightly pilgrimages, they exhibit feelings of the most intense animosity towards each other, which frequently break out in fierce and serious encounters, either ending in inglorious retreat by one of the opponents, the male generally, or in death. Even during the breeding-season, there is a lack of that devoted affection which characterizes most birds at this time. The sole object seems to be a servile obedience to the mandates of instinct, which urge the propagation and consequent continuance of the species. Like many barbarous tribes of men, they have OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 175 not yet developed those finer sentiments and feelings which sire an index of improvement and advancement. Their flight is exceedingly rapid and graceful, and closely resembles that of the Eagle. They sail through the air with equal ease, cleaving it in wide circles, and when at a great height, are sometimes mistaken for their most glorious and quite distant compeer. Although somewhat closely allied to the latter, they lack the address which so pre-eminently characterizes this bird in its capture of prey. L"ike the Barn Owl, they are compelled to prowl about on dark nights, and seize their prey wrhile it is asleep, or in its uncertain wanderings from tree to tree when disturbed from its slumbers by the fearful hootings of these midnight assassins ; and are even constrained to come down from their lofty height and skulk among the tall grasses, ready to pounce upon their victim in the shape of some luckless A.rvicola, as he ventures abroad unmindful of hidden danger to procure his accustomed meal, or to hold high revel with his friends and relations. The loud yet somewrhat mournful hootings and cries of this bird, are rather remarkable, and are mainly heard during the breeding-season. At times, but a single unearthly shriek is uttered, which is soon followed by a bark-like sound which not unfrequently provokes a rejoinder from many a canine, should he chance to hear it. But the most common sound which is emitted is a curious dissyllabic note resem- bling wau-hdd, which is remarkably prolonged upon the last syllable, and, which reverberates through the midnight gloom with startling effect. The food of this species consists of small quadrupeds, poultry, small birds, and insects. The following list partially embraces its bill of fore : — J/?AV mnscithis* ^f. rattiis. Arvicola Gapperi, Jaculus hudsonius, Lepus sylvaticus, . the Fringillid(Z2c&& Sylvicolidce among birds, and Lucanns dama, Passalus cornntux, Pr/otnts laticoltis* Pangus caliginosus, Lachnosterna quercina, and other coleoptera ; UFF-IIISTORIKS OF BIRDS Eaclcs imperially. Cithcrotiia rc^alis. Tclca and many of the larger Sphingidce and Noctuidce. The bones of the small animals upon which it feeds are broken in small pieces preparatory to deglutition. The period of mating occurs unusually early, often as early as the middle of February : sometimes not before the beginning, and even the middle of March. But little tiine is spent in this business ; sometimes less than a dav suffices to renew the plighted love of bv-gone years. The sexes display considerably less than ordinary love for each other. Nesting closely follows. The nest is ordinarily placed upon the summit of a tall tree, mostly a species of Piuus^ and is com- posed of a few rude coarse sticks, which are quite unsymmet- rically arranged and lined with few dried grasses and feathers. Very little time is spent in its completion : the burden of the labor devolving almost exclusively upon the female. Night-time is chiefly chosen for this business. In some parts of the country the nests are deposited in hollow trees and also in the crevices of rocks, and are lined with a modicum of grasses and feathers. This was the experience of Audubon. In New Jersey, according to Wilson, a tall tree is usually selected in the midst of a swamp. We have fre- quently noticed them in such places during our numerous ornithological pilgrimages through the southern counties of that .State. The numerous small 15/ards which inhabit such places, certainly afford it a rich repast, and open up a very fertile field for foraging during the period \\hen these birds are with young; an endless and varied supply of suita- able food-stuffs being obtained with but little outlay of strength. The nest being finished, the female begins to deposit her complement of eggs, which varies from two to three, accord- ing to our experience ; but, generally, the former number is laid. The eggs are deposited at the rate of one egg per day. The female having finished this duty, instantly commences the incubating process, the labor of which we have reason to OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 177 believe devolves exclusively upon her. While thus occupied, \ve have never observed the male to visit her under circum- stances which would lead us to believe that he assisted towards her maintenance. The period of incubation is about three weeks. The young are fed by both parents, chiefly during the night, but at times, during the course of the day, even in the brightest sunlight. They are exceedingly voracious feeders, increasing quite rapidly in size, and often leave the nest to perch upon the tree-branches, at the age of five weeks, where they receive their food. In less than a fortnight more, they are sufficiently matured to attend to their own appetitive wants. In about five months from the time of hatching, they acquire full plumage, but the claws are not much more than one half the natural size, and do not attain the normal development under a sixth-month. Their food at first consists of frag- ments of the animals and reptiles taken captive, besides various lepidopterous and coleopterous insects. These birds taken while young, soon accustom themselves to captivity, and under the best and kindest treatment, be- come remarkably tame, and most strongly attached to their keeper. Dr. Coues, in his "Birds of the North West," has given a very interesting account of a couple of young birds which he captured in the vicinity of Pembina. These birds were clothed in down at the time of being taken, but passed quite rapidly through the intermediate fulvous stage to the characteristic adult condition. So accustomed to the Doctor did they become, that they would frequently perch upon his shoulder. But any unfamiliar object, they would greet with a hissing and clicking sound, and, as if to show still further their disgust or alarm, would throw themselves in a perfectly erect position. During the daytime, they would seek the darkest corner of the tent in which they were confined, where they would pass the time chiefly in sleep ; but on the approach of dusk, they would become quite active and lively, flying to the full extent of their tether, as if in quest of prey. 178 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS Occasionally they would be released from imprisonment at the close of the day, when, after spending the entire night in various predatory expeditions, they would return to the tent, on the ensuing morning. A careful study of these birds. while in his possession, convinced our friend that the organs of sight were as well adapted to see bv day as by night. It had been generally supposed that the iris of these birds was protected from intense light by the inner lid. On one occasion, the attention of one of these pets was directed to objects in the distance which turned out to be a pair of Cranes, in the full face of a blazing sun which the Doctor himself could not confront without flinching. The bird watched the object as it careered aloft, writh perfect com- placency, never so much as blinking. A careful examination convinced the Doctor that the nictitating membrane, contrary to what had been so often asserted, was not called into req- uisition as a protecting organ. The iris was shown not to be automatic in its action, but apparently under the control of the will. In gazing upon an object, one eye would be wide open while the other would be half-closed, the pupils of the two differing considerably in size. The eggs of this Owl are nearly spherical, of a bluish-white color, and measure 2.28 inches in length, and 1.98 inches in width. SCOPS asiO, Bonap. The Little Red Owl, or the "Screech Owl" as this species is popularly designated, is widely distributed throughout tem- perate North America. In the Arctic regions, it is evidently unknown, as Richardson and other travellers do not mention it in their notes. Throughout the New England, Middle, Southern, and Western States, it is bv no means uncommon. Boardman found it a resident species in the vicinity of Calais, but in small numbers. Near Hamilton, Canada, it does not occur in abundance, according to Mcllvvraith. but is more numerous around Montreal. In Texas, especially at Long OF' EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA, 179 Point, it has been found to breed according to Dr. Lincecum. It abounds in California, and even as far to the north-west as Sitka where it is designated as a different variety. In E.istern Pennsylvania it is at present our most common species, although a few years ago it was surpassed in num- bers by the Long-eared Owl of Wilson. Unlike its more powerful relative last described, it rather courts than shuns the society of man. In some of our rural districts, however, it manifests less familiarity than in others, especially where it has been unduly harassed by mischief-loving boys and equally mischievous birds. The immense good wThich it accomplishes in the destruction of mice, moles, and various kinds of insects, should command for it the mercy and justice which it deserves. But persecutions of divers kinds are the only return which it receives for its manifold services, in certain sections. The evil, which some of its less scrupulous brethren have committed, reflects discredit upon it, and, consequently, through ignorance and a worse superstition, the innocent are made the scape-goats for the sins of their more vicious and powerful neighbors. But, fortunately, there are localities where its services are fully appreciated by persons of education and sense, and amply rewarded. In such places, these birds become more familiar, nesting and roosting in" hollow trees, and even entering barns and dif- ferent out-buildings to spend the night, as though they were the rightful proprietors thereof. This species is more eminently nocturnal in its habits than any of its brethren. It generally emerges from its darksome retreats about dusk, and is exceedingly active and lively in the pursuit of prey. It seldom, if ever, retires from its roost during the day, but in the uncertain twilight it will occasionally venture forth, being but little incommoded, if any, thereby. In the daytime its movements are dubious and bewildering, and only prompted by annoyances. It presents, when aroused, a sleepy, stupid look, and is appar- ently dazed by the too brilliant glare of day. During 180 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS cloudy weather, it moves with greater freedom and confi- dence. There seems to be a better adaptation upon the part of young birds, to the intense light of day, than upon the parental part. May it not be that the constant habit of sleeping during the day, consequent upon a full night's carousal, has so weakened the organs of sight as to render them ill-adapted to the strong sunlight ? Animals, that arc accustomed to labor while it is day, suffer considerable in- convenience for a while when compelled to adopt night-toil. Again, if necessitated to come back to day-labor, the force of habit again manifests itself, and a like inconvenience, though probably in a less degree, is § xperienced. The iricles undoubtedly habituate themselves to this reversal of habit. The fact that the young of Bubo virginianus can adapt themselves to the intense light of the sun almost equally with the Eagle although being mainly nocturnal in hab- its, by the voluntary rather than automatic movements of the iris, associated with the already mentioned circumstance in the history of the present species, strongly favors the hy- pothesis that all our Strigidce can in time adapt themselves to a change of habit pari passu with visual modification. The Day Owl is a noted example of a species that is pre-emi- nently diurnal, which has undoubtedly evolved from a spe- cies that was primitively nocturnal. The flight of this Owl is noiseless and gliding, and so still as to be scarcely perceptible. While it spends much of its time veering through the atmosphere in quest of the nocturnal insects which contribute largely to its diet, it does not deem itself too aerial to descend to the earth when it can subserve its purposes. Like the Barn Owl, it is a great lover of low meadows, and even the premises adjoining the barn, where it makes terrible havoc among the small quadrupeds that enjov such retreats. Sailing noiselessly over the tall grasses, with the keenest vision it will readily descry the smallest creature that moves, and in the twinkling of an eye will pounce upon its victim and bear it away transfixed with its OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 181 bill, or secured in the firm grasp of its powerful claws. It does not scruple to conceal itself behind a tuft of grasses, or to arouse our smaller birds from their perches, when there is great demand for food. At night these birds emit a peculiar plaintive cry which resembles somewhat the whining lamentations of young puppies. This sound alternates from high to low, and is occasionally varied by deep guttural trills. Until long after midnight are these lugubrious sounds prolonged, being doubtless intended as a summons from the female to her partner, and vice versa. As these sounds are heard while in quest of prey, it is more than probable that they are designed to startle small birds from their coverts, and thus insure their ready capture. The usual cry resembles wha-a-a-a-a. The food of this species consists of the following vertebrate and articulate animals : — Mits muscnhis* JacuJus hudsonius*, Arvicola Gxppcri, A. riparia, Hespzromys leucopus, Con- dylura cristata, Scat ops aquaticus, Juitco hy emails, Melospiza melodia, Spizclla socialis, S. monticola, Sialia sialis, and many of our smaller Sylvicolidce* among the former ; and Acheta nigra, the mole cricket, CyrtopKyTtus concavus, Telea polyp hemus, Platysamia cecropia* Sphinx quinquemaculatus, Smerinthus cxccecata, Catocala, and larger Noctuidce* o Mating commences during the latter part of March, sometimes earlier, when the season is favorable. The sexes manifest at this period more than the usual love for each other. At other times, there seems to be but little anxiety manifested for each other, the sole engrossing thought being appetitive gratification. As the cries above mentioned are as often heard outside of the breeding-season, we have concluded that they cannot be considered at all times as the call-notes of either male or female for its companion. The time spent in mating is not necessarily long, about two days being d e. voted to this essential business, sometimes a less time sufficing. There are but few of those amusing and uppar- 1H2 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS ently ridiculous incidents which constitute so conspicuous a part of the courting business of our smaller aves manifest- ed in the disposition of the species under notice. The males apparently select the same females during successive seasons, unless deprived thereof by various fortuitous circumstances. A pair of these birds once built in a particular tree in German town, which they continued to occupy on each annual return of the breeding-period, the female retaining complete possession thereof during the intervening time for roosting purposes. The male sought shelter in the same clump of trees, but in a different hollow. As these were the only denizens of the locality , being protected from danger and encouraged to build upon the spot by a kind-hearted gentle- man, it is evident, in this particular instance, that the same pair renewed their former love on each return of the breed- ing-period. As soon as the sexes become paired, they start off in quest of a suitable hollow. In the case of young birds, no little time is spent in looking around the country for one of requi- site capacity ; old birds, as before remarked, nidificating in the same tree year after year, unless driven away per force. In an orchard, an apple-tree is most generally preferred, in close proximity to the farmvard, if one wTith a suitable cavity can be obtained. The hole generally chosen is one which had been previously wrought out by the Golden-shafted Woodpecker at an expense of great pains and effort. Where this kind of a cavity does not exist, a decayed hollow stump with sufficient depth is rendered available. In wooded re- gions considerably remote from human habitations, and even in such localities when an orchard is not nearby, the different species of oak are called into requisition, and the nest de- posited either in a perforated, or in a natural cavity. In the former case the nests are seldom at a greater height than five or six feet above the ground, while in the latter they are often placed at an elevation of forty feet and upwards. The only indications of a nest are the few dried leaves, grasses, OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 1H3 and feathers, which are thrown promiscuously into the bottom. The nest being completed, the female commences to deposit her full number of eggs at the rate of one egg per day, which requires from five to six days according to the number which is to constitute a sitting. Incubation imme- diately follows and continues for a period of fifteen days. The labor is performed chiefly by the female, the male occa- sionally relieving her when absent in search of food. While with eggs or young, the approach of a human being is greeted with a sort of hissing sound, and the protrusion of the hand often meets with a sharp but not to be mistaken reception. In the daytime, when surprised they are such comparatively stupid, sleepy creatures, that they seldom notice the near approach of persons ; but if they do, it is only with a sort of vacant stare occasionally varied by moderately rapid Winkings, save when partially aroused by a thrust with the finger, when they open wide the eyes in a staring manner, throw back the head, and utter a loud hiss of indignation or disgust, which is quickly followed by the elevation and pro- trusion of the clawrs of the right foot. All this is of momentary duration, and is quickly succeeded by the same stolid indifference, or utter obljviousness to all surrounding objects. The young are vigorous feeders, and tax the time and energies of their parents to the utmost, to procure the requisite supply of nourishment. The feeding process is performed exclusively during the night, both birds being absent from the nest at the same time in search of food. Their food consists of small quadrupeds, birds, lizards, and insects. At first these are torn into pieces by the parent birds, particularly the larger kinds but as the birds increase in size and age, they are brought and deposited in the burrow. Mr. Nuttall cites an instance wrhere a full supply of Bluebirds, Blackbirds, and Song-Sparrows, was thrown into the nest by the parents, which is a striking illustration of their provi- I, si LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS dent habits. At the age of four weeks, the young are able to leave the nest, and receive their food while clinging to the tree-branches. At the expiration of a fortnight, they arc able to hunt for them selves v but retire on the approach of morning into their burrows, where they quietly spend the dav. But they are eventually obliged to leave these retreats and seek quarters for themselves in hollow trees ; in the gloomy recesses of dense forests ; or in the dark corners of outbuildings. In about four months they acquire the char- acteristic plumage of their parents, and their familiar outcries. But the claws have scarcely attained their normal develop- ment until nearly two months subsequently. Under confinement, this species is at first exceedingly pet- ulant, and attempts to injure its captor ; but after a few days of friendly intercourse, learns to recognize in him a bene- fac, or. Confidence soon gives place to distrust, and it becomes exceedingly tame and docile, accepting its food from the hands of its keepers with perfect complacency. Should a stranger attempt the same familiarity, he would either receive a merited rebuke in the shape of a scratch, or be treated with the most perfect disgust. A somewhat singular fact in connection with its history is mentioned by Dr. Cooper. He cites the case of a bird which once resided in a dove-cot in perfect harmony with its inmates, whom it did not attempt to injure from the per- iod of its first introduction. The eggs of this species are nearly spherical, of a pure white color, and measure 1.35 inches in length, and 1.18 in width. Otus vulgaris, var. wilsonianus, Less. The Long-eared Owl is quite generally distributed, and is the most numerous of all our North American Strigidae* Dr. Cooper has found it quite common in California, although previous writers failed to encounter it. According to Don- ald Gunn it is a permanent resident in the Red River region, OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 185 extending northward to the shores of Hudson's Bay. Rich- ardson found it abundant within the wooded borders of the plains of the Saskatchewan, and met with it as far north as the 1 6th parallel of latitude. On the banks of the Columbia east of the Dalles, in a desolate and dreary region, this species with several others, was obtained by Mr. Cooper. In the canons west of the Aztec Mountains, Dr. Kennedy has found this Owl breeding among precipitous cliffs, in common with Hawks and Crows. From Nova Scotia to Florida it occurs in greater or less abundance. In the vicinity of' Halifax, and about Calais, it is rather uncommon ; but in the western parts of Maine and the residue of New England, it is quite plentiful. In various parts of California, among the Rocky Mountains of New Mexico, and in the valley of the Rio Grande, it has been captured. In Eastern Pennsylvania it is by far the most abundant of all our Owls. It is more retiring in its nature than Nyc- tale acadica. The latter prefers an orchard in close prox- imity to the dwelling of man, while the former evinces a decided partiality for dense forests of evergreens far from the hum and stir of farm-life. In the vicinity of German- town once existed within our recollection an extensive pine forest which was the favorite place of rendezvous of this Owl during the dreary winter months, and where in the spring-time the females deposited their eggs in rude ami unsightly structures of their own manufacture. The numbers that thronged this thicket were prodigious, so that but few trees could be found which had not supported one or more nests. The fragmentary bones of quadrupeds and birds that lay in heaps upon the ground, amply attested the wholesale destruction of life that had been carried on. Within the past two years, many of the trees have yielded to the wood- man's axe, and the birds have mostly scattered to more con- genial quarters, few remaining of all the mighty host. The flight of this Owl is noiseless and gliding, generally low, and but moderately protracted. Its general movements 24 186 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS resemble but slightly those of any other species. Being" a strictly nocturnal species, it is never found abroad in the day- time, but spends the entire day in the summits of dense pine trees, only stirring from its perch in the dusk of evening. When aroused by meddlesome birds, or busy human intruders, its movements in the day-time are very uncertain and be- wildering, and resemble the movements of persons who have been awaked from a sound sleep. Although being somewhat dazed by the too sudden light of the sun, even in the thickest wroods they manage to .steer clear of the branches of trees which so often interlock each other, very few accidents happening in their dubious and zigzag flight. Many of our several species of Owls are occasionally seen abroad during cloudy weather in quest of food, and some few in the broad glare of day, but the subject of our sketch has never been thus encountered. It is the most eminently social of all our nocturnal birds of prey. While most of our Owls prefer to lead a solitary life during the autumnal and winter months, and most gen- erally seek separate roosting quarters somewhat isolated from each other, this species delights in the companionship of its fellows, for it is not uncommon to find several individuals upon the same tree closely huddled together. Whilst forag- ing for food, they cross and recross each other's path, and nothing occurs to mar the perfect good feeling that prevails. We have actually seen two individuals of different sexes prowl- ing about the same meadow, within a few feet of each other, on the alert for field mice ; and also perched upon the same tree-branch, with their wide staring eyes evidently turned in the same direction, intensely watching the movementsof a liv- ing object at a few paces distant. While in search of food, it is not an uncommon visitant about outbuildings and barns which are situated at great distances from occupied dwellings. On these occasions it has been seen to watch its prey while perched upon a small hillock, or while standing upon the ground in the shadow of a stump or tumulus, or from the OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 187 rear of a tussock of grasses. In capturing its prey, it is ex- ceedingly active, often taking it with the bill, but more generally in its claws. J Its call consists of two or three notes which are uttered at irregular intervals during the night. They are mournful in their character, and quite moderately prolonged. In addition to the above, these birds emit a hissing sound significative of commingled indignation and disgust ; and also a sharp clicking noise produced by the bill, which is invariably made when the birds are provoked during the day while in confinement. The food of this species consists of mice, moles, lizards, small birds, and insects. The following list constitutes its bill of fare : — Mus musculns, Arvicola Gappcri, Jaculus hudsonius, Scalops aquaticus, Hesperomysleucopus, Spiz- ella socialis^ Spizella monticola* Melospiza melodia, Junco hyemaUs Passerella iliaca, many of the Sylvicolidce, GryllotaJpa borealis, Cyrtophyllus concavus, Acheta nigra, Lucanus dama, Prionus latiicollis, Lachnosterna quer- cina, L. hirticula, Osmoderma scabra. and others. Mating commences during the latter part of March, and often not before the first week of April. The sexes evince more pleasure in each other's society than any other of our species. The friendly disposition of these birds outside of the breeding-period, would naturally lead one to infer that the sexes take deep interest in each other, were corroborative facts wanting. There is no exhibition of the mirth-provok- ing antics which characterize the love-affairs of our smaller species, but an honest, quiet expression, which makes itself known and felt through the medium of the eyes, and in the accomplishment of deeds of love and valor. We have every reason to believe that the same birds pair on each returning season, unless one or the other has come to an untimely end, until separated by death. Birds have been met with during the winter months under circumstances which coun- tenance this hypothesis. We have known a male and female 188 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS to occupy the same locality, for several successive seasons, to the exclusion of all others. During the prevalence of day. they would roost together, only deserting their posts at dusk, to go in search of food ; but returning thither on the; approach of dawn. The period of mating is of apparently mo- mentary duration, scarcely lasting more than a day or two. Instances have come under our notice where the period was somewhat protracted, possibly owing to the selection of a new partner by one or the other sex, to take the place of the-one deceased. Nidification succeeds almost immediately after pairing is accomplished. The nest is usually placed in the top of a tall evergreen, in the midst of a dense thicket of coniferous trees. Sometimes the nest of other species of birds, such as the Quabird, Crow, and Hawk, are rendered available ; but generally the nest is constructed by the birds themselves. This work is exclusively performed during the night-time by the joint labor of the sexes. The period required to build a nest never exceeds two nights, sometimes a single night be- ing necessary. The nest is slovenly and rudely built, and at a distance resembles a crow's nest. It is composed externally of rude sticks, in many cases, but not unfrequently of boughs with the leaves adherent thereto. Internally, there is a scant lining of dry grasses, and feathers, chiefly of birds captured. or pluckings from the breast of the female-bird. The diam- eter at the base varies from eighteen to twenty inches, and the height from eight to ten inches. The nest is generally placed at a height ranging from twenty to thirty feet. We have never known the birds to build at a less elevation, although Audubon asserts that these birds accommodate themselves to nests of other species, situated high or low. Mr. Kennicott has found the nest on the ground in Illinois; Mr. Richardson both upon the ground and in low. bushes. Nests are also placed in the fissures of rocks, in certain localities. Mr. Ridgway, who found this bird in great OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 189 abundance in Sacramento Valley, and also in the Great Basin, assarts that it is found in dense willow copses near streams ; and far into the interior, he says it deposits its eggs in the deserted structures of the Magpie. The eorors vary from two to four in number. These are C~><"^ J laid on the day following the completion of the nest, one egg being deposited daily. Incubation commences immediately, and is performed by both birds, although the brunt of the labor falls upon the female. The period of incubation is about twenty days. While the female is sitting, during the daytime, the male-bird is in close proximity; and we have met cases, though rarely, where both birds occupied the nest together. This was only the case where the nest -was unu- sually large, and sufficiently capacious. The young are fed by the parents, but mainly, if not entirely, during the night. The fewness of the number raised, does not seem to necessitate diurnal pilgrimages, in quest of food, as is frequently the case with its more distant kin previously alluded to. The young are vigorous feeders, and rapid growers. As they increase in age and size, they make more strenuous demands upon their parents for food, who keep them amply supplied with the necessary articles, as evidenced by the fact that nests have been occasionally found with two young birds in the midst of a number of small birds and quadrupeds. This act of provident fore- thought, undoubtedly obviates the necessity of day-explora- tions. Their food consists of mice, moles, small birds, lizards, various beetles, and the larger lepidoptera. In about three weeks they are able to quit the nest, and may be often found upon the tree-branches in the dusk of evening receiving food from their parents. They are so sure-footed even at this early period, that they seldom lose their hold and become precipitated to the ground. Another period of three weeks finds them sufficiently matured to look after their own interests, in a great measure. In about five months from the time of hatching, they have passed through the 190 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS downy and fulvous stages of plumage into the characteristic plumage of mature birds. Their claws, however, have not attained their maximum development, which is not the case until near the following spring. At the age of four months the young are able to imitate the peculiar notes of their parents with considerable exactitude. When handled while in their intermediate stage of plumage, they utter a hissing sound, throw the head back, and if too near an approach is made, produce a sharp clicking sound with the bill, indicat- ing anger and disgust. When hungry, they emit a low weak sound, which is utterly incapable of accurate representation. There are two broods of these birds in a season, in some instances, although one seems to be the normal number. The former is the case when nidification has commenced unusually early, and the season is uncommonly long. The second brood makes its appearance during the last of July, or the beginning of August, and is particularly noticeable where the first brood is restricted to a small number. When the complement of eggs is four instead of two, a second brood is an extremely rare occurrence. When the second brood appears, their older companions are large enough to shift for themselves, although they may frequently be observed roosting in the same tree on which the nest is placed, or only a short distance away. The eggs of this Owl are a beautiful white, with a pinkish tint when fresh. They are rounded-oval, obtuse at either end. and measure 1.62 by 1.48 inches. In size they vary somewhat in different localities, and even the eggs of the same nest, manifest perceptible differences. Bracliiotus palustris, GotM. The Short-eared Owl is an abundant summer resident in the Arctic regions. Prof. Holboll found it in Greenland ; Macfarlane in the Anderson River region ; and Richardson throughout the fur countries as high as the 67th parallel of latitude ; and in other parts of wrhat was formerly British OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 191 America, it has been found by Captain Blakiston and Mr. Bernard Ross. Dr. Gundlach gives it an occasional resident in Cuba ; Dresser as a winter resident in the tall reeds and grasses in the vicinity of San Antonio ; and Dr. Newberrv in the meadow-like prairies of Oregon and California in com- pany with the Marsh Hawk, and, likewise, on the margins of Lake Klamath and in Des Chutes Basin, associating with Burrowing Owls. In the Suisun and Napa valleys of California it abounds according to Dr. Heerman, and in Washington Territory, during the autumnal and winter months, according to Dr. Cooper* In the fur countries, Rich- ardson says it arrives with the disappearance of the snow, and retires in September. In Nova Scotia, it is said to be a rare bird ; but among the islands in the Bay of Funcly, it is a quite common breeder according to Elliott Cabot. In Western Maine, Verrill encountered it, but in no other place. In Eastern Massachusetts, it is a not uncommon breeder in suitable localities by the sea-shore. It has been found in Connecticut by Dr. WTood, and in the Carolinas and Florida, particularly in the last State, where it is quite common in the marshes ; Mr. Macfarlane met with a number of nests in the Anderson River country, and Mr. Dall on the Yukon and at Nulato. In the winter of 1872-73, it was the common- est species about Washington, D. C., according to Dr. Cones. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it is less abundant than formerly, and by no means as common as the Long-eared. Unlike the latter, it prefers marshes and low meadow-grounds, where it conceals itself during the day in the midst of long grasses, or in clumps of reeds and sedges. Though having a pre- dilection for such quarters, it does not necessarily restrict itself to such retreats, but is not unfrequently found roosting in small bushes, and, occasionally, in dense evergreens when contiguous to meadows, etc. Owing to the scarcity of this Owl in this region, it is sel- dom that a greater number than a pair is to be found together, 192 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS although in the Colorado River below FortMojave, Dr. Cones met from twenty to thirty birds together, thus showing the soeial disposition of this species. They are less shy and timid than the last species described, and will permit a very near approach without becoming unduly alarmed. Whilst travelling through the dense and tall grasses of swampv grounds, we have startled one of these birds within a few feet of us, which, after flying a few paces would alight but to be disturbed again with similar results. A constant annoyance of this character would certainly determine almost any other bird to seek securer quarters, but not so with the subject of this sketch. Birds, as well as insects of nocturnal habits, or- dinarily, when aroused, make but short flights before alight- ing. As these Owls are often addicted to hunting their prey in cloudy weather, and also, occasionally, when the sun is shining, without manifesting those bewildering and sleepy movements which are so eminently characteristic of many of their brethren, the unsuspicious and apparently fearless character of their movements cannot be ascribed to their being ill-adapted to diurnal pursuits. The flight of this species, in many particulars, resembles that of vulgaris var. ii'ihonianus but is never quite so high, nor so well sustained. It has the characteristic gliding movement, which is. if anything, more graceful. Whilst sail- ing across a marshy tract in quest qf food, its flight is quite low, but slightly overtopping the tall reeds and sedges which grow so luxuriantly in such places. Nor does it always capture its prey while upon the wing, but has been observed to sta- tion itself upon a stump in the midst of a swamp, or upon a low bush, or a small hillock, and await its prey with the most intense vigilance. Indeed, it does not hesitate to lie in wait behind a well-developed tussock, or in the midst thereof. It does not seem that this bird ever deserts its favorite feeding grounds, for the habitations of man, even when the latter are located in close proximity thereto. The great abundance of meadow-mice, lizards, and certain beetles, that are denizens OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 193 of such resorts, determine in a great measure its strong pre- dilection for such places. Like its nearest cousin, it is a somewhat silent feeder, and scarcely utters a single note whilst careering over the meadows for the timid mouse, which constitutes its chief article of luxury. There is a reason for this comparative silence. It is well known that mice possess a remarkable degree of timidity, as well as of caution. The slightest noise, even the rustle of leaves, or the sighing of the wind among the tall grasses, will cause them to shudder and scamper to their burrows. IJow much more terrifying must be the unearthly and lugubrious notes of these birds. The smaller birds are not so much hunted, hence, no ter- rific sounds are necessary to stir them from their perches. During the mating-period, particularly in the night, a few plaintive notes are uttered by the male, which are responded to by the female. ' These notes are intended to summon the sexes together, are never very loud, and are only produced at irregular intervals In addition to these sounds, a hissing sound is made when provoked by human intruders, and also a sharp clicking sound significative of indignation. At no period do these birds manifest a feeling of jealousy or hatred towards each other, except when a rival male en- croaches upon forbidden territory with hostile intentions, or impure motives. Outside of the breeding-season this feel- ing is stronger. Birds of different sexes often visit the same meadow, cross and intercross each other's path, and the most perfect good feelings invariably prevail. But let a rival venture upon occupied grounds, while the female is sitting, and he soon regrets his temerity after a severe chastisement. Mating sometimes commences during the last wreek of March, but not usually before the first of April. There is never a change of partners except in cases of death. The time spent in courting scarcely exceeds a day, and is apparently only a renewal of former plighted vows. The 194 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS actions of the sexes savor but little of extravagance, and there is a notable absence of those little flirtations ami peculiarities which mark so many species at this time. To say that there is a lack of aflection and devotedness exhibited in their actions, would be a gross misrepresentation of the truth. Their love is chiefly of the silent kind which does •lot show itself in wild extravagancies of demeanor, but in actions of the purest kindness. Nidification closely follows upon mating ; sometimes a day or so elapses, which timj is chiefly spent in the detection of a suitable place, before preparations are* begun. The sites chosen are somewhat various and peculiar. In this latitude a thick clump of bushes variously intertwined with running vines and brambles, contiguous to swamps or low meadow lands, and a dense tussock of reeds or sedges in the midst of a large marshy tract, are the usual building places. The nest is deposited in a slight concavity of the ground, which is generally scooped out by the birds. Sometimes where a natural depression exists, the birds avail themselves of it. The nest is composed externally of dry grasses which are procured in the vicinity, and is chiefly lined with feathers which the mother-bird plucks from her own breast. Occasionally, the feathers of small birds which are taken in capture, are utilized for this purpose. But where by reason of their almost exclusive quadrupedal diet, these articles are not available, the female does not hesitate to rob herself. Instances, however, have come under our observation, where the nest was composed almost wholh of grasses, the lining being softer and much finer than those composing the exterior. In building a nest the birds work together, and exclusively at night. During the continuance of the operation the most perfect harmony exusts. The fe- male is evidently the superior of her partner in this kind of labor, but little skill being displayed by either, as she seems to have everything her own way. The male renders almost servile obedience to her mandates. The time ex- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 195 pendecl in the labor of building seldom exceeds a single night, although instances have occurred where the greater part of a second night was thus occupied. The task is somewhat intermittent in its character, the birds alternately working and feeding. Mr. Dall, in his notes on the birds of the Aleutian Islands, asserts that on Unalashka, a horizontal hole is excavated for a nesting-place 'to the depth of two feet ; the further extremity being somewhat higher than the other, and lined with dry grasses and feathers. Owing to the absence of trees, the birds were discovered sitting upon the ground close by the mouth of their burrows, during the daytime. The nest being finished, the female begins to deposit her complement of eggs almost immediately. The maximum number is seven. We have frequently met with nests that, contained from four to five, but never a less number. The eggs are laid on consecutive days, and invariably at the rate of one egg per day. Incubation instantly follows and continues for a period of eighteen days. It is the joint labor of the sexes, who relieve each other at somewhat regular intervals, both during the day and night. Occa- sionally we have discerned both birds upon the nest at the same time during the day, where the nest was sufficiently capacious ; but, ordinarily, the non-incubating bird is close at hand when called to the relief of his partner. While with eggs and young, these birds are exceedingly jealous, and will not permit a feathered stranger to encroach within their territory, without inflicting a severe punishment upon his temerity. Human intruders are received with demon- strations of great anger and excitement, the parents uttering alternate sibilant and clicking sounds, and even venturing to assail them with protruded talons. The young are tenderly cared for and diligently protect- ed, one or the other parent remaining in the vicinity of the nest to guard against danger. Being ravenous feeders, they severely tax the physical energies of their parents to the 196 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS utmost. It is a not uncommon occurrence to find cither parent abroad in the daytime, even when the sun is on the meridian, in quest of articles of diet. In this particular, there is a noticeable contrast between this species and the one previously referred to. The latter, owing to the small- ness of its brood, is able not only to provide a full supply. but also, in some instances, a superabundance of food, which clearly manifests indubitable providence and forethought ; consequently the parents are not compelled to forage dur- ing the daytime. But, in the present case, to satisfy the importunities of the young, they are frequently constrained to search during the day. The chief part of the night being spent in satisfying their own, as well as the exceedingly voracious appetites of a somewhat numerous family. The food of the young consists of field mice, and various coleop- terous and lepidopterous insects. At the age of three weeks, they are able to leave the nest, and receive their food quite often in the tall grasses, at some distance from the nest. A fortnight later, they diminish somewhat the labors of their parents, by hunting slightly for themselves. The expiration of a similar period finds them sufficiently strong to attend to this essential business without parental assistance. The call-notes of the young are two in number ; one expres- sive of hunger or loneliness, and the other, of anger. In addition thereto, when disturbed, they utter a loud hissing sound, which is closely superseded by a sharp click of the bill, indicative no doubt of disgust mingled with fear. These sounds are succeeded by a violent throwing back of the head, and the dilatation of the eyelids to their fullest capacity. At the age of five months the young assume the characteristic plumage of the adult bird ; the claws, how- ever, continue to grow for a similar period, before they attain complete development. At the age of four months, they are able to imitate the cries of their parents with great nicety. But a single brood is reared in a season. Sometimes, when the nest has been broken up and its contents destroyed, OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 197 incubation is necessarily delayed until later in the season, particularly is this the case where the birds have been repeatedly interfered with. The instinct to propagate is so strong, that all efforts to annihilate it are utterly hopeless and fruitless. The birds will often triumph over the most insuperable difficulties, or die in their effort. The eggs are elliptical-ovoid in figure, and of a bluish white color in unblown specimens, but when blown, ulti- mately assume a uniform dull white. They measure 1.54 inches in length, and 1.21 in breadth. In size, they vary ac- cording to locality. The smallest egg recorded, measures i. 50 by 1.22 inches, and was procured by Mr. Macfarlane ; and the largest, measures 1.60 inches in length, and 1.30 in width, and was obtained at Fort Simpson, by Mr. B. R. Ross. European specimens measure 1.55 by 1.30 inches. The last three measurements are given by Dr. Brewer in the work entitled "North American Birds." Syrnium nebulosum, Bole. The Barred Owl has a quite extended range from Texas on the south, to the 5oth parallel of north latitude, and west to Minnesota, and probably beyond. In the northern parts of America, it is somewhat rare, since it was not encoun- tered by Richardson in the fur countries ; wrhile in our South- ern States, it is more plentiful than elsewhere. It has never been observed along the Pacific coast, and, doubtless, never west of the great central mountain range. In Northern Eu- rope it is accidental. According to Mr. Audubon who has closely observed its habits, it is more numerous in Louisiana than in any other Southern State. In the wooded regions of Texas and New Mexico, and in the Indian Territory along the borders of streams and ponds, it is rather a com- mon species, according to Dr. Woodhouse. Mr. J. A. Allen found it to be the most common species of Owl in Florida, where its most ludicrous cries are heard at night, and some- times during the day. Dresser gives it as a common species His LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS in the timbered lands of Texas, and Dr. Brewer even found an individual on the island of Muskeget, near Xantneket, as earl}' as 1846. In Nova Scotia, Mr. Downes mentions it as a resident species, breeding in woods. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it is quite common in the winter, in the extensive meadow-lands along the Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers. In the vicinity of Germantown, though less abundant, it is rather plentiful in marshy grounds, where it may be occasionally met with during the day. It does not restrict itself to such localities however, as individuals have been frequently encountered in dense forests of ever- greens, or in the small valleys that nestle among the hills of the Wissahickon, but more especially where the valleys are covered with gloomy pines, or with dense patches of underbrush. Like the species last described, it is far from being shy, andean be approached with comparative readiness. These birds, though never congregating in great numbers in their roosting quarters, as is the case with the Long-eared Owl, are occasionally found in groups of two or three, and even more, closely packed together among the boughs of •thick cedars or pines, or in the close coverts of dense bushes. Whilst foraging for food in the same meadow, not the least disturbance is observable ; the birds accidentally jostling each other without manifesting the slightest feeling of ill- nature. This Owl is by no means strictly nocturnal in its habits. When pressed by hunger, and particularly when with young, these birds are often found abroad in the daytime. Their movements do not indicate an ill-adaptation to a diurnal life. Their sight rivals that of Bubo virginianus, in being little affected by the broad glare of the midday sun. Whilst careering aloft over an expanse of meadow-ground, in quest of prey, and even in its mode of capture, there is a close resemblance to the movements of the Hawk. The zigzagging and bewildering movements of vulgaris, var. are notably absent ; instead of which there OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 199 is a firmness and vivacity displayed, which bespeak the peculiar habitude of the species* The flight is not only hawk-like, but is characterized by a noiselessness and si- lence, which are truly remarkable. The presence of the bird is onlv known by the movements of its shadow upon the ground ; these movements are seemingly the exact coun- terpart of some species of the FalconiddZ. In searching for small animals, after dark, in low humid grounds, the most perfect silence is maintained, for fear of startling its prey. Although preferring to pounce down upon its victim whilst sailing stealthily overhead, it is sometimes constrained to resort to strategy in order .to effect its purpose. A scarcity of appropriate diet stimulates to such a procedure. With this intention in mind, it repairs to the favorite spot, conceals itself in the shadow of a prostrate log, or behind a tussock of grass ; and when its victim emerges from its retreat, rushes out, and seizes it unawares. Most generally the talons are the most available offensive weapons, although when the prey is quite small, the bill is made the instrument of its capture. Few species display greater dexterity and cunning in the capture of game than the one under consideration. Notwithstanding the immense good which this species ac- complishes in the destruction of noxious animals, it possess- es traits of character which render it an object of utter detes- tation to farmers, and others, who are engaged in the raising of poultry. Its natural penchant for the desolation of hen- roosts, and poultry-yards where small chickens are confined, has placed it under the ban of society, and its destruction is sought with avidity by those who are the losers by its wanton and wholesale pillages. Its fearlessness often leads it into such places during the day. and, notwithstanding the persecutions which it has suffered in some localities, it still continues its devastations, utterly defying the power of man. Again, there are other places, where it has apparently prof- ited by the experience of the past, and has betaken itself to safer quarters where it thrives equally as well, if not bettor. 200 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS than its foolhardy brethren, upon the wild game which seek the coverts of thick swamps, deep pines, and dense under- brush. The notes of this Owl are often heard in the daytime, as well as at night. Whilst searching for birds at night, a scream like that of a hawk is heard, which is evidently designed to startle its prey from its perch, and thus secure its easier capture. Not so when sailing across a meadow, where the utterance of a single sound, no matter how slight, would cause the objects of its pursuit to slink away to their hiding places. The hooting of this bird is a loud guttural, which is capable of imitation, and is useful as a decoy. Nuttall has quite happily expressed its syllabic language. It is characterized by ' koh- koli- ko-' ko- Jw, or by "'ivJiah-ivJiaJi- '~ivhak-iv/iak-aa. Audubon affirms it to be suggestive of an affected burst of laughter. During cloudy weather, and especially when there are strong indications of rain, the cries of this bird are exceed- ingly multiplied, especially during the night. These sounds are uttered at somewhat regular intervals, and are responded to by individuals of the same species, who appear to be holding high carnival. • The food of these birds consists of small quadrupeds, both small and large birds, lizards, snakes, poultry, and in- sects. The following articles contribute to its bill of fare : — Lcpus sylvaticus, Mus musciilns, J/. rattus, Arvicola Gap peri, Jaculus hudsonius ; Ortyx virginianus, PJiilo- hcla minor, Bonasa umbcUus, Turdus migratorius, £htis- calus vcrsicolor, and other birds ; Plethodon erythronotus, Eiitccnia sirtalis and Storeria Dekayi] Lucciinis daina, Prionus laticollis, Lachnosterna quercina, and Passalus cornutus] Telea polyphewus, Platysamia cecropia, and many of the Sphiugidcc and Noctuidcc, among lepidoptera. During the latter part of March, but more usually early in April, the sexes come together; or rather, mating com- mences. Although more than ordinary sympathy exists OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 201 between the sexes outside of this period, yet at this time the feeling becomes exceedingly strengthened, and lapses into one of all absorbing-love. The males are evidently more amorous than the females, as shown by the numerous deeds of kindness which they perform, and the most endear- ing caresses which they lavish upon the latter. It has been affirmed that the cries of the female are heard more fre- quently than those of the male, and also that the latter possesses a much feebler voice than the former. According to our experience, the reverse of this is the true statement of things. The advances are first made by the males, who are addicted to the most ridiculous actions in their efforts to attract the attention and please the fancy of the wooed. The latter are not slow to interpret these actions, and to reciprocate them. There is no time wasted in frivolous flirtations. Ordinarily, a single day binds the compact, and thus seals the fate of the two birds, for another season. The pairing being accomplished, the birds now seem actu- ated by no other motive than that of propagating their kind. For this essential purpose, they start off in search of a suitable place in which to construct a nest. Where un- disturbed, they nidificate in the same locality o.i each suc- ceeding season, and not unfrequently in the same tree. Where necessitated to seek other quarters, the sexes sep- arate, and carefully examine every tree in their search, until a suitable one is found. It often happens that a site is selected by each bird, but no difficulty arises in consequence. Both trees are visited, and after a brief but harmonious consultation, one is chosen as possessing greater advantages than the other. The female exercises considerable in- fluence over her partner, and it seems that her judgment ultimately prevails in these deliberations. The nest is mostly placed in a thick evergreen ; a cedar, or some species of pine, being generally preferred, at but a slight distance from favorite feeding-grounds ; but, occasion- ally, in the midst of a dense forest of pines, where a suit- 26 202 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS able place cannot be found adjacent thereto. The height at which the nest is placed is a matter of but little moment. We have seen nests between forty and fifty feet high, and again at an elevation of less than five feet. Where little danger is apprehended, they are built low down ; but where experience has shown the wisdom of nidificating in lofty trees as a safety, such places are chiefly selected. Like the Long-eared Owl, this bird does not always con- struct its own nest, but will not hesitate to avail itself of the last year's nest of the Common Crow, or that of a species of Hawk. Occasionally, a newrly constructed nest of the for- mer has been occupied during the absence of its rightful proprietor, and its possession maintained with a wilful perti- nacity ; the owners thereof being finally compelled to aban- don the contest and look elsewhere for a building-place. In the temperate portions of Texas, they are said by hunters to breed in hollow trees, close by the banks of streams. Although we have never obtained nests in such places, but it is highly probable that such an opportunity would not pass by unim- proved, should it occur. In the winter, we have occasionally observed individuals to emerge from hollow trees, but at such immense heights, as to render access impossible. May it not be that the same birds had occupied these cavities during the breeding-period, and had raised a brood of young there- in? Such comfortable and secure quarters once chosen. would certainly not be abandoned without just cause. Primitively, this species doubtless built its nest, as many of its kin still do, in decayed tree-hollows. Such places have doubtless been resigned, owing to the lack of suitable trees in the immediate vicinity of feeding-grounds, consequent upon the disappearance of the forests which formerly skirt- ed their borders. As a dernier resort, they doubtless took to building nests for themselves, or availing themselves of the discarded nests of other species. The comparatively rude fabric which they construct, gives countenance to this theory. The nest is constructed, exteriorly, of rude sticks about OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 203 the size of the little finger, for a framework, and is lined with dry grasses, fern leaves, and not uncommonly, with the feath- ers of birds that have been taken as prey. In the nests which we have seen and examined in sitii, there were no indica- tions of feathers that had been plucked from the breast of the mother-bird. At a distance, the nest presents a close resemblance to that of Corpus Americanus, and to those of a few of our commonest Falcon idee. The base is from fif- teen to sixteen inches in diameter, and the height from eight to ten inches. The cavity is exceedingly superficial. The period of nidification ranges from two to three days. The labor is mutually performed by both birds, although the female seems to control the operations. The male mostly gathers the materials, and adjusts them to their places, subject how- ever to the commands of .his partner. The latter will often remove an article to another position, when once fixed, if she deems it needful. The labor is chiefly performed at night, although we have known instances in the midst of deep forests, where some portion of the day was devoted to the task. The work is intermittent in character ; the birds working with commendable perseverance and diligence for an hour or so, then relieving the irksomeness of the task, by starting oft0 in quest of food, or of pleasure. A brief period thus spent is necessary to recuperate their wasted energies, and give renewed zeal. Several times during the course of the night, do they alternate between feeding and building- The nest being finished, after a brief period of relaxation for a day or two, the female begins to oviposit. The com- plement of eggs varies from four to six. The eggs are deposited at the rate of one egg per day, and invariably on each consecutive dav. This task being over, the female begins to incubate. In this she is assisted by her partner, who contributes his share of the labor. When either bird is disengaged from this business after having sufficiently sat- isfied appetitive demands, it takes a position near to the nest, ready to relieve its occupant when the time at length arrives. 204 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS Both birds are exceedingly jealous of intruders, and will not even permit one of their own kind to approach within a few paces of the nest, without wreaking summary vengeance upon such temerity. In the case of human interference, they do not hesitate to show their indignation by violent hissing, and a vehement clicking of the bill ; and will often venture to expel the intruder by striking at him with out- stretched claws. The male has been known to administer to his partner's well-being by furnishing a dainty morsel when she has been confined to the nest. The period of incuba- tion ranges from seventeen to eighteen days. But a single brood is raised in a season. The young are carefully nourished by their parents, who labor with indefatigable diligence to provide them with a full supply of the necessary articles of diet. Not only at night, but also frequently during the day, one or the other parent is absent from the nest on this important business. Their demands for food are so importunate that diur- nal excursions are indispensable. It is seldom that the nests are found to contain articles of food, as is the case with those of some species, but in a few instances we have noticed a manifestation of this parental disposition of provi- dence, but only where the brood was limited to the minimum number. Their food consists at first of the flesh of the ani- mals taken in capture, entirely divested of dermal appen- dages ; but as they increase in size and age, the entire animal is administered, which they are required to separate for them- selves, preparatory to swallowing. Where there are several birds in the same nest, there is often manifested a spirit of contention, particularly when a very choice article is thrown into the nest, which inevitably terminates in the strongest individual's favor, who thus secures the lion's share. But, ordinarily, to guard against such events, the parents are very impartial in the apportionment of the food, and take especial pains not to administer to the same individual twice in suc- cession, save in instances where there is one of a more vo- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 205 racious appetite than his brethren, who continues his clamors after the rest have been satisfied, The young birds grow quite rapidly, and in about three weeks from the time of hatching, quit the nest, and receive their food while perched upon the tree-branches. After the expiration of a fortnight, the labors of the parents are considerably lessened, for the young are now able to con- tribute much to their own maintenance. Another period of similar extent finds them so far matured, that parental assistance is unnecessary. They continue to visit the paren- tal tree for roosting purposes, emerging therefrom at nights, but returning thither on the approach of morning. But, eventually, they become separated, and retire to other quar- ters, which they come to regard in the course of time with particular favor. At the age of four months, they imitate the peculiar cries of the adult birds, with great precision. Two months later they assume their characteristic plumage. The claws continue to grow even after the normal bodily size has been attained. During the succeeding season they begin to mate, imitating precisely the habits of their older brethren. We are convinced that birds of the same age most generally pair together, although, when there is a scar- city of young females, a young male who is desirous of entering into conjugal relationship, will not long hesitate about accepting an older bird for his partner, and vice, versa. Our experience has taught us that these birds, on each annual return of the breeding-period, mutually select their old partners. In some cases, both sexes continue to dwell to- gether, evincing but little affection for each other, during the cold weather. The desire for food, and the extreme difficulty by which it is obtained in the winter, have dulled the amorous passions, and it is only when the season of plenty returns with the warm weather, that the passions, as if to rival Nature herself, are vastly aglow with warmth and excitement. Dr. Brewer cites two instances of well developed eggs 206 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS which had been taken from the oviduct of females, in Feb- ruary. One, in the spring of 1852, and the other, in 1854. The eggs of this species are nearly spherical, of a beautiful pure white, and measure nearly 2.01 inches in length, and i .68 in width. Nyctea nivea, Gray. The American Snowy Owl is exclusively a borean species. It is mainly restricted to the Arctic Circle, and temperate regions adjacent thereto. In midwinter, it is found in the United States, but more abundantly during certain seasons than others. Individuals have been taken quite rarely in South Carolina, but more commonly in Kentucky, Ohio, and the Bermudas Islands. Its wanderings are certainly more extensive than those of either Stirnia uhda, var. hud- sonia, or Syrnium ciiierenm. There are no intimations of its occurrence west of the Rocky Mountains, but in nearly all the States east of the Mississippi, in the Missouri region at Fort Randall, and also in Texas and Kansas, it is present during the winter. When our Western Territories are more thoroughly explored by individuals interested in the cause of science, at the period when its visits are made, evidence of its migrations will doubtless be forth-coming. As far as Arctic voyagers have been able to reach, its northern range has extended. In the northern portions of Greenland, it is more abundant than in the southern. Although mainly extending its wanderings southward on the approach of cold weather, in consequence of the paucity of food-stuffs in Arctic regions, a few, however, remain in the more sheltered localities, where they subsist upon the Ptarmigan, according to Sir John Richardson. Wrhen perceived upon the Barren Grounds, it is somewhat timid, and will instantly take to flight when approached, but in the timbered regions, it manifests considerable bold- ness, and has actually been known to watch the Grouse- shooters from its perch in a tall tree, and to swoop down OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 207 and carry off their game before they could reach it. In the vicinity of Fort Anderson, according to Mr. Macfarlane. it is by no means common ; but near Fort Resolution, and also at Fort Norman, Mr. B. R. Ross speaks of it as having an extended distribution, but not a very abundant one. Thev are said to be quite destructive to the snares adjusted by the Indians, which they visit for prey, and in which they are sometimes caught by their temerity. A mouse or a frag- ment of hare's skin attached to a line and trailed along the ground is sometimes used by the Indians as a decoy. This ruse is highly successful as by it the birds are often drawn with- in the range of gunshot. In the regions westward of Lake Winnipeg it is a mere visitor, but in the surroundings of Hudson Bay it is a permanent occupant. In Western Maine, Mr. Verrill found it to be a rare winter denizen. In Massachusetts, it usually arrives in small numbers, about the middle, or the last of November. In New Jersey, we have noticed it in dense pine forests during the winter, especially when the latter has been unusually inclement. Its occurrence in Eastern Pennsylvania has been observed from the last of November until late in April. There is scarcely a year passes without a few individuals being seen or captured. Its numbers are undoubtedly regulated by the mildness or severity of the winter. During unusually severe weather, it is exceedingly numerous, and individuals command but a small trifle in the Philadelphia markets ; sometimes there is a difficulty to set rid of them at any *j O ^ price. But in mild winters, it is a rarity, and seldom more than a single individual is noticed. It frequents dense pine forests, from which it often emerges in the daytime, in quest of its prey. It is exceedingly shy and cautious, and can be approached only with the greatest difficulty. It does not scruple to take up its quarters in a small clump of trees in close proximity to a town, into which it will often venture, but not without manifesting the utmost vig- 208 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS ilance. Like the Great Horned Owl, it is occasionally a very unwelcome visitor in the vicinity .of the farmyard, where it causes the farmer considerable annoyance by its raids upon the poultry. Its boldness renders it an object of the most perfect detestation. But it combines therewith a deal of caution, seldom venturing upon an attack until having made a careful survey of the surrounding country, to assure itself of the absence of danger ; and, then, before swooping down from its covert upon the poultry, singles out an individual at some distance from the flock, which it takes unawares, and is off in the twinkling of an eye, with- out having thrown the entire flock in a state of tumultuous excitement. Always on the alert, and full of expedients, it is seldom that it can be detected in its depredations ; but when such is the case, it generally manages to escape pun- ishment. The flight of this species is moderately elevated, glid- ing, noiseless, and considerably protracted. Its general movements are closely related to those of Bubovirginianus* Whilst searching for food in low meadow lands, and, also in waste fields which it is occasionally observed to do, it glides smoothly and noiselessly above the tall grass, its presence only being indicated by the moving shadow. As soon as it espies the object of its desires, it swoops down upon its victim, and sei/es it with considerable adroitness. Like Syrnium iiebiilosum, it often accomplishes the same end by waiting behind a fallen log, or a tussock of grasses, and even from the summit of a stump, or from the topmost rail of a fence, in close proximity. In the night- time, is heard a low, mournful note, which is somewhat guttural in intonation. This is heard at somewhat irregular intervals, and is often exchanged for a loud, hideous, and distressing cry, which is evidently designed to frighten the smaller birds from their roosts, and thus secure their easy capture. Unlike most of its family, it hunts both by day and by twilight, but more generally at night. It delights in OF' EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 200 the neighborhood of small streams and ponds, where, in the spring, it may be sometimes observed in sequestered retreats, slowly sailing over their surface, or perched upon the sum- mit of a rock slightly elevated above the water, on the lookout for fish, which it seizes with a rapid and dexterous movement of the foot, that is truly surprising, scarcely miss- ing its mark. In the pursuit of birds which constitute no mean portion of its diet, its movements are somewhat hawk- like. As many of our larger game-birds, such as ducks, grouse, and pigeons, are eagerly hunted, it certainly pos- sesses remarkable rapidity of flight. Its food consists of small quadrupeds, birds, both large and small including poultry, lizards, snakes, fishes, and large insects. The following list embraces a small portion ot its bill of fare : — Sciurns cinereus, S. hudsonius^ Pteromys volucella, Tamias striatus, Afus rattus, Arvic- ola Gapperi, Fiber zibet hi cus, Lepus Americamis, and Z. sylvaticus, among quadrupeds; ^hiiscalus versicolor, Tctrao canadensis, Bonasa umbellus, Gallus domcsticus, varieties of the domestic Columba, and other aves ; Pletho- don erythronotus, Pseudotriton ruber, among batrachians ; Eutccnia sirtalis, Storeria Dekayi, and other serpents ; Pcrca flavescens, Plargyrits Amcricanus, Hypsolepis cornuttts, Pimelodtis atrarius, Salmo fontinatts, etc., be- sides coleopterous and lepidopterous insects. Its presence has been observed as late as the zSth of March, and in backward seasons, until the first week of April. It is doubtful whether it breeds in the limits of the United States, although it has been observed under circumstances which are rather suspicious. Mr. Boardman observed a pair in the spring of 1862, in the vicinity of Calais, as late as the last of May, which he supposed were breeding in that locality. Mr Allen has recorded its capture in Massa- chusetts as late as May 2Oth. Within the Arctic Circle, and in the temperate regions adjacent thereto, it is chiefly found breeding. Mr. Donald Gunn says the nests are placed in 27 210 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS the forks of tall poplar-trees. The eggs vary from tb rec- to five in number, and are hatched anterior to the nesting of other birds. Mr. Hutchins, in his manuscript notes on the avi-fanna of Hudson Bay Territory, affirms that the nest is deposited on the dry ground, in the midst of moss, and that from five to ten eggs are laid in May. Richardson states that it nests on the ground, which assertion is confirmed by the experience of Mr. Hearne. A nest discovered June 3rd, 1843, by Prof. Lilljeborg, on the Dovrefield, was placed on a small shelving of rock, on the summit of a bare moun- tain, and contained seven eggs. In his notes on the birds of Nova Zembla, Herr von Heuglin found several nests in a superficial depression in the turf, which were devoid of lin- ing. Captain Hall of Arctic notoriety, in one of his expe- ditions, discovered a nest containing four eggs, which was built upon the bare ground. Various observers attest to the truth of the general statement that these Owls nidificate upon the ground ; the on\y exceptions thereto being the nests above alluded to. Mr. H. S. Hawkins in speaking of the nest of this species, basing his statement upon the observations of a correspond- ent resident at a Moravian station on the Labrador' coast, says it is composed simply of a few feathers placed in a slight depression of sufficient capacity to contain the eggs. most generally upon a rocky ledge, and but occasionally upon the ground. The usual complement of ova is eight. They are laid at irregular intervals, the first two hatching when the last is laid, so that young birds, fresh eggs, and others in divers stages of development, are often found in the same nest. The time of breeding ranges from the i6th to the 24th of May. The young in their downy stage are a plain brown- ish-grey. They are quite susceptible of domestication, and their extreme vivacity and comical gestures render them most amusing companions. The adult birds often become quite fat, and are highly OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 211 esteemed as articles of diet by the Indians. Audubon, evidently speaking from experience, affirms the flesh to be fine and delicate, and possessed of edible qualities. In the Hudson Bay Territory, according to Mr. Gunn, they are readily attracted within gunshot by a bundle of dark rags fastened to a stout cord and trailed from the extremity of the hunter's snow-shoe. During some winters these birds are eminently gregarious, and traverse certain sections in immense numbers. This was especially the case in Nova Scotia during the winter of 1861-62, according to Mr Downes. In confinement, this species behaves with marked propriety, and learns to recognize its keeper with comparative ease, by the voice, even when he is not bodily present. It becomes quite tame and familiar, taking food from the hands of its master with perfect complacency. A stranger, it will scarcely notice, save to resent his advances with a hiss, or a determined scratch of the claws. Though less amusing and interesting a pet than the Barn Owl, which it slightly resembles in some of its actions, yet, by its extreme sociabil- ity and devotedness, it amply compensates for that lack of comicalness and vivacity which its most distant relative possesses in a pre-eminent degree. It is by no means dainty about its food, accepting almost anything that has not the taint of putridity about it, but preferring birds and fish, for which it has a strong partiality. The eggs are described by Dr. Brewer as being oblong- oval in contour, with equally-rounded extremities, and of an obscure sullied white. This soiled color is apparently due to their immediate contact with the earth. The3' meas- ure 2.50 inches in length, and 1.88 in width. Surnia ulula, var. hudsonica, (GM.) Cone*. The American Hawk Owl is common in the borean regions of both continents. While the European type is notably absent from the fauna of the British Islands, the •2\'2 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS American type has been observed in several instances. Unlike the Snowy Owl, its occurrence south of the 45th parallel, is rare and fortuitous. On the Pacific coast, its most southern range is Alaska. In Nova Scotia, it is quite com- mon during certain winters, and is not seen again for several seasons. It is a common breeder, however, in some portions of Newfoundland. In Eastern Maine, it is occasion- ally seen during the breeding-period, but farther west, it is an abundant autumnal and winter visitant. Mr. Allen never met it in Western Massachusetts, although in the eastern por- tions, solitary individuals are often taken during certain seasons, according to Dr. Brewer. Throughout the fur countries, from Hudson Bay westward to the Pacific coast, it is a not uncommon permanent resident. In the district of the Great Slave Lake, it Is a resident, but not an abundant spe- cies ; but about Nulato, Mr. Dall found it the most common species of Owl. In New Brunswick, it is quite plentiful according to Mr. Dresser. Even on the Bermudas Islands it has been found, but probably as an accidental species. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it is occasionally met during severe winters, being doubtless driven from its more northern habitats, owing to the paucity of food. Specimens have been taken by the writer and others, as early as the middle of October. In the former's collection is a specimen that was shot on the i^th of that month, the thermometer indi- cating a high degree of temperature, at the time. Its appearance so early in the fall when the weather is exceed- ingly mild, in southern latitudes, leads to the supposition that it is either a summer resident in regions not very remote, or else, having attended to the important business of nidifiea- tion and incubation in the higher latitudes, it journeys south- ward, where it meets with a climate which it has recently learned to regard as more congenial than the rigors of an Arctic autumn. There is no reason why these birds should not be found to breed more freclv in the United States than is generally reported. Like many birds on their first en- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 213 trance into a new territory, this species may be shy and reserved, and, consequently, ma)- only nidificate in out-of- the-way situations. Familiarity with the country and its hu- man denizens, acquired by a few years' experience, may op- erate towards a change of habits and disposition. Distrust- fulness will then give pice to confidence, and more of its history will become known. Like the Long-eared Owl, this species displays but little timidity, and can be approached within a few paces without becoming alarmed. It affects a fondness for low meadow lands and pasture grounds, where it may frequently be seen perched upon a decayed limb of a tall tree, in the broad glare of the sun, watching for its prey. It pounces upon it hawTk-like, seldom missing its aim, and bears it away to a tree close by to devour at pleasure. Frequently it goes abroad in search of food, skimming above meadows and low fields for this purpose. Although delighting to visit the customary haunts of the Barred Owl, for the field- mouse which it esteems a dainty morsel, it, however, does not descend to grovelling pursuits to serve its ends. Being mainly found in retired situations, far from the busy haunts of man. it does not restrict its visits exclusively to such localities. It is an occasional visitor about the farm-yard, particularly at dusk, where it is on -the alert for the vermin which infest outbuildings. It has never been observed to disturb the poultry. For its wholesale destruction of insects and vermin, it should command the favor and clemency of man." In the fur countries, Dr. Richardson affirms that it is sometimes attracted by the noise of a gun, and is venture- some enough when a Grouse has been shot, to pounce down upon it and endeavor to bear it off, which, on account of its superior size, it is not able to accomplish. As a proof of its utter fearlessness, the same distinguished observer asserts that it sometimes hovers round the fires kindled by the In- dians at night. This Owl is eminently diurnal in its habits. Although 214 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS frequently seen foraging for food in the twilight, it is but occasionally abroad at night, except during moonlit even- ings, when it may be occasionally seen careering through the atmosphere, after the fashion of some of our Falconidic. It hunts chiefly in the forenoon and in the evening, but wre have often discovered it engaged in this occupation during all hours of the day. Its flight is firm, graceful, somewhat elevated, and remarkably prolonged. It resembles, in the general bearing of its movements, Tinnunculus sparvcrius, but is less quiet than is usual for owls. It, however, is less shy than hawks usually are, and can be approached while on its perch with comparative ease ; but when disturbed by the report of a gun, or otherwise, unlike the latter, it will repeatedly return -to the same position as if determined to occupy it at all hazards. We have never heard the note of this Owl. Dr. Brewer compares it to a shrill exclamation not dissimilar to the cry of the European Kestrel. It is generally produced upon the wing. Mr. Dall, as stated by Dr. Brewer, says "it is very fond of flying, towards dusk, from the top of one tall spruce to another, apparently swinging or balancing itself, calling to its mate at intervals, while chasing or being chased by it." .The food of this species consists mainly of mice, but birds, lizards, and insects, are also eaten. The following articles constitute a portion of its bill of fare : — Arvicola Gapperi, A. riparia, Hesperomys leucopns, Mus muscitlus, Jac- iilns hndsouius* among quadrupeds; Turd us migrator ins, Ortyx virginianus^ Melospiza melodia, among avcs; Ple- thodon erythronotus, among batrachians ; and Lucauus dama, Passalus cornutus, Prionus laticollis, and various species of butterflies and crepuscular moths. This species nests in high northern latitudes. According to Richardson, the nest is placed in a tree, and is composed of sticks externally, with a lining of grasses and feathers. In the Anderson River district, Mr. Macfarlane discovered OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 215 several nests. One was built on the summit of a species of Finns, at a height of two feet, and consisted of small twigs exteriorly, with a lining of moss. This nest contained two young birds, one of the age of ten days, and the other that of three weeks, besides an addled egg. The time of discov- ery being June 2oth would carry the incubating period back to the early part of May. Another structure was taken April 28th. which was placed in the topmost crotch of a lofty pine, and was built of dry sticks, with a lining of hay and feathers. This nest contained a complement of six eggs. A third structure possessed a lining of green mosses and the hair of deer, and contained six eggs. In one sol- itary instance, a complement of seven ova was discovered. According to Mr.'B. R. Ross, as quoted by Dr. Brewer, in the region of Great Slave Lake, the nest is not exclusively placed upon trees, but sometimes upon cliffs. Oviposi- tion takes place either during the last of March, or the begin- ing of April. The usual complement of eggs is set down at four, although in one instance, he received a sat of three. In the vicinity of Nulato, Mr. Dall found a nest as early as May 5th, which \vas placed on the summit of an old birch stump, at an elevation of fifteen feet. It was nothing more than a mere excavation in the decayed wood, upon the bottom of which six eggs were deposited. At the time of its discovery, the male occupied the nest, the female being notably absent. From this fact we infer that the incubating process is mutually performed by the sexes. While attempting to reach the structure, Mr. Dall was as- sailed by the male bird, who knocked his cap from his head. The eggs of this Owl vary somewhat in size. One, which was removed from the oviduct of the parent, on the i6th of April, at Fort Simpson, by Mr. Ross, according to Dr. Brewer, measured 1.50 by 1.20 inches. It was oval in contour, and of an obscure white color. Another taken by Mr. Macfarlane, at Fort Anderson, was rounded-oval, with an equal bluntness at the extremities, and measured 216 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS 1.62 inches in length, and 1.30 in width. It was of a yel- lowish-white color. Nyctale acadica, Bonap. The Little Acadian, or Saw Vs'het Owl as this species is popularly designated, is widely distributed throughout temperate North America. Nowhere abundant, and quite secluded in its habits, an intimate acquaintance with our subject is wanting. Richardson did not meet with it in the fur regions. It has been observed in Oregon, Califor- nia, Kentucky, Louisiana, New Jersey. Nova Scotia, and Wisconsin, by different persons. Dr. Suckley encountered it at the Dalles, north of the Columbia River, in December, where it was supposed to be living in the basaltic cliffs of that locality. In Kansas, it is a rara avis. In Maine, it is a common resident, according to Messrs. Boardman and Verrill. In Eastern Massachusetts, it is an occasional resident, Dr. Brewer having found one of these birds in the rocky cliffs of Nahant, where it had sought shelter ; while farther westward, in the vicinity of Springfield, Mr. Allen found it by no means common. In Eastern Pennsylvania, this Owl is remarkably scarce. This we think is owing to its pre-eminently nocturnal and secluded habits. Being a denizen of dense pine forests, and only venturing abroad in quest of food at night, but remain- ing concealed in hollow trees and in dark caverns of rocks, during the day, its presence and numbers remain a mystery to many. We think a careful survey of its natural retreats would throw strong light upon the subject. Again, in some parts, individuals of this species are doubtless shot and con- sidered merely as diminutive specimens of Scops asio. We have known such instances of mistaken identity. Unlike the last-mentioned species, this Owl affects a fondness for the deep recesses of densely timbered regions, whose depths are seldom explored by man, or whose echoes are but occa- sionally awakened by the human voice. It has never been OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 217 seen inclose proximity to human habitations, and seemingly shuns rather than courts the society of man. In the broad glare of day, when roused from its burrow, it becomes greatly bewildered, and is scarcely able to escape approaching danger. It is decidedly the most nocturnal species of its family, and apparently only ventures from its darksome re- treat, when twilight has settled into dusky night. Like Scops asio, it leads a solitary existence, save on the approach of warm weather, when the sexes are discerned together, or heard in the distance calling one to the other. A very curious incident of its history came under our notice a few years ago, which reminded us of the strange associ- ation of the Burrowing Owl with the prairie-dog. In the hollow of an oak-tree, not far from German town, lived an individual of the common chickaree squirrel {Scitirus hitilsonius}^ with a specimen of this Owl as its sole com- panion. They lived together in the most perfect har- mony and srood-will. This association was not an accidental J <""> temporary one, for the bird and squirrel had repeatedly been observed to enter the same hole together, as if they had always shared the apartment. But what benefit could the one have derived from the other was a question which often suggested itself to our mind. The notes of this bird during the breeding-season bear a close resemblance to the noise produced by the filing of a saw, hence, the origin of the common appellation of Saw Whet which is applied to it. These notes are so deceptive, that persons unacquainted with their scource, have imagined themselves in the vicinity of a saw-mill, or in close proxim- ity to a person engaged in whetting a saw. Mr. Audubon hearing these notes in a thicket for the first time, was thus deceived. The same distinguished writer, on the authority of Mr. McCullock, gives an interesting description not only of the notes of this Owl, but also of its remarkable pow- ers of ventriloquism. On a certain occasion, the latter was seemingly aroused by what appeared to be the feeble notes 28 218 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS of a distant bell. On Hearing- the spot whence the sounds emanated, they apparently shifted from point to point. being at onetime heard close-by, then, in the distance ; now, on the left, then, on the right, and as often in the rear as in the front. Finally, the author of these sounds was discerned at the entrance of its burrow in a birch-tree. Stationed at the base of the tree in full view of the bird who was calling its partner, our author had a splendid opportunity of noticing :ts singular and exceptional ventriloquial facultv. The flight of this Owl is smooth, gliding, noiseless, and hut slightly elevated and protracted. Its movements in quest of food remind us of those of Scops asio, being often seen gliding over low meadow-grass in the vicinity of its accustomed haunts, or, perched upon a stump or fence rail adjoining thereto, quietly ga/ing in every direction for what- ever of life manifests itself, which it seizes with remarkable adroitness, even sometimes venturing to assail prey superior to itself. Like some species, it captures its victims while upon the wing, with no little skill and address. The small birds aroused from their perch by its cries fall readv victims to its rapacity. Xest and eggs of this species have been taken at Cleveland, Ohio, as well as at Racine, Wisconsin; and at Hamilton. Canada. We think it very probable, that in the immense pine forests and other dense thickets which line the banks of the Wissahickon, often stretching fora considerable dis- tance inward, the nests of this species may yet be found. We incline to this opinion from having seen the sexes together, as late as June. Diligent search, however, has failed to reveal the nest. According to Mr. Audubon, this bird breeds in the hollows of trees, or in nests which have been deserted by other species. In the vicinity of Natchez, Mississippi, a nest was discovered in the stump of a small rotten tree, at an elevation of about four feet. Should nests be found in the vicinity of Philadelphia, which we confidently expect. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 219 there is good reason to believe that they will be discovered in decayed trees, or in the excavations of the Red-headed Woodpecker, or in those of other species of the Picidce. The food of this species consists of small quadrupeds, small birds, and various species of coleopterous, lepidop- terous and orthopterous insects. The following list will convey some idea of its voluminous bill of fare : — Mus muscuhis, Arvicola Gappcri* A. riparia, Hesperomys leucopus* If. Nuttalli) Jaculus hudsonius^ among rodents ; Melospizamelodia, Juncohyemalis, Sialia sialis, Spizella socialis, S, monticola^ and manv of the Sylvicolidce, among birds : Lucanus dauia. Cratonychus cinereus, I la r pal us caliginosns. LacJiuosterna quercina, Prionus laticollis, Stcnocorus -cillosns* and other coleoptera ; CvrtophyHus concavus, PJiycloptera oblongifolia* Cono- cephalus ensiger^ (Edipoda Carolina, (E. sulphurea* among orthoptera ; and 7 elea polyphemus, Anisopteryx vernata, Zercne catenaria, Catocalcc., Citheronia regalis, Eades i ni perl alis, and other lepidoptera. Captain Bland of Hali- fax once placed this Owl in an apartment with a rat, which it fell upon and killed, but died itself afterwards from sheer exhaution. From this statement it is doubtful whether quadrupeds as large as a rat constitute any part of its bill of fare. We think not. This Owl is frequently kept in confinement, and is known to become exceedingly tame. It will permit strangers as well as its keeper to handle it with the utmost freedom without so much as resenting such familiarity. But it man- ifests a greater attachment for its master, whom it is able to recognize by the sound of the voice, and in whose presence it is peculiarly fascinating and agreeable. Fond of sequestered situations generally, it. however, does not in all cases restrict its visits thereto. It has been known to enter large cities. Audubon cites an instance where an individual had entered a house in Cincinnati, and was perched upon the edge of a child's cradle. 220 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS The eggs of this species vary from four to six in number. and are described by Mr. Audubon as being nearly globular. and of a glossy white. In the Smithsonian Institution there is a well-identified egg which was taken at Nazareth, Pennsylvania, by Mr. R. Christ, April 25, 1867. It is of a white color, and measures .95 of an inch in length, and .88 in width. The two extremities are perfectly symmetrical. Since writing the above, we have seen a young bird which was taken in the vicinity of Germantown during the past season. At the time of its capture it was a denizen of a dense pine forest, situated along the left bank of the Wissahickon creek. This certainly is proof of the most positive character that the species breeds with us. but to what extent remains a mystery. CHAPTER XI. Family FalCOIlidse. Diurnal tiirds of Prey, The birds of this family are thus characterized. The eyes look laterally, the disk is lacking, or exists in an imperfect condition, the after-shaft present with a single exception, and the external toe non-versatile, except in Pandion, and not shorter than the internal toe. Generally the eyes are sunken beneath a superciliary shelf that projects, giving them a de- cidedly menacing aspect. The external ears are of moderate size and devoid of an operculum. The bill is highlv rap- torial, and provided with a cere which is pierced by the nostril. The lores, with occasional exceptions, are sparely invested with radiating bristles, instead of the thick closely pressed mass which characterizes the Strigidce. The feet are powerful, toes highly separable and contractile, and claws, large, sharp and curved. The toes are ordinarily scabrous on the inferior surface, with wart-like cushions at the articulations, and commonly webbed at the base. The entire tarsus is often feathered, but only partially so in most cases ; the horny covering assuming various conditions. The gullet is capacious and crop-like ; gizzard, moderately muscular; intestines changeful, and Cd^ca quite small. The syrinx is furnished with but a single pair of intrinsic muscles. The members of this family are found in all parts of the globe, and are to the residue of their class, what the Carnivora are to the Mammalia. This family, in round numbers, em- braces 1000 specific and 200 generic names. All sub-divis- ions of the family are so exceptionable, that Dr. Cones docs not consider it advisable to avail himself thereof in his system of classification. -2-2-2 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS Circus cyaneus, var. hudsonius, /./////. The Marsh Hawk has a very extensive distribution in North America, and is known to breed from Hudson Hay to Texas, and from Nova Scotia to the Pacific Coast. On the plains of the Saskatchewan and Columbia Rivers, and on the prairies of the Missouri, it has been found by different parties. In fact, it is abundant wherever found, except in the south-eastern parts of the United S rates. From the Mississippi river towards the Pacific, it is an abundant summer resident. Dr. Gundlach and others include it among the migrants of Cuba ; Mr. Salvin found it a migra- tory species in Guatemala. As an evidence of its roving character, supposed specimens from the Philippine Islands and from Kamtschatka, are in the Leyden Museum. This is highly probable, as birds could have readily reached the latter place, by way of north-western America. In Eastern Pennsylvania this species is tolerably abundant in the marshes along the Delaware River. Occasionally, individuals stray inward for a distance of several miles, and are constant visitors at the/ larger marshes, especially in secluded situations, where they can ply their gastronomic business without fear of human intrusion or interference. When surprised, however, they manifest but little fear, and unlike many of the higher species, retire to a short distance, when they alight either upon an exposed tree-branch, or upon a tussock of grasses or sedges. Though somewhat fearless of man, it cannot lay claim to much spirit of bold- ness ; in the absence of which trait, there is noticeable a marked diiTerence from the Accipitcr^. With a physiognomy somewhat owl-like in character, reenforced by the peculiar soft texture of the plumage, it is not at all surprising that the character of the Harrier should be only a partial counterpart of that of the Stri^'nhc. This analogy is particularly notice- able in the manner of flight, capture of prey, and in the absence of less than the ordinary amount of pugnacity and OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 22:) bravery. It. is not an uncommon occurrence to find several of these birds together in the same marsh or swamp foraging for game. The most perfect harmony prevails as they cross and intercross each other's line of flight. In some sections, they are said to visit farms and disturb the poultry. With us such behavior is entirely unknown, and there does not exist the same animosity towards them, as rankles in the breast of the husbandman, towards its more distant relative, who is ever on the alert to seize a chicken or pigeon dur- ing his absence. The flight of this species is one of its most peculiar char- acteristics. Whilst foraging, it is moderately low, and quite irregular. They skim very leisurely over a meadow, vary- ing their flight by sailing first to the right then to the left, now up and then down. When not engaged in predatory excursions, their flight is lofty, and accomplished with all the ease and grace of their more ambitious brethren. From their peculiar habit of "quartering" the ground like a* well- trained dog, they have received in some sections, the in- elegant appellation of Bog-trotter, and in others, the more euphonious one of Harrier. In searching for food they course very low, and when their victim is descried, pounce down upon it with unerring rapidity, seldom failing to transfix it writh the bill, or to clutch it in their more powerful talons. The spirit of this bird is scarcely commensurate with its physique, and, conse- quently, its quarry is rather humble. Those splendid move- ments which render most of our species so eminently success- ful in capturing their prey, are notably lacking in this species. In the spring and autumn, it follows closely in the wake of our smaller migrants, which contribute no mean portion of its diet. These, it captures while on the wing ; but, customarily, it is more grovelling in its pursuits. It prefers to hover over its prey after the fashion of the Sfr/gi- (/tc, and to take it unawares ; even deigning like these birds to lie in wait for the same, as it emerges from concealment. •2-24 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS After capturing its quarry, it is by no means particular as to the place which it selects for the enjoyment of its meal. Sometimes, it seeks the summit of a small tree, or even perches upon fences when such objects are convenient, but most generally disposes of it in the tall grasses, by whose aid it was enabled to secure its victim. The well-known places which it frequents, indicate with a good degree of certainty, the character of its food, and its rather peculiar habitudes. It manifests a decided partiality for the batrach- ians, particularly frogs, which rcnde/vous in humid situations. Besides amphibians, snakes, small quadrupeds, birds, and insects especially of the orthopterous character, are devoured with considerable avidity. The following list embraces a conspicuous portion of its multitudinous and multifarious bill of fare: — Arvico/a Gappcri, Hesperomys feucopus, J/?/.v musculus, Jaculus hudsonius, among quad- rupeds ; Mclospiza mclodia, SplzcHa monticola^ Jtinco hy emails ) Zonotrichia albicoilis* Passerella iliaca* the Svfvicolidce, and when pressed by hunger. Plovers, Par- tridges, and Teal, among birds ; Raua sylvatica, R. piplc/t*. /\. /lalecinct* Plethodon erythronotus^ Pseudotriton rnbct\ among amphibians ; CJilorosoma ~ccrnali$* Ophibolus exim- i//s, Kutccnia sir t alls ^ and other serpents ; Cyrtophyllus COHCCCVUS* Phvlloptcra oblo ngifolia* (Edipoda ncbulosa. CE. sulphurca* Gryllotalpa horcalis, among orthoptera : Lucanus dania^ Lachnosterna quercina+Passalus cor nut us Prionuslaticottis, Telca polyphcmits* Platysamta cecropia Callosamia pronietJiea, CaiocaLc and other noctuids. among coleoptera and lepidoptera. The winter notes of this species are quite sharp and loud, and resemble the syllables pce-pcc-pce* produced moderately rapidly and with a clear intonation. The love notes are said to be like those of colnnibarins. The female is certainly- more clamorous, particularly during the breeding-period, than her partner. Xidification commences during the latter part • *" A pri! OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 225 sometimes earlier when the season is favorable. It has not been our privilege to meet with the nest in Eastern Pennsyl- vania, but circumstances lead us to believe that a few remain to breed in retired swamps, instead of journeying north- ward. We are confirmed in this belief by having met the sexes throughout the entire summer in the same locality, engaged in the procurement of food, which they carried to a considerable distance, beyond our ability to follow them with the eye. The not uncommon habit of these birds to dispose of their food on the spot where taken, being known to us, there certainly could have been no other in- ference drawn from the facts. From those wrho have wit- nessed the nest, and also from our own observations in the southern portions of New Jersey where these birds nest more frequently than in Eastern Pennsylvania, we glean the following particulars. The nest is often placed in a clump of bushes, in a rather retired situation, close to the borders of a stream or a pond. But the most common situation is in the midst of a swamp or a low meadow, where there is a dense growth of vegeta- tion. It is composed, externally, of small sticks for a ground- work, on which is placed a superstructure of dried grasses, rather neatly arranged in a somewhat circular manner; within, there is sometimes placed a lining of feathers, but, in most instances, these objects are an unnoticeable feature. The site of the nest is sometimes the centre of a large tus- sock of grasses. It is built of a few dried grasses scraped together indiscriminately, on which the eggs are deposited. The enveloping grasses help to subserve the purposes of a nest. When a structure is built, most generally a slight concavity of the soil is chosen for its reception, the birds sometimes applying themselves to its formation, where it does not exist naturally. The diameter of a nest usually measures from twelve to fourteen inches, and the height, from four to five. The cavity is exceedingly slight, and scarcely con- 20 226 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS ceals the eggs within ; often, the latter are readily discerned protruding above the marginal line of the nest. The nidification of this species differs very materially from its kind, and approximates that of Cathartes. Various ac- counts are given thereof, some of which are too comprehen- sive in their details, while others are certainly grossly exaggerated. Audnbon's description is certainly in accord with the facts. He says that the nest is composed of k' dry grasses * * * pretty regularly and compactly disposed, especially in the interior, on which much care appeared to be bestowed. No feathers or other material had been used in its construction, not even a twig." This description compares quite favorably with that of Dr. Cones in "• Birds of the North West." In Concord, Dr. H. R. Steel found a nest on the margin of a pond, which was furnished with a lining of feathers and fine grasses, as recorded by Dr. Brewer. But the finest structure of which we have seen any descrip- tion, is given by the last-cited authority, in the work entitled ''North American Birds." This nest was placed on a low ground which was covered with clusters of sedges. It was composed entirely of dry sticks, circularly arranged, and "finished off or topped out with small branches of pine- boughs." The depth was insufficient to conceal the egg.*- from view. It was built entirely of sticks, not a single feather being utilized in its structure, nor scattered around. It was six inches in thickness, one inch of which being of fine boughs. The nest being completed by the joint labor of both birds. the female begins to oviposit. The ordinary complement of eggs varies from four to five, and is deposited on con- secutive days, at the rate of a single ovum per day. Incu- bation immediately succeeds. The female is the first to occupy the nest. After sitting for a definite period, which seldom varies in length, she vacates the nest for her mate who is always within calling distance. The latter contributes an equal share of time to this essential business. While the OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 227 female is thus engaged, the male not uncommonly divides a part of his booty with her, especially when he has been so fortunate as to come into possession of a juicy frog, or of some other great delicacy. When the nest is disturbed by human intruders, the occu- pant leaves very suddenly, starts oft' in pursuit of her mate, but quickly returns accompanied by the latter, when the two endeavor by threatening actions to deter the invader. The male is remarkably shy, seldom uttering a single cry, while the female is quite venturesome, circling close round the head of the intruder, and evincing her extreme anxiety by the most vociferous clamors. The young are objects of the most thoughtful attention by their parents, who vigorously apply themselves to their maintenance. Their extreme voracity taxes severely the time of the latter. It is seldom that both parents are absent from home .at the same time, save when the young are so artfully concealed that there is little apprehension of danger. Ordinarily, but one parent is abroad at a time in quest of food, the other remaining in the immediate vicinity to guard the nest and inmates from the depredations of enemies. The food of the young consists of the flesh of frogs, and also of small birds and insects, during their early existence. But, as they become older, and are able to help themselves in a measure, less care is manifested by the parents. The food is now administered in its entirety, the requisite division be- ing effected by the young birds themselves. When able to quit the nest and seek their own sustenance, they do not separate like the young of most species, but keep together tor a time, and hunt in company. In this respect, they are slightly gregarious, and differ from all other species of hawks. During the breeding-season, the sexes shovvconsid- erable affection and fidelity towards each other, which is continued to be displayed as long as their cares and pleas- ures are mutually shared. The eggs of this species vary both in sixc and markings. LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS Some specimens are a dull white with a greenish tinge, but with no evidence of spots. Others have u bluish or green- ish ground-color, with pale1 irregular blotches of light lilac, or lavender. But the eggs of the same nest seldom display any perceptible differences in their markings. They are broadly oval in contour, with nearly symmetrical extremities. Their average measurement is 1.85 inches in length, and 1.4^ in width. fllSCUS, Gray. The Sharp-Shinned Hawk is one of the most common of our North American species. Its geographical distribu- tion is nearly co-extensive with the continent. It was found by Richardson as far north as the 5ist parallel of latitude. It has been found in Mexico by Mr. Pease, and in Alaska to the north-west, by Mr. Dall. Messrs. Salvin and Sclater mention it as rare comer in Guatemala. In Mas- sachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Florida, Wisconsin, and California, it has been observed to breed ; and it is highly probable that it may yet be found to breed in all the intervening States and Territories. In Eastern Pennsylvania, this species is tolerably abun- dant, though less so than the common Sparrow Hawk. Like the latter, it has no preference for a particular locality, visiting the farm-yards in rural districts quite as often as waste grounds and large open thickets. But in the city it is only an occasional resident. The everlasting bustle " O and hum of such places, combined with the scarcity of food-materials, are but weak incentives to induce a res- idence in thickly-peopled places. But since the introduc- tion of the Sparrows from abroad, there seems to be a greater inclination to enter our cities and towns. Although passionately fond of small birds, which contribute largely to its sustenance, it is a not uncommon visitor to low mead- ows, inquest of the small rodents which lurk .in those humid situations. Few of our smaller Hawks are more spirited OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 229 and venturesome than the one under consideration. AY hen in the pursuit of quarry, its daring becomes most reckless. The presence of its bitterest enemy with gun in hand, awaiting to deal destruction to its foolhardiness and temer- ity, interposes no barrier to its reckless course. Mr. Nut- tall cites a rather curious instance of this recklessness. An individual swooping with blind eagerness upon its quarry, passed through a glass of a greenhouse at the Botanic Gar- den in Cambridge, and, subsequently, through a similar glass partition, and was only arrested in its dashing career by a third, when it was captured and found to have received but a slight injury. The flight of this Hawk is so peculiar that it can be easily recognized in the distance. It is swift, vigorous, and somewhat varied and irregular. When in quest of prey, it moves moderately high at first, but gradually descends to a lower level, moving athwart the ground with surprising swiftness, and pouncing upon its quarry with such sudden- ness, that escape is out of the question. We have often ob- served it in pursuit of birds which would exert themselves to the utmost to escape their swift and powerful enemy, and. which, as a dernier rcssort, would innocently seek shelter in a clump of briers, apparently congratulating themselves on their supposed security, when the object of their alarm, nothing daunting, would dash through the thicket with impetuosity, and transfix its victim before the latter had time to recover its self-possession. It not uncommonly happens that these birds attack prey, much too heavy to carry off, which they are constrained to relinquish. Unlike the Harrier, they disdain to feed upon the ground, but prefer to carry their game to a suitable tree where they can devour it at leisure. When on a foraging expedition, every clump of grass or bush is carefully scrutinized ; but wre have never observed a single instance, where it resorted to the ignoble habit of hiding, in order to secure its prey, Its seeming fondness for small chickens and the occupants of the dove-cot, leads 230 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS it into forbidden grounds, for which it often pays the dearest penalty. Its pertness and destrnctiveness render it an object of utter detestation, and the hands of the husbandman are ever raised to mete out to it summary and condign punishment. The food of this species consists mainly of small birds, but quadrupeds, reptiles, and insects, are eaten in great numbers. The following list embraces a portion of its bill of fare : — Rana lialecina^ R. svhat/ca. Pseudotriton nibcr, 'Plethodon erythronotus, Rana clamitans, Arvicola Gap- peri, Hesperomys leucopus, Jaculns /unison ins. Mus mtis- ciihis* Melospiza mclodia. Turd its migratorius^ Si alia stalls* Harporhynchus ru/us, ^\fimns carolinensis*, Ortyx virg'iniamts*. and many other vertebrates ; Cyrtophyllus con- rmv/y. PJn'lloptcra oblongifolla* (Edipoda Carolina, Cal- optcinis femur-rubrum^ Gryllotalpa borcalis, .Lncauns dama, Passalus corn-utus, Orthosoma nnicolor. Lacluws- tcrna qucrcina, Tele a polvp/icnins. Platvsaniia cecropia, Callosamia -proniethea. and many of the larger Papilioii- idic and Sphin<>'idcc. The notes of this Hawk are loud and shrill, and are mainly uttered during the breeding-period. Whilst foraging for food, it is perfectly silent. But, when surprised whilst engaged in feeding, it is occasionally heard to utter a sharp piercing1 shriek, which is seemingly indicative of commin- gled alarm and indignation. Mating commences during the last week of April, or the beginning of May. It is at this time that the males are mostly heard. Perched upon an exposed tree-branch, on the borders of a grove, or in the midst of an open field, it utters its shrill call-notes, which reverberate through the woods. These sounds are produced at irregular intervals, the author turning the head in every direction, eagerly intent on descrying, in the distance, the object of his search'. \\V have known him to remain in the same position for nearly an hour, unless disturbed. At the expiration of this period OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 231 he flies to a distant locality, where he repeats similar move- ments. Sometimes days are thus spent before a favorable response is elicited. On the first appearance of the object of his desires, his joy is unbounded. The most endearing attentions are lavished upon her when they meet, which are speedily reciprocated. Scarcely more than two clays are occu- pied in courting, when the happv pair fly away together in quest of a suitable nesting-place. The female apparently has her own way in matters pertaining thereto. A conven- ient spot is shortly fixed upon, and preparations for building begun. The nest is generally placed in the summit of a tall tree, or upon a ledge of rock, in some obscure and sequestered locality. The kind of tree generally chosen is a spruce, or some other coniferous tree. In the majority of cases, the structure is built by the birds, at infinite pains and expense. \Ve have observed instances where a deserted nest of the common Grey Squirrel, or that of the common Crow, has been chosen, but this is rarely done. Occasionally, these birds nidificate in the hollowrs of decayed tree-branches, but we have never met with such cases. The labor of building is mutually shared by both birds, the male fetching the mate- rials, which are adjusted by the female. The latter, occasion- ally, assists her partner. The period required to construct a nest, varies from three to four days, according to the style of nest. The birds do not labor continuously, but intermit the task during the heat of the day, and stroll across the country in quest of game, or repose in the cool refreshing shade of their native haunts. Externally, the nest is composed of dry sticks which are placed in a crotch near the trunk, thus constituting a plat- orm, upon which the dry grasses are placed which form the interior. The structure is rather compactly and elab- orately built. The diameter is from fourteen to fifteen inches, and the height about six inches. The cavity is rather symmetrically formed, but has the disadvantage of be- 232 'LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS ing quite superficial. When the nest is place! upon a clifu protected from the weather by overhanging rocks, there is less care bestowed upon its construction. Usually, a slight depression of requisite dimensions is selected, which is lined with dry grasses overlaid by a few mosses. Such nests are elaborated with but little pains. Audubon once discovered a nest in a hole in a rock, on the banks of the Ohio River. It was built of a few sticks and grasses loosely interwoven and placed about two feet from the en- trance to the hole. The nest being finished, the female begins almost imme- diately to deposit her eggs. The eggs, in some instances, are laid on consecutive days, but we have positive proofs that sometimes a single day is intermitted, and at other times, even two and three days intervene between each deposit. The entire complement ranges from four to five eggs. Incubation is commenced by the female, who, after sitting for a varying period of! time, which ranges from three to four hours, and even five in some instances, resigns her task to the male, who becomes a very patient and faithful sitter. The male enters the nest with alacrity, and after receiving the endearments of her partner, the female quietly retires to a neighboring thicket to refresh herself in the cooling shade, or to partake of food. When not thus engaged, she takes her place close by the nest, ready to obey the summons of her mate, when he should weary of his task. Both parents are exceedingly jealous of their treasures, and will not per- mit the approach of feathered enemies, without chastising them severely for their temerity. In the case of human in- truders, they display considerable spirit, and even exhibit the most reckless daring. The female is certainly more venturesome than her partner, and surpasses him in the most determined pertinacity. In defending their home against an invader, they are seldom heard to utter a single cry, but compensate therefore in fearless actions. The OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 233 period of incubation ranges from sixteen to seventeen days. But a single brood is reared in a season. The young are objects of extraordinary solicitude by the parents, \vho vie with each other in. rendering them the greatest attention. Thev are voracious feeders, and severely tax their parents t<. provide them with an abundance of suit- able food. While one parent is abroad in quest of food, the other remains at home to protect its inmates from dan- gerous foes which may be prowling about. The food of the young at first consists of the Mesh of birds which the par- ents are able to capture ; but when they have attained con- siderable size, the food is provided entire. At the age of three or four weeks the young are able to leave the nest, and receive their food while clinging to the branches of trees. When almost six weeks old. they are able to hunt for them- selves, but still consort with their parents for a week or two longer, when they separate and repair to distinct roosting quarters, at night. The eggs are nearly spherical, and pretty equally symmet- rical at the extremities. The ground-color is white, with a livid tinge, and is almost wholly obscured by irregular, Variously-shaded brownish blotches, which sometimes form a wreath about the center, or near the larger end. In some cases, these spots are pretty evenly distributed, but change remarkably in number, size, and pattern. The average measurement is 1.44 bv 1.16 inches. Accipiter cooperii, Gray. The Chicken Hawk or Cooper's Hawk as this species is commonly designated, has a wide distribution. It extends from South Carolina to New Brunswick on the Atlantic, from Texas to Saskatchewan in the inland regions, and from California to Washington Territory on the Pacific coast. It is particularly abundant in the Middle States where it breeds, and also on the banks of the Potomac River. It has been 30 234 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS found nesting in many States, and it is highly probable that it breeds wherever found. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it appears rather plentiful during some seasons, but, at other times, there is a marked dim- inution in numbers. Farther to the west it occurs in much greater numbers. It is exceedingly bold and daring, and often ventures upon forbidden grounds, much to the annov- ance of the husbandman, who is its bitterest enemy. When in pursuit of prev. it heeds not the hitter's presence, and will even pounce upon a fine cock, utterly unmindful of the im- pending doom which surely awaits it. Next to farm-lands, it regards with particular favor, high open woods, and the borders of dense thickets. It is seldom found in dense woods with a thick growth of underbrush, on account of the evident disadvantages which it there meets with. During the au- tumnal and winter months it leads a solitary existence. The sexes manifest but little regard for each other. When by O accident they meet in the same neighborhood, there is man- ifestly no disposition to associate, as likewise there is no inclination to do each other harm. Birds of prey of specific differences, however, are not permitted to come within its territory, if of inferior size, without receiving a severe rebuke for their temerity. Unlike the Harrier, this species disdains ignoble pursuits, seldom visiting low humid grounds in quest of the grovelling beings which inhabit such unpretending situations. The flight of this species is rapid, uniform, and quite protracted. Sometimes it skims over the surfaces of fields scarcely above the fences, and, in the next moment, may be seen careering aloft above the highest trees of the forest. It moves along in a quiet, gliding manner, with a swiftness quite remarkable, and is seldom observed to deviate from a straight tack, save to seize a victim that crosses its path. The peculiar circular movements which the Broad-winged Hawk and some other species possess in a pre-eminent degree, are notably wanting. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 2:3 :> The food of this species consists principally of birds, although small quadrupeds, li/ards. batrachians, and insects, arc- eagerly devoured wherever encountered. Prey as large as the common Ruffed Grouse and the ordinary barnvard fowl, are occasionally captured ; but, owing to their superior si/e and weight, are eaten upon the ground. Whilst thus occupied, the birds are frequently so intent upon their task, that a near approach is possible. But, ordinarily, this species is by far the most cautious of all the Falcon i die. The following animals constitute an important part of its rather uniform bill of fare : — Ortyx virgin ianns* Tiirdus migratorius. T. mustcliHits, Quiscalus versicolor, Agclains pJiceniceus. Mimus carolinensis^ HarporJiyiicJnit ritfns, PasscrcUa iliaca, Zonotrichia albicollis* Philoheht minor. GaUinago Wilsonii* Bonasa iimbellus. Gallus do- niesticus* among birds ; Arvicold Gapperi, Hesperomys leu- copns. Scinru-'s hudsonius, Tamias striatus* among quad- rupeds ; and, occasionally, Raua sylvatica, R. halecina, Hyla 'cersicolor, and Pletkod&n erythronotus* among l)atrachians ; and Cyrtopbyttus concavus* Phylloptera oblongifolia, GryUotalpa boreal is ^ CEdipoda' Carolina^ Caloptcims femur-rubrum, Priouus laticollis, Osmoderma scabra. Lacknosterna qnercuia. and PapiUouidic and Sphiiigidie* among lepidoptera. These birds begin to mate during the latter part of April, often not till the i5th of May. Previous to this period, the sexes are always separated, and seemingly manifest but little regard for each other. But, at the above season, when a plentiful supply of food is to be obtained, and, doubtless, ani- mated bv the exhilarating breath of spring, the males become excessively amorous, and are now as eager for female society, as they were before for the selfish gratification of appetite. Their time is now divided between feeding and seeking their partners. Perched upon an exposed tree-branch, on the borders of an open wood, or in the midst of a large field, they give expression to a rather shrill call-note, which can :?:;<» LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS l>e heard at a great distance. After an interval of a feu- minutes, the call is repeated, when meeting with no response- the bird starts oil* to another spot quite remote from the for- mer, where he repeats the same cry at nearly regular intervals. until a reply is elicited. At this juncture, his jov is intense, and manifests itself in strange actions, and in the most won- derful exhibitions of love, which, after a time, are reciprocated by the female, who is rather more modest in the expression of her affection, although none the less sincere. The male, after this first passion has subsided, equally loving though less demonstrative, leads the way to an adjoining copse or thicket, closely followed by his newly-wedded partner. After a brief consultation, they start off in quest of a nesting- place, each taking a different direction, but eventually meet- ing at an apparently designated spot, after a greater or less interval of time. In such matters, the male pays due defer- ence to the judgment of the female whom he invariably consults. The nest is placed either in an oak or a pine-tree, most generally the latter. Sometimes, at the extremity of a pow- erful branch, and, at other times, near the main trunk. The height varies from twenty-five to forty feet. In secluded situations, it is mostly low down, and easily reached ; while In more exposed places, particularly when an isolated oak is chosen, it is considerably elevated, and placed far out upon the extremity of a topmost bough which is often quite inac- cessible. At a distance it bears a close resemblance to the nest of Corvus americauus. Externally, it is composed of sticks from one fourth to one half an inch in diameter, which constitute a firm and stable framework ; and, inter- nally, it is lined with dry leaves, grasses, and, occasionally, with dry mosses, or feathers. The external diameter is two feet, and the height about six inches. The thickness of the walls varies from seven-eighths to one inch. The cavity is so slight that there is barely room for the eggs. These birds do not always construct a domicile for themselves, but have occa- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. '2:\7 sionally been known to take possession of a deserted Crow's nest, and, in one instance, a newly-built nest of the latter, after having driven its rightful occupants awav. But, as a rule, the generality of birds prefer their own workmanship to that of another. In cases where other nests are occupied, it is mainly done b\ young birds, or those of indolent habits. The time required for the construction of a nest, seldom exceeds three days. It is the work of both sexes, who labor most vigorously during' a portion of each day, chiefly in the morning, until the fabric is completed. The male-bird mostly provides the materials which he procures close-by, while the female busies herself with their proper adjust- ment ; sometimes, however, assisting her partner in his more burdensome occupation. Oviposition follows cjosely upon the completion of the nest. In many instances, the eggs that constitute a comple- ment, are deposited either on successive, or alternate days. before incubation is assumed. Sometimes the female com- mences to sit after the deposition of two eggs ; the residue being laid at somewhat irregular intervals during the incubating process. It therefore happens that the same nest often contains both young birds and eggs in divers stages of development. The female does not assume the sole responsibility, but shares it with her mate, who per- forms his portion of the task with alacrity. When the former, who is the first to occupy the nest, is ready to retire tor a brief season of relaxation and pleasure, her intentions are indicated by a peculiar sound, which is responded to by the male, who is in the immediate vicinity awaiting with expectancy the anticipated summons. From three to four hours is the limit. While one is sitting, the other after hav- ing attended to his appetitive demands, repairs to a spot in full view of the nest, over which he exercises the closest surveillance ; punishing with severity other birds should they dare to trespass upon his territory. Even human beings when venturing too near, are sometimes made to 238 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS feel the force of his indignation : although, in the generality of instances, a feeling of extreme shyness is manifested in the presence of human intruders. We have known the males whilst their partners were on the nest, to bring an occasional choice article which they deemed tempting to the appetite of the latter. During the building of the nest, and even during the continuance of the incubating process, the male accomplishes the most curious and remarkable feats ; fairlv rivalling our most skilful and accomplished human acrobats. After reaching an immense height in the air, not unlike the Tumbler Pigeon, he amuses as well as interests us by his sporting. Vaulting and summer- sault movements, which are certainly the result of a super- abundance of animal spirits. At these periods as he tiies from tree to tree, he is heard to utter a peculiar cry. which resembles the syllables kwic-k-wic-kivic* produced quite rapidly. This cry is entirely dissimilar to the sharp, shrill scream which he utters when in pursuit of prey, or when taken unawares. The female produces the same notes under similar circumstances. A low. mournful, somewhat lisping note, is indicative of hunger. Air. Charles S. Paine of Randolph. Yt., affirms that the cry of gel sfc! g'd g'd is several times repeated by both parents, when the nest is as- sailed by human intruders. We have never heard these sounds under similar circumstances, and are inclined to think that scarcely any two pairs act precisely alike when subjected to the same annovances. The period of incuba- tion is eighteen days. But a single brood is reared in a season. The voungare carefully nourished bv the parents. Being vcrv voracious feeders, thev scverelv tax the time and energies of their supporters. Their food consists mostly of small birds, and various coleopterous, orthopterous. and lepidopterous insects. In about four weeks they are able to leave the nest, and receive their food while clinging to the tree-branches. An expiration of a fortnight finds them OF EASTKRX PENNSYLVANIA. -239 prepared to use their wings to a slight extent, but still they are not able to procure anything but the commonest insects that they chance to meet with in their somewhat varied experience. In two months from the time of hatching, they are so far matured, that parental assistance is no longer needed. The young birds keep together for a short time while feeding, but repair to the old nest to roost at nights. But this is of short duration. They soon learn to disregard each other, and each takes a course where he is likely to meet with the greatest abundance of suitable food-stuffs. hi about six months they have acquired the characteristic adult plumage, and imitate the peculiar notes of the parent birds with the greatest exactness. In the ensuing spring, they follow the example of the older birds, and prepare for the raising of a family. Sometimes they become un- equally mated, an old bird and a young one becoming partners, but we are inclined to think that birds of the same age mostly pair together. Instances have been recorded of the young of this species being reared in confinement. The most remarkable case is cited by Dr. Coues in his work on the "Birds of the North West." During his stay in Arizona, on a time he became apprised of a pair of these birds being kept at a dis- tance, whose fame had spread far and wide. These birds had been taken from the nest and carefully trained by their keeper. When they had attained to a certain si/e, they were set at liberty. But such was their strong attachment to him, that they refused* to leave him. They would come when whistled for, My about the head of their owner, and finally alight upon his shoulder, without manifesting aught but the most implicit confidence. When hunting they \vould follow him for the small birds with which lie was wont to feed them. Although quite tame and familiar, when in his presence alone, they, however, manifested consider- able shyness when others were present. The eggs of this species are from three to four in number. 240 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS occasionally, but rarely, five. They are nearly spherical, almost equally symmetrical at the extremities, and have a granulated surface. The ground-color is a uniform dull white, which is sometimes tinned with bluish. Their aver- age measurement is 1.0,3 inches in length, and 1.^4 in width. Falco communis, Gm. The Peregine Falcon is now much better known than for- merly. As late as 1857, Dr. Brewer had, received but a single authentic instance of its breeding in the United States. It is now known to breed in divers parts of the countrv. Mr. Allen, with the assistance of Dr. \V. Wood and Mr. C. \\ . Beivnett, has elaborated quite conspicuously its history, and has established the important fact of its breeding in a few of the mountains in the Connecticut River Valley, and adjacent thereto. Mr. Boardman gives it as a resident species on the island of Grand Menan. It has been found breeding on Talcott Mountain near Hartford, and on Mt. Tom near Springfield. Massachusetts. Prof. Halde- man discovered it breeding near Columbia, Pennsylvania, on a cliff along the Susquehanna river, and it is probable that it nests in the vicinity of Harper's Ferry. As high as latitude 65° north, it is supposed to breed. Mr. Macfarlane found it to be a rather common species on the banks of An- derson and Lockhart Rivers in the Arctic regions, where it was breeding. Others have found it in high northern latitudes. In the West Indies, in Central and .South America, it most likely occurs both as a migrant and a res- ident, according to the testimony of various writers. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it is a very rare species, and breeds only in occasional instances. Perhaps a more careful and thorough exploration of our numerous river banks, and the summits of many of our numerous mountain ridges, would reveal the fact that it breeds in larger numbers than is at present allowed. Its habits do not differ in any essen- tial particulars from those of the more familiar I^alco com- OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 241 munis of the Eastern Hemisphere. Excepting during the breeding-period, it is a solidary species, spending much of its time in satisfying the demands of a most vigorous appe- tite. It is a bold and spirited bird, and apparently indiffer- ent to the near presence of man, when in quest of food. It manifests a strong partiality for tame pigeons, which it pur- sues to their cotes, even entering in order to secure them, unless prevented by the too near approach of human beings, or the narrowness of the entrance. Young chickens are esteemed a great delicacy7, and its visits to the farmyard in rural districts, are made on their behalf. Where these arti- cles are not obtainable, a preference is manifested for streams of water, and ponds which are visited by various water- fowls, and also for high open woods, chiefly of Querctis and Pinits^ and not unfrequently for marshy grounds where it may be seen perched upon a dead branch, quietly surveying the territory in every direction for quarry, which, when it perceives, it darts down upon, with unerring precision. Even our smaller rapacious birds are objects of its vengeance, and do not escape the fate which befalls their humbler brethren. As a proof of its daring, it is often attracted by the report of a gun. and has been observed to swoop down upon his game and bear it off while the sportsman was but a few paces distant. The flight of this bird is quite rapid and moderately sustained. It differs somewhat from that of most Hawks, especially in its manner of sailing, which is rarely performed, and generally after some disappointment. On such occa- sions, it rises in a broad spiral circuit, seemingly for the purpose of reconnoitring the surrounding country, and then darts quickly off in search of plunder. When its prey is perceived, with redoubled energy it starts in pursuit, following its every movement with surprising celerity. The food of this species consists of small quadrupeds, and birds from the si/e of a Mallard Duck down to our smallest species with whom it is an object of terror, and 31 242 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS occasionally, fish, batrachians, and clivers insects. It prefers. however, the flesh of birds. It is a very dainty feeder, carefully divesting the animals captured, of their covering of feathers and hair, and tearing the flesh in small bits. which it swallows singly. It is mostly silent when abroad in quest of prey. When disturbed, however, in the midst of a meal, it shows its extreme indignation and disgust bv a loud shrill scream, which is repeated several times in succession as it moves away to a place of security. When its quarry is small, it perches upon a tree close-by, particu- larly in a quiet retreat ; or, should the place of capture be in close proximity to a human habitation and danger is immi- nent, it is borne away to a distant thicket, and devoured at leisure. Where its victim is large and too burdensome, like the Harrier it has been known to feed upon the ground. The vast numbers of small animals which it destroys, arc- more than sufficient for its wants, and often appear to be killed out of wanton cruelty, as in frequent instances thev are left untouched. In this particular, it resembles a bird considerably removed from its own family, the Collurio borealis, or common Butcher Bird. The following list contains a portion of the animals which contribute to its bill of fare: — Qrtyx virginianus, Philohela minor, Gal- linago ivilsonii, Ectopistes migratoria^ Zcnaidura car- olincnsis, Gonlaphea ludoviciana, Ampelis cedroruni* ^uiscalus versicolor^ Cardinalis virgin-tan us. and many of the common Fringillidce and Sylvicolidce, among birds ; Sciurus hudsonius, Tamias striatus, Ptcroniv* volucella, Jaculus hudsonius', Arvicola Gappcri* among quadrupeds ; Rana sylvatica, R. Jialecina, R. clawitans* Plethodon erythronotus^ among amphibians ; and Cyr- tophyllus concav?Ls, PhyJloptera oblongifolia, (Edipoda Carolina, Priomis unicolor, Lucamts dania. I.ac/n/os- terna qucrcina* and some Papilionidce and Sphingida among insects. In addition thereto, the common fowl, OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 243 common pigeon, mallard duck, petrels, and dead fish, are often eaten. We have never met with this species breeding in any por- tion of Pennsylvania. According to Dr. Brewer it was found breeding on a high cliff close by the house of Prof. S. S. Haldeman, Columbia, Penn., who, on several occa- sions, captured young birds which had fallen from their nest. They occupied the above locality during ten or eleven months of the year, leaving only during the cold winter months, but returning with the dawn of favorable weather. They were early breeders, the young quitting the nest possibly in May. It was the opinion of Prof. Haldeman that the young left in the course of the season, only a single pair remaining. The nest of this species is mostly constructed on a cliff, and, exceptionally, upon a tree. The only reliable instance of the latter case, is given on the authority of Mr. Dall, who found it nesting in a tree in our newly acquired territory of Alaska. The barest apology of a nest is sometimes constructed, but most generally the eggs are deposited on a ledge of crumbling shale, or one of clayey mud, without any accessory lining or protection. Mr. Allen affirms that these birds re- pair to Mt. Tom very early in the season. They are said to exercise the closest watch over their eyry, which they defend quite persistently, even displaying greater alarm when it is approached, than when it contains eggs or young. Nesting certainly takes place during the early part of April, some- times later, as the young birds are taken both in May and June. Mr. Bennett once robbed the nest of this bird twice in succession, but the pair sought other quarters as he sup- posed, and had unfledged young during the latter part of August. In one instance, Mr. Boardman discovered a nest close by the structure of a pair of Ravens. The most per- fect friendship and mutual forbearance were seemingly mani- fested by such diverse families. The young, even when fully fledged, are said to be attended by their parents. Early in •244 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS the autumn, however, the families separate, and each indi- vidual leads a solitary existence, until the annual return ot" the reproductive period. Formerly, the European species was extensively trained for the chase, and even now is sometimes thus utilized. Its remarkable docility and wonderful flying powers render it of immense service to the huntsman. Our own bird could doubtless be equally efficient and useful. The eggs of this species are ordinarily four in number. They vary considerably in size, coloring, and markings. They are rounded-oval in contour, and have a deep cream-colored background, which, in some cases, is so completely covered by markings, as to be seldom visible. In many, a reddish ground-color is apparently noticeable, being doubtless due to the brownish markings by which it is almost wholly con- cealed ; in others, a dark ferruginous -coating appears, which varies considerably in depth of coloring, and deepens in places, into almost perfect blackness ; while a few are but sparingly marked with light brown blotches, thus showing quite clearly the characteristic ground-color. According to Dr. Brewer, they range from 2.00 to 2.22 inches in length, and from 1.60 to 1.0,0 in breadth; the largest recorded, having been obtained from Mount Tom, and measuring 2.22 !>v 1.70 inches. Falco columbarius, Linn. The Pigeon Hawk winters throughout the more temperate parts of North America, and also in Mexico. Central Amer- ica, and the northern portions of South America. It ranges as far north as the Arctic coast, and is known to breed as high as Fort Anderson. Mr. Dall gives it as a permanent resident at Nulato ; and specimens were taken by BischofT, at Kodiak. During the breeding-season, its southern limit is Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Northern Maine, and likely Vermont and New York. On the Pacific coast it is quite abundant, and has been found breeding in Washington OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 24f> 'Territory and Oregon. Mr. March says it is a permanent resident on the Island of Jamaica, where it has been known to breed. Dr. Brewer docs not think that it breeds in any portion of Massachusetts, nor south of the 44° in New England, unless in mountainous regions. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it is tolerably abundant from the rirst of November until about the first of April, when it migrates to its northern habitat for breeding purposes. It has never been observed to breed, although it is probable that it may do so to a slight extent, on the summits of the Blue Mountains, or farther west among the great central ridges, as individuals have been met by us as late as the middle of June. Few species display greater courage and enterprise, for their size, than the one under consideration. It is not necessarily shy, and will suffer a near approach without becoming unduly alarmed. It prefers high wooded lands and waste fields to less quiet retreats ; seldom visiting, until recently, the habitations of man, where it has been attracted by the great abundance of House Spar- rows. The untold mischief which many of its brethren commit about the farm-yard, has brought the whole brother- hood into contempt and disrepute. Even the bold and spirited little fellow before us has been made to suffer for the sins of others, notwithstanding the superior claim which he has upon our mercy and kindness, on account of the manifold good which he accomplishes. Like the Peregrine Falcon, this species prefers a solitary existence, during the dreary winter months, but on the return of spring, just before retiring, individuals of both sexes have been discovered together. It cannot be accused of quarrelling with any of its brethren, even when accidently thrown into their societv : nor does it manifest the least feeling of jealousy or anger when other species of equal size stray into its territory. It is apparently the very impersonation of amiability. The flight of this Hawk is very rapid and quite protrac- ted. When shot at and uninjured, it circles above the head iM(5 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS of the sportsman, and screams with great violence. In alighting upon any object whatever, it most usually de- scends below its level, and rises up ; it then turns suddenly around, and faces the direction whence it came, as soon as it has settled down upon the perch. The tail is now fre- quently flirted up and down, and the wings are slightly opened and shut in a rather nervous manner. It seldom flies at any considerable elevation, but is often to be seen skimming over low meadows and pasture fields, in quest of food. It generally searches for its quarry on the wing, but occasionally awaits its approach from some secret covert, whence it darts out upon its unsuspecting victim, and transfixes it in a moment. The food of this species consists of small quadrupeds and birds principally, and some few insects, mostly of a coleop- terous and orthopterous character. The following animals constitute a portion of its voluminous bill of fare: — -Quisca- lus versicolor, Agelccus p/icenicctts* Tnrdns migratorius^ T. nitisteliiiits* Cardlna/is virginianus, Passerella iliaca. Ortyx virginianus, PJiiloJiela minor, Galliuago Wilson ii* Dolichonyx oryzrcorus, and many of our smaller Fringilli- ifcc and Syhcicolidce during their different migrations ; also Arvicola Gapperi, Hesperomys Icucopus, Mus Hiitsctilns, Jaciilns hudsouius^ Ptcromys voIuccUa, and Tatnias stria- //v,y. among quadrupeds ; and phyttopteraoblongifolia,Cyr* tophyllus concaviis*, Caloptcnus fcniur-rubriim^ CEdipodct ncbiilosa, CK. Carolina^ Prioims laticollis, P. unicolor, I^ncdtiHs tf.awa. Pangus calitritiosiis, and others. Like the species whose habits were last described, this Hawk mostly hunts and feeds in silence, except when startled by the too near approach of man, when a hard harsh scream is uttered with considerable vehemence. Such is its extreme daring, that it often attacks birds larger than itself, which it is com- pelled to abandon for want of strength to carry off. Occa- sionally, when carefully screened from all possible danger, OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. -241 it will not hesitate to make a meal out of its victim, upon the ground. As before remarked, this species seldom nidificates in low southern latitudes, but principally in the higher lati- tudes. Nidification certainly takes place during the latter part of April, or the beginning of May, which would carry the ma ting-period backward to the first week of April, or the last of March. The nest is generally placed in a con- iferous tree, and occasionally on the ledge of a shady clifV. or in a hollow tree, at heights varying from six to ten feet. Ordinarily, the nest consists of a framework of sticks, and is lined with mosses, grasses, fragments of barks, and generally with a few feathers. Sometimes they arc placed on the summit of trees, and, at other times, against the trunk. Mr. Kennicott discovered a nest June 2, 1860, which was built in a poplar, and measured about a foot in diameter. In the vicinity of Hudson's Bay, the nest is built on rocks, or in hollow trees. On the 25th of May, an Indian, in the employ of Mr. Macfarlane, found a nest containing two eggs, both parents being visible at the time. Nearly a week subsequently, he revisited the nest, which still had but two eggs, fired upon the birds, but missed them. Several days thereafter he paid his third visit to the nest in order to secure the parent birds, when to his surprise, the eggs had mysteriously^ disappeared. His first supposition was that the nest had been robbed, but a careful survey of the surrounding country, revealed the presence of the birds ; this led to the institution of a search for the missing eggs, which resulted in their discov- ery on the face of a muddy bank, whither they had been spirited by the parents, not more than forty paces distant from the original nest. A few decayed leaves constituted the merest apology of a nest, on which was placed the two eggs above alluded to, with a third which had been depos- ited in the interval between the second and last visits. A nest taken in Jamaica by Mr. March, as cited by •24* LIFlMIISTORiKS OF BIRDS Dr. Brewer, was built on a high tree, carefully screened in- dense foliage. It consisted of a simple platform of sticks and grass, lined and matted with soft materials, such as grasses and leaves. The parent-birds are said to manifest considerable con- cern about their eggs and young, and to evince unmis- takable evidences of anger and vexation when interfered with. They are scarcely inferior in this respect to their more courageous relatives. The young birds are said bv Audubon to be covered at first with a yellowish down. The eggs varv from four to seven in number. They are round-oval, or spherical in outline, and varv from creamv- whiteto deep purplish-rufous in ground-color. A specimen obtained from Great Salt Lake being, according to Mr. Ridgway, completely and uniformly of the latter color; while the lightest from Saskatchewan, is scattered with faint and deep sepia-brown markings upon a creamy-white background ; densely, upon the larger extremity, but sparsely and finely, upon the smaller. Of twentv-one eggs whose measurements were taken by the last-mentioned gentleman, the largest from Yukon, measured 1.7^ by 1.28 inches; and the smallest from Anderson river, 1.55 by 1.20 inches. The eggs from Jamaica were round-oval or spherical in contour, and were marked with confluent dashes and blotches of sepia and amber upon an obscure clavish-white ground-color, irregularly diffused, but principally about the middle and the larger extremity. They measured 1.38 inches in length, and 1.13 in width. The variations in the shape and in the coloring of eggs can be traced to their probable causes. According to Dr. Coues, the former is chiefly produced by "difference in the length of the major axis, the transverse diameter being approxi- mately constant." The occurrence of additional variation being probably due to a slight shifting of the maximum width, towards the one or the other extremity. This theory OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 2-1 J) is sufficiently borne out by anatomical considerations. In eggs of the same nest-complement, there is noticeable considerable difference in the quantity, intensity, and distri- bution of the pigmentary matter. Eggs that are first extru- ded, being, as a rule, more highly colored, than those which are subsequently laid when the color-supply has been con- siderably consumed. This is most strikingly verified by an examination of the eggs which are successively laid by a female whose nest has been repeatedly robbed ; the last being much lighter and inferior in size than the eggs first laid. The changes are gradual in character, advancing pan' pass it with the exhaustion of the parental reproductive powers. The small egg which is laid by our common Gallus, not much larger than a pigeon's, being the final ef- fort preparatory to ceasing to lay, is only an extreme instance. Falco sparverius, Linn. This prettv and active little species, which is familiarly known as the Sparrow Hawk, doubtless from the peculiar character of its fare, is somewhat widely distributed throughout the major portion of North America. It was unobserved in the Arctic regions by Macfarlane, and also in Alaska by Dall. The highest points reached are Fort Resolution on Great Slave Lake, and Fort Roe where it is known to breed. On the banks of the Saskatchewan, it is rather abundant according to Sir John Richardson, ft most likely breeds in all parts of North America, from Maine to California, and from Mexico on the south to Hudson's Bay. Although a rare species in the greater part of New England,- it is abundantly found near Calais in Maine; but is a rare visitor in Eastern Massachusetts, while in Williamstown and Amherst, in the west, it has been found to breed. In all parts of the West, Mr. Ridgwav found it very abundant, particularly in the canons of the 82 250 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS eastern range of the Humboldt Mountains, where it nests in hollows of limestone cliffs. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it is a not uncommon species. making its appearance from its more southern habitat, during the middle of April, but later, when the season is remarkably backward. Of all our Falcons, it is the least timid and suspicious ; and manifests nearly the courage and address of columbarius . Like the latter, it does not deserve the severe censure and cruel persecutions which are occasionally inflicted upon it. It is certainly regarded in some sections with less disfavor than any other species. The countless numbers of field-mice and noxious insects which it destroys, should command for it universal respect. It is cer- tainly a great benefactor to agriculturists. It is too frail a creature to commit much mischief in the farm-vard. If it destroys a few young chickens occasionally, as has been asserted, the immense good which it accomplishes, more than balances the mischief done. Its numerous visits to the barn- yard are not made with the view of depredating upon the farmer's poultry, but for the vermin which frequent his various outbuildings, and are so destructive to his stored grains. Let them be encouraged in their visits. The} cannot carry away the adult hen, and as for the chicks, they are so wrelJ guarded by the mother, that only in rare instances, will this Hawk have the hardihood to venture an assault upon the brood, unless it be considerably scattered from the parent, when it will merely single out the most distant chick. The flight of the Sparrow Hawk is somewhat irregular. but never protracted. It hovers for a moment over some particular locality, suspending itself in mid-air, and almost the very next instant darts oft" in a straight line. It rarely flies more than a hundred yards before it alights. It is never long on the wing, but prefers to watch for its prey, perched upon the summit of a dead tree or a projecting twig, where :t will frequently remain for more than an hour at a time. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 251 scarcely changing its position. While reconnoitring the ground below tor food, it has the peculiar habit of jerking its tail, as if over-anxious for something to turn up. When alighting, its long wings are so suddenly closed, that the movement is almost irriperceptible. After remaining sta- tionary for a greater or less period of time, it starts off quite suddenly from its perch, apparently at random, but always in quest of something which its keen eye has discovered in the distance, and generally with a certain and deadly aim. It is a common denizen of orchards and hedge-rows, attracted thither by the abundance of small birds which resort to such places. The food of this species consists of small quadrupeds, small birds, lizards, and insects chiefly of an orthopterous character. The following animals constitute a portion of its bill of fare : — 3fus musculus, yacuhts hudsonius, Hes- peromysleucopus^Arvicola Gappcn\A. riparia. Pteromys voliicel/a, Tamias striatiis^ and other rodents ; Sialia sla- //.s\ Tiirdus migrator ins. T. imistelinus* Hdrporkynchus rufus. Minius carolinensis, Sitta carolinensis, Ampelis ccdrorum, and many of the Sylvicolidce and JPringillidcc among birds. The partiality which it manifests for our common Sparrows, as evidenced by the immense numbers which it destroys, frequenting places where these do most congregate, has given it the familiar appellation which it bears. Lizards, particularly Tropidolepi* uudiilatus. and the beautiful little Sccloporus. are esteemed great luxuries. Immense numbers of insects, mostly orthoptera, are de- stroyed, especially during the breeding-period, and constitute the chief part of the diet of both young and old. The prin- cipal are Cyntophyllus concants. Phylloptera oblofigifolia^ Phaneroptera cnr-cicauda, (JZdipoda Carolina. CK. ticbn- losa, (IE. sulphurea* Caloptenns fciiiur-rnbruni. Ac/tcta >ii»-ra. (Hcajitlnix iiraciis, GrvUofalpa borea/is, among grasshoppers ; and Lucantts dauia, Prioims 252 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS Lachnosterna quercina, and a few of the Paplil »iid>.c and Sphingidce, among beetles and lepidoptera. These Hawks begin to mate during the latter part of April, shortly after their arrival. The male has a peculiar call-note with which he attracts the'attention of the female. Perched upon a dead twig in an open situation, he sounds his call, at somewhat irregular intervals, turning himself in o ?y every direction as if to catch the response of a female, or, happily, if may be, to see her agreeable presence. He will thus remain for hours together, unless disturbed by intruders. If he meets with no success, he darts off in much haste, and tries his fortune elsewhere. This is usually the case with young males. The old males mostly arrive accompanied by the females, and there is noticeable less formality in court- ship. The partners of past years are almost invariably selected. In the case of the young male, there often seems to be considerable difficulty in making a suitable choice. The chief part of the trouble results from the almost un- impressible character of the female, who is often prone to indulge in a little flirtation, much to the annoyance of her suitor. When once the latter is successful in his suit, her fidelity and affection are immutable and unwavering. The male is now highly elated, and gives expression to the exu- berance of his feelings in the most ridiculous actions in his efforts to please his partner and to strengthen the affection which she most generously lavishes upon him. But two days at the utmost are spent in courtship, in the which, a short tour is taken around the country, diversified by many little scenes which a wedded couple can only know. The honey- moon being over, they now come to settle down to the prosv affairs of every-day life. A proper site must be selected in which to rear a family. Although both birds spend no little time in searching for it, yet the male most generally defers such matters to the judgment of the female. These Hawks do not construct a nest, but make use of hollow trees, woodpeckers' nests, and even the old and often OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 2M deserted nest of the Common Crow. A pigeon-cote is oc- casionally occupied, much to the annoyance of its rightful owners, but who learn to become reconciled to the glaring insult, and live upon the most amicable terms with their courageous neighbors. In the vicinity of Germantown, several of these birds were wont to build in the holes left in unfinished stone buildings after th(* scaffolding was removed. In some instances, the eggs were deposited within a slight depression produced by the removal of the mortar, but in the generality of cases, a thin lining of leaves and grasses served to relieve the roughness of the reposing surfaces. In one instance, a rather dense bedding of mosses which had taken root in the debris which had accidentally accumulated, constituted a soft and coxy lining. The deserted nest of the common Gray Squirrel, and a low flat shelving of rock with an overhanging bluff above, are occasional nesting-places. After a suitable spot is chosen, the female begins to deposit her complement of eggs, to the number of five or seven ; the former being the ordinary number. These eggs are de- posited on successive or alternate days, at the rate of a single egg per day. Incubation immediately succeeds, and is commenced at first by the female, who spends at least two hours upon the nest, when she summons her mate who is close-by, to whom she resigns the laborious task for a simi- lar period. While one is thus occupied, the other when not engaged in providing nourishment, stations himself upon a tree close-by, where he can command every avenue of ap- proach to the nest. When danger is imminent, he apprises his partner in time to secure her escape, and the two en-, deavor by the most determined resistance to protect their treasures from sacrilegious hands ; as long as there is hope, they keep up the warfare, and when constrained to desist by the too near approach of danger, they repair to a tree close- by, and watch with the deepest distress, the rifling of their home. In these attacks, the female is the superior of the male, and often surpasses him in the most reckless bravery. 254 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS The latter is, however, more circumspect and cautious. In the case of a leathered intruder, even though of superior physique, they fight with desperation, and not unfrequcntly triumph in the unequal warfare. Where not interfered with they visit the same locality year after year, but any meddling with the nest or eggs apprises them of anticipated trouble, and they quit the place for another of greater security. The period of incubation varies from fifteen to sixteen days. But a single brood is raised in a season. The young are first covered with a white down. They are carefully watched over by their parents and provided with plenty of suitable nourishment. The parents are seldom both absent from the nest at the same time in quest of food. While one is foraging, the other is a vigilant and attentive parent at home. The food of the young consists chieflv of grasshoppers and crickets, and a few caterpillars of the Phal&nidce i at first. But being rapid growers, thev are soon able to feed upon bits of the fiesh of rodents and birds, which their parents tear from the still warm victims which they hold in their talons. At the age of four weeks, they are able to feed themselves ; but at the expiration of a fort- night longer, they quit the nest, and receive their food while perched upon the tree-branches. Wlun about two months old they shift for themselves, but continue, however, to live with their parents. Like the latter, they reject their prev. when it is possessed of an unsavory taint. It is asserted by Dr. Brewer that these Hawks were seen to attack ClifV Swallows while incubating in the vicinity of Denysville, Maine, tearing open their well protected nests, and capturing the occupants, for food. We have never witnessed such assaults. The cry of this species is said to be similar to that of the European Kestrel, and would doubtless be mistaken for it, but for its more powerful intonation. Audubon affirms that the parents imitate the feeble cries of their young, when the latter have vacated their nest, and are following them. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. *V, They can he domesticated, and become quite interesting pets. Audubon once reared a bird from the nest, and kept it about the house. When assailed by its wilder kindred, it would flee to the house for protection : and, at nights, would invariably roost upon a favorite window-shutter. After keeping it for some time, it was eventually killed by an enraged hen, one of whose offspring it had essayed to capture. Dr. Cones, while in Columbia, South Carolina, saw three of these birds in possession of a neighbor. They had been removed from the nest when verv young, and had become somewhat reconciled to their imprisonment. They ate all kinds of meat, and when they had attained maturity, displayed much of their natural disposition. When dis- turbed, they would resent the insult by snapping the bill, and clutching at the offending cane with their talons. There was a cripple among the number who was most dreadfully bullied by his comrades. Having been insufficiently fed or unusually irritable, they set upon him on a certain night, killed him, and had nearly made way with him by the ensuing morning. These Hawks do not winter with us. They usually retire farther south about the last of November, or the be- ginning of December ; doubtless following our smaller spe- cies of Sparrows and Finches, upon which they largely subsist. The eggs of this species are nearly spherical, and are of a pale yellowish-brown color. They are marked with dark- brown blotches, which are more numerous about the larger extremity where they constitute a crown or wreath. Some are minutely dotted with dark-brown spots upon a pale brown background, while others are marked with brown spots upon a white ground-color, and, others, again, are whitish and unspotted. Their measurement is 1.32 by 1.13 inches. *-><; LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS Buteo borealis, Viclli. The Red-tailed Hawk lias an extensive distribution. It ranges from Central America and Mexico to high northern latitudes, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. In the fur regions, Richardson found it breeding in small numbers, between the 53*! and and 57th parallels of latitude. Through- out Guatemala, it is abundantly distributed during the breeding-season. It is common in Jamaica, where it breeds according to Gosse ; and is even included bv Dr. Gundlach and Mr. Lembeye in the avi-fauna of Cuba, where it is supposed to breed by the former. A single specimen was obtained from Panama. In the New England States, it is by no means an uncommon permanent resident, while in the Southern States, it is mainly abundant in winter. Speci- mens have been obtained from Fort Fillmore in New Mexico, and from the Yellowstone and Pecos Rivers, bv the govern- ment expeditions. To enter into a complete history of its distribution, would be irrelevant to our present purpose. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it is by far the most abundant of all our Hawks, remaining with us throughout the entire year. It is a strong and powerful species, and manifests considerable courage. In the neighborhood in which it lesides. it exercises unbounded supremacy, and lords it over all other species that chance to take up their abode in the same vicinity. Being very partial to high open thickets, and low meadows remote from man, it will not hesitate to enter within his domains when danger is not imminent. It is, however, a very cautious bird, and seldom ventures except where the dwelling is isolated and situated in close proximity to its own haunts. \Vhen tempted by the pros- pect of a plump chicken, it first reconnoitres the country while careering high overhead, then starts off in a contrary direction, but shortly to retrace its steps in a somewhat cir- cuitous and stealthy manner. It does not My at once to the place, but makes numerous short Mights from tree to tree. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 257 carefully surveying the country in every direction with a keen vigilant eye, until it is sufficiently near to strike, when it marks its victim, and swoops down upon it with unerring precision, seldom missing its aim, and bears it off in the midst of great tumult and excitement to a safe distance, £} when it alights upon the most convenient object and de- vours its prey at leisure, keeping a careful lookout for its most inveterate enemy whom it half suspects, judging from its suspicious actions, will take the earliest opportunity to retaliate. It is a difficult bird to approach, and can seldom be surprised save by strategy. During the autumnal and winter months it leads a solitary life ; the sexes seldom encountering each other, without manifesting a disposition to quarrel, which occasionally results in a deadly encoun- ter. The female evidently gains the victorv over the male in these encounters. The flight of this Hawk is firm, steady, and considerably protracted. It often flies to a great height, and frequently glides along for a great distance, without any apparent move- ment of the wings. It seldom seizes its prey upon the w ing, but ordinarily descends upon it from the branch of a tree, or some other fixed position. Perched upon a stump, a low tree, or any commanding object whatever, no matter how \ow and unpretending, it awaits the appearance of some luckless rodent, darts down upon it, and bears it writhing through the air, before it has hardly had time to collect its self-possession. It visits occasionally swampy grounds and the banks of streams, for the li/ards and serpents which in- fest those watery retreats, taking good care to seize these wiry creatures near the head. The cry of these birds is very peculiar and disagreeable, and is repeated very frequently, and at irregular intervals, during flight. When surprised by human enemies, they not unfrequently give expression to a similar scream, which can- be heard at a great distance. When one has captured prey in presence of another, the latter will often struggle for its 33 2;>8 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS possession. In these encounters both birds scream most vociferously, which is indicative of their hijjh state of in- » O dignation. The food of this species consists principally of small quadrupeds, small birds, and reptiles. A few insects mostly of a coleopterous and orthopterous character, are eaten by way of variety. The following animals constitute its bill of :are : — Lepus sylvaticus,L. americanus, Sciurushudsonius^ S. caroUnensis, Tamias striatus, Hesperomys Icncopnx. Arvicola Gapperi, among rodents ; Corvus americanus^ C. ossifragus, Quiscalus versicolor, Ortyx virghiianus. Philohela minor \ Gallinago Wilsonii, Turdus migratori- .'fs. Gallus domesticus, and other birds ; Ophibolus exini- iiis, Storeria Dekayi, Eutcenia sirtalis, etc., among ser- pents ; and Tropidolepi undulatus, among lizards. Among insects, we have detected remains of Lucanus dam a Prionus laticollis, Monohammus titillator, Stenocorus 'Putator, Prionus unicolor, Elate r oculatus, Pangus caliginosus, among beetles; and PhyHoptera oblongifoUa. Cyrtophyllus concavus, (Edipoda Carolina, and other or- thoptera. Mating commences usually about the middle of March. The males are decidedly more amorous than the females. When the cold weather has disappeared, they care little for appetitive gratification. The passions are now wrought up to a high pitch of excitement. From the summit of a dead tree, or perched upon an exposed twig, they make the coun- try resound with their harsh notes. They do not have long to wait for a reply. After the summons is returned, almost immediately the female responds in person to the cries of her suitor. There is less formality in the courtship of these birds, than in the species l&t-mentioned. The male docs not indulge in excessive rhapsody, but just manifests enough of love to cement a union. The female is apparently cold and passionless. After rearing their young, they separate, and display the most intense hatred toward each other, as OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 2r>9 evidenced by their hostile actions. The wedded pair, after the brief preliminaries of courtship are over, waste no time in idle fancies and pleasure-excursions, but set to work to con- struct a nest for their intended progeny. The male concerns himself but little in the selection of a site, or in the building of the nest. In this country, a forked branch of a tall tree, is ordinarily selected. In Jamaica, according to Mr. March, they are less particular ; the nest being placed in an accessible tree, close by a frequented path; and, in a single instance, the same pair were wont to build on the roof of the turret of a certain belfry. The nest is composed externally of rude sticks, which constitute a substantial framework, and is lined with leaves, moss, and dry grasses. Occasionally, chestnut- bark and pine-leaves are chosen for a lining. The external diameter is from thirteen to fourteen inches, and height about eight inches. The cavity is seven and one half inches wide, and two and a half inches deep. The thickness of the lining varies from three-fourths to one inch. The labor is performed almost exclusively by the female, her partner either being absent in quest of food, or perched listlessly and lazily tipon a tree close-by. In exceptional instances, the male has been known to assist in building, but the bulk of the labor devolves upon the female. The time thus spent, varies according to the diligence of the birds, and the character of the nest. The female working by herself, due allowances being made for recreation and the procurement of food, can complete a structure in from three to four days ; but she has to apply herself to the task with considerable vigor during working moments. The nest being finished, two or three days elapse be- fore she is prepared to make her first deposit. When she commences, she lays on each succeeding, or alternate day. Never more than a single egg is deposited each day. The usual complement of eggs is five, although occasionally, four constitutes a nest-full. Incubation commences imme- diately after the last egg is laid. The brunt of the labor 260 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS devolves upon the' female, she occupying the nest nearlv twice as long as her partner. She is the first to take the nest, and remains on it for a period varying from three to four hours, when she is relieved for a short time by the male, who is often very reluctant to obey her summons. When the nest is assailed by intruders, both birds exert themselves with commendable zeal to infuse a feeling of fear into them, by loud screams and menacing gestures. The female, however, is more turbulent and threatening than her mate ; who, though loud in his protestations of anger, manages to keep at a safe distance ; while she, with true motherly instinct, often risks her own life in defense of her treasures. The eggs require from twenty to twentv- one days to hatch. The young are tenderly nursed, especially by the mother- bird, who labors incessantly to provide them with suitable and sufficient food. The male-bird is less attentive to their wants, but remains at home doing duty, during the absence of the female. Their food consists of grasshoppers, and the flesh of birds and of small quadrupeds which are taken as prey. The external covering is removed, and the flesh is administered in small bits. At the age of four weeks there is less care manifested in this respect ; the young being sufficiently strong to tear the flesh themselves. In about a fortnight from this time, they leave the nest and cling to the tree-branches, wrhere they receive their food. A week longer, they are able to hunt partially for them- selves, the mother-bird still exercising a maternal super- vision over them. At nights, they repair to the family-tree to roost. This continues for a brief season, when they separate, each taking a different course for itself. This happens about the time that the parent-birds dissolve part- nership, and return to that solitude from which they came. The eggs of this species are spheroidal-oval. They exhibit considerable variation in almost all particulars except shape, which is pretty generally uniform. Their ground-color OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA, 261 passes from a white to a dingy rust-colored drab. The markings are minute in size, few in number, of a light color, and so arranged, as to cause the egg to appear a nearly homogeneous brownish-white. In some, the markings appear in numerous fine granulations of a uniform brownish color, which are pretty uniformly distributed over the entire egg-surface, through which the characteristic ground-color can only be detected by a magnify ing-glass. And, again, the ground is completely obscured by deep, dark purplish- brown blotches, which are large and confluent. The eggs vary in size, even in the same nest-full. The largest meas- ures 2.52 by i. 88 inches, and the smallest 2.10 by 1.72 inches. According to Dr. Coues, the young are a long wThile in acquiring the characteristic adult plumage. They attain their full size before the red of the tail appears, which is ordinarily assumed before the fulvous of the inferior parts of the mature bird manifests itself. The above writer has seen specimens with pure white breasts and marked with the ordinary dark-brown streaks and spots, which had nearly perfect red tails. Buteo lineatus, (GM.) yard, The Red-shouldered Buzzard is pretty widely distributed. It is found in greater or less abundance from Florida to Nova Scotia. In the former State, it is the most abundant of its family. It has been found in various portions of Texas, where it breeds in the thickly-wooded river-bottoms. It breeds plentifully in Florida, and thence northward to Northern Vermont, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. In Eastern Maine, it is probably a resident species. In the western part of the State, Mr. Verrill found it breeding, though not very common. In Eastern Massachusetts, it is a not uncommon permanent resident, but more plentiful in the fall, from the addition of northern migrants. In Wes- tern Massachusetts, it is equally abundant. It has not been •>r>2 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS found in the fur regions according to Richardson, and unfike its nearest kin, is a non-resident of the West India Islands. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it is by no means as plentiful as borealis, and does not affect similar situations. It prefers the vicinity of large streams, and extensive ponds, occasion- ally being found in low marshy grounds of considerable ex- tent, in out-of-the-way places. Occasionally during the winter, individuals are met with in sheltered localities. Equally as courageous and spirited as its nearest relative, it manifests less shyness and timidity, often visiting orchards and farmyards, where it occasionally makes considerable havoc among the younger poultry. It seemingly defies man's authority, and after being driven from these coveted quarters, it is certain to return as soon as an opportune mo- ment presents itself. Even when wounded, it fails to learn experience from the past, but returns to practise its wanton devastations. It differs still more from boreaUs in being more open and ingenuous in its action, seldom resorting to strategic and stealthy movements in the accomplishment of its often well-laid schemes. During its autumnal visit, the male is sometimes accom- panied by his partner, the two often being seen hunting to- gether, or roosting upon the same perch. But when food becomes scarce, particularly during very rigorous winters, they mutually dissolve partnership, each taking divergent directions, and restricting its foraging to completely isola- ted territories. But on the first approach of fine weather, they again unite, and if it proves lasting, continue together, and thus repair to their more northern breeding-quarters. The most perfect good-will prevails at all times, thus con- trasting quite markedly with the selfishness and jealousy which characteri/e its nearest relative. Like the latter, it seldom captures its prey on the wing, preferring to swoop down upon it from the summit of a tall tree, or from any object which gives it a commanding posi- tion. High eminences are preferable, as they give a wider OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 2r,;', scope of vision. But when a swamp or marsh is chosen us its foraging grounds, anv low object is available. In such localities, they frequently conceal themselves behind a tussock of grasses, or a prostrate log, from which they rush out and strike their quarry before it has had time for reflection. Its flight is lofty and very irregular, and quite protracted. When searching for food, it often skims athwart a meadow, O just above the tallest grasses, but should an object stir, it is instantlv perceived by its keen eye, and clutched up with unerring precision. During the middle of the day, it displays its highest sailing, which is evidently accom- plished for pleasure. At this time it moves in spiral circles, which it gradually exchanges for a gliding move- ment, the wings being apparently motionless. In the midst of these evolutions, it often descends headlong to the earth, with remarkable rapidity, as if to strike an object ; but just as it neari aie ground, checks its speed in a most singular manner, and courses away to a distance, either to continue its aerial manoeuvres, or to rest awhile upon some commanding eminence. When on its perch, on the look- out for prey, it occasionally flaps its wings several times in rapid succession, flirts its tail, or quickly depresses it, as if to plume itself for instant flight. It will then stretch to its full height, and give its head a more erect and nobler bearing. Unless disturbed, these birds will occupy the same perch for hours together, patiently waiting for game, or digesting a meal. Ever on the alert, nothing escapes their eager atten- tion. While thus occupied, they remain perfectly still, and do not so much as utter a feeble cry, for fear of alarming the wary creatures which contribute so largely to their diet. But when unduly surprised, they utter a harsh scream, and seek safety in flight. They are less quarrelsome with other birds of their family, than most other species. When wounded, they generally fly to an immense distance, and only drop when their strength has become perfectly exhaus- 264 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS ted, unless in close proximity to a thickly-timbered grove, when they alight, but take due care to select a spot in the most unfrequented portion. If so seriously wounded as to preclude flight, they erect themselves upon their stern, and fight with desperation, rather than tamely submit to capture. During the spring, when the sexes consort together, they are less silent, and utter a somewhat plaintive cry, which sounds much like ke^-bo-ke^-bo-ke^-bo. These notes are evi- dently indicative of recognition, and are produced by the sexes when they meet. We have often heard them during favorable days in the winter, when a pair has come together after a voluntary separation of several weeks. During the season of mating, these cries are often prolonged for nearly fifteen minutes, and are more energetic and forcible than at any other period. There is, however, a feeling therein, which strikes a sympathetic chord in many a bosom. The food of this Hawk consists of small quadrupeds and small birds generally, reptiles, and many insects. The fol- lowing list embraces a part of its voluminous bill of fare : — Sciurus cinereus, S. carolincnsis* S. hudsonius, Taniias striatus, Leptis sylvaticus, Piitorius nigrescens, Arvicola Gapperi, Hespcromys Icucopus, Jaciilus hudsonius, Mns mnscuhis* and other rodents ; Ortyx Virginia nus* Sturnella magna, Gallinago \Yilsouii, PJiilohcla minor, QuiscalttS Ver si color, Corvus americanus, C. ossifragns. Mintus carolinensis, PlarporJiyiicJius rnfiis, Turdns migratorius, Cardinalis virgin iau us, Dolichonyx oryzivorns, and many of the smaller Sylvicolidcc and Fringillidtc; among batra- chians, Rana pipiens, R.sylvatica, R. halccina. J\. CJam- itaijs, II\'la versicolor, Plethodon crythronoiiis: and J??(f&- nia sirtalis, Chlorosoma vcrnalf's, Storcria Dekctyi* Ophibohts cximius, and Ncrodia* among reptiles. The following coleopterous, orthopterous, and neuropterous in- sects, are occasionally eaten : — J^ucainis dama, Prionus laticollis, P. tmicolor, Stenocorus putator^ E later oculatns* OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 2 /s cornutus. PhyUoptera oblongifolia* Cyrtophylliis CEdipoda Carolina^ CE. uclnilosa, LibcUula triniaciilata. and ^-Eschna heros. When larger prey is captured, instead of carrying it to a convenient perch, par- ticularly if of superior size, it is either deserted, or digested upon the ground. This Hawk does not appear to breed in Eastern Pennsyl- vania, although it may do so in the Blue Mountain region. Paired birds, however, have been observed in thick pine- forests, during the months of May and June, which would lead to the presumption that a few remain for this purpose. The nest is placed in a dense pine-forest, or in other secluded woods, especially when they contain swamps, rivulets, or ponds. A pine generally, or if a suitable one does not exist, an oak-tree, is selected. A finished nest is composed, externally, of coarse sticks for a framework, and is lined with moss and soft leaves. It measures from eighteen to twenty-four inches in diameter. At a distance, there is a close resemblance to the Crow's nest, save being more bulky. It is placed at a height varying from fifteen to sixty feet, seldom in an isolated, or young tree. When the nest is ap- proached, the birds utter loud and frequent qries of commin- gled fear and resentment, but never make any determined resistance. The females vary considerably in courage, some leaving the nest on the approach of intruders, others being scarcely forced to leave even when the tree has been severely rapped, while others again cling to the nest, until they are forced to desert it by the uncomfortable approach of danger. The young are objects of considerable attention by their parents, who work with the greatest diligence in procuring the necessary articles of food. They possess quite vigorous appetites, and are consequently very rapid in attaining de- velopment. After they have reached maturity, they con- tinue to inhabit similar retreats with their parents. Hut as the cold weather approaches, both parents and young sepa- rate. Their food consists of fragments of the quadrupeds 34 266 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS and birds which their parents capture, besides an immense number of grasshoppers and beetles. The eggs of this species are spheroidal-oval, and slightly pointed at one extremity. The ground-color is a dingv- white, frequently tinged with brown. It is marked with numerous yellowish-brown blotches, and other shades of brown. It is not unusual to find nearly unspotted specimens in the same nest writh others of bold decided markings. Their measurement varies from 2.20 to 1.99 inches in length. and from i.Si to 1.55 inches in breadth. Four eggs, some- times three or two, constitute the nest-complement. Buteo pennsylvanicus, The Broad-winged Hawk is somewhat irregularly distrib- uted throughout North America, and probably ranges from Florida to Texas, and from New Brunswick westward to the Missouri Valley. It probably exists in the Saskatchewan Valley, and also in Central America. In Florida, it is a common resident. It is said to breed in Cuba, but is un- known in Jamaica. Mr. Skinner reports its occurrence in Guatemala. Audubon never found it in Louisiana, but westward in various parts of Texas, particularly in the vicinity of San Antonio. It nests on the Colorado, early in June, upon lofty cotton-wood trees, but the structure is almost unapproachable. While it is absent from Nova Scotia, according to Mr. Downes, it is quite common in New Brunswick, and also in the eastern parts of Maine. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it is uncommonly scarce, but a few individuals being observed during the autumnal and winter months. It arrives in early November, and usually retires to its breeding-grounds, during the last of March, or the beginning of April. It prefers high open woods, and waste grounds chiefly of a marshy character, seldom ven- turing near to human habitations. Contrary to Audubon's description of its habits, we have always observed it to be- a bold, spirited creature, and bv no means lacking in that OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. ->ti7 courage which so eminently characterizes the species last described. It seldom captures its prey upon the wing, but rather chooses to swoop down upon it from some tall com- manding eminence. When skimming athwart a meadow or some similar situation, it moves with trifling noise, and when it espies a reptile or a quadruped, pounces down upon it with the fleetness of an arrow, seldom missing its aim, and bears it away to an adjoining tree, where it feasts upon its still quivering flesh with self-complacency. When it visits the farm-yard which it rarely does, there is manifested much of the fearless spirit of lineatus. It comes directly to the spot, and not in a stealthy, circuitous manner after the fashion of borealis, alights upon the summit of a tall tree, singles out its victim, and darts down upon it, bearing it away, even when the proprietor is within easy distance. The coolness and audaciousness of the act for the time being disconcert the actions of the latter, and entirely eclipse his presence of mind. In some districts, young chickens and goslings, are the objects of these visits ; but with us, tame pigeons and the smaller fowls. During the cold weather, these Hawks prefer a solitary life. But at the dawn of spring, it is not unusual to observe the sexes together, between whom the utmost good-will exists. Even when the sexes meet during the famine win- ter months, the same harmonious feeling prevails. Before their vernal departure, they are often annoyed by the Kingbird, and common Sparrow Hawk, who boldly attack them in all directions, without provoking a spirit of retaliation. From this fact has been inferred the spiritless and pusillanimous disposition which has been imputed to this species. The utter disregard which it manifests towards such comparatively insignificant crea- tures, should not be misconstrued 'into lack of courage. It rather shows the noble character of the bird in not deign- ing to mind such puerile attacks and paltry insults. But, however, these assaults are often prolonged to an indefinite 268 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS extent, until forbearance is no longer a virtue, when the hitherto patient and magnanimous bird turns upon its wil- ful persecutors, and severely chastises them for their im- prudence and insolence. When wounded, and assailed by its cruel and merciless tormenters, it throws itself upon its back, erects its crest - feathers, and with a loud, hissing noise, endeavors to in- timidate them. Failing in this, it defends itself with its talons, fighting with a desperation and determination which should command respect. Its flight recalls that of Buteo lineatus. It moves in wide spiral circles, without apparently vibrating the wings. These movements are prolonged at wrill, and often last foi a considerable time. Their object cannot be the detection of prey, which such great heights would assuredly favor, as it is but seldom that its apparent absorption is broken. even when its most favorite quarry comes in full view. They are purely the results of pleasurable emotions. When weary thereof, it glides earthward with a momentum truly wonderful. But just before it reaches the ground. it checks its velocity with surprising skill, and either skims in almost breathless silence over a low meadow, or retires to some secure and easy perch to rest awhile, or to look for prey. In this position, like liucatits* it occasion- ally expands the wings and flirts the tail almost simultane- ously, then straightens itself up as if preparing for flight. or, to make a lunge upon some moving creature which its keen eye has descried in the grass below, or in a clump of bushes in the near distance. When surprised while looking for quarry, it utters a sort of plaintive whistle, as it takes its flight to another tree. Whilst feeding, it maintains the utmost silence, so as not to make its whereabouts known. But when a juicy quail or woodcock has eluded i.ts grasp, a sharp shrill cry. indica- tive of disappointment, is uttered as it resumes its perch. The presence of the female is greeted by the male with a OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. -2(5!) loud note of recognition, which sounds like ke'-ou* repeated several times in rapid succession. The food of this species consists of small birds, small quadrupeds, reptiles and insects. The following list em- braces a partial inventory of its fare : — Sciurus cctrolinensis^ S. hiidsouitts, Tamias striatits* Arvicola Gapperi, Hes- pcromvs Icncoptts* Ortvx virginianus ^ Philohela mi nor ^ Gallinago \\ rilsonii^ Stitrudla magna^Quiscalus ~cersicolor* Dolichonyx oryzivorus, Mttntts c&rolineitsisi Turdits mi- gratorius* Store ri a Dekayi, Ophibolus cximhts* Riitccnia sirtali-s* CJilorosoma vernal is. Celuta amcena* Cyrto- phy Hits concaves, Phylloptera oblongifolia, and (Edipoda Carolina. From what information we can gather, nesting commences during the latter part of April, or the beginning of May. The nest is generally placed at varying heights, in a crotch near to the trunk of a tree. It is composed, externally, of dry sticks, and lined with bark, grasses, and large feathers. Both birds are engaged in its construction, although the principal part of the labor devolves upon the female. The eggs are laid at the rate of one egg per day, on each con- secutive day. The male occasionally relieves the female in the duties of incubation. When with young, the parents are exceedingly irritable, and assail with the most fearless and determined bravery the person who has the hardihood to attempt the desecration of their home. It is rather dan- gerous to hazard the enterprise. We have noticed this Hawk in confinement. Unlike HnecLtuS) it is a very disagreeable and surly pet, indignantly resenting the least advances at familiarity, and most sullenly refusing proffered food. It maintains this unenviable dis- position for nearly a week, when being sorely pressed by hunger, and seemingly convinced that escape is hopeless, it ultimately becomes reconciled to its condition, and learns to come at the call of its master, and even to accept food from his hands. In the presence of strangers it manifests •270 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS marked reticence, and instantly repels any attempted famil- iarities. The eggs are ordinarily four in number, although from two to three often constitute a nest-complement. The ground-color is a dirty yellowish-white, more or less densely spotted with reddish-brown blotches. In some specimens, the markings are quite faint, while in others, finer and dar- ker. They vary somewhat in size, even in the same nest ; and have a slightly rounded-oval contour with one extremity more obtuse than the other. In length, they vary from 1.99 to 2.14 inches, and in width, from 1.50 to 1.71 inches. Archibuteo lagopus, var. sancti-johannis, Re mi. The Rough-legged Hawk bears so close a resemblance to its European congener, that the two have been generally recognized as identical. Its range of distribution is -from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, and from the Territory of New Mexico northward to the Arctic regions. It is a den- izen of Washington Territory, but was not observed by Mr. Dresser in Texas, nor bv Dr. Woodhouse in new Mexico, but has been seen by others. In the Anderson River dis- trict, Mr. Macfarlane found it breeding quite abundantly. In the fur countries, according to Dr. Richardson, it arrives in April or May, and retires early in October. In the neigh- borhood of the Pueblo Zuni, Dr. Kennedy gives it a not uncommon species. At Shoal-water Bay, Washington Territory, vast numbers of these Buzzards were met with by Dr. Cooper. Some wintered there, and, doubtless nested near the mouth of the Columbia River, as young birds were observed in July. In California, according to the same writer, it is only a winter resident. In Arizona. Dr. Cones captured a single specimen : but in Kansas, it is rather abundant ; it is also to be met with in South eastern Dakota. In Eastern Pennsylvania, these birds are still as in the time of Wilson, rather common winter residents in the meadows along the Delaware and Schuvlkill Rivers, in OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 271 the vicinity of Philadelphia. For humid grounds, they evince a decided partiality. Their habits of feeding differ JT J O materially from those of other Hawks which we have men- tioned. Notwithstanding their great size and seeming mus- cularity, they possess but little of the dash and spirit of the Falcons, and are quite inferior in this particular to the Buteos. Their quarry, though not lacking variety, is nevertheless hum- ble. They rarely, if ever, desert their favorite haunts for the domains of man. The poultry-yards have nothing to fear from them ; and, although persecuted to the same extent as their more viciously inclined brethren, through the wilful ignorance of man, the manifold good which they accomplish in the destruction of noxious animals, should shield them from his merciless assaults. They appear rather wary, and will not permit too near an approach without changing their quarters. They, however, remove to a short distance, and utter as they do so, a loud squeaking noise, as though indica- tive of anger at being disturbed. In the pursuit of prey, they are rather indisposed to great bodily exertion, but prefer to watch for it from the summit of a low tree close-by, and even do not scruple to conceal themselvcsbehind a tussock of grass, or a fallen log. They remain motionless upon their perch for hours together, intently surveying the ground, far and near, for the objects of their desire. The peculiar Owl-like habits of this species, which are rendered more effective by analogous structural details, enable it to glide down from its perch without being seen. It seizes its quarry with remark- able dexterity, seldom failing in its calculations. Long after sun-set, and even in the subdued twilight, and also -in the silver O light of the moon, it may be seen skimming noiselessly over swampy grounds for the small quadrupeds which delight to scamper about those gloomy retreats, at such times. Like the Strigidce, it is partially nocturnal in its habits. The flight of this Buzzard is low, heavy and sluggish ; and never much protracted. But when alarmed, it moves with greater briskness, and often seeks safety by mounting -27-2 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS high in the atmosphere, beyond the possible reach of danger. The peculiar circular movements which so eminently char- acterize the Buteos have no counterpart in them. Such pleasure-excursions are never indulged in. The life of this species is rather more prosaic in its character. The satisfac- tion of a most vigorous appetite, when its apparently slug- gish movements are taken into consideration, gives it but- little time if any for such recreations. In extreme winter weather, its forsakes low meadows and marshy grounds, for the shelter of woods, and feasts upon the small birds which are driven to those coverts. This Hawk, when it arrives, produces a loud squealing noise, which Wilson very inaptly compared to the >w neigh- ing of a young colt," but with a more savage intonation. It is rather difficult to express by syllables. When the sexes meet, a slight variation of the same cry, pronounced more mildly and in a somewhat lower key, is emitted, which is one of recognition. A similar sound is uttered during the spring when mating is about to begin, which is repeated in loud and rapid succession for a brief spell, when a silence ensues to be broken again by a similar repetition. The male is decidedly more demonstrative than the female. The food of this species consists of small quadrupeds, lizards, serpents, frogs, and insects, generally ; birds are seldom attacked, and then merely the most defenceless. When it captures its prey, it iscarried to its perch, which may be a tree, stump, or fence-rail. When these are not conven- ient, it does not hesitate to feed upon the bare ground, or in the midst of a dense growth of sedges or grasses. Its food consists of the following : — Tropidolepis undulatus, Dia- dop/iis piiuctatus* Ophibolns cxiniius, l\c^i)ia leberis* Chloroso)iia -cernalis, Store ri a DckavL Leptophis astivus, Raiia claniitans, R. halcchia* I\. palnstrh, 7\. sv/vattca, and Hyla rers/co/or, among reptiles and batrachians ; Scittnis carolitiensis* S. /uidsouius. 7\i»u'as xtriaft/s, Ar-cicola Gappcri. A. r/pari'a. Hesperomys leUcopus, //. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. '271} XnttalU, Jaculus htidsoiihis* Sorex Thompsonii, Scalops aqttatictis* Condylura cristata, Lasiurns noveboracensis, L. cinereus, Putorius nigrescens^ and other quadrupeds ; Stiiruclla magnet, Ortyx virginianus, Philohela minor ^ among' ares ; besides Cvrtophylliis concavtis, Phylloptera obi ongi folia, Conocephahis cnsigcr^ CEdipoda Carolina, Prionus laticollis* Lachnostcrna qiicrcina, etc., among insects. We have never observed this species nesting in this lati- tude (Phila.). It is solely a winter resident, making its appearance about the first of November, and taking its departure early in April, and even later when the season is backward. Mr. John Krider of Philadelphia, gives it as a breeder in New Jersey. In the southern counties of the latter State, we have found paired individuals as late as July, which would lead us to infer that a few remain there to breed. From all the information concerning the nesting of this species that wTe have been able to glean, it appears that the nest is generally placed in a crotch of a tree, not far from the summit. It is composed, externally, of sticks, dry twigs, and branchlets, which constitute a substantial framework ; and, internally, of fine hay, feathers, and down, which render it warm and cosy. Those found upon high river-banks and cliffs, contain similar materials, but with less exterior, and a greater supply of the internal elements. Out of fifty-eight nests obtained by Mr. Macfarlane, in Arc- tic regions, forty-six were constructed on trees, generally large pines, and, ordinarily, at an elevation of twenty feet. The remainder, on margins of steep shaly cliffs, on the banks of lakes, rivers, and creeks. Messrs. H. R. and F. II. Stover, nephews of Dr. Brewer, says the latter, found these Hawks nesting on the rocky shores of Labrador. The nest was placed on a tall rock which projected over the water, and was readily approached from above, but whollv inaccessible from be- 274 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS low. This structure contained an undeveloped egg, and three young birds which were prepared to ilv. As soon as the nest was approached, they scrambled out. and pre- cipitated the egg down the cliff, although without injuring it. There were within it, several large rats indigenous to the region, which had been deposited by the parents. The eggs are evidently not laid on consecutive days, nor all deposited before the incubating process commences. tor the same nest-complement frequently exhibits eggs in different stages of incubation. They are generally de- posited from the zyth of May to about the 25th of June. The parents certainly are strongly attached to their -treas- ures, as they evince considerable uneasiness when the nest is approached, as evidenced by their loud cries of distress. On one occasion, an Indian collector of Mr. Macfarlane's discovered a nest on a ledge of shaly mud, and being unable to shoot the parents, set a snare for them. On visiting the nest, during the course of the day, he was disappointed to find the snare placed to one side, and the eggs and birds nowhere to be seen. The presumption was that the three eggs had been removed to a safer locality. Before closing this paragraph, it cannot be amiss to state that the somewhat irregular periods of oviposition closely relate these birds to the Owls in their habits. The eggs are three or four in number, nearly spherical. and measure 2.35 inches in length, and 1.75 in width. In ground-color, they are dull whitish, which sometimes gives place to drab, or creamy. The markings vary considerably. Some specimens are scarcely or not at all marked, while others are blotched with large brown spots, which are va- riously mingled with others of a purplish-slate color. Pandion haliaetus, (LINN.) Cur. The Fish Hawk or Osprev is found from the fur region surrounding Hudson's Bay to Central America; and from Labrador to Florida on the Atlantic coast, excepting Boston OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 27^> harbor ; and on the Pacific coast, almost from Alaska to the southern extremity of the peninsula of Lower California. It has been observed in Jamaica and also in Cuba, but is unknown there during the breeding-season. On the shores of Texas and California, and also along the banks of large rivers situated inwardly, in the latter State. On the rocky islands of California it nests. Its distribution in the west is somewhat more extended than in the east. It breed's about Sitka, according to Bischorl". and also along the small streams in the vicinity of Nulato, as affirmed bv Dall. As high as latitude 31° 30' north, Col. Gravson discovered a nest built on a gigantic cactus. On the banks of the Mac- kenzie and Yukon Rivers, eggs have been collected by different parties. From Long Island to Chesapeake, it breeds in vast communities, which often number several hundred pairs. Away from the sea-coast, it is only occa- sionally met with on the margins of rivers and lakes. In the Wind River Mountains, Dr. Hayden found it nesting on the summit of high cotton wood-trees. About the lakes of the Upper St. John's River in Florida, Mr. Allen found it par- ticularly abundant, and noticed at least six nests within a single circle of vision. On the shores of Labrador and Xova Scotia, and in the vicinity of Calais in Eastern Maine, it is a summer resident. Salvin believed it to nest on both coasts of Central America, but more especially about Utilize. On the islands of Trinidad and St. Croix, it is seen at all times, except during the season of breeding. In Eastern Pennsylvania, below the city of Philadelphia, and in the south-eastern counties that border on the Delaware, individuals have been occasionally observed. In the low meadows and swamps near Philadelphia, its habits have been observed, but more particularly in the southern coun- ties of New Jersey. It arrives about the beginning of March, often as late as the 2^th. when the streams which it frequents are fettered with their icv bonds. Its departure occurs about the 25th of September, and frequently as late 270 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS as the 1 5th of October, when the weather is remarkably fine. In the swamps of New Jersey, we have often dis- covered well-established communities, among which the best order and most perfect harmony prevailed. But, on tin- banks of the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers, solitary pairs, and sometimes isolated individuals, have often been met with. Its abundance certainly depends upon the great or small supplies of food-stuffs which are to be found in certain lo- calities. Few species display less shyness and greater con- fidence, or, are more eminently social. In some instances, they take up their quarters in close proximity to occupied dwellings, or along frequented by-paths and highways. The same localities are visited year after year. Owing to their al- most exclusive piscine habits, mankind allows them free and unlimited sway, in their carefully chosen abodes. The poul- try has nothing to fear, hence the liberties which are ac- corded to them, and the indifference which their presence manifests. Powerfully constructed, they could commit im- mense ravages, if they were so inclined. The smaller birds are not intimidated by their presence, and do not fly scream- ing to their coverts, as they do, even when pursued by the little Falco sparverins. Wilson cites a case where four nests of the common Purple Grakle were built within the inter- stices of an Osprey's nest, and a fifth, on an adjoining branch, and the latter was quite tolerant of such intrusion and free- dom. We have met with a single instance where a nest of ^uiscalus versicolor, occupied a similar position. In the immediate vicinity, were observed nests of the Robin, Wood Thrush, Red-winged Blackbird, and others, and no annoy- ance was known to occur, the Ospreys carefully attending to their own business, and scarcely noticing their more humble brethren. The White-headed Eagle is its most bitter enemy, against whom the united attacks of many of these birds are concen- trated, when it has the audacity to venture within their hunting-grounds, or breeding-quarters. The Fish OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. '277 Hawk is too familiar with its powerful muscularity and courageous disposition to attempt a single attack. When an Osprey is being pursued by this king of the forest and hunting-grounds, its loud vociferous cries of distress, re- sounding far and near, evoke an army of defenders, who O *- come with all possible speed, to wreak vengeance upon the great arch-enemy of their pleasures and happiness. The Bald-headed Eagle is induced to make these attacks for the purpose of compelling the Osprey to drop its prey, or to disgorge. When successful, it pounces down and seizes the coveted bit before it has reached the water or ground. The' flight of the Fish Hawk is powerful, never very high, nor much protracted. While skimming over the surface of water, even at a moderate elevation, its quick eye soon descries its quarry, and, in an instant, it pounces down with tremendous force, below the water-level, often to a great distance, but seldom missing its prey. Arising from its watery bath, it moves oft' to a suitable perch, to digest its meal at leisure. But should the movement attract the keen eve of the Bald Eagle, who is generally waiting in some secret covert, or sailing so high in the air as to be al- most invisible, the Osprey swallows its victim if small, or en- deavors to bear it away in its talons to a position oft shelter and safety ; but rather than endure too near an approach of its more powerful relative, drops its prey to the great satisfac- tion of the latter. Where a suitable tree, or a commanding stump, presents itself along side of its fishing-grounds, it may be seen perched thereon for hours together, ga/ing into the liquid depths below for the finny tribes that sport therein, ever and anon swooping down with amazing ve- locity, and bearing in its resistless talons the squirming victim. In shallow places, it regulates its modes of capture in conformity with their character, gliding over their sur- faces, and clutching at its victims as they come within sight. The food of this species consists mainly of fish, although 27S LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS the reptiles and batrachiar.s which infest the swamps wherein it builds, do not escape its vigilance. Almost all kinds of fish, except the vcrv largest which would be more than a match tor its strength, are captured and devoured with avidity. We have watched their piscatorial pursuits with a great deal of interest and pleasure, on the Shores of Dela- ware Hay. and have often seen them bear from great depths. Hsh much larger than the common Shad. The latter, to- gether with CJu pea elongata, Labrax lineatus* and the Hlack Hass, are favorite articles of diet. In fresh waters, manv of the larger Cypruioids. Pinielodiis atrarius^ and the larger Pomotis iv//^Y7/v'.s, are esteemed great luxuries. RctJia da mi tans* I\ . /lalcciua. I\ . svl-catica* Knticnia sir- /W/V, Chlorosottia vernalis^ Pituophis melanoleucus*. and others, are occasionally eaten. Nidification commences during the latter part of April, or the beginning of May. Generally, the same nest is se- lected year after year. Hut when a new nest is to be con- structed, it is not uncommon to find many pairs engaged in its building, the friends of the destitute assembling and laboring with the most determined energy, till its completion. A more sociable disposition could scarcely be conceived. The spirit which would lead these birds to fly to the assis- tance of a distressed comrade, would certainly induce them to cooperate with their brethren in the difficult task of nest- building, especially when such a bulkv structure as the species is known to construct, would severelv tax both the time and patience of the pair which is to occupv it. The vast amount of labor and the time which are expended in rearing such a fabric, are sufficient inducements for the species not to indulge in such cmplovmcnt anv more than is absolutely essential. Hence, these nests are constructed for durability. Unlike its European congener, which places its nest upon a high cliff, this bird almost invariably nests on trees. The nests which we have seen are seldom at a greater elevation than fifteen feet, although instances have OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 27!) occurred where they were twiee that height. It is a remark- able fact that the trees which support, these nests are always dead, and generally placed in the midst of marshy grounds. cither completely isolated, or surrounded by a dense growth of bushes. At all events, they present a rather conspicuous appearance. It is highly probable that the excrement, of the birds, or the saline character of their food, has much to do with killing the nesting-trees. Trees which seemed quite thrifty at first, after a year's occupancy, manifested unmis- takable signs of death. Mr. W. II. Edwards discovered a nest of this species built on a tall cliff', on the banks of the Hudson River, which projected over the water. It was observed in the vicinity of West Point. The nest is composed externally °f large sticks piled to a height varying from two to five feet, and measures fully three feet in diameter. Occasionally, corn-stalks, mullein stalks, and bark, are intermingled therewith. Internally, there is a rather profuse lining of sea-weed, and the long- grasses which grow so luxuriantly in salt-water marshes. The cavity ranges from fourteen to fifteen inches in diameter, and is unusually shallow in proportion to the size of the nest. So bold and confiding is this Hawk, that it often places its nest by frequented roads, and so low down upon the trees, as to be readily accessible from the ground. But. generally, in the midst of an almost impenetrable swamp, which, though tempting to the sight of the oologist. is often beyond his ability to reach. Ovi position proceeds at the rate of one egg a day, either on consecutive, or alternate davs. The usual complement is three, although two are sometimes laid, and rarely four. Incubation follows close upon the last deposit. The task is begun by the female, and devolves principally upon her. The male occasionally takes the nest, and thus gives the fe- male a brief recreation. Whilst she is incubating, he is a most jealous husband and faithful provider. The choicest :>«0 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS catch of his piscatorial exploits is carried directly to the nest, and administered ungrudgingly to his most patient partner. When disengaged from such pursuits, he stations himself on an adjoining tree when such is present, or at a brief distance, and exercises the closest surveillance over the nest and its occupant. All attempts at intrusion are pun- ished most summarily. Dr. Brewer cites a case where a lad essayed to reach the nest in order to rob it, when he was assailed with so much violence, that the male's talons were driven through a cloth cap, and laid bare the scalp. Ex- perience has taught us the danger incurred in visiting these nests for hostile purposes. You may pass and repass under- neath the nest, the parents criticising vour every movement the while, still they do not venture upon an assault. But when you attempt to mount the tree that bears their treas- ures, you virtually invite the full measure of their wrath. To show the affection and devotedness of the male towards his partner, Wilson mentions the case of a female that was prevented from fishing by a broken limb, who was abundantly supplied with food by her mate. The young are objects of more than common parental solicitude. Both parents vie with each other in rendering them every necessary attention, and are indefatigable in their exertions to provide them with a full supply of suitable food. But one parent is absent from the nest at a time, the other remaining to guard against danger. The young are raven- ous feeders, and soon attain to full development. The eggs of this species are nearly spherical, and van considerably in ground-color, and in the number, shade, and distribution of their markings, as well as in their size and shape. The back-ground is generallv a creamy-white, with a perceptible reddish tinge. The latter is so decided in some specimens that the cream is entirely obscured. The mark- ings vary endlessly, from an amber brown to other shades of the same color, and often intermingle in multifarious ways. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 281 They measure from 2.^5 to 2.25 inches in length, and from 1.78 to i. 68 inches in width. Haliaetus leucocephalus, (LINN.) Sav. The White-headed or Bald Eagle is quite extensively dis- tributed throughout the North American Continent. It ranges from the Gulf of Mexico and Central America, to the ^8° of north latitude. Richardson discovered both it and the Osprey nesting on the banks of Bear Lake River, as high as the 6oth parallel of latitude. At Fort Confidence, 66° ^4' north, these birds were seen as early as May 171 while the streams were yet ice-bound. Mr. Macfarlane found it by no means a common breeder in latitude 67° 30'. In the regions of Great Bear and Great Slave Lakes, Mr. B. R. Ross found it very abundant, and gives its range north to the Arctic Circle. At Sitka, it is evidently quite common, according to BischofT. In Washington Territory, especially along the Columbia' River, it is one of the most abundant species of the Falconidce. Dr. Newberry found it very plentiful in both California and Oregon, in certain sec- tions. In Florida and Texas, according to Messrs. Allen and Dresser, it is very common, and breeds quite abundantly. From the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific coast, Dr. Wood- house did not find it in great numbers. It breeds from the St. Lawrence River to the peninsula of Florida, thence along the coast to Mexico, and also along the Gulf tribu- taries. Inwardly, it breeds northward to the Arctic Circle. In Eastern Pennsylvania, along the banks of the Wissa- hickon, individuals are occasionally seen. In the spring of 1870, a fine female was shot from the summit of a small apple-tree, near a farmhouse, whither it had strayed in company with its mate, for food. A year later, a male-bird was shot upon the identical tree, closely resembling the female which had been taken the previous year, although being somewhat smaller. The latter differed in no essential particulars of plumage from the former. It is evident that 282 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS the characteristic adult plumage is not attained until after the third year, since the above female, which was evidently in its second year, differed in nowise from the male that was subsequently killed. This is on the supposition that the last-named bird was identical with the one which vis- ited the locality the year before. All the circumstances of the case seem to point to this identity. - The Bald Eagle seems peculiarly adapted to endure both heat and cold. Its residence is seemingly regulated by the abundance of food-stuffs. At the falls of Niagara, it is particularly abundant, owing to the' plentiful supply which can be readily obtained, through the manifold destruction of life which the rapidly descending current effects. Few spe- cies display less scrupulousness and stronger voracity, than the one under consideration. It is by no means fastidious about its fare and exhibits a want of inclination to earn honestly and industriously its own livelihood. It delights to frequent the fishing-grounds of the Osprey, and to wrest by force and even violence, the hard-won earnings of the latter. The impetuosity and skill with which it follows the Fish Hawk, and ultimately overtakes and robs it of its booty, together with the swiftness with which it darts down and grasps it before it has reached the water, are wonderful performances, and need only to be seen to be fully appreci- ated. When compelled by necessity, it is capable of pro- viding for its own maintenance. We have frequently ob- served it to dive and capture its own fish. The birds, to which reference has been made above, did not seem unnecessarily shy, as they were approached with but little difficulty. The sexes were within a few paces of each other, and were evidently both on the lookout for an op- portunity to seize a chicken for their evening's meal. It was lute in the afternoon when they were surprised. For sev- eral days before, they had been seen in the neighborhood, and also along the Wissahickon Creek. The two always kept close together, and manifested considerable affection OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 283 for each other. After the female had been killed, the male flew away, but subsequently returned, evinced much anguish, and judging from his actions, was exceedingly restless and disheartened. He formed circles above the scene of dis- aster, beyond the range of gunshot, then flew away, but only to return again, to renew the same manoeuvres. After several days thus spent, he disappeared, and was not seen again until exactly one year from the time he lost his part- ner, when he appeared upon the same tree, but, alas, to pay the penalty of death for his imprudence. The food of this species consists mainly of fish. On the banks of the Columbia River, the immense abundance of dead salmon which is always lying around, constitutes a ready subsistence. Wilson accuses this Eagle of destroying young lambs, sickly sheep, and vast numbers of young pigs. In a single instance, it tried to bear off a small child, which was fortunately saved by the giving way of her dress. Its most northern breeding habitat in the interior is as high north as the Arctic Circle. In California, and also in the extreme Southern States, it is quite an early breeder. Latest observations prove that such is the case in the States of Maine and Maryland. Wilson obtained an egg of this species in New Jersey, from which \ve infer that it was found breeding there in his time. From a careful exploration of its southern counties, in places which would be most likely vfrsited for this purpose, we are convinced that none remain now to breed. In Eastern Pennsylvania, it has never been known to nidificate. The appearance of the paired birds aforementioned, about the time when nidification ordinarily takes place, leads us to suspect that they visited the Wissa- hickon for this essential purpose. A sojourn of several days, during which time they wrere observed in making a care- ful examination of the tall trees in the most unfrequented localities, slightly confirm this suspicion. Had not the female met a summary and untimely death, it is highly L>«S4 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS probable that these birds might now be nesting within the limits of Philadelphia. The nest is ordinarily built upon the summit of tall trees. the pine and balsam poplar being not unfrequently chosen, often at an elevation of sixty feet. Occasionally, the tree selected, stands in the midst of a swamp, and sometimes not very remote from a public highway. The size of the trunk, and its lack of branches, sometimes render the nest almost inaccessible. But this circumstance is purely acci- dental. Where there are no trees of convenient height, as along the rocky shores of California, the Bald Eagle avails itself of rocky cliffs, for nidificating purposes. The period of nesting depends in a great measure upon climatic condi- tions. In Maine, the time is later than in the Southern States, whilst in the Arctic regions, owing to the ponds and rivers being ice-bound, and where the birds are only summer residents, this business does not take place until much later. Nesting often takes place as early as the beginning of January, sometimes as late as the early part of March. Near the Damariscotta River in Maine, eggs are some- times laid as early as March 13, when the ground is covered with snow to a great depth, and when the thermometer points to a temperature often considerably below zero. The nest is ordinarily a bulky affair. It is composed of several layers of large sticks, from three to five feet in length, and from an inch to nearly two inches in thickness. The interior is lined with weeds, dry leaves, tufts of grass. mosses, and lichens. The same nest is usually occupied for several successive years, and is the frequent place of resort throughout the entire year. In the Anderson River district, according to Mr. Macfarlane, the nests are placed on tall trees, close by the river-banks. They are constructed of decayed branches and dry sticks, externally, and are va- riously lined with hay, moss, deer's hair, and other materi- als of a like nature. OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 285 When the nest is disturbed, the female is said to hover about the head of the intruder in rather close proximity, uttering hoarse unpleasant cries of commingled distress and displeasure ; but never venturing upon an assault. The male-bird is less courageous than his partner on these occa- sions, always remaining at a wary distance. The young are perfectly helpless for sometime after being hatched, and utter almost incessantly their cries for food. They are vigorous feeders and very rapid growers. Their appetites are almost insatiable, and the parents are kept pretty busy in supplying them with the necessary articles. Indeed, they often manifest a somewhat provident spirit. Dr. Brewer records an instance where four or five eels, each about two feet long, were discovered in a nest, which con- tained but a single eaglet. The eggs are generally two in number. Sometimes three or four constitutes a nest-full. They are spherical in contour, with equally rounded extremities, and have more or less granulated surfaces. The natural color is a dull unspotted white, which becomes changed to a dirty color during the process of incubation. An egg in Dr. Brewer's collection, which \vas obtained by Mr. Wilson in New Jersey, meas- ures 3.00 by 2.75 inches; and another from Louisiana, collected by Dr. Trudeau, measures 2.88 by 2.80 inches. Family CathartidSD. American Vultures. The birds of this family have the head and a portion of the neck more or less entirely devoid of feathers. The eyes are not overshadowed by a superciliary shield, and the ears are rather small and uncomplicated. The bill is considera- bly elongated, contracted" near the basal end, moderately hooked, and comparatively feeble ; the nostrils are quite large, and lack a bony septum. The wings are very long, full, and powerful ; and the tail of moderate size. The an- terior toes are comparatively long, and furnished with a basal web ; posterior toe, quite short and elevated ; claws, 286 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS elongated for the order, blunt, slightly curved, and rather weak. In addition to the foregoing distinguishing external characters, there are many osteological marks of separation. The principal are, non-development of inferior larynx, large crop-like gullet, extremely small caeca, and lack of after- shaft in the feathers. In many essential particulars, our American Vultures are different from those of the Old World, and should undoubt- edly rank as a distinct family. They want the strength and spirit of typical Raptores, seldom assailing resisting animals ; they are greedy and indiscriminate gormandizers of animal refuse of all kinds, and highly serviceable and efficient scavengers. In their manner of feeding, they are uncleanly, ill-scented from the nature of their food, and when annoyed, eject the fetid contents of their crop. Their plumage is sombre and not varied, altering but slightly. The sexes are similarly colored. The Condor of the Andes, the King Vulture, the three American species of Cathartcs, and one or two South American analogues, constitute the members of this family. Cathartes aura, Ittig. Few species, if any, have such a wide distribution in Amer- ica, as the Red-headed Vulture. It is found more or less abundantly from the Saskatchewan, throughout North Am- erica, from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast, and in all portions of South America as far south as the Strait of Magellan. Individuals have been observed in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, though they are generally uncommon north of Central New Jersey. From Eastern Maine, in the vicinity of Calais, to Connecticut, in New England, specimens have been occasionally captured. In a single instance, Mr. Law- rence observed a small company of nine at Rockaway, Long Island. West of the Alleghanies, from Central America nearly to the Arctic regions, it occurs more abundantly. Without exception, it is found more or less abundantly in all OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 287 the Middle, Western, Southern and Northwestern States. From Lower California to Washington Territory along the Pacific, numerous parties attest to its common occurrence. In the West Indies, these Vultures are found in Cuba, Ja- maica, and Trinidad, being particularly abundant on the last island. In both Honduras and Guatemala, they are by no means uncommon ; and even in the Falkland Islands, off the South-east coast of Patagonia, they are quite com- mon residents throughout the entire year. In Eastern Pennsylvania, these birds are by no means scarce during the summer. Great numbers have been fre- quently seen, high up in the air, moving in large circles, apparently exploring the ground below, from their lofty height, for their favorite articles of diet. In rural districts, they are more frequently seen, than in the vicinity of densely populated towns. The greater abundance of carrion which necessarily exists in the former, is the cause of this prefer- ence. However, in California and Oregon, according to Dr. Newberry, they are quite common near towns, and about the large rivers. In the Southern states they visit cities and large villages, and play the part of scavengers, in company with C. atratus. In Kingston, Jamaica, they are so tame and unsuspicious, accordingto Mr. G.C. Taylor, thattheyare found either on the house-tops, or in the streets preying on carrion. In country places they, however, manifest as little timidity, as in the places just mentioned. Whilst feeding they are so intent upon their task as scarcely to notice the presence of human beings, and when compelled to forsake their treasure, repair very demurely to a short distance, and, subsequently, resume their feeding, when the danger has disappeared. We have observed the Common Crow to gather around the same carrion, and the utmost good feeling prevailed. The near approach of a dog, save one of a vicious nature, does not disturb their enjoyment. We have seen a small flock settle down upon a dead horse, around which several dogs had gathered. When they approached too closely to their '288 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS canine brethren, a slight growl or a vicious snap would cause them to step aside, and they, nothing daunted, would feed awray again, utterly oblivious of their whereabouts and surroundings. Although their sense of sight is rather keenly developed, yet the sense of smell is none the less so. Both the visual and olfactory organs are called into requisition in determin- ing the presence of refuse matters. As a proof that smell leads to food- detection, we cannot do better than to cite an instance mentioned by Dr. Hill, and given by Dr. Brewer in the work entitled "North American Birds." lie mentions a case where these birds were attracted to the house of a German emigrant who was prostrated by fever, bv the strong odor escaping from his neglected food which had be- come putrid. Mr. G. C. Taylor, whilst a resident of Kings- ton, sufficiently tested their power of smell. Once, he wrapped in a piece of paper the carcass of a bird, which he flung into the summit of a densely leaved tree, in close prox- imity to his window. A moment or two elapsed, when the keen smell of these birds scented the presence of something edible, but they were unable to solve the problem, by reason of the object being concealed from view by an enveloping paper. The food of this Vulture consists generally of all kinds of animal food. Auclubon accuses them of egg-sucking, and also of eating the young of Herons, as well as those of other birds. In Trinidad, they are said to live on the most friendly terms with the poultry among which they consort. We have never known them to molest in any way whatever the eggs and young of birds. Whilst feed- ing, particularly when several are together, the most violent wrangling and the utmost commotion occur. Each strives to get the lion's share. After swallowing his morsel in a rather hurried manner, he makes a raid upon his neighbor's voluminous booty before he has had time to dispatch it, and if possessed of superior strength, succeeds after a time OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. •>«!) in defrauding him of his rightful property, but not without considerable difficulty. When gorged, they appear stupid and indisposed to exertion. The period of digestion is ordinarily passed in a motionless, listless attitude, with half-spread wings. Their flight is easy, graceful, and dignified. They rise from the ground with a single bound, and after a few wing-flappings, soar upward to a great height ; then move in wide circles, or sail with a steady uniform motion, with nearly horizontal wings, the tips alone being slightly eleva- ted. They spend most of the time upon the wing. Their flight is considerably protracted. Upon the ground, they habitually walk, instead of moving by leaps. In habits, they are gregarious, ordinarily associating in numbers, rang- ing from a dozen or more. AVhen wounded, a peculiar motion indicative of having been hit is suddenly made, but the bird continues moving writh expanded and motion- less wings as formerly, until having passed through con- siderable space, it begins to descend by degrees in uniform circles, until it finally settles upon the ground, lifeless and motionless, the head drooping, and the wings still largely and uniformly extended. The Turkey-Buzzard breeds ordinarily in hollow trees, stumps or logs in a state of decay, either on the ground, or but slightly elevated above it. Generally there is no indication of a nest. Sometimes a few decayed leaves are scratched into the hollow selected for the deposition of the eggs. The latter are laid, no especial pains having been previouslv taken for their preservation or shelter. In the southern counties of New Jersey, we have occasion- ally strayed upon the nest, in the midst of a deep and almost impenetrable swamp. It was formed within an ex- cavated stump. Along the Susquehanna, within the rock-caverns of its banks, we have frequently discovered it breeding ; several nests occasionally being observed within a space of one hundred yards. These nests were 200 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS often seen as early as the last week of March, when the season was unusually early ; and, occasionally, as late as the middle of April. A few individuals are known to remain in the vicinity of their breeding-quarters throughout the entire year ; especially is this the case, when the winters are not extremely rigorous. Mr. T. II. Jackson of West Chester, Pa., as cited by Dr. Brewer, affirms that this Vulture breeds at Parkersburg near the western boundary of Chester County. It certainly does not breed within the limits of Philadelphia, although in Delaware County, between Media and Chester, we have observed paired individuals in early April, under rather suspicious circumstances. In Jamaica, according to Mr. Gosse, depressions in the rocks. and in the ledges thereof, in retired localities, or among inac- cessible cliffs, are noted nesting- resorts. Mr. Audubon found this species rather abundant on Galveston Island, where it nests either under wide-spread cactus branches, or underneath low bushes in the midst of tall grasses, in a level portion of saline marshes. In the vicinity of Cheraw, S. C., Dr. C. Kollock as cited by Dr. Brewer, says that both the Black Vulture and this species are frequent denizens of the interior of swamps and dense forests, where they congregate in vast numbers, dur- ing the entire year. These places are commonly designated Buzzards' roosts. Mr. Audubon visited a roost in the vicinity of Charleston of the same State, which covered more than two acres of ground, and which was completely denuded of vegetation. On the banks of rnanv of the rivers of Southern Texas. Mr. Dresser found this species nesting in large numbers, the timber along their borders constituting comfortable and secure shelter. Contrary to wrhat has alwavs been entertained relative to their nesting, he affirms that they build large and bulky structures of sticks, which they place at considerable heights on either an oak or a cypress, close by the river-bank. Captain C. C. Abbott says, in the Falkland Islands, the eggs OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 291 arc deposited in the midst of bushes beneath high banks, or on the summits of decayed balsam logs. The eggs are laid during the early part of November, either upon the ground, or on the bare surface of a log. The sexes live in pairs during the entire year. In certain localities, that are frequented by a few birds only, paired individuals are not uncommonly noticed. The Turkey Buzzards, like their American relatives, are mute. The only sound which they produce is a kind of hiss, which has not been inaptly compared to the seething noise which is emitted by plunging a hot iron in a vessel of water. The young are covered at first with a whitish clown, and are fed at first upon half-digested matter which is disgorged by their parents. This matter, together with that of an excrementitious character which is found about the nest, renders the latter exceedingly offensive. When captured, these birds offer no active resistance, but very effectually warn off* their agressor, by vomiting up the half-putrid contents of their crop. When being killed, they are perfectly passive, and quite apathetic. Dr. Cones affirms that these birds will often simulate death when captured. On one occasion, an individual being shot, was picked up for dead. While being carried to his tent, it was perfectly limp. Reaching his quarters, he carelessly threw it upon the ground, and went to work at something else. After a brief spell, he looked around and beheld to his surprise that the bird had changed position, and was furtively glancing around. On going up to it, its eyes instantly closed, its body became relaxed, and it lay perfectly motionless, and appar- ently lifeless. After compressing its chest for several min- utes, until he fancied life extinct, he dropped the bird, and repaired to supper. On returning, the bird was gone, it evidently having scrambled into the bushes as soon as he had turned his back upon it. We have been aware of its capacity to simulate death for several years. Having had LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS many proofs of its behavior in this particular, in endeavoring to escape the death which it seemingly knew was awaiting it. The eggs are generally two in number ; often a single egg constitutes a nest-full. On the Falkland Islands, they arc said to lay occasionally three. The eggs are creamy-white, and variously marked with divers shades of brown, inter- mingled with splashes of lavender and purple. They are nearly spherical, and measure 2.78 inches in length, and 2. in width. A peculiar variety from Cheraw, S. C.. is de- scribed by Dr. Brewer as being nearly pure white, and only spotted with a few small red and slightly purplish lines and dots about the larger extremity. CHAPTER XII. Order ColumbSD. Columbine Birds. This order is essentially characterized by the structure of the bill. The tip is convex and corneous, some- what contracted in length, and provided with a soft swol- len basal membrane, which is perforated by the nostrils. The three anterior toes are ordinarily cleft, and sometimes furnished with a slight basal web ; the posterior one is generally insistent or not clearly elevated. The feet are never elongated ; tarsus, either scutellate or quite feathered in front ; reticulate, laterally and posteriorly ; commonly shorter than the toes. The integument is mem- branous, rather than horny. The syrinx has a single pair of internal muscles ; the carotids are two in number ; and the sternum two notched, or notched and fenestrate. The plumage is devoid of aftershafts. This order, as at present constituted, embraces three families ; viz : — Dididce, which contains the recently extinct dodo ; Didunculidce, as illustrated by the singular tooth-billed pigeon of the Navigator Islands ; and the Co/- umbidcc. The columbine are certainly closely allied to the rasorial birds, but are assigned to their present position, in accordance with the characters above set forth. The; terminate the first great subclass of aerial birds, or the Insessorial series. Family ColUHlbidse. Pigeons. This family, with a single exception, may be readily iden- tified by their resemblance to the common dove or pigeon. The peculiar arrangement of the frontal feathers which pass athwart the base of the bill and are projected upon the cul- 2«J4 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS men with a decidedly convex outline and are thence carried hack to the commissural point, is so constant a character, as to afford a tolerably good clue to the identification of these birds. The head is notably small ; neck but moderately lengthened ; and body full, especially in the pectoral region. The wings are powerful, elongate, and pointed ; tail varying from quadrate to graduate, but never bifurcate ; the rectrices generally 12, frequently 14, but rarely 16. The gi//ard is large and muscular in graminivorous species. The gullet dilates into a capacious, though circumscribed crop, which secretes a peculiar lacteous fluid which is intermingled with macerated food and regurgitated directly into the mouth of the young. The entire number of existing species is about three hun- dred, eighty of which are included in America. They are divided into the three groups : Trcroniua:* of the Old World ; Gourince, of both hemispheres ; and the Cohim- bincc, to which the domestic pigeon ( Colnmba //via} belongs. The North American genera, excepting Columba and Ec- topistcs, Dr. Cones thinks belong to the Gourince, but owing to its lack of precise limitation when contrasted with the Cohtmbince. he chooses not to discriminate subfamilies. In Eastern Pennsylvania, we have but two species, which are included in as many genera. Ectopistes migratorius, S The well-known Passenger Pigeon is plentifully found throughout the North American continent. It ranges from the Atlantic to the great Central Plains, and from the Gulf States, thence northward to the 62° of north latitude. Its arrival in the fur countries dates from the latter part of May, according to Richardson. In the warm central regions of British America, it reaches the 62 degree ; but in the vicinity of Hudson's Bay, it is only found in very mild sum- mers, as high as the 58th parallel. It is notably absent on the Pacific coast. But a single individual has been captured OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 295 in Nebraska; and it is merely supposed to exist in Oregon. During its migrations, it occurs in the Indian Territory. In Eastern Pennsylvania, these birds are observed in small flocks during their spring and autumnal migrations. They pass through Philadelphia during the last of March, or the early part of April, and frequent the woods along the Wissa- hickon. Their stay is rather brief, and scarcely exceeds three days, at the utmost. When they alight for the purposes of feeding, they cluster closely together, and do not diffuse them- selves over a considerable scope of country. They are not ordinarily shy, and can be approached with the least diffi- culty, so intent are they upon feeding. They not unfre- quently settle upon the ground to feed upon the seeds of last year's growth, when there is a scarcity of arboreal fruits. They prefer timbered regions and waste fields in close proximity to running streams, rather than thickly pop- ulated towns. Their flight is quite elevated, exceedingly rapid, and long- continued. They progress by quick repeated wing-flaps, their velocity depending'upon the size of the stroke. Accor- ding to Audubon, they move with a velocity which is scarcely less than a mile per minute. Specimens have been captured in New York, and also in the vicinity of German- town, which had their crops distended with undigested grains of rice that had been gleaned in the distant fields of South Carolina and Georgia. This fact will convey some idea of the rapidity of their movements. Allowing the dis- tance travelled to be from four hundred to five hundred miles, it is obvious that Audubon could not have been very far from the truth in his estimate of their velocity. When about to alight, the force of their flight is considerably diminished by quickly repeated flappings. During the spring, they frequently fly in a circling manner, with both alar appenda- ges inclined at a considerable angle in the upward direction. Their terrestrial and arboreal movements are accomplished with considerable ease, grace, and dignity ; and are attended •2!M; LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS by u jerking motion of the tail, and also by a nodding- of the head, which remind us of the characteristic movements of the inmates of the dove-cot. Their movements are undoubtedly regulated by food-con- siderations. When there is a paucitv of food-stuffs, their sojourn is proportionately restricted ; but, on the contrary, when there is a plentiful supply, indefinitely prolonged. In certain localities, where a superabundance of diet exists. they remain throughout the entire year. We have often been surprised, while observing a flock of these birds at an im- mense height which apparently manifested no disposition to halt from their steady course judging from their actions, to notice, in almost the same instant, a downward tendency, and a subsequent settlement. The immense height of their flight, combined with their powerful vision, certainly en- ables them to survey large scopes of country, hundreds of acres in extent. As asserted by Audubon, in passing over fertile and rich food-laden regions, their flight is low so as the better to explore ; but, on the other hand, in passing over sterile lands, they fly high, and with a bold extended front. The enormous flights of these Pigeons, and their immense numbers, seem almost incredible to those who have not been eye-witnesses thereof. In the spring of 1872, they abounded in such vast numbers in the woods surrounding Albany, that hundreds were killed to supply the markets of Xe\v York and Boston. Both Wilson and Audubon have given very complete and graphic descriptions of their mi- grations. In 1*13, Audubon observed innumerable flocks of these birds, while crossing the barriers in the vicinity of Hardensburg en route from Henderson to Louisville. In twentv-one minutes, he counted one hundred and sixty three, but afterwards deemed the task impracticable. The air seemed full of Pigeons, which well nigh eclipsed the light of the noonday sun. During his entire journey of fifty-five miles, they passed in unlessened numbers, and continued to do so dur- ing the three succeeding days. Their flight, betimes, was so OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 2(J7 low, that hundreds were killed, and the people along their line of Might, seemed to subsist almost wholly upon Pigeons. Wilson's account of their migrations is substantially the same. In Pennsylvania, Western Xew York, and in divers parts of Virginia, he observed immense flocks, which were quite small in comparison with the congregated myriads which he noticed in Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiania. Their roosting-quarters are none the less surprising than their migrations. On the banks of the Green River in Kentucky, was a famous rendezvous, where for hundreds of miles around these birds gathered at the close of day. The forest in which the}' roosted, was forty miles long and about three miles wide, and contained trees of considerable magnitude. At the time of his visit, it had been occupied about two weeks, and the ground beneath was completely covered with excrement, to the depth of several inches. The forest gave indications of having been desolated by a tornado, as trees two feet in diameter, and thick branches of many of the largest, had been broken down by their burden. Many persons gathered together on the approach of sunset, with pine-knot torches, and armed with guns and long poles. The birds arrived by thousands, their coming being indicated by a noise not unlike that pro- duced by the rushing of a gale through the riggings of a sea-bound vessel. Their velocity was so great as to create a current of air as they passed overhead. At sunset, the work of destruction began. Manv were killed bv the pole- men. In some instances, they accumulated to such an extent upon the tree-branches, that several gave way, and thus precipitated hundreds to the ground, those beneath being killed by pressure from above. The sound pro- duced by the birds at the roost could be distinctly heard at the distance of three miles. As the day began to ap- proach, the noise perceptibly diminished, and long before day -break, all that were not disabled, had disappeared. The destruction had been so great, that the dead and 298 LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS wounded wer- brought together, and piled in heaps by persons purposely assembled. Wilson's account is cor- roborative of the one just described, in all essential par- ticulars. The food of this species consists mainly of the seeds and fruits of various plants, which it is able to meet with. Though principally graminivorous and- frugivorous, it is not exclusively so, as numerous beetles are destroyed. Its food consists of the fruits of Qiiercus alba. jg. rnbra, ,